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A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO  •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •    SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY  •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


THE    HERMES   OF   PRAXITELES 

(Brunii-Bruckmann,  T)enkntaler,  pi.  -HJti.) 


A  HISTORY 
OF  SCULPTURE 


/ 

BY 


HAROLD   NORTH    FOWLER,    PH.D. 

PROFESSOR    IN    WESTERN    RESERVE    PNIVERSITT 


ILLUSTRATED 


I,  If 


ILontion 
MACMILLAN    AND    CO.,    LIMITED 

NEW  YORK:  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

1916 

Alt  rights  resernsd 


COPYRIGHT,  1916, 
BT  THE  MACM1LLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1916. 


Norfnoot!  lirtas 

J.  8.  Cashing  Co.  —  Berwick  <k  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


A  <t>  Y 

IN  the  torch  race  at  Athens  the  burning  torch  was  carried 
by  one  runner  after  another,  each  keeping  the  blaze  alive  and 
passing  it  undimmed  to  his  successor.  So  for  more  than 
twenty  years,  as  you  have  successively  run  through  your  col- 
lege course,  you  have  handed  on  and  kept  alive  the  tradition 
of  friendship  for  me.  That  friendship  has  lightened  for  me 
the  gloom  of  sorrow  and  discouragement  and  has  lent  added 
brightness  and  warmth  to  my  days  of  happiness.  It  is  with 
heartfelt  gratitude  and  affection  that  I  dedicate  this  book 
to  you. 


PREFACE 

IN  this  book  I  have  attempted  to  give  a  sketch  of  the 
history  of  sculpture  from  the  beginnings  of  civilization  in 
Egypt  and  Babylonia  to  the  present  day.  The  sculpture 
of  the  Far  East  is  treated  very  briefly  and,  as  I  am  per- 
fectly conscious,  insufficiently,  because  it  has  not  affected 
the  development  of  our  own  art,  but  has  led  a  separate 
existence,  in  spite  of  the  influence  exerted  upon  it  by 
Greek  sculpture.  For  similar  reasons,  and  also  on  account 
of  its  lack  of  intrinsic  merit,  the  sculpture  of  the  Ameri- 
can aborigines,  of  the  negro  races,  the  tribes  of  Oceania, 
and  other  backward  peoples  has  been  altogether  omitted. 
With  these  limitations,  I  have  tried  to  include  an  account 
of  all  the  important  developments  in  the  art  of  sculpture 
in  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern  times,  with  such  de- 
scriptions of  individual  works  and  information  concerning 
individual  artists  as  the  space  at  my  disposal  and  the 
available  information  permit.  Since  the  book  is  a  history, 
not  a  series  of  essays,  I  have  attempted  no  detailed  criti- 
cism. A  brief  description  of  the  materials  and  methods 
employed  in  sculpture  is  contained  in  the  Introduction. 

It  has  not  been  my  purpose  to  compile  a  dictionary  of 
sculptors,  but  I  have  included  in  the  book  a  considerable 
number  of  names,  believing  that  the  usefulness  of  the  book 
would  be  thereby  increased,  though  I  am  quite  aware  that 
some  of  the  names  I  have  omitted,  especially  in  the  chap- 
ters on  modern  sculpture,  may  be  no  less  important  than 
some  of  those  that  I  have  mentioned.  A  choice  had  to 
be  made,  and  I  have  chosen  as  best  I  could. 

Since  this  is  a  handbook,  intended  for  the  use  of  the 
general  public  and  of  young  students,  not  a  work  of  re- 
search for  the  enlightenment  of  scholars,  I  have  not  given 
references  to  my  authorities  for  statements  of  fact  or 


viii  PREFACE 

expressions  of  opinion,  except  in  a  few  cases,  and  then 
for  especial  reasons.  I  have  seen  most  of  the  works  of 
sculpture  described  or  discussed  in  the  book,  but  my 
opinions  concerning  them  do  not,  as  a  rule,  disagree  with 
those  of  previous  writers,  and  I  have  made  no  attempt  to 
hide  my  indebtedness  to  my  predecessors.  Of  the  many 
books  consulted,  the  titles  of  which  are  included  in  the 
Bibliography,  I  am  most  indebted  to  the  great  Histoire 
de  VArt  of  M.  Michel  and  his  collaborators. 

I  wish  to  express  my  thanks  to  the  American  Book 
Company  for  permission  to  use  material  already  employed 
in  an  earlier  book  (Fowler  and  Wheeler,  A  Handbook  of 
Ghreek  Archaeology,  American  Book  Company,  1909),  to 
the  directors  and  curators  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
of  Art  in  New  York  and  the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Boston  for  permission  to  publish  photographs  of  works  of 
sculpture  in  the  rich  collections  under  their  charge,  and 
to  the  kind  friends  who  have  assisted  me  by  the  loan  or 
the  gift  of  photographs.  I  am  heartily  grateful  to  The 
Macmillan  Company  for  the  patience  with  which  my  delay 
has  been  endured  and  the  cordial  liberality  with  which 
my  wishes  concerning  illustrations  and  other  matters  have 
been  consulted. 

HAROLD  N.  FOWLER. 

WESTERS  RESERVE  UNIVERSITY, 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO, 
March  31,  1910. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION.     MATERIALS  AND  METHODS  OF  SCULPTURE   . 

EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE  ....... 

BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE  ... 
HITTITE,  PE.RSIAN,  PHOENICIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE 

SCULPTURE      ........ 

GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC 

PERIODS  ......... 

GREEK  SCULPTURE.     THE  FIFTH  CENTURY       .         . 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.     THE  FOURTH  CENTURY    .        . 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.     THE  HELLENISTIC  PERIOD       . 
ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE  ....... 

ROMAN  SCULPTURE       ....... 

BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE     ....... 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.     ITALY         .... 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  .... 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY        .  . 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND         .        .        . 
MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN       .... 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY.  THE 

EARLY  RENAISSANCE     ...... 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY.  THE 

DEVELOPED  AND  THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE.    THE 

BAROQUE         .        .        ...... 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE  .  . 
SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY  . 
SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  THE  NETHER- 

LANDS AND  IN  ENGLAND  ..... 
ix 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 


XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 


PAGE 

xix 

1 
24 

41 

53 
77 
108 
125 
139 
148 
166 
173 
197 
216 
227 
240 

257 


288 
301 
316 

327 


CONTENTS 


I  HAPTEF.  PAGE 

XXI.      SCULPTURK    OF    TIIK    RENAISSANCE    IN    SPAIN      .            .  335 

XXII.     MODKKN    SCULPTURE    IN   ITALY,    DENMARK,   NOR- 
WAY, AND  SWEDEN 346 

XXIII.  MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       .  353 

XXIV.  MODERN     SCULPTURE    IN    GERMANY,    SPAIN,    AND 

UrssiA 368 

XXV.    MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN          .        .  378 

XXVI.     SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES          .        .        .  388 
XXVII.     SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  —  INDIA,  CHINA,  AND 

JAPAN 407 

BIBLIOGRAPHY ,  419 


- 


The  Hermes  of  Praxiteles   (Brunn-Bruckraann,  Denkmaler,  466) 

Frontispiece 

N  I'M  HER  PAGE 

1.  Palette  of  King  Narmer   (Borchardt,    Kunstwerke    aits    dem 

Aegyptischen  Museum  zu  Cairo,  PI.  19)      .         .        .        .  3 

2.  Sheik  el  Beled.     Cairo        ........  5 

3.  Statue  of  Scribe.     The  Louvre,  Paris         .....  6 

4.  The  Dwarf,  Knemuhetep.     Cairo 7 

5.  Upper  Part  of  Diorite  Statue  of  King  Khafra  ( Chephren) .    Cairo  7 

6.  Mycerinus  and  his  Queen.     Boston,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts         .  8 

7.  Wooden  Panel  from  the  Tomb  of  Hesy-re.     Cairo     .        .        .11 

8.  Relief  from  the  Tomb  of  Sabu.      Cairo.     (Borchardt,  Kunst- 

werke aus  dem  Aegyptischen  Museum  zu  Cairo,  PI.  22.)     .  12 

9.  Upper  Part  of  the  Statue   of   King  Amenemhet  III.     Cairo. 

(Borchardt,  Kunstwerke  aus  dem  Aegyptischen  Museum  zu 

Cairo,  PI.  6.) 15 

10.  Relief  from  the  Tomb  of  Menthu-weser.     Metropolitan  Museum, 

New  York 16 

11.  Fa9ade  of  Great  Rock-hewn  Temple  at  Abu  Simbel  ...  18 

12.  The  Goddess  Mut.     Cairo.      (Borchardt,  Kunstwerke  aus  dem 

Aegyptischen  Museum  zu  Cairo,  PI.  13. ).        .        .        .19 

13.  Reliefs  in  the  Temple  of  Seti  I  at  Abydos 20 

14.  Upper  Part  of  Statuette  of  Queen  Karomama.     The  Louvre, 

Paris     .                          21 

15.  Fragments  of  the  "  Vulture  Stele."     The  Louvre,  Paris.     (De 

Sarzec,  Deconvertes  en  Chaldee,  PI.  3  bis.)  ....  25 

16.  Statue  from  Bismya.     Constantinople 26 

17.  Stele  of  Naram-Sin.     The  Louvre,  Paris 27 

18.  Statue  of  Gudea,  from  Lagash.     The  Louvre,  Paris  ...  28 

19.  Tablet  of  Nabu-aplu-iddin.     British  Museum      .        .        .         .  30 

20.  Asshurnazirpal  and  a  Eunuch.     British  Museum        ...  33 

21.  Asshurnazirpal  Hunting.     British  Museum         ....  34 

22.  Relief  from  the  Palace  of  Sargon  II.     The  Louvre,  Paris  .         .  36 

23.  Weight  in  the  Form  of  a  Bronze  Lion.     The  Louvre,  Paris        .  37 

24.  Wounded  Lioness.     British  Museum  .                 ....  38 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


26.  Asshurbanipal  Drinking  in  a  Garden.     British  Museum    .         .  39 

26.  Inscribed  Hittite  Lion,  from  Marash.     Constantinople       .         .  42 

27.  Archers.     Persian  Relief  of  Glazed  Tile.     The  Louvre,  Paris    .  46 

28.  Persian  Bull-Capital.     The  Louvre,  Paris 46 

20.    Cypriote  Sarcophagus  ;  about  550-600  B.C.     Metropolitan  Mu- 
seum, New  York 50 

30.  Cypriote  Statue ;  about  500  B.C.     Metropolitan  Museum,  New 

York 51 

31.  Fragment  of  Stucco  Kelief.     Museum  at  Candia.     (Annual  of 

the  British  School  at  Athens,  VII,  p.  17.)   .         .         .        .54 

32.  Harvest  Vase.     Museum  at  Candia.     (Maraghianis,  Antiquites 

cretoises,  I,  pi.  xxii.) 55 

33.  Lions  of  Mycenae.     (Brunu-Bruckmann,  Denkmaler,  PI.  151)  .  65 

34.  Gold  Cups  from  Vaphio.     National  Museum,  Athens         .         .  56 

35.  Statuette  of  Gold  and  Ivory.     Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston     .  57 

36.  Apollo  of  Tenea.     Munich.     (Brann-Bruckmann,  1.)        .        .  60 

37.  Seated  Figure   from  Branchidae.     British  Museum.     (Brunn- 

Bruckmann,  142.) 62 

38.  Draped  Figure  of  the  Chian  School.    Acropolis  Museum,  Athens. 

(Brunn-Bruekmann,  458.) 64 

39.  Pediment  Group  from  the  Treasury  of  the  Siplmians.     Delphi  .  65 

40.  Figures  from  an  Archaic  Temple.     Corcyra  (Corfu)  ...  66 

41.  Bronze  Statuette  from  Piombino.    The  Louvre,  Paris.     (Brunn- 

Bruckmann,  78.) 68 

4-2.    Relief  from  the  Treasury  of  the  Sicyonians.     Delphi          .         .  69 

43.  Fallen  Warrior  from  Aegina.  Munich.  (Brunn-Bruckmanu,  28.)  71 

44.  So-called    Typhon.       Acropolis    Museum.    Athens.       (Brunn- 

Bruckmann,  456a.) 72 

45.  Moschophorus.     Acropolis   Museum,   Athens.     (Brunn-Bruck- 

mann,  6,  Ersatz.) 73 

46.  Figures  from  Temple  of  Athena.     Acropolis  Museum,  Athens. 

(Brunn-Bruckmann,  471.) 74 

47.  Figure  dedicated  by  Euthydicus.     Acropolis  Museum,  Athens. 

(Brunn-Bruckmann,  459.) 75 

48.  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton.     Naples 77 

49.  Choiseul-Gouffier  "Apollo.'1     British  Museum  .        ...  78 

60.    Bronze  Charioteer.     Delphi 80 

51.    Metope  from  the  Temple  of  Zeus.     Olympia.     (Bruun-Bruck- 

mann,  442.) 81 

62.   Pediments  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  ;  Treu's  Restora- 
tion.   (Luckenbach,  Olympia  und  Delphi,  p.  18.)       .        .  82 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 


53.  Victory  by  Paeonius.     Olympia.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  444.)    .      84 

54.  Discobolus  by  Myron,  as  reconstructed  in  the  National  Museum, 

Rome 86 

55.  Athene  and  Marsyas,  as  restored  in  the  Archaeological  Museum, 

Munich 87 

56.  The  Varvakeion  Athena.     National  Museum,  Athens        .        .      89 

57.  Bronze    Head  of    Zeus.      Vienna.      (Jahreshefte  d.    Oesterr. 

ArchaeoL  Institutes,  XIV,  pi.  ii.)         .....       90 

58.  The  Doryphorus  of  Polyclitus.     Naples.     (Brunn-Bruckmann, 

273,  Ersatz.)   ' 92 

59.  So-called  Hera.     National  Museum,  Athens.     (Waldstein,  Ex- 

cavations .  .  .  at  the  Heraion  of  Aryos,  1892,  pi.  v.)         .      93 

60.  Metope  of  the  Parthenon.     British  Museum.     (Brunn-Bruck- 

mann, 184.) 95 

61.  From  the  Eastern  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon.     Acropolis  Museum, 

Athens.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  194.) 96 

62.  So-called  Theseus,  from  the  Parthenon.     British  Museum         .       98 

63.  So-called    Fates,    from    the     Pai'thenon.       British     Museum. 

(Brunn-Bruckmann,  190.) 99 

64.  Eastern  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon,  as  reconstructed  by  Karl 

Schwerzek,  Vienna       .         .         .        .        .        .         .        .100 

65.  Fragment  of  the  Balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Nike. 

Acropolis  Museum,  Athens  .......     103 

66.  Caryatid  from  the  Erechtheum.     British  Museum      .         .         .     106 

67.  So-called  Mourning  Athena.     Athens         .....     106 

68.  Heads    from    Tegea.     National    Museum,     Athens.     (Antike 

Denkmaler,  I,  pi.  35  ;  from  casts.) 110 

69.  Cnidian  Aphrodite,  after  Praxiteles.     The  Vatican.     (Brunn- 

Bruckmann,  371  ;  from  a  cast.) 114 

70.  Satyr  after  Praxiteles.     Capitoline  Museum,  Rome.     (Brunn- 

Bruckmann,  377.)        115 

71.  Apoxyomenos.     The  Vatican.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  281. )        .     117 

72.  Statue  of  Agias.     Delphi.     (Bulletin  de  Corr.  Hellen.  XXXIII, 

pi.  xi.) 118 

73.  From  the  Frieze  of  the  Mausoleum.     British  Museum        .         .     121 

74.  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners.     Constantinople.        .        .        .     122 

75.  Monument  of  Hegeso.     Athens.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  436.)     .     123 

76.  Alexander  Sarcophagus.     Constantinople 125 

77.  Demosthenes.     The  Vatican .126 

78.  Nike  from  Samothrace.     The  Louvre,  Paris.     (Brunn-Bruck- 

mann, 85,  Ersatz.) 127 


xiv  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


79.  Aphrodite  from  Melos.     The  Louvre,  Paris      ....  130 

80.  "  Athena  Group  "  from  the  Great  Altar  at  Pergamon.     Berlin. 

(Brunn-Bruckmann,  484.) 132 

81.  The  Laocnon.     The  Vatican.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  236.)       .  134 

82.  "Venus    Genetrix."     The    Louvre,    Paris.      (Brunn-Bruck- 

mann, 473.) 136 

83.  Sarcophagus  from  Sidamara.     Constantinople  ....  138 

84.  Sarcophagus  of  Seianti  Than unia.     British  Museum.     (Antike 

Denkmalcr,I,\>\.2Q.) 143 

86.   The  "  Arringatore.7'     Florence.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  320. )  .  146 

86.  Relief  from  the  Altar  of  Peace.     L'ffizi  Gallery,  Florence         .  162 

87.  Decorative  Scroll  work  from  the  Altar  of  Peace.     Uffizi  Gallery, 

Florence 153 

88.  Augustus,  from  Prima  Porta.    The  Vatican     ....  165 
'89.   Panel  of  the  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome 167 

90.  Relief  on  the  Column  of  Trajan.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  400  ; 

from  casts.) 158 

91.  Bust  of  Antinous.    The  Louvre,  Paris 161 

92.  Relief  from  the  Base  of  the  Column  of  Antoninus  Pius.     The 

Vatican.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  210.)         ....  162 

93.  Achilles  and  Penthesilea  ;  Roman  Sarcophagus.    The  Vatican  163 

94.  Colossal  Bronze  Statue  at  Barletta 169 

95.  Sarcophagus  in  Ravenna 170 

96.  Ivory  Reliefs  from  the  "  Throne  of  Maximian."     Ravenna     .  171 

97.  Panels  of  Bronze  Door,  Ravello 176 

98.  Group  of  Columns.     Monreale  .         .        .        .        .        .        .178 

99.  Pulpit  in  the  Baptistery  at  Pisa  ;  by  Nicola  Pisano  .        .         .  185 

100.  Pulpit  by  Giovanni  Pisano  ;  formerly  in  the  Cathedral  at  Pisa  188 

101.  Tomb  of  Cardinal  de  Braye.     Orvieto 189 

102.  Panels  of  the  Bronze  Door,  by  Andrea  Pisano.     (The  Frieze 

is  by  Vittorio  Ghiberti,  Son  of  Lorenzo.)  ....  191 

103.  The  Creation  and  the  Fall.     Orvieto 193 

104.  Tomb  of  Can  Signorio.     Verona       ......  194 

105.  Decoration  of  the  Porta  della  Mandorla.     Florence  .        .        .  196 

106.  Capital  from  Clermont-Ferrand 198 

107.  Relief  from  St.  fetienne.     Toulouse 199 

108.  Tympanum  at  Ve"zelay  (from  the  cast  in  the  Trocade"ro,  Paris)  200 

109.  Part  of  the  Fagade  of  St.  Trophime,  Aries  (from  the  cast  in 

the  Trocadero,  Paris) .202 

110    Statues  of  the  Western  Facade  of  Chartres       ....  206 

111.    Statues  of  the  Southern  Porch  of  Chartres                                  ,  206 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XV 

NUMBER  1'AliE 

112.  Statues  of  the  Western  Fagade  of  Rheims        ....  207 

113.  Tympanum  of  the  Southern  Transept  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris; 

Door  of  St.  Stephen  ;  Second  Half  of  Thirteenth  Century 

(from  the  cast  in  the  Trocade'ro) 208 

114.  Southern  Side  Door,  Amiens  (the  Vierge  dore'e  on  the  middle 

support) 211 

115.  The  Puits  de  Moi'se,  Dijon  (from  the  cast  in  the  Trocade'ro, 

Paris) 213 

116.  Mourners  on  the  Tomb  of  John  the  Fearless,  Dijon  (from  casts 

in  the  Trocade'ro,  Paris) 214 

117.  Tympanum    of    the   "Goldene    Pforte,"   Freiberg.     (Photo. 

Dr.  F.  Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.) 219 

118.  Tympanum  from  the  u  Georgenchor,"  Bamberg       .        .        .  220 

119.  The  Synagogue,  Strassburg  Cathedral.     (Photo.  Dr.  F.  Stoedt- 

ner, Berlin,  NW.) 222 

120.  Tempter  and  Tempted  ;  Foolish  Virgins  ;  Strassburg  Cathedral. 

(Photo.  Dr.  F.  Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.)    .         .         .         .223 

121.  Tympanum  of  the  Frauenkirche,  Nuremberg  (from  a  cast)      .  225 

122.  Portal  of  Rochester  Cathedral.     (Photo.  Mansell.)  .        .        .  228 

123.  Part  of  FaQade  of  Exeter  Cathedral.     (Photo.  Mansell.)          .  231 

124.  Tomb  of  Cardinal  Langham,  Westminster  Abbey.     (Photo. 

Mansell.) 235 

125.  Part  of  the  Chapel  of  Henry  VII,  Westminster  Abbey.    (Photo. 

Mansell.) 230 

120.    English  Alabaster  Relief.     Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York  239 

127.  Santiago  de    Compostela,   South   Portal  ;    Figures  from   the 

destroyed  North  Portal 242 

128.  Santiago  de  Compostela  ;  the  Gloria  •       .         .         .         .     '    .  243 

129.  Tympanum  of  S.  Maria  la  Real,  Sangiiesa        ....  246 

130.  Sarcophagus  of  Queen  Berenguela.     Burgos     ....  246 

131.  Cathedral  of  Burgos ;  Puerta  del  Sarmental      ....  247 

132.  Cathedral  of  Leon ;  Statues  of  Western  Portal          .        .         .248 

133.  Alabaster  Retablo  in  the  Style  of  Vallfogona.     Metropolitan 

Museum,  New  York 255 

134.  Four  Panels  of  Ghiberti's  Earlier  Door.     Florence  .        .         .  259 

135.  The  Porta  del  Paradiso,  by  Ghiberti.     Florence       .        .        .261 
130.    "II  Zuccone,"  by  Donatello.     Florence 262 

137.  Choir  Loft,  by  Donatello.     Florence 263 

138.  -Cupid  in  Trousers,  Donatello.     Florence 264 

139.  Gattamelata,  by  Donatello.     Padua 265 

140.  Panel  of  Choir  Loft,  by  Luca  della  Robbia       ....  266 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

NUMBER  PAGE 

141.  A  Terra-cotta  Altarpiece,  by  Luca  della  Robbia.    Pescia         .  267 

142.  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  by  Nanni  di  Banco.     Florence        .  269 

143.  Angelic  Musicians,  by  Agostino  di  Duccio.     Perugia        .         .  270 

144.  Tomb  of  Count  Ugo,  Marchese  di  Toscana,  by  Mino  da  Fiesole. 

Florence 272 

145."  Colleoni,  by  Verrocchio.    Venice 274 

146.  Portal  of  San  Petronio,  Bologna,  by  Jacopo  della  Quercia       .  276 

147.  The  Lamentation,  by  Mazzoni.     Modena          ....  279 

148.  The  Judgment  of  Solomon.     Doge's  Palace,  Venice         .        .  282 

149.  Tomb  of  Niccol6  Tron.     Venice        .        .         .        .        .    •     .  283 
160.    Pieta,  by  Michael  Angelo.     Rome 290 

151.  David,  by  Michael  Angelo.     Florence      .....  291 

152.  Moses,  by  Michael  Angelo.     Rome 292 

153.  Tomb  of  Giuliano  dei  Medici,  by  Michael  Angelo.    Florence    .  293 

154.  The  Rape  of  the  Sabines,  by  Giovanni  Bologna.     Florence      .  297 

155.  Apollo  and  Daphne,  by  Bernini.     Home 299 

156.  St.  George  and  the  Dragon,  by  Michel  Colombe.     The  Louvre, 

Paris  .        .         • 303 

157.  Death  and  Funeral  of  the  Virgin  ;  Choir  Screen,  Cathedral  of 

Chartres      .        .     - 306 

158.  The  Entombment,  by  Ligier  Richier.     Saint-Mihiel         .        .  307 

159.  Nymphe,  by  Jean  Goujon.     Fountain  of  the  Innocents,  Paris  .  308 

160.  Tomb  of  Henry  II  and  Catherine  des  Medicis,  by  Germain 

Pilon,  St.  Denis 309 

161.  Nymphs  Bathing,  by  Girardon.     Versailles      ....  310 

162.  Marie  Leczinska,  by  Guillaume  Coustou.     The  Louvre,  Paris  312 

163.  The  Fifth  Station  of  the  Cross,  by  Adam  Kraft.    Nuremberg. 

(Photo.  Dr.  F.  Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.)     .        .        .        .318 

164.  Bronze  Statue  of  King  Arthur,  by  Peter  Vischer.     Innsbruck  319 

165.  The    Creglingen    Altarpiece,    by    Tilman    Riemenschneider. 

(Photo.  Dr.  F.  Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.)     ....  320 

166.  A  Workman,  by  Jorg  Syrlin  the  Elder.     Munich     .        .        .321 

167.  St.  Matthew.     Blutenburg 323 

168.  The  Great  Elector,  by  Schliiter.     Berlin 325 

169.  Choir  screen  at  Tournai,  by  Cornells  de  Vriendt      .        .        .  :]3Q 

170.  The  Tomb  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,  by  Stone.     Westminster  Abbey  333 

171.  Portal  of  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz,  Toledo    .         .        .         .337 

172.  Tomb  of  Juan  II  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.     Miraflores,  near 

Burgos 338 

173.  The  Crucifixion.     Part  of  an  Altarpiece,  by  Felipe  de  Borgona. 

Burgos .  •  341 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

NUMBER  PAGE 

174.  Altarpiece  by  Felipe  de  Borgona.    Granada     ....  342 

175.  Head  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  by  Alonso  Cano.     Granada       .  344 

176.  Cupid  and  Psyche,  by  Canova.     The  Louvre,  Paris          .        .  347 

177.  Venus,  by  Thorvaldsen.     Copenhagen 351 

178.  Jeanne  d'Arc,  by  Rude.     The  Louvre,  Paris    ....  354 

179.  A  Florentine  Singer,  by  Dubois.     The  Luxembourg,  Paris      .  357 

180.  The  Republic,  by  Dalou.     Paris 359 

181.  Monument  to  the  Dead,  by  Bartholome".    .Paris       .        .        .  361 

182.  The  Thinker,  by  Rodin 363 

183.  The  Stevedore,  by  Meunier.     The  Luxembourg,  Paris     .         .  366 

184.  Von  Ziethen,  by  Schadow.     Berlin 369 

185.  The  Rhine  and  the  Moselle.     From  the  Germania-Denkmal, 

by  Schilling.     Riidesheim  .         .        ,         .         .         .         .371 

186.  Mounted  Amazon,  by  Tuaillon.     Berlin   .         .        .        .        .     374 

187.  Pandora,  by  Bates.     Tate  Gallery,  London      .         .        .         .382 

188.  The  Sluggard,  by  Leighton.     Tate  Gallery,  London          .        .     384 

189.  Peter  Pan  ;  bronze  by  Frampton.     Kensington  Gardens,  Lon- 

don  

190.  Abraham  Lincoln,  by  St.  Gaudens.     Chicago  .... 

191.  The  Mourning  Victory,  by  French.     Melvin  Memorial,  Con- 

cord, Mass.     (Photo.  A.  W.  Elson  &  Co.,  Boston.)  .         .     397 

192.  The  End  of  the  Trail,  by  Fraser.     Exhibited  at  the  Panama 

Exposition 401 

193.  Appeal  to  the  Great  Spirit,  by  Dallin.     Boston        .        .        .     403 

194.  Kuan  Yin.     Chinese  ;  Late  Sixth  or  Early  Seventh  Century  ; 

Stone  ;  above  Life  Size.     Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston    .     414 

195.  Seishi  paying  Reverence  to  a  Soul  newly  arrived  in  Paradise. 

Wooden  Statuette.     Kamakura  Period.     Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  Boston .         .         .417 


INTRODUCTION 
MATERIALS  AND   METHODS   OF   SCULPTURE 

Definitions.  —  Sculpture  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of 
representation  in  solid  material  and  in  three  dimensions. 
This  definition  is  very  general  and  for  the  purpose  of  this 
book  needs  some  limitation.  That  which  is  represented 
may  be  a  human  figure,  a  group  of  figures,  any  natural  ob- 
ject, an  idea  of  the  sculptor,  a  mere  pattern,  or  even,  in  an 
extreme  case,  a  plain  surface.  The  size  of  the  work  may  be 
colossal  or  it  may  be  almost  infinitesimal.  In  general  par- 
lance, and  in  this  book,  the  works  of  gem  cutters,  cameo 
cutters,  seal  engravers,  goldsmiths,  and  silversmiths  are 
not  included  under  the  designation  of  sculpture.  They 
really  are  sculpture,  but  their  small  size  demands  peculiar 
technical  processes  and  a  treatment  in  many  respects  quite 
unlike  that  which  is  fitting  for  larger  works.  So,  too,  archi- 
tectural mouldings,  linear  patterns,  finials,  the  channels 
cut  in  columns,  and  the  like,  although  they  may  be  regarded 
as  forms  of  sculpture,  are  generally  excluded.  In  this  book 
only  those  branches  of  sculpture  will  be  considered  which 
represent  the  forms  of  human  beings  or  animals,  real  or 
imaginary,  or  (in  special  cases)  of  plants.  As  a  rule  we  shall 
consider  only  figure  sculpture. 

Works  of  sculpture  so  made  that  they  can  be  approached 
or  seen  from  all  sides  are  said  to  be  carved  or  modelled 
in  the  round,  but  if  the  figures  or  designs  are  not  separated 
from  their  background,  they  are  said  to  be  in  relief.  Low 
relief  (bos  relief,  basso  rilievo)  projects  but  slightly  from  the 
background,  middle  relief  (demi  relief,  mezzo  rilievo)  some- 
what more,  and  high  relief  (haut  relief,  alto  rilievo)  still  more. 
If  a  relief  projects  less  than  half  the  natural  thickness  of  the 


XX  INTRODUCTION 

beings  or  objects  represented,  it  is  usually  called  low  relief, 
and  if  more  than  half  the  natural  thickness,  high  relief. 

Sculpture  which  forms  part  of  a  larger  whole,  such  as 
a  building,  and  which  depends  in  any  great  measure  upon 
its  relation  to  that  whole  for  its  effect,  is  called  decorative 
sculpture.1  The  term  "  substantive  sculpture  "  has  been  pro- 
posed for  sculpture  which  is  complete  in  itself. 

Materials  —  Work  in  Clay.  —  The  materials  most  fre- 
quently used  in  sculpture  are  wood,  clay,  stone,  and  metal. 
These  have  been  used  in  all  ages,  though  not  with  equal 
frequency  at  different  times  and  in  different  places.  The 
methods  employed  have  changed  with  the  progress  of 
civilization.  Perhaps  the  most  universally  used  material 
is  clay.  This  is  moistened  to  a  proper  degree  of  softness, 
then  moulded  with  the  hands  into  the  desired  shape.  The 
marks  of  the  fingers  may  then  be  removed,  and  the  surface 
made  smooth,  with  a  damp  cloth,  a  piece  of  leather,  or  a 
smooth  piece  of  wood.  If  the  work  is  to  be  permanent,  it  is 
then  allowed  to  dry  and  is  baked  or  fired  in  an  oven.  The 
result  is  a  work  in  terra-cotta.  If  the  work  is  large,  the  clay 
is  likely  to  crack  in  the  firing,  unless  the  image  (or  whatever 
the  object  is)  has  been  made  hollow.  Usually,  therefore, 
terra-cotta  figures  are  not  modelled  solid  and  then  fired,  but 
the  original  figure  is  used  as  a  matrix  and  a  mould  is  made 
from  it.  The  mould  is  then  fired,  and  figures  are  made  by 
pressing  the  soft  clay  into  the  terra-cotta  mould,  which  is  in 
several  pieces,  and  thus  the  figure  as  finally  put  in  the  oven 
is  made  of  a  number  of  thin  pieces  of  clay  carefully  joined 
together.  The  details  of  the  process  have  varied  at  different 
times. 

In  modern  times,  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  and  in 
ancient  Greece  and  Rome  after  the  fourth  century  B.C.  (or 
about  that  time),  a  clay  model  has  been  made  before  a  work 
of  sculpture  has  been  executed  in  stone  of  any  kind,  in 

1  Sometimes  the  term  "decorative  sculpture"  is  used  as  the  equivalent 
of  "ornament,"  to  designate  ornamental  designs  which  do  not  include 
figures  of  human  beings  or  the  like.  It  is  better,  however,  to  use  the  word 
"ornament"  or  to  say  "pure  decoration"  or  "purely  decorative  work"  or 
something  of  the  kind. 


INTRODUCTION  xxi 

metal,  or  even,  as  a  general  thing,  in  wood.  The  clay  model 
is  then  transferred  to  the  other  material.  The  processes 
by  which  this  is  done  will  be  very  briefly  sketched  below. 

Work  in  Wood.  —  Sculpture  in  wood  (any  close-grained 
wood  may  be  used)  is  executed  with  saws,  knives,  drills, 
and  chisels  of  various  shapes.  The  development  of  the 
tools  has  accompanied  the  progress  of  the  art.  The  begin- 
nings of  the  process  of  making  a  work  of  sculpture  in  wood, 
and  the  method  of  transferring  the  clay  model,  when  such 
a  model  is  used,  into  wood  are  virtually  the  same  as  the  corre- 
sponding steps  in  the  execution  of  a  stone  work  and  need  not 
be  separately  described. 

Kinds  of  Stone  —  Egypt.  —  The  kind  of  stone  available  at 
different  times  and  places  has  had  no  little  effect  upon 
sculpture.  The  Egyptians  had  at  their  disposal  excellent 
limestone,  fine-grained  and  not  too  hard,  which  is,  however, 
not  very  strong.  The  result  was  the  early  development 
of  really  fine  carving,  but,  since  the  stone  was  not  strong, 
the  statues  were  often  not  cut  free  from  the  block  of  which 
they  formed  a  part.  Possibly,  too,  the  clumsy  ankles  of 
many  Egyptian  statues  may  be  due  to  the  weakness  of  the 
stone  and  the  sculptor's  fear  lest  he  ruin  his  work  by  trying 
to  make  the  ankles  slender.  The  Egyptian  liking  for  very 
low  relief  may  also  be  due  in  part  to  the  quality  of  the  lime- 
stone. For  especially  ostentatious  works  the  Egyptians 
employed  granite  and  basalt,  hard  stones  which  must  have 
been  very  difficult  to  work  with  the  imperfect  tools  of  the 
early  periods.  The  sculpture  in  these  materials  is  finished 
with  exquisite  care ;  the  smooth  surfaces  are  highly  polished ; 
but  there  is  an  evident  avoidance  of  deep  grooves  or  cuttings. 
This  may  well  be,  in  part  at  least,  because  deep  cuttings 
were  very  difficult  to  make. 

Kinds  of  Stone  —  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Greece  —  Imple- 
ments used.  —  In  Babylonia  there  was  virtually  no  stone 
except  what  was  imported.  Nevertheless  there  was  a  good 
deal  of  sculpture  in  stone.  If  basalt  or  some  other  hard 
stone  was  used,  the  Babylonian  sculptor  polished  his  work 
and  avoided  deep  cuttings,  and  if  the  stone  was  less  refrac- 


xxii  INTRODUCTION 

tory  the  tendency  was"  toward  deeper  cuttings  in  statues 
and  higher  relief.  In  Assyria  the  alabaster  employed  was 
sometimes  too  soft ;  so  in  the  reliefs  of  Sargon's  palace  at 
Khorsabad  the  carving  is  not  delicate  and  finely  finished, 
but  the  edges  look  as  if  cut  with  a  knife,  not  carved  with 
mallet  and  chisel.  The  stone  used  by  the  Hittites  is  usually 
coarse-grained,  and  this  fact  may  have  something  to  do 
with  the  inferiority  of  their  sculpture.  In  Greece  various 
kinds  of  stone  were  used  in  early  times,  but  by  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century  B.C.  marble  was  almost  exclusively  em- 
ployed. The  so-called  "poros"  stone  used  for  the  earliest 
sculptures  at  Athens  is  soft  and  not  very  fine.  It  can  be 
cut  with  a  knife,  and  apparently  the  method  of  carving  it 
did  not  differ  greatly  from  that  used  in  carving  wood.  The 
tools  were  knives,  a  saw,  and  chisels,  the  latter  being  both 
flat  and  curved  (gouges) .  These  tools  were  sometimes  merely 
pushed  with  the  hand,  sometimes  struck  with  a  mallet. 
When  marble  was  used,  the  tools  were  a  pointed  hammer,  or 
a  pointed  instrument  to  be  struck  with  a  mallet,  a  gouge  or 
curved  chisel,  a  claw  chisel,  and  files  and  sand  for  polishing. 
In  the  fifth  century  B.C.  drills  were  introduced  and  from 
that  time  they  were  much  used,  especially  in  representing 
hair  and  the  folds  of  drapery.  The  shapes  of  some  of  the 
tools  have  been  changed,  but  in  general  the  implements  used 
are  much  the  same  to-day  as  in  antiquity.  Now,  howrever, 
machinery  is  freely  employed. 

Stone  Sculpture  —  Early  Methods.  —  The  early  sculptors 
in  Greece,  as  in  Egypt  and  the  Asiatic  countries,  employed 
simple  methods  and  did  not  mould  clay  models  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  stone.  If  a  relief  was  to  be  made,  the  artist  drew 
the  outlines  on  the  front  of  a  slab  of  stone  and  then  cut 
away  the  superfluous  material,  so  that  the  figures  remained 
standing  forth  from  the  background.  Naturally  no  figure 
could  project  farther  than  the  original  surface  of  the  slab, 
but  the  background  could  be  cut  away  to  any  depth  less 
than  the  thickness  of  the  stone.  The  extreme  outer  por- 
tions of  the  figures  therefore  tend  to  be  in  one  plane  (the 
original  surface),  whereas  the  background  may  be  in  several 


INTRODUCTION  xxiii 

planes.  In  modern  times  the  sculptor  makes  his  clay  model 
on  a  flat  slab ;  his  background  therefore  tends  to  be  flat, 
and  there  is  less  likelihood  that  the  extreme  projections  will 
be  in  one  plane.  Reliefs  in  early  times  were  always  colored, 
and  the  carving  was  often  little  more  than  a  means  of  accen- 
tuating the  outlines  and  suggesting  the  shadows  of  the 
painting;  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  early  Greek  reliefs  are, 
probably  for  this  reason,  generally  in  low  relief. 

Stone  Sculpture  —  Early  and  Later  Methods.  —  The  sculp- 
tor of  a  statue  in  the  round  employed  similar  simple  methods. 
Taking  a  block  of  quadrangular  section,  he  drew  on  the 
front  the  outline  of  the  figure  desired,  as  seen  from  the 
front,  and  on  the  sides  the  outline  of  the  side  view  of  the 
figure.  Then  he  cut  away  the  stone  not  included  in  these 
outlines,  working  straight  in  until  the  cutting  from  front  to 
back  intersected  that  from  side  to  side.  He  then  had  a 
rough,  angular  statue,  which  he  could  finish  by  rounding  off 
the  corners  and  working  out  details  according  to  his  ability. 
The  practice  of  using  clay  models  and  transferring  them  to 
stone  was,  apparently,  not  introduced  in  Greece  until  the 
fifth  century  B.C.,  and  probably  did  not  become  general 
until  much  later.  It  may  have  been  employed  in  Egypt 
somewhat,  but  not  much,  earlier  than  in  Greece.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  stone  used  for  sculpture  was  usually, 
except  in  Italy  where  marble  was  employed,  the  local 
building  stone,  The  methods  were  simple,  like  those  of  the 
Egyptians  and  the  early  Greeks.  Obviously  such  methods 
leave  far  more  responsibility  for  the  success  of  a  large  work 
in  the  hands  of  the  stone-cutter  (and  correspondingly  less 
in  those  of  the  designer)  than  the  method  by  which  the 
stone-cutter  makes  a  mechanical  copy  of  the  designer's 
full-sized  models.  In  modern  times  l  the  sculptor  makes  a 
clay  model  from  which  he  makes  a  plaster  cast.  The  im- 
portant projections  and  depressions  are  marked  in  this  cast 

1  The  modern  methods,  both  for  marble  and  bronze  work,  are  treated 
in  detail  by  Albert  Toft,  Modelling  and  Sculpture,  1911.  A  briefer  account 
of  them  is  given  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  s.v.  "Sculpture"  and 
"  Metal-working." 


xxiv  INTRODUCTION 

by  metal  pins,  called  points,  and  an  ingenious  device  called 
the  pointing  machine  makes  it  possible  to  mark  the  corre- 
sponding points  in  the  block  of  marble.  The  marble  is 
then  cut  away  to  all  the  points  marked.  The  number  of 
such  points  may  be  very  great,  in  which  case  the  statue  is 
nearly  finished  when  all  the  points  are  reached.  In  fact, 
many  sculptors  of  modern  times  are  merely  modellers. 
They  send  their  models  to  the  stone-cutter,  who,  with  the 
help  of  the  pointing  machine  and  other  contrivances,  makes 
an  accurate  copy.  The  more  careful  sculptors  add  the 
finishing  touches  themselves,  but  very  few  do  any  great 
amount  of  chiselling. 

Sculpture  in  Bronze.  —  The  metal  chiefly  employed  in 
sculpture  is  bronze,  a  composition  of  copper  and  tin.1  Other 
metals  are  used  occasionally,  but  they  are  either  too  expen- 
sive, or  not  strong  enough  in  proportion  to  their  weight, 
or  not  adapted  to  fine  work.  Even  in  very  early  times 
bronze  statuettes  and  small  reliefs  were  made,  but  the 
statuettes  were  cast  solid  and  the  reliefs  were  beaten  over 
a  core  or  model  of  wood  or  stone  (repousse)  and  finished  with 
a  sharp  tool.  Such  methods  are  not  suitable  for  statuary. 
Solid  bronze  statues  are  too  costly  and  too  heavy ;  moreover 
they  are  likely  to  crack  in  cooling.  Some  early  statues  were 
made  of  sheets  of  bronze  beaten  over  a  wooden  core  and 
fastened  together  with  rivets  (sphyrelaton) ,  or  cast  in  sepa- 
rate pieces  and  welded  together,  but  these  must  have  lacked 
strength,  besides  being  disfigured  by  numerous  sutures. 
Large  figures  of  bronze  must  be  cast  hollow,  and  the  making 
of  hollow  castings  was  known  in  Egypt  at  an  early  date  and 
introduced  into  Greece  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
B.C. 

A  solid  casting  is  easily  made;  the  molten  metal  is  run 
into  a  mould  which  is  broken  and  removed  when  the  metal 
has  hardened.  But  if  a  hollow  casting  is  to  be  made,  an 
inner  core,  as  well  as  an  outer  mould,  must  be  prepared, 

1  The  proportions  vary,  and  small  quantities  of  zinc,  aluminum,  silver, 
and  other  metals  are  sometimes  present  in  bronze ;  but  copper  is  always 
the  chief  constituent  and  tin  is  indispensable. 


INTRODUCTION  xxv 

and  the  molten  metal  must  be  run  in  between  them.  This 
is  done  by  the  cire  perdue  (lost  wax)  or  the  sand  process. 
Both  methods  were  used  in  antiquity,  as  both  are  used  now. 
In  the  cire  perdue  process  a  core  of  fireproof  material  is 
made  of  the  shape  of  the  object  to  be  cast,  but  slightly  smaller. 
Over  this  a  coating  of  wax  is  applied,  and  in  this  coating  the 
details  of  the  work  are  executed.  Then  a  coating  of  fire- 
proof material  is  carefully  applied  over  the  wax  and  made 
thick  and  strong  enough  to  serve  as  a  mould.  This  outer 
mould  and  the  inner  core  are  fastened  together  with  pins 
of  bronze,  that  they  may  not  change  their  relative  position. 
Various  tubes  are  arranged  in  the  core  to  serve  as  vents  for 
air,  etc.  Then  the  whole  is  heated  to  harden  the  outer 
mould  and  to  melt  the  wax,  which  runs  out  of  holes  at  the 
bottom.  Then  the  molten  metal  is  poured  in,  filling  the 
space  formerly  occupied  by  the  wax  between  the  mould  and 
the  core.  When  the  metal  has  hardened,  the  mould  (and 
the  core,  so  far  as  possible)  is  removed,  the  bronze  pins  are 
cut  off,  and  any  necessary  treatment  of  the  surface  is  per- 
formed. 

When  the  sand  process  is  used,  a  mould  is  made  over  the 
finished  model,  and  is  then  taken  off  in  pieces.  These 
pieces  are  then  put  together  and  stuffed  with  sand  (which 
is  not  pure  sand,  but  a  loamy  earth  which  sticks  together 
and  endures  heat).  Then  the  pieces  of  the  mould  are  re- 
moved, and  a  sand  cast  of  the  model  remains.  This  is 
pared  off,  that  is,  its  surface  is  removed  to  a  thickness  equal 
to  that  desired  for  the  bronze  of  the  finished  casting.  The 
pieces  of  the  mould  are  then  fastened  upon  this  sand  core, 
being  kept  away  from  it  and  in  the  proper  positions  by  bronze 
pins.  The  bronze  is  then  poured  in  and  allowed  to  harden, 
after  which  the  mould  is  removed.  Of  course  the  core  is 
supplied  with  tubes,  as  in  the  cire  perdue  process.  When 
the  sand  process  is  employed,  complicated  castings  are 
usually  made  in  several  pieces.  In  antiquity  the  cire  perdue 
process  seems  to  have  been  generally  preferred.  In  recent 
years  the  electrotype  or  galvanoplastic  method  is  not  in- 
frequently employed.  The  metal  is  dissolved,  the  prepared 


xxvi  INTRODUCTION 

mould  is  placed  in  the  solution,  and  the  metal  is  deposited 
in  the  mould.  By  this  means  an  exceedingly  accurate  re- 
production of  the  original  model  is  produced,  but  the  metal 
employed  must  be  pure,  and  the  quality  or  texture  of  metal 
thus  deposited  differs  somewhat  from  that  of  metal  which 
has  not  been  dissolved. 

Patina.  —  Bronze  which  has  been  for  centuries  buried 
in  the  earth  or  exposed  to  the  elements  becomes  discolored ; 
the  original  clear  yellowish  brown  changes  to  some  darker 
color,  often  a  bluish  green.  In  antiquity  the  bronze  statues 
were  kept  clean  and  bright,  but  in  modern  times  the  coating 
(called  patina)  that  covers  ancient  bronzes  is  often  much 
admired.1  Modern  sculptors  therefore  frequently  produce 
an  artificial  patina  by  the  use  of  chemicals. 

1  The  chemical  composition  of  the  patina  varies  with  the  conditions  to 
which  the  bronze  has  been  exposed. 


A  HISTORY   OF   SCULPTURE 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


CHAPTER  I 
EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 

Early  Egyptian  Civilization.  —  The  beginnings  of  Egyp- 
tian sculpture,  the  first  efforts  of  the  dwellers  in  the  valley 
(or,  more  probably,  in  the  Delta)  of  the  Nile,  to  form  in  wood 
or  stone  a  rude  likeness  of  man  or  beast,  are  lost  to  us. 
From  a  very  early  period  people  lived  in  Egypt,  and  stone 
implements,  clay  vessels,  and  other  objects  found  in  graves 
or  among  the  sands  of  the  desert  tell  of  their  primitive  civil- 
ization, but  little  has  been  found  among  these  earliest  relics 
to  indicate  that  the  people  possessed  any  peculiar  artistic 
sense  or  any  exceptional  skill  of  any  kind.  Hardly  any- 
thing that  can  properly  be  called  sculpture  appears  until 
the  time  when  Egypt  was  united  under  the  rule  of  one  mon- 
arch and  was  far  advanced  in  civilization.  Long  before 
that,  as  early  as  4241  B.C.,  the  calendar  had  been  intro- 
duced, or  rather  invented,  in  the  Delta ;  the  people  must 
therefore  have  possessed  no  little  knowledge  of  mathematics, 
and  were  probably  by  no  means  rude  or  uncultured,  but 
whatever  sculpture  existed  in  those  early  times  has  disap- 
peared. It  is  only  after  3400  B.C.,  when  Egypt  was  united 
under  the  first  known  king,  Menes,  that  works  of  sculpture 
were  produced  which  have  come  down  to  us,  and  there  are 
comparatively  few  monuments  of  the  time  of  the  first  two 
dynasties,  3400-2980  B.C.  At  this  time  the  Egyptian 
sculptor  is  able  to  express  his  thoughts  or  conceptions 
B  1 


2  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

clearly  and  with  some  elegance.  His  art  is  no  longer  in 
its  earliest  infancy,  but  shows  the  results  of  generations 
of  effort.1 

Sculpture  of  the  Thinite  Period.  —  The  sculpture  of  the 
earliest  dynasties  is  represented  by  a  considerable  number 
of  monuments,  for  the  most  part  reliefs,  though  sculpture 
in  the  round  was  also  practised.  The  remains  of  such 
sculpture  are,  however,  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  their  frag- 
mentary condition.  The  so-called  palette  of  King  Narmer, 

1  Chronology.  —  In  order  to  understand  the  development  of  Egyptian 
sculpture,  or  of  any  other  single  element  of  Egyptian  civilization,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  have  in  mind  at  least  an  outline  of  Egyptian  history  and  chronol- 
ogy. Such  an  outline  —  a  bare  skeleton  —  may  be  given  in  a  few  words. 
The  predynastic  age  ends  with  the  accession  of  King  Menes,  about  3400  B.C. 
The  first  two  dynasties,  whose  capital  was  at  This,  near  the  later  Abydos, 
ruled  until  2980  B.C.  During  the  Thinite  period  art  and  civilization  ad- 
vanced, but  the  power  and  splendor  of  the  Egyptian  rulers  was  much  greater 
under  the  next  four  dynasties  (III-VI),  whose  capital  was  at  Memphis,  a 
little  above  the  modern  Cairo.  This  period,  called  the  Old  Kingdom,  ex- 
tends from  2980  to  2475  B.C.  After  this  there  came  a  time  when  the  coun- 
try was  in  an  unsettled  condition,  owing  to  lack  of  a  strong  central  power. 
The  chief  seat  of  government  was  at  Heracleopolis,  but  the  rulers  had  neither 
the  power  nor  the  wealth  of  their  Memphite  predecessors.  With  the  eleventh 
dynasty  a  stronger  and  more  stable  government  came  into  control,  and  the 
Middle  Kingdom  (dynasties  XI  and  XII,  2160-1788,  or  perhaps  1700  B.C.), 
was  again  a  period  of  prosperity  and  splendor.  The  capital  was  at  Thebes. 
After  this  there  was  a  time  during  which  the  local  chiefs,  or  feudal  lords, 
were  semi-independent  and  often  at  war  with  one  another,  and  then  the 
country  was  overrun  and  conquered  by  invaders,  called  the  Hyksos,  from 
Asia,  who  settled  in  the  Delta.  They  were  conquered  and  the  whole  coun- 
try was  united  under  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  with  which  the  Empire  begins, 
about  1580  B.C.  The  Empire  had  its  seat  at  Thebes,  and  continued  through 
the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and  twentieth  dynasties,  until  1090  B.C.  By 
some  writers  the  period  of  the  Empire  is  extended  to  include  the  Tanite- 
Amonite  period,  1090-945  B.C.  (twenty-first  dynasty),  though  the  period 
of  decadence  really  began  even  before  the  end  of  the  twentieth  dynasty. 
From  945  to  712  B.C.  Egypt  was  subject  to  Libyan  rulers  (dynasties  twenty- 
two  to  twenty-four),  after  whom  an  Ethiopian  dynasty  (the  twenty-fifth) 
followed.  This  dynasty  lasted  until  663  B.C.,  though  the  country  was 
under  the  control  of  the  Assyrians  for  a  short  time  (670-662  B.C.).  A 
native  Egyptian  dynasty,  with  the  capital  at  Sals,  in  the  Delta,  brought 
with  it  a  restoration  of  something  of  the  earlier  splendor.  The  period  of 
this  dynasty,  the  twenty-sixth,  is  called  the  Saite  period.  It  lasted  from 
663  to  525  B.C.,  when  Egypt  was  conquered  by  the  Persian  Cambyses,  to 
remain  a  part  of  the  Persian  empire  until  it  was  conquered  by  Alexander 
the  Great  in  332  B.C.  After  Alexander's  death,  in  323,  Egypt  was  ruled 
by  the  Ptolemies  until  it  l>ecame  a  Roman  province  in  30  B.C. 

The  dates  given  above  are  not  perfectly  certain  before  the  seventh 
rentury  B.C.,  though  the  error  in  any  case  can  hardly  be  more  than  a  year 
or  two  at  any  time  later  than  2000  B.C.  The  length  of  the  period  between 
the  Old  Kingdom  and  the  Middle  Kingdom  is  somewhat  uncertain,  and 
therefore  the  dates  given  for  the  Old  Kingdom  and  the  time  before  it  may 
be  a  hundred  years  too  high  or  too  low. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


who  seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  early  part  of  this  period, 
may  serve  as  an  example  of  the  art  of  the  time.  This  is  a 
rather  thin  piece  of  light  gray  slate,  0.742  m.  in  length. 
In  the  middle  of  the  front  is  a  circular  depression,  in  which 
a  pigment  used  for  painting  the  face  may  have  been  rubbed 
or  ground ;  hence  this  and  several  other  similar  objects  are 
called  palettes,  though  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  they 
were  used  for  the  purpose  suggested.  The  circular  depres- 
sion of  this  palette  is  framed  by  the  long,  curving  necks 
of  two  curious  quadrupeds.  Above 
them  the  king,  followed  by  his 
sandal-bearer  and  preceded  by 
four  standard-bearers  and  a  high 
official,  is  gazing  at  two  rows  of 
decapitated  enemies.  At  the  bot- 
tom of  the  slab,  the  king,  in  the 
shape  of  a  bull,  is  breaking  down 
a  wall  and  trampling  upon  a  fallen 
foe.  On  the  reverse  of  the  palette 
(Fig.  1)  the  king,  wearing  the  crown 
of  Upper  Egypt,  is  about  to  crush 
with  his  mace  an  enemy  who  has 
already  sunk  to  his  knees.  The 
god  Horus,  in  the  form  of  a 
hawk,  is  bringing  him  other  ene- 
mies, symbolized  by  a  head  hang- 
ing by  a  cord.  The  king  is  ac- 
companied by  a  servant  who 
carries  his  sandals  and  a  basin.  Above  is  the  king's  name  be- 
tween two  heads  of  the  goddess  Hathor,  and  below  are  fleeing 
enemies.  The  relief  is  low,  and  the  surfaces  of  the  bodies  rep- 
resented are  flat.  Only  in  the  figure  of  the  king  is  any  at- 
tempt made  to  reproduce  details  of  muscles  or  anatomy.  The 
attitudes  of  the  fleeing  enemies  are  clearly  impossible.  Evi- 
dently the  artist's  chief  desire  was  to  be  understood,  and  in  this 
he  has  been  successful,  for  the  king's  action  cannot  be  misin- 
terpreted. There  are  many  faults  in  drawing,  but  there  is 
no  lack  of  liveliness,  and  the  work  is  not  without  delicacy 


FIGURE  1.  —  Palette  of 
King  Narmer.  Cairo.  (Bor- 
chardt,  Kunstwerkp  aus  dem 
Aegyptischen  Museum  zu 
Cairo,  PI.  19.) 


4  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  finish.  Originally,  the  whole  was  no  doubt  gilded  or 
colored,  or  both,  so  that  the  general  effect  was  one  of  great 
brilliancy.  The  king  has  here  something  of  the  conventional 
dignity  seen  in  later  royal  statues  and  reliefs,  and  firmness 
and  purity  of  line  are  already  noticeable.  Other  works  of  the 
Thinite  period  show  that  the  qualities  which  distinguish  the 
Egyptian  sculpture  of  later  times  were  already  beginning 
to  show  themselves.  It  is,  however,  under  the  Old  King- 
dom, in  the  time  of  the  great  pyramid  builders,  that  these 
qualities  are  fully  developed. 

Religion  and  Art.  —  This  is  not  the  place  for  an  account 
of  the  Egyptian  religion,  but  one  of  its  tenets  had  so  great 
a  part  in  the  development  of  sculpture  that  it  cannot  be 
entirely  passed  over.  The  Egyptians  believed  that  after 
death  the  Ka  (the  terrestrial  soul  or  double)  continued  to  ex- 
ist and  to  have  need  of  the  body ;  therefore  the  body  was 
embalmed  and  carefully  preserved  from  destruction.  If, 
however,  the  body  were  destroyed,  a  likeness  of  it  would 
serve  the  needs  of  the  Ka,  and  therefore  those  who  could 
afford  it  caused  likenesses  to  be  made  and  placed  in  their 
tombs  or  those  of  their  deceased  relatives.  Moreover,  the 
Ka  had  need  of  food,  companionship,  and  other  things  which 
the  living  had  enjoyed,  and  likenesses  of  all  these  things 
could  take  the  place  of  the  things  themselves.  Statues  of  the 
wife,  the  children,  and  the  servants  of  the  deceased  were 
therefore  also  placed  in  the  tomb,  and  the  walls  were  covered 
with  representations  in  relief  of  animals,  hunting  scenes, 
harvesting,  arid  the  like.  Since  the  statues  were  to  serve 
instead  of  the  body  and  the  reliefs  were  to  take  the  place  of 
real  objects,  it  was  essential  that  they  resemble  the  originals 
as  closely  as  possible.  The  result  is  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment of  portraiture  in  statues  and  of  realism  in  relief  work. 
The  representation  must  be  clear  and  unmistakable,  and  the 
desire  for  clearness,  which  was  very  strongly  felt  at  a  time 
when  art  was  still  in  its  infancy,  led  to  the  adoption  of  cer- 
tain conventions  which  are  especially  noticeable  in  relief  work 
and  painting.  Then,  since  sculpture  and  painting  were 
practised  largely  in  the  service  of  religion,  the  conservatism 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


natural  to  religion,  especially  when  controlled  by  a  priest- 
hood, caused  the  conventions  to  be  retained  and  practised 
long  after  they  had  ceased  to  be  imposed  upon  the  artist  by 
his  lack  of  technical  skill. 

Sheik  el  Beled.  —  The  realism  of  the  portraiture  of  the 
Old  Kingdom  is  admirably  exemplified  by  the  statue  called 

the  Sheik  el  Beled  (village  chief)      

in  the  museum  at  Cairo  (Fig.  2) . 
This  is  a  wooden  figure,  found 
in  a  tomb  of  the  fifth  dynasty 
at  Saqqarah.  It  represents  a 
high  official  named  Ke-oper. 
The  feet  are  restored,  but  the 
rest  of  the  figure  is  in  the  con- 
dition in  which  it  was  found. 
The  eyes  consist  of  pieces  of 
opaque  white  quartz  with  pupils 
formed  of  rock  crystal,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  a  polished 
metal  knob,  serving  to  fasten 
them  in  and  also  to  give  them 
additional  brilliancy;  they  are 
framed  with  thin  plates  of 
bronze,  the  edges  of  which  form 
the  eyelids.  The  arms  are  made 
of  separate  pieces,  and  the  left 
arm,  which  is  bent  and  holds  a 
staff,  is  made  of  two  pieces. 
This  was  not  visible  when  the 
statue  was  new  and  complete, 
for  the  wood  was  covered  with 
fine  linen  glued  smoothly  to 
coat  of  fine  stucco 


FIGURE    2.  —  Sheik    el    Beled. 
Cairo. 


the  surface,  and  a  thin 
covered  the  linen.  In  the  stucco  the 
last  fine  details  of  the  sculpture  were  engraved,  and  the 
whole  was  then  painted.  In  its  present  condition  the  statue 
therefore  lacks  the  finish  intended  by  the  artist,  yet  even 
now  it  is  a  remarkable  piece  of  portraiture.  The  man,  who 
has  already  passed  the  prime  of  life,  has  a  round,,  rail  face 


6 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


and  a  body  that  is,  to  say  the  least,  well  nourished.  Face 
and  form  alike  are  those  of  a  good-natured,  well-fed,  well-to- 
do,  and  contented  person,  not  a  man  of  delicate  sensibilities, 
but  one  who  is  sure  of  himself  and  his  position.  A  more 
characteristic  portrait  can  hardly  be  imagined. 

Other  Portraits.  —  Equally  characteristic  is  the  portrait 
of  a  scribe,  now  in  the  Louvre  (Fig.  3).  This  is  of  limestone, 
colored  red,  for  a  brownish  red  was  the  color  used  for  the  nude 
parts  of  male  figures,  the  more  delicate  complexion  of  women 

being  represented  by  yellow. 

The  scribe,  seated  on  the 
ground,  is  apparently  look- 
ing up  to  his  master,  ready 
to  take  down  the  words  that 
fall  from  his  lips.  The  feet, 
as  is  very  often  the  case  with 
Egyptian  statues,  are  badly 
designed  and  present  a  very 
unnatural  appearance;  but 
the  more  significant  parts  of 
the  body,  and  especially  the 
head,  show  most  careful  ex- 
ecution and  most  keen  obser- 
vation on  the  part  of  the  ar- 
tist. This  scribe  was  clearly 
a  man  of  intelligence  —  one 


FIGURE  3.  —  Statue  of  Scribe. 
Louvre,  Paris. 


The 


who  could  aid  his  master  in 
various  ways,  not  merely  by 
taking  his  dictation  or  writing  down  the  records  of  his 
crops,  his  purchases,  and  his  sales. 

Another  remarkable  portrait  of  the  Old  Kingdom  is  that 
of  the  dwarf  Knemuhetep  (Fig.  4),  who  was  a  person  of  some 
importance,  inasmuch  as  he  was  keeper  of  the  linen,  or  some- 
thing of  the  sort,  in  the  royal  palace.  But  whatever  his 
importance,  the  sculptor  reproduced  his  personal  defects 
without  flattery  or  even  pity.  His  short,  clumsy  legs,  his 
long,  unwieldy  body,  his  broad  head,  rather  flat  on  top  and 
rising  almost  to  a  point  at  the  back,  are  all  set  before  us  in 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


their  natural  unloveliness.  It  may  be  that  the  dwarf,  brought 
to  the  palace  for  the  amusement  of  the  king,  was  reproduced 
in  limestone  merely  to  gratify  a  royal  whim,  but  since  the 
statue  was  found  in  a  tomb,  it  is  more  likely  that  it  was  made 
at  the  order  of  the  dwarf  himself  to  serve  as  an  abiding  place 
for  his  Ka,  in  case  his  mummy  should  be  destroyed.  In 
any  event  it  serves  as  another  example  of  the  perfection  of 
portrait  sculpture  in  the  time  of  the  Old  Kingdom. 


FIGURE  4.  —  The 
Dwarf  Knemuhetep. 
Cairo. 


FIGURE  5.  —  Upper  Part  of  Diorite  Statue 
of  King  Khafra  (Chephren).    Cairo. 


Royal  Portraits.  —  Among  Egyptian  statues,  the  portraits 
of  kings  occupy  an  important  place.  Even  before  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Memphite  kingdom,  the  two  types  of  royal 
portrait  were  probably  fixed,  and  once  fixed  they  were  not 
changed,  except  in  minor  details.  One  type  represents  the 
monarch  standing,  with  one  foot  advanced,  in  the  attitude 
of  the  Sheik  el  Beled  (Fig.  2),  except  that  both  hands  hang 
down  and  touch  the  thighs ;  the  other  shows  him  seated,  in 
an  attitude  of  perfect  immobility.  Examples  of  both  types 


8 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


are  numerous.  One  of  the  best  known  is  a  seated  portrait  of 
Chephren  (Khafra),  the  builder  of  the  second  of  the  great 
pyramids  at  Ghizeh  (Fig.  5).  This  was  found  at  Ghizeh, 

not  far  from  the  pyra- 
mids.     It 
above  life 
carved 


is 


a  little 
size,  and  is 
in  dark  green 
diorite,  a  very  hard 
stone,  which  must  have 
been  difficult  indeed  to 
carve  with  the  imper- 
fect tools  of  the  fourth 
dynasty.  In  attitude 
and  in  clothing  the  king 
is  not  distinguished  from 
others  whose  statues  are 
preserved,  but  his  head 
is  not  bare  or  covered 
with  a  wig,  as  is  the 
case  with  others;  it  is 
covered  with  the  royal 
hood  (called  in  modern 
times  by  the  Coptic 
name  klaft),  which 
stands  out  at  the  sides 
and  falls  over  the  shoul- 
ders in  front.  This  adds 
width  to  the  head,  and 
dignity  to  the  aspect. 

f^  lJ^        The      uraeus      serpent, 

which  once  rose  from 
the  band  above  the  fore- 
head, is  broken  off.  The 
king  wears  a  beard,  called 

the  Osiriac  beard,  as  another  symbol  of  his  royalty.  The 
god  Horus,  in  the  form  of  his  sacred  hawk,  spreads  his  wings 
as  if  to  protect  the  king.  This  last  detail  (the  presence  of 
the  hawk)  is  not  a  regular  part  of  the  royal  type  of  statue, 


FIGUBE  6.  —  Mycerinus  and  his  Queen, 
group  of  slate.  Boston,  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE  9 

but  various  attributes  are  employed  to  show  that  the  king  is 
identified  with  the  gods  or  is  under  their  especial  protection. 
The  throne  upon  which  Chephren  sits  has  lions'  heads  at  the 
front  corners  of  the  seat  and  its  feet  have  the  shape  of  lions' 
claws.  On  one  side  it  is  decorated  with  stalks  of  lotus  and 
papyrus  and  with  the  symbol  sam,  typifying  the  union  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  The  face  of  the  king  is  calm  and 
powerful.  It  is  not  expressionless,  and  yet  the  expression 
has  little  of  a  purely  personal  character.  One  feels  that  the 
statue  is  a  portrait,  but  not  simply  a  portrait  of  a  person. 
It  is  the  portrait  of  a  king,  who  is  not  merely  a  man  like  other 
men,  but  the  embodiment  of  sovereignty,  the  representative 
of  the  gods  on  earth.  Not  all  the  royal  portraits  of  Egypt 
are  as  impressive  as  this  one  of  Chephren,  but  the  type  seen 
here  is  preserved  with  little  change  from  age  to  age.  The 
limestone  of  which  far  the  greatest  number  of  Egyptian 
statues  consist,  is  not  a  very  strong  stone,  and  probably  for 
that  reason  the  sculptors  often  refrained  from  separating  the 
less  bulky  parts  of  their  statues  entirely  from  the  block  out 
of  which  they  were  carved.  Many  standing  statues,  in  fact, 
are  almost  to  be  classed  as  high  reliefs,  for  they  are  attached 
to  a  background  of  stone  from  the  shoulders  to  the  feet,  or 
even  throughout  their  entire  length.  The  custom  of  leaving 
the  background  as  a  support  is  extended  to  harder  materials 
and  even  to  seated  figures  and  groups ;  it  continues  in  vogue 
throughout  the  various  periods  of  Egyptian  history.  A 
fine  example  of  royal  portraits  executed  in  this  manner  is 
the  group  of  Mycerinus,  builder  of  the  third  pyramid,  and 
his  queen  (Fig.  6),  which  was  found  at  Ghizeh. 

Early  Bronze  Statues.  —  Even  as  early  as  the  Old  King- 
dom, the  Egyptians  were  skilful  workers  of  metal.  In  the 
museum  at  Cairo  are  two  statues  of  copper,  representing 
King  Pepi  I,  of  the  sixth  dynasty,  and  his  son  Menthesuphis. 
The  statue  of  the  king  is  not  so  well  preserved  as  that  of  the 
prince,  which  is  corroded,  to  be  sure,  but  still  wonderfully 
perfect.  The  sheets  of  copper  were,  it  seems,  cast  in  ap- 
proximately the  desired  forms,  then  laid  upon  a  core  of  wood 
and  beaten  into  the  exact  shape  of  the  statue,  after  which 

. 


10  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

details  were  engraved.  The  eyes  were  set  in,  and  were 
naturally  of  other  materials.  The  youthful  forms  of  the 
prince  are  reproduced  with  a  mastery  equal  to  that  shown 
in  the  working  of  wood  and  stone  by  the  artists  of  the  Sheik 
el  Beled  and  the  statue  of  Chephren,  and  the  quality  of  the 
portraiture  is  in  no  way  inferior  to  the  technical  skill  exhibited. 

The  Law  of  Frontality.  —  In  all  these  statues  the  so-called 
law  of  frontality  is  observed ;  the  postures  are  such  that  a 
line  drawn  through  the  nose,  the  breast  bone,  and  the  navel 
would  be  a  straight  line  and  would  divide  the  statue  into 
equal  halves,  the  only  differences  between  the  two  parts  being 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  standing  figures  the  left  foot  is  advanced 
and  sometimes  one  arm  is  partially  extended,  and  that  in 
seated  figures  the  two  arms  are  not  always  in  the  same  posi- 
tion. Even  when  a  person  is  represented  kneading  dough, 
grinding  corn,  or  busy  in  some  other  active  occupation,  the 
Egyptian  sculptor  refrains  from  any  attempt  to  represent 
contorted  or  even  free  attitudes.  The  law  of  frontality, 
which  poises  all  heads  evenly  upon  the  neck,  with  the  face 
turned  directly  forward,  and  keeps  the  body  straight,  without 
turning  or  bending,  gives  the  statues  an  aspect  of  immobility, 
in  spite  of  their  great  realism  in  feature  and  expression  and 
their  masterly  technical  execution.  This  law  is  retained  in 
Egyptian  statuary  through  the  long  centuries  of  Egyptian 
art;  Only  in  some  small  works,  chiefly  of  industrial  art,  is 
it  abandoned. 

Reliefs  of  the  Old  Kingdom.  —  Egyptian  relief  sculpture 
projects  but  slightly  from  the  background ;  it  is  always  low 
relief.  Sometimes  the  background  is  cut  away  only  imme- 
diately about  the  figures,  so  that  the  latter  do  not  project  at 
all  beyond  the  surface  of  the  stone,  and  occasionally  figures 
are  carved  in  intaglio,  like  the  figures  in  seals,  but  usually 
the  sculptured  decoration  of  walls  and  similar  surfaces  is 
done  in  low  relief  throughout  all  the  periods  of  Egyptian  art. 
The  reliefs  of  the  Old  Kingdom  come  from  tombs,  those  of 
later  periods  from  tombs  and  temples.  The  subjects  repre- 
sented are  portraits,  scenes  from  daily  life,  the  trials  and  ex- 
periences of  the  soul  after  death,  the  gods  in  various  group- 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


11 


ings,  and  the  exploits  of  the  kings.  During  the  Old  Kingdom 
the  subjects  are  virtually  only  offerings  to  the  dead,  scenes 
from  daily  life,  such  as  hunting,  fishing,  harvesting,  driving 
cattle,  and  the  like,  and  a  limited  number  of  scenes  pertain- 
ing to  the  life  hereafter. 

A  wooden  panel  from  the 
tomb  of  Hesy-re,  at  Saqqara, 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  height 
attained  by  relief  sculpture  under 
the  third  dynasty.  The  chief 
figure  on  this  panel  (Fig.  7)  is 
a  little  less  than  half  life  size. 
The  relief  is  low,  but  the  surfaces 
of  the  figure  are  nevertheless  not 
flat  or  lifeless,  but  are  modelled 
with  the  utmost  delicacy.  The 
outlines  are  clear  and  vigorous, 
betraying  not  the  slightest  trace 
of  timidity  or  hesitation  on  the 
part  of  the  artist.  Evidently  his 
eye  was  trained  to  see  and  his 
hand  to  create  the  beauty  that 
dwells  in  perfect  lines.  Even  in 
the  small  images  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic inscription  and  in  the 
writing  instruments  held  in  the 
hand  of  the  chief  figure,  the  de- 
tails are  wrought  with  the  utmost 
care.  In  design  and  execution  alike  this  panel  (which  is 
one  of  three  found  in  the  same  tomb)  is  a  masterpiece. 

Another  example  of  relief  work  is  the  decoration  of  part  of 
a  wall  of  the  tomb  of  Sabu,  a  priest  of  Ptah,  who  lived  under 
the  sixth  dynasty  (Fig.  8).  Here  we  see  in  the  upper 
register  two  statues  of  the  deceased,  one  standing  and  one 
seated,  being  dragged  along  on  sledges  by  his  sons  and 
servants,  while  before  each  a  man  is  burning  incense.  In  the 
next  register  women,  who  we  are  told  by  the  inscriptions 
personify  the  villages  which  contribute  in  honor  of  the  dead, 


FIGURE  7.  —  Wooden  Panel 
from  the  Tomb  of  Hesy-re. 
Cairo. 


12  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

are  bringing  animals  and  the  fruits  of  the  field.  In  the  third 
register  butchers  are  cutting  up  the  carcasses  of  animals. 
Below  this  scene  are  the  ships  of  the  deceased  on  the  Nile ; 
in  one  the  mast  is  being  raised,  and  in  the  other  a  monkey 


FIGURE  8.  —  Relief  from  the  Tomb  of  Sabu,  Cairo.     (Borchardt,  Kunstwerke 
aus  dem  Aegyptischen  Museum  zu  Cairo,  PL  22.) 

is  walking  on  the  deck  of  the  cabin.  In  the  lowest  register 
the  deceased  sits  at  the  left  end,  while  his  son  leads  toward 
him  his  flocks  and  herds,  and  a  crouching  scribe  writes  the 
list  of  them  on  a  tablet.  No  single  figure  here  is  quite  as 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE  13 

fine  as  the  figure  on  the  wooden  tablet,  but  the  same  general 
excellence  of  modelling  and  line  prevails. 

Conventions  of  Egyptian  Art.  —  These  reliefs,  like  nearly 
all  Egyptian  works  of  sculpture,  were  originally  colored, 
which  added  to  the  clearness  of  the  whole  as  well  as  to  the 
brilliancy  of  appearance.  In  fact,  if  it  were  not  for  the 
delicate  modelling  of  the  surfaces,  we  might  almost  say  that 
the  carving  was  secondary  to  the  coloring,  —  that  the  reliefs 
were  paintings  outlined  by  the  sculptor  rather  than  sculp- 
ture colored  by  the  painter.  The  surfaces  are,  however,  so 
exquisitely  treated,  at  least  in  some  instances,  that  the 
sculptor's  work  is  clearly  more  important  than  that  of  the 
painter.  In  reliefs,  as  well  as  in  paintings,  certain  conven- 
tions are  observed,  not  only  in  the  period  of  the  Old  Kingdom, 
but  also  in  the  later  times.  Human  beings  are  represented 
with  the  head  in  profile,  the  eye  as  seen  from  the  front,  the 
shoulders  also  as  seen  from  the  front,  and  the  legs  and  feet 
in  profile.  The  purpose  of  this  method  is  the  attainment  of 
the  greatest  possible  clearness.  The  outline,  or  silhouette, 
of  the  human  head,  when  seen  from  the  front  or  the  back, 
is  not  characteristic,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  silhouette 
of  the  legs  and  feet;  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  nothing 
of  interest  in  the  outline  of  the  shoulders,  when  seen  from  the 
side.  The  Egyptian  artist,  wishing  to  show  the  human  being 
in  the  clearest  possible  manner,  presents  each  part  as  if  seen 
from  the  point  of  view  which  brings  out  its  characteristics 
most  plainly.  Undoubtedly  this  method  was  followed  by 
the  earliest  artists  because  they  could  not  make  their  meaning 
clear  in  any  other  way ; l  but  it  was  followed  in  later  ages  as 
a  convention  established  by  habit  and  tradition.  The 
result  is  that  the  figures  of  Egyptian  reliefs  and  paintings 
are  unnatural,  especially  in  the  transition  from  the  front 
view  of  the  shoulders  and  trunk  to  the  profile  view  of  the 
legs,  though  the  workmanship  is  usually  so  fine  that  one 

1  Lowy  (The  Rendering  of  Nature  in  Early  Greek  Art)  would  attribute 
these  peculiarities  to  the  fact  that  the  primitive  artist  draws  not  from  na- 
ture, but  from  memory,  and  therefore  draws  each  part  as  he  remembers  it. 
This  is  no  doubt  the  case,  but  the  wish  to  make  his  intention  clear  is  also 
an  important  factor  almost  from  the  first. 


14  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

hardly  notices  that  the  attitudes  are  impossible.  In  the  por- 
trayal of  animals  similar  conventions  are  observed  with  similar 
effects.  So  quadrupeds  are  always  seen  from  the  side,  but 
the  horns  of  cattle  are  represented  as  if  seen  from  the  front. 

Local  Differences.  —  Not  all  the  works  of  the  Old  King- 
dom are  equal  to  those  which  have  been  mentioned  and 
illustrated  above.  The  best  art  was  then,  as  in  the  Thinite 
period  before,  to  be  found  at  or  near  the  royal  court.  Other 
works  exhibit  less  skill  in  workmanship  and  less  beauty  of 
design,  and  some  local  peculiarities  can  be  distinguished; 
but  the  progress  of  art  is  to  be  followed  in  the  works  of  the 
best  artists,  not  in  those  of  the  provincial  sculptors,  and 
therefore  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  say  any  more  about  the 
various  local  schools.  The  local  differences  are,  in  fact, 
hardly  such  as  to  warrant  the  use  of  the  word  "school"  to 
designate  them.  This  remark  applies  to  the  art  of  the  later 
periods,  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  Old  Kingdom. 

Dynasties  VII  to  X.  — After  the  end  of  the  sixth  dynasty 
Egypt  was  in  a  more  or  less  disturbed  condition  for  nearly 
three  hundred  years.  Art  continued  to  be  practised,  but 
there  were  no  monarchs  who  had  such  resources  as  those  of 
the  Memphite  kings  or  who  maintained  so  splendid  a  court. 
During  this  time  sculpture,  and  art  in  general,  made  little 
or  no  progress.  The  traditions  and  conventions  established 
in  the  earlier  period  were  maintained,  but  the  quality  of 
workmanship  was,  as  a  rule,  inferior  to  that  of  earlier  times. 
Probably  the  number  of  works  created  was  much  less  than 
before,  and  certainly  the  number  now  known,  which  belong 
to  this  epoch,  is  relatively  small.  These  works  are  not  of 
such  interest  as  to  demand  our  attention.  They  show  that 
sculpture  did  not  die  out,  and  they  exhibit  some  local  differ- 
ences, but  this  period  may,  as  a  whole,  be  regarded  as  a  time 
in  which  the  condition  of  art  was  at  best  stationary,  even 
though  here  and  there  some  really  good  work  may  have  been 
accomplished. 

The  Middle  Kingdom.  —  With  the  eleventh  dynasty  the 
Middle  Kingdom  begins,  and  for  three  centuries  there  was 
once  more  a  rich  and  splendid  court,  though  the  power  of 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


15 


the  kings  was  more  limited  than  it  had  been  while  the  Old 
Kingdom  lasted.  The  settled  government  naturally  increased 
the  prosperity  of  the  country,  and  therefore  even  at  places 
removed  from  the  royal  court  art  was  more  successfully 
practised  than  in  the  preceding  period  of  unrest.  The  con- 
ventions and  traditions  of  Memphite  art  still  lived,  but  the 
art  of  the  Middle  Kingdom  (the  First  Theban  Period)  differs 
in  some  respects  from 
that  of  the  earlier  time. 
There  are  also  differ- 
ences to  be  seen  between 
the  works  produced  at 
different  places  and  dif- 
ferent times  during  the 
Middle  Kingdom.  In 
Middle  Egypt  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Memphite 
period  had  been,  appar- 
ently, more  carefully  fol- 
lowed during  the  period 
of  unrest  than  in  places, 
such  as  Thebes,  more  re- 
mote from  the  old  capi- 
tal, though  the  sculptors 
of  Heracleopolis  exhib- 
ited some  independence 
even  in  the  time  of 
the  tenth  dynasty.  At 
Thebes  the  sculpture  of 
the  early  part  of  the  eleventh  dynasty  was  much  less 
finished  than  that  of  the  sixth  dynasty  had  been. 
Evidently  the  sculptors  were  less  completely  under  the 
influence  of  the  old  tradition  and  less  perfectly  trained 
in  the  old  methods  than  those  were  who  worked  in 
the  vicinity  of  Memphis.  But  when  the  Theban  kings 
had  established  their  rule  firmly,  they  made,  as  it  seems, 
conscious  efforts  to  imitate  the  works  of  art  of  the  Old 
Kingdom.  Probably  artists  were  brought  to  Thebes  from 


FIGURE  9.  —  Upper  Part  of  Statue  of 
King  Amenemhet  III.  Cairo.  (Borchardt, 
Kunstwerke  aus  dem  Aegyptischen  Museum 
zu  Cairo,  PI.  6.) 


16 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Middle  Egypt.  The  result  of  the  influence  of  artists  trained 
in  the  old  methods  of  accuracy  and  refinement  upon  the 
less  skilful  but  more  independent  sculptors  of  Thebes  was 
the  development  of  a  school  which  produced  works  of 

fine  technical  execution 
differing  somewhat  from 
the  works  created  under 
the  Old  Kingdom.  Re- 
liefs stand  out  somewhat 
more  from  the  back- 
ground, and  the  atti- 
tudes represented  are 
occasionally  less  con- 
ventional. Portraits  of 
kings,  too,  are  less  ideal- 
ized and  are  therefore 
more  natural  than  those 
of  the  latter  part  of  the 
Memphite  period. 

The  portrait  of  the 
youthful  Amenemhet  III, 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  is 
a  good  example  of  sculp- 
ture of  the  Middle  King- 
dom (Fig.  9).  The  head- 
dress and  the  attitude 
are  those  which  had  be- 
come typical  under  the 
Old  Kingdom,  but  the 
face  shows  all  the  indi- 
vidual peculiarities  of  the 
royal  youth.  A  sphinx 
represents  the  same  mon- 
arch in  later  life  and  with 
the  dignity  and  grandeur 
of  his  station  emphasized 
by  the  physical  greatness  and  strength  of  the  lion's  body 
which  symbolizes  the  royal  power.  The  relief  of  the  funerary 


FIGURE  10.  —  Relief  from  the  Tomb 
of  Menthu-weser.  Metropolitan  Museum, 
New  York. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE  17 

stele  of  Menthu-weser  (Fig.  10)  may  serve  as  an  example  of 
relief  work  of  the  eleventh  dynasty.  The  deceased,  a  "  domain 
superintendent"  who  administered  lands  for  the  king,  is 
represented  seated  before  a  table  of  offerings.  The  relief 
is  somewhat  higher  than  was  customary  under  the  Old 
Kingdom,  and  the  right  shoulder  is  to  some  extent  fore- 
shortened, so  that  the  effect  produced  is  one  of  greater 
liveliness  and  nearness  to  nature,  and  also  of  somewhat  less 
delicacy.  The  modelling  is,  however,  very  fine,  and  all 
details  are  wrought  with  minute  and  tender  care.  Evi- 
dently the  artists  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  while  following 
closely  the  traditions  and  conventions  established  under 
the  Old  Kingdom,  were  not  slavish  imitators.  They  pos- 
sessed some  originality,  which  shows  itself  in  spite  of  tradi- 
tion and  is  the  more  attractive  because  associated  with 
beauty  of  technique  and  careful  treatment  of  details.  Never- 
theless it  must,  in  general,  be  conceded  that  they  are  inferior 
to  the  great  artists  of  the  Old  Kingdom  who  produced  such 
masterpieces  as  the  Sheik  el  Beled  or  the  crouching  scribe 
of  the  Louvre  and  who  fashioned  the  moulds  in  which  Egyptian 
art  was  formed  and  in  which  it  continued  throughout  the 
long  centuries  of  its  existence. 

The  Empire.  —  Of  the  period  which  immediately  followed 
the  Middle  Kingdom  little  is  to  be  said.  The  progress  of  art 
cannot  be  accurately  traced,  partly  because  material  is  not 
abundant  and  partly  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  dating 
accurately  the  monuments  which  exist.  With  the  second 
Theban  period,  called  the  Empire,  which  begins  with  the 
eighteenth  dynasty,  the  number  of  monuments  becomes 
very  great.  At  first  sight  there  seems  to  be  little  difference 
between  these  works  and  those  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  but 
on  closer  examination  it  is  clear  that  the  expansion  of  the 
Egyptian  power,  the  increased  intercourse  with  foreign 
peoples,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  country  brought  new  life 
into  the  practice  of  the  arts.  Even  in  the  days  of  the  Old 
Kingdom  some  statues  had  been  made  larger  than  life,  and 
the  great  Sphinx  at  Ghizeh  —  not  to  mention  the  pyramids  — 
had  shown  plainly  that  colossal  dimensions  appealed  strongly 


18 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


to  Egyptian  taste.  Under  the  Empire  colossal  statues  were 
multiplied.  The  figure  of  Rameses  II  which  lies  in  the 
palm  grove  near  Bedrashen  is  42  feet  high ;  the  great  seated 
statues  of  Amenophis  III  which  were  before  his  temple  in 
the  plain  opposite  Thebes  are,  without  their  pedestals,  52 
feet  in  height,  and  are  even  now  impressive  by  force  of  sheer 
size,  in  spite  of  their  ruined  condition ;  and  the  seated  figures 


FIGUBE  11.  —  Facade  of  Great  Rock-hewn  Temple  at  Abu  Simbel. 

of  Rameses  II,  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  which  decorate 
the  facade  of  the  great  rock-cut  temple  at  Abu  Simbel 
(Fig.  11),  are  65  feet  high.  Colossal  statues  of  less  stupen- 
dous size  are  numerous,  and  some  of  the  figures  in  relief  which 
adorn  the  pylons  of  temples  are  of  equally  impressive  dimen- 
sions. The  heads  of  kings  are  now  often  surmounted  by 
great  symbolic  head-dresses,  in  which  attributes  of  deities 
are  strangely  mingled,  showing  the  development  of  religious 
belief  sand  the  increased  worship  of  the  king  as  a  deity  on  earth. 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


19 


Reliefs  and  paintings  had  always  been  freely  used,  but  now 
they  cover  the  entire  inner  walls  of  immense  temples  and  the 
fronts  of  gigantic  pylons.  The  sculpture  (and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  architecture)  of  the  Empire  is  astounding  by 
virtue  of  its  quantity.  The  activity  of  the  artists  must  have 
been  unremitting,  especially  under  the  nineteenth  dynasty. 

In  such  a  vast  num- 
ber of  works,  many  of 
which  are  of  great  size, 
there  are  naturally  great 
differences  in  quality. 
Some  sculptures  of  this 
period  are  more  or  less 
mechanical  and  perfunc- 
tory in  design  and  execu- 
tion, but  the  best  works 
are  dignified,  carefully 
designed,  and  exquisitely 
wrought.  Some  statues 
are  too  smooth  in  their 
finish,  so  that  they  seem 
to  lack  power,  and  some 
sculptors  apparently  af- 
fected great  slenderness 
in  their  figures,  but  the 
best  works  of  the  Em- 
pire are  truly  admirable. 
Some  of  the  extant  monu- 
ments, especially  among 
the  larger  reliefs,  now 
seem  coarse  and  unfinished,  because  the  coat  of  fine  stucco 
in  which  the  details  were  executed  has  been  destroyed. 

An  excellent  example  of  the  lifelike  portraiture  and  delicate 
workmanship  of  the  sculpture  of  the  Empire  is  the  head  of 
the  goddess  Mut  now  in  the  museum  at  Cairo  (Fig.  12). 
It  is  of  colossal  size,  but  has  a  human,  intimate  quality  seldom 
seen  in  heads  of  more  than  natural  dimensions.  The  head- 
dress (and  fragments  of  the  statue  to  which  the  head  be- 


FIGURE  12. — The  Goddess  Mut.  Cairo. 
(Borchardt,  Kunstwerke  aus  dem  Aegyp- 
tischen  Museum  zu  Cairo,  PI.  13.) 


20 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


longed)  shows  that  the  goddess,  not  some  royal  princess  or 
queen,  is  represented.  The  full  lips  are  smiling,  almost 
coquettish,  the  nose  is  retrousse,  and  the  almond-shaped  eyes, 
slightly  myopic,  apparently,  have  an  almost  amorous  look. 
Evidently  the  face  of  the  goddess  is  really  a  portrait  of  the 
artist's  model,  in  whom  it  is  tempting  to  recognize  some 
reigning  beauty  of  the  time. 


FIGURE  13.  —  Reliefs  in  the  Temple  of  Seti  I  at  Abydos. 

Among  the  many  beautiful  reliefs  of  the  time  of  the  Empire 
none  excel  those  which  cover  the  walls  of  the  temple  at 
Abydos  (Fig.  13).  They  date  from  the  reign  of  Seti  I.  In 
purity  of  line  and  exquisite  modelling  of  surface  they  are. 
unsurpassed.  The  artist  was  limited  by  the  accepted  con- 
ventions of  his  art,  but  he  was  no  mechanical  imitator  of  his 
predecessors,  and  the  refinement  of  the  work  shows  not 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 


21 


merely  manual  training,  but  the  loving  devotion  of  the 
artist  to  whom  his  art  is  the  one  great  interest  in  life. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  the  admirable 
works  of  sculpture  produced  during  the  Empire.  In  the 
best  of  them  the  qualities  of  careful  workmanship,  dignified 
attitudes,  and,  within  the  limits  set  by  tradition,  good  com- 
position are  always  pres- 
ent. Perhaps  there  is 
less  freshness  and  origi- 
nality than  in  the  best 
works  of  the  Old  King- 
dom, but  the  general 
average  is  so  high,  the 
multitude  of  works  so 
great,  and  their  scale  in 
many  instances  so  vast, 
that  the  period  of  the 
Empire  may  justly  claim 
to  be  considered  the 
greatest  period  of  Egyp- 
tian art. 

Art  after  the  Time  of 
the  Empire.  --As  the 
power  of  the  Empire  de- 
clined, the  productive- 
ness of  the  Egyptian  art- 
ists decreased  and  at  the 
same  time  the  quality  of 
their  work  deteriorated. 
It  became  more  mechan- 
ical, even  when  it  was 
still  fine  in  execution.  The  various  conquerors  of  the  country 
brought  with  them  no  new  artistic  inspiration.  The 
old  traditions  were  followed  with  little  variation,  and  the 
natural  result  was  a  loss  of  spontaneity  and  vigor.  Some 
of  the  works  of  this  period  of  decadence  are  good,  some  are 
even  interesting,  but  the  greater  number  are  mediocre. 
The  knowledge  of  technical  processes,  however,  was  pre- 


FIGURE  14.  —  Upper  Part  of  Statuette  of 
Queen  Karomama.    The  Louvre,  Paris. 


22  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

served,  and  portraiture,  always  an  important  part  of  Egyptian 
art,  continued  to  be  practised  with  success,  but  there  was 
little  or  no  progress. 

An  admirable  example  of  the  fine  work  which  was  done  in 
the  period,  which  is,  after  all,  a  time  of  decadence,  is  the 
statuette  of  Queen  Karomama  (twenty-second  dynasty) 
now  in  the  Louvre  (Fig.  14).  It  is  nearly  two  feet  high,  of 
bronze  encrusted  or  inlaid  with  gold.  The  slender  figure 
of  the  queen  is  clad  in  a  closely  fitting  costume,  through 
which  the  form  of  her  body  appears.  About  her  neck  and 
shoulders  she  wears  a  broad  collar  or  necklace,  the  details 
of  which  are  wrought  in  gold.  On  her  head  is  a  ceremonial 
wig.  Her  face  is  serious  and  dignified,  and  her  attitude  con- 
ventional. It  is  not  merely  the  woman,  but  the  queen 
and  priestess  whom  the  artist  has  represented,  and  he  has 
done  his  work  well. 

Under  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty  Egypt  was  again  governed 
by  native  rulers.  They  had  their  seat  at  Saiis,  and  during 
the  brief  Sa'ite  period  a  serious  attempt  was  made  to  revive 
the  ancient  glories  of  the  Egyptian  race.  The  monuments  of 
earlier  days  were  restored  and  many  new  works  were  created, 
some  of  which  are  of  considerable  beauty.  The  sculptors 
were  evidently  trained  with  great  care.  Stone  models, 
some  of  which  are  now  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New 
York,  others  in  the  Louvre  and  elsewhere,  testify  to  the 
schooling  of  the  incipient  artists.  In  general  the  tendency 
was  toward  imitation  of  ancient  works,  but  the  sculpture  of 
this  period  may  usually  be  distinguished  from  that  of  earlier 
times  by  the  excessive  smoothness  of  finish  and  the  lack  of 
fine  modulation  of  surface.  There  is,  however,  no  lack  of 
manual  skill,  and  portraits  are  often  well  wrought  and  ex- 
pressive. There  is  also  a  tendency  at  this  time  and  later 
toward  greater  slenderness  of  the  human  form,  the  total 
height  being  often  nine  times  that  of  the  head. 

Throughout  the  entire  period  from  the  overthrow  of  the 
Empire  until  Egyptian  art  came  to  an  end  and  was  merged 
in  the  Graeco-Oriental  art  of  the  early  Christian  centuries, 
old  types  were  repeated  with  varying  degrees  of  care  in  de- 


EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE  23 

« 

sign  and  execution.  At  a  comparatively  late  date,  portrait 
heads  are  realistic  and  full  of  life,  even  when  the  bodies  of 
the  same  statues  are  obviously  modelled  without  any  careful 
study  of  the  living  form.  In  the  Ptolemaic  and  the  Roman 
times,  much  sculpture  of  purely  Greek  and  Graeco-Roman 
style  was  produced  in  Egypt,  and  at  the  same  time  the  old 
Egyptian  types  were  constantly  repeated.  Even  upon  these, 
however,  Greek  art  exerted  its  influence,  and  some  works 
show  clearly  the  effect  of  acquaintance  with  Greek  taste 
and  tradition.  Egyptian  sculpture  had  by  this  time  ceased 
to  be  a  living,  vital  art.  Its  works  still  show  technical  skill, 
careful  training,  and  industry,  but  no  higher  qualities. 


CHAPTER  II 
BABYLONIAN   AND   ASSYRIAN   SCULPTURE 

Babylonia.  —  Babylonia,  also  called  Chaldaea,  is  the  southern 
part  of  the  region  watered  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  rivers — 
a  flat,  alluvial  land,  actually  formed  by  the  deposits  which  the 
rivers  have  brought  from  the  higher  land  at  the  north,  as  Egypt 
has  been  formed  by  the  deposits  of  the  Nile.  In  early  times 
the  northern  part  of  Babylonia  was  called  Akkad,  the  southern 
part  Sumer.  Almost  from  the  earliest  period  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge,  the  country  was  occupied  in  part  by 
Semitic  folk,  but  the  earlier  inhabitants,  who  are  conveniently 
called  Sumerians,  were  not  Semitic.  The  Semitic  power 
and  influence  seems  to  have  spread  from  the  north  southward. 
The  plain  was  kept  fertile  by  means  of  canals  which  regu- 
lated and  distributed  the  waters  'of  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Tigris.  Many  cities  existed  in  Babylonia,  and  their  relative 
importance  varied  from  time  to  time.  It  was  not  until  nearly 
2000  B.C.  that  Babylon  gained  the  chief  power  and  made 
the  other  cities  her  vassals.  Of  the  beginnings  of  civiliza- 
tion in  Babylonia  little  is  known,  though  it  is  clear  that  there, 
as  elsewhere,  a  Stone  Age  preceded  the  introduction  of  metal. 
Our  real  knowledge  of  conditions  of  Babylonian  life  does  not 
begin  until  a  time  when  civilization  was  far  advanced,  when 
organized  states  existed,  laws  were  enacted,  and  writing  (in 
cuneiform  script,  chiefly  on  clay  tablets)  was  practised. 

Early  Babylonian  Reliefs.  —  Among  the  earliest  known 
examples  (apart  from  some  rude  clay  figurines)  of  Babylonian 
sculpture  is  a  fragmentary  relief  which  decorated  a  round 
base  or  pedestal  at  Lagash  (modern  Tello).  It  may  reason- 
ably be  ascribed  to  a  time  slightly  before  3000  B.C.  (De 
Sarzec,  Decouvertes  en  Chaldee,  PI.  47,  No.  1).  Here  a  ruler, 

24 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       25 


distinguished  by  the  curved  scimitar  in  his  right  hand,  is 
holding  in  his  left  hand  an  object  of  uncertain  use,  as  if  to 
give  it  to  a  spearman  who  stands  before  him.  The  king 
wears  a  beard  and  long  hair,  the  spearman  long  hair  but  no 
beard.  Of  the  other  persons  represented,  some  have  both 
hair  and  beard,  others  are  bald  and  beardless.  All  wear  a 
skirt  reaching  nearly  to  the  ankles.  The  execution  of  the 
work  is  not  with- 
out vigor,  but 
lacks  care,  and 
there  is  little 
delicacy  of 
modelling.  An- 
other small  re- 
lief, which  repre- 
sents King  Ur- 
Nina  (ca.  3000 
B.C.)  and  his 
family,  shows 
similar  qualities 
(De  Sarzec,  De- 
couvertes  en 
Chaldee,  PL  2  bis, 
No.  1). 

The  "Vulture 
Stele  "  of  Eanna- 
tum,  grandson 
of  Ur-Nina  (De 
Sarzec,  Decouvertes  en  Chaldee,  Pis.  3,  3  bls,  48,  48  bls),  is  the 
finest  example  of  early  Sumerian  sculpture,  and  this  is  un- 
fortunately very  fragmentary.  On  the  front  of  the  stele  a 
god  holds  a  great  net  adorned  with  the  lion-headed  eagle  of 
Lagash.  In  the  net  is  a  confused  mass  of  the  nude  bodies  of 
slain  enemies.  A  lesser  deity  stood  behind  the  god,  and 
below  was,  apparently,  a  chariot.  On  the  back  are  parts  of 
four  rows  of  battle  scenes  (Fig.  15)  and  (above)  vultures 
carrying  away  the  heads  of  the  slain.  The  whole  celebrates 
the  victories  which  Eannatum  gained  with  the  god's  help. 


FIGURE  15.  —  Fragments  of  the  "Vulture  Stele." 
The  Louvre,  Paris.  (De  Sarzec,  Decouvertes  en 
Chaldee,  PI.  3  "•.) 


26 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


The  execution  is  similar  to  that  of  the  earlier  works,  but 
better,  more  careful,  and  more  refined.  In  the  battle  scenes 
the  troops  appear  in  serried  ranks,  not  in  separate  groups  of 
combatants;  dramatic  effect  is  therefore  wanting. 

Statue  from  Bismya.  —  Few 
statues  in  the  round  can  be 
ascribed  to  the  period  before 
Sargon  (Sharrukin)  founded 
the  Semitic  dynasty  of  Akkad, 
about  2850  B.C.  Among  them 
the  statue  of  King  Daudu  (or 
Esar)  of  Adab,  which  Dr. 
Banks  found  at  Bismya,  is 
especially  interesting  (Fig.  16). 
The  king  wears  a  skirt  of  many 
layers,  or  flounces,  but  appar- 
ently without  folds,  exactly  like 
the  skirts  seen  on  the  plaque  of 
Ur-Nina.  From  the  waist  up 
he  is  nude,  his  hair  is  shorn  or 
shaven,  and  he  wears  no  beard. 
The  features  are  regular  and 
not  unpleasing,  for  the  nose 
is  less  prominent  and  the  fore- 
head less  retreating  than  is  the 
case  with  some  early  Baby- 
lonian heads.  The  eyes,  as  is 
usual  in  statues  of  this  period, 
were  made  of  different  material 
and  inserted  in  their  sockets. 
The  stiff,  upright  attitude  and 
the  folded  hands  are  seen  also 
in  other  archaic  figures.  This  statue  excels  others  of  this 
early  period  in  execution  and  also  because  the  arms  are  in 
great  part  free  from  the  body.  Even  this  work,  however, 
cannot  be  greatly  admired.  The  industrial  arts  of  Baby- 
lonia at  this  time,  the  metal  work,  as  seen  in  a  fine  silver 
vase  of  King  Entemena,  of  Lagash,  and  the  seal-cutting, 


FIGURE  16.  —  Statue  from  Bismya. 
Constantinople. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       27 


as  exemplified  by  early  seal-cylinders,  are  superior  to  the 
sculpture. 

Stele  of  Naram-Sin.  —  The  most  remarkable  monument 
of  sculpture  left  by  the  dynasty  of  Sargon  of  Akkad  is  the 
stele  of  Naram-Sin  (apparently  the  son  of  Sargon),  which 
was  found  at  Susa  (Fig. 
17).  It  was  carved  to 
commemorate  Naram- 
Sin's  victories  over  the 
mountain  tribe  of  the 
Lulubu.  The  king,  a 
gigantic  figure,  wearing 
a  horned  helmet,  a  short 
kilt,  and  sandals,  is  at 
the  head  of  his  army  in 
the  ascent  of  a  mountain 
path.  His  foot  is  set 
upon  a  fallen  foe;  be- 
fore him,  still  further 
symbolizing  his  victory, 
an  enemy  falls  trans- 
fixed by  a  spear  and  an- 
other man  advances  with 
hands  raised  in  supplica- 
tion. The  king  is  truly 
a  dignified,  commanding 
figure.  There  is  some 
sameness  in  the  attitudes 
of  his  followers,  but  they 
appear  as  individuals, 
and  are  no  longer  mere 
masses,  like  the  soldiers 
on  the  "Vulture  Stele." 

Moreover  the  trees  and  the  unevenness  of  the  steep  ascent 
are  clearly  represented,  and  the  enemy  who  falls  pierced  by 
the  spear  is  admirably  drawn.  This  stele  is  unsurpassed 
among  works  of  early  Babylonian  sculpture  in  relief.  Several 
other  reliefs  of  approximately  the  same  period  exist,  which 


FIGURE  17.  —  Stele  of  Naram-Sin. 
The  Louvre,  Paris. 


28 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


resemble  this  more  or  less  closely,  though  none  equals  it  in 
excellence  of  design  and  execution.  The  seals  of  the  Sar- 
gonic  period  are  hardly  equalled,  and  certainly  not  excelled, 
by  those  of  any  other  time,  and  the  scanty  remains  of  metal 
work  also  bear  witness  to  the  high  state  of  art  under  the 
Semitic  rulers  of  Akkad. 

Sculpture  at  Lagash.  —  After  the  fall  of    the  Sargonid 

dynasty  of  Akkad,  Sumerian 
dynasties  again  became  pow- 
erful in  several  cities  of  the 
South.  At  Lagash  the  most 
important  ruler  was  Gudea, 
who  reigned  as  patesi,  with- 
out assuming  the  title  of 
king,  about  2550  B.C.  In 
his  palace  several  statues  and 
works  in  relief  have  been 
found.  The  statues  are  of 
dark,  almost  black,  diorite, 
a  very  hard  and  durable 
stone,  which  must  have  been 
expensive  in  Babylonia,  as  it 
had  to  be  imported  from  a 
distance.  With  one  excep- 
tion (Fig.  18),  the  statues  of 
Gudea  are  headless,  but  sev- 
eral heads  were  found.  All 
but  two  of  the  statues  are 
under  life  size.  There  are 
two  types,  one  standing,  the 
other  seated.  Some  of  the 
heads  are  bare  and  shaven, 
others  are  covered  with  a  cap  which  has  some  resemblance  to  a 
turban.  The  clothing  is  a  heavy  cloak,  so  arranged  as  to  leave 
the  right  arm  and  shoulder  bare  and  to  fall  stiffly  to  the  ankles. 
In  these  statues,  as  in  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  sculpture 
generally,  inscriptions  are  introduced  without  regard  to  the 
artistic  effect.  The  postures  are  stiffly  conventional,  the 


FIGURE  18.  — Statue  of  Gudea,  from 
Lagash.     The  Louvre,  Paris. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       29 

feet  are  ill  formed,  the  clasped  hands,  though  wrought  with 
exquisite  care  in  detail,  are  imperfectly  shaped,  with  exces- 
sively long,  curved  fingers,  the  necks  are  too  short,  even 
though  the  Sumerians  were  a  short-necked  race.  Yet  with 
all  their  defects,  these  statues  are  dignified  and  impressive. 
The  mouths  and  eyes  are  excellent  and  natural,  the  cheeks 
and  chins  are  well  modelled.  There  is  a  sound  realism, 
especially  in  the  heads,  which  makes  the  statues  of  Gudea 
take  rank  with  the  best  works  of  Babylonian  sculpture.  It  is 
partly  for  this  reason  that  the  archaic  period  has  been  said 
to  end  with  the  Sargonid  dynasty  of  Akkad,  and  the  following 
period,  extending  to  the  Kassite  conquest  in  the  seventeenth 
century  B.C.,  is  called  the  period  of  developed  art. 

Relief  work  of  the  time  of  Gudea  exhibits  the  qualities 
which  the  statues  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Details  are  con- 
scientiously wrought,  but  perspective  is  incorrect,  attitudes 
are,  on  the  whole,  stiff  and  conventional,  the  eyes  of  heads 
in  profile  are  likely  to  be  made  as  if  seen  from  the  front,  and 
yet  there  is  a  degree  of  truth  to  nature  which  gives  real 
aesthetic  value  to  these  compositions. 

Sculpture  at  Ur  and  Babylon.  — About  2450  B.C.  a  dynasty 
came  into  power  at  Ur,  which  lasted  somewhat  more  than  a 
century.  The  founder  of  the  dynasty  was  Ur-Engur,  who 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Dungi.  In  their  time  much 
excellent  metal  work  was  done,  especially  in  heads  and  figures 
of  animals.  Some  small  figures  of  terra-cotta  and  other 
materials  and  many  seals  also  exist  which  prove  that  good 
work  was  done  in  the  lesser  forms  of  art,  but  there  are  few 
works  of  large  sculpture.  At  this  time  and  in  the  centuries 
that  followed,  the  sculptors  possessed  no  little  facility,  and 
some  works,  chiefly  of  small  size,  exhibit  something  that 
approaches  grace  and  elegance,  but  in  general  it  can  hardly 
be  said  that  there  was  any  great  advance  after  the  time  of 
Gudea.  The  members  of  the  first  Semitic  dynasty  of  Baby- 
lon were  patrons  of  art,  but  the  stele  on  which  Hammurabi 
(ca.  2100  B.C.)  inscribed  his  laws,  though  it  is  carved  with 
accuracy  and,  apparently,  with  ease,  lacks  the  spontaneity  of 
the  earlier  works.  It  is,  however,  rash  to  judge  of  the  art  of 


30 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


the  early  dynasties  of  Babylon,  because  the  existing  monu- 
ments are  too  few.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  their  art  is  a 
continuation  of  the  art  which  flourished  centuries  before 
under  Gudea,  for  instance,  at  Lagash. 

Later  Babylonian  Sculpture.  —  In  spite  of  the  excava- 
tions carried  on  in  recent  years,  few  works  of  Babylonian 
sculpture  exist  to  serve  as  a  record  of  progress  after  the 

first  dynasty  of 

Babylon.  In 
general,  it  seems 
that  the  old 
traditions  of  art 
were  preserved, 
and  the  ten- 
dency  toward 
mechanical,  un- 
imaginat  i  ve 
work  increased. 
The  tablet  of 
King  Nabu- 
aplu-iddin 
(ninth  century 
B.C.),  on  which 

he  recorded  his  restoration  of  the  temple  of  Shamash  at 
Sippara,  is  perhaps  a  copy  of  an  earlier  work,  yet  in  general 
character  it  is  a  good  example  of  the  Babylonian  sculpture 
of  the  period  (Fig.  19).  Some  of  the  enamelled  brick  reliefs 
(especially  animals)  which  adorned  the  walls  of  Nebuchadnez- 
zar (604-561  B.C.)  at  Babylon  are  spirited  and  powerful, 
but  they  may  owe  their  merits  to  Assyrian  influence,  for  the 
Assyrians  had  been  the  ruling  power  in  Mesopotamia  from 
the  thirteenth  century  until  the  rise  of  the  so-called  Neobaby- 
lonian  Empire  (tenth  dynasty  of  Babylon)  in  625  B.C., 
which  came  to  an  end  when  the  Persian  Cyrus  took  Babylon 
in  539-538.  The  revival  of  Babylonian  art  under  the  tenth 
dynasty  seems,  to  judge  by  the  existing  records,  to  have  been, 
for  the  most  part,  confined  to  the  restoration  and  imitation 
of  the  works  of  earlier  centuries.  The  existing  sculpture  of 


FIGURE  19.  —  Tablet  of  Nabu-aplu-iddin.    British 
Museum. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       31 

this  period  is  almost  entirely  limited  to  small  reliefs,  figurines, 
and  seals  ;  it  exhibits  care  in  detail,  and  a  certain  mechanical 
excellence,  but  little  originality  or  real  life. 

Assyria.  —  Assyria  is  the  country  along  the  Tigris  river, 
to  the  north  and  northeast  of  Babylonia.  Whereas  Baby- 
lonia is  a  rich,  flat,  alluvial  plain v  containing  little  or  no 
stone,  Assyria  is  for  the  most  part  a  country  of  hills  and 
valleys,  plentifully  supplied  with  stone.  The  rather  soft 
Assyrian  alabaster  is  excellent  material  for  sculpture,  though 
not  equal  to  the  best  of  the  Egyptian  limestone  and  far 
inferior  to  Greek  marble.  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Assy- 
ria were  apparently  not  Semitic;  but  a  Semitic  race,  the 
Assyrians  of  history,  took  possession  of  the  country  at  an 
early  date.  Civilization  was  at  that  time  already  far  ad- 
vanced in  Babylonia,  and  the  Assyrians  adopted  Babylonian 
civilization.  Like  the  Babylonians  they  built  palaces  and 
temples  of  crude  brick  (though  their  country  offered  suitable 
stone  in  abundance),  like  them  they  wrote  in  cuneiform  script 
upon  clay  tablets.  Though  different  places  paid  the  highest 
honors  to  different  gods,  the  religion  of  the  Assyrians  was  in 
most  respects  identical  with  that  of  the  Babylonians.  The 
Assyrians,  however,  considered  themselves  the  peculiar  people 
of  the  god  Asshur,  from  whom  they  derived  their  name. 
They  were  a  nation  of  warriors ;  their  god  was  a  war-god,  to 
whom  conquests  were  pleasing.  Babylonian  rulers  warred 
with  their  neighbors,  and  even  extended  their  rule  beyond  the 
limits  of  Babylonia  to  Syria  and  Armenia,  but  it  was  re- 
served for  the  Assyrians  to  conquer  Egypt,  as  well  as  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  great  regions  to  the  north,  northeast,  and 
east  of  their  own  country. 

Assyrian  Sculpture.  —  The  chief  monuments  of  Assyrian 
sculpture  are  reliefs  carved  in  slabs  of  alabaster,  which  once 
adorned  (and  protected  from  injury)  the  lower  parts  of  the 
walls  of  the  palaces  of  Assyrian  kings.  They  record  the 
glories  of  the  monarchs  and  commemorate  their  victories  in 
war  and  in  the  chase.  Beside  the  doorways  were  great  man- 
headed  winged  bulls,  or  sometimes  lions,  to  guard  the  portals, 
and  sculptured  demons  also  served  to  strike  terror  into  any 


32  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

approaching  enemy.  All  these  sculptures  were  colored,  and 
the  colors,  which  have  now  disappeared,  must  have  added 
greatly  to  their  effect.  Records  were  also  carved  upon  stelae, 
or  separate  slabs,  on  the  slightly  tapering  monuments  called 
"Assyrian  obelisks,"  and  occasionally  upon  the  living  rock. 
Excellent  work  was  done  in  beaten  (repousse)  and  cast 
bronze,  but  large  bronze  works  are  unknown.  Assyrian 
seals,  which  may  be  regarded  as  works  of  sculpture  in  minia- 
ture, are  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  excellent. 

Assyrian  Statues.  —  Assyrian  statues  are  few.  Probably 
the  earliest  known  is  a  figure  of  life  size,1  wrhich  was  found  at 
Asshur  in  September,  1905.  Unfortunately  the  head  and 
hands  are  missing.  The  material  is  a  hard,  dark  stone,  resem- 
bling basalt,  and  the  statue  recalls  in  attitude  and  in  costume 
the  standing  statues  of  the  Babylonian  Gudea  (page  28). 
There  are,  to  be  sure,  some  slight  differences  in  costume. 
This  Assyrian  wears  a  thick  belt,  which  Gudea  did  not,  and  a 
string  of  beads  encircles  his  neck ;  moreover,  he  has  a  long, 
waving  beard  which  falls  over  his  breast.  The  muscular 
development  of  the  arms  is  greatly  exaggerated,  and  the 
shoulder-blades  appear  as  almost  circular  disks.  On  the 
whole,  this  figure,  which  may  be  dated  about  2000  B.C.,  is 
decidedly  inferior  to  the  statues  of  Gudea.  A  nude  female 
torso  in  London,  dated  in  the  eleventh  century  B.C.,  is  care- 
fully finished,  but  not  well  proportioned.  The  few  later 
statues  which  exist  are  apparently  much  affected  by  the  relief 
style.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  among  them  is  a  lime- 
stone figure  of  Asshurnazirpal  III  in  the  British  Museum. 
In  general,  Assyrian  sculpture,  evidently  Babylonian  in  its 
origin,  developed  as  relief  sculpture,  not  as  sculpture  in  the 
round. 

Assyrian  Reliefs —  Tiglathpileser  I  and  Asshurnazirpal.  — 
One  of  the  earliest  known  examples  of  Assyrian  relief  work 
is  carved  in  the  rock  at  Korkhar,  about  fifty  miles  from  Diar- 
bekr.     It  represents  the  king,  Tiglathpileser  I  (ca.  1100  B.C.), 

1  Mitteilungen  der  deutschen  Orient-Gesellschaft  zu  Berlin,  29,  December, 
1905,  figs.  22  and  23.  Some  still  earlier  examples  of  Assyrian  work  in  the 
round,  closely  resembling  the  early  Sumerian  sculptures,  are  figured  ibid. 
49,  p.  40,  and  54,  pp.  12  and  18. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       33 


with  his  right  hand  extended,  holding  a  sceptre  in  his  left 
hand.  Part  of  an  obelisk  of  the  same  king  bears  a  small 
relief,  but  these  works  merely  serve  to  indicate  that  there 
was  no  great  change  in  Assyrian  art  between  the  eleventh 
century  and  the  time  of  the  great  conqueror  Asshurnazirpal 
III  (885-850  B.C.),  whose  palace  at  Nimrud  (Kalah)  contained 
great  numbers  of  reliefs  which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
They  consist  either  of  large  figures  (about  seven  feet  high) 
in  a  single  row,  or  of  much 
smaller  figures  forming 
two  friezes  separated  by 
cuneiform  inscriptions. 
The  relief  is  throughout 
rather  low,  but  clear  and 
well  cut.  The  large  fig- 
ures are  dignified  in  their 
quiet  postures,  and  the 
faces,  though  expression- 
less, are  impressive  in 
their  immobility  (Fig. 
20).  Details  are  treated 
with  elaborate  care ;  the 
hair  and  beards,  bracelets 
and  feathers,  borders  and 
fringes  of  robes  are 
wrought  with  as  much 
nicety  as  the  soft  stone 
admits.  The  treatment 
of  the  hair  is  conven- 
tional, and  the  beards  have  alternating  rows  of  curls  (for  curls 
are  undoubtedly  intended)  and  straight  hair.  Possibly  this 
arrangement  corresponds  to  the  real  fashion  of  the  royal 
court,  or  it  may  be  an  attempt  to  represent  natural  locks. 
The  eyes  are  in  full  front  view,  though  the  heads  are  in 
profile,  an  error  which  had  been  partially  overcome  in  Baby- 
lonia as  early  as  the  time  of  Gudea,  but  the  perspective  of  the 
shoulders  is  less  incorrect  than  in  early  Babylonian  work. 
Muscular  strength  was  evidently  much  admired  by  the 


FIGURE    20.  —  Asshurnazirpal    and    a 
Eunuch.    British  Museum. 


34  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Assyrians,  for  their  sculptors  represent  muscles  with  great 
care  and  even  greater  exaggeration.  The  reliefs  are  rather 
flat,  and  deep  grooves  mark  the  divisions  of  the  muscles. 
The  articulation  of  knees  and  elbows  is  carefully  rendered, 
but  the  long  and  heavy  Assyrian  skirt  made  it  less  easy  for 
the  Assyrian  sculptor  than  for  the  Egyptian  or  the  Greek 
to  gain  a  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  human  form. 

The  smaller  reliefs  represent  the  king  and  his  followers  in 
various  scenes  of  war  and  of  the  chase.  Details  are  treated 
with  the  same  care  observed  in  the  larger  series,  and  the 
variety  of  posture,  the  vigor  of  movement,  and  the  interest 


FIGURE  21.  —  Asshurnazirpal  Hunting.    British  Museum. 

of  the  action  are  much  greater.  The  development  of  the 
art  of  war  is  shown  by  a  relief  that  represents  the  Assyrians 
attacking  a  fortress  with  a  battering  ram.  The  royal  lion 
hunts  are  depicted  in  great  variety  and  with  wonderful  truth 
to  nature  in  many  details,  especially  in  the  actions  and  atti- 
tudes of  the  lions,  but  the  peculiar  method  of  representing 
muscles  appears  sometimes  almost  as  a  conventional  system 
of  decoration,  for  instance,  in  the  forelegs  of  the  horses  and 
the  lions  in  Figure  21. 

The  colossal  creatures,  half  relief  and  half  sculpture  in 
the  round,  which  guarded  the  portals  of  Asshurnazirpal,  are 
immensely  impressive  in  their  impassive  power.  The  strength 
of  the  bull  or  the  lion  is  combined  with  the  swiftness  of  the 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       35 

eagle  and  the  intelligence  of  man.  An  interesting  detail  in 
these  figures  is  the  introduction  of  a  fifth  leg,  evidently  in 
order  that  the  figure,  when  seen  from  the  side,  should  not 
appear  to  be  three-legged.  The  same  peculiarity  is  seen  in 
the  superb  lion  from  the  same  palace  and  in  other  similar 
works  of  Assyrian  sculpture. 

The  Gates  of  Balawat.  —  The  bronze  reliefs  from  the  gates 
of  Balawat,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  belong  to  the  time 
of  Asshurnazirpal's  son  and  successor  Shalmaneser  III  (860- 
825  B.C.).  The  gates  were  of  wood,  adorned  with  strips  of 
bronze  nine  inches  wide.  The  figures,  wrought  in  repousse, 
are  only  2£  to  3  inches  high,  but  they  are  admirably  designed 
and  executed.  The  scenery  represented  includes  a  circular 
fortification,  an  arched  bridge,  mountainous  country,  and  a 
lake,  perhaps  Lake  Van.  In  these  surroundings  are  troops  on 
the  march,  captives  brought  before  the  king,  the  performance 
of  religious  ceremonies,  and  other  scenes  of  a  victorious 
campaign.  Too  much  attention  is  paid  to  the  details  of 
trappings  of  horses  and  the  like,  water  is  rendered  in  a  very 
conventional  manner,  the  eyes  of  persons  seen  from  the  side 
are  represented  as  if  seen  from  the  front,  but  the  figures  are 
well  designed,  the  attitudes  are  lifelike  and  real,  and  the 
scenery,  though  by  no  means  perfect,  serves  to  make  the 
action,  or  rather  the  story,  perfectly  clear.  On  the  whole, 
these  small  reliefs  are  among  the  most  interesting  works  of 
Assyrian  art. 

Apart  from  the  bronze  reliefs  of  Balawat,  the  black  obelisk 
of  Shalmaneser  III  and  the  stele  of  Shamshi-Adad  VII  (823- 
811  B.C.),  both  in  the  British  Museum,  are  almost  the  only 
monuments  of  the  sculpture  of  their  reigns,  and  Adad- 
Nirari  IV  (810-782  B.C.),  whose  wife  was  Sammuramat, 
probably  the  same  whom  Herodotus  calls  Semiramis,  has 
left  us  two  statues  of  the  god  Nabu.  These  works  add  little 
to  our  knowledge  of  Assyrian  art.  There  are  more  remains 
from  the  palace  of  Tiglathpileser  IV  (745-727  B.C.).  These 
differ  from  the  reliefs  of  Asshurnazirpal  in  representing  more 
scenery  and  sometimes  in  giving  slighter  proportions  to  the 
human  form;  but  there  is  no  essential  difference  in  style. 


36 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Palace  of  Sargon  at  Khorsabad.  —  Reliefs  from  the  palace 
of  Sargon  II  (722-705  B.C.)  at  Khorsabad  (Dur-Sharrukin) 
show  a  somewhat  different  style  (Fig.  22).  The  arrangement 
in  reliefs  representing  the  king  with  his  courtiers  and  other 
persons  is  simple  and  severe,  as  in  the  reliefs  of  Asshumazirpal, 
but  there  is  no  longer  a  band  of  inscription  across  the  figures 
or  any  part  of  them.  The  figures  themselves  are  a  little 

more  slender  than  those  of 
earlier  times,  and  there  is 
less  exaggeration  of  muscles. 
The  relief  is  a  trifle  higher, 
and  consequently  the  figures 
are  a  little  rounder,  and  the 
muscles  look  less  like  flat 
surfaces  marked  off  one  from 
another  by  grooves.  The 
treatment  of  hair  and  beard, 
too,  though  still  very  con- 
ventional, is  less  unnatural 
than  before.  Moreover,  the 
eyes  of  persons  whose  heads 
are  in  profile  are  no  longer 
represented  as  if  seen  from 
the  front.  They  are  even 
yet  not  correctly  rendered, 
but  there  has  been  a  no- 
ticeable advance.  Scenery 
when  introduced  is  now  more 
characteristic  than  before, 
and  in  some  cases  the  faces  of  men  represented  are  dis- 
tinguished by  their  racial  features.  These  differences 
are  all  improvements  since  the  time  of  Asshumazirpal ; 
but  not  all  the  changes  are  improvements.  In  spite  of 
their  greater  slenderness,  the  figures  are  rather  clumsy, 
and  the  lack  of  expression  in  the  faces  makes  a  more  dis- 
agreeable impression  in  the  higher  relief.  The  effect  of  these 
figures  is  heavy,  and  there  is  an  apparent  want  of  freshness 
not  visible  in  the  earlier  work.  There  was  a  real  advance  in 


FIGURE  22. — -Relief  from  the  Palace 
of  Sargon  II.    The  Louvre,  Paris. 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE       37 


the  time  between  Asshurnazirpal  and  Sargon,  but  an  ad- 
vance which  seems  to  have  brought  with  it  no  appreciable 
improvement  in  the  beauty  of  the  sculpture. 

The  great  winged,  man-headed  bulls  from  Sargon's  palace, 
impressive  as  they  are,  show  little  progress.  Really  one  of  the 
finest  works  of  Sargon's  time  is  a  bronze  lion  about  16  inches 
long  (Fig.  23) .  The  large  ring  which  rises  from  the  lion's  back 
detracts  somewhat  from  the  effect  of  the  work,  but  no  doubt 
facilitated  its  use  as  a  weight,  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  in- 
tended. The  Assyrians  always  excelled  in  the  representation 
of  animals,  and 
this  little  lion  is  a 
m  a  st  erpiece. 
The  shaggy 
mane,  powerful 
jaws,  heavy  legs, 
and  slender  body 
are  all  admirably 
characteristic, 
and  the  work- 
manship is  fine 
and  delicate. 
The  excellence  of 
this  small  work 
gives  weight  to 
the  suggestion 
that  the  defects  of  the  reliefs  from  Sargon's  palace  may  be 
due  in  part  to  the  softness  of  the  alabaster  employed. 

Sennacherib.  —  Under  Sennacherib  (705-680  B.C.)  more 
scenery  was  introduced  in  reliefs  than  ever  before  and  the 
number  of  persons  was  multiplied,  with  the  result  that  there 
is  occasionally  some  confusion  in  the  composition.  The 
reliefs  are  generally  arranged  in  several  rows  of  small  figures. 
In  representing  religious  ceremonies,  however,  the  same 
dignified  simplicity  is  adopted  which  makes  the  reliefs  of 
Asshurnazirpal  so  impressive.  In  technical  skill  the  artists 
employed  by  Sennacherib  do  not  appear  to  have  progressed 
beyond  those  employed  by  his  father. 


FIGURE  23.  —  Weight  in  the  Form  of  a  Bronze 
Lion.     The  Louvre,  Paris. 


38 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Asshurbanipal.  —  The  most  ambitious,  the  most  various, 
the  most  naturalistic,  and  in  many  respects  the  best  of  all 
works  of  Assyrian  sculpture  are  the  reliefs  from  the  palace  of 
Asshurbanipal  (668-626  B.C.),  the  Sardanapalus  of  the  Greeks, 
grandson  of  Sennacherib.  In  these  we  see  the  fleet  wild  ass, 
the  swift  and  powerful  hunting  dog,  and  the  mighty  lion  in 
the  various  attitudes  of  flight,  pursuit,  conflict,  and  death. 
Few  artists  of  any  age  have  succeeded  better  than  those  who 
carved  these  reliefs  in  reproducing  the  characteristic  motions 


FIGURE  24.  —  Wounded  Lioness.    British  Museum. 

of  different  animals.  The  wounded  lioness,  whose  back 
has  been  broken  by  an  arrow  or  a  spear  and  who  drags  her 
hind  legs  along  the  ground  (Fig.  24)  is  probably  the  most 
widely  known  and  most  generally  admired  example  of 
Assyrian  animal-sculpture,  but  many  others  among  the  reliefs 
of  Asshurbanipal  merit  equal  praise,  though  they  may  not 
appeal  so  directly  to  our  sympathies.  In  the  representation 
of  human  beings  also  the  artists  who  worked  for  Asshurbani- 
pal  excelled  their  predecessors.  They  worked  in  somewhat 
higher  relief,  thereby  giving  their  figures  more  natural  forms, 
and  they  reproduced  attitudes  with  greater  truth  to  nature 


BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE        39 

(Fig.  25).  They  did  not,  it  is  true,  break  with  the  conven- 
tions which  had  become  rooted  in  Assyrian  art,  but  their 
work  is  not  that  of  men  who  merely  continue  in  a  mechanical 
manner  the  practice  of  an  art  which  has  completely  suc- 
cumbed to  convention.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  clear  that 
Assyrian  art  was  still  a  living  and  progressive  art.  How  far 
it  might  have  progressed  under  favorable  circumstances,  we 


FIGURE  25. — Asshurbanipal  Drinking  in  a  Garden.    British  Museum. 

can  never  know.  Perhaps  it  would  never  have  attained  any 
greater  height  than  it  reached  under  Asshurbanipal,  for  it 
seems  to  have  been  employed  almost  exclusively  by  the  kings, 
and  by  them  almost  exclusively  for  the  glorification  of  their 
own  deeds.  Such  a  strictly  court  art  is  likely  to  become  dull 
and  artificial  after  a  time.  But  the  Assyrian  empire  fell  in 
606  B.C.,  only  twenty  years  after  the  death  of  Asshurbanipal, 
and  with  it  Assyrian  art  came  to  an  end.  Through  the  mili- 
tary and  diplomatic  relations  of  the  Assyrians  with  other 


40  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

peoples,  the  influence  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  art  was 
extended  in  all  directions,  even  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.  Its  direct  influence  ceased  virtually  with  the 
fall  of  the  empire,  but  its  indirect  influence  is  felt  even  to  the 
present  day,  especially  in  decorative  art. 


CHAPTER  III 


The  Hittites.  —  The  Hittites  have  long  been  known  through 
somewhat  casual  mention  in  the  Bible,  and  inscriptions  and 
other  monuments  discovered  in  comparatively  recent  years 
have  made  it  clear  that  they  were  a  powerful  people  for  cen- 
turies. Hittite  monuments  have  been  found  at  various  places 
from  Gerger  and  Malatia  on  the  Euphrates  to  Smyrna  and 
Ephesus  on  the  Aegean  Sea  and  from  Eyuk,  about  fifty  miles 
in  a  direct  line  from  the  Black  Sea,  to  Horns,  some  fifty  miles 
south  of  Aleppo,  in  Syria.  The  first  appearance  of  the 
Hittites  in  history  is  about  2000  B.C.,  when  they  are  so  power- 
ful as  to  overthrow  the  first  Babylonian  dynasty  and  capture 
Babylon.  They  seem  at  that  time  to  have  had  settlements 
in  southern  Syria  and  on  the  Egyptian  frontier.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  B.C.  the  Egyptians  find  them  in  northern 
Syria.  In  the  fourteenth  century  their  capital  was  at  Boghaz 
Keui  (the  Pteria  of  Herodotus)  in  Cappadocia.  This  was 
the  period  of  their  highest  power.  In  the  far-reaching 
movement  of  peoples  in  the  twelfth  century  the  Hittites  lost 
ground,  probably  in  great  measure  on  account  of  the  attacks 
of  the  Phrygians,  whose  power  grew  until  in  the  eighth  cen- 
tury they  ruled  a  large  part  of  Asia  Minor.  But  Hittite 
power  revived  in  the  tenth  century,  though  its  chief  seats 
were  then,  apparently,  in  Cilicia  and  northern  Syria.  For  a 
long  time  the  Hittites  struggled  against  the  Assyrians  and 
also  the  Vannic  kings,  but  they  finally  succumbed  to  the 
Assyrians  in  the  eighth  century. 

Monuments  of  Hittite  Sculpture.  —  Monuments  of  Hittite 
sculpture  are  for  the  most  part  reliefs  carved  in  the  native 

41 


42 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


rock  or  in  blocks  of  stone  which  formed  the  lower  part  of 
walls,  though  there  are  a  few  lions  (Fig.  26)  and  fragments 
of  human  figures  in  the  round.  There  are,  moreover,  small 
bronzes  and  other  objects  which  are  probably  Hittite.  No 
remains  of  sculpture  that  is  certainly  Hittite  seem  to  be  earlier 
than  the  time  of  the  first  great  Hittite  kingdom  or  federation, 
the  fourteenth  and  thirteenth  centuries  B.C.  This  is  the 
period  of  the  reliefs  at  Eyuk  and  most  of  those  at  Boghaz 
Keui,  including  the  remarkable  series  of  figures  at  the  neigh- 
boring Yasili  Kaya.  The  sculptures  found  in  Cilicia  and 

northern  Syria  be- 
long to  the  second 
period  of  power  in 
the  tenth,  ninth, 
and  eighth  cen- 
turies. 

Even  the  earliest 
known  Hittite 
sculpture  shows  the 
influence  of  Baby- 
lonian art,  probably 
exerted  even  at  that 
time  through  As- 
syria ;  but  the  cos- 
tumes, the  type  of 

face,  the  deities,  and  the  religious  rites  represented  differ  from 
those  that  appear  in  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  art.  The  most 
noticeable  features  of  costume  are  high,  pointed  hats  and 
shoes  with  turned-up  toes  —  such  shoes  as  are  still  worn  in 
Greece  and  in  several  mountainous  regions  of  the  East.  The 
art  of  this  first  period  exhibits  sincere  realism,  an  honest 
attempt  to  represent  men  and  beasts  as  they  are,  and  gods 
as  they  are  believed  to  be,  but  there  is  little  refinement  of 
technique  and  little  artistic  feeling  or  love  of  beauty,  even  in 
the  great  series  of  reliefs  at  Yasili  Kaya,  in  which  gods  and 
men  appear.  Some  of  these  sculptures  have  suffered  greatly 
from  time  and  exposure,  but  apparently  their  technical 
excellence  was  never  very  great. 


FIGURE    26.  —  Inscribed    Hittite  Lion,  from 
Mar  ash.     Constantinople. 


HITTITE,  PERSIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE      43 

In  the  sculpture  of  the  later  period  the  Assyrian  influence 
is  very  marked.  Assyrian  conventions,  for  instance,  in  the 
treatment  of  the  hair,  were  adopted,  the  winged  disk  appears 
as  the  symbol  of  deity,  and  Assyrian  motifs  are  employed ; 
but  the  figures  are  lifeless  and  clumsy,  the  proportions  and 
attitudes  unnatural,  and  the  composition  ineffective.  Evi- 
dently sculptors  of  little  or  no  ability  are  here  attempting  to 
imitate  the  work  of  the  Assyrians.  Hittite  inscriptions  are 
usually  carved  in  relief,  but  sometimes  merely  incised  in  out- 
line. The  characters  are  hieroglyphic  or  pictographic,  there- 
fore the  inscriptions  are  in  a  way  works  of  sculpture;  but 
as  such  they  are  inferior  to  the  larger  reliefs. 

In  general,  the  Hittites  do  not  appear  to  have  made  any 
original  contribution  of  value  to  the  art  of  sculpture;  but 
they  practised  the  art,  albeit  somewhat  rudely,  and  were 
doubtless  one  of  the  channels  through  which  the  culture  of  the 
East  passed  into  Asia  Minor,  whence  its  influence  spread  to 
Greece ;  but  as  yet  it  is  difficult  to  determine  how  great  the 
importance  of  the  Hittites  was  in  connecting  the  East  with 
the  West  or  how  their  art  affected  that  of  other  peoples. 

Sculpture  of  Other  Peoples  of  Asia  Minor.  —  The  Phrygians, 
Lydians,  Lycians,  Carians,  and  other  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  — 
most  of  whom  entered  the  country  about  the  twelfth  century 
B.C.,  —  all  practised  the  art  of  sculpture  to  some  extent,  and 
some  monuments  of  their  art  exist.  Among  them  the  remains 
of  Phrygian  sculpture  are  perhaps  the  most  numerous  and 
striking,  but  even  these  are  of  little  real  importance.  They 
show  that  the  Phrygians,  like  the  Hittites,  were  under  the 
influence  of  Assyrian  art  and  served  as  intermediaries  between 
the  East  and  the  West.  This  role  was  later  undertaken,  so 
far  as  Asia  Minor  is  concerned,  chiefly  by  the  Lydians,  whose 
empire  included  some  of  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and 
was  on  terms  of  friendly  intercourse  with  continental  Greece 
in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  B.C. 

The  Persians.  —  The  Persian  empire  began  with  the  over- 
throw of  Astyages  by  Cyrus  in  558  B.C.  and  ended  with  the 
defeat  of  Darius  Codomannus  by  Alexander  the  Great  in 
330  B.C.  Persian  sculpture  existed,  so  far  as  can  be  deter- 


44  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

mined  at  present,  solely  for  the  glorification  of  the  kings; 
it  therefore  begins  and  ends  with  the  Achaemenid  power, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  lived  on  in  the  Buddhistic  art  of  north- 
western India  and  was  revived  and  combined  with  Roman 
elements  under  the  Sassanide  kings  of  Persia  in  the  third 
century  A.D.  and  thereafter.  Before  the  Persians  the  Medes 
had  ruled  for  a  brief  period  over  the  peoples  of  the  Iranian 
plateau  and  the  neighboring  regions,  and  for  centuries  the 
Elamite  kingdom,  with  its  capital  at  Susa,  was  powerful  and 
flourishing.  At  one  time,  not  far  from  2000  B.C.,  it  had  even 
ruled  over  a  large  part  of  Babylonia ;  but  it  was  overthrown 
in  the  seventh  century  B.C.  by  the  Assyrians  under  Asshur- 
banipal.  That  the  Elamites  practised  sculpture  we  know, 
but  their  art  is  known  to  us  only  through  a  few  rock-cut 
reliefs,  which  bear  a  close  resemblance,  so  far  as  their  condi- 
tion enables  us  to  judge,  to  the  Babylonian  sculpture  of  the 
time.  Of  Median  sculpture  no  monuments  are  known.  It 
may  be  that  some  of  the  qualities  of  Persian  art  are  due  to 
the  survival  of  Elamite  traditions,  but  that  is  doubtful. 

Persian  Sculpture  chiefly  Relief  Work.  —  The  Persian 
empire  inherited,  or  adopted,  the  civilization  of  the  Assyrians 
and  the  Babylonians,  and  Persian  art  is  for  the  most  part  an 
adaptation  of  Assyro-Babylonian  art,  though  there  are 
important  differences,  especially  in  architecture.  Sculpture 
seems  to  have  been  confined,  apart  from  the  man-bulls  beside 
doors  and  certain  capitals,  to  relief  work.  The  earliest  known 
example  is  a  relief  from  Pasargadae  which  represents  Cyrus, 
the  founder  of  the  empire.  He  wears  an  Assyrian  costume, 
stiff  and  without  folds,  a  fantastic  Egyptian  head-dress 
(originally  that  of  the  god  Thoth),  and  four  great  wings. 
The  technical  treatment  is  strictly  Assyrian,  with  no  trace  of 
anything  new  or  of  Greek  influence.  In  the  rock-cut  sculp- 
tures of  Darius  at  Behistun  and  in  the  reliefs  of  the  tombs 
near  Persepolis  the  garments  have  folds,  stiff,  to  be  sure,  but 
very  like  the  Greek  work  of  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Without  doubt  this  innovation  is  due  to  Greek  influ- 
ence. Such  influence,  however,  is  confined  to  details  and  has 
little  or  no  effect  upon  the  general  style. 


HITTITE,  PERSIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE     45 

Monuments  of  Persian  Sculpture;  its  Qualities. — The 
chief  monuments  of  Persian  sculpture  are  reliefs  cut  in  the 
rock  to  decorate  the  tombs  of  the  kings  near  Persepolis, 
the  similar  relief  which  illustrates  the  inscription  of  Darius 
the  Great  at  Behistun,  and  the  reliefs  from  the  palaces  of 
Xerxes  and  Artaxerxes  at  Persepolis  and  Susa.  The  style  is 
throughout  much  the  same,  —  a  style  of  magnificence,  rather 


FiGtFBE  27.  —  Archers.    Persian  Relief  of  Glazed  Tile.    The  Louvre,  Paris. 

than  reality.  The  relief  is  somewhat  rounder  than  that  of 
Assyrian  sculpture,  and  the  motives  are  more  limited.  In  the 
illustration  of  the  inscription  at  Behistun  there  is  an  obvious 
intention  to  give  coarse  and  mean  features  to  the  rebel  leaders 
who  stand,  fastened  together  by  a  rope  about  their  necks, 
before  Darius,  but  in  general  Persian  art  makes  hardly  an 
attempt  to  distinguish  even  different  types  of  men.  The 
king  is  represented  accompanied  by  attendants  holding 


46 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


parasol  and  fan  over  his  head,  while  the  god  Ahuramazda 
floats  above  him,  or  he  is  seated  on  his  throne  which  his 
servants  or  tributary  nations  hold  up,  or  he  is  in  conflict, 
always  victorious,  with  fabulous  monsters.  Everywhere 
the  scene  is  merely  typical,  not  a  real  adventure,  such  as  the 
Assyrian  kings  used  for  the  decoration  of  their  palace  walls. 
And  when  the  king  himself  does  not  appear,  there  are  pro- 
cessions of  guards  or  of 
conquered  peoples  bringing 
tribute,  and  these  also  are 
without  definite  character- 
ization except  in  the  manner 
of  their  clothing. 

The  reliefs  in  the  Persian 
palaces  did  not  cover  entire 
walls,  in  the  Egyptian  fash- 
ion, or  the  lower  part  of 
entire  walls,  after  the  As- 
syrian manner,  but  were  in 
the  thickness  of  the  walls  at 
the  sides  of  doors,  or  deco- 
rated the  sides  of  stairways. 
At  Susa  there  were  many  re- 
liefs of  glazed,  colored  tiles 
(Fig.  27),  and  such  reliefs 
may  have  served  sometimes 
as  friezes.  All  Persian  re- 
liefs were  probably  colored, 
for  Persian  art  throughout  aimed  at  gorgeousness  and  bril- 
liancy of  effect.  A  favorite  motive  was  the  combat  between 
a  lion  and  a  bull,  and  it  is  used  with  great  success  from  a 
decorative  point  of  view ;  but  both  lion  and  bull  are  conven- 
tionalized. They  are  not  the  living  animals  of  Assyrian  art, 
but  are  as  artificial  as  unicorns  or  griffins,  both  of  which  are 
employed  by  the  Persians  in  their  reliefs  of  glazed  tiles. 

Persian  sculpture  was  employed  almost  exclusively  as  an 
adjunct  to  architecture  (for  the  rock-cut  tombs  affect  archi- 
tectural forms)  and  it  was  employed  with  skill,  not  merely  to 


FIGURE    28.  —  Persian  Bull-Capital. 
The  Louvre,  Paris. 


HITTITE,  PERSIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE      47 

color  the  walls,  but  to  mark  and  emphasize  parts  of  architec- 
tural significance.  This  was  a  real  innovation,  a  great  step  in 
advance,  whether  due  to  Greek  influence  or  to  the  genius  of  the 
Persians  themselves.  Greek  influence  is  possible,  for  Greek 
art  was  already  growing  great  in  the  sixth  century,  and  Greeks 
were  already  subjects  of  the  Persians,  but  they  dwelt  near 
and  beyond  the  western  borders  of  the  empire,  and  it  is 
hardly  likely  that  their  influence  would  be  strong  in  distant 
Persia  itself.  The  most  striking  use  of  sculpture  in  archi- 
tectural decoration  is  seen  in  the  great  bull-capitals  of  Susa 
and  Persepolis  (Fig.  28) .  They  are  brilliantly  executed,  full 
of  life,  and  yet,  with  all  their  natural  vigor,  sufficiently  con- 
ventional to  serve  as  harmonious  parts  of  an  architectural 
whole. 

The  Phoenicians.  —  The  Phoenicians  occupied  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  in  Syria,  between  the  Lebanon  range  of  moun- 
tains and  the  sea,  not  far  from  Babylonia  toward  the  east  or 
from  Egypt  toward  the  south.  In  language  and  racial  quali- 
ties they  were  related  to  the  Hebrews,  but  their  religion 
never  became  monotheistic  and  always  retained  some  primi- 
tive and  savage  traits.  Their  cities  were  separated  by  pro- 
jecting headlands,  so  that  they  were  prevented  from  uniting 
and  forming  one  nation,  but  existed  side  by  side  as  indepen- 
dent communities.  We  possess  no  monuments  of  art  which 
can  be  attributed  with  any  certainty  to  the  Phoenicians  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  their  history. 

At  the  time  of  the  Egyptian  Empire,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  they  became  vassals  of  the  Egyptians ;  they  there- 
fore received,  in  exchange  for  the  tribute  they  paid,  the  pro- 
tection of  the  greatest  military  power  of  the  age,  and  also  free 
entry  into  Egyptian  ports.  Sidon  was  at  this  time  the  most 
important  Phoenician  city,  and  under  the  supremacy  of 
Sidon,  which  lasted  until  the  rise  of  Tyre,  the  Phoenicians 
extended  their  trade  to  Cyprus,  all  the  coasts  and  islands  of 
the  Aegean,  Greece,  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea,  Sicily,  Italy, 
and  northern  Africa.  During  this  time  they  were  important 
as  intermediaries  between  the  East  and  Europe,  especially 
toward  the  end  of  the  period,  when  the  naval  power  of  Crete 


48  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

had  disappeared  and  the  "Mycenaean"  civilization  was  fall- 
ing in  ruin.  But  this  long  period,  like  the  time  that  pre- 
ceded it,  has  left  no  monuments  of  plastic  art,  unless  some 
rude  terra-cottas,  some  engraved  seals,  and  a  few  other 
objects  of  no  great  interest  and,  in  part  at  least,  of  uncertain 
origin,  are  to  be  classed  as  early  Phoenician  sculpture. 

About  1000  or  900  B.C.,  after  the  capture  of  Sidon  by  the 
Philistines,  Tyre  became  the  chief  Phoenician  city.  About 
800  B.C.  Carthage  was  founded,  and  with  it  the  Phoenician 
power  in  the  West,  which  endured  until  it  was  overthrown 
by  the  Romans  and  finally  destroyed  in  146  B.C.  During 
this  period,  when  Tyre  and  then  Carthage  were  powerful,  the 
Phoenicians  extended  their  trade  to  all  the  coasts  of  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  far  beyond,  though  in  the  later  centuries 
they  had  to  compete  with  the  Etruscans  and  the  Greeks. 

Phoenician  Art  and  its  Qualities.  —  It  is  chiefly  as  traders 
that  the  Phoenicians  are  important  in  the  history  of  art. 
They  exchanged  the  wares  of  Egyptians,  Babylonians, 
Assyrians,  and  Greeks  each  for  the  other,  and  carried  them 
all  to  the  peoples  of  the  West.  They  also  made  various 
things  for  export,  but  statues  were  not  among  them.  Their 
sculpture  is  best  studied  in  small  bronzes,  terra-cottas,  ivories, 
and  figures  (amulets,  scarabs,  etc.)  of  the  glazed  ware  called 
Egyptian  faience,  though  a  considerable  number  of  anthro- 
poid sarcophagi  and  a  few  examples  of  relief  sculpture  in 
stone  exist.  Few  of  these  objects,  whatever  their  size  or 
material,  are  of  any  great  interest.  Some  of  them  are  merely 
poor  imitations  of  Egyptian  work,  while  others  exhibit 
Assyrian  types,  and  many  show  a  mixture  of  Egyptian  and 
Assyro-Babylonian  motives.  The  degree  of  Egyptian  or 
Assyrian  influence  depends  upon  the  date  and  the  relative 
ascendancy  of  Egypt  or  Assyria  at  the  time.  Of  all  the  works 
of  art  ascribed  to  the  Phoenicians  the  most  interesting  are  the 
paterae,  or  shallow  bowls,  of  silver  or  other  metal,  which 
have  been  found  at  widely  separated  places,  the  finest  at 
Palestrina  (Praeneste)  in  Italy.  These  are  decorated  in 
relief  with  concentric  rings  of  figures  which  sometimes  have 
some  definite  significance  and  sometimes  are  purely  decora- 


HITTITE,  PERSIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE      49 

tive.  The  quality  of  workmanship  also  varies  greatly,  some 
of  the  paterae  being  finely  wrought,  while  others  were  evi- 
dently turned  out  for  the  trade,  with  no  care  for  accuracy  or 
refinement  of  work. 

Phoenician  work  in  general  lacks  vigor,  precision,  and 
delicacy  of  technique ;  it  can  therefore  be  distinguished  from 
Egyptian  and  Assyrian  work,  even  when  it  is  consistent  in 
style.  Very  often,  however,  it  is  characterized  by  confusion 
of  misunderstood  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  motives,  and  some- 
times the  combination  of  disk  and  crescent,  or  an  inscription 
in  Phoenician  characters,  serves  to  identify  an  object  as 
Phoenician,  even  when  it  is  found  in  some  distant  region. 

The  Phoenician,  or  Punic,  art  of  Carthage  was  chiefly 
under  the  influence  of  Egypt,  which  yielded  gradually  to 
that  of  Greece.  After  the  Roman  conquest  Phoenician  art, 
in  Syria  as  in  Africa,  was  Roman  (or  Graeco-Roman)  art, 
with  no  distinctive  Phoenician  characteristics. 

Cypriote  Art.  —  The  art  of  Cyprus  may  be  conveniently 
discussed  in  connection  with  that  of  Phoenicia,  because  parts 
of  the  island  were  inhabited  by  Phoenicians.  But  other 
parts  were  settled  by  Greeks,  and  the  original  inhabitants 
were  neither  Greeks  nor  Phoenicians.  In  the  earliest  times 
Cyprus  may  have  influenced  its  neighbors  on  the  mainland 
quite  as  much  as  it  was  influenced  by  them.  But  the  remains 
of  early  Cypriote  sculpture,  if  sculpture  it  may  be  called, 
are  virtually  limited  to  ornaments  modelled  in  relief  or  in  the 
round  upon  vases,  tripods,  and  other  utensils,  and  to  terra- 
cotta figures  of  men,  women,  and  beasts,  especially  oxen. 
Most  of  these  are  rude  and  coarse,  but  in  them  the  rudiments 
of  a  characteristic  style  appear,  tracer  of  which  are  visible 
in  the  inferior  and  strictly  native  terra-cottas  even  until  the 
Ptolemaic  period. 

Sculpture  in  stone  hardly  begins  in  Cyprus  before  the 
Assyrian  conquests  in  the  eighth  and  seventh  centuries. 
Under  Assyrian  influence  fuller  forms,  more  definite  and  for- 
cible poses  appear  than  had  been  attained  in  the  earlier 
figures,  drapery  is  elaborated,  and  the  types  of  Cypriote 
armor  are  established.  The  long,  narrow  proportions  and  the 


50 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


thinness  from  front  to  back  of  Cypriote  stone  statues  is 
doubtless  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  the  limestone  of  which 
they  are  made  splits  naturally  into  rather  thin  slabs.  The 
sharpness  of  line  and  the  imperfect  finish  of  surface  are 
due  in  part  to  the  softness  of  the  stone,  which  seems  to 
have  been  cut  sometimes  with  a  knife,  not  wrought  with 
a  chisel. 

Assyrian    and    Egyptian    Influence.  —  The    influence    of 
Assyrian  art  upon  Cypriote  sculpture  was  great,  and  would 


FIGURE  29.  —  Cypriote  Sarcophagus ;  about  550-500  B.C.     Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York. 

without  doubt  have  been  greater  and  more  persistent  if  the 
opening  of  Egypt  to  Greek  trade  in  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty 
had  not  brought  Cyprus  under  the  influence  of  Egypt. 
Henceforth  clay  figures  are  pressed  in  moulds,  not  (with 
some  exceptions)  modelled  by  hand  as  before,  and  stone 
figures  with  stiff  pose,  smooth  drapery,  and  head-dresses 
and  features  after  Egyptian  models  become  common 
and  continue  throughout  the  latter  part  of  the  seventh 
and  the  entire  sixth  century,  though  Hellenic  influence 


HITTITE,  PERSIAN,  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE      51 


shows  itself  before  the  sixth  century  closes.  Cyprus,  how- 
ever, became  a  part  of  the  Persian  Empire  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, arid  was  therefore  cut  off 
from  close  and  continuous  in- 
tercourse with  the  centres  of 
Greek  art ;  moreover,  parts  of 
the  island  were  occupied  by 
Phoenicians,  whose  natural 
affiliations  were  rather  with 
Syria  and  the  East  than  with 
Greece.  At  present  the  known 
monuments  of  Cypriote  sculp- 
ture come  chiefly  from  the 
Phoenician  sites.  In  these  the 
Greek  influence  is  clearly  seen, 
but  does  not  overcome  the 
stiffness  of  pose  or  the  heavi- 
ness of  feature  to  be  expected 
in  works  by  artists  whose  ideals 
were  formed  by  Assyrian  and 
late  Egyptian  works.  Cypriote 
sculpture  of  the  fifth  century  is 
a  peculiar  hybrid,  not  without 
interest,  but  almost  without 
charm,  lacking  the  vigorous 
earnestness  of  Assyrian  reliefs, 
the  exquisite  finish  of  the  best 
Egyptian  work,  and  the  truth 
to  nature  and  love  of  beauty 
exhibited  by  Greek  sculpture. 

Decadence  under  Greek  In- 
fluence. --In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury Cyprus  came  more  and 
more  into  the  general  stream 
of  Hellenic  culture,  which,  after 
Alexander's  conquests,  spread 
over  all  the  known  world  as  far  east  as  India.  Sculpture 
in  the  native  style  deteriorated,  and  its  debasement  was 


FIGURE  30. —  Cypriote  Statue  ; 
about  500  B.C.  Metropolitan 
Museum,  New  York. 


52  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

certainly  not  retarded  by  the  increased  use  of  red  paint  which 
partially  hid  the  faults  of  the  work.  Greek  art  was  more  and 
more  imitated,  until  the  work  of  the  Cypriote  sculptors  was 
nothing  more  than  provincial,  and  for  the  most  part  very 
inferior,  Greek  or  Hellenistic  sculpture. 


CHAPTER  IV 

GREEK    SCULPTURE.    THE    PREHELLENIC    AND 
ARCHAIC   PERIODS 

The  Hellenes  and  the  Earlier  Inhabitants  of  Greece.  —  The 
history  of  Greek  sculpture  properly  so  called  begins  hardly, 
if  at  all,  before  the  seventh  century  jy^-when  the  Hellenes^ 
the  race  which  we*6all  Greek,  had  established  more  orless 
well-ordered  social  life  in  their  numerous  independent  com- 
munities and  began  to  develop  the  arts.  This  race  began 
to  enter  Greece  at  least  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century, 
but  for  many  centuries  before  that  time  the  country  had  been 
occupied  by  people  of  another  race  or  other  races.  A 
powerful,  rich,  and  luxurious  civilization  had  grown  up, 
flourished,  and  decayed.  When  the  Hellenes  entered  Greece, 
they  found  fortified  towns  and  palaces  to  be  conquered  be- 
fore they  could  call  the  country  their  own.  The  process  of 
conquest  was  undoubtedly  a  long  one,  and  when  it  was 
ended  the  conquered  people  were  not  all  killed  or  driven 
away,  but  many  must  have  remained  as  the  slaves,  serfs, 
or  fellow-citizens  of  the  conquerors.  The  Greeks  of  the 
historical  period  were  therefore  a  more  or  less  mixed  race 
and  inherited  some  of  their  qualities  from  the  earlier  in- 
habitants of  the  country.  Moreover,  stone  walls,  objects 
of  metal,  and  sculptured  stones  wrought  by  the  earlier  folk 
were  still  in  existence,  so  that  the  Greeks,  when  they  began 
to  cultivate  the  arts,  had  before  them  various  objects  which 
they  could  imitate.  Possibly  the  technical  traditions  of 
the  earlier  time  may  even  have  been  preserved  in  some  meas- 
ure. The  artjaf--Pr^heJlej»€-Gfe^ce  is  therefore  of  interest 
to  thejiistonari  QfjGrefik_art,j and  many  of  its  products^areTn- 
teresting  and  beautiful  intliemselves.  The  existing  monu- 

53 


54 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


ments  of  Prehellenic  sculpture  are,  however,  few  in  com- 
parison with  those  of  architecture,  painting,  gem-cutting, 
metal  work,  and  pottery. 

Prehellenic  Sculpture.  —  The  earliest  and  most  important 
seat  of  civilization  in  Greek  lands  was  Crete,  where  the  arts 
of  peace  began  to  develop  even  before  SOtHTB.c.  Some  very 
primitive  statuettes  found  in  the  Cyclades  and  in  Crete 
were  made,  apparently,  not  much  later  than  3000  B.C.,  but 
for  many  centuries  after  this  time  no  definite  progress  in  the 

art  of  sculpture 
is  traced.  Prob- 
ably such  sculp- 
ture as  existed 
was  for  the  most 
part  either 
carved  in  wood 
or  modelled  in 
stucco  and  has 
disappeared. 
Even  when  the 
Cretan  (or 
Minoan,  as  it  is 
often  called) 
civilization  was 
at  its  height, 
sculpture  in 
stone  and  bronze  was  little  practised,  but  fragmentary 
reliefs  of  stucco  (gesso  duro)  and  remarkable  small  works 
of  metal,  as  well  as  terra-cotta  statuettes  and  carved  stone 
that  technical  skill  and  the  aJbHity-te^concejye 
which  alr^feasTpartake  of  the  nature 
of  sculpture  were  not  lacking.  In  general,  the  art  of  this 
long  period,  after  the  rude  beginnings  are  past,  is  natural- 
istic, rather  than  conventional,  and  shows  keen  observation 
of  nature,  ^ut^on]y_^f_^xternals;^  there  is  no  evidence  of 
careful  study  ofahatomyTfor  Instance,  but  great  ease  and 
liveliness  in  the  representation  of  men  and  beasts.  A  fine 
though  fragmentary  example  of  Cretan  sculpture  in  stucco 


FIGURE  31.  —  Fragment  of  Stucco  Relief. 
Museum  at  Candia.  (Annual  of  the  British  School 
at  Athens,  VII,  p.  17.) 


THE  PREHELLENTC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS     55 


(Fig.  31)  shows  the  arm  and  part  of  the  body  of  a  man. 
It  comes  from  the  palace  at  Cnossus,  where  it  formed  part 


FIGURE  32.  —  Harvest  Vase.    Museum  at  Candia.    (Maraghianis,  Antiquites 
cretoises,  I,  PL  xxii.) 

of  a  series  of  wall  decorations.  Here  the  muscles  are  ad- 
mirably represented,  the  pose  is  full  of  life,  and  only  the 
oddly  elongated 
thumb  betrays 
a  certain  care- 
lessness on  the 
part  of  the  art- 
ist. This  frag- 
ment and  many 
others,  among 
them  a  striking 
and  powerful 
bull's  head, 
show  that  the 
Cretan  sculp- 
tors in  stucco 
were  producing 
works  of  great 
merit  as  early, 
at  least,  as  1500 
B.C.  The  carved 
steatite.  vases_of 
aEout  the  same 


FIGURE  33. —  Lions  of  Mycenae.  (Brunn-Bruckmann, 
Denkm&ler,  PL  151.) 


56 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


period  are  quite  as  remarkable  as  the  stucco  reliefs. 
The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  so-called  harvest  vase, 
from  Hagia  Triada,  near  Phaestus  (Fig.  32).  Only  the 
upper  part  of  the  vase  is  preserved.  On  this  the  upper 
parts  of  a  large  number  of  men  engaged,  apparently,  in 
celebrating  a  harvest  festival  are  represented  with  astonish- 
ing liveliness.  Stone  reliefs  found  over  the  shaft  graves  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Schliemann  at  Mycenae  are  far  ruder  than 
the  works  just  mentioned,  though  they  are  not  earlier  in  date 
and  may  be  somewhat  later.  Their  rudeness  may  be  due  in 
part  to  the  fact  that  the  centre  of  culture  was  in  Crete, 
and  Mycenae,  in  continental  Greece,  had  not  attained  to 
such  excellence  in  art  as  Cnossus  and  Phaestus,  and  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  the  stone  reliefs  were  once  covered  with  a 


FIGURE  34.  —  Gold  Cups  from  Vaphio.      National  Museum,  Athens. 

coating  of  stucco  in  which  the  details  were  executed.  The 
great  lions  (or  lionesses)  over  the  gate  at  Mycenae  (Fig.  33) 
certainly  prove  that  the  Mycenaean  sculptors  were  able  to 
produce  excellent  and  impressive  works  in  stone. 

Metal  Work,  Ivories,  and  Seals.  —  The  skill  of  the  Prehel- 
lenic  metal-workers  is  seen  in  a  splendid  bull's  head  from 
Mycenae  and  tw^_g^ldcupsjrom^yapjiio,  near  Sparta  (Fig. 
34).  Probably  theseP  were~actually^made  in  Crete  and 
exported  to  continental  Greece,  but  numerous  ornaments 
and  masks  of  gold,  found  at  Mycenae,  were  undoubtedly 
made  on  the  spot.  On  one  of  the  cups  from  Vaphio  the 
capture  of  wild  cattle  is  represented  in  a  most  lively  manner, 
though  some  of  the  postures  of  the  animals  are  not  correct, 
and  on  the  other  tame  cattle  appear.  These  cups,  with 
their  reliefs  in  repousse,  are  really  miniature  works  of  sculp- 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS     57 


ture.  They  prove  that  the  appreciation  of  the  sculptor's 
art  was  keen,  since  it  was  applied  to  household  treasures  of 
such  value.  The  objects  that  have  been  mentioned  are 
only  a  small  part  of  those  which  have  been  discovered,  but 
they  serve  to  show  the  quality  of  the  Prehellenic  sculpture 
of  Greece.  A  considerable  number  of  small  figures  and) 
reliefs  of  ivory  and  hundreds  of  engraved  gems  or  seals  show 
that  carving  in  miniature  was  a  much  appreciated  and  highly, 
developed  art.  A  remarkable  fine  example  of  ivory  carving 
is  a  statuette  of  a  snake-goddess  in 
the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston 
(Fig.  35).  The  accessories  are  of 
gold.  Real  sculpture  in  the  round, 
however,  and  even  relief  sculpture  of 
large  size  in  stone,  seems  to  have 
been  little  practised,  though  the 
technical  ability  necessary  for  its  pro- 
duction was  apparently  not  lacking. 
As  the  Prehellenic  civilization  decayed 
and  succumbed  gradually  to  the  at- 
tacks of  the  invading  Hellenes,  its  art 
deteriorated  and  finally  came  to  an 
end,  or,  if  it  continued  to  exist,  it  was 
rather  as  an  obscure  influence  than 
as  a  living  art.  Survivals  of  Prehel- 
lenic decorative  motives  and  of  Prehel- 
lenic taste  have  been  observed  in  works 
of  Greek  art,  especially  in  the  deco- 
ration of  vases  made  in  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  but 
Prehellenic  sculpture,  which  was,  as  we  have  seen,  never  the 
favorite  or  most  fully  developed  art  of  the  races  who  dwelt 
in  and  around  the  great  palaces  in  Crete,  at  Cnossus  and 
Phaestus,  or  the  mighty  fortresses  of  continental  Greece,  at 
Tiryns,  Mycenae,  and  elsewhere,  disappeared  with  the  power 
of  those  races.  If  it  exerted  any  influence  upon  Greek  sculp- 
ture, it  was  only  through  such  isolated  monuments  (for 
instance,  the  lions  at  Mycenae)  as  remained  above  ground  and 
visible  to  later  ages  and  such  as  might  come  to  light  by 


FIGURE  35.  —  Statu- 
ette of  Gold  and  Ivory. 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston. 


58  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

chance.  These  works  might  serve  to  inspire  the  Greeks 
with  the  wish  to  carve  figures  of  stone,  —  indeed  it  is  possible 
that  some  tradition  of  stone-carving  may  have  been  handed 
down  through  the  centuries  that  precede  the  known  begin- 
nings of  Greek  sculpture,  —  but  beyond  this  the  earliest 
Greek  sculptors  appear  to  have  owed  nothing  to  their 
predecessors  in  the  land. 

The  Earliest  Greek  Sculpture.  —  The  earliest  Greek 
statues  now  existing  are  somewhat  less  primitive  than 
might  be  expected.  They  do  not  look  like  the  first  efforts 
of  an  uncultured  people.  It  has  therefore  been  assumed 
that  the  earliest  statues  were  all  of  wood  and  that  these 
have  completely  disappeared.  Such  an  assumption  seems 
to  ignore  the  fact  that  the  Greeks  of  the  seventh  century 
were  not  an  isolated  folk,  depending  entirely  upon  them- 
selves for  enlightenment  and  progress  of  all  kinds.  They 
were,  and  had  been  for  some  time,  engaged  in  trade  with 
the  Egyptians,  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  various  peoples  of 
Asia  Minor,  and  we  have  seen  that  these  peoples,  especially 
the  Egyptians,  had  developed  the  art  of  sculpture  many 
centuries  before  the  beginnings  of  Greek  civilization.  We 
know  that  even  in  later  times  the  gods  were  represented 
at  certain  shrines  in  Greece,  not  by  statues,  but  by  symbols 
and  unhewn  stones  or  by  pillars  or  beams  clothed  in  real 
garments.  It  is  perhaps  reasonable  to  suppose  that  such 
symbols  of  the  bodily  presence  of  the  deity  were  more  usual 
in  primitive  times,  and  that  statues,  when  the  desire  for 
them  arose,  were  made  of  various  materials,  wood,  stone, 
or  metal,  as  the  convenience  or  taste  of  the  sculptor  and  his 
patrons  dictated.  The  style  of  the  earliest  statues  might 
then  very  probably  be  influenced  by  the  art  of  foreign  nations, 
especially  of  the  Egyptians. 

Periods  of  Greek  Sculpture.  —  The  history  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture may  be  divided  chronologically  into  four  periods : 
(1)  Tjjg  archaic  period,  from  the  beginning,  about  600  B.C., 
to  the  great  .Persian  invasion,  480 ;  (2)  the^  fifth  century ; 
(3)  the_  fourth  century;  (4)  the  Hellenistic  period^  after 
the  conquest^  o?  Alexander 


over  the  known  world.  In  the  first  period  certain  types  of 
statues  were  developed  and  technical  ability  in  the  carving 
oTniarble  Itrfd The^casting  of  bronze  was  acquireJ;~Tn  t5e_ 
second  period  the  stiffness  and  awkwardness  of  early  art 
was  overcome,  further  technical  skill  was  gained,  and  the 
most  admirable  expression  of  physical  beauty  and  typical 
perfection  was  achieved;  in  the  third  period  pathos  or 
individual  feeling  and  emotion  led  to  a  partial  abandonment 
of  the  ideal  of  perfection ;  and  in  the  fourth  period  the  study 
of  anatomy,  the  desire  to  express  emotion,  and  the  influence 
of  Rome  and  of  the  East  led  to  exaggeration  of  muscular 
detail  and  to  contorted  postures  in  some  instances,  to  osten- 
tation or  to  excessive  realismjn  others.  In  the  end,  HellerF- 
istic  art  developed  into  Roman  art  in  the  West  and  Byzan- 
tine art  in  the  East. 

THE  ARCHAIC  PERIOD 

Types  of  Early  Statues.  —  Three  main  types  are  exhibited 
by  the  earliest  Greek  statues  :  ^nm^j^anding  male  figure ; 
a  draped,  standing  figure,  usually  female ;  and  a  draped, 
seated  figure,  which  may  be  either  male  or  female.  In  all 
of  these  types  the  ulaw__olirontality,"  which  we  noticed  in 
Egyptian  sculpture  (page  10),  is  observed.  The  head  is 
always  erect,  and  turns  neither  to  right  nor  left. 

The  Standing  Nude  Type.  —  The  standing  male  figures 
resemble  in  posture  the  standing  Egyptian  kings  or  the  Sheik 
el  Beled  (page  5).  The  left  foot  is  advanced,  but  the  weight 
is  borne  equally  by  both  feet,  and  the  hands  of  the  earlier 
examples  hang  straight  down  at  the  sides,  though  in  the  later 
statues  there  is  some  variety  in  the  position  of  the  hands. 
The  earliest  of  these  figures  now  existing  may  belong  to  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century,  but  the  type  remained  in 
vogue  for  many  years.  Some  examples  of  the  type  are  of 
rude  workmanship,  others  exhibit  no  little  skill  and  even 
delicacy  in  execution.  In  some  the  surfaces  are  more 
rounding  than  is  natural,  in  others  it  seems  as  if  the  sculptor 
had  tried  to  make  the  surfaces  as  flat  as  possible.  Such 


60 


differences  may  be  due  in  part  to 
difference  of  date,  in  part  to  dif- 
ference of  "school"  (that  is,  to 
local  taste),  and  in  part  to  the 
individual  preference  of  the  sculp- 
tor, which  may  sometimes  have 
been  affected  by  the  shape  or 
cleavage  of  the  block  from  which 
the  statue  was  to  be  carved.  In 
general,  however,  it  is  clear  that 
there  was  a  great  advance  in  tech- 
nical skill  and  In  truHrtu  nature 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  type. 
The  later  examples,  which  belong 
to  the  earlier  part  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, are  already  admirable  works. 
One  of  the  best,  and  by  no  means 
among  the  most  primitive,  of  the 
earlier  examples,  is  the  "Apollo 
of  Tenea"  (Fig.  36),  found  at 
Tenea,  near  Corinth,  and  now  in 
the  Glyptothek  at  Munich.  This 
may  be  dated  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  In  pos- 
ture and  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  long  hair  in  a  heavy  mass  at 
the  back  of  the  neck  it  is  merely 
an  example  of  the  type,  but  in 
execution  and  in  the  careful  ren- 
dering of  details,  especially  of  the 
knees,  it  is  unusually  fine.  There 
is,  too,  in  the  face  the  evidence 
of  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
sculptor  to  give  his  work  the  ap- 
pearance of  life  by  raising  the 
corners  of  the  mouth.  The  expression  achieved  —  the  so- 
called  archajc  or  Aeginetan  smile/—  is  not  impressive, 
but  it  shows  the  artist's  intention.  Figures  of  this  type 


FIGURE  36.  —  Apollo  of 
Tenea.  Munich.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  1.) 


THE  PREHELLENTC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS      61 

were  formerly,  on  account  of  their  nudity  and  for  other 
reasons,  supposed  to  represent  Apollo,  and  the  type  is 
still  called  the  "Apollo  type";  it  is,  however,  certain 
that  many  of  these  statues  were  set  up  to  commemo- 
rate athletic  victories  and  represented  no  god,  but  human 
victors.  It  is  from  this  type  that  the  later  nude  statues, 
both  of  gods  and  men,  were  developed.  It  may  well 
be  that  the  Greeks  borrowed  it  in  the  first  place  from 
Egypt,  but  they  transformed  it  at  once  by  making  it  entirely 
nude,  and  then  proceeded  to  give  it  variety  and  animation 
such  as  is  unknown  in  Egyptian  art. 

The  Standing  Draped  Type.  —  One  of  the  most  primitive 
examples  of  the  standing,  draped,  female  type  wras  found  at 
Delos  and  is  now  in  Athens.  An  inscription  carved  on  its 
left  side  informs  us  that  it  was  dedicated  to  Artemis  by  a 
woman  named  Nicandra,  from  Naxos,  and  the  forms  of  the 
letters  indicate  a  date  early  in  the  sixth  century.  The 
statue  is  a  long,  flat  slab  of  marble,  about  twice  as  wide  as  it 
is  thick.  Upright  cylinders  (nowr  broken)  at  the  sides  rep- 
resent the  arms,  and  two  formless  projections  near  the 
bottom,  where  the  stone  suddenly  becomes  thicker,  are  the 
feet.  The  breasts  are  hardly  indicated  by  a  slight  swelling. 
The  features  are  now  nearly  obliterated.  The  hair  falls 
outward  from  the  head,  almost  in  the  form  of  the  Egyptian 
klaft,  and  continues  in  well-marked  locks  over  the  shoulders. 
There  is  little  about  this  figure  to  remind  one  of  a  living  being. 
Its  flat  surfaces  are  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  slab 
as  it  came  from  the  quarry  had  nearly  its  present  form,  which 
the  sculptor  was  unable  to  change  materially.  Another 
figure,  the  so-called  Hera  of  Samos,  now  in  the  Louvre,  was 
dedicated,  as  its  inscription  states,  to  Hera  by  a  certain 
Cheramyes.  The  letters  indicate  a  date  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century.  The  shape  of  this  figure  is  quite  as 
remarkable  as  that  of  the  statue  dedicated  by  Nicandra, 
but  it  is  very  different,  cylindrical,  not  flat.  The  folds  of 
the  drapery  are  represented  by  fine,  parallel  lines.  Other 
statues  seem  to  show  that  the  roundness  of  form  and  the 
peculiar  manner  of  treating  drapery  ^ere~TeaTiifes~of  the 


62 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Samian  style  of  art.  Possibly  the  roundness  resulted  from 
the  habit  of  cutting  off  equally  the  four  edges  of  a  square 
block  of  marble.  It  was  in  making  such  figures  as  these  — 
too  flat  or  too  cylindrical,  with  the  folds  of  drapery  not 
marked  at  all  or  marked  by  an  excessive  number  of  parallel 
engraved  lines  —  that  the  Greek  artists  began  to  practise 
the  representation  of  the  draped  human  form. 

The  Seated  Draped  Type.  —  The  seated  draped  type  may 
perhaps  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Egyptian  type  of 

the  seated  Pharaoh  (page  62), 
which  it  resembles  very  closely. 
It  is,  however,  a  natural  type, 
and  may  therefore  have  arisen 
spontaneously  among  the 
Greeks.  Several  good  exam- 
ples of  it,  dating  approximately 
from  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  were  found  at  Bran- 
chidae,  near  Miletus,  beside  the 
sacred  road  that  led  from  the 
temple  of  Apollo  to  the  sea 
(Fig.  37).  They  are  now 
in  the  British  Museum.  The 
statues  are  heavy,  almost 
clumsy,  and  present  little  or 
no  appearance  of  life.  The. 
drapery  of  the  different  fig- 
ures is  not  exactly  alike,  but 
it  is  all  treated  with  j^xressiyj^flatness^ind  the  folds  are 
distressing  in  their  regularity.  These  defecTs  were  probably 
less  noticeable  when  the  statues  were  enlivened  with  color. 
The  three  types  described  above  are  substantially  the 
same  as  those  employed  by  the  Egyptians ;  and  among  the 
early  Greeks,  as  in  Egypt,  these  types  and  their  derivatives 
were  virtually  the  only  types  of  statues  employed  as  in- 
dependent works  of  substantive  sculpture,  as  distinguished 
from  decorative  sculp^urewhtch  naturally,  whether  it  be 
in  the  round  or  in  relief,  admits,  and  even  demands,  much 


FIGURE  37.  —  Seated  Figure 
from  Branchidae.  British  Mu- 
seum. (Brunn-Bruckmann,  142.) 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS      63 

greater  variety.  These  three  types  were  invented,  or 
adopted,  at  an  early  date,  and  were  in  current  use  before 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  The  development  of 
decorative  sculpture  was  also  well  under  way  at  this  time. 
The  two  classes  of  sculpture  develop  side  by  side,  each 
exerting  a  strong  influence  upon  the  other.  The  art  of 
paintmg  also  influenced  that  of  sculpture,  especially  when 
employed  in  decoration. 

Ionic  and  Doric  Art.  —  The  Ionic  Greeks  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor  possessed  fertile  territory  and  carried  on  a  profitable 
trade  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  interior,  from  whom  they 
acquired  wealth  and  a  taste  for  luxury.  The  Doric  Greeks 
of  the  Peloponnesus  occupied  a  relatively  poor  country  and 
had  little  opportunity  to  enrich  themselves  by  trade;  they 
were,  moreover,  in  constant  danger  of  attack  from  the  people 
they  had  conquered  and  held  in  subjection.  These  conditions 
are  to  some  extent  reflected  in  the  archaic  sculpture  of  lonians 
and  Dorians.  Ipjiic_sculpture  tends  toward_goftness,  rounded 
forms,  elaborate  drapery.  and_ajl-JLpfieaFaHcc  of  richness. 
WJTlie-iJori£-SGUlptlire.  exhibits  more  a.thIetio_fnrms-andr-Qp 
the  whole^more  nude  m^l^  figures,  with 


iie  early  Greek  artists,  however,  were  by  no 
means  always  employed  in  their  own  homes,  but  Dorians 
worked  for  lonians  and  vice  versa,  and  therefore  the  dis- 
tinction between  Doric  and  Ionic  art  should  not  be  too  much 
emphasized. 

Chian  Sculpture.  —  The  statues  from  the  sacred  way  at 
Branchidae  (page  62)  may  serve  as  examples  of  early  Mile- 
sian sculpture,  and  early  Samian  art  is  represented  by  the 
so-called  Hera  (page  61).  l  The  primitive  statue  dedicated 
by  Nicandra  of  Naxos  (page  61)  was  probably  made  by  a 
Naxian  sculptor.  The  island  of  Chios  was  an  important 
centre  of  art  in  the  sixth  century.  The  earliest  Chian 
sculptor  whose  name  is  certainly  known  is  Mikkiades, 
whose  son,  Archermus,  and  grandsons,  Bupalus  and  Athenis, 

1  Rhoecus  and  Theodoras  of  Samos  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
cast  statues  of  bronze.  They  probably  introduced  from  Egypt  the  method 
of  casting  statues  hollow  a  little  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century. 
Theodoras  and  Telecles  were  said  to  be  sons  of  Rhoecus. 


64 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


names 


were  also  sculptors.  The  last  named  lived  about  540  B.C. 
Of  Mikkiades  we  know  nothing  except  that  he  was  a  sculp- 
tor, but  Archermus  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  represent 
Victory  with  wings.  A  somewhat  fragmentary  statue  found 
at  Delos  represents  a  winged  figure  in  rapid  motion,  and  an 
inscription  which  probably  belongs  with  it  mentions  the 
of  Mikkiades  and  Archermus.  The  execution  of 
details,  especially  of  the  hair,  of  this 
figure  is  very  careful.  Unfortunately 
the  wings  which  once  rose  from  the 
shoulders  are  gone,  as  are  also  the 
smaller  wings  which  were  undoubt- 
edly attached  to  the  ankles,  but 
these  details  of  this  type  are  known 
from  small  bronzes,  several  of  which 
are  preserved.  The  works  of  the 
early  Chian  artists  were  apparently 
much  prized,  and  a  series  of  draped 
female  figures,  found  chiefly  at  Delos 
and  Athens,  is  ascribed  to  the  Chian 
school  (Fig.  38) .  These  figures  repre- 
sent young  women,  richly  clad,  and 
holding  in  one  hand,  whicfr~is  out- 
stretched, a  flower  or  some  other  at- 
tribute, while  the  other  hand  holds 
up  a  corner  of  the  garment.  They 
are  all  somewhat  fragmentary,  but 
they  show  how  the  school  passed 
from  inventiveness  joined  with 
careful  execution  to  an  over-elaborate  conventionalism. 
These  works  have  a  certain  beauty,  and  the  artists  were 
evidently  carefully  trained,  but  before  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  they  seem  to  have  lost  all  originality.  The  accuracy 
and  delicacy  of  their  work  exerted,  however,  a  very  good\ 
influence  upon  the  artists  of  other  places,  especially  of  Athens, 
where  Chian  artists  were  employed  in  the  second  half  of  the 
sixth  century. 
Archaic  Reliefs.  —  The  remains  of  the  reliefs  which  once 


FIGURE  38.  —  Draped 
Figure  of  the  Chian  Scfiool. 
Acropolis  Museum, 
Athens.  (Brunn-Bruck- 
mann,  458.) 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS     65 

adorned  the  columns  of  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus, 
erected  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  exhibit 
figures  with  full  and  rounding  forms.  The  work  is  fine,  but 
there  is  a  lack  of  vigor,  and  no  such  delicacy  of  technique 
as  is  seen  in  the  best  Chian  figures.  The  frieze  and  metopes 
of  the  temple  at  Assos,  of  about  the  same  date,  show  less 
refined  technique,  but  greater  vigor.  Numerous  works  in 
relief  show  the  general  tendency  of  Ionic  art  toward  elegance 
and  sumptuousness.  Among  these  are  the  decorations  of 
several  Lycian  tombs,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  so- 
called  Harpy  Tomb,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  An  es- 
pecially interesting  example  is  found  in  the  frieze  of  the 


FIGURE  39.  —  Pediment  Group  from  the  Treasury  of  the  Siphnians.    Delphi. 

treasury  of  the  Siphnians  (formerly  ascribed  to  the  Cnidians) 
at  Delphi.  This  was  a  small  building,  nearly  square.  At 
the  front  the  entablature  was  supported  by  two  figures  of 
maidens.  Above  the  architrave  the  building  was  encircled 
by  a  frieze  representing  a  battle  of  Homeric  heroes  in  the 
presence  of  seated  divinities,  the  battle  of  the  gods  and  the 
giants,  the  carrying  off  of  the  daughters  of  Leucippus,  and 
a  fourth  scene  in  which  chariots  and  horses  occur.  In  the 
pediment  Apollo  and  Heracles  are  struggling  for  the  sacred 
tripod.  This  building  was  erected  near  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  and  its  sculptures  show  Ionic  art  as  it  was  developed 
at  that  time.  The  work  (Fig.  39)  is  not  lacking  in  vigor; 
hair  and  garments  are  carefully  and  finely 


^ 
wrought,  the  action  is  well  portrayed.    When  the  sculptures 


66 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


were  further  enriched  with  the  original  colors,  the  effect 
must  have  been  brilliant  and  impressive.  Such  a  building 
as  this,  with  its  rich  adornment,  shows  that  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon  and  the  caryatids  of  the  Erechtheum  were 
not  without  predecessors. 

Ionic  Influence  in  Doric   Cities.  —  Selinus,  in   Sicily,  a 
colony  of  Megara,  and  therefore  Dorian,  was  a  flourishing 

city  from  its  foundation,  in 
628  B.C.,  until  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Carthaginians 
in  409  B.C.  Four  sets  of 
metopes  from  Selinuntine 
temples  have  come  down  to 
us  in  more  or  less  fragmen- 
tary condition.  The  two 
earliest  show  that  the  sculp- 
tors of  a  time  not  long  after 
the  foundation  of  the  colony 
tried  earnestly  to  produce 
worthy,  expressive,  and  nat- 
ural works.  The  sculptor 
of  the  metopes- of  the  temple 
of  Apollo  (temple  C),  who  at- 
tempted, among  other  things, 
to  represent  in  relief  a  chariot, 
with  four  horses  and  a  driver, 
seen  from  the  front,  was  evi- 
dently a  man  of  ambition 

FiGURE40.-FiguresfromanArchaic      a,nd    Originality        His    WOrk 
Temple.     Corcyra  (Corfu).  shows    Vigor    and    power,    in 

spite  of  the  imperfect  exe- 
cution, the  excessive  rotundity  of  form,  the  conventional 
attitudes,  and  the  over-elaboration  of  details.  Some  qual- 
ities of  Ionic  art  are  present,  though  refinement  is  lacking. 
The  sculptor  may  have  been  an  Ionian  or  a  Dorian  trained 
in  Ionic  methods.  A  similar  mixture  of  Doric  and  Ionic 
traits  is  seen  in  the  somewhat  fragmentary  sculptures  from 
the  pediment  of  a  temple  in  the  Doric  colony  of  Corcyra 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS      67 

(Fig.  40).  The  third  series  of  metopes  from  Selinus  repre- 
sented the  battle  of  the  gods  and  the  giants.  Here  too  the 
influence  of  Ionic  art  is  seen,  though  the  nearest  parallel 
is  a  relief  from  the  pediment  of  the  treasury  of  the  Megarians 
at  Olympia,  in  which  the  same  contest  is  represented.  At 
the  time  when  these  reliefs  were  made,  toward  the  end  of 
the  sixth  century,  Ionic  art  was  highly  developed,  and  its 
influence  was  very  strong,  even  in  Doric  communities;  it 
was  predominant  in  Asia  Minor,  the  islands  of  the  Aegean, 
Northern  Greece,  and  Boeotia. 

Peloponnesian  Sculpture. — Sculpture  was  also  much  prac- 
tised in  the  Peloponnese  during  the  archaic  period.  Ac- 
cording to  tradition  the  art  was  introduced  chiefly  from  Crete. 
At  any  rate,  Dipoenus  and  Scyllis,  of  Crete,  who  worked 
in  marble,  wood,  ebony,  and  perhaps  bronze,  had  among 
their  pupils  Theocles,  Dontas  (or  Medon),  and  Doryclidas, 
whose  works  at  Sparta  were  of  cedar-wood  or  ivory  inlaid 
or  incrusted  with  gold,  and  Tectaeus  and  Angelion,  whose 
pupil  Gallon,  of  Aegina,  was  a  wood-carver  and  bronze 
worker.  Smilis,  of  Aegina,  was  another  famous  artist,  who 
was  said  to  have  been  a  contemporary  of  the  mythical  Cretan 
(or  Athenian)  Daedalus.  At  Tegea  there  was  a  gilded 
wooden  statue  by  a  Cretan  named  Chirisophus.  A  native 
Spartan,  Gitiadas,  was  a  worker  of  bronze,  but  the  throne 
of  Apollo,  at  Amyclae,  in  Laconia,  was  made  by  Bathycles, 
of  Magnesia,  an  artist  called  in  from  Asia  Minor.  The 
Argive  sculptor  Polymedes,  of  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  is  known  by  a  clumsy  nude  statue  found  at  Delphi. 
Hageladas,  of  Argos,  who  is  said,  though  probably  without 
much  reason,  to  have  been  the  teacher  of  the  three  greatest 
sculptors  of  the  fifth  century,  Myron,  Phidias,  and  Poly- 
clitus,  belongs  to  the  very  end  of  the  sixth  century  and, 
probably,  to  the  early  part  of  the  century  following.  He 
worked  chiefly  in  bronze.  Gallon  of  Elis  worked  later  than 
496  B.C.,  and  Canachus,  of  Sicyon,  belongs  to  about  the 
same  time  or  somewhat  earlier.  Canachus  was  famous  for 
the  technical  excellence  of  his  work.  His  bronze  statue  of 
Apollo,  in  the  temple  at  Branchidae,  represented  the  god, 


68 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


nude,  holding  a  deer  in  his  hand.  The  deer  was  so  balanced 
that  a  push  caused  it  to  rock  in  such  a  way  that  a  thread 
could  be  drawn  under  its  feet.  The  appearance  of  the 
statue  is  known  from  late  reliefs  and  small  bronzes,  which 
do  not,  however,  reproduce  all  details.  The  chief  merit  of 
the  work  was  probably  its  fine  execution.  In  this  respect  a 

bronze  statuette  from  Piombino 
(Fig.  41),  now  in  the  Louvre,  gives 
us  perhaps  the  best  idea  of  the 
work  of  Canachus,  though  the  hair 
of  his  statue  at  Branchidae  was  so 
arranged  that  part  of  it  fell  in 
locks  over  the  shoulders  in  front. 
An  example  of  Sicyonian  relief 
sculpture  of  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  and  therefore  earlier  than 
Canachus,  is  the  adornment  of  the 
Sicyonian  treasury  at  Delphi.  A 
metope  from  this  building  (Fig. 
42)  may  be  compared  with  the 
sculpture  of  the  treasury  of  the  Siph- 
nians  (Fig.  39),  which  is,  to  be 
sure,  somewhat  later,  to  make  clear 
the  different  qualities  ascribed  to 
Doric  and  Ionic  art. 

Aeginetan  Sculpture. — At  Aegina, 
as  at  Argos  and  Sicyon,  the  sculp- 
tors were  especially  noted  as  workers  of  bronze.  The 
most  famous  Aeginetan  sculpfor  was  Onatas,  but  his  dated 
works  belong  to  the  time  after  the  Persian  invasion.  No 
works  of  bronze  exist,  which  can  be  ascribed  with  cer- 
tainty to  the  Aeginetan  artists,  but  the  statues  from  the 
pediments  of  the  temple  of  Aphaia  J  allow  us  to  form  a  con- 
ception of  their  art. 

1  This  temple  was  formerly  called  the  temple  of  Zeus  Panhellenius,  then 
of  Athena.  It  seems  now  pretty  certain  that  it  was  dedicated  to  the  some- 
what obscure  goddess  Aphaia.  These  statues  are  now,  with  the  exception 
of  some  fragments  found  in  1901,  in  Munich.  They  were  discovered  in 
1811  and  were  restored  by  Thorvaldsen. 


FIGURE  41.  --  Bronze 
statuette  from  Piombino. 
The  Louvre,  Paris.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  78.) 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS      69 


The  figures  in  the  two  pediments  are  of  the  same  size 
and  the  same  date,  but  are  evidently  not  by  the  same  artist. 
Those  of  the  eastern  pediment  are  more  advanced  in  style 
and  less  archaic,  but  those  from  the  western  pediment  are 
better  preserved.  The  arrangement  of  the  two  pediment 
groups  was  much  the  same.  In  the  middle  of  each  stood 


FIGURE  42.  —  Relief  from  the  Treasury  of  the  Sicyonians.     Delphi. 

the  goddess  Athena,  wearing  a  long  robe,  her  aegis,  and  her 
helmet.  To  right  and  left  of  her  were  fighting  warriors.  A 
kneeling  archer  from  the  eastern  pediment,  who  wears  a 
lion's  head  as  a  helmet,  is  evidently  Heracles,  and  the  conflict 
is  no  doubt  a  scene  of  the  first  Trojan  War,  in  which  Heracles 
was  leader.  In  the  western  pediment  a  battle  of  the  more 
famous  later  Trojan  War  is  without  doubt  represented,  and 


70 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


here  an  archer  wearing  a  Phrygian  cap  may  be  called  Paris. 
In  the  western  pediment  and  probably  also  in  the  eastern, 
there  were  six  warriors  at  each  side  of  the  goddess.  In 
each  pediment  the  figures  were  so  arranged  that  every  small 
group  and  every  individual  figure  in  one  half  of  the  pediment 
had  an  exactly  corresponding  group  or  figure  in  the  other 
half.  The  triangular  space  was  fully  utilized,  but  the  corre- 
spondence was  too  exact ;  the  two  sides  of  the  entire  composi- 
tion were  not  merely  symmetrical,  they  were  almost  identi- 
cal. Although  Athena  occupies  the  most  prominent  place, 


FIGURE  43. — Fallen  Warrior  from  Aegina.    Munich. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  28.) 

she  has  no  part  in  the  action ;    probably  the  goddess  was 
supposed  to  be  invisible  to  the  combatants. 

The  statues  are  remarkable  for  the  boldness  of  their  atti- 
tudes, their  careful  modelling,  and  the  study  of  anatomy 
which  they  show.  Not  that  they  are  anatomically  quite 
correct,  for  they  are  not.  The  breast-bones  are  too  short, 
and  there  are  other  slight  inaccuracies;  but  on  the  whole, 
the  statues  show  an  astonishing  degree  of  knowledge  and 
skill  on  the  part  of  the  sculptors.  They  are  not  graceful ; 
the  movements  are  angular,  and  the  forms,  though  muscular, 
are  stiff  rather  than  supple,  in  spite  of  their  vigorous  action. 
All  these  defects  are  more  marked  in  the  western  than  in 
the  eastern  pediment.  The  faces  in  the  western  pediment 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS     71 

wear  a  meaningless  smile,  like  that  of  the  "Apollo"  from 
Tenea  (Fig.  36),  which  is  absent  from  those  of  the  eastern 
pediment.     The^fallenwarrior  from  the  eastern__pediment, 
j>CTha£s_l]ie_Jiesl^^ 

portrayed  -expression^of  pain  (Fig._43).  The  defects  were 
doubtless  not  so  noticeable  when  the  statues  were  new  and 
hair,  eyes,  arms,  clothing,  and  various  accessories  were 
brightly  colored.  Taken  all  in  all,  these  groups  are  striking 
proofs  of  the  ability  of  the  Aeginetan  sculptors  at  the  time 
when  they  were  executed ;  but  unfortunately  we  cannot 
date  them  accurately  and  must  content  ourselves  with  the 
statement  that  they  were  made  toward  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  B.C. 

Archaic  Sculpture  at  Athens.  —  Archaic  sculpture  at  Athens 
is  better  known  than  at  any  other  place,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  when  the  Athenians  returned  to  their  city  after  the 
retreat  of  the  Persians  in  479  B.C.,  they  found  their  temples 
and  statues  overthrown  and  broken.  They  proceeded  to 
level  and  extend  the  upper  surface  of  the  Acropolis,  and  used 
broken  statues  and  fragments  of  temples  as  convenient 
material  for  filling  cavities  and  building  out  the  edges  of  the 
hill.  In  this  way  many  works  of  sculpture,  fragmentary, 
to  be  sure,  but  still  of  inestimable  value  to  us,  were  covered 
up  and  preserved,  to  be  excavated  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Among  the  earliest  extant  works  of  Attic  sculpture  is  a 
relief  which  once  adorned  the  pediment  of  a  small  building. 
It  is  a  low  relief,  carved  in  a  soft  and  coarse  variety  of  the 
limestone  called  poros  stone.  Itre^resents  the  combat  of 
Heracles  wirij^jlie^JaerrraB^ir^Sy^lrai In  tEe  middle  is 
Heracles,  Brandishing  his  club.  One  entire  half  of  the  pedi- 
ment is  occupied  by  the  Hydra,  with  its  sinuous  folds;  in 
the  other  are  lolaus,  the  faithful  companion  of  the  great 
hero,  the  chariot  and  horses  of  Heracles,  and  a  giant  crab, 
which  was  sent  by  the  goddess  Hera  to  distract  the  attention 
of  lolaus.  The  composition  is  simple  and  clear,  but  lacks 
symmetry.  The  artist  was  able  to  fill  the  triangular  space 
at  his  disposal,  but  not  to  fill  it  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 


72  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

The  horses  are  so  small  as  to  be  almost  ridiculous,  the  dis- 
parity of  size  between  Heracles  and  lolaus  is  excessive,  and 
the  surfaces  are  too  flat.  Nevertheless,  the  fragmentary 
figure  of  Heracles  is  not  without  vigor,  and  we  feel  that  we 
see  before  us  the  beginnings  of  a  real  and  living  art.  The 
coloring,  which  is  in  part  preserved,  was  crude  and  unnatural, 
the  chief  colors  being  bright  red  and  blue,  which  last  has 
changed  to  green.  The  date  of  this  work  must  be  not  far 
from  600  B.C.,  perhaps  somewhat  earlier.  Other  reliefs 
in  poros  stone  of  somewhat  finer  quality  show  better  and 
more  advanced  work.  Some  of  these  are  wrought  in  very 
high  relief,  almost  in  the  round.  Several  were  evidently 
pediment  reliefs,  among  them  the  remarkable  three-bodied 


FIGURE  44. —  So-called  Typhon.    Acropolis  Museum,  Athens. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  456  a.) 

creature  (Fig.  4-1)  which  once  occupied  half  of  a  pediment. 
Here  the  forms  of  the  human  bodies  are  vigorous,  though  not 
elegant,  the  heads  are  well  shaped,  and  the  faces  have  some 
expression.  The  coloring  is  still  crude  and  unnatural,  frankly 
decorative,  bright  blue  beards,  red  faces,  and  on  the  serpent 
bodies  red  and  blue  stripes.  Serpent  forms,  which  taper 
toward  the  tail  and  may  be  arranged  in  coils  or  waves,  were 
evidently  convenient  for  pedimental  composition,  and  frag- 
ments of  several  serpents  have  been  found,  which  once  be- 
longed in  pediments.  The  artists  had  by  this  time  learned 
to  wish  to  fill  the  pediments  with  a  symmetrical  and  rhyth- 
mical decoration.  Certainly  the  three-bodied  "Typhon" 
is  well  adapted  to  a  place  in  a  triangular  pediment.  Other 
high  reliefs  also  of  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  represent 
animals  and  human  beings  or  deities.  Though  still  crude, 


73 


they  show  vigor,  study  of  nature,  and  the  beginnings  of 
skill  in  composition. 

Before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  sculptors  of 
Athens  began  to  use  marble,  instead  of  the  softer  limestone 
of  which  the  works  thus  far 
discussed  were  made.  One 
of  the  early  marble  statues 
is  that  of  a  man  carrying  a 
calf,  the  Moschophorus  (Fig. 
45).  An  inscription  tells  us 
that  the  statue  was  dedi- 
cated by  Bombos  (Kombos 
or  Rombos ;  the  first  letter 
is  defaced),  who  is  repre- 
sented bringing  his  offering, 
thus  making  his  piety  en- 
dure as  long  as  the  marble. 
This  work,  like  several  others 
of  the  same  bluish  (Hymet- 
tus)  marble,  shows  much  the 
same  qualities  of  vigor  and 
force  exhibited  by  the  works 
in  poros  stone,  but  the  style 
and  workmanship  are  more 
advanced.  The  Mpscho- 
phorus,  is  a  work  of  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Pisistratus. 

The  Chian  Style  and  ite 
Effect.  —  It  was  during  the 
reign  of  Pisistratus  that  a 
new  style  was  introduced  at  Athens,  a  style  in  which 
greatdelicacy  of  detail  and  care  in  the  treatment  of 
drapery  were^  important  featurea^__iThe  artists  of  this 
style  employed  Parian  marble,  and  we  know  that  one  of 
them,  at  least,  was  from  Chios,  consequently  works  of  this 
kind  are  ascribed  to  the  Chian  school  (see  page  64) .  The 


FIGURE  45.  —  Moschophorus. 
Acropolis  Museum,  Athens.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  6,  Ersatz.) 


74 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Attic  sculptors  soon  acquired  the  skill  of  the  imported  artists, 
and  some  of  them  became  mere  imitators  of  their  style. 
Others,  however,  wh[le  retaining  the_jyjgor  of  the  earlier 
Attic jjchool,  added  the^exqffisrEe  workmanship  and  subtle 
delicacyofjUie-Chiaji  work^,  , An  example  of  Attic  work  un- 
der Chian  influence  is  a  statue  probably  by  Antenor,  an  Athe- 
nian whose  date  is  fixed  by  the  fact  that  he  made  statues  of 

Harmodius  and 
Aristogeiton 
after  the  expul- 
sion  (in  510 
B.c.)ofHippias, 
the  son  of  Pisis- 
tratus.  Here  is 
no  less  care  in 
finish,  no  less 
technical  excel- 
lence, than  is 
seen  in  Chian 
work,  but 
greater  dignity 
and  vigor.  A 
still  more  in- 
structive exam- 
ple  of  Attic 
work  after  the 
Chian  artists 
had  shown  the 
way  to  technical 


FIGURE  46.  —  Figures  from  Temple  of  Athena.  Acro- 
polis Museum,  Athens.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  471.) 


elaboration  is  afforded  by  the  pediment  sculptures  from 
the  temple  of  Athena  which  was  enlarged  under  Pisistratus 
(or  possibly  under  his  sons).  The  scene  was  the  combat 
of  the  gods  with  the  giants.  The  figures  are  carved 
entirely  in  the  round,  not  in  relief  like  those  of  the 
earlier  Attic  pediments.  There  now  remain  only  Athena 
and  her  opponent,  besides  two  figures  of  giants,  which  occu- 
pied the  corners.  Originally  there  must  have  been  at  least 
two  other  gods,  probably  Zeus  and  Heracles.  Athena  was 


THE  PREHELLENIC  AND  ARCHAIC  PERIODS      75 


in  the  middle  of  the  pediment,  not,  as  in  the  pediments  from 
Aegina,  an  inactive  or  invisible  spectator,  but  a  principal 
fighter  in  the  strife  (Fig.  46).  A  comparison  of  this  group 
with  the  statues  from  Aegina  skowslTow  far  the^AtttO^p1 
jtors_surpassedlthe,  Aeginetans.  Here  the  forms  seem  more 
like  living  forms  of  fleshTand  blood,  there  is  more  grace 
of  attitude,  equal  vigor  with  less  apparent  violence,  and 
great  technical  excellence.  The  composition  of  the  entire 
group,  so  far  as  its  extant  re- 
mains permit  us  to  judge,  was 
symmetrical  and  well  fitted  to 
the  triangular  space,  but  less 
mechanically  balanced  than 
that  of  the  Aeginetan  pedi- 
ments. In  Attic  relief  work 
of  this  period  also  the  vigor 
of  the  old  Attic  school  is  tem- 
pered to  calm  dignity,  and 
the  careful  execution  learned 
from  the  Chian  artists  appears 
with  no  taint  of  over-elabo- 
rate elegance.  Traces  of  color 
show  that  lips,  eyes,  hair,  and 
the  borders  of  clothing  and 
the  like  were  painted,  but  the 
color  was  not  applied  to  the 
whole  surface.  The  beauty 
of  the  marble  was  appreciated 
and  was  not  hidden  under  a  coat  of  paint.  The  early 
works  of  poros  stone  were  covered  with  paint,  but  color 
was  used  on  marble  statues  and  reliefs  merely  to  enhance 
the  beauty  or  the  clearness  of  details. 

One  of  the  most  attractive  Attic  works  of  the  time  before 
the  Persian  sack  of  the  city  is  a  statue  of  a  maiden  dedicated 
by_  Euthydicus  (Fig.  47).  The  work  is  exquisite  in  detail, 
but  the  mannerism  of  the  Chian  school  is  not  seen  here. 
The  eyes  are  horizontal,  not  oblique,  as  in  the  Chian  statues, 
the  mouth  has  not  the  rather  meaningless  smile  the  Chian 


FIGURE  47.— 
by  Euthydicus. 
seum,  Athens, 
maim,  459.) 


Figure  dedicated 
Acropolis  Mu- 
(Brunn-Bruck- 


76  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

artists  loved,  and  the  head  as  a  whole  has  an  appearance  of 
real  personality.  This  is  probably  a  work  of  a  time  not 
long  before  the  coming  of  the  Persians;  it  may  be  dated 
between  490  and  480  B.C.  The  marble  head  of  a  youth, 
found,  like  the  preceding,  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  shows 
so  nearly  the  same  qualities  that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the 
work  of  the  same  artist.  These  works  are  archaic,  but  they 
foreshadow:jiie_greatness  to jwhich-AttiG  arljvas  clgstined  to 

generations. 


- 


CHAPTER  V 


GREEK   SCULPTURE.     THE   FIFTH    CENTURY 

The  Period  of  Transition.  —  The  defeat  of  the  Persians 
was  followed  by  the  remarkable  development  of  Athens. 
Before  the  Persian  invasion 
of   Greece   the  richest 
greatest    Greek    cities 


and 

had 

been  in  Asia  Minor.  There 
epic  and  lyric  poetry  had 
developed,  philosophy  had 
had  its  origin,  and  prose  as 
a  literary  form  of  expression 
had  come  into  being.  There 
too  art  had  flourished  more 
luxuriantly  than  in  conti- 
nental Greece.  After  the  de- 
feat of  the  Persians  Athens 
became  the  intellectual  cen- 
tre of  Greek  civilization. 
Before  that  time  Greek  art 
was  chiefly  Ionic ;  after  that 
time  it  was  chiefly  Attic, 
though  various  local  schools 
of  sculpture,  chief  among 
which  was  that  of  Argos,  con- 
tinued to  exist.  The  years  from  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  to 
the  time  of  Pericles  form  a  period  of  transition  from  archaic  to 
developed  art.  The  chief  monument  of  this  time  is  the  sculp- 
tural adornment  of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  begun 
soon  after  470  and  finished  about  457  B.C.,  but  there  are 
many  other  interesting  works.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  is 
the  group  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  (Fig.  48).  The 

77 


FIGURE  48.  —  Harmodius  and  Aris- 
togeiton.   Naples. 


78 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE    49.  —  Choiseul-Gouffier 
"Apollo."    British  Museum. 


statues  made  by  Anterior  after 
Hippias  was  expelled  (see  page 
74)  had  been  taken  away  by 
the  Persians.  To  replace  them 
statues  were  made  by  two  art- 
ists, Critius  and  Nesiotes.  A 
marble  copy  of  this  group1 
is  in  the  museum  at  Naples. 
The  head  of  the  Aristogeiton 
is  lost  and  a  youthful  head  of 
much  later  style  has  been  put 
in  its  place.2  The  nude  forms 
are  powerful,  vigorous,  and 
lifelike.  The  head  of  the  Har- 
modius  is  covered  with  almost 
circular  grooves  and  dots,  in- 
tended to  represent  curling 
hair.  The  eyes  are  round 
and  full.  These  statues,  pre- 
sumably Attic  work  of  the 
time  immediately  after  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians,  ex- 
hibit, as  might  be  expected, 
the  qualities  of  early  Attic  art 
mingled  with  those  of  Ionic 
art. 

The  most  noted  Attic  sculp- 
tor of  this  time  was  Calamis, 
but  our  information  about  him 
is  "defective.3  Some  idea  of 


1  The  original  was  of  bronze.     Nearly  all  the  original  works  of  the  famous 
Greek  artists  are  lost,  but  many  are  described  by  ancient  writers.     From 
these  descriptions  and  by  other  means  many  existing  statues  are  proved  to 
be  copies  of  famous  works.     Such  copies  were  fashionable  and  numerous 
under  the  Roman  Empire. 

2  The  head  was,  of  course,  bearded,  and  the  style  must  have  been  such 
as  to  accord  with  that  of  the  head  of  Harmodius.     A  head  in  Madrid, 
formerly  called  Pherecydes,  may  be  a  copy  of  the  head  of  the  Aristogeiton. 

3  The  information  given  by  ancient  writers  concerning  Calamis  is  so 
confused  and,  apparently,  contradictory  as  to  warrant  the  belief  that  there 
were  two  artists  of  this  name,  separated  by  a  century  in  time.     Then  refer- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY      79 

his  style  as  seen  in  a  draped  female  figure  may  perhaps  be 
derived  from  the  so-called  Penelope  in  the  Vatican,  though 
there  is  no  definite  reason  for  ascribing  this  work  to  him. 
The  Choiseul-Gouffier  Apollo  (Fig.  49)  and  its  replicas  may 
show  the  style  of  Calamis,  but  this  also  is  uncertain.1  Works 
of  this  time,  and  Roman  copies  of  such  works,  are  numerous 
enough  to  give  us  a  general  idea  of  the  qualities  of  the  sculp- 
ture of  the  period,  but  not  to  enable  us  to  attribute  individual 
works  with  any  certainty  to  the  artists  whose  names  are 
known. 

Charioteer  of  Delphi.  —  Among  the  extant  original  works 
of  this  period,  the  most  important,  apart  from  the  sculptures 
of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia,  are  the  bronze  charioteer 
at  Delphi  and  the  latest  metopes  from  Selinus.  The 
former  was  part  of  a  group  in  which,  besides  the  chariot  and 
the  horses,  the  goddess  of  Victory  was  present,  probably 
also  other  persons ;  but  of  all  these  only  small  fragments 
remain.  The  dedicator  was  apparently  Polyzalus,  victor  in 
the  chariot  race  at  Delphi  in  474  B.C.,  and  at  that  time  ruler 
of  Gela,  in  Sicily.  The  youthful  charioteer  (Fig.  50)  stands 
quietly  upright,  holding  the  reins  in  his  right  hand.  The 
left  hand  and  most  of  the  left  arm  are  wanting.  The  atti- 
tude is  one  of  repose,  calm  dignity,  and  reserved  strength. 
The  head  is  well  formed,  the  face  quiet  but  alert.  Above 
the  band  that  encircles  the  head  the  hair  is  represented  by 
curves  in  low  relief,  but  below  the  band,  near  the  ears,  the 
curls  were  more  freely  rendered,  being  cast,  at  least  in  part, 
separately  and  then  attached  to  the  head.  The  eyes  were 
of  paste,  white,  with  dark  centres.  The  drapery  is  admirable, 
especially  the  small  folds  on  the  arms,  shoulders,  and  back. 
There  is  nothing  about  this  figure  to  remind  us  especially  of 
the  pediment  statues  from  Aegina,  but  those  are  of  marble 

ences  to  stiffness  would  refer  to  the  sculptor  of  the  fifth  century,  and  those 
to  delicacy  and  charm  to  the  later  Calamis. 

1  This  statue  exemplifies  the  uncertainty  of  attributions  of  copies  of 
lost  works  to  artists  whose  styles  are  known  only  by  the  vague  statements 
of  ancient  writers.  It  has  been  ascribed  to  the  Attic  sculptor  Calamis  and 
also  to  Pythagoras  of  Rhegium,  who  was  born  at  Samos,  but  lived  for  the 
most  part  among  the  Dorians  of  Sicily  and  Magna  Grecia,  and  was  famous 
for  the  realism  of  his  works. 


80 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


and  were  carved  perhaps  thirty  years  or  more  before  this  was 
cast.  Argos  and  Sicyon  were  famous  for  bronze  statuary, 
but  we  know  little  of  the  work  of  their  schools  at  this  time. 
The  face  reminds  us  of  some  of  the  faces  drawn  on  Attic 
vases,  but  that  is  no  sufficient  reason  for  claiming  Calamis 

or  any  other  Attic  artist 
as  the  creator  of  the  statue. 
It  is  better  to  admire  it  as 
a  masterpiece  of  an  un- 
known artist  of  the  period 
when  Greek  art  was  ad- 
vancing from  archaism  to 
perfection. 

The  Latent  Metopes  from 
Selinus.  —  The  latest  me- 
topes from  Selinus,  only 
four  of  which  are  pre- 
served, are  carved,  like 
those  of  the  three  earlier 
series  (page  66),  of  a 
coarse,  local  stone,  but  in 
this  series  the  nude  parts 
of  female  figures  are  of 
marble.  Mythological 
scenes  are  represented. 
The  style  is  far  more  ad- 
vanced than  that  of  the 
earlier  metopes,  the  com- 
position is  excellent,  and 
the  postures  well  chosen. 
In  the  treatment  of 
drapery,  the  representation  of  hair,  and  some  other  details, 
thefe  are  reminders  of  the  archaic  sculptures  made  before 
the  Persian  invasion,  but  the  general  impression  produced  ' 
is  that  of  far  more  advanced  work.  These  metopes  recall 
in  some  respects  the  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton, 
but  are  more  closely  related  to  the  sculptures  of  the  temple 
of  Zeus  at  Olympia, 


FIGURE    50. 


-  Bronze    Charioteer. 
Delphi. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     81 


Olympia.  Metopes.  —  This  temple  was  completed  in  457 
B.C.,  or  a  little  later.  Its  sculptures  are  therefore  to  be 
assigned  to  the  years  just  before  that  date.  There  were 
twelve  sculptured  metopes,  representing  the  twelve  labors 
of  Heracles.  Two  of  these  (the  Apples  of  the  Hesperides, 
Fig.  51,  and  the  Cretan  Bull)  are  almost  entirely  preserved, 
the  rest  only  in  fragments.  In  the  finest  and  best  preserved 
of  all,  Heracles  is  seen  supporting  on  his  shoulders  the 
heavens,  represented  appar- 
ently by  the  entablature.  A 
cushion  interposed  to  ease 
the  weight  is  a  delightful  bit 
of  realism.  Behind  Heracles 
stands  a  female  figure,  prob-" 
ably  the  goddess  Athena, 
helping  the  hero  in  his  task. 
Before  him  Atlas  holds  out 
the  apples.  Hair  is  here 
represented  by  almost  par- 
allel wavy  lines,  except  where 
it  is  left  smooth,  probably 
to  be  represented  by  color. 
The  eyes  of  heads  in  profile  FIGURE  51.  —  Metope  from  the 

i  «   11     »  Temple  of  Zeus.     Olympia.     (Brunn-* 

are  no  longer  in  full  front     Bruckmann,  442.) 

view,  as  in  the  reliefs  of  the 

sixth  century,  but  they  are  not  properly  drawn  in  profile, 

and  the  details  of  the  lids  are  incorrect.     The  drapery  is 

stiff,  but  not  so  conventional  as  that  of  earlier  times.     The 

structure  and  the  •  muscles  of  the  nude  male  figures  are  well 

reproduced. 

Eastern  Pediment.  —  The  metopes  show  much  the  same 
qualities  of  style  and  execution  as  the  far  more  important 
pediment  sculptures  (Fig.  52).  *  These  are  by  no  means  com- 
pletely preserved,  yet  they  are  more  nearly  complete  than 
any  other  important  Greek  pedimeatal  groups,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  those  from  Aegina  (p.  68),  and  their 
composition  is  clear  except  in  some  relatively  unimportant 
details.  "In  the  eastern  pediment  the  preparation  for  the 
6 


82 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


chariot  race  between  Pelops  and  Oenomaus  is  represented. 
Zeus  occupies  the  centre,  with  Pelops  at  his  right  and  Oeno- 
maus at  his  left.  Next  to  Pelops  stand  Hippodameia, 
whom  he  is  to  win  as  the  prize  of  victory,  and  next  to 
Oenomaus  his  wife  Sterope.  A  seated  or  crouching  figure, 
four  horses  with  a  chariot,  two  more  crouching  or  seated 
figures,  and  a  reclining  nude  male  figure  follow  in  this  order 
in  each  side.  Pausanias  says  the  reclining  figures  in  the 
corners  are  the  river  gods  Alpheus  and  Cladeus.  No  action 
is  represented ;  all  the  figures  are  in  quiet  postures.  The 
composition  is  clear  and  simple.  The  five  erect  central 


FIGURE  52.  —  Pediments  of  the  Temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia ;  Treu's  Resto- 
ration.    (Luckenbach,  Olympia  and  Delphi,  p.  18.) 

figures  form  one  group,  the  chariots  with  the  horses  and 
their  attendants  form  two  other  groups,  and  the  reclining 
figures  in  the  corners  indicate  the  scene  of  the  story.  In 
each  group  each  figure  on  one  side  of  the  centre  of  the  pedi- 
ment corresponds  to  a  figure  on  the  other  side. 

Western  Pediment.  —  The  statues  in  the  western  pediment 
represent  the  combat  of  the  Centaurs  with  the  Lapiths  at 
the  marriage  of  Peirithous,  a  scene  of  the  wildest,  most  vio- 
lent action.  Calm  and  unmoved  in  the  midst  of  the  tur- 
moil, in  the  very  centre  of  the  composition,  stands  Apollo, 
with  outstretched  arm,  the  invisible  divine  arbiter  of  the 
struggle.  At  each  side  a  hero  (probably  Theseus  at  the  right 
and  Peirithous  at  the  left  of  the  god)  is  striking  at  a  Centaur 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     83 

who  has  seized  a  maiden ;  then  follows  at  each  side  a  group 
of  two  figures,  a  Centaur  and  a  boy  and  a  Centaur  and  a 
Lapith ;  then  on  each  side  a  group  of  three  —  a  woman 
seized  by  a  Centaur  whom  a  kneeling  Lapith  forces  to  the 
ground ;  then  an  old  woman  partially  reclining  on  a  cushion ; 
and  in  each  corner  a  recumbent  female  figure,  probably  a 
nymph,  or  possibly  a  maiden  who  has  escaped  from  the  fray. 
These  recumbent  figures  and  the  god  in  the  middle  of  the 
pediment  are  the  only  persons  not  engaged  in  violent  action. 

Composition.  —  In  one  pediment  all  is  inactive  and  quiet, 
the  other  is  full  of  action  and  turmoil.  Yet  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  composition  are  employed.  Zeus,  in  the  middle 
of  the  eastern  pediment,  is  flanked  by  two  closely  connected 
pairs  (to  which  the  figures  seated  on  the  ground  may  belong 
as  attendants),  in  the  western  pediment  two  groups  of  three 
are  struggling  beside  Apollo;  in  the  eastern  pediment  the 
chariots  and  attendants  balance  exactly,  in  the  western  two 
groups  of  three  and  two  of  two  persons  produce  the  same 
effect  of  symmetry;  in  each  pediment  recumbent  figures 
fill  the  corners.  The  groups  in  the  two  sides  of  each  pedi- 
ment correspond,  and  each  individual  figure  in  each  side  is 
balanced  by  a  figure  in  the  other.  The  symmetry  is  exact 
in  both  pediments,  and  is  produced  in  the  same  way.  The 
difference  between  the  two  compositions  is  due  simply  to 
the  difference  between  the  scenes  represented. 

Authorship.  —  The  pediment  sculptures  are  alike  in 
number  of  figures,  in  rigid  symmetry  of  two  halves  divided 
by  an  upright  figure  of  a  god,  in  formation  of  small  groups  in 
each  half.  They  are  alike  in  the  outlines  and  proportions 
of  the  human  bodies,  in  the  shapes  of  the  heads,  in  the 
treatment  of  drapery,  muscles,  hair,  eyes,  and  other  details, 
and  also  in  technical  execution,  though  in  each  pediment  the 
execution  is  very  uneven.1  According  to  Pausanias,  the 
eastern  pediment  is  by  Paeonius  of  Mende,  the  western  by 
Alcamenes,  the  pupil  and  rival  of  Phidias.  But  we  have  seen 

1  In  the  western  pediment,  the  two  reclining  figures  at  the  north  end  and 
the  old  woman  and  the  right  arm  of  the  nymph  at  the  south  end  are  ancient 
restorations.  They  differ  in  material  (Pentelic  marble,  the  rest  being  Parian) 
and  workmanship  from  the  other  figures. 


84 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


that  the  two  pediments  are  alike  in  everything  except  their 
subjects.  They  must  therefore  be  the  work  of  the  same 
school,  if  not  of  the  same  artist.  Moreover,  the  style  is  not 
sufficiently  advanced,  and  is  too  unlike  Attic  work,  to  permit 
of  the  attribution  to  a  pupil  of  Phidias.1  The  statue  of 

Nike  at  Olympia  is  cer- 
tainly by  Paeonius  (Fig. 
53),  for  he  is  mentioned 
as  the  artist  in  the  in- 
scription on  its  base, 
but  the  style  of  this  su- 
perb figure  is  more  ad- 
vanced than  that  of  the 
pediment  groups.  If, 
as  is  probable,  the  Nike 
was  set  up  after  the 
affair  at  Sphacteria 
(425  B.C.),  it  is  possi- 
ble that  the  pediment 
groups  were  the  work  of 
Paeonius  in  his  youth, 
before  his  style  devel- 
oped, but  this  is  not 
very  likely,  especially  as 
a  youthful  artist  would 
hardly  be  employed  to 
decorate  the  most  im- 
portant temple  in 
Greece.  It  is  therefore 
wiser  to  ascribe  the 
pediment  groups  to  no 
individual  artist,  and  to  be  content  with  the  statement  that 
they  are  probably  the  work  of  a  Peloponnesian  school  which 
had  at  some  time  come  under  Ionic  influence.  These  power- 
ful, splendid  figures  lack  delicacy,  perhaps,  but  they  are  full 


FIGURE  53.  —  Victory  by  Paeonius.    Olym- 
pia.    (Brunn-Bruckmann,  444.) 


1  The  assumption  that  another,  otherwise  unknown,  Alcamenes  was  the 
artist  of  the  western  pediment  is  hardly  warranted.  It  is  simpler  to  assume 
that  Pausanias  was  mistaken. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     85 

of  vigor ;  the  composition,  in  spite  of  its  somewhat  too  rigid 
symmetry,  is  skilful  and  effective.  Minor  faults  of  design 
and  unevenness  of  execution  would  not  have  been  visible 
when  the  figures  were  in  place  high  above  the  beholders,  and 
moreover  they  were  disguised  and  hidden  by  free  use  of 
color,  which  enhanced  the  brilliant  effect  of  the  whole. 

Three  Great  Sculptors.  —  At  the  time  when  the  temple  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia  was  finished  the  three  most  famous  sculptors 
of  the  fifth  century,  Myron,  Phidias,  and  Polyclitus,  were 
already  known,  though  the  lasr  named,  ancTyoungest,  had 
only  just  entered  upon  his  career.1 

Myron.  —  Myron  of  Eleutherae,  a  small  town  on  the 
borders  of  Attica  and  Boeotia,  was  born  not  far  from  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century,  and  his  chief  activity  was  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  fifth  century.  He  belongsjto^the  period  of 
transition  as  a  younger  contemporary  of  Cntms~ahd  Nesiotes 
and  of  Calamis,  and  he  was  also  an  elder  contemporary  of 
Phidias .  He  was  especially  famous  for  his  bronze  statues  of 
athle_tgs  and  animals.  His  bronze  cow  was  said  to  be  so 
lifelike  as  to  deceive  living  cattle  and  even  insects.  Many 
of  his  works  are  described  by  ancient  writers,  and  a  few 
of  them  are  known  to  us  through  copies  made  in  Roman 
times.  Among  these  is  the  Discobolus,  or  disk-thrower  _ (Fig. 
54)  ,2  the  best  copy  of  which  is  in  the  Lancelotti  palace  in 
Rome.  The  moment  just  before  the  cast  is  chosen,  when  the 
athlete  has  bent  and  twisted  his  whole  form,  to  straighten 
it  out  in  the  next  instant  of  supreme  exertion.  The  general 
attitude,  the  tense  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  the  bent  toes  of 

1  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist,  xxxiv,  57  and  55)  says  that  Myron  and  Polyclitus 
were  pupils  of  Hageladas  of  Argos,  who  is  mentioned  as  the  teacher  of 
Phidias  by  Tzetzes  and  a  scholiast  on  Aristophanes.     The  statement  is 
probably  true  of  Polyclitus  only,  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  an- 
cient writers  from  whom  the  late  authors  mentioned  drew  their  information 
saw  nothing  improbable  in  the  assertion  that  the  two  great  Attic  sculptors 
were  trained  in  the  Argive  school. 

2  The  tree  trunk,  which  serves  as  a  support  in  the  Lancelotti  statue  and 
other  replicas,  is  necessary  in  the  marble  reproduction,  but  was  not  needed, 
and  was  therefore  not  present,  in  the  bronze  original.     For  this  reason  our  il- 
lustration gives  a  better  idea  of  the  original  than  a  direct  photograph  of  the 
Lancelotti  statue  would  ;do.     Many  marble  copies  of  bronze  statues  were 
made  in  Roman  times,  and  most  of  them  have  supports  similar  to  this. 
"W  hen  the  bronze  original  is  under  discussion,  the  support  must  be  disregarded. 


86 


A  HISTORY  OF.  SCULPTURE 


the  left  foot,  as  they  drag  on  the  ground,  all  show  accurate 
observation  and  careful  study  of  nature.  The  face,  to  be 
sure,  lacks  the  intense  expression  that  accompanies  violent 
exertion,  and  the  hair  is  imperfectly  rendered,  though  a 
comparison  with  the  uniform  circular  curls  of  the  Harmodius 
by  Critius  and  Nesiotes  shows  wonderful  progress.  No  ves- 
tige of  the  "law  of  frontality"  remains.  The  representation 

of  the  human  form,  even 
in  the  most  contorted  pos- 
ture or  the  most  violent 
motion,  is  accomplished. 
Yet  this  figure,  with  all 
its  careful  detail,  evidently 
the  result  of  most  accu- 
rate study  of  nature,  stops 
short  of  the  reproduction 
of  the  individual  peculiar- 
ities of  the  model.  Like 
all  Greek  works  of  the 
classic  period,__rt__Ja*__in_ 
modern  parlanceTan  ideal- 
istic  not  a  realistic  work. 
TKe  artist  studied  nature 
until  he  could  combine  in 
one  statue  the  details  he 
had  observed  in  many 
persons,  thus  creating  a 
perfectly  natural  figure, 
but  without  those  imper- 
fections which  are  present  in  every  individual  work  of 
nature.  The  idealism  of  the  Discobolus  is,  however, 
purely  physical ;  it  does  not  soar  upwards  into  the  realm 
of  great  conceptions.  Another  work  by  Myron  which 
is  known  to  us  by  copies  is  a  group  of  Marsyas  and 
Athena  (Fig.  55) -1  According  to  the  story,  Athena  tried 

1  The  Marsyas  in  a  full-sized  marble  copy  in  the  Lateran  Museum  and  a 
bronze  statuette  in  the  British  Museum ;  the  Athena  in  a  marble  copy  at 
Frankfort  on  the  Main  (both  hands  and  a  large  part  of  both  arms  are  miss- 
ing), a  head  at  Dresden,  and  several  torsos.  The  Lateran  copy  of  the 


FIGURE  54.  —  Discobolus  by  Myron, 
as  reconstructed  in  the  National  Mu- 
seum, Rome. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     87 

flute  playing,  but  saw  her  image  reflected  at  the  moment  in  a 
pool  of  water,  and  threw  away  the  flutes  in  disgust.  At 
that  moment  Marsyas  saw  the  flutes  and  seized  them  with 
delight.  Myron  chose  for  his  group  the  moment  when  the 
satyr  sees  the  flutes  lying  on  the  ground.  His  excitement  is 
clearly  portrayed  in  his  attitude,  which  contrasts  strongly 


FIGURE  55. — Athena  and  Marsyas,  by  Myron,  as  restored  in  the  Archaeo- 
logical Museum,  Munich. 

with  the  disdainful  posture  of  Athena,  as  the  uncultured 
shrewdness  and  eagerness  of  his  face  contrasts  with  the 
intellectual  calm  of  hers.  The  Athena  is  a  graceful,  attrac- 
tive, and  dignified  figure,  and  the  group  must  have  been 

Marsyas  is  wrongly  restored  with  castanets  in  the  hands.  Of  course  the 
hands  should  be  empty ;  moreover,  the  position  of  the  arms  is  probably 
not  correct.  Critics  differ  concerning  the  hands  of  Athena  ;  she  can  hardly 
have  held  the  flutes,  as  in  our  illustration,  but  may  have  held  her  spear  in 
her  right  hand. 


88  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

effective  and  even  impressive.  Myron  was  a  versatile  ar- 
tist, and  among  his  works  were  many  statues  of  HeitiesT^but 
whether  he  was  capable  of  real  grandeur  of  thought  we  do 
not  know.  That  he  made  great  progress  in  the  representa- 
tion of  human  beings  and  animals,  whether  at  rest  or  in 
violent  motion,  is  certain. 

Phidias.  —  Of  the  three  great  sculptors  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, Phidias  was  apparently  the  greatest.  Yet  we  cannot 
assert  positively  that  he  surpassed  the  others  either  in  tech- 
nical skill  or  in  careful  observation.  His  greatness  was 
due  to  tbf  pm-ity  ari^  gmnrUiir  r,f  hk  pnnpppt-jnnft.  The 
types  of  the  greater  gods  were  established  by  him  for  all  the 
succeeding  centuries ;  they  were  employed  by  the  Romans, 
and  the  type  of  his  Zeus  at  Olympia  has  even  been  recog- 
nized in  the  representations  of  God  the  Father  by  Christian 
artists.  His  most  famous  works,  both  of  which  are  described 
in  detail  by  Pausanias,  were  two  colossal  statues,  that  of 
Zeus  at  Olympia  and  that  of  Athena  in  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens.  Both  were  chryselephantine,  that  is,  the  nude 
parts  were  encrusted  with  ivory,  the  drapery  made  of  beaten 
gold.  This  technique  developed  naturally,  with  the  in- 
crease of  wealth,  from  the  earlier  method  (page  67)  of  en-'1 
crusting  wooden  figures  with  bronze  and  precious  metals. 
The  originals  are  gone,  but  the  descriptions  make  it  possible 
to  recognize  copies  or  adaptations  of  both  statues  in  later 
works.1  None  of  these,  however,  gives  more  than  the 
general  form  and  attitude,  with  details  of  ornamentation, 
of  the  great  statues.  The  effect  of  the  originals,  produced  by 
their  colossal  size,  the  brilliancy  of  their  precious  materials, 
the  mastery  of  their  execution,  and  the  personal  inspiration 
of  the  great  artist  can  be  restored  only  in  imagination.  The 
literary  evidence  for  that  effect  is  convincing,  but  the  copies 

1  Two  small  copies  of  the  Athena  Parthenos  are  in  Athens ;  the  Varvakeion 
statuette  (1.03  m.  in  height,  Fig.  56)  and  the  unfinished  Lenormant  statu- 
ette (0.34  m.  high  without  the  base) ;  the  head  is  reproduced  on  a  carved 
gem  (the  Aspasios  gem)  and  on  two  gold  medallions  from  the  Crimea ;  the 
"  Minerve  au  collier"  in  the  Louvre  may  serve  as  an  example  of  adaptations. 
The  Zeus  (both  the  entire  statue  and  the  head  separately)  is  reproduced  on 
Elean  bronze  coins  of  Roman  date,  and  most  seated  figures  of  gods  and 
Roman  emperors  are  more  or  less  directly  descended  from  this  statue. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     89 


and  adaptations  of  the  statues  are  either  of  small  size  or 
mediocre  technique.  Even  from  these,  however,  it  is  evident 
that  Phidias  relied  for  his  effect,  apart  from  richness  of 
material,  colossal  size,  and  careful  workmanship,  upon 
simplicity  of  posture  and  calm 
dignity.  The  drapery  of  the 
Athena  falls  in  nearly  straight, 
parallel  folds,  except  in  so  far 
as  the  position  of  the  left  foot 
causes  some  variety;  there  is 
no  attempt  to  exhibit_the__ar- 
tis£*s~deverness  in  representing 
vafiousl;extUres  or  to  disclose  the 
^onns  of  the  body  through  thin 
or  delicate  coverings.  There  is 
no  hint  of  the  consummate  skill 
in  the  treatment  of  carefully  dis- 
ordered and  transparent  drapery 
which  is  seen  in  some  of  the  fig- 
ures from  the  pediments  of  the 
Parthenon  and  still  more  in  the 
reliefs  of  the  balustrade  of  the 
temple  of  Athena  Nike.  In 
comparison  with  those  works 
the  Athena,  making  all  allow- 
ances for  the  fact  that  we  pos- 
sess only  poor  copies,  seems 
almost  archaic.  The  head  is 
strong,  of  a  rather  round  oval, 
not  unlike  that  of  the  Harmodius 
of  Critius  and  Nesiotes  in  shape. 
The  Zeus  at  Olympia  was 
seated,  holding  a  figure  of  Victory 
in  his  right  hand  and  a  sceptre  in  his  left.  He  was  bearded 
and  wore  a  wreath  of  olive  on  his  head.  Ancient  writers 
emphasize  the  benignity  and  power  of  his  aspect.  The 
general  type  of  the  face  is  recognizable  on  coins,  but  no  ade- 
quate copy  of  the  head  exists.  Some  idea  of  its  appearance 


FIGURE  56.  —  The  Varva- 
keion  Athena.  National  Mu- 
seum, Athens. 


90 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


may  be  derived  from  a  marble  head  of  the  fourth  century  in 
the  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  in  Boston  or  from  a  bronze  in 
Vienna  (Fig.  57). 

The  Athena  Parthenos  was  dedicated  in  438  B.C.  It  is 
said  that  Phidias  represented  himself  on  the  shield  of  Athena 
as  a  bald-headed  old  man.  Not  long  after  the  completion 
of  this  statue,  perhaps  about  432  B.C.,  he  was  banished  from 

Athens,  and  apparently 
it  was  then  that  he  be- 
gan work  on  the  Zeus  at 
Olympia,  which  may  not 
have  been  finished  for 
some  years.  He  prob- 
ably died  at  or  near 
Olympia,  not  long  after 
the  completion  of  the 
Zeus.  His  earliest  re- 
corded works  (among 
them  probably  the  so- 
called  Athena  Proma- 
chos,  a  colossal  bronze 
figure  on  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens)  can  hardly 
be  later  than  470  B.C. 
The  date  of  his  birth 
must  therefore  be  little, 
if  at  all,  after  500  B.C. 

FIGURE  57.  —  Bronze  Head  of  Zeus,  AltVinntrVi  Vii<s  mr»<st  fa- 
Vienna.  (Jahreshefte  d.  Oesterr.  Archavl.  A11J 

Institutes,  XIV,  pi.  ii.)  mous  statues  were  made 

in  the  second  half  of  the 

fifth  century,  the  greater  number  of  his  works  belonged 
apparently  to  the  first  half,  and  the  earliest  among  them  were 
certainly  not  free  from  archaism.  His  great  fame  justifies 
us  in  the  belief  that  his  contemporaries  considered  him 
largely  responsible  for  the  remarkable  progress  of  Attic 
sculpture  between  the  Persian  invasion  and  the  Peloponne- 
sian  War.  We  do  not  know  the  number  of  his  works  o£. 
marble,  bronze,  and  other  materials.  Many  are  mentioned 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     91 

by  ancient  writers,  but  only  two,  the  AthenaParthenos  and 
the— ZeuSy  have  been  identified  with  cerEamty — nr~~later 
copies.1 

Eolyglitug.  —  Polyclitus,  the  third,  of  the  great  masters 
of  the  fifth  century,  was  an  Argive,  though  probably  of 
Sicyonian  birth.  His  earliest  known  work  is  the  statue  of 
Cynjscus,  winner  of  the  boys'  boxing  match  at  Olympia  in 
462  B.C.  About  423  he  made  the  great  chryselephantine 
statue  of  Hera  in  her  temple  near  Argos.  His  life  must  then 
have  extended  from  about  490  or  485  to  423  B.C.  or  later. 
His  works,  almost  exclusively  of  bronze,  were  chiefly  stat- 
ues of  victorious  athletes^  AIPEhese  "figures,  scTfaT~as  is 
imownT^stood  erect,- "with  the  weight  borne  chiefly  on  one 
foot.  This  was  not  peculiar  to  the  works  of  Polyclitus,  but 
the  arrangement  by  which  the  figure  appears  to  be  walking, 
with  the  weight  borne  by  the  foot  that  is  the  more  advanced, 
seems  to  be  his  invention.  The  ancient  critics  regarded  him 
as  one  of  the  greatest  artists,  but  his  greatness  appears  to 
have  resided  rather  in  the  perfe^tipj^o^irop^rtioji^arid  tech- 
nique JJraiijn  fertility  of  mventionlorrgrandeur  of  concep- 
tion. 

~^None  of  his  works  is  preserved  in  the  original,  but  three 
of  his  most  famous  statues  exist  in  marble  copies.2  These 
are  the  Doryphorus,  the  Diadumenus,  and  the  Amazon. 
They  are  alike  in  the  relatively  broad,  square  head,  square 
shoulders,  and  powerful  forms,  and  all  stand  in  the  walking 
posture  described  above.  The  Doryphorus  was  called  the/ 
"Canon"  and  was  regarded  as  the  model  of  proportions/ 
(Fig.  58).  It  is  indeed  little  more  than  a  typical  example  of 

1  In  1893  Professor  Furtwangler  combined  a  head  in  Bologna  with  a 
torso  in  Dresden  and  reconstructed  a  statue  of  Athena  which  is  clearly  a 
work  of  the  time  of  Phidias.     It  may  be,  though  this  is  far  from  certain, 
a  copy  of  the  Athena  Lemnia,  a  bronze  statue  by  Phidias,  which  was  set 
up  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  about  450  B.C.    Other  existing  statues  have 
been  claimed  as  copies  of  works  of  Phidias,  but  none  of  these  identifications 
has  been  as  yet  universally  accepted. 

2  Pausanias,  ii,  17, 4,  gives  a  description  of  the  great  seated  statue  of  Hera, 
and  Argive  coins  give  a  general  notion  of  the  head  with  its  elaborate  crown 
or  head-dress.     Sir  Charles  Waldstein   (Journ.   of  Hellenic  Studies,    1901, 
pp.  30-44)  finds  an  adaptation  of  this  head  in  a  marble  head  in  the  British 
Museum.     On  a  cylix  with  a  white  ground  in  Berlin  is  a  statuesque  figure 
of  Hera  wearing  a  similar  head-dress. 


92 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


the  Polyclitan  formula  of  rest-iamotion^  admirable  in  its 
simplfchyr  "The  Diaduiiieims,  \vitlTTne  hands  raised  to 
hold  the  ends  of  the  band  or  ribbon  that  is  to  be  bound  about 
the  head,  is  more  individual  in  attitude.  The  proportions 

are  somewhat  slighter,  probably 
because  the  youth  represented  is 
supposed  to  be  younger.  Of  the 
two  types  of  Amazon  created  dur- 
ing the  fifth  century,  one  resem- 
bles the  Doryphorus  in  proportions 
and  general  lines  about  as  closely 
as  a  female  figure  can  resemble 
the  figure  of  a  young  man.  This 
is  the  "Berlin  type,"  best  repre- 
sented by  a  statue  in  the  museum 
in  Berlin,  though  even  this  appears 
to  be  a  somewhat  inaccurate  copy 
of  the  bronze  original.  The  mar- 
ble copies  of  the  famous  works 
of  Polyclitus  give  us  some  idea 
of  his  style,  but  not  of  his  tech- 
nical skill.1  His  original  works 
are-  lost,-  and  we  can  judge  of 
their  perfection  only  by  the  state- 
ments of  ancient  writers.  Their 
popularity  is  attested  by  the  great 
number  of  copies  and  adaptations 
of  them  which  were  produced  in 
later  times,  and  his  great  influence 
is  proved  by  the  traces  of  his  style 
seen  in  the  works  of  some  of  the 
most  gifted  among  his  successors. 

Sculptures  from  the  Heraeum.  —  The  marble  copies  of  the 
works  of  Polyclitus  are  somewhat  dull  and  lifeless.  Frag- 

1  In  the  museum  at  Naples  is  a  bronze  copy  of  the  head  of  the  Doryphorus 
which  is  undoubtedly  more  like  the  original  than  the  head  of  the  marble 
statue ;  but  even  this  is  only  a  copy  and  fails  to  make  clear  to  us  why  the 
ancient  critics  regarded  Polyclitus  as  almost,  if  not  quite,  the  equal  of 
Phidias.  The  same  museum  contains  also  a  bronze  head  of  an  Amazon 
of  Polyclitan  style. 


FIGURE  58.  —  The  Do- 
ryphorus of  Polyclitus.  Na- 
ples. (Brunn-Bruckmann, 
273  Ersatz.) 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     93 


ments  of  sculpture  which  once  decorated  the  temple  near 
Argos,  for  which  Polyclitus  made  the  statue  of  Hera,  pro- 
duce a  different  impression.  We  have  no  reason  to  suppose 
that  they  are  the  work  of  the  great  artist  himself,  but  they 
are  original  works  of  his  time,  and  were  doubtless  designed 
and  executed  by  artists  who  were  strongly  influenced  by  the 
acknowledged  chief  of  the  Argive  school.  They  show  far 
more  freshness  of  conception  and  variety  of  expression 
than  do  the  copies  of  his  famous  statues.  Among  these 
fragments  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  a  youthful 
female  head,  usually  called  "Hera"  (Fig.  59),  which 
may  have  had  a  place  in  one  of  the 
pediments  of  the  temple.  This  head  is 
somewhat  less  square  or  broad  than  that 
of  the  Doryphorus  or  of  the  Amazon, 
and  therefore  tends  more  toward  the 
Attic  type,  but  it  is  Argive  work  of 
the  time  and  school  of  Polyclitus.  It 
shows  that  the  work  of  that  school  was 
less  monotonous  and  stereotyped  than 
might  be  inferred  from  the  Roman  copies 
of  the  great  artist's  famous  works.  To 
that  extent,  therefore,  this  head  and  the 
other  fragments  of  the  decorative  sculp- 
tures of  the  temple  may  supplement 
and  correct  our  estimate  of  the  style  of 
Polyclitus. 

Other  Sculptors  of  the  Fifth  Century.  —  Several  other 
artists  of  this  period  are  known  by  name.  Lycius  was  the 
son  of  Myron ;  Agoracritus,  of  Pares,  Alcamenes,  of  Athens, 
and  Colotes,  of  Heraclea  near  Elis,  were  pupils  of  Phidias ; 
Praxias  was  a  pupil  of  Calamis;  Cresilas,  of  Cydonia,  in 
Crete,  Styppax,  of  Cyprus,  and  Strongylion,  of  Megara,  were 
sculptors  of  note.  Most  of  them  seem  to  have  worked  chiefly 
at  Athens,  though  the  only  works  of  Colotes  mentioned  by 
ancient  writers  were  in  or  near  Elis.  Paeonius,  of  Mende, 
in  Thrace,  was  the  artist  of  the  Nike  at  Olympia  (page  84) 
and  also  of  the  acroteria  of  the  temple  of  Zeus.  A  bust  of 


FIGURE  59.  —  So- 
called  Hera.  National 
Museum,  Athens. 
(Waldstein,  Excava- 
tions .  .  .  at  the  Hera- 
ion  of  Argos,  1892, 
pl.  v.) 


94  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Pericles  in  the  British  Museum  is  regarded  with  good  reason 
as  a  copy  of  an  original  by  Cresilas;  it  is  the  work  of  an 
artist  of  great  ability.  Alcamenes  was  especially  noted  for 
the  delicacy  of  his  work.  He  may  have  been  the  originator 
of  the  type  known  as  "Venus  Genetrix,"  a  thinly  veiled 
female  figure  (see  page  136).  It  seems  that  Pausanias  was  in 
error  in  ascribing  to  him  the  figures  in  the  western  pediment 
of  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia  (page  83).  Agoracritus 
is  said  to  have  been  the  artist  of  the  statue  of  Nemesis  at 
Rhamnus,  though  it  is  ascribed  by  some  writers  to  Phidias 
himself.  The  statue  is  lost,  but  fragments  of  the  reliefs 
which  once  adorned  its  pedestal  are  now  in  the  museum  at 
Athens.  They  are  charming  in  design  and  execution  and, 
in  spite  of  their  small  proportions,  have  something  of  the 
dignity  of  great  art;  they  prove  to  us  that  the  sculptor's 
reputation  was  deserved. 

The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon.  —  The  famous  works  of 
Myron,  Phidias,  Polyclitus,  and  their  contemporaries  were 
free-standing  statues,  works  of  substantive  sculpture,  for 
the  most  part  of  bronze  or  of  gold  and  ivory.  These  are 
known  to  us  only  by  descriptions  or,  at  best,  by  late  copies, 
usually  of  inferior  workmanship  and  different  material.  The 
Nike  of  Paeonius  is  a  solitary  exception,  and  Paeonius  was 
not  one  of  the  most  famous  sculptors.  The  decorative  works 
are.  not  so  completely  lost,  and  the  sculptures  of  the 
Parthenon,  even  in  their  fragmentary  condition,  are  among 
the  greatest  monuments  of  human  genius.  The  temple  was 
begun  in  447  and  dedicated  in  438  B.C.,  though  it  was  not 
entirely  finished  until  432.  The  metopes,  above  the  archi- 
trave, were  carved  before  they  were  put  in  place,  that  is, 
certainly  by  438.  The  Ionic  frieze  that  ran  round  the  wall 
of  the  cella  may  have  been  carved  after  it  was  in  place, 
though  probably  it  also  was  finished  by  438.  The  statues 
that  filled  the  pediments  were  probably  carved  and  put  in 
place  after  the  dedication  of  the  temple.  At  any  rate,  all 
the  sculptures  may  be  dated  between  447  and  432  B.C.  The 
metopes,  ninety-two  in  number,  each  about  four  feet  square 
(1.20  m.  by  1.27  m.)  were  adorned  with  figures  in  very  high 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     95 


relief,  the  Ionic  frieze  was  a  band  of  relatively  low  relief, 
522  ft.  8  in.  (159.42  m.)  long  and  3  ft.  3.5  in.  (1  m.)  high ; 
the  pediments,  93  ft.  (28.35  m.)  long  and  llf  ft.  (3.456  m.) 
high  in  the  middle, 
were  completely 
filled  with  colossal 
statues.  The  entire 
building,  including 
the  sculptures,  was 
of  Pentelic  marble.1 
The  only  metopes 
sufficiently  well  pre- 
served to  enable  us 
to  judge  of  their 
style  and  workman- 
ship are  those  in  the 
British  Museum,  all 
of  which  represent 
Centaurs  in  conflict 


FIGURE  60.  —  Metope  of  the  Parthenon.    Brit- 
ish Museum.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  184.) 


with  Lapithae.     In 

some   of   these   the 

figures  are  stiff  and  not  free  from  archaism,  the  composition 

imperfect,  and  the  workmanship  mediocre;    in  others  the 

design  is  vigorous,  full  of  life,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the 

1  Of  the  metopes  forty-three  are  still  in  place  on  the  Parthenon  (where 
they  have  suffered  much  from  exposure),  fifteen  are  in  the  British  Museum, 
one  in  the  Louvre,  and  fragments  are  in  the  British  Museum,  the  Louvre, 
the  Acropolis  Museum  at  Athens,  and  one  in  Copenhagen.  The  rest  are 
lost.  The  subjects  were :  at  the  east  end,  the  battle  of  the  Gods  and  Giants ; 
at  the  west  end,  the  battle  of  the  Athenians  and  the  Amazons ;  at  the  ends 
of  the  south  side  and  the  middle  of  the  north  side,  combats  of  Centaurs  and 
Lapithae ;  in  the  middle  of  the  south  side  and  toward  the  ends  of  the  north 
side,  scenes  apparently  of  the  Trojan  War.  Of  the  Ionic  frieze,  the  part 
which  decorates  the  west  end  is  still  in  place,  as  is  also  a  small  part  of  that 
on  the  south  side.  Most  of  the  rest  is  in  the  British  Museum,  though 
several  slabs  and  fragments  are  in  the  Acropolis  Museum  at  Athens.  Of 
the  pediment  statues,  nearly  all  the  extant  remains  are  in  the  British  Museum, 
only  fragments  being  in  Athens.  The  so-called  Weber  or  De  Laborde  head  is 
in  Paris.  Drawings  by  an  artist  (not,  as  was  formerly  believed,  Jacques 
Carrey)  who  was  in  Athens  with  the  Marquis  de  Nointel  in  1674  represent 
the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  as  they  were  at  that  time,  before  the  build- 
ing was  wrecked  (in  1687)  by  the  explosion  of  gunpowder  that  was  stored 
in  it.  The  sculptures  from  the  Parthenon  -now  in  the  British  Museum  were 
sent  to  England  by  Lord  Elgin  and  form  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
"Elgin  Marbles." 


96 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


square  space  to  be  filled,   while   the   workmanship  shows 
remarkable  skill.     Figure  60  reproduces  one  of  the  best. 

The  Ionic  frieze  represents  the  Panathenaic  procession  in 
honor  of  Athena,  —  not  with  all  the  details  of  the  real  pro- 
cession, but  with  the  essential  elements  clearly  portrayed. 
At  the  west  end  the  knights,  youths  of  the  best  Athenian 
families,  are  preparing  to  mount  their  horses  or  have  just 
mounted  and  started  on  their  way.  On  the  north  and  south 
sides  the  procession  moves  toward  the  east  end.  Here  are 


FIUUHE  61.  —  From  the  Eastern  Frieze  of  the  Parthenon.    Acropolis  Mu- 
seum, Athens.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  194.) 

young  men  on  prancing  horses,  chariots  with  their  drivers 
and  the  armed  men  who  fought  either  from  the  chariot  or 
on  foot,  sheep  and  cows  led  to  sacrifice,  maidens  carrying 
jars,  venerable  citizens,  and  youths  with  sacred  offerings. 
On  each  long  side  of  the  temple  the  procession  is  represented, 
so  that  the  spectator  could  see  it  equally  well,  whether  he 
walked  along  the  northern  or  the  southern  portico.  At  the 
east  end  the  procession  turns  the  corner,  headed  by  maidens 
bearing  sacrificial  instruments.  Before  them  stand  two 
groups  of  men,  perhaps  the  ten  eponymous  heroes  of  the 
Attic  tribes,  with  a  few  other  persons  whose  significance  is 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     97 

not  clear  to  us.  There  are  at  each  side  six  seated  figures, 
the  twelve  great  gods  (Fig.  61),  and  with  them  Iris  attend- 
ant upon  Hera  and  Eros  leaning  upon  the  knees  of  his 
mother  Aphrodite.  In  the  middle,  immediately  over  the 
door,  is  a  group  consisting  of  two  maidens  carrying  stools, 
a  priestess,  and  a  priest  who  seems  to  be  taking  from  a  young 
attendant  a  large  folded  cloth,  probably  the  peplos,  or  sacred 
cloak,  of  the  goddess.  The  purpose  of  the  procession  was 
to  bring  the  peplos  to  Athena  on  her  sacred  Acropolis ;  that 
purpose  is  here  seen  accomplished  in  the  presence  of  the 
Attic  heroes  and  the  great  divinities.  The  eastern  frieze 
thus  expresses  the  religious  significance  of  the  whole. 

The  metopes  were  placed  on  the  outside  of  the  entablature, 
in  the  full  brightness  of  the  Attic  sunlight ;  they  are  there- 
fore carved  in  very  high  relief,  which  casts  deep  shadows. 
The  frieze  was  high  up  on  the  wall  of  the  cella,  always  in 
the  shade,  and  receiving  only  diffused  and  reflected  light 
from  below ;  it  was  therefore  carved  in  relatively  low  relief. 
Since  the  light  came  from  below,  the  shadows  must  fall  up- 
ward ;  therefore  the  artist  made  the  lower  parts  of  the  figures 
project  less  from  the  background  than  the  upper  parts  and 
cut  the  upper  outlines  in  sharply,  while  the  lower  parts  of 
the  figures,  as  a  rule,  reach  the  background  gradually,  by 
oblique  curves. 

The  clearness  of  the  design  and  the  brilliancy  of  the  effect 
were  increased  by  color,  the  use  of  which  was  a  matter  of 
course.  The  execution  of  the  relief  varies  considerably, 
as  is  natural,  for  many  stone-cutters  were  necessarily  em- 
ployed to  carve  it,  but  the  quality  of  the  design  is  remark- 
ably consistent.  Evidently  the  frieze  is  the  work  of  one 
artist  in  whom  fertility  of  invention,  accurate  observation, 
fine  appreciation  of  harmony,  and  love  of  beauty  were  united. 
The  convention  of  Greek  relief  sculpture  which  demands 
that  all  heads  be  approximately  in  one  line  (isocephalism) 
is  observed,  but  does  not  result  in  monotony.  In  fact,  the 
frieze  is  remarkable  for  the  variety  it  presents.  In  all  its 
hundreds  of  figures  there  is  no  repetition.  Everywhere 
there  is  life,  grace,  and  nobility. 


98 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


The  pediment  sculptures  represented  at  the  east  the  birth 
of  Athena  and  at  the  west  the  strife  of  Athena  with  Poseidon 
for  the  possession  of  Attica.  This  we  know  from  the  state- 
ment of  Pausanias.  Drawings  made  in  1674  represent  the 
pediments  as  they  were  at  that  time,  when  the  sculptures 
of  the  western  end  were  almost  entire ;  but  the  central  group 
of  the  eastern  pediment  was  even  then  destroyed.  Zeus, 
Athena,  and  Hephaestus,  or  Prometheus,  were  certainly 
present,  and  with  them  were  probably  the  Eilithyiae,  or 
goddesses  of  childbirth,  while  above,  in  the  very  centre 

of  the  pediment, 
floated  the  goddess 
of  victory,  Nike, 
the  constant  com- 
panion of  Athena. 
So  the  scene  is 
represented  on  a 
puteal  in  Madrid. 
Each  statue  had 
a  separate  plinth, 
and  the  marks  left 
on  the  blocks  of  the 
cornice  which  sup- 
ported the  statues 
indicate  that  Zeus 
was  seated  just  at 
the  left  of  the  centre,  with  Athena  standing  before  him,  at  the 
right.  The  first  extant  figure  toward  the  left  is  Iris,  bearing 
the  news  to  two  seated  figures,  perhaps  Demeter  and  Perseph- 
one, or  possibly  the  Horae,  just  beyond.  The  superb  male 
figure  next  to  these  (Fig.  62),  often  called  Theseus  or  Dionysus, 
has  also  been  interpreted  as  a  personification  of  Mount 
Olympus.  In  the  corner  Helios,  the  sun-god,  driving  his  four 
horses,  rises  from  the  sea.  The  three  splendid  draped  female 
figures  at  the  right  (Fig.  63),  usually  called  the  Fates,  have 
been  interpreted  as  the  three  Attic  Horae,  and  also  as  per- 
sonifications of  aspects  of  nature.  In  the  corner  Selene,  the 
moon-goddess,  in  her  four-horse  chariot,  sinks  into  the  sea. 


FIGURE  62. — So-called  Theseus,  from  the  Par- 
thenon.   British  Museum. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     99 

The  central  group  of  the  western  pediment  is  shown,  for 
the  most  part,  in  the  drawing  of  1674,  and  is  reproduced, 
with  some  changes,  on  an  ancient  vase  from  Kertch,  now  in 
St.  Petersburg.  In  the  centre  was  the  sacred  olive  tree, 
Athena's  gift  to  Athens.  At  the  left  stands  Athena,  who  has 
just  struck  the  ground  with  her  spear.  At  the  right  stands 
Poseidon  with  his  trident.  Both  figures  draw  back  from  the 
centre.  Behind  Athena  is  her  chariot,  driven  by  Nike,  and 
behind  Poseidon  his  chariot,  with  Amphitrite  as  driver. 
The  nude  male  figure  beside  Athena's  chariot  is  probably 


FIGURE  63.  —  So-called  Fates,   from    the   Parthenon.      British    Museum. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  190.) 

Hermes,  and  the  corresponding  draped  female  figure  may  be 
Iris.  Probably  the  recumbent  figures  in  the  corners  are  a 
river-god,  Cephisus  or  Ilisus,  and  a  nymph,  Calirrhoe.  The 
remaining  figures  have  been  interpreted  as  (1)  gods  and 
heroes  who  were  present  at  the  contest,  (2)  Attic  divinities 
and  heroes  symbolizing  the  Athenian  people  and  their  interest 
in  the  event,  or  (3)  personifications  of  features  of  the  country 
of  Attica.  A  sure  interpretation  is  almost  impossible,  owing 
to  the  loss  of  the  heads  of  the  statues,  the  imperfections  of 
the  drawings  of  1674,  and  the  total  absence  of  attributes. 
But  if  we  cannot  fully  interpret  the  meaning  the  artist 


100  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

intended  to  convey,  we  can  admire  the  beauty  of  the  individual 
figures  and  the  variety  and  rhythmic  movement  of  the  com- 
position (Fig.  64) .  The  astonishing  progress  made  by  Greek 
sculptors  in  one  generation  is  seen  by  comparison  of  these 
works  with  the  pediment  sculptures  of  Olympia.  Here  is 
no  trace  of  archaic  stiffness,  no  mechanical  division  of  the 
pediment  by  an  upright  figure  in  the  centre  designed  accord- 
ing to  the  old  law  of  frontality,  no  difficulty  or  timidity  in 
the  treatment  of  drapery.  In  some  cases,  notably  in  the 
recumbent  "Fate"  of  the  eastern  pediment,  the  drapery  is 
treated  with  almost  ostentatious  mastery,  and  the  massive, 
athletic  figure  of  the  so-called  Theseus  is  unsurpassed  as  a 
portrayal  of  the  nude  form.  As  at  Olympia,  the  figures  of 
each  pediment  are  arranged  in  groups,  those  at  one  side  of 


FIGURE  64.  —  Eastern  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon,  as  reconstructed  by  Karl 
Schwerzek,  Vienna. 

the  middle  corresponding  to  those  at  the  other  side,  but  here 
the  correspondence  is  no  longer  exact  or  mechanical,  but  is 
varied,  a  male  figure  corresponding  to  a  female,  a  nude  form 
to  one  that  is  draped,  a  bearded  man  to  a  youth.  Sym- 
metry is  preserved,  but  it  is  combined  with  variety  in  such 
a  way  as  to  produce  a  rich  and  harmonious  rhythm.  With 
these  groups,  pedimental  composition  attains  its  greatest 
perfection.1 

The  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  are  unequalled  among  the 
remains  of  Greek  decorative  sculpture.  The  metopes  are 

1  The  convention  of  Greek  art,  according  to  which  the  most  important 
figures  were  (or  might  be)  made  larger  than  the  rest,  was  especially  con- 
venient in  pedimental  composition,  since  it  enabled  the  artist  to  make  his 
figures  decrease  in  size  as  the  height  of  the  triangular  space  diminished 
toward  the  corners.  The  lack  of  such  a  convention  in  modern  art  increases 
the  difficulty  of  filling  a  pediment. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     101 

superior  to  those  of  Olympia  and  of  the  so-called  Theseum, 
not  to  speak  of  earlier  examples,  no  continuous  band  of 
sculpture  exists  which  can  bear  comparison  with  the  frieze, 
and  the  pediment  groups  are  unrivalled.  Phidias  was  con- 
sidered the  greatest  sculptor  of  his  time,  and  Plutarch  says 
that  Phidias  was  general  superintendent  of  the  building  opera- 
tions of  Pericles.  It  has  therefore  been  generally  assumed 
that  Phidias  was  the  artist  of  the  decorative  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon.  But  even  if  Plutarch's  statement  is  correct, 
which  is  by  no  means  certain,  it  does  not  establish  any  direct 
connection  between  Phidias  and  those  sculptures.  The 
copies  (very  poor,  to  be  sure)  of  the  Athena  Parthenos  are 
the  only  sure  and  direct  evidence  we  have  for  the  style  of 
Phidias,  and  they  exhibit  a  style  much  simpler  and  much 
less  advanced  than  that  of  the  pediment  figures.  Of  course 
some  difference  of  style  is  to  be  expected,  for  the  Athena 
was  a  colossal  cult  statue,  and  the  pediment  figures  were 
decorative  sculptures  of  marble,  not  of  gold  and  ivory; 
but  the  difference  is  greater  than  can  be  explained  in  this 
way.  The  metopes  again  differ  among  themselves  in  style 
as  well  as  in  execution.  If  they  were  not  found  on  the 
same  temple,  they  would  not  be  ascribed  to  the  same  artist. 
Indeed,  since  they  were  ninety-two  in  number,  it  is  quite 
possible  that  they  were  designed  by  more  than  one  person. 
The  frieze  is  evidently  the  work  of  one  artist,  but  there 
is  no  close  similarity  of  style  between  it  and  the  metopes 
on  one  hand  or  the  pediment  sculptures  on  the  other.  It  is 
possible  that  the  metopes  were  designed  (as  the  Athena 
Parthenos  was)  by  Phidias  before  438,  that  he  then  designed 
the  frieze,  which  is  in  a  later  and  more  advanced  style,  and 
that  in  the  next  years  he  created  the  pediment  groups.  The 
three  parts  of  the  sculptural  adornment  of  the  Parthenon 
would  in  that  case  show  different  aspects  of  the  genius  of 
one  man,  as  it  developed  in  the  brief  space  of  six  years  or  a 
little  more.1  That  is  possible ;  but  as  yet  the  stages  of 
progress  from  the  style  of  the  Athena  Parthenos  to  that  of  the 

1  Fifteen  years,  if  we  reckon  from  the  date  of  the  beginning  of  the  Parthe- 
non to  432  B.C.  when  the  records  of  work  on  the  building  cease. 


102  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

pediment  groups  cannot  be  traced  in  such  detail  as  to  make 
it  certain  or  even  very  probable.  The  decorative  sculptures, 
of  the  Parthenon  are  the  products  of  Athenian  art  as  it, 
developed  under  the  influence  of  Phidias,  though  there  is 
no  proof  that  they  are  his  own  work,  or  that  they  are  all 
the  work  of  one  man. 

Sculptures  of  the  Theseum.  —  Portions  of  the  sculptures 
are  extant  which  adorned  three  other  buildings  erected  at 
Athens  in  the  second  half  of  the  fifth  century :  the  so-called 
Theseum,  the  temple  of  Athena  Nike  (Nike  Apteros),  and 
the  Erechtheum.  The  so-called  Theseum  was  a  Doric 
temple  with  pediment  groups,  eighteen  sculptured  metopes, 
and  continuous  friezes  across  the  pronaos  and  opisthodomus, 
just  below  the  ceiling  in  the  eastern  and  western  porticos. 
The  pediment  groups  have  disappeared,  but  the  metopes  and 
friezes  are  still  in  place.  The  metopes  have  suffered  greatly 
from  exposure  and  are  much  defaced.  In  them  the  labors 
of  Heracles  and  Theseus  were  represented  in  high  relief. 
The  groups  were  well  composed  and  well  adapted  to  fill  the 
square  spaces.  In  general,  their  style  makes  it  probable  that 
they  are  works  of  the  pupils  of  Myron  rather  than  of  the 
school  of  Phidias,  but  their  present  condition  is  such  that 
nothing  definite  can  be  said  about  them.  The  friezes  are 
far  better  preserved.  They  are  not  so  high  above  the 
spectator  as  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  and  they  are  better 
lighted,  though  they  also  receive  the  light  from  below.  The 
relief  is  higher  than  that  of  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon.  The 
eastern  frieze  represents  scenes  of  battle  and  seated  deities, 
who  are,  like  the  seated  deities  in  the  eastern  frieze  of  the 
Parthenon,  undoubtedly  supposed  to  be  invisible  to  the 
human  beings  among  whom  they  sit.  The  western  frieze 
represents  the  combat  of  Lapithae  and  Centaurs.  In  both 
friezes  the  composition  is  broken  up  into  small  groups,  often 
of  two  persons,  as  if  the  artist  were  accustomed  to  compose 
reliefs  for  square  spaces,  and  one  of  these  groups  in  the 
western  frieze  is  almost  a  repetition  of  one  of  the  metopes  of 
the  Parthenon.  In  general,  however,  the  reliefs  of  these 
friezes  are  excellent  in  design  and  execution. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     103 


The  Temple  of  Athena  Nike.  —  The  frieze  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Nike  ("Wingless  Victory")  is  probably  a  little 
later  than  those  of  the  Parthenon  and  the  "Theseum,"  for 
in  it  the  tendency  is  seen  to  employ  floating  drapery  as  a 
means  of  filling  spaces  which  would  otherwise  be  vacant. 
This  tendency  is  not  seen 
in  the  other  friezes  men- 
tioned, but  is  prevalent 
in  later  work.  This 
frieze  is  only  about  eigh- 
teen inches  high,  conse- 
quently the  figures  are 
small.  At  the  eastern 
end  an  assembly  of 
deities  is  represented,  on 
the  other  sides  (for  the 
frieze  runs  round  the  en- 
tire building)  scenes  of 
battle..  Probably  some 
battle  of  the  Persian  war 
is  intended.  The  work 
is  careful  and  the  com- 
position good. 

The  temple  of  Athena 
Nike  stands  on  a  partly 
artificial  projection,  or 
bastion,  at  the  west  end  of 
the  Acropolis  at  Athens. 
About  the  edges  of  this 
bastion  was  a  marble  cop- 
ing, or  balustrade,  adorned 
with  reliefs  which  repre- 
sented winged  Victories.  One  is  arranging  a  trophy,  two 
are  leading  a  refractory  cow  to  sacrifice,  another  (Fig.  65)  is 
adjusting  her  footgear,  others  are  engaged  in  various  other 
activities.  These  reliefs  are  unfortunately  fragmentary, 
but  enough  is  preserved  to  show  the  exquisite  quality  of  the 
workmanship,  the  freedom  of  the  design,  and  especially  the 


FIGURE  65. — Fragment  of  the  Balus- 
trade of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Nike. 
Acropolis  Museum,  Athens. 


104  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

skill  with  which  the  flowing  drapery  is  treated.  Some- 
times it  falls  in  graceful  folds,  and  again  it  seems  to  cling  to 
the  full  and  vigorous  forms  beneath  it,  almost  as  if  it  were 
wet.  Here  the  artist  exults  in  his  mastery.  Such  drapery 
is  not  natural,  but  it  produces  the  impression  of  reality. 
When  these  wonderful  reliefs  were  colored  and  gilded,  the 
effect  of  the  balustrade  must  have  been  brilliant  indeed. 

The  Erechtheum.  —  The  Erechtheum  was  an  Ionic  temple 
of  exceptional  form  and  unusually  rich  adornment.  Nothing 
now  remains  of  the  figures  which  may  have  filled  its  three 
pediments,  but  fragments  of  the  frieze  which  encircled  the 
whole  building  are  preserved,  as  are  also  the  female  figures, 
or  Caryatids,  which  support  the  architrave  of  the  south- 
western porch.  Moreover,  the  bases  and  capitals  of  the 
columns  were  richly  carved,  the  necks  of  columns,  the 
door-casings,  and  the  mouldings  were  adorned  with  beauti- 
fully chiselled  guilloches,  palmettes,  and  rosettes.  The 
frieze  consisted  of  a  band  of  very  dark  gray  stone,  to  which 
figures  of  white  Pentelic  marble  were  attached  by  means  of 
iron  dowels  or  pegs.  The  figures  probably  represented  scenes 
of  the  myth  of  Erichthonius,  not  a  continuous  procession 
or  a  single  assemblage.  The  workmanship  was  not  un- 
usually fine,  so  far  as  the  much  damaged  surfaces  of  the 
figures  enable  us  to  judge.1  The  six  Caryatids  are  admirable 
and  have  served  as  the  models  for  all  later  figures  of  the  kind. 
The  idea  of  using  female  figures  as  supports  was  not  new, 
but  the  combination  of  firmness,  grace,  dignity,  and  charm 
in  these  figures  proclaims  them  the  work  of  a  master  (Fig. 
66).  The  heads  are  a  little  more  square  than  the  usual 
Attic  type,  hence  the  suggestion  has  been  made  that  these 

1  In  an  inscription  recording  the  money  expended  by  the  commission  in 
charge  of  the  erection  of  the  Erechtheum,  the  sums  paid  for  carving  the 
frieze  and  the  persons  to  whom  they  were  paid  are  mentioned.  The  pay 
for  carving  an  ordinary  figure  (the  figures  were  about  two  feet  high  and 
were,  of  course,  since  they  had  to  be  fastened  to  the  dark  stone  background, 
flat  at  the  back)  was  60  drachmas  (somewhat  more  than  $13  or  £2,12s.). 
The  money  was  paid  to  a  considerable  number  of  different  persons,  who 
were  evidently  not  regarded  as  artists,  but  as  mere  workmen  or  artisans. 
There  must  have  been  a  large  number  of  such  skilled  workmen  at  Athens, 
especially  in  the  times  just  before  and  during  the  Pelopounesian  War,  when 
those  who  had  worked  on  the  Parthenon  were  still  available. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     105 


figures  are  the  work  of  an 
Argive  sculptor.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  head  called  "Hera," 
from  the  Argive  Heraeum  (Fig. 
59)  has  been  claimed  as  Attic 
work,  because  it  is  less  square 
than  that  of  the  Polyclitan 
Amazon  or  Doryphorus.  The 
truth  is  probably  that  the 
schools  of  Argos  and  of  Athens, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century,  were  not  completely 
isolated,  but  each  influenced 
the  other.  In  general,  the  in- 
fluence of  Attic  art  was  the 
stronger,  not  only  in  conti- 
nental Greece,  but  through- 
out the  Hellenic  world. 

Frieze  from  Phigaleia.  Gjol 
Baschi.  The  Nereid  Monu- 
ment. —  At  Bassae,  near  Phi- 
galeia, in  Arcadia,  the  frieze 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epi- 
curius  (now  in  the  British 
Museum)  represents  the  bat- 
tles of  Lapithae  with  Centaurs 
and  Greeks  with  Amazons. 
Although  the  workmanship  is 
by  no  means  equal  to  that  of 
the  Athenian  reliefs  just  de- 
scribed, the  design  is  free  and 
vigorous.  This  frieze,  which 
is  remarkable  for  its  bold,  and 
not  always  successful,  at- 
tempts at  foreshortening,  is 
almost  certainly  Attic  work. 
Strong  Attic  influence,  if  not 
actual  Attic  wrork,  is  seen  in  the 


FIGURE    66.  —  Caryatid  from  the 
Erechtheum.    British  Museum. 


106 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


reliefs  from  Gjol  Baschi,  now  in  Vienna,  and  the  sculptures  of 
the  Nereid  Monument,  now  in  the  British  Museum.  In  the 
former,  which  dates  from  a  time  not  much  after  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  the  influence  of  the  art  of  painting  is 
evident.  The  Nereid  monument  may  perhaps  be  a  work 
of  the  fourth  century.  At  any  rate,  it  is  plain  that  Attic 

influence  was  predomi- 
nent  in  the  sculpture 
of  Lycia  when  those 
works  were  executed. 

Various  Reliefs.  — 
Reliefs  were  employed 
at  all  periods  of  Greek 
art  not  only  for  the  dec- 
oration of  buildings,  but 
also  as  votive  offerings, 
headings  for  inscrip- 
tions, gravestones,  and 
the  like.  Such  reliefs 
are  of  interest,  even 
when  they  have  little 
artistic  value,  because 
they  show  the  popular 
use  of  relief  sculpture; 
and  some  of  them  are 
of  great  beauty.  Most 
of  the  sculptured  grave- 
stones belong  to  the 
fourth  century,  but 
many  of  the  votive  re- 
liefs are  earlier.  One  of  the  finest  of  this  class  is  the 
large  relief  from  Eleusis  (now  in  Athens)  which  repre- 
sents Demeter  and  Cora  (Persephone)  with  the  youthful 
Triptolemus  (or  Bacchus).  In  the  treatment  of  drapery, 
hair,  and  eyes,  there  are  noticeable  traces  of  archaism, 
and  the  attitudes  are  somewhat  stiff.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  one,  at  least,  of  the  female  figures  may  be 
a  copy  of  a  statue.  The  date  of  this  work  is  probably 


FIGURE  67.  —  So-called  Mourning  Athena, 
Athens. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FIFTH  CENTURY     107 

a  little  after  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  somewhat 
earlier  than  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon.  Another  charming 
relief,  though  not  of  remarkable  workmanship,  is  the  so- 
called  Mourning  Athena,  which  was  apparently  the  heading 
of  an  inscription  (Fig.  67) .  It  is  a  work  of  about  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  or  a  trifle  earlier,  and  shows  marked 
traces  of  archaism.  The  meaning  of  the  relief  is  not 
clear,  but  perhaps  Athena  is  gazing  pensively  at  a  list  of 
Athenians  who  have  fallen  in  battle.  Even  the  unknown 
and  unimportant  artists  of  this  period  were  able  to  express 
themselves  in  forms  of  simple  dignity  and  beauty. 

Progress  in  the  Fifth  Century.  —  In  the  fifth  century  Greek 
sculptors  advanced  from  archaic  stiffness,  mannerism,  and^ 
conventionality  to  grace  and  simplicity,  learned  to  represent^ 
correctly  the  forms  of  men  and  animals,  both  in  general 
structure  and  in  details,  such  as  hands  and  eves^  developed 
great  skill  in  the  representation  of  drapery  invented  and 
perfected  the  chief  types  of  deities,  and  created  decorative 
compositions  which  have  never  been  surpassed.  The  so- 
called  TJieseus,  from  the  eastern  pediment  of  the  Parthenon, 
is  a  model  of  physical  perfection^  the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon 
combines  in  unparalleled  degree  the  qualities  of  dignity, 
grace.  varietvf  and  charm ;  jhe  maidens  of  t^R  pomh  of  the 
Erechtheum  are  unequalleoT  among  examples  of  sculptured 
figures/employed  as  architectural  members.  t  It  would  seem 
that  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  (jreek  sculpture  had 
reached  perfection.  So,  in  a  sense,  it  had,  and  in  their  ability 
to  represent  perfect  types  with  truth  to  nature,  to  portray 
the  actions  and  attitudes  of  men  and  beasts  without  exaggera- 
tion or  awkwardness,  the  sculptors  of  that  period  have  not 
been  surpassed,  and  hardly  equalled,  by  the  sculptors  of 
any  later  time.  And  so,  in  a  sense,  the  decadence  of  Greek 
sculpture  may  be  said  to  begin  w^ith  the  fourth  century.  Yet_ 
progress^  was  still  possible,  and  a  kind  of  progress  which  ap- 
peals^stroKglyTo ThlTmodern  mind . 


CHAPTER  VI 
GREEK   SCULPTURE.     THE   FOURTH   CENTURY 

Qualities  of  Sculpture  in  the  Fourth  Century.  —  In  the 
fourth  century  the  spirit  which  had  united  all  Greeks  against 
the  Persian  invader,  which  had  gained  the  battles  of  Salamis 
and  Plataea,  which  had  brought  about  the  foundation  of  the 
Delian  League  and  the  development  of  the  Athenian  Empire, 
had  lost  its  power.  There  were  still  great  patriots,  among 
whom  Demosthenes  stands  forth  as  the  greatest,  and  military 
courage  was  by  no  means  dead;  but  in  general  the  spirit 
was  different.  The  state  was  less  supreme,  and  the  individual 
more  important  both  in  the  speculations  of  the  philosophers 
and  in  the  conduct  of  their  fellow-citizens.  Something  of 
the  same  change  is  seen  in  art.  The  sculptors  still  represent 
ideals,  but  the  ideals  are  less  grand  and  austere.  The  types 
of  the  greater  and  elder  deities  had  been  fixed  in  the  fifth 
century.  It  is  now  the  turn  of  the  younger,  less  serious 
Olympians ;  and  the  chief  types  of  Hermes,  Dionysus, 
Aphrodite  belong  to  the  fourth  century.  The  proportions  of 
the^human  figure  become  more  slender,  the  ajtitudes-jnore 
elegantl^  graceful.  TheTtfisa  tendency  toward  ostentation, 
an  Apparent  desire  on  the  part  of  the  artist  to  exhibit  his 
skill,  to  make  his  own  personality  speak  in  his  work,  so  that 
the  public  shall  appreciate  him.  The  individual  becomes 
more  prominent.  Emotion  or,  to  use  the  Greek  word, 
pathos  begins  to  be  expressed  in  sculpture ;  the  expression 
of  the  countenance  is  made  to  agree  with  the  attitude  of  the 
figure,  and  attitudes  are  preferred  which,  are  appropriate  to 
some  emptipn,/;whether  violent  or  gentle.  The  simple  vigor 
of  the  E^fytfrofeTO^'is  no  longer  universally  popular. 

Scopas,  Pragiteles,  and  l^sippus.  —  Such  are  the  general 

^ 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FOURTH  CENTURY      109 

qualities  of  the  art  of  the  fourth  century,  as  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  preceding  period.  These  qualities  do  not 
appear  in  equal  measure  in  all  works  of  the  century  or  in  the 
works  of  all  artists,  but  some  of  them  are  present  in  some 
degree  everywhere.  The  three  greatest  sculptors  of  the 
century  were  Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippus.  Scopas, 
apparently  the  eldest  of  the  three,  was  a  Parian,  and  worked 
chiefly  in  marble.  The  dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are 
unknown,  but  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  was  born 
toward  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  since  he  was  employed 
in  the  building  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea,  at  Tegea, 
probably  soon  after  the  destruction  of  the  earlier  temple,  in 
394  B.C.  He  took  part  in  the  decoration  of  the  Mausoleum, 
at  Halicarnassus,  which  was  not  finished  until  after  349  B.C. 
No  further  dates  connected  with  him  are  known;  we  may 
therefore  assume  that  he  died  early  in  the  second  half  of  the 
fourth  century.  Praxiteles,  of  Athens,  also  worked  chiefly, 
though  not  exclusively,  in  marble.  His  earliest  known  work 
—  a  group  of  Apollo,  Artemis,  and  Leto,  at  Mantinea  — 
belongs  to  a  time  not  far  from  370  B.C.,  and  there  is  no 
record  or  story  that  connects  him  with  Alexander  the  Great, 
as  there  would  undoubtedly  have  been,  if  a  meeting  between 
the  great  sculptor  and  the  great  conqueror  had  been  likely. 
Probably  he  was  born  not  long  after  400  and  died  before  325 
B.C.  Lysippus,  of  Sicyon,  worked  chiefly  in  bronze.  He 
was  the  favorite  sculptor  of  Alexander,  and  is  said  to  have 
lived  at  least  until  the  founding  of  Cassandreia  on  the  site 
of  Potidaea,  in  316  B.C.  As  he  is  known  to  have  lived  to  a 
good  old  age,  his  birth  must  fall  at  least  as  early  as  386  B.C. 
The  three  great  sculptors  were  therefore  contemporaries, 
though  Lysippus  was  probably  twenty  years  or  more  younger 
than  Scopas. 

Scopas.  —  Scopas  was  famous  for  the  emotional  quality 
of  his  works,  the  intensity  of  expression  in  his  faces.  Two 
male  heads  1  from  the  pediments  of  the  temple  of  Athena 

1  A  head  of  a  boar,  a  female  head,  and  a  female  torso  were  also  found  at 
Tegea.  The  boar's  head  is  from  the  pediment.  The  female  head  and  torso 
do  not,  apparently,  belong  to  each  other  or  to  the  pediment. 


110  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Alea,  at  Tegea,  exhibit  these  qualities  in  a  marked  degree ; 
and  since  Pausanias  says  that  Scopas  was  the  architect  of 
the  temple  and  made  some  of  the  statues  in  the  interior,  it 
is  probable  that  the  pediment  sculptures  were  also  his  work. 
In  the  eastern  pediment  the  Calydonian  Boarhunt  was 
represented,  in  the  western  the  combat  of  Achilles  with 
Telephus.  The  extant  heads  (Fig.  68),  of  local  (Doliana) 
marble,  have  the  broad  form,  with  relatively  flat  top,  which 
we  have  seen  in  the  works  of  Polyclitus,  but  they  are  not 
set  straight  upon  the  neck ;  they  are  turned  backward  or  to 


FIGURE  68.  —  Heads  from  Tegea.    National  Museum,  Athens.     (An- 
tike  Denkmaler,  I,  pi.  35 ;  from  casts.) 

one  side,  or  both.  The  eyes,  wide  open  and  shadowed  by 
heavy,  overhanging  brows,  gaze  fervently  upward.  The 
mouths  have  slightly  parted  lips,  and  the  whole  expression 
of  the  faces  indicates  intense  emotion.  The  study  of  these 
heads  gives  us  an  insight  into  thVmea'ris  employed  by  Scopas 
to  represent  facial  expression.  Many  statues  and  heads 
are  known,  in  which  the  general  qualities  of  the  sculpture  of 
the  fourth  century  are  combined  with  some  or  all  of  the 
peculiarities  of  these  heads  —  round,  wide-open  eyes,  with 
rather  thick  under  lids,  set  deep  below  heavy  eyebrows 
which  seem  to  extend  beyond  the  outer  corner  of  the  eye, 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   111 

parted  lips,  and  significant  pose  of  the  head,  —  and  such 
works  are  attributed  to  Scopas  or  his  school,  or  are  said  to 
show  his  influence.  Most  of  them  are  copies,  not  originals, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  identify  any  of  them  with  any  of  his 
recorded  works;  but  their  number  and  evident  popularity 
show  that  his  influence  was  great  and  was  not  limited  to  his 
own  time.  Among  these  are  the  Meleager  of  the  Vatican,1 
the  Heracles  of  Lansdown  House,  an  Athena  in  the  Uffizi 
gallery  at  Florence,2  and  a  head  of  a  goddess  at  Athens. 
This  last  may  possibly  be  an  original  by  Scopas  himself. 

Many  works  of  Scopas  are  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 
Apparently  his  earlier  years  were  spent  in  continental  Greece, 
chiefly  in  Peloponnesus.  About  350  B.C.  he  was  at  Hali- 
carnassus,  and  the  latter  part  of  his  life  may  have  been  passed 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  variety,  and,  in  some  measure,  the 
qualities  of  his  works  may  be  indicated  by  a  list  of  the  titles 
of  some  of  them.  Among  them  were  statues  of  Asclepius 
and  Hygieia,  Hecate,  Heracles,  Ares,  Apollo,  Aphrodite,  a 
frenzied  Bacchante,  Leto,  and  Ortygia.  One  statue  of 
Asclepius  represented  the  god  as  a  beardless  youth.  There 
was  also  a  group  of  Eros,  Himeros,  and  Pothos  (Love,  Desire, 
and  Yearning),  and  a  large  group  or  relief  representing 
Poseidon,  Thetis,  and  Achilles,  with  Nereids,  Tritons,  and 
marine  monsters.  The  three  forms  of  love,  Eros,  Himeros, 
and  Pothos,  must  have  been  distinguished  by  variety  of 
facial  expression ;  the  Bacchante  doubtless  exhibited  her 
frenzy  by  her  expression  of  excitement  and  her  violent  action, 
and  the  composition  containing  Achilles,  Thetis,  Poseidon, 
and  their  escort  must  have  been  filled  with  various  fantastic 
forms  in  restless  motion.  Probably  many  later  representa- 
tions of  marine  beings  were  inspired  by  this  work.  In  spite 
of  the  uncertainty  which  attends  the  attribution  of  specific 
extant  works  to  Scopas,  it  is  evident  that  he  was  an  artist  f 
of  great  power  and  originality. 

Praxiteles.     The  Hermes.  —  Among  the  statues  in  the  temple 

1  The  best  replica  of  the  head  is  in  the  Villa  Medici  (Ecole  francaise)  at 
Rome.     A  good  replica  of  head  and  torso  is  in  the  Fogg  Art  Museum  at 
Cambridge,  Mass. 

2  Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  305. 


112  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  Hera  at  Olympia  Pausanias  mentions  a  Hermes  of  stone 
(marble)  carrying  the  infant  Dionysus.  He  adds  the  remark 
i  "It  is  a  work  of  Praxiteles."  This  statue  was  found  in  the 
ruins  of  the  temple,  somewhat  broken,  but  still  in  a  remark- 
ably good  state  of  preservation  (Frontispiece) .  It  is  the  only 
attested  extant  original,  work  of  Praxiteles,  and  is  therefore 
the  basis  of  all  accurate  study  of  his  style.  It  is  also  the  only 
attested  original  work  of  any  of  the  most  famous  Greek  sculp- 
tors, for  the  other  extant  originals  are  anonymous,  and  the 
famous  works  of  the  great  artists  are  preserved  only  in  copies. 
Copies  of  other  works  by  Praxiteles  have  been  identified,  and 
comparison  of  these  with  the  Hermes  shows  how  far  they  are 
from  reproducing  the  originals  in  their  finer  details.  The 
difference  is  great,  even  when  there  is  no  difference  of  material, 
and  certainly  it  must  be  still  greater  when,  as  is  the  case,  for 
instance,  with  the  famous  works  of  Polyclitus  and  Lysippus, 
a  bronze  original  is  known  only  through  a  marble  copy. 

The  proportions  of  the  Hermes  are  lighter  than  those  of 
the  Polyclitan  canon,  but  are  still  powerful,  and  the  muscles 

I  are  well  developed.  The  attitude  is  graceful  and  easy.  The 
slight  deviation  from  the  upright  posture,  —  the  rhythmical 
curve  of  the  whole  figure,  —  which  is  seen  in  the  Polyclitan 
statues,  has  become  much  more  pronounced.  Such  a  curve 
would  be  quite  unnatural  if  the  figure  stood  alone,  without 
support,  but  here  Hermes  rests  his  left  arm,  which  holds  the 
child,  upon  the  stump  of  a  tree,  over  which  he  has  thrown 

I  his  cloak.  Praxiteles  worked  chiefly  in  marble,  and  there- 
fore his  standing  nude  figures  need  supports.  Bronze  statues, 
being  cast  hollow,  are  much  stronger  in  proportion  to  their 
weight  than  marble  statues ;  they  can  therefore  do  without 
the  supports  which  for  marble  figures  are  almost  indispen- 
sable, as  is  seen  in  the  marble  copies  of  bronze  originals. 
Praxiteles  showed  great  ability  in  making  the  supports 
serve  an  aesthetic,  as  well  as  a  practical,  purpose.  In  the 
case  of  the  Hermes,  the  drapery  is  a  real  addition  to  the  beauty 
of  the  work,  lending  variety  to  the  composition  by  the  play  of 
light  and  shadow  in  its  folds.  It  falls  in  a  perfectly  natural 
and  very  graceful  way  over  the  stump,  and  is  treated  in  a  real- 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   113 

istic  manner.  The  folds  are  not  mere  parallel  grooves, 
divided  by  sharp  lines,  but  they  pass  into  each  other  in 
almost  imperceptible  curves,  and  the  broader  surfaces  are 
broken  by  small,  shallow  depressions.  Even  the  most  elab- 
orate drapery  of  the  fifth  century  fails  to  attain  such  per- 
fection as  this,  and  the  fine  details  mentioned  are  almost 
entirely  wanting  in  the  Roman  copies  of  Greek  statues  of  all 
periods. 

In  the  figure  of  Hermes  the  accuracy  of  detail  is  quite  as 
great  as  in  the  drapery,  though  the  difference  between  this 
and  earlier  work  is  less  easily  pointed  out.  The  fine  texture 
of  the  skin  is  even  now,  after  centuries  of  exposure  and  of 
burial,  remarkable.  The  head  is  a  development  of  the 
Attic  type  of  the  fifth  century,  with  relatively  broad  fore- 
head and  narrow  chin,  as  if  to  emphasize  the  intellectual, 
rather  than  the  animal,  nature.  The  forehead  is  divided  by 
a  horizontal  groove  near  the  middle  of  its  height  and  an  al- 
most triangular  projection  above  the  nose.  The  nose  is 
strong,  but  not  too  broad,  and  is  not  absolutely  straight. 
The  eyes  are  shadowed  by  heavy  brows,  which  are  not, 
however,  so  heavy  as  those  of  the  heads  from  Tegea  and  other 
heads  ascribed  to  Scopas.  The  gaze  is  not  fixed  upon  the 
infant  Dionysus,  but  the  eyes  look  beyond  him,  with  a 
dreamy,  almost  pensive,  expression. 

The  hair  presents  an  irregularly  broken  surface,  formed  by 
the  short  thick  locks  that  project  from  the  head,  and  the 
whole  is  left  comparatively  rough.  In  earlier  works  the 
hair  appears  as  a  layer  of  uniform  thickness,  divided  by 
nearly  parallel  grooves,  as  in  the  Apollo  from  the  western 
pediment  at  Olympia,  or  marked  with  circles  and  dots,  as 
in  the  Harmodius  by  Critius  and  Nesiotes;  and  the  locks 
generally  end  in  stiff,  regular  curls.  Sometimes,  as  in  some 
of  the  pediment  figures  at  Olympia,  the  surface  is  left  nearly 
smooth,  in  which  case  the  details  were  no  doubt  added  in 
color.  In  bronze  works  the  locks  are  wrought  in  low  relief, 
except  when  they  are  cast  separately  and  attached,  and 
marble  copies  of  bronze  works  reproduce  in  some  measure 
the  appearance  of  the  originals.  In  the  Hermes  there  is  no 


114 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


attempt  to  represent  the  individual  hairs,  but  the  effect  of 
hair  is  produced  by  the  avoidance  of  such  an  attempt. 
The  general  impression,  not  the  reproduction,  of  hair  is  the 
artist's  purpose.  Whether  Praxiteles  invented  this  method, 

or  not,  cannot  now  be  de- 
termined. It  certainly  is 
admirably  carried  out  in 
the  Hermes,  and  it  entirely 
supplanted  the  earlier 
methods. 

The  statue  of  Hermes  is 
an  almost  perfect  work; 
the  infant  Dionysus  is  far 
less  admirable.  The  head 
and  body  are  much  broken, 
but  even  so  it  is  clear  that 
the  attitude,  the  action,  and 
the  forms  are  too  mature 
for  a  child  of  such  small 
size.  This  cannot  be  ex- 
plained merely  by  the 
statement  that  the  child  is 
regarded  as  an  accessory. 
The  fact  is  that  the  suc- 
cessful rendering  of  infan- 
tile forms  belongs  to  a  later 
time. 

The  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus. 
—The  Hermes  was  not  one 
of  the  most  famous  works 
of  Praxiteles.  Far  more 
renowned  were  his  statues 
of  Eros,  of  Satyrs,  and  of  Aphrodite;  most  famous  of  all 
was  the  Aphrodite  of  Cnidus.  The  best  copy  of  this  is  in 
the  Vatican  (Fig.  69),  a  less  excellent  one  in  Munich.  The 
figure  has  the  same  rhythmic  curve  seen  in  the  Hermes, 
and  the  support  is  an  integral  part  of  the  composition,  for 
the  urn  beside  the  goddess  indicates  a  bath,  and  thus  accounts 


FIGURE  69.  —  Cnidian  Aphrodite, 
after  Praxiteles.  The  Vatican.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  371 ;  from  a  cast.) 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  FOURTH  CENTURY      115 


for  her  nudity.     Whether  she  has  bathed  and  is  lifting  her 

garment  to  put  it  on  or  is  letting  it  fall  before  bathing  is 

uncertain.     She  stands  in  the  glory  of  her  beauty,  without 

self-consciousness,    shame,    or    coquetry.     Here,  as  in    the 

Hermes,   the  drapery   and  the 

hair  are   not  smooth,  like  the 

skin,  but  are  so  treated  as  to 

indicate    their    texture.       The 

dreamy  look  of  the  Hermes  is 

made  softer  and  more  feminine 

by  the  narrowing  of  the  eyes, 

which  even  in  the  Hermes  are 

less  round  and  wide  open  than 

in   most    earlier    works.      The 

Aphrodite    of    the   Vatican    is 

only  a  copy,  but  its  superiority 

in    grace,    dignity,    and   purity 

to   other   statues   of   the  nude 

Aphrodite,  such  as  the  "Capi- 

toline  Venus"   or  the   "Venus 

dei  Medici,"   is   evident    at    a 

glance.      Yet   here,   as.  in   the 

Hermes,  human   personality  is 

present,    and     the     first     step 

toward    the    representation    of 

human  imperfections  has  been 

taken. 

Satyrs.  --  Several  types  of 
Patyrs  are  clearly  of  Praxitelean 
origin,  and  among  them  none 
is  more  beautiful  or  preserved  in 
more  replicas  than  that  which 
Hawthorne  made  famous  in 
The  Marble  Faun  (Fig.  70).  Here  the  face  shows  the  irre- 
sponsible nature  of  the  woodland  creature,  and  the  attitude 
of  easy  grace  has  become  a  posture  of  careless  indolence. 
The  rhythmic  curve  of  the  body  is  again  present,  and  the 
whole  figure  is  inclined  toward  the  support.  Even  greater 


FIGURE  70.  —  Satyr  after 
Praxiteles.  Capitoline  Museum, 
Rome.  (Brunn-Bruckmann, 
377.) 


116  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

inclination  toward  the  support  is  seen  in  another  work  of 
Praxiteles,  the  Apollo  Sauroctonos  (Lizard-slayer),  the 
original  of  which  was  of  bronze  and  therefore  needed  no 
support  for  purely  practical  reasons.  Evidently  Praxiteles 
wished  to  represent  the  standing  figure  in  an  attitude  which 
would  be  impossible  without  a  support. 

Eros.  —  Two  statues  of  Eros  by  Praxiteles,  one  at  Thespiae, 
the  other  at  Parium,  were  especially  famous  in  ancient  times, 
but  no  copies  of  either  have  as  yet  been  identified  with  cer- 
tainty. Many  statues  of  Eros,  as  of  Satyrs,  exist  which 
are  certainly  of  Praxitelean  origin,  but  whether  they  are 
copies  of  his  works,  or  of  works  of  his  school,  or  are  later 
adaptations,  cannot  in  all  cases  be  determined.  His  influ- 
ence endured  throughout  antiquity,  and  copies  and  adapta- 
tions of  his  works  were  always  popular,  even  at  times  when 
the  general  tendency  of  art  was  rather  toward  greater  realism 
than  toward  quiet  and  gentle  sentiment. 

Reliefs  from  Mantinea.  —  Three  marble  slabs  found  at 
Mantinea  have  been  identified  with  the  aid  of  a  brief  remark 
of  Pausanias  as  the  decoration  of  the  base  of  a  group  of 
statues  by  Praxiteles.  On  one  slab  Marsyas  is  represented 
playing  the  double  flute  before  the  seated  Apollo,  while 
between  them  stands  a  Phrygian  with  a  knife,  ready  to  flay 
Marsyas  for  his  presumption  in  daring  to  compete  with 
Apollo  in  music.  On  the  other  slabs  are  figures  of  six  Muses. 
The  design  is  excellent  and  the  execution  good,  though  not 
by  any  means  comparable  to  that  of  the  Hermes.  Probably 
the  actual  carving  was  entrusted  to  an  assistant,  though  the 
design  may  well  be  attributed  to  Praxiteles  himself,  a 
affords  the  only  known  example  of  his  decorative  work.  The 
calm  dignity  of  Apollo  is  admirably  contrasted  with  the 
excited  action  of  his  silvan  opponent.  The  Muses,  with 
their  graceful  draperies  and  varied  poses,  form  an  appropri- 
ate setting  for  the  well-composed  central  group. 

Among  the  very  numerous  recorded  works  of  Praxiteles, 
some  of  which  were  of  bronze,  are  statues  of  various  deities, 
of  nymphs  and  maenads,  and  of  the  famous  courtesan  Phryne. 
The  distinguishing  qualities  of  his  works  were  grace,  elegance, 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   117 


exquisite  workmanship,  quiet  sentiment,  and  self-restraint, 
in  all  of  which  he  shows  himself  as  the  legitimate  successor 
of  the  Attic  school  of  the  fifth  century.  In  the  works  of  his 
imitators  these  qualities  sometimes  degenerate  into  weakness, 
sentimentality,  or  academic  cor- 
rectness. 

Lysippus.  —  Of  Lysippus,  the 
youngest  of  the  three  most  fa- 
mous sculptors  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, Pliny :  says :  "  His  chief 
contributions  to  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture are  said  to  consist  in  his 
vivid  rendering  of  the  hair,  in 
making  the  heads  smaller  than 
the  older  artists  had  done,  and 
the  bodies  slimmer  and  with  less 
flesh,  thus  increasing  the  appar- 
ent height  of  his  figures.  There 
is  no  word  in  Latin  for  the  canon 
of  symmetry  (a-v/JLuerpia)  which 
he  was  so  careful  to  preserve, 
bringing  innovations  which  had 
never  been  thought  of  before  into 
the  square  canon  of  the  older  ar- 
tists, and  he  often  said  that  the 
difference  between  himself  and 
them  was  that  they  represented 

n  as  they  were,  and  he  as  they 
emed  to  be.  His  chief  charac- 
teristic is  extreme  delicacy  of  ex- 
ecution, even  in  the  smallest  de- 
tails." 

The  Apoxyomenos.  Agios.  —  No  certainly  original  work 
by  Lysippus  is  extant,  and  if  his  works  were  all  of  bronze, 
as  most  of  them  certainly  were,  any  existing  marble  copies 
must  be  very  imperfect  reproductions.  Pliny  mentions  a 
statue  of  a  man  scraping  himself  (apoxyomenos)  by  Lysippus, 

1  XXXIV,  65  (translated  by  K.  Jex-Blake). 


FIGURE  71.  —  Apoxyo- 
menos. The  Vatican.  (Brunn- 
Bruckmann,  281.) 


118 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


which  was  very  popular  in  Rome,  and  a  marble  statue  now 
in  the  Vatican  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  copy  of  the  lost 
bronze  (Fig.  71).  This  statue,  which  is  of  unusually  fine 
Roman  workmanship,  exhibits  all  the  qualities  attributed  by 
Pliny  to  the  works  of  Lysippus.  The  head  is  small  and  set 
on  a  long,  slender  neck,  the  hair  is  admirably  and  freely 
rendered,  the  wrists  and  ankles  are  slender,  and  the  propor- 
tions slighter  than  the  Polyclitan  canon. 
In  1897  a  series  of  marble  statues  was 
found  at  Delphi  by  the  French  excava- 
tors, which  commemorated  a  certain 
Daochos,  of  Pharsalus,  and  his  family. 
Inscriptions  found  many  years  ago  at 
Pharsalus  show  that  a  similar  series,  but 
probably  of  bronze,  existed  there,  and 
that  one  statue  at  least,  that  of  Agias, 
was  by  Lysippus.  The  statues  once 
at  Pharsalus  are  lost,  but  the  marble 
statue  of  Agias  at  Delphi  is  well  pre- 
served (Fig.  72),  and  it  has  been  as- 
sumed that  this  is  a  copy  of  the  bronze 
by  Lysippus,  which  once  existed  at 
Pharsalus.  Here  we  find  a  figure  more 
slender  than  the  Polyclitan  canon,  with 
no  support  (which  has  been  taken  as  an 
indication  that  a  bronze  original  was 
copied),  and  with  eyes  which  resemble 
those  of  the  Tegean  heads 
to  Scopas.  The  hair  is  not 
wrought,  and  indeed  the  statue  as  a 
whole  is  not  of  very  fine  workmanship.  The  inscriptions 
from  Pharsalus  and  from  Delphi  are  not  quite  identical,  and 
the  fact  that  the  Pharsalian  inscription  ascribes  two  more 
victories  to  Agias  than  the  Delphian  may  show  that  the 
statues  at  Delphi  were  set  up  earlier  than  those  at  Pharsalus, 
in  which  case  the  Delphian  statues  cannot  be  copies  of  the 
others.1  At  any  rate,  it  is  not  certain  that  the  Agias  has 

1  See  P.  Wolters,  Sitzungsberichte  d.  k.  Bayerischen  Akademie,  1913,  iv. 


FIGURE  72 . — 
Statue  of  Agias.  Del- 
phi. (Bulletin  de  Corr. 
Hdlen.  XXIII.pl.  xi.) 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   119 

any  connection  with  Lysippus,  though  its  general  appearance 
is  such  as  to  agree  fairly  well  with  Pliny's  words  and  with 
other  statements  by  ancient  writers.  The  Apoxyomenos,  on 
the  other  hand,  exhibits  a  scientific  knowledge  of  muscular 
anatomy  which  did  not  exist  in  Greece  until  about  300  B.C. 
It  may  be  a  copy  after  Lysippus,  but  in  that  case  the  copyist 
has  added  something  of  his  own. 

Portraits  of  Alexander.  —  The  material  available  for  a 
study  of  the  style  of  Lysippus  is  clearly  of  uncertain  value. 
His  brother  Lysistratus  is  said  by  Pliny  to  have  made  plaster 
casts  from  human  faces,  and  therefore  it  has  been  assumed 
that  Lysippus  was  a  realist.  But  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  [ 
what  would  now  be  called  realism  did  not  exist.  The  quali- 
ties ascribed  by  Pliny  and  others  to  Lysippus  are  seen  in 
many  works  which  are  properly  assigned  to  the  fourth 
century,  but  it  is  as  yet  impossible  to  ascribe  any  of  them 
to  Lysippus  himself  with  certainty.  His  works  were  very 
numerous,  among  them  statues  of  gods  and  heroes,  many 
athlete  statues,  an  allegorical  figure  of  Kairos  (Opportunity), 
numerous  portraits  of  Alexander  and  of  other  persons,  a 
group  representing  Alexander  and  his  companions  at  the 
battle  of  the  Granicus,  and  another  group  of  Alexander  hunt- 
ing lions.  Many  portraits  of  Alexander  exist,  but  which  of 
them  are  copies  after  Lysippus  is  uncertain.  Since  he  was 
Alexander's  favorite  portrait  sculptor,  it  may  well  be  that 
some  of  the  more  idealized  portraits,  such  as  one  in  Munich, 
are  to  be  ascribed  to'  him.  Works  tentatively  ascribed  to 
Lysippus  and  his  school  are  many,  among  them  the  seated 
Hermes  in  Naples,  and  the  "Praying  Boy"  in  Berlin.  The 
over-muscular  Farnese  Heracles  in  Naples  and  its  replica  in 
the  Pitti  palace  in  Florence  are  probably  adaptations,  rather 
than  copies,  of  an  original  by  Lysippus.  That  he  was  an 
artist  of  originality  and  genius  we  know  from  the  state- 
ments of  ancient  writers,  and  it  is  tempting  to  ascribe  to 
him  many  works  of  the  fourth  century  which  show  slender 
proportions,  small  heads,  and  lively  action  combined  with 
qualities  not  too  similar  to  those  of  works  ascribed  to  Prax- 
iteles or  Scopas. 


120  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Other  Sculptors  of  the  Fourth  Century.  —  Other  famous 
sculptors  of  the  fourth  century  were  Euphranor  (who  was 
also  a  painter),  Bryaxis,  Leochares,  and  Thrasymedes. 
The  last  named  made  a  chryselephantine  statue  of  Asclepius 
for  the  sanctuary  of  Epidaurus,  which  represented  the  god 
of  healing  as  a  dignified,  draped,  seated  figure,  with  a  coun- 
tenance resembling  that  of  Zeus.  A  famous  work  by  Bryaxis 
represented  Ganymedes  carried  aloft  by  the  eagle  of  Zeus. 
A  copy  of  this  has  been  recognized  in  a  marble  group  in  the 
Vatican,  which,  though  of  small  size  and  mediocre  workman- 
ship, shows  how  the  artist  represented  the  youthful  figure, 
with  fluttering  garment,  gazing  upward  toward  the  bright 
Olympus  where  the  love  of  Zeus  awaits  him.  Timotheus 
is  known  to  have  made  the  acroteria  and  models  for  some 
of  the  other  sculptures  of  the  temple  of  Asclepius  at  Epi- 
daurus, about  375  B.C.  The  remains  of  the  sculptures  of 
this  temple  comprise  acroteria,  representing  Nereids  mounted 
on  horses,  and  parts  of  the  pediment  groups,  which  repre- 
sented battles  of  Greeks  with  Amazons  and  Lapithae  with 
Centaurs.  The  forms  are  full  of  life  and  vigor,  and  the 
clinging,  floating  draperies  remind  one  of  the  balustrade  of 
the  temple  of  Athena  Nike. 

The  Mausoleum.  —  Ancient  writers  mention  other  works 
of  Bryaxis,  Leochares,  and  Timotheus,  and  Pliny  says  they 
worked  with  Scopas  at  the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus.1 
This  marvellous  building  was  richly  decorated  with  sculpture, 
the  remains  of  which  are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  They 
comprise  two  colossal  statues  (of  Mausolus  and  his  wife 
Artemisia) ;  several  other  statues,  some  of  which  are 
equestrian ;  a  colossal  chariot  with  four  horses ;  several  lions ; 
several  panels  with  reliefs ;  many  slabs  of  a  fine  frieze  repre- 
senting Greeks  and  Amazons ;  and  fragments  of  two  other 
friezes,  one  of  which  represented  Greeks  and  Centaurs,  the 
other  a  chariot  race.  The  statues  of  Mausolus  and  Artemisia 
are  evidently  real  portraits,  but  without  undue  emphasis 

1  Instead  of  Timotheus,  Vitruvius  mentions  Praxiteles,  perhaps  because 
popular  legend  associated  the  three  greatest  sculptors  of  the  age  with  this 
building,  which  was  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   121 

upon  individual  peculiarities.  Both  are  dignified  and  im- 
pressive, but  that  of  Mausolus  is  the  better  preserved  and 
of  better  workmanship.  The  type  of  face  is  not  Greek,  but 
a  Greek  artist  has  produced  an  admirable  portrait  of  the 
thoughtful  and  vigorous  Carian  ruler.  The  work  of  the 
smaller  friezes  is  excellent,  delicate,  and  charming,  but  these 
friezes  exist  only  in  fragments.  The_Amazon  frieze,  although 
not  entirely  preserved,  is  the  most  extensive  extant  relief  of 
the  fourthcentury  (Fig^TS).  ~Tn  friezes  of  the  fifth  century 
(e^g.  that  from  Phigaleia^~page  105)  the  figures  are  close  to- 


FIGURE  73.  —  From  the  Frieze  of  the  Mausoleum.    British  Museum. 

gether,  almost  crowded;  here  they  are  loosely  placed,  in  I 
groups  of  varying  numbers.  There  is  great  variety  in  ( 
costumes,  weapons,  and  attitudes,  the  drapery  is  admirably 
designed,  and  the  figures  are  more  slender  and  graceful  than 
those  of  earlier  reliefs.  The  faces,  too,  have  more  expression 
than  is  seen  in  reliefs  of  the  fifth  century.  The  use  of  float- 
ing drapery  to  fill  void  spaces  is  noticeable.  In  execution 
and  design  the  parts  of  the  frieze  are  not  uniform,  and 
attempts  have  therefore  been  made  to  distribute  the  slabs 
among  the  four  artists  mentioned  by  Pliny,  but  their  results 
have  not  met  with  universal  acceptance.  That  many  of  the 


122  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

figures  show  at  least  the  influence  of  Scopas  seems  certain. 
In  general,  it  is  clear  that  the  traditions  and  methods  of  the 
Attic  school  of  art  are  followed  in  this  frieze,  which  exhibits 
the  best  qualities  of  decorative  sculpture  at  the  middle  of  the 
fourth  century. 

The    Temple  of  Artemis   at  Ephesus. —  The   temple   of 
Artemis  at  Ephesus  was  burned  in  356  B.C.  and  almost  im- 


FIGURE  74.  —  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners.     Constantinople. 

mediately  rebuilt  with  great  magnificence.  Pliny  says  that 
one  of  its  thirty-six  sculptured  columns  was  by  Scopj,s. 
Only  one  sculptured  drum  from  this  temple  is  well  enough 
preserved  to  give  a  good  idea  of  its  style.  Here  the  quiet 
grace  of  the  figures  recalls  the  style  of  Praxiteles,  though  the 
open  lips  and  Bassionatejeyes  make  us  think  of  Scopas  and 
the  heads  from  Tegea^  The  subject  of  the  relief  on  this 
drum  is  apparently  Alcestis  between  Hermes  Psychopompus 
and  Thanatos,  the  armed  and  winged  personification  of 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY   123 


death.  Another  work  in  which  the  general  qualities  of  the 
art  of  Praxiteles  are  joined  with  such  eyes  as  are  associated 
with  Scopas  is  the  beautiful  and  dignified  Demeter  from  Cni- 
dus  in  the  British  Museum.  Such  works,  which  it  is  as  yet 
impossible  to 
assign  to  any 
definite  artist, 
show  that  the 
traditions  and 


s-  practices  of  the 

I  Attic  school  and 
the  influence  of 

I  Scopas  (who  was 
*\  himself  strongly 
influenced  by 
the  Attic  school) 
were  powerful  in 
Asia  Minor  in 
the  fourth  cen- 

\tury. 

The  Sar- 
cophagus  of  the 
Mourners. — An 
exquisite  Attic 
work  of  about 
the  middle  of 
the  fourth  cen- 
tury is  a  sar- 
cophagus, 
found,  with 
several  others, 
in  a  tomb  at 


FIGUBE    75.  —  Monument     of     Hegeso.    Athens. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  436.) 


Sidon.  It  has  the  form  of  a  small  Ionic  temple,  between  the 
columns  of  which  are  draped  female  figures  in  pensive  atti- 
tudes, from  which  the  name  "  Sarcophagus  of  the  Mourners  "  is 
derived  (Fig.  74).  Above,  on  the  edge  of  the  roof,  is  a  broad 
frieze  of  relief  representing  a  funeral  procession.  In  the  gables 
are  seated  figures  in  attitudes  of  grief.  Below  the  columns 


124  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

hunting  scenes  in  low  relief  decorate  the  base.  The  female 
figures  between  the  columns  remind  one  of  the  Muses  on  the 
Praxitelean  reliefs  from  Mantinea  and  of  statues  of  Muses 
to  which  these  are  related.  In  their  varied,  yet  similar, 
attitudes,  their  graceful  draperies,  and  their  restrained 
expression  of  grief  they  are  especially  charming. 

Attic  Gravestones.  —  The  Attic  gravestones  form  an  in- 
teresting and  instructive  series,  extending  through  the  fourth 
century.  The  earlier  among  them,  such  as  the  monument  of 
Hegeso  (Fig.  75)  or  that  of  Dexileos,  who  was  killed  in  battle 
in  394  B.C.,  retain  some  of  the  qualities  of  the  sculptures  of 
the  Parthenon,  while  the  later  reliefs  show  the  influence  of 
Praxiteles,  Scopas,  and  Lysippus.  The  subject  of  these 
reliefs  is  generally  a  scene  of  family  life,  mistress  and  maid, 
mother  and  daughter,  father  and  son,  husband  and  wife, 
or  two  friends  clasping  hands.  The  grief  of  parting  is  sym- 
bolized, rather  than  expressed-,  by  recalling  the  beloved 
presence  of  the  dead.  In  execution  these  reliefs  vary ;  some 
are  exquisite,  others  almost  clumsy ;  but  even  those  that 
are  most  carelessly  wrought  are  beautiful  in  their  restrained 
sentiment. 


CHAPTER  VII 
GREEK  SCULPTURE.    THE  HELLENISTIC  PERIOD 

The  A  lexander  Sarcophagus.  —  The  conquests  of  Alex- 
ander led  to  the  formation  of  semi-Hellenic  kingdoms  in 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  and  removed  the  centres  of 
Greek  art  from  Greece  to  Alexandria,  Pergamon,  Ephesus, 
Tralles,  and  Rhodes.  Even  before  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  a  new  spirit  begins  to  appear.  The  new  art  adopts 
new  methods,  abandons  the  self-restraint  of  earlier  times, 
appeals  more  directly  to  love  of  splendor,  to  the  emotions, 
and  to  personal  vanity.  The  beginnings  of  the  new  spirit 
are  visible  in  the  latest  of  the  fine  sarcophagi  found  at  Sidon, 
called  the  Alexander  sarcophagus,  because  Alexander's 
portrait  appears  upon  it  (Fig.  76,  the  person  at  the  extreme 


FIGURE  70.  —  Alexander  Sarcophagus.     Constantinople. 
125 


126 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


left).  This  sarcophagus  is  especially  important  because  its 
coloring  is  exceptionally  well  preserved.  Light  blue  and  red, 
yellow,  and  brown  predominate,  though  violet  and  other 
colors  are  employed.  On  one  side  and  one  end,  and  also  in 
the  gables,  are  scenes  of  battle  in  high  relief,  on  the  remaining 
end  a  panther  hunt,  and  on  the  remaining  side  a  lion  hunt. 
The  mouldings  are  exceedingly  rich.  The  top,  in  the  form 

of  a  tiled 'roof,  is  adorned  with 
antefixes  and  gargoyles,  and 
couchant  lions  guard  its  corners. 
The  faces  of  the  chief  persons 
represented  are  evidently  por- 
traits, and  details  of  various 
kinds,  especially  the  Persian  cos- 
tumes, are  given  with  realistic 
accuracy.  Clearly  the  combats 
represented  are  not  merely  typ- 
ical, but  are  real  battles.  Yet 
these  real  battles  are  repre- 
sented, not  as  they  actually 
happened,  but  in  the  form  of 
typical  combats.  The  action  is 
lively  and  crowded,  with  occa- 
sional reminiscences  of  the  friezes 
of  Phigaleia  and  of  the  Mauso- 
leum. This  sarcophagus  is  a 
brilliant  work,  one  of  the  best- 
preserved*  and  most  beautiful 
monuments  of  Greek  art.  It 
still  breathes  the  spirit  of  Attic 
idealism,  but  that  spirit  is  beginning  to  be  affected  by  the 
new  conditions ;  the  rulers  of  the  great  kingdoms  of  the  earth, 
their  struggles  and  their  victories,  are  beginning  to  occupy 
the  minds  and  employ  the  talents  of  the  Greek  artists. 

Survival  of  Earlier  Spirit.  —  Some  works  of  the  Hellenistic 
period  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  the  products  of 
the  Attic  school  of  the  fourth  century,  and  in  many  the 
earlier  spirit  survives.  So  the  impressive  Themis  from  the 


FIGURE   77.  —  Demosthenes 
The  Vatican. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     127 


temple  at  Rhamnus,  by  Chaerostratus,  might,  but  for  the 
treatment  of  the  folds  of  the  garment  about  the  neck  and 
breast,  be  a  work  by  a  contemporary  of  Praxiteles.  Even 
the  statue  of  Demos- 
thenes in  the  Vatican 
(Fig.  77),  a  copy  of  a 
bronze  statue  by  Po- 
lyeuctus,  which  was 
made  in  accordance 
with  a  decree  passed  in 
280-279  B.C.,  is  full  of 
the  spirit  of  the  fourth 
century,  in  spite  of  the 
new  care  with  which  the 
skin,  the  muscles,  and 
consequently  the  ex- 
pression of  the  face  are 
rendered.1 

Nike  of  Samothrace.  — 
A  beautiful  work  of  the 
early  part  of  the  Hellen- 
istic period  is  the  Vic- 
tory (Nike)  from  Samo- 
thrace, now  in  the 
Louvre  (Fig.  78).  It 
was  probably  erected  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes 
not  many  years  after 
his  victory  off  Cyprus 
in  306  B.C.  The  splen- 
did figure  stands  on  the 
fore  part  of  a  ship,  a 
symbol  of  the  naval 
victory,  her  great  wings 
half  spread,  and  her  garment  blown  by  the  wind.  Origi- 
nally one  hand  held  a  slender  trumpet  to  her  lips,  and  the 

1  The  hands  are  incorrectly  restored.    A  replica  of  the  statue  is  at  Knole 
Park,  Sevenoaks,  England. 


FIGURE  78.  —  Nike  from  Samothrace. 
The  Louvre,  Paris.  (Brunn-Bruckmann,  85 
Ersatz.) 


128  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

other  a  light  cross,  the  stylis  of  a  ship,  which  served  as  a 
trophy.  Unfortunately  head  and  arms  are  gone.  In  this 
statue  the  great  qualities  of  Scopas,  Praxiteles,  and  Lysippus 
are  blended.  There  is  vigor  of  form  and  posture,  but  no 
exaggeration,  realism  in  details,  but  idealism  in  conception. 
The  execution  is  somewhat  uneven,  as  is  usual  in  works  of 
such  colossal  size,  but  in  the  parts  which  were  intended  to  be 
exposed  to  view  it  is  excellent  and  even  exquisite.  The  idea 
of  motion  is  admirably  conveyed  by  the  treatment  of  the 
drapery,  which  is  here  not  a  mere  accessory,  nor  even,  as 
in  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  a  part  of  the  figure  which 
it  discloses,  but  has  an  independent  value,  texture,  and 
importance  of  its  own.  Comparison  with  the  Nike  of 
Paeonius  (page  84)  shows  how  greatly  the  treatment  of  drapery 
had  advanced  since  the  fifth  century.  Symbolism  and  a 
tendency  toward  the  picturesque  are  two  striking  qualities 
of  Hellenistic  sculpture.  Both  are  present  in  some  measure 
in  this  figure,  which  stood  high  up  at  the  head  of  a  valley, 
gazing  down  upon  the  sea  where  the  victory  it  commemorated 
had  been  won. 

The  Niobe  Group.  —  An  interesting  series  of  statues  which 
was  formerly  attributed  to  the  fourth  century  is  the  "  Niobe 
Group,"  now  in  Florence,1  which  represents  Niobe,  her 
children  slain  or  being  slain  by  Apollo  and  Artemis,  and  an 
aged  attendant.  The  extant  statues  are  in  various  attitudes 
of  life  and  death,  and  appeal  strongly  to  the  emotions  of  the 
beholder.  The  most  pathetic  figures  are  those  of  Niobe  and 
her  youngest  daughter.  Here  the  grace  and  sentiment  of 
Praxiteles  are  combined  with  the  violent  motion  and  passion 
of  Scopas.  A  satisfactory  arrangement  of  the  group  seems 
impossible  except  in  a  garden  or  some  similar  place,  and  the 
group  itself  is  picturesque  in  character.  For  these  reasons 
it  must  be  assigned  to  the  Hellenistic  period,  though  the 

1  Pliny,  XXXVI,  28,  speaks  of  "the  dying  children  of  Niobe  in  the  temple 
of  Sosias"  at  Rome,  and  is  doubtful  whether  they  should  be  ascribed  to 
Scopas  or  to  Praxiteles.  Probably  the  group  was  brought  from  Asia  Minor 
in  35  B.C.  The  statues  in  Florence  are  not  the  originals,  but  ancient  copies. 
In  the  Vatican  is  a  replica  of  one  of  the  daughters,  the  work  of  which  is 
finer  than  that  of  the  figures  in  Florence.  An  inferior  replica  of  the  peda- 
gogue is  in  the  Louvre. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     129 

individual  figures  are  conceived  and  executed  very  much  in 
the  spirit  of  the  Attic  art  of  the  fourth  century. 

Works  which  show  the  Survival  of  Earlier  Traditions.  — 
Many  works  of  the  Hellenistic  period  show  the  survival  of 
earlier  traditions,  and  for  that  reason  several  among  them 
have  been  assigned  by  some  scholars  to  the  fourth  century. 
Such  is  the  famous  Apollo  of  the  Belvedere,  the  original  of  which 
(for  the  marble  statue  in  the  Vatican  is  a  Roman  copy  of  a 
Greek  bronze  original)  has  been  ascribed,  on  account  of  cer- 
tain resemblances  to  the  Ganymedes  (page  120),  to  Leochares. 
But  the  almost  theatrical  self-consciousness  of  the  god's  j 
attitude  and  his  exaggerated  coiffure  make  it  more  probable  ' 
that  the  statue  is  a  work  of  the  third  century,  which  is  then 
also  the  date  of  the  "Diana  of  Versailles,"  now  in  the  Louvre. 
Naturally  the  pupils  of  the  great  artists  of  the  fourth  century 
produced  in  the  third  century  numerous  works  similar  to 
those  of  their  masters,  and  in  later  times  the  works  of  the 
great  masters  were  deliberately  copied  and  imitated.  It  is 
therefore  often  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
works  of  the  fourth  century,  works  of  the  third  century  in 
which  earlier  traditions  are  preserved,  and  later  adaptations 
or  copies  of  works  of  the  fourth  century.  So  the  so-called 
Eubouleus,  a  marble  head  found  at  Eleusis,  has  been  claimed 
as  an  original  work  of  Praxiteles,  and  the  famous  Aphrodite 
of  Melos  (Fig.  79)  has  even  been  considered  a  work  of  the 
fifth  century,  though  both  are  in  all  probability  Hellenistic. 
With  the  Aphrodite  of  Melos  ("Venus  of  Milo")  was  found 
an  inscription  bearing  the  artist's  signature  of  Agesander  from 
Antioch  on  the  Maeander,  a  city  which  was  founded  in  281 
B.C.  Unfortunately  the  inscription  has  disappeared  and  its 
connection  with  the  statue  cannot  be  absolutely  proved, 
otherwise  no  date  before  281  could  be  thought  of.  However, 
since  the  head  is  clearly  Praxitelean  and  the  drapery  recalls 
work  of  the  fifth  century,  it  is  natural  to  assign  the  statue 
to  a  time  when  the  styles  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries 
might  readily  be  combined ;  that  is,  to  some  time  after  the 
fourth  century ;  but  whether  the  third  century  or  later  can 
hardly  be  determined  without  definite  evidence.  The  upper 


130 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


part  of  the  statue  is  of  finer  marble  and  more  finely  wrought 
than  the  lower  (draped)  part.  A  left  hand  holding  an  apple, 
and  part  of  an  arm,  were  found  with  the  statue  and  may  belong 
to  it,  though  they  now  appear  to  be  of  inferior  workmanship. 
This  general  type  was  employed  for  representations  of  Vic- 
tory, as  well  as  of  Aphrodite,  whether  alone  or  with  Ares. 

How  this  particular  statue  should 
be  restored,  is  not  certain.  The 
right  hand  probably  held  the 
drapery,  and  the  left  arm  rested 
upon  something  about  as  high 
as  the  shoulder  of  the  goddess, 
perhaps  a  column,  perhaps  a 
shield  or  a  mirror  which  rested 
on  a  low  cippus.  The  type  was 
probably  not  invented,  but  only 
adapted,  by  the  sculptor  of  this 
statue  which  is,  by  reason  of  its 
excellent  preservation  and  its 
great  beauty,  deservedly  one  of 
the  most  widely  known  and  gen- 
erally admired  works  of  ancient 
art. 

Pergamon.  —  The  statues  just 
discussed  exhibit  the  survival  of 
earlier  traditions.  Other  works 
show  a  different  spirit.  At  Per- 
gamon, Attalus  I  (241-197  B.C.) 
established  a  powerful  kingdom 
by  his  victories  over  Galatians, 
tribes  of  Gauls  who  had  settled 
in  Asia.  In  commemoration  of  these  victories  he  caused 
many  works  of  art  to  be  created  by  several  sculptors,  the 
chief  of  whom  was  Epigonus.  Parts  of  two  large  groups 
are  preserved  in  marble  copies.  To  one  group  belong 
the  Dying  Gaul  (formerly  called  the  Dying  Gladiator), 
in  the  Capitoline  Museum,  and  the  Gaul  killing  him- 
self after  having  killed  his  wife,  in  the  National  Museum 


FIGURE    79.  —  Aphrodite  from 
Melos.    The  Louvre,  Paris. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     131 

in  Rome.    These  are  somewhat  above  life  size.     Of  the  other 
group  at  least  ten  figures  exist.1     They  are  about  three  feet 
high,  and  this  (two  ells)  was  also  the  size  of  the  originals, 
which  were  of  bronze.     The  entire  group,  or  groups,  repre- 
sented battles  of  Gods  and  Giants,  Greeks  and  Amazons, 
Greeks  and  Persians,  and  Pergamenes  and  Galatians.     The 
whole  number  of  figures  was  very  large,  perhaps  about  one 
hundred.     The  extant  figures  all  represent  defeated  com- 
batants, Giants,  Amazons,  Persians,  or  Galatians.     In  style 
they  resemble  closely  the  Dying  Gaul  and  the  group  in  the 
National   Museum.     All   are   realistic   in   treatment.     The  \ 
Gauls  are  distinguished  by  their  mustaches,  their  stiff,  coarse 
hair,  and  their  torques;  the  Giants  are  wild  and  unkempt,— 
and  these  two  races  have  coarser,  rougher  skin  than  the  more 
delicate  Amazons  and  Persians.     In  the  Dying  Gaul  the 
blood  streaming  from  his  wounded  side  is  especially  realistic. 
In  details  the  larger  figures  are  superior  to  the  smaller,  and 
their  size  also  helps  to  make  them  more  impressive ;  but  the 
style  is  the  same  in  all.    Vigor,  accuracy,  and  emotion,  rather  i 
than  beauty,  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  these  works.  J 
They  lack  the  self-restraint  and  the  sense  of  artistic  fitnessO 
which  ennoble  the  works  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries. 
A  few  other  works  of  this  school  are  extant. 

The  Great  Altar.  —  Eumenes  II  (197-159  B.C.)  erected  at 
Pergamon  a  great  altar  to  Zeus  and  Athena,  a  nearly  square 
structure,  each  side  of  which  was  more  than  one  hundred 
feet  long.  Its  base  was  decorated  by  a  great  frieze  over 
seven  feet  (2.30  m.)  high,  and  a  much  smaller  frieze  adorned 
the  upper  part  of  the  structure.  Many  fragments  of  the 
great  frieze  are  now  in  Berlin  (Fig.  80).  The  subject  is  the 
battle  of  the  Gods  and  the  Giants,  which  no  doubt  symbolized 
the  conflict  of  the  Pergamenes  with  the  fierce  Galatians. 
It  is  no  new  subject  in  Greek  art,  but  it  is  here  treated  with 
astonishing  variety  and  fertility  of  invention,  and  in  such 
high  relief  that  parts  of  the  figures  are  carved  entirely  in  the 

1  Four  in  Naples,  three  in  Venice,  and  one  each  in  Aix  (in  Provence), 
Paris,  and  Rome.  They  are  of  coarse-grained  Asiatic  marble,  and  were 
probably  made  at  Pergamon,  perhaps  before  the  bronzes  were  sent  to  Athens 
as  a  gift  from  King  Attalus. 


132 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


round.  The  forms  of  human  beings  and  of  beasts  are  mingled 
in  the  confusion  of  combat,  for  the  eagle  of  Zeus,  the  panther 
of  Dionysus,  the  serpent  of  Athena,  and  the  dogs  of  Hecate 
take  part  in  the  fray ;  marine  animals  accompany  the  deities 
of  the  sea ;  Cybele  is  seated  on  her  lion ;  and  some  of  the 
Giants  have  writhing,  biting  serpents  in  place  of  Jegs,  while 
others  are  winged,  and  still  others  are  hybrid  forms  of  men 
and  beasts.  The  gods  are  so  arranged  that  kindred  deities 


FIGURE  80.  —  "  Athena  Group"  from  the  Great  Altar  at  Pergamon. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  484.) 


Berlin. 


are  brought  near  each  other,  and  the  groups  are  "so  connected 
that  the  action  appears  to  be  continuous  throughout  the 
entire  frieze. 

The  types  of  the  gods  are  not  new,  but  their  salient  points 
are  emphasized  and  heightened  by  action.  The  figure  of 
Apollo  has,  in  pose  at  least,  a  strong  resemblance  to  the 
Apollo  of  the  Belvedere.  The  divine  faces  have  no  heavenly 
calm,  but  are  full  of  animation  and  excitement,  while  the 
faces  of  the  giants  express  hatred,  fear,  and  pain  with  utter 
lack  of  self-restraint,  as  befits  their  wild,  insurgent  nature. 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     133 

The  mighty  muscles  of  gods  and  giants  alike  are  strained  to 
the  utmost  in  their  portentous  struggle.  Here,  in  this 
symbolic  combat,  realism  is  even  more  apparent  than  in  the 
Dying  Gaul,  as  if  the  sculptors  thought  that  in  these  super- 
human figures  realistic  details  could  be  exaggerated  without 
ceasing  to  be  lifelike.  This  great  frieze  is  full  of  life  and  vigor, 
a  wonderful  and  brilliant  monument  of  inventive  ability  and 
skilful  execution,  yet  it  is  colossal  rather  than  grand,  start- 
ling rather  than  impressive,  wonderful  rather  than  beautiful.  ] 

Picturesque  Relief.  —  Of  the  smaller  frieze  much  less  is  pre- 
served. It  represented  the  myth  of  Telephus  and  the  foun- 
dation of  Pergamon.  It  is  a  much  higher  relief  than  the 
frieze  of  the  Parthenon,  with  which  it  may  be  compared  in 
size,  as  well  as  in  the  position  it  occupied  on  the  building. 
The  most  remarkable  thing  about  it  is  the  picturesque 
background.  In  some  early  reliefs,  of  the  sixth  century, 
the  background  is  indicated,  and  the  landscape  plays  a  part 
in  some  Assyrian  reliefs,  but  in  the  classical  Hellenic  reliefs 
the  figures  stand  out  from  a  plain  surface.  -Here  trees,  build- 
ings, and  the  like  appear  as  in  a  picture. 

Reliefs  with  picturesque  backgrounds  were  also  sometimes 
carved  on  panels  which  were  fastened  to  walls  for  decorative 
purposes,  as  we  hang  pictures  on  our  walls  to-day.  Where 
this  custom  originated  is  not  quite  certain,  perhaps  in  Alex- 
andria. It  seems  to  be,  at  any  rate,  of  Hellenistic  origin, 
and  was  carried,  with  many  other  Hellenistic  practices,  to 
Rome,  where  it  was  apparently  further  developed. 

Damophon.  —  A  few  words  should  be  devoted  to  Damo- 
phon  of  Messenia,  an  artist  of  the  second  century  B.C.  Frag- 
ments of  a  group  of  colossal  statues  found  at  Lycosura,  in 
Arcadia,  are  all  that  now  remains  of  his  works.  He  is  not 
under  the  influence  of  such  artists  as  those  who  created  the 
great  frieze  at  Pergamon,  nor  does  he  continue  the  traditions 
of  Praxiteles  and  his  contemporaries.  His  feeling  for  texture 
and  hair,  his  skill  in  execution  and  design,  and  his  boldness 
of  conception  are  admirable.  His  works  are  effective  and 
powerful,  with  something  of  the  quality  of  modern  impres- 
sionist works.  He  seems  to  have  formed  no  school  and  had 


134 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


no  successors ;  but  the  discovery  of  his  works,  now  that  his 
date  has  been  determined,  proves  that  the  art  of  the  Hellen- 
istic age  was  not  confined  to  the  development  of  realism  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  imitation  of  earlier  works  on  the  other. 
The  Laocoon  Group.  —  Whether  the  sculptors  who  worked 

at  Pergamon 
were  themselves 
Pergamenes,  or 
whether  the 
school  which 
they  represent 
was  developed 
at  Pergamon  or 
elsewhere  may 
never  be  known. 
Possibly  it  may 
have  been  in  its 
origin  a  Rhodian 
school,  but  at 
any  rate  its  most 
brilliant  work 
was  done  at  Per- 
gamon. Its  in- 
fluence was  great 
and  long  con- 
tinued. This  is 
seen  in  the  fa- 
mous Laocoon 
group  now  in  the 


FIGURE  81.  —  The  Laocoon.    The  Vatican. 
Bruckmann,  236.) 


(Brunn- 


Vatican.  Pliny 
gives  the  names 
of  the  sculptors  of  this  group,  and  inscriptions  found  at  Rhodes 
fix  their  date  not  far  from  40  B.C.  They  were,  as  Pliny  tells  us, 
three  Rhodians,  Agesander,  Athanodorus,  and  Polydorus. 
This  group  (Fig.  81)  is  especially  famous  because  it  was  found 
at  a  time  (1506)  when  there  was  the  greatest  interest  in 
ancient  art,  it  was  the  only  well-preserved  group  of  ancient 
realistic  sculpture  then  known,  the  names  of  its  authors  were 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     135 

known,  the  subject  is  treated  by  Virgil,  it  was  exhibited  in  a 
prominent  place,  and  at  a  later  time  it  was  chosen  by  Lessing 
to  typify  plastic  art  as  opposed  to  poetry  in  his  essay  entitled 
Laocoon.  As  a  work  of  art  it  is  undoubtedly  impressive,  but  / 
it  hardly  merits  its  great  fame.  The  sons  are  too  small  for/ 
their  apparent  age,  the  serpents  are  inert  and  lifeless,  the 
attitude  of  Laocoon  himself  is  unnatural,  and  his  expression 
is  rather  that  of  bodily  pain  than  of  the  horror,  mingled  with 
physical  exertion,  which  the  situation  demands.  Yet  the 
group  shows  skill  in  composition  and  execution.  The  right 
arm  of  Laocoon  is  wrongly  restored ;  it  should  be  bent  so 
that  the  hand  touches  the  back  of  the  head,  and  a  similar 
change  should  be  made  in  the  right  arm  of  the  younger  son. 
These  corrections  make  the  group  more  harmonious.  In 
general  style  this  group  resembles  the  great  frieze  from  Per- 
gamon,  and  the  head  of  Laocoon  is  almost  identical  with  that 
of  one  of  the  giants  of  the  frieze,  while  his  attitude  seems  to  be 
derived  from  that  of  another  giant. 

Graeco-Roman  Sculpture.  —  The  Laocoon  is  a  purely 
Hellenistic  work,  but  its  date  is  about  that  of  the  death  of 
Julius  Caesar,  and  it  was  soon  brought  to  Rome,  where  it 
stood  in  the  palace  of  the  Emperor  Titus.  The  great  group 
which  goes  by  the  name  of  the  "Farnese  Bull"  was  a  work  of 
Apollonius  and  Tauriscus,  of  Tralles,  and  was  brought  by 
Asinius  Pollio  from  Rhodes  to  Rome.  Many  other  works 
of  Greek  sculpture  adorned  the  imperial  city,  and  Greek 
artists  flocked  thither.  Their  productions  were  in  great 
measure  copies  and  adaptations  of  earlier  Greek  works. 
Sometimes  the  originals  can  be  identified  (e.g.  the  Dory- 
phorus  of  Polyclitus,  page  92)  and  the  statues  are  evidently 
intended  as  accurate  copies,  sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
whether  a  statue  is  a  real  copy  or  an  adaptation  of  an  earlier 
type,  sometimes  it  is  clear  that  a  famous  type  has  been  changed 
to  suit  the  taste  of  the  times  or  of  the  sculptor's  patron.  Works 
of  this  kind  are  Greek,  to  be  sure,  but  they  were  made  for  Ro- 
mans, and  often  made  at  Rome ;  they  may  therefore  be  called 
Graeco-Roman.  Such  are  the  Capitoline  Venus  (which 
may  even  be  a  portrait  of  a  Roman  lady  in  the  guise  of 


136 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Venus)  and  the  famous  Venus  dei  Medici,  both  of  which  are 
clearly  derived  from  the  Cnidian  Aphrodite  of  Praxiteles, 
whose  divinity  has  become  all  too  human  in  these  later 
works.  The  "Farnese  Heracles,"  signed  by  an  Athenian 
named  Glycon,  reproduces  a  type  invented  by  Lysippus, 
but  exaggerates  and  debases  it.  About  the  middle  of  the 

first  century  B.C.  a  Greek  artist, 
Arcesilas,  made  a  statue  of  Venus 
Genetrix  for  the  forum  of  Julius 
Caesar,  and  by  the  aid  of  coins 
and  several  extant  copies,  the 
appearance  of  this  statue  is 
known  (Fig.  82).  The  head, 
folds  of  drapery,  and  general  pose 
recall  the  style  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.,  but  various  details  show  that 
it  was  not  a  copy,  but  an  adapta- 
tion, of  an  earlier  work,  possibly 
the  "Aphrodite  in  the  Gardens" 
of  Alcamenes  (page  94). 

A  Gfaeco-Roman  sculptor  of 
the  first  century  B.C.  was  Pasit- 
eles,  an  Italian  Greek,  who  re- 
ceived the  Roman  citizenship  in 
87  B.C.  in  common  with  his  com- 
patriots. His  works  were  nu- 
merous, and  he  wrote  a  book 
on  sculpture.  Of  his  works 
nothing  remains,  or  none  has 
been  identified,  but  works  are 
extant  by  Stephanus,  his  pupil, 
and  by  Menelaus,  a  pupil  of  Stephanus.  These  are  imitations 
of  the  style  of  the  Argive  school  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  with 
archaic  traits  that  indicate  the  time  just  before  Polyclitus.  A 
good  example  of  these  works  is  the  group  in  Naples,  prob- 
ably correctly  called  Electra  and  Orestes.  The  postures  are 
simple,  the  treatment  of  hair  and  drapery  for  the  most  part 
archaic,  but  the  proportions  are  more  like  those  adopted  by 


FIGURE  82.  —  "  Venus  Gene- 
trix."  The  Louvre,  Paris. 
(Brunn-Bruckmann,  473.) 


GREEK  SCULPTURE.    HELLENISTIC  PERIOD     137 

Lysippus  than  those  of  the  early  Argive  school,  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  drapery  of  Electra  betrays  the  influence  of  the 
fourth  century  or  even  of  later  periods.  Evidently  this  is  not 
a  copy,  but  a  conscious  attempt  to  reproduce  in  a  new  work 
the  effect  of  earlier  and  simpler  art.  The  number  of  such 
works  still  existing  shows  that  they  were  popular  in  their 
day.  Besides  the  works  of  the  school  of  Pasiteles,  there 
are  many  others  which  show  that  imitation  of  archaic  sim- 
plicity was  popular  in  Rome.  So  the  Neo-Attic  reliefs,  as 
they  are  called,  reproduce  more  or  less  exactly  the  style  of 
Attic  works  of  the  fifth  century ;  but  no  one  ancient  work  is 
copied,  and  the  artists  are  not  careful  to  be  consistent. 
Figures  in  archaic  drapery  are  seen  in  conjunction  with 
buildings  which  are  recognized  as  structures  of  the  imperial 
period. 

Much  of  the  sculpture  produced  at  Rome  for  Romans 
was  the  work  of  Greek  artists  and  continued  the  tra- 
ditions of  Greek  art.  Such  works  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  upon  Roman  art;  yet  Roman  sculpture,  though 
it  is  developed  from  that  of  Greece,  has  a  history  of  its 
own. 

Late  Greek  Art  in  Asia.  —  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Greek 
world,  in  Asia  Minor  and  the  regions  affected  by  the  conquests 
of  Alexander,  Greek  art  came  in  contact  with  oriental  tra- 
ditions and  tastes.  Greek  influence  extended  to  India, 
where  the  type  of  Buddha  is  of  Hellenistic  origin,  and  even 
in  Chinese  and  Japanese  sculpture  its  effect  is  seen.  But 
Greek  art  itself  was  profoundly  influenced  in  Asia  by  oriental 
taste  and  practices.  It  became  more  conventional,  and  the 
figures  in  reliefs  became  more  and  more  mere  parts  of  a  dec- 
orative pattern,  while  at  the  same  time  purely  ornamental 
carvings  became  more  popular  and  less  simple.  It  is  from 
the  late  Hellenistic  art  of  western  Asia  that  Byzantine  art 
derived  many  of  its  motives  and  much  of  its  inspiration.  A 
brilliant  example  of  late  Hellenistic  art  in  Asia  is  a  great 
sarcophagus  from  Sidamara  (now  in  Constantinople),  which, 
with  its  overloaded  ornamentation,  its  obvious  reminiscences 
of  Greek  art,  and  its  confused  and  tasteless  magnificence 


138 


A   HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  83.  —  Sarcophagus  from  Sidamara.    Constantinople. 

(Fig.  83),  shows  how  far  from  the  purity  of  Hellenic  art  the 
Hellenistic  sculpture  of  Asia  Minor  had  departed  at  the 
time  when  the  sarcophagus  was  made,  in  the  third  century 
after  Christ. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ETRUSCAN   SCULPTURE 

Immigration  in  Italy.  The  Etruscans. — About  the  eleventh 
century  B.C.  a  great  movement  of  tribes  and  peoples  took 
place  in  southeastern  Europe  and  the  regions  to  the  East 
and  North.  The  Dorian  Invasion  in  Greece  was  a  part  of 
this  movement,  but  the  disturbance  and  the  change  of 
population  were  by  no  means  limited  to  Greece.  New 
peoples  came  into  Italy  also,  but  they  found  no  rich  and  well- 
developed  civilization  in  possession  of  the  land,  nor  were 
they  themselves,  perhaps,  so  ready  for  civilization  as  the  in- 
vaders of  Greece.  At  any  rate,  the  progress  of  civilization  in 
Greece  was  more  rapid  than  in  Italy.  But  the  descendants 
of  the  invaders  of  Italy  were  destined  to  rule  over  a  large  part 
of  the  earth,  and  for  that  reason,  even  if  there  were  no  other, 
their  early  history  and  the  condition  of  art  among  them  may 
well  prove  of  interest. 

The  newcomers  were  of  two  distinct  races,  the  Etruscans 
and  the  Italic  tribes  afterwards  known  as  Samnites,  Oscans, 
Umbrians,  Volscians,  and  so  forth.  In  course  of  time  the 
Etruscans  spread  over  the  eastern  part  of  the  valley  of  the 
Po,  up  the  Reno,  over  the  Apennines,  and  throughout  the 
whole  of  Tuscany,  from  the  Arno  to  the  Tiber,  and  even  be- 
yond. The  Italic  tribes  spread  along  the  eastern  coast  of 
the  peninsula,  hardly,  if  at  all,  crossing  the  Apennines  until 
they  reached  the  head-waters  of  the  Tiber.  For  several 
centuries  there  was  little  art  of  any  kind,  and  virtually  no 
sculpture,  either  among  the  Etruscans  or  the  Italic  tribes.  • 
The  latter,  indeed,  never  developed  an  independent  art, 
though  it  is  not  unlikely  that  some  imitations  of  Greek  work, 
which  are  commonly  ascribed  to  Etruscan  or  even  to  imported 

139 


140  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Greek  workmen,  may  have  been  made  by  men  of  Italic 
descent.  The  only  pre-Roman  sculpture  in  Italy  (apart 
from  that  which  is  Greek)  that  calls  for  more  than  a  word 
of  comment  is  Etruscan  sculpture,  and  to  this  we  shall  con- 
fine our  discussion. 

During  the  first  centuries  of  their  life  in  Italy  the  Etruscans 
paid  little  attention  to  art,  and  sculpture  properly  so  called 
did  not  appear  among  them  until  after  they  had  come  in 
contact  with  the  Greeks  and  Phoenicians,  that  is,  until  the 
seventh,  or  possibly  even  the  sixth,  century  B.C.  Naturally 
the  Etruscans  imitated  the  works  of  these  more  advanced 
peoples.  But  Etruscan  sculpture  did  not  develop  consist- 
ently and  rationally.  It  remained  always,  in  some  measure, 
an  imported  art,  and  apparently  changes  or  differences  in 
style  were  due  to  accident,  to  the  coming  of  some  new  master 
from  abroad  or  of  some  new  specimen  of  foreign  workman- 
ship, rather  than  to  the  gradual  progress  of  a  national  art. 

Phoenician  and  Greek  Influence.  —  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventh  century  and  the  early  part  of  the  sixth,  Phoeni- 
cian, that  is,  Carthaginian,  influence  was  strong  among  the 
Etrurians,  who  were  for  a  time  political  allies  of  Carthage. 
But  in  the  sixth  century  the  Greeks  got  the  upper  hand,  and 
from  that  time  Greek  influence  was  predominant.  Even 
before  that,  the  Etruscans  had  adopted  a  modified  form  of 
the  Greek  alphabet,  a  fact  which  shows  strong  Greek  influ- 
ence, probably  felt  chiefly  through  trade.  Greek  imports 
continue  to  arrive  in  Etruria  throughout  the  entire  period  of 
Etruscan  national  life,  though  they  are  less  after  the  decadence 
of  Athens  in  the  third  century.  In  the  third  and  second 
centuries  the  Greek  influence  felt  by  the  Etruscans  was  ex- 
erted chiefly  by  the  Greek  states  of  southern  Italy. 

Under  these  circumstances,  it  is  natural  that  Etruscan 
sculpture  follows,  for  the  most  part,  Greek  models  and 
precedents.  The  earliest  Etruscan  statues  present  the  types 
of  early  Greek  statues,  though  often  with  Etruscan  modifi- 
cations, as  when  a  goddess  wears  the  twisted  necklace 
(torques)  adopted  from  the  Gauls,  or  an  Apollo  wears  a  neck- 
lace, an  armlet,  and  boots.  A  few  types  are  purely  Etruscan, 


ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE  141 

among  them  that  of  Charun,  the  hideous  demon  of  death. 
The  chief  centres  of  plastic  art  were  Cortona,  Arretium,  and 
Perusia  for  bronze  statues,  Clusium  for  stone,  Volaterrae  for 
alabaster,  and  Tarquinii  and  Caere  for  terra-cotta  figures. 
There  seems  to  have  been  little  intercourse  between  the 
artists  of  these  centres,  but  the  art  of  each  place  carried  on 
an  isolated  existence. 

Terra-cotta  Statues.  —  The  making  of  monumental  terra- 
cotta statues  was  practised  in  early  times  by  the  Greeks, 
and  was  continued  by  the  Etruscans  after  the  Greeks  them- 
selves had  given  it  up.  The  pediments  and  roofs  of  temples 
were  adorned  with  terra-cotta  figures  in  high  relief  and  in 
the  round.  Such  were  the  decorations  of  the  early  temple 
of  Capitoline  Jupiter  at  Rome.  Comparatively  few  large 
terra-cottas  are  now  preserved,  and  of  these  many  are  frag- 
mentary, but  they  suffice  to  show  that  the  progress  of  art 
was  determined  rather  by  the  progress  of  Greek  sculpture 
than  by  any  internal  or  native  growth. 

Cinerary  Statues,  etc.  —  By  far  the  most  numerous  works 
of  Etruscan  sculpture  are  those  connected  with  the  cult 
of  the  dead,  chiefly  sarcophagi  and  cistae,  or  ash-urns,  in 
the  form  of  small  sarcophagi.  At  Chiusi  (Clusium),  in 
the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  form  of  a  human  head  was 
given  to  the  covers  of  the  urns  in  which  the  ashes  of  the  dead 
were  deposited  (Canopic  vases).  The  appearance  of  these 
heads  is  not  Hellenic;  they  seem  to  be  portraits  of  the  de- 
ceased, rude  at  first,  but  soon  becoming  vigorous  and  realis- 
tic. After  a  time  arms  were  added  to  the  vases,  and  thus  the 
likeness  to  a  human  figure  was  increased.  The  next  step  was 
naturally  to  give  the  urn  the  form  of  the  human  body,  to 
create,  that  is  to  say,  the  "cinerary  statue,"  a  hollow  figure 
with  a  movable  head.  The  ashes  were  deposited  within 
the  body  and  the  head  set  back  again  in  its  place.  But  when 
this  step  was  taken,  the  artists  succumbed  to  Greek  influence 
and  adopted  the  types  of  archaic  Greek  seated  statues.  A 
further  development  of  the  "  cinerary  statue  "  is  the  "  cinerary 
group";  the  deceased  is  represented  lying  on  a  couch,  with 
his  wife  seated  at  his  feet.  A  still  further  development  adds 


142  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

some  standing  slaves  to  the  group  of  husband  and  wife. 
Such  "cinerary  groups"  are  developed  from  the  Canopic 
vases  by  natural  evolution ;  they  are  confined  to  the  school 
of  Chiusi.  The  reclining  figure  on  the  couch  is  not,  however, 
an  inevitable  development  from  the  Canopic  vase,  but  has 
another  origin.  The  religious  or  ceremonial  banquet,  whether 
in  connection  with  the  dead  or  not,  is  a  familiar  type  in  Greek 
relief  sculpture,  and  in  this  the  chief  figure  is  the  man  reclin- 
ing on  the  couch  at  the  table.  Other  monuments  from  Chiusi 
are  small  pedestals,  or  cippi,  and  sarcophagi.  The  sides  of 
these  are  adorned  with  reliefs  which  represent,  for  the  most 
part,  scenes  connected  with  the  funeral,  mourning  at  the 
bier,  the  procession,  the  funeral  games,  and  the  like.  The 
relief  is  low  and  not  well  modelled,  the  human  forms  usually, 
though  not  always,  heavy  and  clumsy ;  in  general,  the  reliefs 
appear  to  be  imitations  of  archaic  Greek  work,  quite  without 
the  vigor  and  naturalism  of  the  Canopic  vases. 

Sarcophagi  and  Ash  Chests.  —  The  Canopic  vase  and  the 
cinerary  statue  naturally  came  into  being  where  the  dead 
were  burned.  Where  burial  was  in  vogue  the  sarcophagus, 
or  stone  coffin,  was  the  natural  receptacle.  The  deceased 
was  laid  in  the  coffin  as  on  a  bed,  and  it  was  not  unnatural 
that,  when  the  portrait  of  the  deceased  was  desired,  it  took 
the  form  of  a  reclining  figure  on  the  lid  of  the  sarcophagus. 
Sometimes  it  seems  that  the  bed  is  in  the  mind  of  the  sculp- 
tor, at  other  times  the  banquet  scene  is  evidently  represented. 
Most  frequently  one  person  only  reclines  upon  the  sarcopha- 
gus, but  groups  consisting  of  a  man  and  his  wife  are  not  un- 
common. About  the  third  century  B.C.,  in  places  where  the 
custom  of  burning  the  dead  prevailed,  the  cinerary  urns  took 
the  form  of  diminutive  sarcophagi,  and  these  were  decorated 
in  the  same  way  as  real  sarcophagi,  the  only  difference  being 
in  dimensions.  Some  of  the  statues  on  sarcophagi  and 
cistae  are  really  excellent,  whereas  others  are  of  no  artistic 
value  whatever.  Among  the  first  are  the  man  and  woman 
on  a  sarcophagus  from  Cervetri,  now  in  the  Louvre. 
Here  the  forms  and  attitudes  have  the  stiffness  of  archaic 
art,  but  the  work  is  careful  and  the  effect,  which  was  once 


ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE 


143 


heightened  by  color,  dignified  and  impressive.  The  strong 
influence  of  Greek  art  is  seen  in  the  figures  themselves  and 
also  in  the  decoration  of  the  couch.  A  later  work,  but  no 
less  admirable,  is  the  sarcophagus  of  Seianti  Thanunia,  in 
the  British  Museum  (Fig.  84).  Other  sarcophagus  statues 
reproduce  the  features  of  the  deceased  with  the  greatest 
apparent  realism,  equalling  in  this  respect  the  Greek  por- 
traits of  the  third  century  and  later.  By  the  second  century 


FIGURE  84.  —  Sarcophagus    of    Seianti    Thanunia. 
(Antike  Denkmaler,  I,  pi.  20.) 


British    Museum. 


B.C.  the  use  of  cinerary  urns  in  the  form  of  small  sarcophagi 
has  become  so  frequent  and  their  production  is  so  mechanical 
that  most  of  them  are  quite  without  artistic  value.  The 
recumbent  figures  on  the  lids  are  neither  portraits  nor  ideal 
figures,  but  merely  rude  approximations  to  the  human 
form,  and  the  figures  in  relief  which  cover  the  sides  are  no 
better  in  design  or  execution.  These  reliefs  now  represent, 
for  the  most  part,  the  more  tragic  or  bloody  stories  of  Greek 
mythology.-  Nearly  every  museum  of  antiquities  in  Europe 


144  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

has  more  than  enough  of  these  unattractive  objects,  which 
exhibit  the  natural  faults  of  the  industrial  art  of  a  people 
without  inherent  artistic  taste. 

Not  all  the  reliefs  on  sarcophagi  are  devoid  of  real  merit. 
The  best  among  them  represent  scenes  connected  with  the 
funeral  or  with  the  previous  life  of  the  deceased,  in  which  the 
influence  of  Greek  examples  is  clearly  visible,  though  the 
winged  demons  which  the  Etruscans  associated  with  death 
are  occasionally  introduced,  and  Etruscan  clothing,  utensils, 
and  the  like  are  accurately  represented.  Some  of  the  Greek 
mythological  scenes  on  sarcophagi  are  well  designed  (with- 
out doubt  in  imitation  of  Greek  originals)  and  executed  with 
comprehension,  or,  at  least,  with  no  evident  misunderstand- 
ing of  their  meaning.  In  other  instances  Etruscan  demons 
are  inserted  among  Greek  deities  or  heroes  in  such  a  way  as 
to  indicate  that  the  designer  had  only  a  vague  notion  of  the 
meaning  of  his  work. 

Stelae.  —  A  few  stelae,  or  upright  gravestones,  from  Tus- 
cany exhibit  a  heavy,  primitive  style,  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  certain  archaic  reliefs  from  the  Peloponnese,  but 
writh  no  very  clear  indication  of  foreign  influence.  North 
of  the  Apennines,  however,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Bologna, 
stelae  are  numerous.  These  belong,  apparently,  to  the 
fourth  century  B.C.,  or  about  that  time,  and  the  designs,  in 
flat  relief,  show  merely  that  Greek  originals,  probably  paint- 
ings or  drawings,  were  imitated  by  artisans  who  knew  little 
of  the  human  form  or  of  the  technique  of  sculpture  in  stone. 

Bronzes.  —  By  far  the  most  numerous  monuments  of 
Etruscan  sculpture  are  the  sarcophagi  and  urns  of  terra- 
cotta and  stone — for  the  pressed  reliefs  on  the  black  Etruscan 
pottery  (bucchero  nero)  and  the  designs  on  jewellery  cannot 
properly  be  called  sculpture  —  but  some  of  the  finest  work  of 
Etruscan  artists  was  done  in  bronze.  A  consistent  history, 
showing  the  progress  of  the  art  of  the  bronze  worker,  would 
be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  nor  is  it  necessary  for  our 
purpose.  Small  and  rude  figures  of  bronze  form  parts  of 
various  utensils  at  an  early  date,  and  important  works,  such 
as  the  bronze  chariot  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New 


ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE  145 

York,  were  made  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  B.C.  Some 
fine  bronze  statuettes  also  belong  to  the  same  time.  These 
works  exhibit  the  qualities  of  contemporary  Ionic  Greek  art, 
and  indeed  many  of  the  archaic  bronzes  found  in  Etruria 
may  be  imported  Greek  work.  In  the  seventh  and  sixth 
centuries  the  Carthaginian  and  Phoenician  influence  was 
strong  in  Etruria,  and  this  shows  itself  in  the  jewellery  and 
furnishings  found  in  tombs;  but  such  oriental  influence 
gave  way  before  the  end  of  the  sixth  century,  and  it  was  at 
no  time  a  positive  controlling  force  in  sculpture,  partly, 
no  doubt,  because  sculpture  played  a  less  important  part 
among  Phoenicians  than  among  Greeks.  The  reliefs  on  the 
large  bronze  pails  at  Bologna  make  at  first  sight  a  some- 
what oriental  impression,  but  examination  shows  that  they 
are  attempts  on  the  part  of  native  workmen  to  imitate  the 
general  style  of  Greek  vase  paintings  of  the  end  of  the  sixth 
or  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  and  to  combine  with  that 
imitation  a  realistic  presentation  of  native  costumes,  habits, 
and  ceremonies.  The  most  numerous  Etruscan  bronzes 
date  from  the  fourth  century  and  later.  These  are  similar 
in  style  to  the  Greek  bronzes  of  the  same  time,  and  they  are 
often  well  executed.  Many  statuettes  served  as  handles 
or  ornaments  of  bronze  cistae  or  other  vessels  and  utensils, 
and  the  surfaces  of  the  cistae,  of  mirror  cases,  and  of  other 
bronze  objects  were  adorned  with  reliefs  and  incised  drawings. 
The  Etruscan  bronze  workers  were  so  skilful  that  their  work 
was  exported  even  to  Greece  itself.  Nevertheless,  Etruscan 
bronzes  exhibit  a  lack  of  that  original  study  of  nature  which 
is  evident  in  contemporary  Greek  work,  and  they  show  also 
less  care  in  detail,  less  real  intelligence  on  the  part  of  the 
artist. 

Bronze  Statues.  —  Few  Etruscan  bronze  statues  are  pre- 
served, though  many  existed  in  ancient  times,  for  the  Romans 
included  thousands  of  them  among  the  booty  they  gained  in 
their  conquests  over  the  Etruscans.  The  Wolf  of  the  Capitol, 
the  Minerva  and  the  Chimaera  from  Arezzo  are  now  re- 
garded as  Greek  works.  The  Mars  of  Todi  and  the  Orator 
(Arringatore)  in  Florence  (Fig.  85)  are  without  doubt  Etrus- 


146 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


can.  The  Mars,  with  all  its  realism  in  costume  and  expres- 
sion, is  somewhat  stiff  in  attitude,  but  the  Orator  is  a  master- 
piece. Aules  Metelis,  for  his  name  is  given  in  an  inscription, 
stands  with  raised  right  hand,  his  head  very  slightly  thrown 

back,  and  gazes  calmly 
and  a  trifle  haughtily 
upon  his  audience.  He 
is  evidently  one  who 
feels  that  he  speaks 
with  authority.  It  may 
be  that  the  folds  of  the 
drapery  are  a  little  stiff, 
but  that  does  not  affect 
the  splendid  quality  of 
the  portrait. 

Qualities  of  Etruscan 
Sculpture.  -  -  Yet  how 
much  is  there  in 
Etruscan  sculpture  that 
is  really  native?  The 
first  impulses  toward 
plastic  art  came  from 
Asia  and  Greece,  and 
presently  the  Greek  in- 
fluence became  predom- 
inant. In  the  sixth 
century,  Etruscan  sculp- 
tors were  original  only 
in  so  far  as  they  added 
to  the  Greek  types  they 
adopted  some  details  of 
Etruscan  costume  or  per- 
sonal adornment.  If 
their  work  differs  in  other  respects  from  Greek  work,  it  is 
only  by  reason  of  its  inferior  workmanship.  Much  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  later  Etruscan  sculpture.  Motives  are 
almost  exclusively  Greek,  as  are  also  technical  methods. 
Etruscan  sculpture  throughout  is  a  provincial  development 


FIGURE    85.  —  The  "  Arringatore."     Flor- 
ence.    (Brunn-Bruckmann,  320.) 


ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE  147 

of  Greek  sculpture.  It  exhibits,  however,  in  some  examples 
a  truth  of  portraiture  and  a  sort  of  rugged  realism  which 
give  it  an  interest  of  its  own.  Moreover,  Etruscan  influence 
was  for  many  years  predominant  at  Rome,  and  the  Romans 
seem  to  have  acquired  their  first  notions  of  art  from  the  Etrus- 
cans. It  may  well  be,  therefore,  that  the  art  of  Etruria,  less 
refined  and  less  perfect  than  that  of  Greece,  was  a  factor  of 
some  importance  in  the  formation  of  the  art  of  imperial  Rome, 
in  which  it  was  finally  merged. 


CHAPTER  IX 
ROMAN   SCULPTURE 

Roman  Art  before  the  Empire.  —  In  the  early  days  of  Rome 
the  influence  of  the  Etruscans  was  predominant,  and  there 
is  every  reason  to  suppose  that  any  Roman  sculpture  which 
may  have  existed  was  in  no  way  to  be  distinguished  from 
Etruscan  work.  There  are,  however,  no  extant  monuments 
of  sculpture  which  can  be  confidently  claimed  as  Roman 
work  of  the  time  of  the  kings,  or  even  of  the  early  years  of 
the  republic.  Etruscan  art  was,  as  we  have  seen,  strongly 
influenced  by  Greek  art,  and  Rome  came,  into  direct  contact 
with  Hellenic  civilization  at  a  very  early  date.  According 
to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.,  xxxv,  154),  two  Greek  artists,  Damophilus 
and  Gorgasus,  painted  in  496  B.C.  the  reliefs  which  adorned 
the  temple  of  Ceres,  Liber,  and  Libera ;  and  if  Greek  painters 
worked  at  Rome  at  such  an  early  date,  we  can  hardly  doubt 
that  works  of  Greek  art  were  imported  still  earlier.  As 
time  went  on  the  Romans  became  more  and  more  familiar 
with  Greek  art,  and  before  the  end  of  the  third  century  B.C. 
Greek  statues  and  Greek  sculptors  were  numerous  at  Rome. 
Indeed,  Rome  was,  as  early  as  the  second  century  B.C.,  an 
important  centre  of  Hellenic  culture.  Naturally  therefore 
Roman  sculpture  would  be  strongly  influenced  by  Greek 
sculpture,  whatever  racial  or  national  differences  might 
exist  between  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Greek  and  Roman  Art.  —  It  has  been  generally  accepted  as 
a  fact  that  the  Romans  were  a  more  strictly  practical  people 
than  the  Greeks  and  that  in  matters  of  art  the  Romans  were 
realists  and  the  Greeks  idealists.  But  we  have  seen  that  late 
Greek  (Hellenistic)  art  had  many  traits  of  realism  ;  in  fact, 
Hellenistic  sculptors  often  reproduced  individual  peculiari- 

148 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE  149 

ties  with  ruthless  fidelity,  even  when  they  were  far  from 
beautiful.  The  brother  of  Lysippus  is  said  to  have  made 
casts  directly  from  his  human  models.  Mere  realism  is, 
then,  no  proof  that  a  work  is  Roman,  rather  than  Greek,  and, 
in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  it  is  impossible  to 
distinguish  between  Hellenistic  sculpture  and  Roman  sculp- 
ture of  the  time  of  the  republic.1  The  sculptors  who  worked 
at  Rome  seem  as  a  rule  to  have  been  Greeks,  so  far  as  their 
names  indicate  their  nationality;  but  it  is  possible  that 
among  those  whose  names  are  not  recorded  the  proportion  of 
Greeks  may  have  been  less.  But  whatever  the  race  of  the 
sculptors,  the  fact  remains  that  sculpture,  as  practised  at 
Rome  and  for  Romans  under  the  republic,  was  Hellenistic 
sculpture  little,  if  at  all,  modified  by  Roman  taste. 

Roman  Art  Hellenistic.  —  In  the  last  years  of  the  re- 
public and  until  after  the  foundation  of  Constantinople 
Rome  was  the  centre  of  civilization.  But  civilization  was 
Greek  in  most  respects,  especially  with  regard  to  art.  Wher- 
ever the  Roman  legions  pitched  their  camps,  they  established 
outposts  of  Hellenic  culture  as  it  existed  in  their  times. 
The  rise  of  the  Pergamene  kingdom  had  offered  the  Greek 
sculptors  of  the  third  and  second  centuries  B.C.  new  oppor- 
tunities, and  thereby  undoubtedly  affected  the  progress  of 
Greek  sculpture  at  that  time.  So,  but  in  far  greater  meas- 
ure, the  rise  of  the  great  Roman  power,  and  above  all  the 
establishment  of  the  empire  by  Augustus,  offered  to  archi- 
tects, painters,  and  sculptors  —  for  the  most  part  Greeks, 
and  all  educated  in  Greek  traditions  —  new  opportunities 
and  new  problems.  The  art  of  Rome  is  Hellenistic  art,  but 
it  is  Hellenistic  art  under  new  conditions  which  lead  to  new 
development,  not  merely  to  decadence.  We  are  therefore 
justified  in  calling  it  Roman  art.  In  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
empire,  especially  in  Asia,  interest  in  the  representation  of 

1  Altmann,  Die  romischen  Grabaltare,  pp.  196  ff.  (cf .  Mrs.  Strong,  Roman 
Sculpture,  p.  350),  observes  that  certain  rather  crude  portraits  on  grave 
monuments  show  the  influence  of  the  wax  imagines  which  the  Romans  ex- 
hibited at  funerals  and  are  strictly  Roman.  Even  if  this  view  be  correct, 
it  hardly  affects  the  general  statement  above ;  moreover,  portraits  of  the 
class  mentioned  soon  went  out  of  fashion. 


150  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  human  form  grew  less  as  time  went  on,  and  sculpture 
developed  (or  degenerated)  into  mere  ornament  in  relief,  so 
executed  that  the  lights  and  shadows  produce  almost  the 
effect  of  a  pattern  in  black  and  white,  but  at  Rome  and  in  the 
western  regions  the  human  form  continued  to  be  the  centre 
of  the  sculptors'  interest,  though  ornament  was  also  devel- 
oped in  a  remarkable  degree. 

Many  of  the  statues  made  at  Rome  or  for  Romans  were 
copies  of  famous  Greek  works,  or  were  imitations  of  the  style 
of  Greek  masters  of  earlier  times.  Several  such  works  have 
been  mentioned  in  the  chapters  on  Greek  sculpture,  and  it  is 
not  necessary  to  discuss  them  at  length .  They  possess  great 
interest,  because  they  throw  light  upon  the  history  of  Greek 
sculpture,  inasmuch  as  many  works  of  famous  artists  are 
preserved  only  in  Roman  copies;  but  they  do  not  exhibit 
the  progress  of  art  under  the  Roman  empire.  They  show 
that  Roman  patrons  of  art  in  the  last  years  of  the  republic, 
under  Augustus,  under  Hadrian,  and  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  for  some  centuries,  liked  to  possess  copies  of  famous 
Greek  statues,  and  that  imitations  of  the  archaic  Greek  style 
were  much  appreciated  in  the  days  of  Pasiteles  and  his  school ; 
but  they  do  not  illustrate  the  real  life  of  sculpture  under  the 
Romans.  That  life  is  exhibited  chiefly  in  the  official  or  his- 
torical reliefs  and  in  portraits. 

Reliefs  from  the  Altar  of  Neptune.  —  Perhaps  the  earliest 
important  work  of  Roman  sculpture  is  the  series  of  reliefs 
which  once  decorated  the  altar  in  front  of  the  temple  of 
Neptune  erected  about  35-32  B.C.  by  Domitius  Ahenobarbus.1 
On  three  sides  the  reliefs  represent  the  marriage  of  Poseidon 
and  Amphitrite,2  on  the  fourth  a  Roman  sacrifice.  The 
relief  is  well  modelled,  and  in  general  the  execution  is  good, 
though  not  remarkably  fine.  _Ihe  combination  of  mytho- 
logical  or  allegorical  scenes  with  scenes  of  real  life  is  not  new7 

1  Furtwangler,   Intermezzi,  pp.  35  ff. ;   Mrs.   Strong,   Roman  Sculpture, 
pp.  33  ff.     The  scene  of  sacrifice  is  in  the  Louvre,  the  rest  in  Munich. 

2  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.,  xxxy,  26,  says  Domitius  dedicated  in  this  temple  a 
group  of  Tritons  and  Nereids  by  Scopas.     Partly  for  this  reason  these  reliefs 
were  formerly  attributed  to  Scopas,  with  whose  work  they  can  have  at  most 
only  a  very  distant  connection.     See  page  111. 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE  151 

to  be  sure,  but  it  js  neyerthelesijjcharaGteristic  of  Roman 
art.  As  time  went  on,  the  mythological  element  became 
less  and  less  important.  Here  the  mythological  figures  are 
lifelike  and  graceful,  and  the  composition  is  skilful  and 
pleasing,  leading  the  eye  through  the  well-conceived  lesser 
groups  to  the  singularly  attractive  group  of  Poseidon  and 
Amphitrite  in  the  centre.  Composition  with  reference  to  a 
strongly  marked  centre  was  by  no  means  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  of  earlier  times,  but  it  becomes  a  marked  feature  of 
Roman  art,  from  which  it  passed  to  the  art  of  later  centuries. 
In  the  mythological  part  of  these  reliefs  there  is,  however, 
nothing  distinctively  Roman.  The  scene  of  sacrifice,  on 
the  other  hand,  while  its  execution  shows  that  the  artist 
was  trained  in  Greek  methods,  is  Roman  in  subject  and  is 
conceived  in  a  spirit  which  is  hardly  to  be  found  before  the 
time  of  Roman  greatness.  Domitius,  in  warlike  costume 
and  statuesque  pose,  stands  beside  the  altar.  Behind  him 
are  his  troops,  some  of  them  already  in  the  garb  of  peace 
after  their  campaign.  At  the  extreme  left  sits  a  writer, 
probably  preparing  the  military  diplomas.  At  the  right  of 
the  altar,  balancing  Domitius,  is  the  imposing  figure  of  the 
priest  who  awaits  the  sacrifice  (the  suovetaurilia  —  swine, 
ram,  and  bull,  here  in  reverse  order),  behind  which  are  again 
men  of  the  army,  among  them  a  cavalryman  with  his  horse. 
The  composition  is  varied,  but  not  too  animated.  The  bull 
is  absurdly  large,  as  if  the  artist  wished  by  sheer  bulk  to  atone 
for  the  fact  that  the  altar,  the  centre  of  the  action,  is  not  in 
the  centre  of  the  composition.  But  the  accuracy  with  which 
the  costumes  and  official  actions  are  represented  is  remark- 
able. Evidently  the  artist  was  interested  in  bringing  vividly 
before  the  eyes  of  the  spectator  a  significant  episode  in  the 
career  of  his  patron. 

The  Ara  Pads.  —  A  similar  spirit  is  felt  in  the  far  more 
interesting  reliefs  from  the  wall  which  enclosed  the  Ara 
Pads,  the  altar  of  Peace,  erected  by  Augustus.1  The  wall 

1  The  fragments  of  these  reliefs  are  now  scattered  —  in  Rome,  Florence, 
Paris,  and  Vienna.  See  Mrs.  Strong,  Roman  Sculpture,  pp.  39  ff.,  for  a 
description  and  discussion  of  the  whole  composition  and  references  to  previous 
publications. 


152 


A  HISTORY  OP  SCULPTURE 


was,  with  its  base,  about  6  m.  (roughly  20  feet)  high,  about 
11.50  m.  (roughly  38  feet)  long  on  the  entrance  (east  and 
west)  sides,  and  10.50  m.  (roughly  35  feet)  on  the  other  sides. 
It  was  adorned  inside  and  out  with  carvings.  On  the  inside 
was  an  upper  frieze  of  garlands  suspended  from  bucrania 
(ox-heads),  below  which  was  a  rich  meander  pattern,  and  be- 
low that  a  band  of  fluted  marble.  Pilasters  stood  at  each 
side  of  the  entrances  and  at  the  corners  of  the  enclosure. 
On  the  outside  was  a  series  of  great  reliefs,  partly  allegorical, 


FIGURE  86.  —  Relief  from  the  Altar  of  Peace.     Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence. 

partly  historical  and  iconographic,  representing  the  pro- 
cession in  honor  of  the  goddess  Peace,  and  below  this  a 
frieze  of  conventional  floral  scrolls. 

The  group  representing  Earth  (Terra  or  Tellus)  with  Air 
and  Water  beside  her  contains  many  reminiscences  of  earlier 
Greek  works,  but  the  figure  of  Earth  herself,  affectionately 
holding  two  small  children,  symbolizes  in  a  new  and  attrac- 
tive manner  the  great  mother  of  us  all.  The  part  of  the  frieze 
(south  side)  which  represents  the  emperor,  his  family,  and 
his  attendants  is  especially  interesting,  as  it  contains  many 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE 


153 


portraits,  most  of  which  are,  however,  not  yet  satisfactorily 
identified  (Fig.  86).  The  grouping  is  here  ingenious  and 
excellent.  The  least  interesting  portion  is  the  official  pro- 
cession (north  side),  for  here  the  figures  are  crowded  and  the 
effect  monotonous.  The  faces  are  evidently  in  great  part, 
at  any  rate,  portraits,  though  few  of  them  are  identified. 

A  peculiarly  interest- 
ing feature  of  this  frieze 
is  the  effect  of  space  and 
perspective  attained  by 
the  varying  projection  of 
the  figures  —  especially 
the  heads  —  from  the 
background,  which  is  it- 
self not  all  in  one  plane. 
Such  an  effect  of  extent 
in  three  dimensions  is 
hardly  to  be  found  in 
earlier  relief  sculpture. 
Another  innovation  is  in 
the  representation  of  the 
eyes,  which  are  not  al- 
ways turned  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  face. 
This  makes  the  expres- 
sion much  more  lifelike, 
especially  where  two  or 
more  persons  are  sup- 
posed to  be  engaged  in 
conversation. 

The  composition  is  excellent  in  detail,  but  less  good  when 
considered  as  a  whole.  The  two  processions  do  not  properly 
balance  each  other,  and  both  turn  their  backs  upon  the 
scenes  of  religious  observance.  The  group  of  Earth  and  her 
companions  is  insufficiently  balanced  by  the  sacrifice  of  a  pig 
at  the  other  side  of  the  entrance ;  and  in  general  there  seems 
to  be  little  real  unity  in  the  composition.  This  serious  defect 
was  overcome  in  later  official  Roman  reliefs. 


FIGURE  87.  —  Decorative  Scrollwork 
from  the  Altar  of  Peace.  Uffizi  Gallery, 
Florence. 


154  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

The  purely  decorative  friezes  —  the  bucrania,  the  garlands, 
and  the  floral  scrolls  —  are  of  surpassing  excellence.  In 
general  design  there  is  the  utmost  grace  and  symmetry,  and 
the  details  are  elaborated  with  the  greatest  care  and  skill. 
The  naturalism  of  the  fruits,  leaves,  and  flowers  is  remark- 
able. A  new  and  admirable  development  of  decorative  sculp- 
ture is  here  evident  (Fig.  87).  Decorative  sculpture  of 
the  same  kind  —  exhibiting,  that  is  to  say,  the  same  quali- 
ties, is  found  on  other  monuments  of  the  Augustan  period, 
among  which  are  to  be  reckoned  some,  at  least,  of  the  silver 
cups  and  other  vessels  from  Bosco  Reale. 

Pictorial  and  Neo- Attic  Reliefs.  —  Two  other  different 
kinds  of  reliefs  are  to  be  ascribed  to  this  period :  the  "  pic- 
torial reliefs"  and  the  "Neo- Attic  reliefs."  The  former 
are  panels  which  seem  to  have  been  used  for  the  decoration 
of  walls,  with  little  or  no  regard  for  their  architectural 
setting,  somewhat  as  we  use  pictures  to-day.  The  action 
represented  is  often,  even  usually,  of  no  great  significance  — 
a  peasant  driving  a  cow,  or  something  of  the  sort  —  and  the 
landscape  background  is  elaborated  with  great  variety  of 
detail.  Such  pictorial  backgrounds  are  already  seen  in  the 
smaller  frieze  of  the  great  altar  at  Pergamon  (see  page  133), 
but  they  are  further  developed  in  the  Augustan  age.  In  the 
"Neo- Attic"  reliefs  the  figures  of  deities,  Victories,  and 
human  beings  are  carved  in  imitation  of  archaic  Greek  work. 
The  drapery  falls  in  regular,  sharply  divided  folds,  the 
attitudes  are  somewhat  stiff,  and  the  hair  is  arranged  in 
artificial  locks.  The  background  often  contains  buildings 
which  scholars  have  tried  to  identify  with  Roman  edifices. 
These  archaistic  reliefs  possess  a  certain  charm,  like  that 
of  the  paintings  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  with  which 
they  have  often  been  compared.  The  same  tendency  to 
revert  to  an  earlier  style  is  seen  in  the  statues  of  the  school 
of  Pasiteles  (see  page  136),  which  belong  to  the  same  period. 

Busts  and  Statues  of  the  Augustan  Period.  —  In  the  reliefs 
of  the  Ara  Pacis  the  portraits  have  all  the  individualism 
and  realism  seen  in  the  busts  and  statues  of  the  last  years 
of  the  republic,  but  the  busts  and  statues  of  the  Augustan 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE 


155 


period  are  likely  to  be  more  generalized  and  academic.  This 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  taste  of  Augustus  and  his  circle, 
which  led  to  the  imitation  or  adaptation  of  the  earlier  Greek 
style.  A  famous  example  is  the  statue  of  Augustus  from 
Prima  Porta  (Fig.  88),  in  which  the  influence  of  the  earlier 
style,  though  sufficiently  pronounced,  is  not  so  strong  as 
to  produce  an  effect  of 
academic  coldness.  The 
cuirass,  with  its  Roman 
legends  appearing  as  if 
wrought  in  metal,  is 
universally  admired.  A 
few  admirable  busts  of 
children,  in  which  there 
is  much  life  and  indi- 
viduality, belong  to  this 
period. 

Other  monuments  of 
the  time  of  Augustus 
and  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors exhibit  in  vary- 
ing degree  the  charac- 
teristics mentioned  in 
connection  with  the 
sculptures  of  the  Ara 
Pacis,  most  important 
of  which  are  careful 
study  of  nature,  new 
effects  of  light  and 
shade,  an  advance  tow- 
ard the  treatment  of  three  dimensions,  especially  in  relief 
works,  and  the  development  of  an  almost  official  art  by  which 
great  persons  and  events  were  celebrated.  Such  monuments 
are  not  confined  to  Rome  and  its  immediate  neighborhood,  but 
are  found  in  distant  provinces  as  well.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  works  of  Augustan  art  have  disappeared, 
the  extant  remains  suffice  to  give  a  clear,  if  not  exhaustive, 
knowledge  of  its  qualities.  Some  works,  especially  in  the 


FIGURE  88.  —  Augustus,  from  Prima 
Porta.    The  Vatican. 


156  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

provinces,  are  still  conceived  in  the  Hellenistic  style  of  the 
first  and  second  centuries  B.C.,1  and  others  are  rudely  or 
carelessly  designed  and  executed,  but  it  is  not  in  such  works 
that  the  real  qualities  of  the  art  of  the  period  are  to  be  sought.2 

Flavian  Sculpture.  —  There  are  relatively  few  remains  of 
sculpture  dating  from  the  time  between  the  death  of  Augus- 
tus and  the  principate  of  Domitian.  Apparently  there  was 
no  marked  progress  or  change  under  the  Julian  emperors* 
and  the  new  influences  which  made  themselves  felt  under 
the  Flavian  dynasty  (69-96  A.D.)  are  best  studied  in  works 
which  were  finished  under  Domitian  (81-96  A.D.).  Of  these 
the  most  important  are  the  reliefs  of  the  Arch  of  Titus. 
The  panels  under  the  vault  of  the  archway  represent  the 
triumphal  procession — on  one  side  the  emperor  in  his  chariot, 
with  Victory  by  his  side,  and  an  escort  which  includes  alle- 
gorical figures  of  Rome  and  the  Roman  people  (Fig.  89), 
and  on  the  other  the  Roman  soldiers  bearing  the  sacred 
utensils  from  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  In  both  panels  the 
impression  of  motion  is  admirably  conveyed,  and  in  both  the 
figures  are  carved  at  different  depths,  so  that  light  and  air 
pass  between  and  about  them  and  help  to  produce  an  effect 
of  space  and  reality.  The  chief  defect  of  these  panels  is 
seen  in  the  arrangement  of  the  horses  in  one  and  the  arch 
in  the  other.  The  horses  appear  to  be  advancing  at  right 
angles  to  the  chariot,  and  the  soldiers  seem  to  be  marching 
against  the  side  of  the  arch.  Evidently  the  science  of  per- 
spective was  unknown  to  the  brilliant  artist  of  these  reliefs. 
The  remaining  sculptures  of  this  arch  are  interesting,  but 
are  neither  so  well  preserved  nor  so  important  as  these  two 
panels. 

Other  works  of  this  period  —  chiefly  reliefs  on  altars  and 
panels  from  various  monuments  —  exhibit  in  varying  degree 

1Prhe  admirable  bronze  statue  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York, 
evidently  a  portrait  of  a  youthful  member  of  the  family  of  Augustus,  might, 
so  far  as  style  and  technique  are  concerned,  be  a  Greek  work  of  the  fourth, 
century  B.C.  See  G.  M.  A.  Richter,  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  XIX, 
1915,  pp.  121-128. 

2  The  qualities  of  Augustan  art  are  seen  in  many  small  works,  notably  in 
such  cameos  as  the  "Grande  Camde"  in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  in 
Paris  and  the  "Gemma  Augusta"  in  Vienna.  The  silver  vases  of  Bosco 
Reale  have  already  been  mentioned. 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE 


157 


the  qualities  of  Flavian  sculpture.  Evidently  the  coming 
of  the  Flavian  dynasty  brought — apparently  from  Graeco- 
Syrian  sources  —  a  new  spirit  into  Roman  art.  Purely 
decorative  work  is  at  once  realistic, .  delicate,  and  fanciful, 
and  historical  relief  is  vigorous  and  skilfully  wrought,  the 
varying  depth  of  the  carving  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
figures  being  so  managed  as  to  produce  an  illusion  of  reality, 
of  depth,  and  of  distance,  and  at  the  same  time  a  pleasing 
variety  of  light  and  shade.  The  Flavian  portrait  busts  in- 


FIUURE  89.  —  Panel  of  the  Arch  of  Titus,  Rome. 

elude  the  shoulders  and  the  breast  line,  whereas  those  of  the 
Augustan  time  include  little  more  than  the  head  and  neck. 
The  faces  are  expressive,  and  the  work  usually  careful.  In 
general,  the  modelling  in  portraits,  as  in  reliefs,  is  some- 
what rounder  than  before. 

Sculpture  of  Trajan's  Time.  —  The  chief  extant  sculptures 
of  the  time  of  Trajan  (98-117  A.D.)  are  the  reliefs  of  the 
Column  of  Trajan  and  the  Arch  at  Beneventum.  Other 
important  works  are  the  reliefs  on  two  balustrades  in  the 
Roman  forum,  numerous  portraits,  several  statues,  and 
some  purely  decorative  carvings. 


158  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

The  reliefs  of  Trajan's  column  occupy  a  band  about  a 
metre  in  height  and  more  than  200  metres  long,  which  winds 
in  a  spiral  curve  about  the  lofty  shaft.  They  represent  in 
great  detail  the  two  wars  against  the  Dacians.  The  army 
is  seen  moving  stores,  marching,  encamping,  fighting;  the 
emperor  is  everywhere  the  central  figure,  whether  the  scene 
is  one  of  religious  observance,  of  fierce  combat,  or  of  Dacian 
surrender  to  the  Roman  victors.  The  scenes  are  not  divided 


FIGURE  90.  —  Relief  on  the  Column  of  Trajan.     (Brunn-Bruckmann,  400 ; 

from  casts.) 

by  visible  barriers,  but  the  composition  is  continuous.  The 
chief  indication  of  a  new  scene  is  often  the  repetition  of  the 
figure  of  the  emperor,  though  the  actual  scenery  is  repre- 
sented with  great  care,  and  thus  the  change  of  setting  in- 
dicates also  a  change  of  action.  The  relief  varies  in  depth, 
but  the  figures  are  nowhere  carved  in  really  high  relief,  and 
there  is  no  attempt  to  produce  the  illusion  of  space  and 
depth  by  allowing  air  and  light  to  pass  between  the  figures. 
In  fact,  the  figures  are  here  placed  side  by  side  or  one  above 
another,  not,  as  in  the  reliefs  of  the  Ara  Pads,  in  different 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE  159 

vertical  planes  so  that  one  is  really  farther  than  another 
from  the  extreme  outer  surface.  The  human  beings  and 
their  action  form  the  theme  of  the  whole,  but  the  action 
would  not  be  clear  without  indication  of  its  local  surround- 
ings. Accordingly  the  topography  —  hills,  trees,  city  walls, 
bridges,  etc.  —  is  represented  in  great  detail  and  with  sur- 
prising accuracy.  But  if  the  true  proportions  were  pre- 
served, the  figures  of  the  men  would  be  so  small  that  their 
action  could  not  be  seen.  The  artist  has  therefore  reduced 
the  size  of  almost  everything  else.  This  results  in  perfect 
clearness,  though  the  diminutive  buildings,  trees,  and  other 
features  of  the  landscape  impress  one  at  first  sight  as  absurd. 
Details  of  costume,  armor,  and  facial  expression  are  rendered 
with  painstaking  accuracy.  As  a  whole,  this  relief  exhibits 
wonderful  resourcefulness,  for  in  spite  of  its  vast  length  there 
is  no  monotony  or  exact  repetition.  In  execution  there  may 
be  some  lack  of  delicacy,  but  there  is  no  lack  of  vigor  or  truth. 
The  continuous  style  employed  here  is  peculiarly  appropriate 
for  narrative,  and  has  remained  in  use  (sometimes  in  combi- 
nation with  other  methods)  even  to  the  present  time. 

The  column  of  Trajan  commemorates  the  emperor's 
victories  over  the  Dacians.  The  arch  at  Beneventum,  erected 
in  113-114  A.D.,  commemorates  his  successful  policy  and 
the  benefits  of  his  rule.  On  both  fronts  and  in  the  passage- 
way the  arch  is  richly  adorned  with  reliefs  —  those  on  the 
front  towards  Rome  celebrating  Trajan's  home  policy,  those 
toward  the  country  his  provincial  policy,  and  those  in  the 
archway  his  bounty  to  the  town  of  Beneventum.  The  scenes 
represented  in  the  reliefs  are  connected  in  significance,  but 
they  are  distributed  in  separate  panels  and  their  style  re- 
sembles that  of  the  panels  of  the  arch  of  Titus,  rather  than 
that  of  the  relief  of  the  column  of  Trajan.  In  execution  they 
are  excellent,  and  the  clearness  with  which  their  meaning  is 
expressed  equals  that  seen  in  the  reliefs  of  the  column.  Other 
works  —  lesser  reliefs,  statues,  busts,  and  remains  of  larger 
compositions — show  that  the  time  of  Trajan  was  a  period  of 
activity  among  sculptors,  who  produced  excellent  examples 
of  figure  composition  and  also  of  purely  decorative  reliefs. 


160  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Sculpture  under  Hadrian.  Sarcophagi.  —  Under  Hadrian 
(117-138  A.D.)  sculpture  made  little  real  progress.  The 
methods  of  the  previous  years  were  successfully  employed 
to  produce  dignified  and  effective  works,  and  there  was  also 
a  marked  revival  of  the  earlier  custom  of  imitating  and 
adapting  the  Greek  style  of  the  fifth  and  fourth  centuries 
B.C.  Excellent  examples  of  Hadrianic  reliefs  are  the  two 
panels  from  an  arch  (now  in  the  Museo  dei  Conservatori), 
one  of  which  represents  the  apotheosis  of  an  empress,  the 
other  an  emperor  (Hadrian,  but  the  head  is  wrongly  restored) 
making  a  proclamation.  Here  the  style  is  the  same  as  that 
seen  in  the  arch  at  Beneventum,  with  only  slight  modifications. 

The  "continuous  style"  seen  in  the  relief  of  the  column 
of  Trajan  appears  under  Hadrian  chiefly  on  sarcophagi, 
which  were  at  this  time  and  for  some  centuries  after  popular 
at  Rome  and  elsewhere.  Roman  sarcophagi  of  this  period 
are  decorated  with  reliefs  which  represent  for  the  most  part 
scenes  from  Greek  mythology.  The  individual  figures  are 
frequently  obvious  imitations  or  adaptations  of  classic  Greek 
types,  but  the  composition  belongs  to  the  time  of  Hadrian. 
The  reliefs  of  the  column  of  Trajan  are  low,  whereas  those 
of  the  sarcophagi  are  so  high  as  to  be  often  almost  freed  from 
the  background.  This  does  not,  however,  seem  to  be  done 
for  the  purpose  of  creating  an  illusion  of  depth,  space,  and 
distance,  but  rather  to  produce  strong  effects  of  light  and 
shade  by  making  the  figures  stand  out  from  the  deep  shadows 
behind  them.  The  result  is  not  always  happy,  but  we  must 
remember  that  those  who  designed  and  carved  the  sarcophagi 
were  probably  not  often  the  distinguished  artists  of  the 
period,  but,  for  the  most  part,  mere  artisans.  On  some 
sarcophagi  of  this  time  garlands  and  similar  decorations  are 
admirably  done,  and  Erotes  or  Cupids  appear  which  rival, 
or  even  excel,  those  of  the  Italian  renaissance.1 

1  Roman  sarcophagi  offer  an  interesting  field  for  study  in  themselves. 
A  vast  mass  of  material  is  collected  in  a  great  publication  of  the  Imperial 
German  Archaeological  Institute,  Die  antiken  Sarkophagreliefs,  by  Carl 
Robert ;  a  survey  of  the  field,  with  special  reference  to  Christian  sarcophagi, 
is  given  by  Ludwig  von  Sybel,  Christliche  Antike,  Vol.  II,  pp.  165-225 ; 
Mrs.  Strong,  Roman  Sculpture,  pp.  254-267,  discusses  Hadrianic  sarcophagi 
with  enthusiastic  appreciation. 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE 


161 


Portraits,  Antinous.  —  Numerous  portraits  of  this  time 
differ  from  those  of  the  preceding  years  chiefly  in  the  cos- 
tume or  coiffure  represented  and  in  the  plastic  representation 
of  the  pupil  of  the  eye.  This  last  is  seen  in  some  of  the  re- 
liefs of  the  Ara  Pads,  but  hardly  appears  in  sculpture  in  the 
round  before  the  time  of  Hadrian.  Of  all  portraits  of  this 
period  those  of  Hadrian's  favorite,  the  beautiful  Bithynian 
youth  Antinous,  are  the  most  striking  and  interesting  (Fig. 
91).  The  beauty  of  the  regular  features  is  extraordinary. 
They  seem  to  be  modelled  from  a  Greek  statue  of  the  fifth 
or  the  fourth  century  B.C.,  and  probably 
such  statues  did  exert  some  influence  in 
the  formation  of  the  type  of  Antinous. 
The  expression  of  the  face  is  not  quite 
the  same  in  the  numerous  portraits,  but 
varies  from  one  of  melancholy  brooding 
to  one  of  voluptuous  dreaming.  Some- 
thing oriental  and  sensuous  is  added  to 
the  Greek  purity  and  delicacy  of  feature. 

The  Antonine  Period. — In  the  Anto- 
nine  period  (138-193  A.D.)  the  general 
tendencies  were  much  the  same  as  in 
the  time  of  Hadrian.  Detached  scenes 
are  perhaps  somewhat  more  conven- 
tional, and  Greek  influence,  the  use  of 
earlier  types  and  methods  of  composi- 
tion, is  evident  on  the  front  of  the  base 
of  the  column  of  Antoninus  Pius.  The  reliefs  on  the  sides 
of  the  same  base,  which  represent  horsemen  riding  in  a  circle 
round  a  group  of  foot-soldiers,  show  an  almost  ludicrous 
inability  to  cope  with  the  problems  of  perspective,  though  in 
other  respects  they  are  well  designed  and  executed  (Fig.  92). 
The  reliefs  of  the  column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  are  obviously 
composed  in  imitation  of  those  of  Trajan's  column,  but 
the  groups  of  figures  are  more  compressed,  the  lights  and 
shadows  are  more  pronounced,  and  the  sequence  of  the  scenes 
less  strictly  historical.  A  greater  interest  in  the  moods 
and  emotions  of  the  actors  may  also  be  observed. 


FIGURE  91. — Bust 
of  Antinous.  The 
Louvre,  Paris. 


162 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


This  was  a  period  of  many  monuments,  not  only  at  Rome, 
but  also  in  other  parts  of  the  empire.  In  the  eyes  of  por- 
traits and  other  works  in  the  round  the  iris,  as  well  as  the 
pupil,  is  carved.  It  is  noticeable  also  that  the  hair  is  deeply 
undercut,  a  method  which  produces  strong  contrasts  of 
light  and  shade,  such  as  has  already  been  noticed  on  sarcoph- 
agi. The  use  of  the  drill  to  supplement  and  even,  in  a  meas- 


FIQUKE  92.  —  Relief  from  the  Base  of  the  Column  of  Antoninus  Pius. 
Vatican.    (Brunn-Bruckmann,  210.) 


The 


ure,  to  supplant  the  chisel  increases  the  depth  of  the  shadow, 
sometimes  in  an  undesirable  manner.  The  bronze  equestrian 
statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  which  stands  on  the  Capitoline 
hill  in  Rome,  is  impressive,  in  spite  of  the  stiff  attitude  of 
the  emperor  and  the  somewhat  clumsy  form  of  the  horse. 
It  is  the  only  large  equestrian  bronze  statue  that  has  come 
down  to  us  from  antiquity. 

The    Third   Century.  —  During   the    reign    of   Septimius 
Severus  (193-211  A.D.)  and  for  the  most  part  throughout 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE 


163 


the  third  century  the  continuous  style  and  the  strong  effects 
of  light  and  shade  already  observed  are  employed  side  by 
side  and  in  combination.  The  arch  of  Severus  in  the  Roman 
forum  (203  A.D.)  is  covered  with  reliefs  divided  into  panels, 
but  composed  in  the  continuous  style.  They  differ  from 
the  reliefs  of,  for  instance,  the  column  of  Trajan  in  exhib- 
iting stronger  effects  of  light  and  shade  and  in  the  closer 
composition  of  the  groups.  Similar  qualities  are  seen  in 
other  official  reliefs  (all  fragmentary)  of  this  period. 

Sarcophagi.  —  The   sarcophagi   of   this   period   are   very 
numerous  and  include  many  of  great  interest.     The  com- 


FIGURE  93.  —  Achilles  and  Penthesilea ;  Roma 


The  Vatican. 


position  is  often  overcrowded,  producing  a  confused  effect, 
but  the  reliefs  show  some  originality  and  real  skill  in  execu- 
tion (Fig.  93).  Among  the  sarcophagi  are  some  which  are 
decorated,  not  with  continuous  reliefs  covering  the  entire 
side,  but  with  a  succession  of  niches  or  of  columns  and 
arches,  a  single  figure  or,  at  most,  a  group  of  two  figures 
standing  in  each  niche  or  under  each  arch.  The  carved 
decoration  of  the  arches,  as  well  as  certain  other  features  of 
this  style,  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  East.  Even  in  the 
third  century  some  of  the  sarcophagi  are  obviously  Chris- 
tian, but  the  early  Christian  sculptors  followed  the  methods 
of  their  pagan  contemporaries,  even  when  scenes  from  the 


164  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Bible  were  to  be  represented.  Some  figures,  for  instance 
the  Good  Shepherd,  are  adopted  bodily  from  pagan  art, 
and  others  are  clearly  influenced  by  pagan  types.  The 
distinctively  Christian  types  are  developed  from  those  em- 
ployed in  the  early  Christian  paintings  of  the  catacombs. 

Purely  decorative  sculpture  continued  to  be  practised 
with  success.  The  gate  of  the  argentarii,  or  money  changers, 
is  an  excellent  example  of  work  of  this  kind.  Some  of  the 
reliefs  representing  the  god  Mithra  slaying  a  bull,  most  of 
which  have  been  found  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of 
the  empire,  are  really  fine  works  of  art,  inspired  by  classical 
Greek  models,  though  many  of  them  are  somewhat  rudely 
executed. 

Portraits.  —  The  portraits  of  this  period  are  for  the  most 
part  busts  or  half  statues  reaching  to  the  waist,  and  they 
are  composed,  at  least  after  the  early  part  of  the  century, 
with  little  regard  for  variety.  The  face  is  set  looking  straight 
forward,  and  the  body  is  stiffly  upright,  as  is  the  case  in 
Egyptian  and  early  Greek  statues.  The  contour  is  hard  and 
clear,  hair  and  eyebrows  are  wrought  with  little  detail,  and 
the  drapery  is  lifeless.  The  existing  statues  exhibit  similar 
qualities.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  works  are  without 
merit,  for  some  of  them  are  evidently  characteristic  por- 
traits, but  it  is  clear  that  art  is  deteriorating. 

The  Fourth  Century.  —  In  the  fourth  century  Roman  art 
is  dying,  at  least  in  Italy  and  the  West.  The  arch  of  Con- 
stantine  has  been  regarded  as  the  chief  existing  monument 
of  this  period,  but  it  may  be  that  the  entire  structure  is  of 
earlier  date.1  Much  of  its  sculptural  adornment  is  univer- 
sally attributed  to  earlier  times.  The  reliefs  which  are  by 
most  critics  regarded  as  Constantinian  are  so  carved  that 
the  figures  are  all  in  one  plane,  although  the  persons  are 
evidently  supposed  to  be  at  different  distances  from  the 
spectator.  Each  figure  is  marked  oft0,  and,  as  it  were,  sur- 
rounded by  deep  shadow.  The  regular  alternation  of  light 

1  This  view  is  advocated  by  A.  L.  Frothiiigham,  American  Journal  of 
ArchaenloQy,  Vol.  XVI,  1912,  pp.  368-386;  Vol.  XVII,  1913,  pp.  487-503; 
Vol.  XIX,  1915,  pp.  1-12  and  367-384. 


ROMAN  SCULPTURE  165 

and  dark  produces  an  effect  somewhat  like  that  of  painting 
in  flat  colors,  which  is  evidently  intentional.  Even  in  the 
decline  of  art  the  artists  succeeded  in  producing  the  effect 
they  desired.  Portraits  of  this  period  are  coarsely  executed, 
and  their  pose  is  rigid,  but  the  better  examples  possess  a 
certain  dignity. 

Christian  sarcophagi  are  numerous  in  the  fourth  century, 
and  among  them  are  some  which  are  interesting  on  account 
of  their  iconography,  their  selection  of  subjects,  and 
their  beauty.  The  artists  were  undoubtedly  influenced 
by  the  art  of  Syria,  but  so  were  the  pagan  artists  of  Rome. 
The  Christian  sarcophagi  are  certainly  among  the  most 
important  examples  of  Roman  sculpture  of  this  period. 
Some  of  those  found  in  southern  France  closely  resemble 
those  found  in  Rome,  but  others  seem  to  be  more  directly 
and  more  strongly  influenced  by  Syrian  art. 

The  art  which  is  called  Roman  is  a  development  of  Hel- 
lenistic art,  but  the  Roman  Empire  offered  new  subjects, 
and  in  the  treatment  of  those  subjects  new  methods  were 
developed  which  were  applied  not  only  in  official  reliefs, 
but  also  in  other  works.  In  the  third  and  fourth  centuries 
the  art  of  sculpture  declined,  even  though  it  still  continued 
to  essay  new  methods  in  composition  and  in  the  treatment 
of  space,  light,  and  shade.  In  the  fourth  century  Constan- 
tinople became  the  chief  seat  of  the  Empire,  and  from  that 
time  the  art  of  Europe  was  almost  exclusively  Christian 
and  was,  even  in  the  West,  for  the  most  part  Byzantine  or, 
at  least,  strongly  influenced  by  Byzantine  art. 


CHAPTER  X 
BYZANTINE   SCULPTURE 

Oriental  Influence  upon  Hellenistic  Art  in  Asia.  —  After 
the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great,  in  the  fourth  century 
before  Christ,  Greek  civilization,  and  with  it  Greek  art, 
spread  over  Egypt  and  a  large  part  of  western  Asia.  As  we 
have  seen  in  the  chapter  on  Roman  sculpture,  it  was  carried 
also  to  Italy  and  the  West,  where  it  developed  under  the 
Roman  Empire,  undergoing  modifications  as  time  went  on, 
and  finally  falling  into  decay  with  the  decay  of  the  Roman 
Empire  itself.  As  we  have  seen,  the  art  of  Italy,  even  before 
the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  in  great  measure  Greek ; 
in  the  western  provinces  there  was  virtually  no  art  except 
that  which  was  introduced  by  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in 
Africa  the  Phoenician  art  which  had  existed  in  the  days  of 
Carthaginian  greatness  succumbed  to  Greek  and  Roman 
influence  after  the  Roman  conquest.  In  Egypt  and  Asia, 
however,  Greek  civilization  came  in  contact  with  peoples 
which  had  for  centuries  possessed  a  civilization  of  their  own. 
The  Greeks  who  followed  in  the  train  of  the  Macedonian 
conquests  were  far  inferior  in  number  to  the  native  popula- 
tion and  settled  almost  exclusively  in  the  cities.  The  coun- 
try was  everywhere  occupied  by  the  former  inhabitants,  who 
had  merely  changed  their  rulers.  As  time  went  on,  the 
tastes  and  traditions  of  the  old  inhabitants  made  themselves 
more  and  more  felt,  even  in  the  cities,  and  exerted  constantly 
increasing  influence  upon  art.  It  is  true  that  works  of 
sculpture  found  in  the  coast  cities,  at  Ephesus,  for  instance, 
which  were  carved  in  the  days  of  Roman  greatness  exhibit 
much  the  same  qualities  seen  in  works  of  the  same  date 
found  in  Italy;  but  in  Syria,  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor, 

166 


BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE  167 

Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt,  the  native  art  makes  itself  felt  as 
early,  at  least,  as  the  second  century  after  Christ.  This 
native  influence  is  especially  strong  in  architecture,  but 
extended  also  to  the  other  arts  and  among  them  to  sculpture. 

The  great  buildings  of  Greece  (and  in  this  the  Greeks  were 
followed  by  the  Romans)  were  decorated  with  works  of 
sculpture  which  were  colored,  to  be  sure,  but  which  relied  for 
their  effects  upon  their  sculptured  forms  rather  than  upon 
their  value  as  colored  patterns.  The  architectural  decora- 
tion of  Persian  buildings,  and  of  the  buildings  of  western 
Asia  in  general,  was  sometimes  carved,  but  consisted  more 
frequently  of  colored  tiles  which  were  sometimes  raised,  but 
which  depended  for  their  effect  chiefly  upon  their  color  value. 
Moreover,  the  chief  interest  of  the  Greek  artists  was  always 
in  the  human  form,  whereas  Asiatic  taste  preferred  scrolls, 
beasts,  and  plant  forms  arranged  in  harmonious  designs.  As 
the  result  of  Asiatic  influence  decorative  sculpture  in  the 
eastern  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  became  less  and  less  figure 
sculpture  and  tended  to  develop  into  scrollwork  so  carved 
that  the  projecting  portions  were  flat  and  all  in  one  plane, 
standing  out  as  a  light  pattern  against  the  dark  background 
of  shadow  where  the  stone  had  been  cut  away.  The  effect 
is  one  of  color  rather  than  of  sculpture.  That  similar  coloris- 
tic  effects  were  sought  even  in  figure  relief,  we  have  seen  in  ^-V ' 
some  of  the  later  Roman  works,  which  probably  show_the 
result  of  eastern  influence.  Statues  continued  to  be  made,  ^ 
and  in  them  the  old  Greek  traditions  survived  more  than  in 
decorative  sculpture.  The  sarcophagus  from  Sidamara  j^ 
(Fig.  84,  page  138),  which  dates  from  the  third  century  after  £l_* 
Christ,  still  shows  in  its  graceful,  well-designed  statues  the 
direct  and  powerful  influence  of  the  art  of  Praxiteles,  while 
the  carving  of  the  capitals  and  the  arches  produces  almost 
the  effect  of  painting  in  black  and  white. 

Asiatic  Influence  in  Constantinople.  —  When  Constanti- 
nople was  made  the  new  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire,  shortly 
after  325  A.D.,  the  centre  of  power  was  moved  nearer  to  the 
East,  and  eastern  influence  soon  became  far  stronger  in  the 
new  city  than  it  had  ever  been  in  Rome.  To  be  sure,  many 


168  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

prominent  Romans  followed  the  court  to  the  new  capital, 
and  the  city  was  adorned  with  works  of  art  brought  from 
various  places  in  Greece  and  elsewhere,  so  that  the  influence 
of  the  East  upon  art  may  well  have  seemed  for  a  time  to  be 
little,  if  at  all,  greater  than  it  had  been  in  the  Italian  capital. 
But  such  a  condition  could  not,  and  did  not,  last  long. 
Probably  the  artistic  influence  which  emanated  from  Rome 
had  never  greatly  affected  the  East,  and  Constantinople  could 
not  at  once  become  a  centre  of  art,  but  at  best  a  place  where 
artists  from  different  regions  came  and  worked  each  in  his 
own  way,  and  therefore  the  probable  result  of  the  removal 
of  the  seat  of  government  was  at  first  to  strengthen  the  artis- 
tic influence  of  such  great  cities  as  Antioch,  where  native  art 
already  flourished.  Be  this  as  it  may,  Constantinople  soon 
became  in  a  measure  an  oriental  city,  though  it  always  re- 
tained much  that  was  Roman  and  more  that  was  Greek. 

After  what  has  been  said,  it  should  be  evident  that  sculp- 
ture could  hardly  be  the  most  important  branch  of  Byzantine 
art.  In  architecture  the  Byzantine  builders  created  work- 
of  remarkable  dignity,  stability,  and  beauty.  These  build- 
ings were  adorned  not  only  with  decorative  carvings  and 
incrustation  of  colored  marbles,  but  also  with  paintings  and 
mosaics  at  once  stately  and  brilliant,  in  which  the  history  of 
the  Christian  church  and  the  glory  of  the  Christian  faith 
were  expressed  with  gorgeous  and  solemn  magnificence.  In 
the  minor  arts  also  —  miniature  painting,  weaving,  em- 
broidery, metal  work,  jewellery,  enamel  work,  the  carving  of 
ivory  and  other  materials  in  which  the  carving  is  on  a  small 
scale  —  the  Byzantine  artists  and  artisans  excelled,  and  their 
work  was  exported  far  and  wide.  But  whatever  the  im- 
portance of  Byzantine  art  in  general,  Byzantine  sculpture 
cannot  claim  a  prominent  position  in  the  history  of  human 
progress. 

Periods  of  Byzantine  A  rt.  The  First  Period.  —  The  history 
of  Byzantine  art  may  be  divided  into  four  periods :  I,  from 
the  foundation  of  Constantinople  to  the  outbreak  of  the  icono- 
clastic disturbances  (330-726) ;  II,  the  iconoclastic  period 
(726-842) ;  III,  from  the  accession  of  Basil  I  to  the  sack  of 


BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE 


169 


Constantinople  by  the  Franks  (867-1204) ;    IV,  from  the 
restoration  to  the  Turkish  conquest  (1261-1453).     At  the 
beginning  of  the  first  period  the  art  of  Constantinople  must 
have  been  much  the  same  as  the  art  of  Rome,  though  no 
doubt  artists  from  various  places  in  the  East  soon  settled 
in  the  new  capital,  and  their 
influence  grew  stronger  as  the 
old    Roman    traditions    grew 
weaker.     Statues  of  emperors 
and    others   continued  to  be 
made  for  some  centuries  cer- 
tainly, but  they  have  all  dis- 
appeared, with  the  exception 
of  a  colossal  bronze  figure  (Fig. 
94)  now  at  Barletta,  in  Italy, 
to  which  the  name  of  Heraclius 
(emperor    610-642)    was    at- 
tached  at   least   as   early  as 
1204,  when  it  was  brought  by 
the  Venetians  from  Constanti- 
nople.    It    is,    however,   now 
regarded    as   a   work   of  the 
fourth  century.     At  any  rate, 
it  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  the 
loss  of  the  great  mass  of  monu- 
mental statues  is  hardly  to  be 
regretted.     There  are  few  ex- 
amples of  monumental  relief 
sculpture    dating    from    this 
period;    only    the    reliefs    of 
the   pedestal   of    the   obelisk 
erected  by  Theodosius  in  Con- 
stantinople, those  of  the  monument  of  Porphyrios  the  chariot 
racer,  also  at  Constantinople,  and  those  of  the  arch  at 
Saloniki  need  be  mentioned.     These  are  all  more  like  Roman 
work  than  the  later  products  of  Byzantine  art.     That  many 
such  monuments  once  existed  is  certain,  but  nearly  all  have 
vanished.     At  Ravenna,  which  was  the  seat  of  the  Byzantine 


FIGURE    94.  —  Colossal    Bronze 
Statue  at  Barletta. 


170 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


exarch  or  governor  of  Italy,  sarcophagi  serve  to  show  the 
condition  of  sculpture.  The  earlier  among  them  are  deco- 
rated with  figures,  scenes  from  Bible  story,  sometimes  well 
designed,  but  as  tune  goes  on  the  figures  grow  fewer  and  give 
place  to  mere  symbols  (Fig.  95).  The  art  of  these  sarcophagi 
is  probably  Syrian,  rather  than  strictly  Byzantine ;  at  any 
rate  they  exhibit  the  influence  of  Syrian  art. 

The  Doors  of  S.  Sabina.     Ivory  Reliefs.  —  The  reliefs  of 
the  doors  of  the  church  of  S.  Sabina,  in  Rome,  representing 


FIGURE  95.  —  Sarcophagus  in  Ravenna. 

scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  are  eastern,  perhaps 
Syrian,  work  of  the  fifth  century.  They  are  in  all  respects 
superior  to  the  sarcophagi  of  the  same  period  and  show 
great  ability  in  composition  as  well  as  technical  skill.  In 
ivory  carvings  the  ancient  elements  of  design  and  the  ancient 
care  in  execution  survive  in  some  measure.  Such  carvings, 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  diptichs,  or  tablet  cases,  had  been 
common  in  Rome  and  continued  in  favor  after  Constantinople 
became  the  seat  of  empire.  They  were  given  away  as  birth- 


BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE 


171 


day  gifts,  or  as  congratulatory  offerings  to  newly  made  con- 
suls, or  on  other  appropriate  occasions.  Such  diptichs  were 
later  used  as  book-covers.  Ivory  plaques  were  also  used  in 
the  ornamentation  of  furniture,  and  carved  ivory  caskets 
for  jewellery  and  toilet  articles  were  numerous.  The  chair 
at  Ravenna,  called  the  throne  of  St.  Maximian,  is  adorned 
with  ivory  reliefs  dating  probably  from  the  sixth  century, 
which  represent  on  the  front 
John  the  Baptist  and  four 
apostles,  on  the  back  and 
sides  biblical  scenes.  The 
quality  of  these  reliefs  varies, 
the  panels  with  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Joseph  being  less 
fine  than  the  others  (Fig.  96) . 
The  composition  is  somewhat 
crowded,  the  heads  and  the 
eyes  are  rather  large,  and  the 
drapery  is  not  perfectly  nat- 
ural, but  the  effect  is  good. 
The  border  of  vines,  with 
birds  and  beasts,  is  graceful 
and  decorative.  These  re- 
liefs are  probably  of  Syrian 
or  Egyptian  origin ;  a  second 
group,  represented  by  an 
ivory  book-cover  in  Ravenna,  appears  to 


FIGURE  96.  —  Ivory  Reliefs  from  the 
"  Throne  of  Maximian."    Ravenna. 


be  Syrian,  but 
other  groups 


is  somewhat  different  in  style;    and  several 
have  been  distinguished,  all  of  eastern  origin. 

The  Second,  Third,  and  Fourth  Periods.  Ivories.  —  There 
is  little  or  no  large  sculpture  in  wood  or  stone  of  the  second 
period,  when  religious  paintings  and  images  were  under  the 
ban  of  the  church.  The  ivory  carvings  exhibit  more  secular 
and  mythological  subjects,  and  some  of  them  are  beautifully 
designed  and  executed.  In  the  third  period  the  ivories  con- 
tinue to  be  numerous.  They  vary  greatly  in  execution,  in 
design,  and  in  subject,  though  most  of  the  subjects  are,  as 
in  the  first  period,  religious.  The  number  of  figures  in  the 


172  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

scenes  is  sometimes  considerable,  in  other  instances  single 
figures  are  represented  in  dignified  attitudes,  often  with  rich 
drapery.  In  the  fourth  period  there  was  a  revival  of  the  art 
of  painting,  and  some  decorative  sculpture,  for  instance, 
over  the  door  of  the  church  (now  mosque)  called  Kahrie 
Djami,  at  Constantinople,  attains  no  slight  degree  of  beauty 
and  truth  to  life. 

Metal  Work,  etc.  —  In  metal  work,  so  far  as  it  comes  under 
the  head  of  sculpture,  the  development  is  parallel  to  that  of 
ivory  carving.  The  designs  of  the  metal-workers,  as  of  the 
ivory-carvers,  seem  to  have  been  derived  in  great  measure 
from  the  miniatures  contained  in  books.  These  in  turn 
were  made  under  the  influence  of  the  great  paintings  and 
mosaics  which  adorned  the  walls  of  churches  or,  in  the  case 
of  mythological  subjects,  were  inspired  by  works  of  Hellenis- 
tic or  classical  Greek  art.  The  carvings  in  steatite,  serpen- 
tine, and  similar  materials  resemble  those  in  ivory,  but  most 
of  them  are  of  inferior  quality,  only  a  few  possessing  any 
great  interest  as  works  of  art.  The  ivories  and  the  steatite 
carvings  were  colored  and  gilded,  and  much  of  the  metal 
work  was  enriched  with  colored  enamels  and  stones.  The 
influence  of  miniature  painting  extended  to  the  coloring  as 
well  as  to  the  design. 

Byzantine  carvings,  and  works  in  metal,  were  carried  in 
great  numbers  to  western  Europe  by  trade,  as  gifts,  and  as 
plunder,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  a  new  civilization 
was  rising  on  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  Empire,  served  as  incen- 
tives and,  in  a  measure,  as  models  for  the  earliest  artists  of 
the  western  nations.  Therein,  even  more  than  in  the  beauty 
which  they  undeniably  possess,  lies  their  chief  importance. 


CHAPTER   XI 
MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE.      ITALY 

The  Invasions  of  Barbarians.  —  At  the  time  of  Constantine 
the  Roman  Empire  included  all  of  Europe,  except  Ireland 
and  the  northern  part  of  the  British  Isles,  Norway,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  the  northern  part  of  Russia,  and  the  north- 
eastern regions  of  Germany  and  the  Austro-Hungarian  Em- 
pire. But  vast  hordes  of  fierce  barbarians,  for  the  most  part 
of  Germanic  race,  attacked  the  Roman  Empire,  overran  the 
provinces,  and  finally  put  an  end  to  the  Empire  of  the  West 
in  all  but  name.  The  art  of  sculpture,  which  was  already 
deteriorating,  could  not  survive  the  barbarian  conquests. 

The  barbarians  brought  with  them  a  kind  of  decorative 
art  which  they  applied  chiefly  to  weapons,  goldsmith's  work, 
and  jewellery.  Their  decorations  consisted  of  interlacing 
curves  and  geometrical  patterns,  sometimes  varied  by  the 
forms  of  fantastic  animals.  Some  of  the  elements  of  this 
decoration  seem  to  be  oriental  (rosettes,  six-rayed  stars, 
etc.),  and  were  probably  learned  when  the  Goths  and  other 
invaders  of  western  Europe  were  themselves  dwelling  on  the 
confines  of  Asia.  When  they  appeared  in  western  Europe, 
the  art  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  was  everywhere  prevalent, 
and  the  rise  of  the  Arab  power,  which  spread  over  northern 
Africa,  Sicily,  and  Spain,  further  strengthened  the  eastern 
influence.  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  the  art  of  the 
early  Middle  Ages  seems  more  than  half  oriental,  and  possesses 
little  originality. 

Conditions  in  Europe  before  the  Eleventh  Century.  —  Condi- 
tions were  not  everywhere  the  same.  Italy  continued  for 
centuries  to  belong  in  part  to  the  Byzantine  Empire  and  to 
retain  something  of  ancient  civilization.  There  artists  from 

173 


174  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  East  continued  to  practise  their  arts,  and  native  crafts- 
men learned  to  imitate  them.  Sculpture,  however,  was 
chiefly  confined  to  work  in  metal,  and  few  remains  of  it  exist. 
Perhaps  the  six  saints  on  the  wall  of  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Valle  at  Cividale  and  the  Christ  enthroned  between 
Peter  and  Paul  in  the  church  of  St.  Ambrose  at  Milan  — 
colored  and  gilded  stucco  reliefs  of  life  size  —  may  give  some 
idea  of  the  sculpture  in  precious  metals  with  which  Byzantine 
artists  enriched  the  churches  of  Rome  in  the  eighth  and  ninth 
centuries.  The  date  of  these  two  works  is,  however,  not 
perfectly  certain.  Sculpture  in  stone  before  the  eleventh 
century  consists  almost  entirely  of  scrollwork  with  little  or 
no  modelling,  and  the  few  figure  reliefs  which  exist  are  rudely 
carved,  with  flat  surfaces.  The  revival  of  art  under  Charle- 
magne, called  the  Carolingian  renaissance,  affected  architec- 
ture and  miniature  painting  far  more  than  sculpture,  in  Italy 
as  in  the  other  parts  of  hisjlominions.  In  France,  Germany, 
and  England  sculpture,  so  far  as  it  was  practised  at  all  before 
the  eleventh  century,  was  virtually  confined  to  flat  scroll- 
work. In  some  instances  the  patterns  seem  to  be  copied 
from  pressed  bricks,  such  as  were  used  in  the  adornment  of 
late  Roman  buildings.  The  few  attempts  at  representation 
of  human  beings  are  rude  and  clumsy*  So  far  as  sculpture 
is  concerned,  the  period  from  the  sixln  to  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  century  is  barren,  for  it  is  not  until  the  eleventh 
century  that  the  rise  of  mediaeval  sculpture  in  Europe  begins. 
Then  it  begins  at  about  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  in  the 
countries  north  of  the  Alps. 

Divisions  of  Mediaeval  Art.  —  Mediaeval  art  is  the  art  of 
the  period  from  the  beginning  of  the  e/teventh  century  to  the 
Renaissance,  roughly  speaking,  fron^xlQQO,  to  1400  A.D., 
though  in  some  countries  the  fifteenth  century  still  belongs 
to  the  Middle  Ages.  The  art  of  the  first  half  of  this  long 
period  is  connected  with  Romanesque,  or  Romanic,  architec- 
ture, that  Of  the  SPrOP^  ^glf  W1'^  Gotb1'^  arnVii+ggtiirg  ;  it  is 

therefore  usual  to  speak  of  Romanesque  and  Gothic  sculp- 
ture. The  line  between  the  two  cannot  be  sharply  drawn, 
for  the  progress  of  art  is  everywhere  and  always  continuous, 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  175 

though  it  is  not  equally  rapid  at  different  times  or  in  different 
places,  nor  is  the  form  of  progress  at  different  places  neces- 
sarily the  same.  It  is  therefore  only  in  a  general  way  true 
that  the  four  centuries  of  mediaeval  art  are  about  equally 
divided  between  Romanesque  and  Gothic  art. 

Everywhere,  and  especially  in  Germany,  the  mediaeval 
sculptor  struggles  to  express  in  plastic  form  the  teachings 
and  sentiments  ot  the  Christian  religion ;  but  his  conceptions 
are  greater  than  his  artistic  abilities!  The  great  Byzantine 
mosaics  lead  him  to  give  a  somewhat  rigid  frontality  to  his 
figures,  and  his  technique  is  affected  by  ivory  carvings, 
miniatures,  and  ancient  sarcophagi.  Not  until  the  thirteenth 
century  is  beauty  of  form  achieved. 

Mediaeval  Sculpture  in  Italy.  —  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
eleventh  century  sculpture  began  to  revive  in  all  parts  of 
Italy'.  At  first  the  artists  limited  their  choice  to  sacred  sub- 
jects which  they  executed  in  metal  or  ivory,  sometimes  deriv- 
ing  their  inspiration  from  the  works  of  the  Carolingian 
renaissance,  but  more  often  imitating  the  art  of  the  East, 
or  that  of  Germany  where  the  Carolingian  tradition  survived 
under  the  Othos.  In  southern  Italy  the  Byzantine  influence 
was  strong  even  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  some  Islamic 
influence  is  also  observed ;  in  Rome  and  Tuscany  the  Byzan- 
tine influence  was  somewhat  less  strong,  and  the  remains  of 
classic  art  affected  the  work  of  the  early  mediaeval  sculptors ; 
in  Lombardy  sculpture  in  stone  begins  to  show  French  in- 
fluence in  the  twelfth  century.  In  Rome,  as  also  in  southern 
Italy,  sculpture  was  employed  in  combination  with  bright 
colored  mosaic  work,  and  this  style  spread  to  other  regions. 
The  early  sculpture  of  Venice  was  Byzantine  in  character,  as 
is  natural  in  view  of  the  constant  close  relations  of  Venice 
with  the  Eastern  Empire.  In  general,  mediaeval  sculpture  in 
Italy  was  less  a  part  of  architecture  than  in  northern  Europe. 
It  was  decorative  in  character,  and  was  almost  entirely 
confined  to  relief  work,  though  a  few  statues  in  Rome  and 
in  southern  Italy  were  produced  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Ivory.  —  The  only  important  work  in  ivory  of  the  eleventh 
century  is  the  altar  of  the  cathedral  of  Salerno.  This  is 


176 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


adorned  with  plates  of  ivory  on  which  scenes  from  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  are  represented.  Byzantine  models 
are  followed,  though  somewhat  freely,  and  the  inscriptions 
are  in  Latin. 

Bronze  Doors.  —  The  sculptures  of  gold  and  silver  created 
in  the  eleventh  century  have  disappeared,  but  an  interesting 

series  of  bronze 
doors  still  ex- 
ists. The  earli- 
est of  these, 
which  date  from 
the  eleventh 
century,  are 
purely  Byzan- 
tine.  They 
were  brought 
from  Constanti- 
nople and  are 
adorned  with 
engraved  and 
damascened  fig- 
u  re  s ,  only 
crosses  and 
rosettes  being 
cast  in  relief.1 
In  the  latter 
part  of  the 
twelfth  century, 
however,  Bari- 

FIGURE  97.  —  Panels  of  Bronze  Door,  Ravello.  SanUS    of    Trani 

abandoned   the  method  of  damascening  and  covered  his 
doors  at  Trani  (about  1170),  Ravello  (1179;  Fig.  97),  and 
Monreale  (about  1185)  with  reliefs,  for  which  his  models 
were  Byzantine  ivories  and  goldsmith's  work. 
The  reliefs  on  the  doors  of  S.  Zeno,  at  Verona,  belong  in 

1  Such  doors  exist  at  Amalfi,  Monte  Cassino,  Atrani  (1087),  Monte 
Gargano  (1076),  all  in  southern  Italy,  and  Rome  (St.  Paul's  outside  the 
Walls;  1070).  Similar  doors  in  Venice  (St.  Mark's)  were  made  by  local 
artists  about  1110. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  177 

part  to  the  eleventh,  in  part  to  the  twelfth  century.  The 
earlier  are  very  rude,  the  later  somewhat  better.  Here 
Byzantine  models  are  not  imitated,  and  scenes  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  are  arranged  in  parallel  series.  Verona 
was  under  Otho  the  Great  the  capital  of  what  was  virtually 
a  German  province,  and  the  models  for  these  reliefs  must  be 
sought  in  Germany,  where  a  similar  parallel  series  was  exe- 
cuted under  Bishop  Bernward  of  Hildesheim  about  1015. 
The  art  of  casting  doors  with  reliefs  was  practised  also  in 
central  Italy,  for  Bonannus  of  Pisa  signed  the  bronze  doors 
of  the  main  portal  of  the  cathedral  at  Monreale,  dated  1186, 
and  was  without  doubt  the  artist  of  the  similar  doors  of  the 
cathedral  at  Pisa.  Here  the  influence  of  Byzantine  models 
is  evident,  but  the  execution  is  somewhat  rude,  and  the 
figures  lifeless  and  ill  arranged.  In  the  doors  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Benevento,  apparently  of  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth 
century,  a  local  style  with  strong  Byzantine  characteristics 
is  combined  with  the  northern  system  seen  in  the  doors  of 
S.  Zeno. 

Decorative  Sculpture  in  Marble.  —  In  the  second  half  of 
the  eleventh  century  decoration  in  relief  appears  on  the 
marble  furnishings,  such  as  pulpits  and  episcopal  chairs, 
in  Italian  churches,  and  also  about  the  portals.  At  first 
such  decoration  consists  almost  exclusively  of  vegetable  and 
animal  forms  in  ornamental  combination,  and  it  is  only  in 
the  course  of  the  twelfth  century  that  marble  begins  to  be 
employed  in  the  representation  of  religious  scenes. 

Roman  and  Eastern  Influence  in  Southern  Italy.  —  In 
southern  Italy  decorative  sculpture  progressed  rapidly  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  episcopal  thrones  at 
Bari  and  Canosa  (eleventh  century)  are  powerful  and  impos- 
ing works,  the  former  of  which  rests  upon  three  vigorously 
modelled  half-nude  men,  the  latter  upon  two  elephants.  At 
the  same  time  the  portals  and  capitals  were  adorned  with 
deeply  cut  vines  and  scrollwork,  in  which  animal  forms  are 
mingled.  Both  Byzantine  and  ancient  Roman  work  evi- 
dently furnished  inspiration,  if  not  actual  models,  for  these 
decorations,  among  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the 


178 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


portal  of  St.  Nicholas  and  a  window  of  the  cathedral  (1190) 
at  Bari.  In  Sicily^  sculpture,  limited  under  the  Saracen  rule 
to  such  decorative  work  as  the  Mohammedan  religion  per- 
mits, was  freed  from  limitations  by  the  Norman  conquest. 

The  porphyry  sarcophagi  and 
the  paschal  candelabrum  of  the 
Capella  Palatina  at  Palermo  are 
probably  native  work,  but  the 
portal  of  the  cathedral  at  Mon- 
reale  (1185)  resembles  the  sculp- 
tures of  Bari.  .The  capitals  in 
the  cloister_pf  Monreale.  sup- 
ported on  shafts  of  varied  forms 
adorned  with  rich  carving  and 
brilliant  mosaics,  are  marvellous 
in  their  variety;  on  them  are 
represented  all  sorts  of  monsters 
and  a  series  of  biblical  scenes 
(Fig.  98).  The  artists  came 
from  various  places,  but  were 
for  the  most  part,  at  least, 
from  southern  Italy,  and  their 
work  has  unity  of  feeling  and 
technique.  Here,  as  elsewrhere 
in  southern  Italy,  the  influence 
of  ancient  Roman  art  is  dis- 
cernible. This  influence,  sup- 
plemented apparently  by  study 
of  nature,  is  still  more  evident  in 
the  works  of  Peregrino,  the  artist 
of  the  ambo  (begun  before  1224 
and  finished  after  1259)  and 
other  works  at  Sessa  Aurunca,  and 
possibly  also  of  the  reliefs  which  once  decorated  the  ambones 
of  Sta.  Restituta  at  Naples.  In  the  combination  of  mosaic 
with  sculpture,  which  appears  chiefly  in  southern  Italy  and 
at  Rome,  but  which  spread  through  other  parts  of  Italy, 
oriental  influence  is  evident.  This  was  chiefly  the  result  of 


FIGURE  98.  —  Group  of  Columns. 
Monreale. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  179 

the  centuries  of  Byzantine  rule,  but  may  have  been 
strengthened  in  southern  Italy  by  the  Saracen  conquest. 

French  Influence.  —  Toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury French  influence  appears  in  Apulian  sculpture,  probably 
either  through  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Galena  or  through 
a  school  of  Burgundian  architecture  established  at  Barletta 
by  the  canons  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The  portals  of  Trani 
and  Bitonto  exhibit  a  curious  mixture  of  Byzantine  or  Sara- 
cenic scrollwork  and  oriental  monsters  with  biblical  scenes, 
all  executed  in  a  somewhat  barbarous  manner,  and  a  less 
distant  resemblance  to  French  work  is  seen  in  the  portal  at 
Ruvo,  with  its  row  of  small  angel  figures  in  the  archivolts; 
but  in  general  the  religious  figure  sculpture  of  Apulia  is  still 
tentative  and  clumsy,  quite  subordinate  to  the  really  mag- 
nificent decoration  in  oriental  style.  Throughout  the  thir- 
teenth century  French  influence  upon  sculpture  in  southern 
Italy  was  virtually  confined  to  vine  and  scroll  ornaments  and 
small  figures. 

Art  under  Frederick  II.  —  Frederick  II,  however  (1212- 
1250),  was  an  admirer  and  collector  of  works  of  ancient  art, 
and  the  sculptors  whom  he  employed  imitated  ancient  Roman 
work.  The  arch  which  he  caused  to  be  built  at  Capua  in 
1240  was  adorned,  like  a  Roman  arch  of  triumph,  with  reliefs 
and  statues,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved  and  are  now 
in  the  museum  at  Capua.  Among  them  are  a  seated  figure 
of  Frederick  II,  now  unfortunately  headless,  busts  of  two 
counsellors  of  the  king,  and  a  female  head,  crowned  with  a 
garland  of  ivy,  which  personifies  the  city  of  Capua.  The 
artists  of  these  dignified  and  impressive  works  in  the  round 
derived  their  inspiration  from  ancient  Roman  statues.  Who 
the  artists  were  is  not  known,  but  they  were  probably  Cam- 
panians  or  Apulians,  unless  indeed  we  may  surmise  that  they 
were  brought  from  Rome,  where  sculpture  in  the  round  was 
beginning  to  appear  at  this  time.  A  bust  found  at  Castel 
del  Monte,  near  Andria,  shows  similar  qualities,  and  a  sur- 
vival of  the  school  of  sculpture  which  came  into  being  under 
Frederick  II  is  seen  in  a  dignified,  though  somewhat  heavy, 
female  head  which  surmounts  the  pulpit  at  Ravello  (1272). 


180  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

The  Abruzzi.  —  In  the  Abruzzi  some  decorative  carvings 
in  wood,  in  soft  stone  covered  with  stucco,  and  in  limestone 
were  produced  in  the  twelfth  century,  but  such  figure  sculp- 
ture as  appears  until  near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
seems  to  be  almost  entirely  the  work  of  French  or  Lombard 
sculptors. 

Rome.  —  At  Rome  the  love  of  color,  and  especially  of 
mosaic,  which  was  a  heritage  from  the  time  of  Byzantine 
rule,  seems  to  have  hindered  the  development  of  sculpture. 
Church  furnishings  were  of  marble,  decorated  with  carved 
scrollwork  and  brilliant  mosaics,  and  sculpture  was  absent 
also  from  the  facades  of  churches.  A  carved  font  at  Grotta- 
ferrata,  of  the  eleventh  century,  is  a  rude  example  of  Byzan- 
tine work  by  some  local  artisan,  and  the  well-head  at  S. 
Bartolommeo  all'  Isola,  of  the  twelfth  century,  decorated  with 
figures  of  the  Saviour,  the  martyred  bishops  Adalbert  and 
Paulinus,  and  S.  Bartholomew,  is  carved  in  the  manner  of 
the  late  Roman  sarcophagi.  The  paschal  candlestick  at  St. 
Paul's  outside  the  Walls  is  somewhat  later,  but  still  of  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  signed  by  Niconaus  de  Angelo  and 
Petrus  Bassalettus.  The  reliefs  with  which  it  is  covered  rep- 
resent the  scenes  of  the  Passion.  The  iconography  seems  to 
imitate  that  of  Byzantine  ivories,  and  the  carving,  rude  as  it 
is,  recalls  that  of  Roman  sarcophagi.  This  Bassalettus  (or 
Vassalletto),  or  more  probably  his  son,  was  the  architect  of 
the  cloister  of  the  Lateran,  in  which  rich  scrollwork  and  plant 
ornament  inspired  by  classic  Roman  models  are  combined 
with  mosaic  for  the  decoration  of  the  graceful  and  delicate 
architecture.  Reliefs  fill  the  spandrels,  spirited  heads  appear 
in  the  cornices,  and  two  lions  at  the  sides  of  the  passage 
between  the  cloister  and  the  garden  bear  some  resemblance 
to  works  of  the  last  period  of  the  Roman  Empire.  The 
sphinxes  beside  them  are  imitations  of  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments which  were  popular  at  Rome  under  Hadrian.  This 
cloister  was  built  between  1220  and  1230. 

Families  of  Artists  at  Rome.  The  Cosmati.  —  The  family 
of  Bassalettus,  or  Vassalletto,  is  known  through  three  genera- 
tions, from  about  1150  to  about  1260.  Other  family  schools 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  181 

at  Rome  were  those  of  Paulus  (about  1100-1200),  Ranucius 
(about  1135-1209),  Laurentius  (about  1160-1231),  and  Cos- 
mas,  or  Cosmatus  (about  1276-1332).  All  of  these  com- 
bined architectural  forms  with  decorative  carving  and  bright 
colored  mosaic,  but  sculpture  was  not  their  chief  concern. 
The  most  productive  of  these  artists  was  apparently  Giovanni 
Cosmati,  who  flourished  about  1300,  and  it  is  probably  from 
him  that  work  of  this  kind  received  the  name  "Cosmati 
work."  Such  work  is  not  confined  to  Rome,  but  when  it  ap- 
pears elsewhere  in  central  and  northern  Italy  it  is  doubt- 
less the  wopk  of  Roman  artists  or  is  due  to  their  influence. 
Perhaps  the  most  notable  achievement  of  these  Roman 
artists  was  the  invention  of  a  type  of  tomb  in  which  a  canopy 
projects  over  the  sarcophagus. 

Two  statues  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  of  about  life  size, 
which  once  stood  in  front  of  the  facade  of  St.  John  Lateran, 
may  belong  to  the  twelfth  century.  Their  proportions  are 
clumsy,  but  the  details  are  well  wrought,  and  the  folds  of 
the  drapery,  which  evidently  imitate  ancient  work,  are 
simple  and  natural.  They,  and  a  similar  statue  of  a  kneeling 
Pope,  which  may  have  formed  a  group  with  them,  were  set 
against  a  background  decorated  with  mosaic.  A  few  similar 
statues  of  somewhat  later  date  also  exist  to  show  that  statuary 
was  not  unknown  in  Rome  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries. 

Early  Tuscan  Sculpture.  —  In  Tuscany  sculpture  hardly 
appears  before  the  second  hal£  of  the  twelfth  century.  The 
reliefs  on  the  lintels  of  Sant'  Andrea  at  Pistoia,  signed  by 
Gruamons  and  Rudolfino  in  1166  and  1167,  and  those  at  San 
Giovanni  fuor  Civitas  by  Gruamons  are  monotonous,  with 
lifeless  drapery,  regularly  divided  by  circular  folds.  At 
Lucca  equally  crude  reliefs  on  the  portals  of  San  Salvatore 
are  signed  by  Biduino.  The  carvings  on  the  pulpit  at  Grop- 
poli,  dated  1194,  and  the  relief  by  Buonamicus  in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  which  last  is  a  work  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
are  crude  and  lifeless.  The  better  reliefs  which  decorate 
church  furnishings  of  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century 
in  Tuscany  are  the  work  of  Lombard  sculptors. 


182  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Only  at  Pisa  did  Tuscan  sculptors  of  this  period  produce 
work  of  real  merit.  On  the  jambs  and  lintels  of  the  chief 
portal  of  the  baptistery  are  figures  of  the  Apostles,  draped  in 
ancient  fashion,  and  also  scenes  of  the  Descent  into  Hell, 
the  life  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  a  group  of  the  Redeemer, 
the  Virgin,  and  St.  John  the  Baptist,  all  delicately  carved  in 
imitation  of  Byzantine  ivories,  reminding  us  that  the  bronze 
doors  by  Bonannus  of  Pisa  were  strongly  Byzantine  in  style. 
Beside  the  door  are  two  great  columns,  covered  with  richly 
carved  acanthus  scrolls,  and  among  the  foliage  the  outlines 
of  women  in  tunics  and  of  half-nude  nymphs  appear.  The 
imitation  of  the  reliefs  on  ancient  Roman  sarcophagi  is  evi- 
dent, and  the  work  is  as  delicate  as  that  of  the  portal  itself. 
The  sculptured  columns  of  the  cathedral  at  Lucca  are  to  be 
attributed  to  the  school  of  Pisa,  which  in  these  few  works 
exhibits,  like  the  Roman  school,  though  in  a  different  way, 
a  desire  to  bring  to  life  again  the  beauty  of  ancient  art. 

Early  Lombard  Sculpture.  —  In  Lombardy  and  northern 
Italy  generally  the  decorative  sculpture  which  arose  at  the 
end  of  the  eleventh  century  exhibits  a  combination  of  scroll- 
work with  forms  of  beasts  and  monsters.  The  few  human 
figures  are  rude  imitations  of  Carolingian  ivories.  The  figures 
in  the  reliefs  of  the  Porta  Romana  at  Milan  by  Anselmo 
(1167-1171)  are  historically  interesting,  but  rude  and  coarse 
in  design  and  execution.  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies the  portals  of  churches  at  Modena,  Parma,  Piacenza, 
Ferrara,  and  Verona  are  decorated  with  porches,  the  columns 
of  which  rest  on  the  backs  of  lions,  while  the  archivolts  and 
tympana,  as  well  as  the  walls  beside  the  doors,  are  covered 
writh  reliefs  representing  scenes  of  biblical  story,  of  the  lives 
of  saints,  or  even,  at  Verona,  of  mediaeval  legend.  The  cathe- 
dral at  Modena  was  founded  in  1099.  Its  porch,  naturally 
of  somewhat  later  date,  is  signed  by  Wiligelmus  (Guglielmo, 
William),  and  another  Wiligelmus  signed  the  reliefs  of  New 
Testament  scenes  on  the  facade  of  S.  Zeno  at  Verona.  These 
reliefs  are  flat,  the  figures  heavy  and  ill  proportioned.1  The 

1  The  Wiligelmus  who  worked  at  Verona  is  not  identical  with  Wiligelmus 
of  Modena,  but  is  somewhat  later  in  date.  The  two  works  differ  in  style, 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  183 

scenes  from  Genesis  carved  on  the  same  fa9ade  are  signed  by 
Nicholaus  (Nicolo),  who  signed  also  works  at  the  cathedral 
of  Verona,  at  Sagra  San  Michele,  and  at  the .  cathedral  of 
Ferrara,  and  was  doubtless  the  author  of  the  portal  at  Pia- 
cenza.  His  reliefs  are  less  flat,  and  the  proportions  of  his 
figures  better,  than  those  of  either  Wiligelmus,  but  they 
belong  clearly  to  the  same  school.  In  arrangement  and  in 
choice  of  subject  these  reliefs  call  to  mind  the  rich  adornment 
of  the  slightly  later  French  portals.  So,  too,  the  carved  capi- 
tals of  the  cloister  of  Sant'  Orso,  at  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  and 
the  reliefs  of  a  choir-screen,  dated  1189,  at  Vezzolano,  in 
Montferrat,  show  that  French  sculpture  was  not  unknown 
to  the  stone-cutters  of  northern  Italy. 

Benedetto,  called  Antelami. —  The  most  original  sculptor 
of  northern  Italy  in  the  twelfth  century  is  Benedetto,  called 
Antelami,  whose  earliesti^nownwork,  the  ambo  for  the  cathe- 
dral at  Parma,  is  dated\178.  >Df  this  very  little  remains, 
but  a  panel,  probably  frornthe  tomb  of  Nicodemus,  exists, 
on  which  the  Descent  from  the  Cross  is  represented.  The 
background  of  the  panel  is  covered  with  delicate  scrollwork 
and  inscriptions,  an  oriental  trait,  such  as  is  seen  in  some 
church  furnishings  in  Apulia.  The  figures  are  slender  and 
the  drapery  fine  but  artificial,  as  if  ivory  carving  or  gold- 
smith's work  had  served  as  a  model ;  there  is,  however,  noth- 
ing Byzantine  in  the  composition.  The  decoration  of  the 
cathedral  at  Parma,  of  which  Benedetto  was  the  architect,  is 
truly  monumental,  and  shows  that  the  artist  was  acquainted 
with  the  consistent  and  unified  scheme  of  decoration 
developed  by  the  French  architects  and  sculptors.  This  is 
seen  especially  in  the  portals,  one  of  which  is  shared  by  St. 
John  the  Baptist  and  the  Virgin,  the  other  being  entirely 
devoted  to  the"  glory  of  Christ.  The  date  given  on  one  of 
the  portals  ikvfl96.^}The  system  of  the  composition,  with 
its  balanced  arrangement  of  corresponding  figures  and  reliefs, 
is  clearly  that  of  the  French  churches,  but  it  is  adapted  to 
the  purely  Italian  architecture,  not  merely  copied.  The 

though  both  are  clumsy  and  both  exhibit  somewhat  the  same  spirit.  See 
A.  K.  Porter,  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  XIX,  1915,  pp.  137-154. 


184  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

similar  decoration  of  the  cathedral  at  Borgo  San  Donnino, 
near  Modena,  is  doubtless  also  by  Benedetto. 

Lombard  Sculpture  in  Other  Parts  of  Italy.  —  Lombard 
sculpture,  enriched  and  dignified  by  contact  with  French  art, 
spread  to  many  parts  of  Italy.  Lombard  artists  were  em- 
ployed at  Venice  and  in  Tuscany,  where  Guido  of  Como 
worked  for  Pistoia  in  1211,  for  Lucca  about  1235,  and  for 
Pantano,  near  Pistoia,  in  1250.  His  works  are  recognizable 
by  the  roundness  of  the  forms  and  by  the  black  stone  set  in 
the  centre  of  the  eyes.  Not  all  Lombard  work  of  this  time 
is  of  equal  value,  but  it  all  exhibits  a  good  average  of  skill. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  the  word  "Comacino"  seems  to  be 
applied  to  sculptors  in  general,  which  may  indicate  that  Como 
and  its  neighborhood  produced  many  workers  of  stone. 

Nicola  Pisano.  The  Pulpit  of  the  Baptistery  at  Pisa.  — 
The  first  really  great  Italian  sculptor  is  Nicola  (or  Nicolo)  di 
Piero,  called  Nicola  Pisano.  His  father  came  to  Pisa  from 
Apulia,  tand  Nicola  himself  was  apparently  a  Pisan  by  adop- 
tion only.  Hisjirst  dated  work  is  the  pulpit  in  the  baptistery 
at  Pisa  (1260)7  This  is  a  hexagonal  structure,  supported  by 
six  columns  at  the  corners,  three  of  which  stand  on  lions,  and 
a  central  column  the  base  of  which  is  formed  by  a  fantastic 
group  in  relief  (Fig.  99).  The  trefoil  arches,  the  forms  of 
the  mouldings,  and  the  carving  of  the  capitals  show  acquaint- 
ance with  French  architecture  and  give  the  pulpit  its  Gothic 
character.  The  spandrels  are  filled  with  reliefs  of  six  prophets 
and  the  four  evangelists,  and  figurines  of  Virtues  occupy  the 
corners  above  the  capitals.  In  the  five  panels  of  the  balus- 
trade the  following  scenes  are  represented:  (1)  the  Annun- 
ciation and  the  Nativity,  (2)  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi, 
(3)  the  Presentation  in  the  Temple,  (4)  the  Crucifixion,  and 
(5)  the  Last  Judgment.  In  many  details  of  arrangement 
Nicola  follows  the  traditions  of  his  time,  which  were  in  the 
main  By/antine ;  but  his  treatment  of  the  figures  is  clearly 
inspired  by  pagan  Roman  sarcophagi.  In  fact,  some  of  the 
figures  are  direct  imitations  of  Roman  work;  for  instance, 
the  Virgin  in  the  Adoration  scene  is  a  copy  of  the  Phaedra  on 
a  sarcophagus  now  in  the  Campo  Santo  at  Pisa.  Moreover, 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY 


185 


the  technique  of  the  sarcophagi  is  followed  in  the  use  of  the 
drill,  especially  in  the  carving  of  the  hair.  The  combination 
of  elements  derived  from  Byzantine,  French,  and  ancient 
Roman  art  would  be  more  natural  in  the  work  of  an  Apulian 
than  of  a  Tuscan  artist,  for  all  these  elements  were  present  in 
Apulia ;  but  no  artist  had  hitherto  combined  them  in  a  work 
of  such  essential 
unity,  such 
beauty,  and  such 
dramatic  power. 
The  central  mo- 
ments of  Christian 
story  are  here  pre- 
sented with  the 
dignity  of  ancient 
art  and  the  truth 
of  reality.  The 
pulpit  of  the  bap- 
tistery at  Pisa  is 
the  first  great 
work  of  Italian 
sculpture. 

The  Pulpit  at 
Siena.  — In  1266 
Nicola  was  called 
to  Siena  to  erect 
a  pulpit  for  the 
then  unfinished 
cathedral.  The 
contract,  dated 


FIGURE  99.  —  Pulpit  in  the  Baptistery  at  Pisa ;  by 
Nicola  Pisano. 


October  5,  authorizes  him  to  take  as  his  assistants  four 
pupils,  among  them  his  son  Giovanni.  Different  hands 
were  then  employed  in  carving  this  pulpit,  which  was 
completed  in  two  years,  but  the  design  is  throughout  the 
work  of  Nicola  himself.  The  structure  is  larger  than  the 
pulpit  at  Pisa,  and  is  octagonal,  not  hexagonal.  The  scenes 
on  the  panels  are  the  same  as  at  Pisa,  except  that  the  Visita- 
tion takes  the  place  of  the  Annunciation,  and  two  new  scenes, 


186  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  Slaughter  of  the  Innocents  and  Angels  driving  the 
Damned  into  Hell,  occupy  the  added  panels.  All  the  panels 
are  larger  than  those  of  the  Pisan  pulpit,  but  the  space  gained 
is  filled  with  additional  figures ;  the  composition  is  therefore 
crowded  and  lacking  in  clearness.  The  figures  themselves, 
however,  are  more  beautiful  than  those  at  Pisa,  the  faces 
have  more  the  effect  of  portraits,  there  is  more  evident  study 
of  life  and  more  dramatic  intensity.  The  large  statuettes,  or 
high  reliefs,  at  the  corners  of  the  balustrade  are  admirably 
graceful  and  dignified ;  that  which  represents  the  Virgin  of 
the  Annunciation  is  exquisite  in  its  feminine  grace.  The 
spandrels  of  the  arches,  the  spaces  above  the  columns,  and 
the  great  base  of  the  central  column  are  all  occupied  by  sig- 
nificant figures,  such  as  were  familiar  in  the  decoration  of 
French  churches,  but  had  been  unknown  hitherto  in  Italy. 
The  Christ  of  the  Last  Judgment  and  the  Virgin  standing 
erect  and  holding  the  Child  are  also  derived  from  French 
monumental  art.  The  northern  influence  is  much  stronger 
here  than  in  the  pulpit  at  Pisa. 

Other  Works  of  Nicola.  —  Other  works  of  Nicola  are  the 
lintel  and  tympanum  of  a  side  portal  of  the  cathedral  at 
Lucca  and  probably  some,  at  least,  of  the  colossal  heads 
above  the  lowest  colonnade  of  the  baptistery  at  Pisa.  Unfor- 
tunately most  of  these  last  were  remodelled  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  Descent  from  the  Cross  in  the  tympanum  at 
Lucca  is  a  powerful  and  dramatic  composition,  admirably 
arranged  to  fill  the  semicircular  space.  This  is  probably  an 
early  wrork  of  the  master.  The  heads  at  Pisa  may  well  belong 
to  his  later  years. 

The  great  fountain  at  Perugia,  dated  1278,  was  the  work 
of  Nicola  and  his  son  Giovanni.  On  the  fifty-four  panels  of 
the  lower  basin  are  reliefs  representing  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac, 
Romulus  and  Remus  with  the  wolf,  the  Works  of  the  Months, 
and  other  subjects,  and  at  the  twenty-four  corners  of  the 
upper  basin  are  figures  of  saints,  patriarchs,  and  the  Liberal 
Arts.  Here  the  imitation  of  ancient  art,  so  noticeable  in  the 
pulpit  of  the  baptistery,  is  hardly  to  be  discovered.  The 
figures  of  the  Liberal  Arts,  which  are  the  work  of  Giovanni, 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  187 

are  almost  entirely  French  in  spirit.  In  1265  Nicola  received 
an  order  for  the  marble  area  or  chest  in  which  the  relics  of  St. 
Dominic  were  solemnly  laid  in  1267  in  the  great  church  at 
Bologna.  It  may  be  that  Nicola  designed  the  area,  but  the 
actual  work  seems  to  have  been  done  by  his  pupil  Fra 
Guglielmo. 

Of  Nicola's  life  virtually  nothing  is  known  except  the  dates 
of  his  two  pulpits  and  of  the  fountain  at  Perugia.  Probably 
he  died  not  far  from  1280,  when  he  must  have  been  advanced 
in  years.  His  known  works  are  few,  but  they  suffice  to 
establish  his  position  as  the  first  great  Italian  sculptor. 

Giovanni  Pisano.  —  Giovanni  Pisano  (about  1250-1328), 
son  of  Nicola,  assisted  his  father  at  Siena  (1266-1268)  and 
at  Perugia.  For  twenty  years  after  1278  he  was  active 
chiefly  as  an  architect,  and  he  was  made  capomaestro  of  the 
cathedral  at  Siena  in  1284.  In  1298  he  accepted  an  order 
for  the  pulpit  in  the  church  of  S.  Andrea  at  Pistoia,  which 
occupied  him  for  three  years.  In  1302  he  began  the  pulpit 
for  the  cathedral  at  Pisa,  which  was  finished  in  1310.  These 
two  pulpits  are  his  most  important  works  of  sculpture,  though 
lesser  works,  including  four  statues  of  the  Virgin  and  Child, 
are  interesting  and  beautiful. 

The  pulpit  at  Pistoia  is  still  intact.  It  is  hexagonal,  like 
Nicola's  pulpit  in  the  baptistery  at  Pisa.  The  subjects 
of  the  chief  reliefs  are  the  same  as  those  of  Nicola's  first 
pulpit,  with  the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  substituted  for 
the  Presentation.  But  there  is  here  no  trace  of  the  serene 
beauty  of  ancient  sculpture.  The  composition  is  crowded, 
the  action  exaggerated,  the  proportions  unnatural,  the  heads 
all  bent  to  one  side  or  the  other,  the  faces  contorted,  and  the 
drapery  lacking  in  grace ;  but  the  work  is  full  of  movement 
and  passion,  as  if  it  were  the  rapid  outpouring  of  a  vehement 
nature. 

The  pulpit  of  the  cathedral  at  Pisa  (Fig.  100)  is  no  longer 
entire.  It  was  ten-sided,  and  its  nine  panels  reproduce  the 
scenes  of  the  pulpit  at  Siena,  with  the  addition  of  the  Birth 
of  St.  John  the  Baptist  before  the  Nativity  and  a  confused 
group  of  scenes  of  the  Passion  before  the  Crucifixion.  In 


188 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


these  panels  the  movement  and  vehemence  of  the  reliefs  at 
Pistoia  have  become  mere  disorder,  but  the  small  group  below 
the  lectern  (now  in  Berlin),  the  dead  Christ  raised  from  the 
tomb  and  supported  by  angels,  is  affecting  and  impressive. 
Of  the  outer  supports  of  the  pulpit  five  are  simple  shafts 
resting  upon  lions ;  the  other  five  have  the  form  of  statues 
or  Caryatides,  symbolical  figures,  admirably  posed  and 
grouped.  In  these  supports  Giovanni  reverts  in  some  meas- 
ure to  imitation  of  ancient  art. 
In  one  a  Hercules  appears,  and 
the  nude  figure  of  Prudence  has 
the  attitude  of  the  Venus  de' 
Medici;  but  the  classic  in- 
fluence is  far  less  strong  than 
in  the  works  of  Nicola.  In  gen- 
eral, the  attitudes  remind  one 
rather  of  French  art  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
when  monumental  severity  was 
yielding  to  sinuous,  curved  out- 
lines. These  figures,  however, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Gio- 
vanni's Virgins,  lack  the  almost 
frivolous  grace  of  the  French 
works;  they  are  massive  and 
powerful  in  form,  and  the  ex- 
pression of  the  faces  is  attuned 
to  grief  and  woe.  Undoubtedly 
Giovanni  Pisano  learned  from  French  art,  as  had  his  father, 
but  his  own  genius  was  individual,  with  less  concern  for 
beauty  than  for  passionate  intensity. 

Pupils  of  Nicola.  Fra  Guglielmo.  —  Of  the  pupils  of 
Nicola  Pisano  two  only,  apart  from  his  son  Giovanni,  call 
for  particular  mention,  Fra  Guglielmo  d'Agnello  of  Pisa 
(about  1238-after  1313)  and  Arnolfo  di  Cambio  of  Florence 
(1232-1301).  Fra  Guglielmo  is  probably  the  author  of  the 
ambo  in  the  cathedral  at  Cagliari  in  Sardinia  (1260)  and  cer- 
tainly of  that  in  San  Giovanni  fuor  Civitas  at  Pistoia.  The 


FIGURE  100.  — Pulpit  by 
Giovanni  Pisano ;  formerly  in 
the  Cathedral  at  Pisa. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY 


189 


figures  of  the  former  are  heavy  and  ill  formed,  but  those  of 
the  latter  have  the  vigor  and  energy  of  the  figures  carved  on 
Roman  sarcophagi.  Evidently  Fra  Guglielmo  had  followed 
Nicola  in  his  appreciation  of  ancient  art.  When,  in  1265, 
Nicola  received  the  order  for  the  area  of  St.  Dominic  at 
Bologna,  it  was  Fra  Guglielmo  the  Dominican  who  actually 
carved  the  sarcophagus  of 
the  founder  of  his  order. 
The  work  of  these  reliefs 
is  skilful,  but  lacks  inspi- 
ration. The  chief  interest 
of  the  area,  apart  from 
the  additions  made  to  it 
at  later  times,  lies  in  the 
fact  that  through  its 
means  the  influence  of  the 
Pisan  school,  with  its 
mingled  traits  of  ancient 
and  French  art,  was  car- 
ried beyond  the  Apen- 
nines. 

Arnolfo  di  Cambio.  — 
Arnolfo  di  Cambio  was 
one  of  those  who  assisted 
in  the  creation  of  the  pul- 
pit at  Siena.  He  was  also 
called,  in  1277,  to  work 
with  Nicola  and  Giovanni 
Pisano  in  Perugia.  In 

the    interval    he    Was  with      FIGURE   lOl.  —  Tomb  of  Cardinal    de 

Charles  of  Anjou  at  Naples 

and  also  at  Rome,  whither  he  doubtless  returned  in  1278. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  tomb  of  the  French  Car- 
dinal Guillaume  de  Braye  at  Orvieto  (1282;  Fig.  101). 
The  Cosmati  at  Rome  had  erected  tombs  in  which  the  sar- 
cophagus had  above  it  a  canopy  with  a  pointed  roof.  From 
this  simple  form  Arnolfo  developed  a  monument  of  great 
magnificence  and  beauty.  The  base  and  the  front  of  the 


190  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

sarcophagus  are  decorated  with  mosaics  and  twisted  columns, 
and  on  the  sarcophagus,  as  on  a  rich  bed,  lies  the  figure  of 
the  dead  cardinal.  Two  angels  draw  apart  the  curtains  of 
the  bed.  Above,  two  saints  present  the  kneeling  cardinal  to 
the  Virgin,  who  sits,  a  queenly  figure,  at  the  summit  of  the 
monument.  Other  works  of  Arnolfo  are  the  tabernacles  of 
St.  Paul's  outside  the  Walls  and  St.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere, 
several  tombs,  among  them  that  of  Cardinal  Anchero,  and 
the  seated  statue  of  Charles  of  Anjou,  all  at  Rome,  besides 
various  works  elsewhere.  He  combined  the  sculpture  of  the 
Pisan  school  with  the  decorative  style  of  the  Roman  artists, 
and  under  his  influence  a  strong  Roman  school  might  have 
arisen,  had  the  removal  of  the  Pope  to  Avignon  not  in- 
tervened. 

Tino  di  Camaino. — Tino  di  Camaino  (?-1337),  another 
who  had  worked  on  the  pulpit  at  Siena,  was  a  pupil  of 
Giovanni  rather  than  of  Nicola.  Most  of  his  work  consists 
of  tombs.  In  1313  he  erected  the  monument  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  VII  at  Pisa,  the  first  tomb  in  which,  above  the  form 
of  the  deceased  extended  on  the  sarcophagus,  the  same 
person  appears  again  as  in  life,  surrounded  by  living  persons. 
In  1321  Tino  carved  the  tomb  of  Bishop  Antonio  Orso,  at 
Florence.  In  1323  he  went  to  Naples,  where  the  tombs  of 
Catherine  of  Austria,  Mary  of  Hungary,  Duke  Charles  of 
Calabria,  and  Marie  of  Valois  are  his  work.  In  these  he 
exhibits  great  magnificence  and  rich  decoration,  but  he  had 
not  Nicola's  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  the  human  form, 
and  the  dramatic  intensity  of  Giovanni,  even  had  Tino  been 
able  to  reproduce  it,  would  have  been  out  of  place  in  funerary 
monuments.  His  works  were  much  imitated  in  Naples,  espe- 
cially by  the  two  Florentines,  Giovanni  and  Pace,  whose 
most  admirable  work  is  the  splendid  tomb  of  King  Robert 
the  Wise  (about  1345).  Through  Goro  di  Gregorio,  of 
Siena,  and  Giovanni  di  Balduccio,  of  Pisa,  the  teachings  of 
the  Pisan  school  were  carried  to  Sicily  and  Lombardy. 

Andrea  Pisano.  —  Andrea  di  Ugolino  di  Nino,  called 
Andrea  Pisano  (1273-1348),  was  born  at  Pisa.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Giovanni  Pisano,  but  went  to  Florence,  where  he 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY 


191 


came  under  the  influence  of  the  great  painter  Giotto.  His 
first  attested  work  is  the  series  of  reliefs  on  the  bronze  door 
of  the  baptistery  (Fig.  102).  Twenty  panels  tell  the  story 
of  the  life  of  John  the  Baptist,  the  remaining  eight  contain 
figures  of  the  Virtues.  The  groups  contain  as  few  figures 
as  possible  and  the  composition  is  perfectly  clear.  The 
draperies  fall  in  long,  curving  folds,  the  faces  are  calm,  the 
attitudes  graceful,  the  rhythm  of  composition  and  harmony 
of  line  remarkable. 
There  is  no  trace  oi  the 
tumultuous  passion  of 
Giovanni  Pisano. 
Only  in  occasional  de- 
tails of  costume  is 
there  a  hint  of  imita.- 
tion  of  ancient  art, 
but  the  calm  beauty 
of  antiquity  is  ex- 
pressed  in  terms  which 
originated,  at  least  in 
part,  in  the  art  of 
France.  The  second 
great  work  of  Andrea 
is  the  series  of  reliefs 
which  decorate  the 
campanile.  All  may 
have  been  designed  by 
Giotto,  but  not  all 
were  executed  in  his 
della  Robbia  in  the 


FIGURE   102.  —  Panels    of    the    Bronze  (JpLoH£ 
Door,  by  Andrea  Pisano.     (The  frieze  is  by 
Vittorio  Ghiberti,  son  of  Lorenzo.) 


time;  five  were  carved  by  Luca 
in  tne  fifteenth  century.  Of  the  fifty-four 
medallions  the  most  interesting  are  those  which  represent 
the  works  of  man,  agriculture,  commerce,  and  various  trades. 
Twenty-one  of  these  are  by  Andrea.  Here  he  gives  evidence 
of  careful  study  of  ancient  sculpture,  but  still  more  of  obser- 
vation of  real  life.  The  movements  are  natural,  the  forms 
and  draperies  simple,  the  grouping  clear,  the  heads  noble  and 
refined. 

Orcagna.  —  Andrea  di  Cione,  called  Orcagna  (1329-1368), 


192  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

was  a  pupil  of  Giotto,  and  was  primarily  a  painter.  His 
only  known  work  of  sculpture  is  the  tabernacle  in  the  church 
of  Or  San  Michele.  The  architectural  frame  of  the  taber- 
nacle is  splendid  with  colored  mosaic,  and  the  reliefs  are  well 
adapted  to  this  brilliant  setting.  They  form  a  cycle,  eight 
scenes  of  the  life  of  the  Virgin,  with  choirs  of  angels  and  the 
figures  of  the  three  theological  Virtues.  There  are  many 
figures,  much  movement,  and  great  splendor.  Nothing  re- 
calls the  gentle  simplicity  of  Andrea's  panels ;  but  here  an- 
other side  of  Giotto's  teaching  is  seen,  expressed  with  the 
power  of  a  genius,  but  one  who  lacked  the  feeling  for  grace 
and  beauty  so  evident  in  Andrea's  work. 

Nino  Pisano.  —  Andrea  Pisano's  son  Nino  (died  before 
1368)  settled  at  Pisa  and  is  called  Nino  Pisano.  He  was  an 
artist  of  a  gentle  talent,  whose  attractive  and  lifelike  reliefs 
are  justly  admired.*  In  these  his  style  resembles  that  of  his 
father.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a  considerable  number  of 
statues,  the  most  notable  being  his  charming  figures  of  the 
Virgin.  These  are  of  two  types,  the  one  standing,  with  the 
Child  in  her  arms,  the  other  the  youthful  Virgin  of  the 
Annunciation.  For  both  he  is  indebted  to  French  models, 
but  he  breathes  into  them  his  own  gentle  spirit. 

The  Facade  at  Orvieto.  —  Of  the  sculptors  who  worked 
under  Giovanni  Pisano  on  the  cathedral  at  Siena  none  attained 
greatness.  They  seem  to  have  come  under  the  influence  of 
Andrea  Pisano  and  Giotto,  and  many  attractive  works  in 
Siena  and  various  places  in  Tuscany  are  ascribed  to  them. 
The  greatest  work  of  the  school  is  the  facade  of  the  cathedral 
at  Orvieto,  especially  the  reliefs  of  the  lower  part.  The 
general  design  is  probably  due  to  Lorenzo  Maitani,  who  was 
capomaestro  of  the  cathedral  from  1310  to  1330,  but  its  execu- 
tion was  the  work  of  many  years  and  many  hands.  At  the  left 
of  the  central  door  the  Tree  of  Jesse  encircles  with  its  branches 
scenes  of  the  lives  of  the  prophets  and  of  the  ancestors  of 
Jesus.  At  the  right  scenes  of  the  life  of  Christ  are  framed 
in  similar  branches.  These  two  panels  are  the  earliest, 
though  even  these  were  executed  by  different  hands.  They 
show  the  influence  of  Giovanni  and  even  of  Nicola  Pisano. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY 


193 


On  the  northern  pier  are  scenes  from  Genesis  (Fig.  103),  and 
on  the  southern  the  Last  Judgment.  These  panels  are  later 
than  the  others,  and  the  two  do  not  seem  to  be  by  one  artist. 
Perhaps  they  may  be  the  work  of  Andrea  and  Nino  Pisano. 
In  these  reliefs  exquisite  workmanship  and  beauty  of  face 
and  form  are  combined  with  rhythmic  composition,  freedom 


FIGURE  103.  —  The  Creation  and  the  Fall.     Orvieto. 

of  movement,  and  grace  of  attitude  as  nowhere  else  in  the 
art  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Giovanni  di  Balduccio.  —  The  art  of  the  Pisan  school  was 
carried  to  Lombardy  by  Giovanni  di  Balduccio,  whose  master- 
piece is  the  sarcophagus  of  St.  Peter  Martyr  in  the  church 
of  S.  Eustorgio  at  Milan  (1336-1340).  The  sarcophagus  is 
supported  by  eight  Virtues,  it  is  adorned  with  reliefs,  and 
above  it  are  figures  of  the  Virgin,  St.  Dominic,  and  St.  Peter 
Martyr.  On  the  pinnacles  of  the  canopy  are  figures  of 


194 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Christ  and  two  angels.     The  tombs  of  the  Visconti  in  the 
same  church  are  by  Giovanni's  Lombard  pupils,  and  other 

works  of  the  master  and  his 
school  are  numerous  at 
Milan. 

Mediaeval  Sculpture  at 
Verona.  —  At  Verona  the 
tombs  of  the  Scaligers  show 
Pisan  influence  only  in  a 
few  details;  in  general  ap- 
pearance they  differ  widely 
from  Pisan  works.  The 
earliest,  that  of  Alberto,  is  a 
great  sarcophagus  adorned 
with  acroteria  at  the  cor- 
ners and  a  likeness  of  the  de- 
ceased on  horseback  carved 
in  relief  on  the  front.  The 
same  motif  occurs  on  a  tomb 
at  Bergamo,  where  a  family 
of  sculptors  from  Campione 
was  established.  The  tomb 
of  Can  Grande,  erected  about 
1330  over  the  door  of  Sta. 
Maria  Antica,  is  adorned 
with  religious  and  heraldic 
figures,  and  above  it  rises 
a  pyramid  surmounted  by 
an  equestrian  statue.  Still 
more  splendid  is  the  tomb 
of  Martino  II,  a  free-stand- 
ing monument  with  an  eques- 
trian statue  at  its  summit. 

But  ^  mogt  daborate  and 

complete  development  of  this 
type  is  the  hexagonal  monument  of  Can  Signorio,  finished  in 
1374  and  signed  by  Bonino  da  Campione  (Fig.  104)  .  Probably 
the  other  tombs  also  are  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Campionesi, 


FIGURE  104^-Tomb^f  Can  Signo- 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE.    ITALY  195 

whose  works  are  not  confined  to  Verona,  but  may  be  seen  at 
Milan  (tomb  of  Bernardo  Visconti  and  some  of  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  cathedral)  and  elsewhere. 

Mediaeval  Sculpture  in  Venice.  —  In  Venice  Byzantine 
traditions  survived  even  in  the  fourteenth  century,  but  some 
works  of  the  Pisan  school  were  known,  and  the  area  of  St. 
Dominic  was  at  Bologna,  not  far  away.  The  chief  activity 
of  sculptors  in  Venice  at  this  time  was  in  the  decoration  of 
the  Doges'  Palace,  between  1340  and  1365.  Here,  in  the 
sculptures  which  adorn  the  upper  part  and  the  capitals  of 
the  two  facades,  are  many  figures  from  sacred  and  profane 
history,  of  allegorical  personages,  and  of  workmen.  In 
style  they  are  not  uniform,  but  their  general  excellence  is 
remarkable.  Probably  they  are  for  the  most  part  the  work 
of  Lombard  sculptors.  Under  Lombard,  and  Florentine  in- 
fluence, with  a  background  of  Byzantine  tradition  and  some 
knowledge  of  Pisan  and  also  of  northern  art,  sculpture  at 
Venice  had  attained  before  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury a  high  degree  of  variety,  power,  and  technical  excellence. 
Venetian  sculptors  whose  works  are  to  be  seen  in  Venice  and 
the  neighboring  cities  are  Jacopo  Lanfrani,  Antonio,  Andriolo 
de  Sanctis,  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  and,  toward  the 
end  of  the  century,  the  brothers  Jacobello  and  Pier  Paolo  delle 
Massegne. 

Late  Mediaeval  Sculpture  in  Florence.  —  At  Florence  pic- 
turesque relief  sculpture,  such  as  had  occupied  the  Sienese 
branch  of  the  Pisan  school  at  Orvieto,  passed  in  the  second 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century  into  the  hands  of  goldsmiths 
'and  silversmiths.  Such  metal  reliefs  as  those  of  the  altar  of 
the  baptistery  (now  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo),  by  Leonardo 
di  Ser  Giovanni,  deserve  a  place  beside  the  bronze 'door  of 
Andrea  Pisano.  The  marble  workers  of  this  time  devoted 
themselves  to  the  decoration  of  buildings,  such  as  the  loggia 
dei  Priori,  afterwards  called  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  the  loggia  of 
the  Bigallo,  and  the  cathedral.  In  their  statues  they  retained 
the  qualities  of  the  figures  of  Andrea  Pisano,  but  imitated  to 
some  extent  the  ancient  Roman  draped  statues.  The  deco- 
rative work  about  the  side  doors  of  the  cathedral,  the  "  Porta 


196 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


del  Canonic!"  at  the  south  and  the  "Porta  della  Mandorla" 
at  the  north,  consists,  apart  from  the  figures  in  the  tympana, 
of  beautiful  vines,  in  the  midst  of  which  human  and  animal 

forms  appear.  The  Vir- 
gin in  the  tympanum  of 
the  southern  door  is  the 
work  of  Lorenzo  di  Gio- 
vanni d'  Ambrogio.  The 
decoration  of  the  Porta 
della  Mandorla,  begun 
by  Giovanni  d'  Ambrogio, 
the  father  of  Lorenzo,  was 
continued  and  finished  by 
Nicola  di  Piero  Lamberti, 
a  sculptor  from  Arezzo, 
who  in  this  work  far 
surpassed  the  somewhat 
earlier  decoration  of  the 
Porta  dei  Canonici  (Fig. 
105).  In  subject,  as  in 
form,  the  figures  he  in- 
serted among  the  grace- 
ful acanthus  branches  are 
classic  rather  than  mediaeval.  They  belong  already  to  the 
art  of  the  Renaissance,  as  does  also  the  Madonna  in  the 
tympanum  by  Nanni  di  Banco. 


FIGURE   105.  —  Decoration  of  the  Porta 
della  Mandorla.    Florence. 


CHAPTER  XII 
MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   FRANCE 

Beginnings  of  Mediaeval  Sculpture.  Different  Schools.  — 
In  France,  as  in  Italy,  mediaeval  sculpture  begins  in  the 
eleventh  century,  for  the  revival  of  art  under  Charlemagne, 
often  called  the  Carolingian  renaissance,  had  affected  sculp- 
ture only  in  so  far  as  metal  work  and  ivory  carving  may  be 
classed  under  that  head.  In  those  minor  arts  excellent  work 
was  accomplished  at  that  time,  but  the  few  extant  fragments 
monumental  sculpture  are  rude,  clumsy,  and  childish. 
/  But  in  the  eleventh  century  men  began  to  try  to  adorn  the 
doorways,  capitals,  and  walls  of  churches  with  carvings,  the 
subjects  of  which  were  supplied  by  the  clergy  from  the  canon- 
ical and  apocryphal  books  of  the  Bible,  from  the  liturgy, 
the  legends  of  the  saints,  and  similar  sources.  Remains 
of  Gallo-Roman  sculpture,  Byzantine  and  Carolingian 
ivories  and  goldsmith's  work,  and  the  illuminations  in  manu- 
scripts served  as  models  in  some  measure,  and  influenced  the 
new  art  everywhere,  though  more  in  some  places  than  in 
others.  Everywhere,  throughout  the  eleventh  century,  re- 
liefs were  flat,  proportions  unnatural,  attitudes  awkward, 
features  ill  formed  and  expressionless ;  but  by  the  end  of 
the  century  so  much  progress  had  been  made  that  seven 
different  styles  or  schools  can  be  distinguished :  those  of 
Auvergne,  of  Languedoc,  of  Burgundy,  of  the  He  de  France, 
of  Saintonge  and  Poitou,  of  Normandy,  and  of  Provence. 
To  be  sure,  the  boundaries  of  these  schools  are  not  clearly 
defined,  and  the  works  of  each  school  exhibit  considerable 
variations,  but  certain  general  qualities  and  tendencies  are 
manifest. 

The  School  of  Auvergne.  —  The  school  of  Auvergne  arose 
in  a  region  where  the  worship  of  Mercury  had  been  popular 

197 


198 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


in  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire,  where  many  Gallo-Roman 
statues  and  reliefs  existed.  From  such  remains  of  antiquity 
the  early  mediaeval  sculptors  seem  to  have  derived  their  in- 
spiration. They  produced  works  in  high  relief,  often  with 
a  good  deal  of  undercutting.  The  forms  and  attitudes  of 
their  figures  are  expressive,  but  clumsy.  Occasionally  the 
influence  of  Byzantine  miniatures  or  ivories  is  seen  in  elabo- 
rate draperies  and  delicate  lines,  but  such  influence  seems  to 
be  due  to  contact  with  the  schools  of  Burgundy  or  Languedoc. 
In  choice  of  subjects  this  school  shows  a  preference  for  alle- 
gorical figures,  especially  for  the  conflict  of  the  Virtues  with 

the  Vices,  and  among  these  the 
punishment  of  Avarice  is  most 
popular.  The  figure  of  the 
Good  Shepherd  is  frequent, 
and  among  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Christ  the  Washing  of 
the  Feet,  the  Last  Supper,  the 
Temptation,  the  Carrying  of 
the  Cross,  and  the  Last  Judg- 
ment prevail.  The  favorite 
scenes  from  the  Old  Testament 
are :  Daniel  in  the  Lions'  Den, 
Abraham's  Sacrifice,  Moses  in 
the  Bulrushes,  Samson  over- 
turning the  Temple,  and 
Jonah.  The  capitals  of  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  du 
Pont,  at  Clermont,  of  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, are  good  examples  of  the  work  of  this  school  (Fig. 
106).  One  of  these  is  signed  by  Ritlius,  and  several  other 
works  are  so  similar  to  this  that  they  may  be  confidently 
assigned  to  the  same  sculptor  or  to  his  immediate  pupils. 
The  churches  of  Auvergne  were  all  more  or  less  closely  con- 
nected with  the  great  Burgundian  Abbey  of  Cluny,  which 
was  a  most  important  centre  of  culture,  the  influence  of  which 
spread  far  and  wide.  The  sculpture  of  the  valleys  of  the 
rivers  that  flow  from  the  plateau  of  Auvergne,  the  Loire, 
the  Cher,  and  others  resembles  that  of  Auvergne  itself,  but 


FIGURE  106.  —  Capital  from  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 


199 


is  affected  by  the  schools  of  Burgundy  and  Languedoc,  as 
well  as  by  remains  of  Gallo-Roraan  sculpture. 

The  School  of  Languedoc.  —  The  school  of  Languedoc  had 
its  centre  at  Toulouse,  which  was  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  the  seat  of  a  brilliant  court.  The  earliest  sculp- 
tures in  the  church  of  St.  Sernin,  at  Toulouse,  dating  from 
the  eleventh  century,  are  still  rude,  but  those  of  the  cloister 
of  St.  Etienne,  of  the  twelfth 
century,  are  elaborate  in  style 
and  skilfully  executed  (Fig. 
107).  Two  of  the  best  of  the 
figures  of  Apostles  in  this  clois- 
ter are  signed  by  Gilabertus. 
The  drapery  of  these  figures  is 
carefully  carved,  but  artificial, 
the  attitudes  in  some  cases  un- 
natural. In  the  capitals,  which 
are  of  different  dates  in  the 
twelfth  century,  great  inventive 
ability  and  much  progress  in 
technical  skill  are  evident,  and 
this  is  true  also  of  the  capitals 
in  the  cloister  of  La  Daurade. 
The  church  at  Moissac,  be- 
longing to  the  early  part  of  the 
twelfth  century,  has  already 
elaborate  decoration,  and  its 
sculptures  exhibit  great  life  and 
originality.  The  tympanum  of 
the  cathedral  at  Cahors  was 
filled,  toward  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  with  a  relief 
representing  the  ascension  of  Christ  and  episodes  of  the 
life  of  St.  Stephen.  This  work  is  full  of  dignity,  ex- 
pression, and  beauty,  though  there  are  still  some  traces 
of  archaism.  Examples  of  the  work  of  this  school  are 
found  as  far  east  as  Provence,  and  some  of  the  sculp- 
tures of  Santiago  de  Compostela,  in  Spain,  are  the  work 


FIGURE  107.  —  Relief  from  St. 
Etienne.    Toulouse. 


200 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


of  sculptors  from  Toulouse.  In  the  southwestern  parts 
of  France,  sculpture  at  this  time  was  often,  though  not 
always,  clumsy  and  coarse.  Different  qualities,  derived 
from  barbarian  art,  Gallo-Roman  sculptures,  and  Byzantine 
ivories,  appear  in  various  combinations,  but  do  not  serve  to 
form  a  consistent  style. 

The  School  of  Burgundy.  —  The  school  of  Burgundy  had 
its  centre  in  the  great  monastery  at  Cluny,  of  which,  unfor- 


FIGUBE   108.  —  Tympanum  at  Vezelay  (from  the  cast  in  the  Trocadero, 

Paris). 

tunately,  there  are  now  hardly  any  remains.  The  chief 
source  of  inspiration  for  the  Burgundian  sculptors  were  ivory 
carvings  and  miniatures.  The  attempt  to  reproduce  in  sculp- 
ture the  effect  of  such  small  and  elaborate  works  led  to  much 
detail  in  drapery  and  much  liveliness  of  motion,  but  did  not 
tend  to  temper  dramatic  effect  with  dignity  or  to  develop 
roundness  and  depth  of  relief.  The  most  brilliant  works  of 
this  school  are  the  sculptures  of  the  narthex  of  the  abbey  at 
Vezelay  and  the  portal  of  the  church  of  Saint  Lazare  at 
Autun.  The  sculptures  at  Vezelay  were  carved  not  long 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE          201 

after  1132.  In  the  central  tympanum  the  scene  at  Pentecost, 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  represented  (Fig.  108).  In  the 
centre  is  the  Saviour,  with  His  hands  extended  beneath  the 
surrounding  clouds.  From  His  fingers  long  rays  shoot  forth 
to  the  disciples,  whose  ecstatic  emotion  is  expressed  by  their 
attitudes  and  their  rapt  gaze.  Nothing  could  be  more  per- 
fect than  the  carving  of  the  folds  of  the  garments,  nothing 
more  dramatic  than  the  presentation  of  the  scene.  The 
sculptor  exhibits  both  originality  and  most  exquisite  skill ; 
but  it  is  evident  that  he  has  before  his  mind  a  finely  painted 
miniature,  all  the  details  of  which  he  tries  to  reproduce  in 
sculpture.  The  figures  on  the  lintel  below  and  in  the  small 
compartments  at  the  sides  are  wrought  in  the  same  manner. 
The  tympanum  at  Autun,  which  is  of  slightly  later  date, 
represents  the  Last  Judgment.  The  face  of  the  Judge  of  the 
world  has  been  destroyed,  but  the  preservation  of  the  other 
figures  is  remarkably  good.  Here  the  same  qualities  of  ex- 
quisite workmanship,  dramatic  power,  and  expressiveness  are 
seen  as  at  Vezelay,  but  here  the  elongated  proportions  of  the 
figures  are  still  more  noticeable.  The  influence  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  school  was  widespread. 

The  School  of  Saintonge  and  Poitou.  —  The  school  of  Sain- 
tonge  and  Poitou  differed  from  those  already  discussed  in 
giving  a  preponderant  influence  to  architecture.  Every- 
where in  France  sculpture  is  closely  connected  with  architec- 
ture, not,  as  is  usually  the  case  in  Italy,  merely  an  added 
adornment,  but  in  the  Romanesque  school  of  Saintonge  and 
Poitou  it  is  more  subordinate  to  architecture  than  elsewhere. 
Here  sculpture  covers  entire  facades,  arcades  shelter  statues 
or  high  reliefs,  arches  and  spandrels  are  enriched  with  ara- 
besques. A  good  example  of  this  is  the  church  of  Notre  Dame 
la  Grande,  at  Poitou,  the  entire  front  of  which  is  covered 
with  arcades  and  sculpture.  The  date  of  this  building  is  the 
middle  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  sculpture  is  not  very 
fine  in  execution,  but  it  is  interesting  as  an  example  of  the 
use  of  sculpture  to  decorate  an  entire  front  and  also  because 
the  persons  and  groups  represented  form  a  sermon  in  stone, 
impressing  upon  the  beholder  the  truth  of  the  Christian  faith. 


202 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


In  general,  the  iconography  is  of  unusual  interest  in  the  work 
of  this  school. 

The  Schools  of  Normandy  and  of  Provence.  —  In  Normandy 
the  sculpture  of  the  eleventh  century  is  rude,  chiefly  linear 

ornament, 
clearly  and 
deeply,  but  not 
too  ;finely,  cut, 
a  kind  of  orna- 
ment which  is 
not  unknown  in 
other  parts  of 
France,  and 
which  is  most 
familiar  as  it 
appears  on  Nor- 
man buildings  in 
England.  Fig- 
ure sculpture  in 
Normandy  at 
this  time  is 
closely  con- 
nected with  that 
of  the  He  de 
France.  The 
most  brilliant 
examples  of 
Proven9al  sculp- 
ture  are  the 
church  and 
cloister  of  St. 
Trophime  at 
Aries  (Fig.  109) 
and  the  church  of  St.  Gilles.  Both  of  these  date  from  the  latter 
part  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  both  exhibit  rather  a  combi- 
nation of  influences  than  any  great  originality.  These  influ- 
ences are  French,  from  the  lie  de  France ;  ancient,  from  Chris- 
tian sarcophagi ;  Lombard,  perhaps  from  Benedetto  Antelami 


FIGURE  109.  —  Part  of  the  Facade  of  St.  Trophime, 
Aries  (from  the  cast  in  the  Trocadero,  Paris). 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE          203 

and  his  school;  and,  in  respect  to  ornament,  oriental.  In 
combination  they  produce  an  impressive  and  even  beautiful 
whole,  but  the  appearance  of  the  sculptures  is  more  archaic 
than  their  date  would  suggest.  The  sculpture  of  the  cloister 
of  St.  Trophime  is  finer  than  that  of  the  facade,  but  even 
this  is  earlier  in  appearance  than  the  contemporary  work  at 
Chartres.  With  all  its  richness,  the  sculpture  of  Provence 
is  not  the  work  of  an  original  and  independent  school,  but 
rather  of  able  stone-cutters  who  are  somewhat  behind  the 
times,  and  whose  chief  claim  to  originality  rests  upon  their 
ability  to  combine  for  their  own  purposes  elements  derived 
from  various  sources. 

Sculpture  in  the  He  de  France.  —  In  the  He  de  France  the 
sculpture  of  the  eleventh  century  is  heavy  and  crude,  but 
the  influence  of  the  schools  of  Toulouse  and  Burgundy  soon 
makes  itself  felt,  and  the  school  of  the  He  de  France,  develop- 
ing with  the  growth  of  Gothic  x  architecture,  rapidly  becomes 
the  dominant  school  of  sculpture  in  France.  Before  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century  it  has  spread,  affected  more  or  less 
by  the  previously  existing  local  schools,  not  only  to  all  parts 
of  France,  but  also  to  Germany,  England,  Spain,  and  even 
Italy.  Before  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the  conven- 
tions retained  by  the  other  schools  began  to  disappear  in  the 
He  de  France.  Sculpture  became  on  the  one  hand  more 
natural,  and  on  the  other  more  perfectly  adapted  to  architec- 
ture. At  the  same  time  the  tendency  to  a  consistent  arrange- 
ment of  sculptures,  which  should  make  them  not  a  mere 
pleasure  to  the  eye,  but  still  more  a  means  of  edification,  grew 
in  strength.  This  in  turn  aided  the  development  of  sculp- 
ture, since  it  made  it  an  indispensable  part  of  every  great 
church  building. 

The  Subjects  of  Gothic  Sculpture  of  the  Thirteenth  Century. 
—  Gothic  sculpture  of  the  thirteenth  century  is  an  interpre- 
tation of  the  teachings  of  Christian  theology  and  religious 

1  The  term  "Gothic"  was  first  applied  to  the  great  mediaeval  architec- 
ture of  the  pointed  arch  in  the  sixteenth  century  (by  Raphael)  as  a  term 
of  derision.  Needless  to  say,  the  Goths  have  nothing  to  do  with  it.  The 
term  is  now  applied  also  to  the  sculpture  and  painting  which  developed  in 
connection  with  that  architecture. 


204  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

literature.  In  the-  figured  decoration  of  a  great  cathedral 
-  one  can  trace  the -general  plan;  the  spirit,  and  even  the  prin- 
cipal divigions  of  the  'mediaeval  encyclopaedias,  such  as  the 
Speculum  Mains,  or.Universal  Mirror,  of  Vincent  of  Beauvais,^ 
in  which" the  faith  and  learning  of  the  age  are  expressed.  Thef 
main  divisions  are  Nature,  Science,  Ethics,  and  History.  So 
the  chief  subjects  of  the  sculptures  of  a  great  cathedral  are 
as  follows :  the  Creation  and  the  Fall,  leading  to  labor  as  a 
punishment ;  hence  the  Labors  of  the  Months,  witn  the  Signs 
of  the  Zodiac,  and  also  the  Liberal  Arts  or  labors  of  the  mind. 
Then  follow  the  Prophets,  the  Patriarchs,  and  the  Ancestors 
of  Jesus,  precursors  and  heralds  of  Him  who  should  redeem 
mankind  from  the  penalty  of  Adam's  sin.  The  Redeemer 
was  born  of  a  Virgin,  hence  scenes  from  the  Life  of  Mary 
and  the  Childhood  of  Jesus.  He  goes  about  teaching  and 
doing  good,  hence  figures  of  Christ  Teaching  and  the  Apostles. 
He  is  crucified,  is  raised  on  the  third  day,  and  ascends  into 
heaven ;  scenes  of  the  Passion,  the  Resurrection,  and  the 
Ascension  occur,  though  they  are  very  rare  in  the  great  sculp- 
ture of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  comes  to  judge  the  quick 
and  the  dead ;  scenes  of  the  Last  Judgment,  of  Heaven,  and  of 
Hell  are  very  common.  Since  the  life  of  the  Christian  is  a 
constant  struggle  with  temptation,  representations  of  the 
Vices  and  the  Virtues  are  natural,  and  since  the  saints  aid  the 
sinner  and  intercede  for  him,  Images  of  Saints  and  scenes  from 
the  Lives  of  Saints  can  hardly  be  omitted.  But  the  greatest 
of  saints,  who  is  above  all  saints  and  angels,  is  Our  Lady 
(Notre  Dame),  the  Mother  of  God?  Statues  of  the  Virgin, 
the  Death  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin  are 
constantly  repeated. 

The  Arrangement  of  Figures.  —  Such  are  the  figures  which 
form  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral.  Their  arrangement 
is  no  more  a  matter  of  chance  than  their  selection.  The 
central  support  of  the  lintel  of  the  great  central  door  is 
occupied  by  the  figure  of  Christ ;  at  the  sides  of  the  door  are 
the  apostles,  in  the  tympanum  above  is  the  Last  Judgment ; 
v-the  archivolts  are  covered  with  small  figures  of  angels  and 
tne~eiect ;  on  the  jambs  of  the  door  and  the  sides  of  the  central 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 


205 


support  are  figures 
of  the  wise  and 
foolish  virgins.  The 
facade  has  two  other 
doors.  One  of  these 
is  devoted  to  the 
Virgin,  the  other  to 
the  patron  saint  of 
the  cathedral,  whose 
statue  occupies  the 
central  support  of 
the  lintel.  One  tym- 
panum represents 
the  death  of  the  Vir- 
gin or  scenes  from 
her  life,  the  other 
scenes  from  the  story 
of  the  saint.  At  the 
sides  of  the  door  of 
the  Virgin  are  figures 
of  Old  Testament 
characters  or  statues 
representing  the 
Presentation,  the  An- 
nunciation, the  Visi- 
tation, or  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi. 
The  statues  at  the 
sides  of  the  door  of 
the  patron  saint 
represent  other  saints 
who  are  in  some  way 
especially  connected 
with  the  church  or 
its  patron.  Small 
figures  or  has  reliefs 
occupy  the  archivolts 
of  doors  and  windows  or  the  lower  part  of  the  wall  beside 


FIGURE  110.  —  Statues  of  the 
of  Chartres. 


Western  Fagade 


206 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


the  doors.  These  represent  scenes  of  the  Creation,  episodes 
chosen  from  the  Old  Testament,  the  Vices  and  Virtues,  the 
Liberal  Arts,  the  Works  of  the  Months,  and  the  Signs  of 
the  Zodiac.  The  figures  which  appear  on  the  upper  parts 

of  the  church, 
such  as  galleries 
or  pinnacles,  are 
often  of  colossal 
size;  they  usu- 
ally represent 
Old  Testament 
characters,  some- 
times Adam  and 
Eve  and  the 
Church  and  the 
Synagogue,  or 
even,  as  at 
Rheims,  angelshj 
Symbolism.  - 
The  choice  and 
arrangement  of 
figures,  as  de- 
scribed above,  is 
seldom,  perhaps 
only  at  Amiens, 
strictly  adhered 
to ;  but  the  gen- 

r.  •   . 
|fc[^^^  almost  always  be 


ttflfl    traced,    even    in 
™    the    smaller 

FIGURE  111.  —  Statues  of  the  Southern  Porch  of       />lmlv>V10Q       i,  I ,,.?•.> 
Chartres.  eb>     wuei 

many    omissions 

occur.  Symbolism,  too,  is  everywhere  to  be  found.  Most 
of  the  Old  Testament  scenes  and  figures  symbolize  in  one 
way  or  another  the  coming  of  Christ,  His  teachings,  or  the 
progress  of  His  Church,  the  figures  of  the  Church  and  the 
Synagogue  are  symbolic  of  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE   IN  FRANCE 


207 


the  Jewish  religion,  and  various  animal  figures  have  their 
hidden  meaning,  though  there  are  also  many  figures  which 
are  purely  decorative.1  7 

French  Mediaeval  Sculpture  and  Architecture.  —  The  mediae- 
val sculptors  of  Italy  worked  almost  exclusively  in  marble 
(if  we  except  for  the  moment  the  workers  in  metal,  ivory, 
and  wood),  and  marble  was  not  employed  as  building  ma- 
terial; their  works  were  therefore  in  great  measure  inde- 
pendent of  architecture.  In  France,  on  the  other  hand  (as 
in  northern  Eu- 
rope generally 
and  also  in 
Spain),  sculp- 
tures  were 
carved  in  the 
very  stone  of 
which  the  build- 
ings were  built. 
The  figures  and 
ornaments  were 
integral  parts  of 
the  buildings, 
not  mere  added 
adornments. 
Naturally,  there- 
fore,  French 
mediaeval  sculpture  is  closely  connected  with  architecture 
and  develops  with  it.  The  figures  which  stand  beside  the  \/ 
doors  of  the  western  fa?ade  of  the  cathedral  at  Chartres 
(1150-1160)  have  the  long,  slender  form  of  the  columns 
before  and  among  which  they  stand  (Fig.  110).  In  execu- 
tion they  are  careful,  sometimes  almost  exquisite,  their 
attitudes  are  natural  and  dignified,  and  the  faces  are  expres- 

1  The  description  of  the  iconography  and  arrangement  of  the  decoration 
of  the  French  Gothic  church  (which  applies  in  great  measure  to  the  similar 
decoration  of  churches  in  other  countries  strongly  influenced  by  French 
art)  is  taken,  somewhat  condensed,  from  Mile.  Louise  Pillion,  Les  Sculpleurs 
francais  du  XIII™e  giecle,  chapter  III.  Symbolism  is  discussed  ibid., 
chapter  IV. 


FIGURE   112.  —  Statues  of   the  Western  Facade    of 
Rheims. 


208 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


sive,  but  their  subordination  to  their  architectural  function 
makes  them  appear  rigid  and  unnatural.  The  sculptures  of 
this  fa?ade  are  now,  since  those  of  the  portals  of  Saint  Denis 
are  lost,  among  the  earliest  important  examples  of  sculpture 

of  the  He  de 
France.  The 
figure  of  Christ 
in  the  tympa- 
num of  the  cen- 
tral portal  is  at 
once  dignified 
and  gracious ; 
the  proportions 
are  correct,  and 
the  drapery, 
designed  and 
executed  with 
a  delicacy  equal 
to  that  of  the 
flowing  draper- 
ies of  Vezelay, 
retains  little 
that  is  conven- 
tional or  un- 
natural, and  reveals  well-rounded  and  firm  limbs  beneath. 
The  sculptors  who  worked  in  strict  subordination  to  archi- 
tecture were  also  keen  observers  of  nature. 

Important  French  churches  are  so  numerous,  and  the  mul- 
titude of  figures  which  adorns  each  of  them  is  so  vast  (at 
Chartres  it  exceeds  1000),  the  figures  exhibit  such  infinite 
variety,  and  the  number  of  masterpieces  among  them  is  so 
great,  that  a  study  of  Gothic  sculpture  in  detail  is  out  of  the 
question.  We  must  content  ourselves  with  a  brief  and  very 
general  treatment. 

^Progress  of  Gothic  Sculpture.  Its  Quantity.  —  The  sculp- 
tures of  the  western  facade  at  Chartres  are  still  Romanesque, 
as  is  the  architecture  of  which  they  form  a  part.  They  are 
still  conventional  in  the  details  of  drapery,  and  their  work- 


FIGITRE  113.  —  Tympanum  of  the  Southern 
Transept  of  Notre  Dame,  Paris ;  Door  of  St. 
Stephen ;  Second  Half  of  Thirteenth  Century  (from 
the  cast  in  the  Trocad6ro) . 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE          209 

manship,  which  is,  at  least  in  part,  exquisite,  recalls  that  of 
the  figures  which  adorned  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  before  the 
Persian  invasion.  They  are,  moreover,  strictly  subordinate 
to  architecture.  In  the  tympanum  of  the  southern  door 
(door  of  St.  Anne)  of  the  western  facade  of  the  cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame  at  Paris  and  in  the  sculptures  of  the  portal  at 
Senlis,  both  of  which  are  works  of  the  last  quarter  of  the 
twelfth  century,  there  is  greater  freedom  of  motion  and  more 
simplicity  of  drapery ;  only  slight  traces  of  archaism  remain. 
Still  further  progress  is  seen  in  the  two  other  western  portals  A 
of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  (about  1220),  and  in  the  fa?ade  of 
Amiens  Gothic  sculpture  is  fully  developed.  The  great 
cathedrals  of  Paris,  Amiens,1  Rheims,2  Chartres,3  and  Bruges,4 
to  mention  only  a  few  of  many,  are  not  merely  great  works  of 
architecture ;  they  are  veritable  museums  of  sculpture, 
crowded  with  statues  and  reliefs,  each  of  which  is  in  itself  a 
work  of  art.  We  should  remember  also  that  the  reliefs  and  ^ 
statues  were  colored  and  gilded,  wrhich  must  have  added 
greatly  to  the  brilliancy  of  their  effect. 

^Methods  of  Work,  differences  in  Quality.  Various  Schools.  -\ 
—  Not  that  these  works  of  sculpture  are  all  of  equal  value, 
for  that  is  by  no  means  the  case.  The  creation  of  a  great 
cathedral  was  the  work  of  many  hands,  continued  for  years. 
In  each  instance  some  clerical  scholar  doubtless  selected  the 
persons  and  scenes  to  be  represented,  and  determined  their 
arrangement.  Drawings  were  then  prepared,  perhaps  by 
the  architect  in  charge,  and  these  drawings,  apparently  mere 
rough  sketches,  were  given  to  the  sculptors  for  their  guidance. 
The  sculptors  were,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  not  distin- 
guished persons,  like  the  artists  of  the  present  day,  but  were 

1  Sculptures  of  the  western  facade  about  1230 ;    the  side  portal  (Vierge 
doree)  about  1288. 

2  Founded  in  1211 ;    the  sculptures  of  the  small  right-hand  door  of  the 
northern  transept  are  Romanesque ;    those  of  the  other  two  doors  of  the 
transept,  and  also  some  statues  of  the  western  facade,  are  to  be  dated  about 
1220-1240 ;   the  remaining  sculptures  belong  to  the  second  half  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  (Fig.  112).     Nearly  all  these  beautiful  works  were  destroyed 
in  1914. 

3  The  western  facade  belongs  to  the  twelfth  century ;    the  sculptures  of 
the  portals  of  the  transepts  (Fig.  Ill)  are  probably  earlier  than  1240,  those 
of  the  porches  that  shield  these  portals  probably  very  little  later. 

4  The  facade  dates  from  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

P 


210  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

regarded  as  artisans,  mere  stone-cutters;  their  names  are 
almost  entirely  unknown.  They  worked  side  by  side  in  the 
sheds  by  the  church  or  on  the  scaffolding,  each  watching  the 
work  of  his  neighbor  and  learning  from  him.  So  a  certain 
similarity  pervades  the  sculpture  of  each  great  edifice,  and 
we  have  a  style  of  Amiens  and  a  style  of  Rheims,  and  also 
general  progress  and  development  of  ideals.  But  the  work- 
men were  not  all  of  equal  ability,  and  therefore  in  the  same 
place  and  at  the  same  time  the  works  of  different  sculptors 
are  of  unequal  merit.  Occasionally  it  is  possible  to  discern 
the  master  hand  of  one  exceptional  artist  in  several  statues 
or  reliefs,  but  this  is  unusual.  As  a  rule,  the  individual  is 
lost  in  the  school.  But  the  building  and  adornment  of  a 
great  cathedral  was  the  work  of  years,  and  sometimes  the 
work  was  interrupted.  In  that  case,  or  on  the  completion 
of  the  work,  some,  at  least,  of  the  stone-cutters  went  else- 
where for  employment.  So  we  see  in  some  of  the  sculptures 
of  Rheims  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Amiens,  and  in  those 
of  Bamberg,  in  Germany,  traces  of  the  school  of  Rheims. 

Tendencies  of  Progress  in  the  Thirteenth  Century.  —  In 
general  the  tendency  of  sculpture  throughout  the  thirteenth 
century  is  to  free  itself  from  dependence  upon  architecture. 
At  first  it  is  entirely  subordinate,  and  its  forms  are,  as  in  the 
western  fa£ade  at  Chartres,  assimilated  to  architectural 
forms;  then  sculpture  develops  greater  freedom,  but  re- 
mains, as  at  Amiens,  closely  connected  with  its  environment, 
so  that  it  forms  with  the  architecture  one  harmonious  whole ; 
later,  sculpture  claims  an  independent  position  and  some- 
times, whatever  its  merits,  fails  to  harmonize  with  its  archi- 
tectural setting.  This  lack  of  harmony  is  seen  occasionally 
before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  and  becomes  frequent 
in  the  fourteenth.  Another  progressive  tendency  is  toward 
naturalism  in  costumes,  proportions,  attitudes,  and  features. 
At  the  same  time  there  is  an  evident  striving  after  beauty, 
and  this  leads  to  flowing  draperies,  to  sinuous  curves  which 
supplant  the  somewhat  rigid  postures  of  the  earlier  figures, 
and  to  smiling,  sometimes  almost  coquettish  expressions 
instead  of  grave  immobility  (see  the  Vierge  doree  of  Amiens). 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 


211 


These  tenden- 
cies do  not 
manifest  them- 
selves in  ex- 
actly the  same 
way  at  all  times 
and  places,  for 
the  sculptors 
were  affected 
by  the  earlier 
local  schools, 
by  remains  of 
ancient  Roman 
sculpture  (this 
is  noticeable  in 
the  northern 
transept  at 
Rheims),  or  by 
acquaintance 
with  foreign 
works  of  art; 
moreover,  indi- 
vidual genius 
must  always  be 
taken  into  ac- 
count; but  the 
general  prog- 
ress of  sculp- 
ture along  the 
lines  indicated 
is  unmistak- 
able. 

The  Four- 

teenth Century. 

—  In  the  four- 

/  «-.*,,, 
urv 


itiiai!^^ 


FIGURE  114.  —  Southern  Side  Door,  Amiens  (the  Vierge 
doree  on  the  middle  support)  . 

the  popular 

enthusiasm   for   cathedral    building   was   past.      Although 


212  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

some  great  churches  were  built  or  completed  after  1300, 
conditions  were  different.  More  and  more  the  task  of 
the  sculptors  came  to  be  rather  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of 
royal  or  wealthy  patrons  than  to  beautify  houses  of  public 
worship.  Private  chapels,  elaborate  tombs,  and  princely 
palaces  became  the  chief  scenes  of  their  labors.  The  sculp- 
tors were  no  longer  unknown  workmen,  but  were  summoned 
individually  by  princes  and  potentates  to  decorate  their 
buildings  or  their  tombs . *  Often  artists  were  attached  as  valets 
to  the  personal  service  of  their  patrons.  Thus  they  were  per- 
sons of  some  consequence  at  various  courts,  though  their  posi- 
tions were  generally  insecure  and  their  payment  uncertain. 

Much  of  the  sculpture  of  the  fourteenth  century  is  very 
delicate  and  charming ;  there  is  abundance  of  fine  oletail  and 
no  lack  of  technical  skill.  On  altar  screens  and  in  other 
interior  reliefs  there  is  much  anecdotical  sculpture,  and 
naturalism,  both  in  reliefs  and  in  statues,  increases.  Por- 
traiture, which  had  appeared  in  some  tombs  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  becomes  more  and  more  important,  for  the  great 
ones  of  the  age  wished  their  likenesses  to  be  seen  not  only 
on  their  tombs,  but  also  in  their  private  chapels  and  in  the 

1  Many  sculptors  of  the  fourteenth  century  are  now  known  by  name,  but 
it  is  often  difficult  to  connect  any  extant  work  with  them  or  to  estimate 
their  qualities.  It  may  be  worth  while  to  mention  a  few  sculptors  who 
seem  to  have  been  important.  Pierre  de  Chelles  appears  to  have  been  the 
sculptor  of  the  reliefs  in  some  of  the  chapels  of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris  and 
also  of  the  sculptures  of  the  northern  transept  (1313-1320).  His  father, 
the  sculptor  and  architect  Jean  de  Chelles,  artist  of  the  southern  transept 
portal  of  Notre  Dame,  died  about  1270.  Jean  d'Arras  carved  the  tomb  of 
Philip  III  at  St.  Denis.  Jean  Ravy  began  the  reliefs  about  the  choir  and 
the  altar  screen  of  Notre  Dame  about  1340.  He  died  probably  about  1345. 
The  reliefs  were  finished  about  1531  by  his  nephew  Jean  le  Bouteiler.  Pepin 
de  Huy  came  to  Paris  early  in  the  fourteenth  century.  His  pupil,  Jean  de 
Liege,  was  one  of  those  who  were  employed  by  Charles  V.  A  pupil  of  Jean 
de  Liege,  Robert  Loisel,  was,  with  Thomas  Prive,  the  artist  of  the  tomb 
of  Duguesclin  at  St.  Denis.  Robert  de  Launoy  and  Guillaume  de  Nouriche 
made  the  statues  of  apostles  for  the  Pilgrims  of  St.  James  at  Paris.  Ray- 
mond du  Temple,  the  architect  of  the  Louvre  under  Charles  V,  was  also  a 
sculptor.  To  the  time  of  Charles  V  belong  also  Jean  de  Launoy,  Jean  de 
St.  Remain,  Jacques  Collet  (also  called  Jacques  de  Chartres),  and  the 
brothers  Andre  and  Gui  de  Dammartin.  Andre  Beauneveu,  from  Flanders, 
was  the  sculptor  of  the  tombs  of  Philip  VI,  John  the  Good,  and  Charles  V 
at  St.  Denis.  He  was  also  employed  by  the  Duke  de  Berry  and  others,  as 
was  his  pupil,  Jean  de  Rupy.  Jean  de  Marville  and  Claus  Sluter  are  men- 
tioned below.  Pierre  Beauneveu  and  Hennequin  Prindale  worked  under 
Claims  Sluter  at  Dijon.  Prindale  went  to  Savoy  in  1418. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 


213 


interior,  as  well  as  on  the  outside,  of  their  palaces.  The 
death  mask,  a  painfully  realistic  form  of  portraiture,  begins 
to  appear  toward  the  end  of  the  century.  In  religious  sculp- 
ture there  is  a  constantly  increasing  tendency  to  represent 
sad  and  painful  episodes  and  to  emphasize  the  thought  of 
death.  Scenes  of  the  Passion,  which  had  been  rare  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  become  relatively  common  in  the  four- 
teenth. Besides  the  reli- 

gious  sculptures  connected 
with  buildings,  many  fig- 
ures of  the  Virgin  were 
carved,  some  of  large  size, 
to  be  set  up  in  churches, 
others  so  small  that  they 
could  be  carried  about  by 
pious  travellers.  Many  of 
these  are  Virgins  of  sor- 
row, but  others  are  purely 
maternal.  The  quality  of 
their  execution  varies  from 
great  excellence  to  utter 
mediocrity. 

Sculpture  at  Dijon.  — 
Toward  the  end  of  the 
century,  Dijon,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,  became  an  im- 
portant centre  of  art. 
Jean  de  Marville,  a  sculptor  of  Flemish  origin,  was 
called  by  Duke  Philip  the  Bold  to  be  his  "imagier" 
and  valet  de  chambre.  In  1383  he  began  the  tomb  of 
the  Duke,  and  in  1387-1388  he  was  working  on  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  portal  of  the  chapel  of  Champmol.  He  died 
in  1389  and  his  work  was  continued  by  Glaus  Sluter,  ap- 
parently of  Dutch  origin,  who  had  come  to  Dijon  in  1384. 
His  most  famous  work  is  the  Puits  de  Moi'se  (Well  of  Moses) 
in  the  monastery  (now  a  hospital  for  the  insane)  of  Champ- 
mol, just  outside  of  Dijon  (Fig.  115).  This  was  originally 


FIGURE  115.  —  The  Puits  de  Moise, 
Dijon  (from  the  cast  in  the  Trocad^ro, 
Paris). 


214 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


the  pedestal  of  a  Calvary,  of  which  nothing  but  the  upper 
part  of  the  figure  of  Christ  remains.  He  is  represented  as  a 
strong  man,  worn  out  with  suffering,  not  the  bleeding,  tor- 
tured Christ  so  frequently  seen  in  the  fifteenth  century,  but 
still  less  the  Christ  in  majesty,  which  was  a  familiar  figure 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  The  statues  of  Moses,  Jeremiah, 
Zachariah,  David,  and  Isaiah,  grouped  about  the  pedestal, 
are  the  masterpieces  of  Claus  Sluter.  Their  powerful  forms, 

draped  in.  ample, 
heavy  garments,  and 
their  strong,  expres- 
sive faces  are  de- 
servedly admired. 
They  must  have  been 
still  more  impressive 
when  they  glowed 
with  their  original 
colors.  The  fine 
statues  of  the  portal 
at  Champmol  are 
also  in  part  the  work 
of  Claus  Sluter. 
The  tomb  of  Philip 
the  Bold  was  begun 
by  Jean  de  Mar- 
ville,  continued  by 
Claus  Sluter,  and  finished  in  1412  by  the  latter's  nephew,  Claus 
de  Werve,  who  did  most  of  the  sculpture.  The  recumbent 
statue  of  the  Duke  on  the  sarcophagus  is  an  admirable  work, 
and  the  small  figures  of  mourners  standing  in  Gothic  niches 
in  the  sides  of  the  sarcophagus  are  truly  remarkable  for  their 
variety  and  truth  to  life;  all  express  grief,  but  there  is  no 
repetition  in  attitudes  or  faces.  Such  figures  of  mourners 
are  frequently  seen  in  the  fifteenth  century  (Fig.  116).  The 
tomb  of  John  the  Fearless  and  his  wife  Margaret  of  Bavaria, 
begun  by  Juan  de  la  Huerta  and  finished  in  1469  by  Antoine 
le  Moiturier  is  little  more  than  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Claus 
Sluter  and  Claus  de  Werve. 


FIGURE  116.  —  Mourners  on  the  Tomb  of 
John  the  Fearless,  Dijon  (from  casts  in  the 
Trocad6ro,  Paris). 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE          215 

"  Burgundian "  Influence  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  The 
influence  of  the  Burgundian  school  of  Dijon  was  far-reach- 
ing in  the  fifteenth  century.  One  of  the  sculptors  whose 
works  are  clearly  in  the  Burgundian  style  is  Jacques  Morel, 
who  is  first  mentioned  at  Lyons  in  1418  and  who  died  in 
1459  at  Angers.  His  attested  works  are  chiefly  tombs  with 
recumbent  statues.  The  Burgundian  style  is  seen  also  in 
many  Madonnas,  Depositions,  and  other  works,  even  to  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  One  of  the  finest  of  the  Deposi- 
tions, realistic  and  full  of  emotion,  is  that  in  the  hospital  of 
Tonnerre,  by  Jean  Michiel  and  Georges  de  la  Sonnecte, 
which  was  finished  in  1452.  Figures  of  the  Virgin  as  a  bitterly 
mourning  mother,  holding  on  her  knees  the  body  of  her  cru- 
cified Son  (the  "pieta"),  and  other  scenes  of  grief  and  woe 
are  common  in  the  fifteenth  century.  They  are  represented 
with  great  realism  and  with  all  the  intensity  of  emotion  which 
the  sculptors  are  able  to  express.  Such  realism  is  a  prevail- 
ing characteristic  of  French  sculpture  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


CHAPTER   XIII 


Early  Ivories.  —  In  Germany,  as  elsewhere,  the  revival  of 
art  under  Charlemagne  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to 
the  lesser  arts,  such  as  goldsmith's  work,  ivory  carvings, 
and  miniatures.  The  Rhenish  ivories  of  the  ninth,  tenth, 
and  eleventh  centuries  are  strongly  influenced  by  the  ancient 
art  of  Italy,  and  show  some  skill  in  execution.  The  Saxon 
ivories  are  more  independent,  but,  as  a  rule,  somewhat  rudely 
carved.  Ivory  carving  fell  off  in  the  twelfth  century,  and 
when  it  revived  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
it  was  merely  a  part  of  the  sculpture  of  the  time,  not  an 
independent  art. 

Bronzes  of  the  Eleventh  Century.  —  The  art  of  bronze  cast- 
ing had  probably  never  been  entirely  lost,  but  had  survived 
in  small  works  in  the  monasteries.  The  first  bronze  sculptures 
(the  doors  of  the  cathedrals  at  Hildesheim  and  Augsburg)  are 
virtually  nothing  but  magnified  goldsmith's  work.  It  was 
under  Bishop  Bernward  (who  died  in  1023)  that  the  bronze 
doors  (1015)  and  the  so-called  Christus-Saule  (1022)  were 
cast.  Whether  the  bishop  was  himself  the  artist,  or  not,  is 
uncertain.  The  figures  on  the  doors  are  in  high  relief  and 
far  apart.  The  attitudes,  sometimes  rather  grotesque,  are 
lively  and  show  that  the  artist  intended  to  make  them  very 
natural.  The  "Christus-Saule"  is  a  column  of  bronze,  with 
spiral  reliefs  in  imitation  of  those  of  the  column  of  Trajan  in 
Rome.  The  short,  stiff  figures  are  in  middle  relief ;  they  are 
crowded  and  lack  expression;  the  technique  is  poor.  The 
reliefs  of  the  door  of  S.  Zeno,  in  Verona  (see  page  177), 
resemble  those  of  Hildesheim,  but  are  richer  and  more  form- 

216 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY        217 

less  in  composition,  and  exhibit  less  naive  grandeur  of  expres- 
sion and  motion.  The  figures  on  the  cathedral  door  at 
Augsburg  are  in  relatively  low  relief ;  they  are  lively  and  not 
without  charm.  Those  at  St.  Emmerau,  in  Ratisbon,  on  the 
contrary,  are  stiff  and  conventional.  Their  probable  date  is 
between  1049  and  1064.  Similar  qualities  are  noticed  in 
some  colossal  wooden  crucifixes  in  Ratisbon,  Wiirzburg, 
Bamberg,  and  elsewhere.  This  stiffness  is  here  not  due  to 
Byzantine  influence,  but  to  the  inability  of  the  primitive 
sculptor. 

Early  Sculpture  in  Northern  Germany.  —  In  northern 
Germany  the  rudeness  of  the  earliest  work  was  overcome 
through  the  study  of  small  works  of  Byzantine  origin.  The 
Byzantine  influence,  which  tended  towards  a  combination  of 
good  workmanship  with  stiffness  and  conventionality,  is 
visible  for  about  a  century,  beginning  not  far  from  1075. 
The  most  and  best  monuments  of  this  time  are  Saxon,  and 
among  these  the  grave  monuments  are  most  numerous.  The 
bronze  effigy  of  King  Rudolf  of  Swabia  (who  died  in  1080), 
in  the  cathedral  at  Merseburg,  is  admirably  executed,  but  is 
undeniably  stiff.  The  famous  bronze  lion  of  Brunswick 
(1166),  while  not  perfectly  natural,  is  nevertheless  impressive 
and  vigorous.  The  stucco  reliefs  at  Gernrode,  of  the  second 
quarter  of  the  twelfth  century,  representing  saints  and  sym- 
bolic animals  framed  in  scrollwork,  exhibit  Byzantine  influ- 
ence very  clearly.  The  bronze  doors  at  Gnesen  and  Novgorod 
are  Saxon  works  of  this  period,  but  have  little  merit.  In 
Westphalia  the  sculpture  of  this  time  is  almost  all  of  stone ; 
it  is  rude  and  stiff,  showing  little  originality  or  invention, 
though  the  tympana  of  several  small  churches  and  the  colos- 
sal relief  at  Extersteinen,  near  Horn,  which  represents  the 
descent  from  the  cross,  are  not  without  the  merit  of  liveliness 
and  clearness.  Nor  does  the  sculpture  of  the  Rhine  country 
or  of  Alsace  or  Lorraine  offer  much  that  is  of  interest.  Here 
and  there  traces  of  Burgundian  influence  are  seen,  but  there 
is  no  indication  of  the  rise  of  an  original,  native  art. 

Early  Sculpture  in  Southern  Germany.  —  In  southern  Ger- 
many the  twelfth  century  shows  little  or  no  progress.  In 


218  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Bavaria  there  are  some  decorative  sculptures,  which  exhibit 
little  or  no  Byzantine  or  Early  Christian  influence,  and  similar 
works  are  seen  in  Franconia,  Alsace,  and  Switzerland.  Some 
panels  in  the  cathedral  at  Basel,  representing  scenes  from 
the  legends  of  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Lawrence,  which  are  attrib- 
uted to  the  twelfth  century,  have  the  merit  of  lively  action ; 
they  seem  to  derive  their  technical  qualities  from  ancient 
sarcophagi.  Austria  and  Bohemia  produced  little  real  sculp- 
ture, and  their  ornamental  work  is  generally  rude  and  poor. 

The  Thirteenth  Century.  —  In  the  thirteenth  century  vari- 
ous local  schools  arise.  Ancient  art  still  exerts  no  little  influ- 
ence, but  direct  study  of  nature  is  more  important.  Sculp- 
ture is  practised  chiefly  in  churches,  for  the  decoration  of 
choir  screens,  altars,  chancels,  and  lecterns,  and  also  in  the 
tympana  and  on  the  jambs  of  the  portals,  where  it  is  usually 
less  rich  than  in  France.  Sculpture  not  connected  with  archi- 
tecture is  nearly  all  portraiture,  consisting  of  reliefs  on  tombs 
and  of  statues.  The  usual  material  is  sandstone. 

Saxon  Sculpture  of  the  Thirteenth  Century.  —  Saxony  is  the 
chief  centre  of  this  first  development  of  German  sculpture, 
which  is  connected  with  Romanesque  architecture  and  closes 
about  1275.  Even  before  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century- 
certain  baptismal  fonts  in  Saxony  and  the  neighboring  West- 
phalia show  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  sculptors  to  give  life 
and  expression  to  their  figures,  a  result  which  they  try  to  gain 
by  means  of  violently  agitated  draperies.  Such  draperies 
are  characteristic  of  German  sculpture  long  after  the  adoption 
of  more  natural  methods  in  France.  At  Halberstadt,  in  the 
Liebfrauenkirche,  is  a  choir  screen  adorned  with  stucco  reliefs 
of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  twelve  apostles.  The  draperies 
and  attitudes  recall  the  school  of  Toulouse,  probably  because 
similar  originals  (ivories  or  miniatures)  inspired  the  artists. 
These  reliefs  are  ascribed  to  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  Even  earlier  is  a  stucco  relief  from  Groningen  (now 
in  Berlin),  of  Christ  as  Judge,  surrounded  by  ten  apostles. 
The  group  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  with  the  apostles,  on  the 
choir  screen  at  Hildesheim,  belongs  to  the  same  time  as  the 
reliefs  at  Halberstadt,  and,  like  those,  exhibits  the  influence 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY        219 


of  Byzantine  ivories  or  miniatures.  A  few  large  crucifixions 
carved  in  wood  deserve  mention.  That  in  the  cathedral  of 
Halberstadt,  of  the  first  third  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
exhibits  nobility  and  beauty  in  its  chief  figures,  though  the 
lesser  figures  are  poor  and  stiff.  The  somewhat  later  cruci- 
fixion at  Wechselburg  (about  1230)  is  finer,  —  almost  com- 
parable to  the  "Goldene  Pforte"  of  Freiberg. 

In  richness  of  ornamentation,  clearness  of  composition, 
delicacy  of  work- 
manship, variety  and 
significance  of  its 
plastic  .decoration, 
and  feeling  for 
beauty,  the  "  Gol- 
dene Pforte"  (golden 
door)  of  the  cathe- 
dral of  Freiberg  (Fig. 
117)  is  the  finest 
work  of  this  period 
in  northern  Ger- 
many, though  in 
animation,  in  the. 
elaboration  of  the 
hands  and  feet,  and 
in  correctness  of  pro- 
portions it  is  inferior 
to  the  somewhat 
later  work  at  Bam- 
berg,  Naumburg,  and  even  Magdeburg.  The  artist  of 
the  "Goldene  Pforte"  was  evidently  acquainted  with 
the  contemporary  (about  1225)  work  of  France,  though  no 
direct  dependence  upon  any  particular  French  work  has  been 
traced.  Other  works  in  Saxony  of  the  same  early  period  and 
of  similar  style  are  seen  at  Merseburg,  Nossen,  and  Halle. 
The  monument  of  Henry  the  Lion  and  his  wife,  at  Brunswick, 
is  a  fine  example  of  portrait  sculpture. 

Westphalian  Sculpture.  —  In  Westphalia  the  portals  of  the 
cathedrals  at  Miinster  and  Paderborn  are  adorned  with  sculp- 


FIUURE  117.  —  Tympanum  of  the  "Goldene 
Pforte,"  Freiberg.  (Photo.  Dr.  F.Stoedtner, 
Berlin  NW.) 


220 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


tures  dating  from  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
The  figures  are  stiff,  but  the  attitudes  and  the  much  agitated 
draperies  show  that  the  sculptors  desired  to  represent  lively 
action.  The  heads  are  dignified  and  expressive.  Here,  as 
elsewhere  in  Germany,  the  desire  to  express  meaning  outruns 
the  artist's  technical  and  aesthetic  power.  At  Magdeburg 
there  is  much  excellent  sculpture  within  the  cathedral,  and 
also  on  the  exterior  at  the  northern  portal  (Paradiespf orte) . 
Here  the  architecture  is  completely  Gothic,  therefore  the  date 
must  be  near  the  end  of  the  century. 


FIGURE  118.  —  Tympanum  from  the  "  Georgenchor,"  Bamberg. 

Bamberg.  —  The  sculptures  of  the  cathedral  at  Bamberg 
were  probably  executed  between  1230  and  1245.  The  earlier 
parts  are  somewhat  archaic  and  betray  their  connection  with 
the  art  of  the  twelfth  century  which  was  under  Byzantine 
influence.  The  later  parts  are  freer  in  style,  with  flowing 
drapery,  and  show  a  feeling  for  beauty  like  that  exhibited  in 
the  latest  Saxon  works.  In  the  choir  of  St.  George  the  reliefs 
are  high,  the  drapery  stiff,  the  abdomens  and  thighs  round  and 
prominent;  at  the  same  time  the  Jewish  types  are  well 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY       221 

rendered,  and  in  general  there  is  much  naturalism  (Fig.  118). 
Some  of  the  other  reliefs  exhibit  the  same  characteristics. 
The  later  sculptures,  with  their  calm  dignity  and  graceful 
draperies,  appear  to  derive  their  inspiration  from  the  Saxon 
school.  Among  these  are  the  sculptures  of  the  northern 
portal  and  the  equestrian  statue  (sometimes  called  Conrad 
III)  in  the  interior  of  the  cathedral.  *  ^^Jd^ 

Naumburg.  Influence  of  the  Saxon  School.  —  The  decoration 
of  the  high  choir  at  Naumburg,  in  Saxony,  belongs  to  the  end 
of  this  period  (about  1270).  The  sculptor  evidently  had  a 
real  sense  of  beauty  and  aimed  at  dramatic  effect.  There  is 
in  the  reliefs  a  trait  of  vigorous  naturalism,  and  the  statues 
represent  real  individuals,  though  they  are  not  actually  por- 
traits, since  they  were  made  long  after  the  death  of  the  per- 
sons whose  names  they  bear.  Even  in  the  crucifixion  group  of 
the  choir  screen  similar  naturalistic  and  portraitlike  traits  ap- 
pear, combined  with  a  feeling  for  beauty,  with  good  composi- 
tion, excellent  drapery,  and  dramatic  effect.  Similar  quali- 
ties are  seen  in  the  somewhat  less  admirable  statues  in  the 
cathedral  at  Meissen.  The  influence  of  the  Saxon  school  was 
widespread,  extending  into  Silesia  and  even  to  Transylvania. 

Strassburg,  Freiburg,  Other  Parts  of  Germany.  —  In  the 
cathedral  of  Strassburg  only  the  sculptures  of  the  transept, 
both  within  and  on  the  exterior,  are  of  the  Romanesque 
period  (their  probable  date  is  between  1230  and  1250),  and 
even  these  are  in  great  measure  dependent  upon  French  art. 
The  fine  figures  of  the  Church  and  the  Synagogue  (Fig.  119), 
at  1  he  portal,  are  already  Gothic.  Many  of  the  early  figures 
w;  |  :  destroyed  in  the  French  Revolution.  At  Freiburg,  in  the 
Breisgau,  some  figures  belong  to  this  period,  but  most  of  the 
sculpture  is  later.  The  sculpture  of  Franconia,  Bavaria,  the 
regions  of  the  lower  and  middle  Rhine,  and  the  lands  along 
the  Baltic  is  not  abundant  in  this  period,  nor  is  it  especially 
interesting. 

Gothic  Sculpture  in  Germany.  —  The  period  from  about 
1275  to  1450  —  the  last  period  of  mediaeval  art  —  was  char- 
acterized by  the  complete  dominance  of  Gothic  architecture 
over  sculpture.  Gothic  architecture  was  adopted  in  an 


222 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


advanced  stage  from  France,  not  developed  in  Germany, 
and  evidently  French  sculpture  exerted  great  influence  upon 

the  Germans.  This  is 
natural,  especially  as  the 
sculptures  were  carved 
by  the  building  masons. 
In  some  slight  measure 
the  bent  and  twisted 
postures  which  occur  in 
this  period  may  be  due 
to  the  influence  of  the 
architecture.  In  this 
period  less  direct  study 
of  nature  is  exhibited  in 
the  treatment  of  human 
forms  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding time,  less  elab- 
oration of  drapery,  and 
less  truth  in  postures. 
In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury the  draperies  worn 
were  thin  and  allowed 
the  form  to  show  its 
outlines;  in  the  Gothic 
period  fashion  demanded 
thick,  lined  clothing, 
which  fell  in  clumsy 
folds  and  hid  the  forms 
of  the  body.  The  love 
of  deep  shadows  also  led 
the  sculptors  to  carve 
deep  and  clumsy  folds. 
In  general,  the  German 
sculptors  show  much,  even  too  much,  sentiment.  With 
the  general  development  of  city  life  a  greater  variety  of 
tasks  was  offered  to  the  sculptors,  and  therefore  greater 
variety  in  composition  makes  its  appearance.  Portrait- 
ure develops  and  becomes  especially  good  toward  the  end 


FIGURE  119.  —  The  Synagogue,  Strass- 
burg  Cathedral.  (Photo.  Dr.  F.  Stoedtner, 
Berlin  NW.) 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY       223 


of  the  period.    It  will  be  possible  to  mention  only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  monuments  of  this  time  and  to  give  a 
eral  survey  of  sculpture  in  the  different  parts  of  Germany. 

Freiburg.  —  The  sculpture  of  the  minster  at  Freiburg  in 
the  Breisgau  is  chiefly  in  the  open  porch  at  the  front.  It  was 
begun  about  1275,  and  is  therefore  almost  contemporary 
with  the  great  Romanesque  sculptures  of  Bamberg  and 
Naumburg.  It 
presents  the 
whole  Christian 
doctrine  of  salva- 
tion as  conceived 
by  mediaeval 
theology,  and  is 
of  great  icono- 
graphic  interest. 
In  style  it  retains 
a  trace  of  Roman- 
esque awkward- 
ness, combined 
with  naturalistic 
traits.  The 
more  completely 
Gothic  sculpture 
within  the  min- 
ster and  at  the 
side  portals  is 
somewhat  later,  and  the  statues  at'  the  sides  of  the  main 
portal  exhibit  the  artificial  style  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Strassburg.  —  At  Strassburg  the  three  great  western  portals 
were  begun  about  1290  and  finished  about  1330.  French 
influence  is  plainly  seen  in  the  arrangement  and  placing,  as 
well  as  in  the  character  and  even  the  execution  of  the  figures. 
The  reliefs  are  very  much  restored,  so  that  only  the  general 
effect,  not  the  details,  can  now  be  regarded  as  due  to  the  orig- 
inal sculptors,  but  the  free-standing  figures  at  the  sides  of  the 
doorways  have  suffered  little  from  restoration.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  affected  attitudes  and  expressions,  in 


FIGURE  120.  —  Tempter  and  Tempted  ;  Foolish 
Virgins.  Strassburg  Cathedral.  (Photo.  Dr.  F. 
Stoedtner,  Berlin  NW.) 


224  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

spite  of  which  (or  even  because  of  which)  they  are  much 
admired  (Fig.  120).  The  sculpture  of  this  cathedral,  of 
different  dates,  from  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth  to  almost 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  is  exceptionally  rich,  and  is 
comparable  to  that  of  the  great  French  cathedrals  from  which 
its  makers  derived  their  inspiration. 

The  Middle  and  Lower  Rhine.  —  In  the  regions  of  the  middle 
and  lower  Rhine  sculpture  is  more  plentiful  in  the  second  half 
of  the  fourteenth  century  than  before,  and  here,  as  at  Strass- 
burg,  French  influence  is  strong.  In  the  cathedral  of  Cologne 
the  statues  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  twelve  apostles,  on 
the  piers  of  the  choir  (1349-1361),  are  affected  in  attitude  and 
expression  and  too  slender  in  proportions,  but  are  careful 
work.  The  wooden  Madonna  in  the  south  side  of  the  choir 
is  rather  exceptionally  good.  The  statues  of  apostles  and  the 
reliefs  representing  scenes  from  the  lives  of  Sts.  Peter  and 
Paul,  which  adorn  the  portal  under  the  southern  tower,  are 
good  examples  of  the  somewhat  affected  work  of  the  early 
part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  At  Wetzlar  also  are  interesting 
works  of  this  period.  The  sculptured  decoration  of  the 
cathedral  of  Mainz  consists  of  pretty,  affected  figures  of  no 
great  importance.  In  the  cathedral  at  Frankfort  the  tomb 
of  Ritter  von  Holzhausen  and  his  wife  (died  1371)  is  an 
excellent  piece  of  naturalistic  work,  as  is  also  the  tomb  of 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  in  the  cathedral  of  Speyer.  In  fact,  in 
this  region,  and  in  Germany  generally,  tombs  with  effigies  of 
the  deceased  are  numerous,  and  among  them  are  many  of 
striking  excellence. 

Southern  Germany — Bavaria,  Austria,  Bohemia. — There  is 
comparatively  little  sculpture  of  this  period  in  Bavaria, 
Austria,  or  Bohemia,  and  no  important  local  schools  develop 
in  those  regions.  At  Nuremberg,  in  Franconia,  the  sculp- 
tures of  the  churches  of  St.  Lawrence  and  St.  Sebaldus  (about 
1330-1365)  and  of  the  Frauenkirche  (1355-1361)  are  inter- 
esting works  (Fig.  121),  well  executed  and  exhibiting  some- 
thing of  the  popular,  intimate  realism  which  predominates 
in  the  wooden  altarpieces  of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The- figures  of  the  "  Beautiful  Fountain  "  at  Nurem- 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY       225 

berg  (1385-1396),  though  much  restored,  are  still  impressive, 
in  spite  of  some  affectation- in  pose  and  expression. 

Northern  Germany.  Engraved  Brasses.  —  Sculpture  in 
northern  Germany,  though  not  entirely  neglected  in  this 
period,  is  much  less  important  than  before.  The  chief 
centres  are,  perhaps,  Magdeburg,  Brunswick,  and  Halber- 
stadt.  The  sculpture  of  Hanover  and  Silesia  is  unimportant. 
In  the  newly  Germanized  provinces  of  Mecklenburg,  Branden- 
burg, and  Prussia  there  is  little  sculpture  except  wood-carvings 


FIGURE  121.  —  Tympanum  of  the  Frauenkirche,  Nuremberg  (from  a  cast). 

and  engraved  brasses.  These  last  are  plates  of  brass  which 
served  as  coverings  for  tombs,  usually  in  the  floors  of  churches. 
On  them  the  effigy  of  the  deceased  is  engraved.  Such  brasses 
seem  to  have  originated  in  the  Netherlands,  but  they  were 
popular  in  northern  Germany,  in  France,  and  in  England. 
Though  many  of  them  were  made  in  the  Netherlands  and 
exported,  others  were  made  in  the  countries  where  they  were 
used.  In  northern  Germany  there  are  also  a  few,  though 
very  few,  bronze  slabs  with  reliefs  instead.of  engraved  figures. 
In  general,  however,  the  sculpture  of  the  provinces  mentioned 
is  almost  negligible. 


226  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

In  this  period,  especially  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  German  sculpture  begins  to  show  the  popular, 
familiar  realism  which  is  the  distinguishing  quality  of  the 
Renaissance  in  Germany,  but  its  spirit  is  still  mediaeval 
and  it  is  still  in  great  measure  dominated  by  Gothic 
architecture. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND 

English  Sculpture  before  the  Norman  Conquest.  —  Time  and 
religious  intolerance  have  dealt  more  hardly  with  works  of 
sculpture  in  England  than  on  the  continent,  and  for  that 
reason  English  mediaeval  sculpture  now  seems  to  be  of  rela- 
tively slight  importance.  Such  was,  however,  apparently 
not  the  case  during  a  part,  at  least,  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Sculpture  before  the  Norman  conquest  is  almost  entirely 
confined  to  crosses  decorated  with  scrollwork,  and  sometimes 
with  figures,1  slabs  on  which  scrolls  and  curious  monsters 
are  carved  in  very  flat  relief  in  a  style  apparently  of  Irish  and 
Scandinavian  origin,  a  few  crucifixes,  ivory  carvings  similar 
to  those  executed  in  France  and  Germany  under  Charle- 
magne, and,  especially  in  southern  and  western  England,  a 
small  number  of  stone  reliefs  the  style  of  which  seems  to  be 
derived  from  paintings,  ivories,  and  goldsmith's  work.  It  is 
not  even  certain  that  all  of  these  works  usually  ascribed  to 
the  Saxons  really  antedate  the  Norman  conquest.  At  any 
rate  the  continuous  development  of  sculpture  in  England 
hardly  begins  before  that  event. 

Sculpture  in  Connection  with  Norman  Architecture.  —  The 
immediate  effect  of  the  conquest  was  rather  to  stop  than  to 
aid  the  progress  of  the  more  refined  sculpture  of  southern 
England,  with  which  the  hardy  Normans  had  little  sympathy. 
The  Romanesque  churches  of  Normandy  were  almost  devoid 
of  sculpture,  unless  decorative  patterns  may  be  called  by 

1  The  finest  crosses,  those  at  Ruthwell  and  Bewcastle,  with  their  figured 
decoration,  which  have  been  cited  as  proofs  of  the  existence  in  northern 
England  in  the  seventh  century  of  a  school  of  sculpture  strongly  influenced 
by  Byzantine  art,  are  probably  works  of  the  twelfth  century.  See  A.  S. 
Cook,  The  Date  of  the  Ruthwell  and  Bewcastle  Crosses,  New  Haven,  1913. 

227 


228 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


that  name,  and  the  coming  of  the  Normans  brought  no  direct 
encouragement  to  English  sculptors.  Nevertheless,  in  the 
twelfth  century  sculpture  progressed  in  England,  not  on 


FIGURE  122.  —  Portal  of  Rochester  Cathedral.     (Photo.  Mansell.) 

account  of  the  Norman  conquest,  but  because  the  religious 
life  of  England  was  closely  connected  with  that  of  the  con- 
tinent. Works  like  the  spandrel  carvings  of  Malmesbury 
Abbey,  the  tympanum  of  Rochester  cathedral  (Fig.  122),  and 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND        229 

that  of  the  Prior's  Doorway  of  Ely  cathedral  show  clearly 
the  influence  of  the  school  of  Toulouse,  whether  it  reached 
England  directly  or  by  the  way  of  Spain,  where  the  church 
of  Santiago  de  Compostela,  to  which  pilgrims  from  all  direc- 
tions resorted  in  great  numbers,  was  an  important  outpost 
of  the  art  which  had  its  centre  at  Toulouse,  though  its  origin 
may  perhaps  be  sought  in  the  great  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Cluny.  In  northeastern  England,  at  York,  Lincoln,  and 
Durham,  a  combination  of  the  influence  of  Toulouse  with  the 
somewhat  harsh  and  crude  earlier  work  in  Scandinavian 
style  produced  toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century  some 
works  in  which  vigor  and  delicacy  are  happily  blended ;  but 
this  northern  school  seems  to  have  come  to  an  end  about 
1200.  In  middle  England  the  Scandinavian  or  "Viking" 
style  persisted  throughout  the  twelfth  century. 

Gothic  Sculpture  in  England  —  Its  Periods  —  Heads  — 
Effigies.  —  In  England,  as  in  France,  the  great  development  of 
sculpture  took  place  in  connection  with  that  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, though  neither  architecture  nor  sculpture  developed 
exactly  as  in  France.  Gothic  sculpture  in  England  may  be  di- 
vided into  three  periods,  the  first  about  1200-1280,  the  second 
about  1280-1360,  the  third  about  1360-1530.  In  the  first 
period  sculpture  was  closely  connected  with  architecture  and 
developed  with  it,  taking  the  form  of  heads  in  corbels,  string- 
stops,  bosses,  gargoyles,  and  the  like,  of  reliefs  in  spandrels  and 
tympana,  and  of  statues  in  niches  on  the  fronts  of  churches. 
At  the  same  time,  however,  many  effigies  were  carved  for 
tombs.  These  effigies  were  chiefly  of  the  hard,  dun-colored 
limestone  called  Purbeck  marble,  and  were  carved  at  the 
quarries  or  in  shops  at  London.  They  undoubtedly  affected 
the  style  of  the  early  statues  on  the  fronts  of  churches. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  carvers  of  heads  in  corbels,  string- 
stops,  and  the  like  lay  in  facial  expression,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  twelfth  century  many  such  heads  are  already  admirably 
expressive.  At  Wells  and  Salisbury  the  progress  of  such 
head  sculpture  can  be  traced  until  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  when  it  had  attained  great  excellence  of  technique 
and  delicacy  of  sentiment.  The  art  of  head  stops  was  espe- 


230  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

cially  at  home  in  southern  England,  closely  connected  with 
Salisbury  and  Westminster,  but  spread  northwards  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  Head  sculpture  was  employed  also  in 
capitals,  supplanting  the  figure  scenes  of  the  Romanesque 
capitals,  though  at  Wells  many  capitals  with  more  or  less 
comic  figure  scenes  were  carved  about  1200.  Dragons  and 
devils  were  also  favorite  subjects,  especially  for  gargoyles. 
When  figures  were  carved  on  the  voussoirs  of  arches,  they 
were  seldom  placed  under  canopies,  as  in  France,  but  were, 
as  at  Lichfield,  Westminster,  and  Salisbury,  framed  in  vine 
scrolls  after  the  Romanesque  manner. 

Larger  Relief  Sculpture  of  the  First  Period.  —  The  larger 
relief  sculpture  of  this  period  is  seen  chiefly  in  the  spandrels 
of  arches,  in  detached  niches,  and  in  tympana.  In  the  span- 
drels a  consistent  treatment  of  a  connected  theme  is  usual, 
which  soon  develops  great  skill  and  taste  in  execution  and 
composition.  Examples  of  such  work  are  seen  at  Wells, 
Westminster,  and  Salisbury.  Angels  are  favorite  figures  in 
spandrels.  They  are  found  at  Worcester  (about  1240),  at 
Lincoln  in  the  choir  aisle  and  the  eastern  transept  (about 
1240),  and  at  Westminster  (about  1250),  where  they  are  re- 
markable for  their  grace,  expression,  beauty,  and  adaptation 
to  the  space  to  be  filled.  In  the  Angel  Choir  at  Lincoln 
(about  1260-1270)  development  of  style  is  distinctly  trace- 
able from  the  earlier  to  the  later  angels,  both  in  technique 
and  in  expression  of  sentiment.  Differences  between  local 
styles  are  especially  noticeable  in  the  treatment  of  draperies. 
In  recessed  niches  (trefoils,  quatrefoils,  and  the  like)  detached 
figures  or  scenes  are  placed  in  deep  shadow.  The  figures 
are  in  high  relief,  sometimes  almost  free  from  the  background 
and  thus  approaching  the  quality  of  statues.  The  subjects 
of  a  series  of  such  reliefs  are  sometimes,  as  at  Wells,  con- 
nected, but  such  connection  is  not  always  apparent.  The 
tympana  are  far  less  important  than  in  France.  Often  there 
is  merely,  as  at  Wells,  a  figure  or  a  group  set  in  a  quatrefoil. 
The  Judgment  Porch  at  Lincoln  (about  1270)  is  an  exception. 
The  composition  in  tympana  seems  to  be  in  general  derived 
from  the  paintings  in  manuscripts. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND        231 

Statues  of  the  First  Period.  —  The  statues  of  Peterborough 
cathedral  (about  1200)  seem  to  reflect  in  stone  the  style  of 
the  figures  of  wood  or  metal  which  had  been  made  for  the 
interiors  of  churches,  though  few  examples  of  such  works 
now  remain  for  comparison.  The  Peterborough  figures  have 
heavy  proportions,  and  the  same  peculiarity  is  seen  in  later 
works  in  neighboring  places. 


FIGURE  123.  —  Part  of  Fa?ade  of  Exeter  Cathedral.     (Photo.  Mansell.) 

At  Wells  the  front  of  the  cathedral  was  adorned  with  180 
large  statues,  127  of  which  now  remain.  They  stand  in 
separate  niches  arranged  in  rows  across  the  front,  and  are 
not,  as  in  French  Gothic  churches,  grouped  about  deeply 
recessed  portals.  Perhaps  the  Romanesque  tradition  of 
Poitou,  Angouleme,  and  northern  Spain  may  have  influenced 
the  design  of  this  facade.  Somewhat  similar  arrangement  is 
seen  at  Exeter  (Fig.  123)  and  Lincoln,  and  English  portals 


232  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

are  never  so  rich  as  those  of  the  great  French  churches.  The 
statues  at  Wells  which  belong  to  this  period  were  carved 
about  1220-1242  and  exhibit  progress  in  attitudes,  expression, 
and  draperies.  They  do  not  attain  the  perfection  of  the  best 
contemporary  French  work,  but  exhibit  greater  tenderness  of 
feeling.  The  draperies  have  a  clinging  softness  which  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  the  work  of  other  places.  Apparently 
the  sculptors  at  Wells  were  influenced  by  the  Purbeck  marble 
workers,  somewhat  as  those  at  Peterborough  were  influenced 
by  the  workers  of  wood. 

At  Lincoln,  about  1250,  and  elsewhere  in  northeastern 
England,  the  figures  are  heavy  and  rather,  squat.  Apparently 
this  is  a  continuation  of  the  style  of  Peterborough ;  but  soon 
a  new  influence,  probably  from  London,  makes  itself  felt, 
and  the  works  of  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century 
are  not  without  grace  combined  \vith  a  certain  tense  and 
severe  dignity. 

Effigies  of  the  First  Period.  —  The  so-called  Purbeck  marble 
was  much  used  for  pillars,  capitals,  fonts,  and  the  like,  and 
was  a  favorite  material  for  coffins  and  memorial  slabs.  On 
these  were  carved  figures  in  relief,  which  gradually  developed 
into  complete  effigies.  Such  work  wras  often  finished  at  the 
quarry,  but  the  stone  was  also  often  taken  to  London  and 
carved  there.  At  first  the  figures,  in  standing  posture,  were 
in  flat  relief,  and  only  the  part  of  the  stone  immediately 
about  the  figure  was  cut  away,  so  that  the  figure  appears  as  if 
set  in  a  frame.  As  the  relief  became  higher  this  framed  or 
sunken  effect  disappeared  (about  1225-1245),  and  then  a 
florid  decoration  with  crockets  and  other  architectural  adorn- 
ments was  added.  The  figure  appears  as  if  standing  in  a 
niche,  with  an  arch  overhead  and  columns  at  the  sides. 
Since  the  figures  were  placed  in  a  horizontal  position,  the 
idea  that  the  person  was  lying  down  was  almost  unavoidable, 
and  before  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  became 
customary  to  represent  a  pillow  under  the  head,  though  at 
first  the  standing  posture  was  retained,  in  spite  of  the  incon- 
sistency involved.  Soon,  however,  an  easier  recumbent 
posture  was  adopted,  often  with  crossed  legs,  which  does  not 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND        233 

indicate  that  the  deceased  was  a  crusader.  The  development 
of  knightly  effigies  is  clearly  seen  in  a  series  of  tombs  in  the 
Temple  church  in  London.  Somewhat  different  types  were 
naturally  created  for  ecclesiastics  and  ladies,  but  in  a  general 
way  all  types  passed  through  a  parallel  development.1  At 
first  the  work  done  at  the  quarries  and  that  done  in  the  Lon- 
don shops  was  identical,  but  before  1270  some  differences  in 
detail  appear.  After  1270  the  fine,  sharp  folds  and  delicate 
carving  which  the  use  of  the  close-grained  and  relatively 
hard  Purbeck  marble  had  encouraged,  gives  way  to  broader 
surfaces  and  less  elaborate  technique.  This  was  probably 
due  in  part  to  the  desire  to  give  greater  opportunity  for 
painting,  and  in  part  to  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  com- 
petition of  effigies  carved  from  coarser  varieties  of  stone. 
Such  freestone  effigies  imitated  the  effects  of  Purbeck  marble, 
but  were  more  easily  wrought  and  therefore  less  expensive. 
By  the  use  of  hard  stucco  (gesso)  and  color  for  details  and 
ornaments,  they  were  made  quite  as  effective  as  the  Purbeck 
effigies.  Bristol  was  a  centre  for  the  manufacture  and  dis- 
tribution of  freestone  effigies,  but  other  places  near  which 
suitable  stone  existed  had  their  local  sculptors. 

The  Second  Period  of  Gothic  Sculpture.  —  In  the  second 
period  (about  1280-1360),  various  local  schools  of  statuary 
may  be  distinguished.  In  the  North,  the  angels  of  Durham 
cathedral  (about  1280)  have  the  broad  draperies  and  the 
emotional  qualities  of  the  Lincoln  Angel  Choir,  and  similar 
characteristics  appear  in  some  slightly  later  statues  at  York. 
These  statues  have  the  swaying  pose  seen  in  German  figures, 
narrow  shoulders,  strong,  square  chins,  and  luxuriant  curls. 
Possibly  the  sculptors  may  have  been  influenced  by  imported 
figures  of  the  Madonna.  In  the  East,  the  chief  centre  of 
production  was  at  Ancaster.  The  style  is  derived  from  the 
statues  of  the  porch  at  Lincoln.  The  figures  are  somewhat 
heavy  and,  on  the  whole,  lacking  in  delicacy.  The  statue 
work  of  southern  England  was  much  affected  by  the  London 
shop  work,  though  another  centre  was  at  Exeter.  During 

1  The  types,  materials,  and  local  schools  are  discussed  in  detail  by  Prior 
and  Gardner,  Medieval  Figure  Sculpture  in  England,  pp.  545-721. 


234  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

this  period  a  fusion  of  style  took  place  between  the  statues 
carved  in  shops  and  those  carved  in  connection  with  arjchitec- 
ture.  The  imagers  adopted  in  great  measure  the  style  of  the 
architectural  sculptors,  but  as  a  result  the  making  of  statues 
began  by  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  to  be  separated 
from  architecture  and  to  become  more  exclusively  shop 
work.  The  style  of  statues  grew  less  dignified,  with  a  ten- 
dency toward  prettiness  and  pettiness.  This  in  turn  influ- 
enced architectural  relief  sculpture,  which  became  lively 
rather  than  serious.  These  qualities  are  seen  in  the 
"weepers"  or  "mourners"  which  adorn  the  sides  of  sar- 
cophagi. Small  figures  of  alabaster  from  Nottingham  and 
small  stone  figures  made  in  southern  England  show  much  deli- 
cacy of  sentiment.  Some  excellent  ivories  were  also  carved 
in  this  period. 

Effigies  of  the  Second  Period.  —  Toward  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century 
many  tomb  effigies  were  carved  at  Exeter  and  Bristol  in  the 
Southwest,  at  York  in  the  North,  at  Ancaster  in  the  East, 
and  at  several  places  in  middle  England.  Everywhere  the 
influence  of  the  London  style  of  Purbeck  marble  effigies  was 
strong  at  first,  but  a  broad,  free  style,  more  suited  to  coarser 
stone,  soon  developed.  In  London  the  first  style  had  been 
that  of  Purbeck  marble,  the  second  (after  1270)  was  that  of 
freestone  and  wood,  the  third  that  of  alabaster  (and  other 
soft,  fine-grained  stones,  such  as  clunch),  which  supplanted 
the  freestone  style  after  1350.  The  earliest  alabaster 
effigies  look  like  London  work. 

Bosses.  —  The  architectural  relief  sculpture  began  to  be 
chiefly  confined  to  bosses  in  the  elaborate  vaulting  of  the 
period  and  to  other  small  surfaces.  It  exhibits  great  variety 
of  expression  and  great  technical  dexterity,  but  little  dignity. 
i  Many  figures  are  crowded  into  small  spaces,  and  there  are 
many  anecdotal  reliefs. 

The  Third  Period  of  Gothic  Sculpture.  —  In  the  third  period 
(about  1360-1530),  local  differences  are  less.  Statues  were 
now  made  in  shops  and  placed  in  architectural  settings,  not 
really  made  as  part  of  architecture.  They  exhibit  less 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND       235 

variety  and  less  expression,  in  spite  of  their  exaggerated  ges- 
tures. Such,  at  least,  is  the  rule,  though  exceptions  occur. 
Examples  of  the  rule  are  the  "  Kings"  over  the  doorway  of  the 
western  front  of  Lincoln  cathedral  (about  1380)  or  the  proph- 
ets in  the  upper  row  at  Exeter  (about  1380).  Many 
statues  of  this  period  show  good  technique,  but  others  are 
rudely  or  carelessly  executed. 

Effigies  of  the  Third  Period  —  Brasses.  —  Tomb  effigies  of 
this  period  are  numerous  (Fig.  124).     Five  are  of  bronze, 


FIGURE  124.  —  Tomb  of  Cardinal  Langham,  Westminster  Abbey. 

Mansell.) 


(Photo. 


about  twenty  of  wood,  the  rest  of  freestone  or  alabaster,  the 
former  being  influenced  by  the  alabaster  technique.  Changes 
of  costume  show  the  different  dates,  but  in  other  respects  the 
effigies  throughout  the  entire  period  exhibit  a  marked  same- 
The  alabaster  craft,  with  its  facile  delicacy,  is  the 


ness. 


dominant  influence.  After  1500  some  slight  effect  of  Flemish 
realism  appears,  but  there  is  no  hint  of  any  effect  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance.  Engraved  brasses  are  more  common  in 
England  than  on  the  continent,  and  many  of  them  are  Eng- 


236 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


lish  work.  They  have,  however,  little  affinity  with  sculpture, 
except  in  so  far  as  they  repeat  the  costumes  and  attitudes  of 
the  carved  effigies.  In  style  they  resemble  somewhat  the 
figures  in  stained-glass  windows. 

Statues  in  Interior  Decoration.  —  Most  of  the  statues  of  the 
elaborate  choir  screens  and  other  interior  adornments  of 

churches  have  disap- 
peared, but  the  existing 
remains  indicate  that 
the  same  conditions  pre- 
vailed as  in  architectural 
sculpture.  London  was 
no  doubt  the  great  cen- 
tre of  production,  but 
other  centres  existed  at 
Oxford,  Norwich,  Not- 
tingham, and  York, 
where  three  generations 
of  imagers  by  the  name 
of  Drawswerd  practised 
their  art.  The  figures 
of  the  choir  screen  at 
York  (end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century)  are  pe- 
culiar in  their  emphasis 
of  line,  produced  by  deep 
cutting,  and  their  rigid- 
ity of  pose.  They  look 
as  if  their  style  were 
affected  by  that  of  the  figures  in  stained-glass  windows.  The 
chapel  of  Henry  VII  in  Westminster  Abbey  (1502-1512)  offers 
the  greatest  extant  collection  of  works  of  this  period  (Fig.  125). 
The  figures  show  Flemish  influence  and  exhibit  great  life 
and  freedom,  but  little  or  nothing  to  remind  us  that  the 
Renaissance  was  fully  developed  in  Italy  at  that  time. 

Architectural  Relief  Sculpture.  —  Architectural  relief  sculp- 
ture no  longer  covered  spandrels  and  other  large  surfaces,  as 
these  were  now  occupied  by  the  panellings  of  the  Perpendic- 


FIGURE  125.  — Part  of  the  Chapel  of 
Henry  VII,  Westminster  Abbey.  (Photo. 
Mansell.) 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND        237 

ular  style,  but  was  chiefly  confined  to  bosses,  gargoyles,  and 
similar  small  spaces.  Corbel-heads  grow  rare  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  when  they  occur  they  usually  have  the 
form  of  devils  or  monsters  for  the  exterior  and  angels  for  the 
interior  of  churches.  The  numerous  gargoyles  of  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  have  very  various  forms  of 
monsters.  Heraldic  beasts  are  frequently  represented  in 
relief  on  tombs,  over  doorways,  or  on  walls.  Bosses  become 
very  elaborate  and  are  often  carved  with  figures  or  groups  of 
figures,  in  some  of  which  the  influence  of  the  alabaster  style 
is  evident.  About  1450  and  later  angels  in  reliefs  are  some- 
times entirely  covered  with  feathers,  as  if  dressed  in  feathered 
tights.  It  may  be  that  the  feathered  wings  suggested  feathers 
for  the  whole  form,  or  possibly  feathered  costumes  worn  in 
mystery  plays  may  be  imitated.  Among  the  finest  angel 
sculptures  are  those  which  adorn  the  arches  of  the  wooden 
ceilings  of  the  eastern  counties.  In  the  nave  at  March 
(Norfolk)  are  more  than  one  hundred  angels  admirably 
carved  in  the  round.  Other  wooden  figures  of  this  period 
are  fairly  numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  of  great  merit. 

Reliefs  on  Church  Furniture.  Fonts,  Tombs,  Retables, 
Stalls,  etc.  —  The  most  characteristic  reliefs  of  this  period  are 
the  sculptured  pictures  on  church  furniture.  These,  like 
the  contemporary  statues,  are  city  shop  work.  Fonts  were 
made  in  various  places,  especially  at  Norwich,  in  East 
England,  where  bosses  were  also  a  specialty.  The  fonts  are 
usually  octagonal,  with  figured  panels,  the  style  of  which  is, 
especially  from  1400  to  1450,  essentially  pictorial.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century'  the  fonts  are  very  elab- 
orate structures,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  their  magnifi- 
cence increases  still  further,  while  the  quality  of  the  sculp- 
ture deteriorates. 

The  reliefs  of  tomb  chests  and  monuments  were  under  the 
influence  of  alabaster  work,  whether  they  were  actually  of 
alabaster  or  not.  On  the  sides  of  tombs  were  generally 
"weepers"  or  "mourners,"  usually  of  stone  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  of  alabaster  in  the  fifteenth,  and  the  survival 
of  this  motif  is  seen  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  century  in  the 


238  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

%> 

figures  of  children  mourning  at  the  tomb  of  their  parents. 
Such  work  originated  in  London,  where  the  materials  used 
were  at  first  bronze  and  Purbeck  marble ;  then  alabaster  was 
introduced,  and  finally  alabaster  was  copied  in  harder  stone. 
London  and  Nottingham  both  worked  alabaster  in  combina- 
tion, much  as  the  Purbeck  quarries  and  the  London  shops  had 
worked  together  at  an  earlier  date.  Alabaster  was  also 
carried  in  the  block  to  York,  where  tombs  were  carved  about 
1400  in  northern  style.  On  these  the  place  of  the  "  weepers  " 
is  taken  by  angels  holding  shields,  a  motif  which  occurs  also 
at  other  places.  On  other  tomb  chests  about  1440  to  1470 
the  Annunciation  is  represented.  Figures  of  saints  and  other 
variations  also  occur.  Monuments  under  canopies,  set 
against  walls,  are  rare  in  alabaster,  but  not  in  stone.  Some- 
times they  are  very  elaborate,  with  figures  set  in  panels  and  a 
recumbent  effigy ;  such,  for  instance,  is  the  Kirkham  monu- 
ment at  Paignton  (Devon),  dated  about  1500.  An  important 
part  of  church  furniture  was  the  retable,  or  reredos.  This, 
if  not  too  large,  was  made  entirely  in  the  shop,  and  if  it  was 
so  large  that  it  had  to  be  built  in  the  church,  its  statues,  and 
even  its  reliefs,  were  made  in  the  shop  and  set  up  in  their 
architectural  setting.  They  are  therefore  similar  in  character 
to  the  other  sculpture  of  the  period.  Wooden  choir  stalls, 
chests,  misericords,  etc.,  are  numerous,  and  these  also  seem 
to  be,  for  the  most  part,  at  least,  shop  work.  Some  of  the 
misericords  are  admirably  done,  their  small  reliefs  exhibiting 
most  delicious  humor. 

Alabaster  Reliefs.  —  Alabaster,  which  is  found  in  southern 
Derbyshire  and  in  Staffordshire,  is  an  excellent  material, 
especially  for  small  sculpture,  as  it  is  easily  carved,  admits  of 
sharp  cutting,  as  well  as  smooth  finish,  and  has  an  admirable 
surface  for  coloring.  Its  use  in  tomb  chests  has  already  been 
mentioned  ;  but  it  was  most  extensively  used  after  the  middle 
of  the  fourteenth  century  in  the  form  of  tablets,  ordinarily  of 
small  size ;  these  were  grouped  to  form  triptychs  and  the 
like,  and  were  exported  to  all  parts  of  France,  to  southern 
Germany,  and  even  to  Italy.  Their  style  was  derived  in  great 
measure  from  that  of  ivory  reliefs;  it  was  pictorial  and 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND        239 


anecdotic.  The  relief  was  high,  often  with  much  under- 
cutting, and  color  and  gilding  were  freely  and  effectively 
employed  to  add  further  beauty  to  the  work  (Fig.  126). 
Triptychs  and  polyptychs  composed  of  such  tablets  are  now 
found  chiefly  on  the  continent,  but  they  must  have  been 
numerous  in  England,  where  fragmentary  specimens  still 
exist.  Several  definite  sets  of  scenes  were  developed,  the 
most  usual  of 
which  are  the 
Passion  and  the 
Virgin  sets.  The 
earliest  tablets 
(1350-1420)  were 
complete  in  them- 
selves, with  a  bor- 
der of  the  same 
slab,  but  later  the 
tablets  were  made 
to  be  arranged  in 
sets  and  framed  in 
wood.  The  great 
framed  retables 
are  not  earlier  than  1450.  The  dates  are  determined  by 
details  of  costume  and  also  by  tricks  of  style  and  manu- 
facture. Although  Nottingham  was  the  original  home  of 
alabaster  work,  many  tablets  were,  no  doubt,  carved  else- 
where, especially  at  London.  In  some  of  the  latest  exam- 
ples the  work  is  rude  and  summary.  Such  inferior  tablets 
may  have  formed  the  stock  of  travelling  hucksters;  they 
are,  at  any  rate,  not  to  be  regarded  as  examples  of  the  real 
art  of  the  last  years  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


FIGURE  126.  —  English  Alabaster  Relief .     Metro- 
politan Museum,  New  York. 


CHAPTER  XV 
MEDIAEVAL   SCULPTURE   IN   SPAIN 

Spain  before  the  Eleventh  Century.  — Long  before  the  Roman 
conquest  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  in  Spain,  and  under 
their  influence  the  natives,  in  some  places,  practised  the  art  of 
sculpture  with  some  success.  Of  this  the  "  Lady  of  Elche,"  in 
the  Louvre,  a  work  probably  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  is  the 
most  striking  example.  Under  the  Romans,  the  sculpture 
of  Spain  differed  little,  if  at  all,  from  that  of  the  other  western 
provinces  of  the  Empire.  In  the  fifth  century  A.D.  the  Roman 
province  of  Spain  was  overrun  by  Vandals,  Alans,  and  Suevi 
and  conquered  by  the  Visigoths,  who  ruled  until  the  conquest 
by  the  Moors,  which  took  place  in  the  eighth  century.  Only 
a  small  part  of  the  peninsula,  in  the  extreme  north,  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Christians.  But  almost  immediately  the 
resistance  to  the  Moors  began  to  gather  strength,  and  gradu- 
ally they  were  pressed  back,  to  be  at  last  expelled  after  the 
fall  of  Granada  in  1492.  Roman  civilization  in  Spain  was 
essentially  the  same  as  in  other  well-settled  provinces  of  the 
Empire,  and  the  few  remains  of  Early  Christian  art  show 
few,  if  any,  Spanish  peculiarities.  The  Goths  brought  with 
them  no  art  of  sculpture.  Moorish  art,  brilliant  as  it  is  in 
some  respects,  affords  no  figure  sculpture.  Its  fine  orna- 
mental work  in  stucco  may  be  classed  as  decorative  sculpture, 
but  is  to  be  regarded  rather  as  a  background  of  raised  patterns 
to  make  the  coloring  more  effective.  Spanish  sculpture  is 
therefore  to  be  sought  only  in  Christian  Spain,  and  there  only 
a  few  works  exist  which  can  be  attributed  to  a  time  before 
the  eleventh  century.  These  are  rude  carvings,  some  of 
which  seem  be  to  inspired  by  Byzantine  art,  while  others  are 
merely  barbaric. 

240 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN  241 

French  Influence  in  the  Eleventh  Century.  —  In  the  eleventh 
century  there  was  a  great  influx  of  French  into  Spain,  and  the 
immigrants  brought  with  them  the  art  which  spread  from 
Cluny  through  southern  France.  In  many  cloisters  the 
sculptured  capitals  show  the  dominance  of  the  school  of 
Toulouse  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  throughout 
northern  Spain,  though  the  animals  and  fantastic  creatures 
of  the  earliest  capitals  at  Santo  Domingo  de  Silos  (Castile, 
end  of  the  eleventh  century)  seem  to  be  Mussulman  work, 
and  several  cloisters  in  Catalonia  exhibit  a  style  in  which  the 
art  of  Toulouse  appears  modified  by  traits  of  realism,  by 
Mussulman  decorative  traditions,  and  also,  perhaps,  by 
Provencal  influence.1  In  these  Catalan  capitals  some  local 
qualities  are  discernible,  though  even  here  the  French 
elements  predominate,  but  elsewhere  in  Spain  the  sculptured 
capitals  of  the  cloisters  are  either  purely  French  or  inferior 
imitations  of  French  work. 

Portals.  —  A  type  of  portal  which  was  frequent  from  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  to  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century 
has  a  bare  tympanum,  or  none  at  all,  columns  with  simply 
carved  capitals,  and  archivolts  covered  with  stars,  rosettes, 
and  the  like,  or  occasionally  with  forms  of  human  beings  and 
monsters.  Sometimes  the  archivolts  are  toothed  or  multi- 
foiled  in  Moorish  taste.  In  the  "Puerta  del  Palau"  of  the 
cathedral  at  Valencia  such  archivolts  are  combined  with  very 
delicate  reliefs.  This  portal  (about  1262)  is  the  work  of 
artists  from  Lerida,  where  the  "Puerta  dels  Fillols"  of  the 
cathedral  shows  a  very  slightly  earlier  stage  of  the  same  style. 

Santiago  de  Compostela.  —  The  portals  of  the  cathedral  of 
Santiago  de  Compostela,  the  masterpiece  of  Romanesque 
art  in  Spain,  exhibit  the  style  of  Toulouse.  Of  the  side 

1  Such  are  the  cloisters  of  San  Pere  and  of  the  cathedral  at  Gerona,  the 
cloister  at  Elena,  and  that  at  San  Cugat  del  Valles,  near  Barcelona,  all  of 
which  may  be  ascribed  to  the  twelfth  century.  At  San  Cugat  the  artist 
signs  his  name,  Arnall  Catell,  under  the  figure  of  a  sculptor  with  mallet  and 
chisel.  The  name  is  Catalan,  not  French.  At  Tarragona  the  style  ex- 
hibited in  the  cloister  of  the  cathedral  resembles  in  part  that  of  San  Cugat 
and  Gerona,  but  is  affected  by  ancient  Roman  sculpture,  no  doubt  from  the 
ruins  of  Tarraco,  and  includes  also  some  Moorish  ornament.  The  latest 
example  of  this  style  is  the  cloister  of  San  Francesch,  at  Barcelona. 


242 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


portals,  which  were  finished  before  1140,  only  the  southern 
one  (Puerta  de  Platerias)  remains.  This  is  clearly  the  work 
of  two  artists,  one  more  advanced  than  the  other,  but  both 
belonged  to  the  school  of  Toulouse,  and  were  probably  them- 
selves French- 
(Fig. 


127). 
the  re- 


men 

Some  of 
lief s  are  so 
placed  as  to 
show  that  their 
significance  was 
not  understood.1 
The  original 
western  fa?ade 
was  replaced  in 
the  eighteenth 
century  by  the 
existing  baroque 
construction,  but 
the  "Portico  de 
la  Gloria"  re- 
mains. This  is 
a  vestibule  or 
narthex  extend- 
ing across  the 
western  front  of 
the  church  (Fig. 
128).  A  great 
double  door  and 
two  smaller  doors 
lead  into  the  nave 
„  and  the  side 

FIGUHE  127. —  Santiago  de  Compostela,  South  For-        .  i  rrM 

tal ;  Figures  from  the  Destroyed  North  Portal.          aiSlCS.         1  He  en- 
tire    vestibule, 

with  its  decoration,  is  clearly  the  work  of  one  great  artist. 
The  very  elaborate  sculptures  of  the  doorway  represent  the 


1  Some  of  the  sculptures  of  this  portal  belonged  originally  to  the  northern 
portal. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN 


243 


evangelists,  angels  and  the  elect,  the  twenty-four  elders  of  Reve- 
lation, St.  James,  the  Tree  of  Jesse,  scenes  of  the  life  of  Jesus, 
and  the  Last  Judgment,  which  is  really  the  central  theme  of 
the  whole.  No  other  sculptures  in  Spain  exhibit  such  skill  in 
composition,  such  poetic  imagination,  and  such  dramatic 
power  as  these,  at  any  rate  not  before  the  great  creations  of 
Gothic  art.  Moreover,  the  dignity  in  forms  and  attitudes, 

the  expressive  faces,     

and  the  excellence 
of  workmanship 
equal  the  grandeur 
of  the  composition. 
An  inscription  gives 
the  date,  1183,  and 
the  name  of  the 
artist,  magister 
Matheus.  Who  this 
Matthew  was  we  do 
not  know.  The  por- 
tico as  a  whple  has 
no  prototype  in 
Spain,  but  bears 
some  resemblance 
to  the  porches  at 
Chartres,  more  to 
the  narthex  at 
Vezelay,  and  per- 
haps still  more  to 
the  south  porch  at 
Bourges.  In  the 
style  of  the  sculptures  the  qualities  of  the  school  of 
Toulouse  are  most  marked,  but  features  of  the  styles  of 
Provence  and  northern  France  are  also  present.  Whether 
Spaniard  or  Frenchman,  Matthew  was  a  great  artist,  who 
was  familiar  with  the  chief  artistic  movements  of  his 
day.  The  influence  of  his  work  is  seen  in  several  build- 
ings in  the  province  of  Galicia,  but  endured  only  for  a 
short  time. 


FIGURE   128.  —  Santiago  de  Compostela  ;    the 
Gloria. 


244  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

French  and  Other  Influences  seen  in  Various  Churches. — 
The  side  portals  of  the  church  of  San  Isidro  at  Leon,  which 
recall  the  sculptures  of  St.  Sernin  at  Toulouse,  belong  to  the 
first  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  may  well  be  the  work  of 
the  sculptors  of  the  side  portals  of  Santiago  de  Compostela. 
At  Soria,  in  Old  Castile,  the  fa£ade  of  San  Tome  resembles 
Poitevin  works,  but  contains  elements  which  can  be  attrib- 
uted only  to  a  Spanish  artist.  At  Avila  the  earlier  parts 
of  the  sculptures  of  the  church  of  San  Vicente,  which  date 
from  a  time  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
are  in  great  measure  due  to  French  artists  of  the  Burgundian 
school.  The  resemblance  to  the  sculptures  of  Vezelay  and 
Avallon  is  marked.  This  is  an  almost  unique  example  of 
pure  Burgundian  art  in  Spain.  A  local  school,  based  upon 
the  teachings  of  the  imported  artists,  soon  developed  at  Avila, 
and  much  of  the  sculpture  of  San  Vicente  is  the  work  of  local 
sculptors.  In  some  cases  the  statue  columns  of  France  were 
imitated  in  Spain,  for  instance  in  the  porch  of  San  Martin  at 
Segovia. 

At  Ripoll,  in  Catalonia,  the  whole  lower  part  of  the  front 
of  the  church  is  covered  with  reliefs  which  are  not  French 
in  appearance.  The  suggestion  of  M.  Bertaux  that  they 
may  be  the  work  of  Lombard  sculptors  is  not  without  some 
probability,  though  the  reliefs  of  S.  Zeno  at  Verona,  which  he 
cites,  do  not  offer  a  close  parallel.  In  any  case,  the  extension 
of  the  reliefs  over  the  whole  facade  is  doubtless  due  to  Spanish 
taste,  which  demanded  profusion  rather  than  careful  arrange- 
ment of  sculptures.  The  date  of  this  work  is  toward  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century. 

The  fa£ade  of  Notre  Dame  la  Grande,  at  Poitiers,  is  recalled 
by  that  of  San  Miguel  at  Estella  (Navarre)  and  still  more 
by  that  of  Santa  Maria  la  Real  at  Sangiiesa.  Here  the  sculp- 
tures belong  to  several  schools.  The  statues  beside  the  door- 
way resemble  those  of  the  western  facade  of  Chartres,  the 
tympanum  and  the  large  figures  above  (Christ  seated  between 
the  symbols  of  the  evangelists,  prophets,  and  apostles)  are 
products  of  the  school  of  Languedoc,  and  the  confused  and  ill- 
wrought  reliefs  in  the  spandrels  are  clearly  local  work,  as 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN 


245 


are  also  the  monsters  and  checker  patterns  that  cover  the 
archi volts  (Fig.  129).  Spanish  taste,  derived  perhaps  from 
Moorish  tradition,  is  seen  in  the  covering  of  the  whole  surface 
with  carving. 

Spanish  Tombs  of  the  Eleventh,  Twelfth,  and  Thirteenth 
Centuries. — Spanish  tombs  of  the  eleventh  century  are  simple, 
decorated  merely  with  patterns  of  lines  and  scrolls.  Even 
in  the  twelfth  century  few  are  adorned  with  figures.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  they  become  richer,  but  the  number  of 


\ 


FIGURE  129.  —  Tympanum  of  S.  Maria  la  Real.     Sangiiesa. 

those  with  figure  sculpture  is  still  not  very  great.  The  most 
magnificent  among  them,  the  reliquary  of  St.  Vincent  and 
his  sisters,  in  the  church  of  San  Vicente,  at  Avila,  is  covered 
with  very  delicately  chiselled  reliefs  which  recall  the  Bur- 
gundian  school  of  sculpture.  Far  less  ornate,  but  somewhat 
similar  in  the  style  of  its  sculpture,  is  a  sarcophagus  in  the 
cathedral  of  Lugo,  upon  which  two  angels  are  seen  bearing 
the  soul  of  the  deceased  to  heaven.  This  motif  appears  on 
reliquaries  of  Limoges  enamel  and  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
reliefs  of  Spanish  tombs.  One  of  those  upon  which  it  appears 
is  the  tomb  of  a  templar  in  the  church  of  the  Magdalen  at 


246 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Zamora.  Here  the  figure  of  the  deceased  lies  upon  the  sar- 
cophagus, and  the  reliefs  are  set  in  the  wall  above.  The 
tomb  is  sheltered  under  a  cumbrous  dais  supported  on  heavy 
columns.  The  capitals  and  spandrels  are  covered  with  mon- 
sters in  relief.  The  effect  of  the  whole  is  sumptuous  and 
barbaric.  Among  tombs  of  the  thirteenth  century,  some, 
with  recumbent  effigies  on  the  sarcophagus,  are  adorned  with 


FIGURE  130.  —  Sarcophagus  of  Queen  Berenguela.    Burgos. 

many  figures  of  mourners  and  attendants,  generally  of  rude 
workmanship,  others  are  decorated  in  Mudejar  (Moorish) 
style,  and  still  others  combine  the  two.  In  the  monastery  of 
Las  Huelgas,  at  Burgos,  are  many  royal  tombs  (not  to  be 
seen  by  visitors).  That  of  Queen  Berenguela,  who  died  in 
1244,  is  Romanesque  in  form,  but  its  sculpture  is  in  the  French 
Gothic  style  of  the  thirteenth  century  (Fig.  130).  On  the 
top  are  the  Annunciation  and  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  on  one 
long  side  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi  and  the  Slaughter  of  the 


247 


Innocents,  on  one  end  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin.     The 
figures  are  short  and  thick-set,  and  the  features  of  the  Virgin 


FIGURE  131.  —  Cathedral  of  Burgos  ;  Puerta  del  Sarmental. 

too  strongly  accentuated.     The  sculptor  was  probably  a 
Spanish  pupil  of  the  French  artists  of  the  cathedral  of  Burgos. 


248 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


The  Cathedral  at  Burgos.  —  This  cathedral  was  begun  in 
1221,  and  is  essentially  French  Gothic.  The  sculptures  of 
the  western  facade  are  of  later  date.  The  door  of  the  south 
transept  (Puerta  del  Sarmental)  is  a  work  of  the  first  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century  (Fig.  131).  In  the  tympanum  is  the 

figure  of  Christ  seated 
among  the  four  evangelists 
and  their  symbols ;  below, 
on  the  lintel,  are  figures 
of  prophets;  the  statue  of 
St.  James,  on  the  support 
of  the  lintel,  is  remarkably 
dignified  and  impressive, 
and  the  statues  beside  the 
door  are  hardly  less  excel- 
lent. The  door  of  the 
north  transept  is  similar 
in  style.  Here  the  central 
motif  is  the  Last  Judg- 
ment, and  among  the 
blessed  are  Ferdinand  of 
Castile  and  his  queen,  the 
latter  in  Spanish  costume. 
This  portal  was  certainly 
finished  before  1257.  The 
door  of  the  cloister,  of 
the  second  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  is  a 
masterpiece  of  interior 
sculpture.  In  style  it  re- 
sembles the  contemporary 
work  of  the  choir  screen 
of  Chartres  and  the  apostles  in  the  Sainte  Chapelle  in  Paris. 
It  is  probably,  therefore,  the  work  of  a  French  sculptor. 

The  Cathedral  at  Leon.  —  The  French  style  of  the  cathedral 
of  Burgos  was  imitated  by  Spaniards  at  Sasamon  and  also, 
though  somewhat  rudely,  at  Burgo  de  Osma ;  but  the  purest 
example  of  French  Gothic  in  Spain  is  the  cathedral  at  Leon. 


FIGDRE    132.  —  Cathedral    of    Leon; 
Statues  of  Western  Portal. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN  249 

This  was  founded  earlier  than  the  cathedral  at  Burgos,  but 
its  sculptures  belong  to  the  last  quarter  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  The  central  door  of  the  south  transept  imitates 
the  Puerto,  del  Sarmental  at  Burgos,  but  exhibits  greater 
delicacy  in  detail  and  more  undercutting.  The  portal  of 
the  north  transept  is  similar  in  style.  The  west  porch  imi- 
tates the  side  portals  of  Chartres  in  arrangement ;  but  the 
style  of  the  charming  sculptures  resembles  that  of  Bourges 
(Fig.  132).  The  Virgin  (Nuestra  Senora  la  Blanco)  on  the 
support  of  the  central  lintel  is  a  charming  Spanish  figure, 
painted  white,  with  black  eyes  and  darkened  eyebrows,  but 
the  work  is  French  throughout.  Some  of  the  other  statues 
are  probably  local  work,  and  some  were  carved  in  the  four- 
teenth century  and  worked  over  at  later  times. 

Other  Sculpture  of  the  Thirteenth  Century.  —  The  French 
style,  but  in  stiff er  and  heavier  form,  is  seen  in  the  portals  at 
Toro  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  which  may  be  the  work  of  sculp- 
tors from  Leon.  Several  Madonnas  at  various  places  seem 
to  be  French  work,  and  others,  though  French  in  manner, 
reproduce  Spanish  forms  and  features.  But  French  Gothic, 
sculpture  appears  only  sporadically  in  Spain  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  Generally,  with  Romanesque  architecture,  an  ar- 
chaic style  of  sculpture  persists,  which  exhibits  some  French 
influence  and  also  something  of  Moorish  (Mudejar)  taste  in 
decoration.  Examples  of  this  are  at  Tudela,  Logrono, 
Agramunt,  Estella,  and  Cirauqui. 

Continued  French  Influence  in  the  Fourteenth  Century.  — 
In  the  fourteenth  century  French  influence  continues  to 
dominate  in  Spanish  sculpture,  though  a  few  Italian  works 
exist  in  Aragon.  In  the  western  and  southern  provinces 
there  is  little  sculpture.  In  general,  sculpture  in  Spain,  as  in 
southern  France,  passes  abruptly  from  the  Romanesque 
style  to  a  developed  and  complicated  Gothic. 

Navarre.  —  The  cloisters  and  portals  of  Pampeluna 
(Navarre)  form  a  veritable  museum  of  French  sculpture  of 
the  fourteenth  century.  The  work  was  begun  near  the  be- 
ginning of  the  century  and  finished  near  its  end.  The  artist 
of  some  of  the  earlier  parts  was  Jacques  Perut,  a  skilful 


250  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

workman  who  was,  however,  more  successful  in  small  than 
in  large  figures,  and  who  adopted  somewhat  heavy  propor- 
tions for  the  human  form.  The  two  doors  are  later,  and  the 
somewhat  coarse  work  of  the  sculptures  may  be  ascribed  to 
local  sculptors  who  imitated  the  French  style.  The  powerful, 
but  rather  crowded  tympanum  relief  of  the  Death  of  the 
Virgin  is  Flemish  (or  Franco-Flemish),  and  dates  from  about 
1400.  The  style  of  Jacques  Perut  is  seen  in  the  great  porch 
of  the  cathedral  at  Vitoria,  though  whether  this  is  his  own 
work  or  that  of  his  pupils  cannot  now  be  determined. 

In  other  churches  of  Navarre  the  French  style  is  more 
mixed  with  local  elements.  In  general  the  old  Romanesque 
type  of  fa?ade  .is  preserved,  and  the  sculpture,  only  partially 
French  in  style,  is  incorporated  in  it.  This  is  the  case,  for 
instance,  in  Santa  Maria  la  Real,  at  Olite,  the  portal  of  which 
was  begun  toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The 
tympanum  is  French,  the  sides  of  the  doorway  are  decorated 
with  foliage  and  scrolls  in  Spanish  taste,  the  archivolts  are 
covered  with  foliage  of  the  vine  and  the  oak,  figures  being 
carved  on  only  two  voussoirs,  which  are  inserted  with  no 
regard  for  symmetry  or  effect,  and  the  apostles  in  niches  on 
the  wall  are  in  various  styles.  In  some  cases,  such  as  San 
Saturnin  at  Artajona  or  San  Sepulcro  at  Estella,  there  is 
greater  uniformity  than  in  this  instance,  but  some  mixture  of 
styles  is  observable  everywhere  in  Navarre. 

Leon  and  Castile.  —  In  the  cloisters  at  Leon  and  Oviedo,  of 
the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  anecdotic  realism 
which  distinguishes  the  contemporary  French  relief  sculpture 
is  noticeable,  and  this  is  even  more  the  case  in  the  chapel  of 
St.  Catharine  in  the  cathedral  at  Burgos  (1316-1354).  At 
Toledo  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral  was  begun  in  the  first 
half  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  the  entrance  to  the  north 
transept  (Puerta  del  Reloj)  belongs  to  this  time.  It  appears 
to  be  the  work  of  a  Spaniard  who  was  well  acquainted  with 
French  sculpture.  It  exhibits  great  liveliness  and  much 
movement,  but  is  somewrhat  lacking  in  elegance,  and  the 
tympanum,  with  its  four  rows  of  rather  crowded  figures,  is  a 
trifle  monotonous. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN  251 

Catalonia.  —  Only  in  Catalonia  does  the  sculpture  of  the 
churches  exhibit  much  independence  in  the  fourteenth 
century.  Here,  at  Tarragona,  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral, 
begun  in  French  style  about  1278,  was  finished  in  1375  by 
Jayme  Castalys,  whose  name  proclaims  his  Catalan  origin. 
His  figures  are  robust  and  powerful,  but  clumsy,  with  big 
heads  and  coarse  draperies.  The  statues  of  the  portal  of  the 
cathedral  of  Lerida,  now  in  the  local  museum,  are  somewhat 
similar.  In  1389  Pere  (Pedro)  Morey,  another  Catalan, 
began  the  portal  of  the  cathedral  at  Palma  in  Majorca,  but 
finished  only  the  Virgin  on  the  lintel.  He  died  in  1394,  and 
in  that  year  his  brother  Guillem  designed,  but  did  not  exe- 
cute, the  side  portal  at  Gerona,  where  the  statues  of  the  twelve 
apostles  are  the  work  (1458)  of  Anton  Claperos  of  Barcelona. 
These  Catalan  sculptors,  though  they  exhibit  some  original- 
ity, lack  technical  skill  and  refinement. 

Tombs  of  the  Fourteenth  Century.  —  The  tombs  of  the  four- 
teenth century  were  rich  and  splendid,  but  the  richest  among 
them  were  of  metal  and  have  disappeared.  The  type  of 
tomb  set  against  the  wall  and  adorned  with  "weepers"  retains 
its  popularity.  The  most  remarkable  group  of  tombs  is  at 
Tarragona  in  Aragon.  Here,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Creus, 
are  several  relatively  simple  tombs  of  nobles,  and  here  King 
Pedro  lies  in  an  ancient  porphyry  sarcophagus,  over  which  is 
a  high  marble  cover  in  the  shape  of  a  reliquary  adorned  with 
figures  of  the  twelve  apostles,  above  which  is  a  marble 
canopy.  This  tomb  is  dated  1306.  The  tomb  of  King 
Jaime  and  his  queen,  with  recumbent  effigies,  is  six  years 
later.  Of  the  tombs  by  Jayme  Castalys  in  the  church  of  the 
monastery  of  Poblet  only  fragments  now  remain.  Other 
tombs  are  at  Puig,  near  Valencia,  and  in  the  church  of  Santo 
Domingo  (Valencia),  from  which  the  tomb  of  Don  Felipe 
Boil,  who  died  in  1384,  has  been  taken  to  the  museum  in 
Madrid.  This  exhibits  the  type  with  recumbent  effigy  and 
"weepers,"  but  is  rather  carelessly  executed.  A  somewhat 
similar  tomb  of  a  member  of  the  same  family  is  still  in  Valen- 
cia. At  Palma,  Majorca,  the  tomb  of  the  bishop  Antonio 
Galiana  (1375)  is  of  the  same  type,  set  in  a  niche  framed  by  a 


252  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

multifoil  arch.  A  second  similar  tomb  (1385)  is  in  the  same 
church.  The  finest  of  all  these  monuments  is  that  of  Lope 
Fernandez  de  Luna,  archbishop  of  Saragossa,  who  died  in 
1382.  Over  the  tomb  is  a  small  dome  with  stalactite  ceiling 
in  Moorish  style,  once  freely  gilded,  incrusted  with  glass, 
and  lighted  by  lamps.  On  the  sarcophagus  lies  a  remarkable 
effigy,  and  small  figures  cover  the  front  of  the  sarcophagus  and 
are  ranged  along  the  ends  and  back  of  the  niche.  This  sculp- 
ture is  remarkable  for  its  variety  both  in  the  treatment  of 
drapery  and  in  the  expression  of  grief. 

Interior  Sculptures.  —  The  interior  sculptures  of  churches 
are  often  rich  and  elaborate  in  the  fourteenth  century,  though 
their  splendor  grew  in  later  times.  At  Toledo  the  screen  of 
the  capilla  mayor  is  of  marble,  in  a  mixture  of  Gothic  and 
Mudejar  style,  with  large  figures  in  high  relief.  These  figures 
are  distinguished  from  French  work  only  by  their  dignified 
stiffness.  In  general,  the  interior  statues  and  statuettes  of 
this  century  are  not  very  finely  wrought,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  some  alabaster  statuettes  in  Catalonia.  Such 
alabaster  figures  were  combined  with  reliefs  in  Gothic  frames 
to  form  retablos  (reredoses).  Other  retablos  were  made  of 
metals  and  of  gilded  wood,  and  some  of  the  work  in  these 
materials  is  very  delicate. 

Flemish  Influence  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  In  the  fif- 
teenth century  the  prevailing  influence  in  Spanish  sculpture 
was  Flemish  rather  than  French.  The  tomb  of  King  Carlos 
III,  of  Navarre,  and  his  queen,  in  the  cathedral  of  Pampeluna, 
is  the  work  of  Janin  Lomme,  from  Tournai.  In  a  general  way 
it  resembles  the  tombs  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  at  Dijon 
(p.  214).  On  the  tomb  lie  alabaster  effigies,  and  in  Gothic 
niches  in  its  four  sides  are  mourners  —  gentlemen,  monks, 
bishops,  and  two  cardinals.  But  there  are  no  little  angels,  as 
at  Dijon,  nor  is  there  so  much  movement  among  the  mourners. 
This  tomb  was  begun  in  1416;  but  Janin  Lomme  was  in 
Pampeluna  in  1411,  the  year  in  which  the  tomb  of  Philip 
the  Bold  was  finished.  The  tomb  of  Lionel  of  Navarre 
(died  in  1413)  at  Pampeluna,  though  not  a  free-standing 
tomb,  exhibits  the  same  style  of  sculpture  and  is  attributed 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN  253 

to  Janin  Lomme.  The  tomb  of  Frances  de  Villa  Espesa  (died 
in  1427)  and  his  wife  is  also  of  similar  style,  and  some  inferior 
works  at  Pampeluna  may  be  attributed  to  Janin  Lomme's 
school.  These  tombs  at  Pampeluna  and  the  tomb  of  Jean 
Due  de  Berry  at  Bourges,  by  Jean  Mosselmans  of  Ypres 
(1433),  show  the  importance  of  the  school  of  Tournai  and  the 
similarity  of  its  style  to  that  of  Glaus  Sluter.  Possibly  the 
presence  of  Janin  Lomme  and  his  helpers  at  Pampeluna  may 
explain  the  fact  that  Juan  de  la  Huerta  was  chosen  as  the 
artist  of  the  tomb  of  Duke  John  the  Fearless  at  Dijon. 

Sculpture  in  Aragon  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  In  the 
kingdom  of  Aragon,  and  especially  in  Catalonia,  sculpture 
flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Part  of  the  south  portal 
of  the  cathedral  of  Palma  (Majorca),  by  Johan  of  Valen- 
ciennes (1393-1397)  and  Enrich  Alamant  is  mediocre,  but 
later  other  northern  sculptors  came,  whose  names  are  un- 
known, but  whose  works  proclaim  them  real  masters.  The 
two  most  noted  sculptors  of  Aragon  are,  however,  Guillem 
Sagrera  and  Pere  (Pedro)  Juan  de  Vallfogona.  The  former 
was  also  an  architect.  He  designed  the  Lotze  or  bourse  of 
Palma,  the  sculptures  of  which  are  Flemish  in  their  ample, 
vigorous  forms  and  draperies,  but  have  a  lightness  and  refine- 
ment peculiar  to  themselves.  In  1450  the  artist  went  to 
Naples,  where  he  died  before  the  end  of  August,  1453.  His 
work  at  Naples,  which  was  especially  in  the  creation  of 
splendid  tombs,  was  continued  by  members  of  his  family, 
Juan  and  Jaime  Sagrera,  and  his  son,  Francesch,  and  brother, 
Miquel,  practised  the  art  of  sculpture  in  Spain.  At  Valencia 
the  sculptures  of  the  sides  of  the  old  house  of  deputies  and 
the  municipal  building  (the  fronts  are  modern)  imitate  the 
Flemish  style,  but  are  more  sober  and  severe.  The  bourse 
of  Valencia,  built  between  1482  and  1493,  imitates  Sagrera's 
building  at  Palma,  but  the  sculptors  of  the  grotesques  and 
small  angels  which  form  its  decoration  were  Roland  from 
Germany  and  Laurent  Picard  from  France.  At  Barcelona 
the  St.  George  on  the  keystone  of  the  fountain  (1450)  is  by 
Anton  Claperos,  as  is  probably  also  the  St.  George  in  a 
medallion  in  the  cloister  of  the  cathedral.  These  are  spirited 


254  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

reliefs.     The  same  sculptor  modelled  terra-cotta  statues  for 
the  Portal  of  the  Apostles  at  Girona. 

But  the  most  important  sculpture  of  the  fifteenth  century 
in  Catalonia  is  seen  in  the  interior  of  churches.  Tombs,  to 
be  sure,  are  still  set  against  the  wall  in  niches,  with 
"mourners,"  and  differ  little  from  those  of  the  previous 
century ;  but  the  retablos  (reredoses)  attain  to  new  splendor. 
Their  reliefs  and  statues  show  strong  Flemish  influence,  but 
the  retablos  themselves  are  made  of  alabaster  or  marble, 
not  of  wood,  and  have  not,  like  those  of  Flanders,  folding 
wings.  They  are  also  much  larger  and  are  higher  in  propor- 
tion to  their  width  than  the  Flemish  altarpieces.  One  of  the 
first  great  retablos  is  that  of  Vich,  begun  in  1420  by  Pere 
(Pedro)  Oiler.  The  statues  of  St.  Peter  and  the  Virgin,  one 
above  the  other,  are  flanked  by  twelve  reliefs  (the  lives  of 
St.  John  and  of  Mary)  on  a  high  predella.  Still  larger  is  the 
retablo  begun  in  1426  by  Pere  (Pedro)  Johan  (Juan)  de 
Vallfogona  and  Guillem  de  la  Mota  at  Tarragona.  The 
latter  carved  the  heavy  reliefs  of  the  body  of  the  retablo ; 
Vallfogona  carved  the  predella  and  also  that  of  the  great 
retablo  of  Saragossa,  where  he  fell  ill  in  August,  1445,  after 
which  we  hear  no  more  of  him.  The  reliefs  of  the  predella  at 
Tarragona  represent  the  conversion  and  martyrdom  of  St. 
Thecla,  those  at  Saragossa  the  martyrdom  of  Sts.  Lawrence, 
Vincent,  and  Valerius,  with  marvellous  richness  of  detail. 
The  blue  glass  background  is  enlivened  with  arabesques  of 
gold.  Each  scene  has  its  own  landscape,  resembling  in  this 
respect  the  reliefs  of  Florentine  and  Sienese  goldsmiths ;  the 
rocks  and  trees  are  like  those  in  Giotto's  pictures ;  but  the 
foregrounds  are  finished  with  Flemish  care  for  detail.  The 
work  is  like  Flemish  painting  carved  in  alabaster,  with  im- 
mense realism  and  imagination.  The  colossal  statues  of  the 
retablo  at  Tarragona,  representing  the  Virgin,  St.  Paul,  and 
St.  Thecla,  are  by  Vallfogona.  At  Saragossa  the  upper  part 
of  the  retablo  (1470-1480)  is  by  a  German,  Ans  (Hans),  whose 
work  resembles  that  of  Veit  Stoss  at  Cracow.  The  alabaster 
figures  are  of  natural  size,  with  heavy  draperies.  At  the 
left  is  the  Transfiguration,  at  the  right  the  Ascension,  in  the 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN 


255 


middle  the  Adoration  of  the  Magi.  This  superb  work  was 
imitated  by  Damian  Forment,  early  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  the  church  of  the  Pilar,  at  Saragossa.  A  small  retablo  in 
New  York  (Fig.  133)  is  from  the  atelier  of  Pere  Johan  de 
Vallfogona.  Among  that  artist's  helpers  were  Pedro  and 
Miguel  Navarro,  who  may  have  brought  from  Navarre  the 
teachings  of  Janin  Lomme;  but  most  of  the  imagers  em- 
ployed in  the  cathedral  after  1420  were  French  or  Flemish. 


FIGURE  133. — Alabaster  Retablo  in  the  Style  of  Vallfogona. 
Museum,  New  York. 


Metropolitan 


The  Virgen  del  Pilar  at  Saragossa,  a  charming  statuette  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  is  by  such  a  Franco-Fleming  or  by  an 
Aragonese  of  French-Flemish  training. 

All  kinds  of  relief,  in  all  materials,  were  much  practised  in 
the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  especially  in  Catalonia.  The  choir 
stalls  of  the  cathedral  of  Saragossa,  which  bear  the  arms  of 
the  Archbishop  Dalmacio  del  Mur,  who  ordered  the  great 
retablo,  are  by  Mudejar  artists  and  Catalans,  among  them 


256  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Francesch  Gomar.  He  and  his  brother  Anton  imitated  these 
stalls  in  the  cathedral  at  Tarragona .  The  somewhat  less  splen- 
did stalls  at  Barcelona  are  by  Martin  Bonafe  (1457) ;  their 
openwork  pinnacles  (1483)  are  by  Michael  Longuer,  a  German. 

Flemish  and  German  Work  in  Castile  and  Leon.  —  Flemish 
and  German  work  appears  also  in  Castile  and  Leon  in  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  the  cathedral  of  Leon  is  a  Virgin  of 
painted  stone  in  Flemish  "Burgundian"  style,  and  the  tomb 
of  King  Orlando  is,  in  the  parts  which  belong  to  this  century 
(it  was  begun  in  the  fourteenth),  like  the  tombs  at  Dijon, 
with  angels,  "  mourners,"  and  niches.  At  Oviedo  the  bearded 
prophets  of  the  portal  of  the  chapel  of  Alfonso  III  are  prob- 
ably by  the  same  artist.  The  first  Franco-Flemish  work  in 
Castile  is  the  tomb  of  Dona  Aldonza  de  Mendoza,  whose 
effigy  lies  on  a  sarcophagus  simply  ornamented  with  the  foli- 
age of  the  oak.  At  Seville  the  tomb  of  the  archbishop 
Cervantes  (died  in  1453),  by  Laurent  Mercadante,  of  Brittany, 
with  its  recumbent  effigy,  its  little  angels  and  miniature 
prophets,  is  quite  in  the  "Burgundian"  style.  At  Toledo 
Henry  van  Eyck  (called  Egas)  was  employed  to  finish  the 
south  transept  of  the  cathedral  by  constructing  the  Portal 
of  the  Lions,  and  it  is  probable  that  he  was  sculptor  as  well 
as  architect.  Alongside  of  him  worked  Juan  Aleman  (John 
the  German).  The  sculptures  of  the  portal  are  much  dis- 
figured by  "restoration,"  but  the  statues  and  the  little 
figures  above  the  door  are  German  in  style  rather  than  Flem- 
ish. Juan  de  Colonia  (John  of  Cologne),  beginning  in  1442, 
built  the  two  openwork  towers  of  the  cathedral  at  Burgos. 
He  also  built  the  chapel  in  which  the  bishop  Alonso  of 
Carthagena  was  buried  in  1456.  The  tomb  itself,  with  its 
reliefs  of  German  style,  is  probably  the  work  of  Juan  or  some 
of  his  German  companions. 

Mediaeval  sculpture  in  Spain  is  plentiful  and  often  very 
interesting,  but  it  is  very  largely  dependent  upon  foreign 
teachings  and  is  in  great  part  actually  the  work  of  foreigners. 
Nevertheless,  Spanish  taste  affects  even  those  foreigners, 
and  in  the  period  after  the  union  of  Spain  under  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  Spanish  taste  makes  itself  more  evident. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY 

THE  EARLY  RENAISSANCE 

Definition  of  the  Term  Renaissance  —  Three  Periods.  —  The 
Renaissance  may  be  defined  as  the  rebirth  or  revival  of  the 
of_nature  and  of  antiquity.  The  purpose  of  mediaeval 
art>  the  aim  of  the  mediaeval  artist,  was  to  express  in  visible 
form  religious  sentiments,  emotions,  thoughts,  or  even  dog- 
mas. Beauty  and  truth  to  nature  were,  on  the  whole,  second- 
ary considerations.  There,  were  exceptions,  to  be  sure,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages  naturalism  or  realism 
developed  in  northern  Europe.  In  Italy  Nicola  Pisano  had 
exhibited  a  sense  of  beauty  founded  on  appreciation  of  an- 
cient art,  but  the  influence  of  antiquity  is  not  discernible 
in  the  work  of  his  successors.  Andrea  Pisano,  Orcagna, 
the  artists  of  the  reliefs  of  the  fa?ade  at  Orvieto,  had  all  a 
sense  of  beauty,  but  their  work  shows  neither  the  influence 
of  antiquity  nor  the  direct  study  of  nature  in  any  marked 
degree ;  with  all  its  beauty  it  is  strictly  mediaeval.  In  north- 
ern Europe  the  tendency  toward  realism  began  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  for  that  reason  those  who  regard  the 
study  of  nature  as  the  chief  element  of  the  Renaissance  are 
inclined  to  make  the  Renaissance  begin  north  of  the  Alps 
and  spread  to  Italy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  study  of  ancient 
art  exerted  little  or  no  influence  in  northern  Europe  until 
much  later,  but  went  hand  in  hand  with  the  study  of  nature 
in  Italy,  beginning  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury ;  it  is  therefore  proper  to  begin  the  study  of  the  Renais- 
sance with  Italy.  The  period  of  the  Italian  Renaissance 
may  be  divided  into  the  Early  Renaissance,  about  1400  to 
s  257 


258  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

1480,  the  Developed  Renaissance,  about  1480  to  1550,  and 
the  Late  Renaissance,  about  1550  to  1630.  The  three  great 
sculptors  of  the  Early  Renaissance  are  Ghiberti,  Donatello, 
and  Luca  della  Robbia;  the  Developed  Renaissance  is 
dominated  by  the  genius  of  Michael  Angelo ;  the  most  im- 
portant sculptor  of  the  Late  Renaissance  is  Jean  Boulogne, 
called  Giovanni  Bologna.  The  sculpture  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  is  a  continuation  of  that  of  the 
Renaissance. 

Ghiberti.  —  Lorenzo  (di  Cione)  Ghiberti  (1378-1455)  was, 
like  most  of  the  important  sculptors  of  his  time,  a  Florentine. 
His  stepfather,  Bartolo  di  Michele,  was  a  goldsmith,  and  from 
him  Ghiberti  no  doubt  gained  the  rudiments,  at  least,  of 
that  knowledge  of  metal  working  which  he  used  to  such 
advantage.  The  chief  events  of  Ghiberti's  life  are  known 
from  his  own  published  journal.  In  his  early  years  he  was 
a  painter,  and  in  1400  he  went  to  Rimini  to  paint  some 
frescoes,  but  in  1401  returned  to  Florence  to  compete  for  the 
commission  to  make  the  second  bronze  doors  of  the  bap- 
tistery. Each  competitor  was  to  hand  in  a  bronze  relief 
representing  the  interrupted  sacrifice  of  Isaac  by  Abraham, 
which  was  to  be  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  reliefs 
of  Andrea  Pisano'sdoor  (see  p.  191).  Ghiberti  obtained  the 
contract,  partly  on  account  of  the  technical  excellence  of  his 
casting,  though  the  relief  offered  by  Brunelleschi,  who  after- 
wards became  the  greatest  architect  of  his  time,  was  so  good 
that  the  judges  wished  him  to  share  in  the  work  of  the  door. 
This,  however,  he  refused  to  do,  and  the  contract  with  Ghi- 
berti was  signed  November  23d,  1403.  Although  the  con- 
tract specified  that  Ghiberti  was  to  work  steadily  at  this 
task,  the  door  was  not  finished  until  1424.  There  are  twenty- 
eight  medallions  with  reliefs,  twenty  of  which  represent 
scenes  from  the  New  Testament,  while  the  eight  lowest 
medallions  contain  figures  of  the  Evangelists  and  four  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church.  In  the  corners  where  the  frames  of  the 
panels  cross  are  busts  of  prophets  and  sibyls.  The  orna- 
mentation of  these  frames  and  of  the  door-casing  consists 
of  vines  and  flowers  of  great  beauty.  In  the  medallions  of 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     259 


this  door  Ghiberti  followed  the  style  of  Andrea  Pisano,  but 
added  grace  and  variety,  richness  of  composition,  and  in- 
creased liveliness  (Fig.  134).  He  does  not  appear  as  an 
innovator  in  any  marked  degree,  but  as  one  who  adds  new 
excellence  to  the  style  of  earlier  artists.  The  costumes 
he  adopts  are  between  those  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  those  of 
the  Renaissance,  and  his  architecture  is  not  as  yet  fully 
based  on  the  study  of  antiquity.  The  types  and  attitudes  of 
his  figures  are  grave,  rather  than  vivacious;  he  avoids 
scenes  of  violent  move- 
ment; his  composition 
is  simple,  his  arrange- 
ment of  figures  symmet- 
rical. The  perspective 
effects,  so  important  in 
his  later  and  more  fa- 
mous door,  do  not  ap- 
pear in  this  early  work. 
The  two  doors  of 
the  baptistery  absorbed 
the  greater  part  of 
Ghiberti's  well-spent 
life,  but  they  are  by 
no  means  his  only 
works.  In  1409  he  was 
inscribed  in  the  arte  of  FIGDBK 
the  goldsmiths,  and  he 
mentions  in  his  journal  several  works  in  gold,  among 
them  two  elaborate  mitres,  one  for  Pope  Martin  V  (1419), 
the  other  for  Eugenius  IV  (1439),  both  of  which  have  dis- 
appeared. He  was  a  member  of  a  commission  to  carry  on 
the  erection  of  the  cathedral,  and  in  1424  he  was  enrolled 
as  a  painter  in  the  corporation  of  St.  Luke,  which  shows  that 
he  never  relinquished  his  early  interest  in  painting.  His 
existing  works,  however,  are  works  of  sculpture.  In  1414 
he  did  the  statue  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  for  Or  San  Michele, 
and  began  the  St.  Matthew,  which  was  finished  in  1422. 
The  St.  Stephen  is  later  (1428).  In  these  statues  a  pro- 


134.  —  Four  Panels  of   Ghiberti's 
Earlier  Door.    Florence. 


260  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

gressive  refinement  and  simplification  of  style  is  discernible, 
but  there  is  little  new  in  them.  The  drapery  of  the  St. 
Stephen  resembles  that  of  Roman  statues,  but  in  other  re- 
spects these  fine  figures  belong  almost  to  mediaeval  art. 
The  two  bronze  panels  in  the  font  at  Siena  were  ordered  in 
1417  and  finished  in  1427.  In  these  some  of  the  picturesque 
qualities  which  distinguish  the  reliefs  of  the  "Porta  del 
Paradise"  are  already  present. 

In  April,  1425,  Ghiberti  received  the  commission  for  the 
third  door  of  the  baptistery,  called  the  "Porta  del  Para- 
diso,"  which  was  to  be  his  chief  concern  until  1452  (Fig. 
135).  In  this  he  departed  from  the  style  and  also  from  the 
arrangement  of  Andrea  Pisano's  door.  The  subjects,  taken 
from  the  Old  Testament,  are  arranged  in  ten  square  panels 
as  follows:  1,  The  Creation,  Temptation,  and  Expulsion 
from  Paradise ;  2,  Cain  and  Abel ;  3,  Noah ;  4,  Abraham ; 
5,  Isaac,  Esau,  and  Jacob;  6,  Joseph;  7,  Moses  and  the 
Tablets  of  the  Law ;  8,  Joshua  and  the  Fall  of  Jericho ;  9, 
David  and  Goliath ;  10,  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba. 
As  a  rule,  several  scenes  are  united  in  each  panel,  and  this 
interferes  with  the  grouping  as  a  whole,  though  in  each  scene 
the  figures  are  well  arranged.  On  the  door-casing  is  a  charm- 
ing frieze  of  foliage,  fruits,  birds,  and  small  animals.  About 
the  edges  of  the  doors  is  an  elaborate  and  beautiful  border, 
in  which  are  niches,  containing  statuettes  of  prophets  and 
other  Old  Testament  characters,  and  medallions  in  which 
are  busts  of  various  persons,  among  them  Ghiberti  and  his 
stepfather.  These  figurines  display  the  most  exquisite  and 
powerful  work,  and  the  reliefs  of  the  panels  are  wonderful 
in  the  beauty  of  their  charming  figures,  fresh  landscape,  and 
impressive  architecture.  Here  the  influence  of  ancient  art, 
and  also  of  Donatello,  is  seen,  but  the  remarkable  qualities 
of  the  work  are  due  to  Ghiberti's  own  genius  and  love  of 
beauty.  It  is  true  that  landscape  and  perspective  effects 
can  be  more  easily  and  effectively  expressed  in  painting  than 
in  relief,  and  therefore  Ghiberti  has  been  criticised  for  over- 
stepping the  bounds  of  the  art  of  sculpture ;  but  the  beauty 
of  his  work  and  the  persistence  of  the  admiration  it  has  aroused 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     261 


FIGURE  135.  —  The  Porta  del  Paradise,  by  Ghiberti.    Florence. 

may  surely  serve  as  ample  justification  for  his  course,  even 
though  the  attempt  to  follow  in  his  footsteps  has  been  fatal 
to  the  talent  of  lesser  artists. 

Among  the  other  works  of  Ghiberti  are  the  magnificent 


262 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


shrine  of  St.  Zanobi  in  the  cathedral  at  Florence  and  the 
similar  but  smaller  shrine  of  St.  Giacinto,  in  the  Bargello. 
But  his  greatest  works  remain  the  doors  of  the  baptistery. 
His  genius  was  not  that  of  the  innovator  or  the  pioneer.  He 
did  not  produce  the  Renaissance  or  force  it  upon  his  con- 
temporaries, but  he  improved  upon  the  works  of  his  prede- 

cessors  and  served  as  an  intermediary 

between  mediaeval  art  and  the  art  of 
the  Renaissance. 

Donatello.  —  Very  different  is  the 
character  of  Donatello  (Donate  di 
Niccolo  di  Betto  Bardi,  1386?-1466), 
in  whose  works  the  careful  study  of 
nature  and  the  study  of  antiquity 
unite  to  form  a  style  which  is  not  a 
continuation  of  mediaeval  art,  but 
something  new  and  different.  In  his 
early  years  the  realism  preponderates, 
and  in  his  late  works  the  influence  of 
antiquity  is  especially  marked.  The 
number  of  his  works  is  so  great  that 
only  a  comparatively  small  selection 
can  be  mentioned  here.  Among  those 
which  belong  to  his  early  years  are 
nine  marble  statues  for  the  cathedral 
and  the  campanile  at  Florence.  One 
of  these,  the  so-called  Zuccone  (Fig. 
136),  is  especially  admired  for  its  ab- 
solute truth  to  life.  The  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  a  seated  figure  now  in 
the  cathedral,  is  perhaps  the  finest  among  them.  It  was 
completed  in  1421,  and  certainly  served  in  a  measure  as  the 
prototype  for  Michael  Angelo's  Moses.  Between  1410  and 
1423  Donatello  made  four  statues  for  Or  San  Michele  —  St. 
Peter,  St.  Mark,  St.  Louis,  and  St.  George  (now  in  the 
Bargello),  of  which  the  St.  George  is  deservedly  the  most 
famous.  Several  of  his  numerous  figures  of  St.  John  also 
belong  to  this  period. 


FIGURE    136.— 
Zuccone,"  by  Donatello. 
Florence. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    263 


In  the  years  from  1423  to  1436,  Donatello  was  associated 
with  Michelozzo,  who  was  no  great  genius,  but  whose  well- 
regulated  nature  taught  Donatello  to  subordinate  his  own 
genius  to  the  needs  of  monumental  composition  and  decora- 
tion. To  this  period  many  works  belong,  among  them  the 
tomb  of  Pope  John  XXIII  (1426-1429)  in  the  baptistery 
at  Florence  and  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Brancacci  (1427)  in 
St.  Angelo  a  Nilo  at  Naples.  The  framework  for  the  famous 
reliefs  of  the  pulpit  at  Prato  (1433-1439)  is  by  Michelozzo, 


FIGURE  137.  —  Choir  Loft,  by  Donatello.    Florence. 

but  the  still  more  famous  choir  loft  or  cantoria  (1433-1440) 
for  the  cathedral  at  Florence  (now  in  the  Opera  del  Duomo) 
is  entirely  by  Donatello  (Fig.  137).  Both  these  works  belong 
to  the  time  after  his  brief  sojourn  in  Rome  (1432-1433). 
In  them  Donatello  shows  in  charming  variety  of  attitude  and 
action  the  forms  of  children  —  the  putti  which,  with  or  with- 
out wings,  are  among  the  most  characteristic  elements  of  the 
sculpture  and  painting  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Donatello 
was  the  first  to  introduce  these  delightful  little  persons  freely 
in  his  compositions,  and  no  other  artist  used  them  so  much 


264 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


or  endowed  them  with  such  variety  of  charm  as  he.  The 
delightful  and  original  bronze  Cupid  in  trousers  (Fig.  138), 
the  medallions  copied  from  ancient  cameos,  in  the  court  of 
the  Medici  palace,  the  bronze  David,  the  bronze  door  of  the 
sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo,  the  bronze  group  of  Judith  and 
Holofernes,  and  (probably)  the  Annunciation,  of  gray  stone, 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  belong,  with  many  other  works, 

between  the  return  from  Rome 
and  the  departure,  in  or  about 
1443,  for  Padua.  Up  to  this 
time  Donatello  had  worked 
much  in  marble;  henceforth 
his  work  was  almost  exclu- 
sively modelling  in  clay  for 
casting  in  bronze. 

At  Padua  his  chief  works 
are  the  choir  screen  and  the 
high  altar  in  the  church  of  St. 
Anthony  and  the  equestrian 
statue  of  the  famous  condot- 
tiere  Gattamelata.  He  was 
assisted  by  others,  not  merely 
as  bronze  casters,  but  also  as 
more  or  less  independent  art- 
ists ;  but  the  realistic  and  ad- 
mirably executed  Crucifixion, 
most  of  the  other  sculptures 
of  the  choir  screen,  the  Ma- 
donna, the  St.  Louis,  the  St. 
Francis,  the  chief  bas  reliefs 
of  the  high  altar,  and  the  Gattamelata  (Fig.  139)  are 
Donatello's  own  work.  In  all  of  these  he  exhibits  the 
greatest  ease  and  freedom  in  modelling,  independence  of 
tradition,  and  careful  study  of  nature.  In  the  Madonna 
the  influence  of  ancient  art  appears  in  the  hair  and  head- 
dress, but  the  expression  of  the  face  is  quite  unlike 
anything  in  antiquity.  The  statue  of  Gattamelata,  the 
first  great  equestrian  statue  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman 


FIGURE  138.  —  Cupid  in  Trousers, 
Donatello.    Florence. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     265 


Empire,  is  a  masterpiece.  The  great,  powerful  horse  is 
completely  dominated  by  the  rider,  whose  commanding 
attitude  and  thoughtful,  energetic  face  are  admirably  con- 
ceived and  are  rendered  with  the  greatest  truth  and  the 
utmost  delicacy  of  workmanship.  This  is  not  only  an  ad- 


FIGUBE  139. —  Gattamelata,  by  Donatello.     Padua. 

mirable  example  of  Donatello's  skill  in  portraiture,  but  is 
one  of  the  greatest  portraits  of  all  time. 

By  1456,  at  latest,  Donatello  was  again  in  Florence. 
Among  the  works  of  his  latest  years  are  the  haggard,  but 
powerful  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  Siena  and  the  reliefs,  so 
far  as  they  were  executed  under  his  supervision,  of  the  high 


266 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


altar  of  San  Lorenzo,  in  Florence.      He  died  December  15, 
1466. 

Donatello  is  the  great  original  sculptor  of  the  Early  Renais- 
sance. His  works  are  sometimes  far  from  beautiful,  but 
they  never  lack  vigor.  He  studied  ancient  art  and  was 
greatly  influenced  thereby,1  but  his  chief  study  was  life. 
He  was  the  first  sculptor  of  the  Renaissance  to  represent 
the  nude  human  form  in  the  round  ;  he  it  was  who  so  excelled 

in  representing  the  forms  of 
children  that  putti  became  a 
constant  element  in  the  deco- 
rative sculpture  of  the  Renais- 
sance ;  and  to  him  is  due,  in 
part,  at  least,  the  importance 
of  classical  motifs  in  Renaissance 
ornamentation.  Ghiberti,  with 
his  unsurpassed  sense  of  beauty 
and  his  excellent  workmanship, 
offered  a  gentle  transition  from 
mediaeval  art  to  that  of  the 
Renaissance  ;  Donatello,  the 
original  thinker  and  bold  inno- 
vator, entered  at  once  into  the 
Renaissance  fully  and  com- 
pletely. 

Luca  delta  Robbia.  —  Luca 
della  Robbia  (1399-1482),  less 
original  and  less  dramatic  in  his 
art  than  Donatello,  but  more  realistic  than  Ghiberti,  stands 
thus  in  a  measure  between  his  two  great  fellow-citizens.  His 
first  attested  work  is  the  marble  cantoria  or  choir  gallery  (1431- 
1438)  ,  made  for  the  cathedral  at  Florence  and  now  in  the  Opera 
del  Duomo  (Fig.  140).  The  ten  panels  illustrate  the  150th 
psalm  ;  in  the  first  and  last  are  singing  boys  (the  "  halleluiah 
panels,"  corresponding  to  the  words  "praise  ye  the  Lord"), 
and  in  the  others  are  boys  playing  instruments  and  (in  one) 


FIGURE  140.  —  Panel  of  Choir 
Loft,  by  Luca  della  Robbia. 
Florence. 


Siren,  "The  Importance  of  the  Antique  to  Donatello,  "American 
Journal  of  Archaeology,  XVIII,  1914,  pp.  438-461. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     267 


dancing,  as  commanded  in  the  psalm.  The  boys  stand  on 
clouds  and  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  as  angels,  though 
only  two  of  them  are  winged.  The  excellence  of  composi- 
tion, the  grace  of  attitudes,  beauty  of  faces,  and  purity  of 
religious  feeling  make  these  reliefs  the  most  famous  and  popu- 
lar of  Luca's  works.  His  other  works  in  marble  are  five 
reliefs  in  panels  on  the  campanile  (1437-1439),  reliefs  for 
the  marble  altar  of  S.  Pietro  (1439),  the  Peretola  tabernacle 
(1441-1443),  with  its  terra-cotta  lunette,  and  the  Federighi 


FIGURE  141.  —  Terra-cotta  Altarpiece,  by  Luca  della  Robbia.    Peseta. 

tomb  (1455-1456),  framed  in  glazed  terra-cotta.  His  bronze 
works  are  the  heads  of  prophets  (1445-1452)  and  the  relief 
panels  (1464-1469)  of  the  door  of  the  sacristy  of  the  cathedral 
in  Florence.  In  all  these  he  shows  himself  a  master. 

The  known  works  of  Luca  della  Robbia  number  127,  and 
all  except  those  already  mentioned  are  of  polychrome  glazed 
terra-cotta  (Fig.  141).  The  use  of  color  in  sculpture,  espe- 
cially of  terra-cotta,  was  common  enough,  in  fact  universal, 
but  Luca  invented  a  method  of  covering  the  colors  with  a 
glaze  which  protects  them  and  adds  to  their  brilliancy.  His 
many  works  in  glazed  terra-cotta  are  distinguished  for  beauty 


268  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  form  and  color,  as  well  as  for  their  dignity  and  pure  reli- 
gious sentiment.  The  earlier  among  them  show  the  influ- 
ence of  Ghiberti  and  perhaps  of  the  goldsmith  Leonardo  di 
Ser  Giovanni,  who  is  said  to  have  been  his  first  teacher; 
the  later  works  exhibit  more  independence.  Usually  the 
color  is  confined  to  eyes,  eyebrows,  and  similar  details,  though 
sometimes  Luca  employs  colored  glazes  for  larger  parts  of 
the  surface.  Nearly  all  his  works  are  in  or  near  Florence. 

Andrea  delta  Robbia.  —  Andrea  della  Robbia  (1437- 
1528),  Luca's  nephew,  used  color  more  freely  and  extended 
the  use  of  glazed  terra-cotta  to  many  of  the  smaller  towns, 
especially  in  Tuscany.  His  early  works  resemble  those  of 
his  uncle  in  their  simple  dignity,  and  throughout  most  of  his 
career  he  produced  reliefs  of  great  beauty,  grace,  and  charm, 
though  his  latest  works  are  somewhat  sentimental.  Per- 
haps the  best  known,  though  hardly  the  most  important,  of 
his  reliefs  are  the  infants  in  the  medallions  of  the  Foundling 
Hospital  (Spedale  degli  Innocenti)  in  Florence. 

The  School  of  the  Della  Robbia.  —  Andrea's  sons,  Giovanni 
(1469-1527),  Fra  Mattia,  Fra  Ambrogio,  Luca  di  Andrea, 
and  Girolamo  (1488-1566),  continued  to  produce  glazed 
terra-cottas  in  the  next  century.  The  font  in  S.  Maria 
Novella  (1497),  by  Giovanni,  resembles  his  father's  work, 
but  his  very  numerous  later  productions  are  inferior.  The 
high  altar  at  Montecassiano  (1527),  by  Fra  Mattia,  is  inter- 
esting and  attractive ;  none  of  Andrea's  sons,  however,  was 
a  great  artist.  Girolamo,  the  youngest,  went  to  France, 
where  his  best-known  production  was  the  terra-cotta  work  of 
the  Chateau  de  Madrid,  just  outside  of  Paris. 

Besides  Ghiberti,  Donatello,  and  Luca  della  Robbia  and 
his  school,  several  other  Florentine  sculptors  of  the  fifteenth 
century  deserve  especial  mention.  In  addition  to  these 
there  are  many  more  whose  names  are  known,  and  still  others 
whose  names  are  not  recorded,  but  whose  works,  especially 
colored  terra-cotta  reliefs  of  the  Madonna,  are  often  of  con- 
siderable merit. 

Nanni  di  Banco.  —  Nanni  di  Banco  (1374?-1420),  the 
son  of  the  Antonio  who  worked  with  Niccolo  di  Piero  in 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     269 

decorating  the  Porta  della  Mandorla  (page  196), was  older  than 
Donatello,  but  was  greatly  influenced  by  him.  His  St. 
Philip  (1407  ?),  a  group  of  four  saints  (1408  ?),  and  St.  Eligius 
(1415)  are  in  niches  of  Or  San  Michele ;  his  seated  St.  Luke 
(about  1415)  is  in  the  cathedral.  In  all  these  the  heads  are 
fine  and  expressive.  Under  the  group  of  four  saints  is  an 


FIGURE  142. —  Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  by  Nanni  di  Banco.    Florence. 

interesting  relief  representing  a  sculptor's  workshop.  In 
the  Assumption  (Fig.  142)  over  the  Porta  della  Mandorla, 
which  seems  to  have  occupied  his  last  years,  Nanni  followed 
the  manner  of  Orcagna  and  produced  a  work  of  remarkable 
beauty  and  charm,  but  mediaeval  in  style. 

Michelozzo.  —  Michelozzo    Michelozzi    (1396-1472),    best 
known  as  an  architect,  was  also  a  sculptor,  who  worked  with 


270 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Donatello  and  others.  He  possessed  excellent  technique, 
both  as  a  bronze-caster  and  as  a  worker  of  stone,  and  his 
works  are  attractive,  though  not  strikingly  original. 

Agostino  di  Duccio.  —  Agostino  di  Duccio  (b.  1418 ;  d. 
after  1481)  was  a  pupil  of  Donatello.  He  lived  much  in 
banishment,  and  his  works  are  for  the  most  part  outside  of 
Florence,  in  Modena,  Rimini,  and  Perugia.  His  sculptures 
are  full  of  grace  and  animation,  but  he  never  rises  to  genius 
and  sometimes  offends  by  mannerism. 
The  rich  and  beautiful  facade  of  the 
oratory  of  San  Bernardino  at  Perugia 
(1459-1461),  in  which  colored  marble 
and  terra-cotta  are  employed,  is  per- 
haps his  most  important  work  (Fig. 
143). 

Desiderio.  —  Desiderio  da  Settignano 
(1428-1464)  is  also  regarded  as  a  pupil 
of  Donatello,  with  whom  he  seems  to 
have  collaborated  in  the  Pazzi  chapel. 
His  workmanship  is  exquisite,  his  taste 
pure,  his  ornamental  work  light  and 
graceful.  His  most  important  works  are 
the  tomb  of  Carlo  Marsupini,  in  Santa 
Croce,  and  the  tabernacle  in  San  Lor- 
enzo; but  his  small  reliefs,  his  busts  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist  and  the  infant 
Jesus,  and  his  portrait  busts  would 
alone  suffice  to  establish  his  reputation  as 
a  sculptor  of  distinguished  talent. 
The  Rossellini.  —  Bernardo  Rossellino  (1409-1464),  the 
son  of  Matteo  Gambarelli,  of  Settignano,  was  a  sculptor  of 
note,  though  better  known  as  an  architect.  His  early 
works  are  still  somewhat  mediaeval  in  character,  but  his 
masterpiece,  the  tomb  of  Leonardo  Bruni,  in  Santa  Croce,  is  a 
brilliant  example  of  the  style  of  Donatello's  immediate 
successors,  in  which  the  great  innovator's  uncompromising 
realism  is  softened,  without  losing  its  vigor.  Antonio 
Rossellino  (1427-1478)  was  at  first  much  influenced  by  his 


FIGURE  143.  —  An- 
gelic Musicians,  by 
Agostino  di  Duccio. 
Perugia. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     271 

elder  brother  Bernardo,  but  exhibits  complete  independence 
by  1461,  the  date  of  the  beautiful  tomb  of  the  Cardinal  of 
Portugal,  in  San  Miniato,  in  which  vigor,  grace,  and  orig- 
inality are  admirably  combined.  His  little  St.  John,  in 
the  Opera  del  Duomo,  is  full  of  charm.  In  the  relief  of  the 
Nativity,  in  the  church  of  Monte  Oliveto,  at  Naples,  Antonio 
produced  a  picturesque  relief  which  rivals  those  of  Ghiberti's 
Porta  del  Paradise. 

Mino  da  Fiesole.  —  Mino  da  Fiesole  (1431-1484),  the 
intimate  friend  of  Desiderio  da  Settignano,  visited  Rome  as 
early  as  1454,  again  about  1463,  and  again  about  1475-1481, 
when  he,  with  Giovanni  Dalmata,  made  a  number  of  tombs, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  the  tomb  of  Pope  Paul  II. 
His  works  in  Rome,  Florence,  and  elsewhere  are  very  nu- 
merous, many  of  them  tombs  (Fig.  144).  Some  exhibit  more 
animation  than  others,  but  in  general,  with  all  their  gentle- 
ness, sweetness,  and  even  dignity,  they  lack  energy  and  vigor. 
Mino  worked  with  great  ease  and  rapidity,  yet  few  artists 
have  given  to  their  marble  more  finish  than  he.  He  exercised 
great  influence,  especially  in  Rome,  not  by  the  originality  of 
his  works,  but  by  their  great  number  and  their  general, 
though  not  very  distinguished,  excellence. 

Benedetto  da  Majano.  —  Benedetto  da  Majano  (1442- 
1497),  who  worked  with  Antonio  Rossellino  and  Desiderio 
at  Naples  and  Florence,  excelled  the  former  in  the  expression 
of  profound  sentiments  and  the  latter  in  the  arrangement  of 
figures  in  groups.  His  works  are  far  less  numerous  than  those 
of  Mino  da  Fiesole,  which  they  equal  in  delicacy  of  technique 
and  surpass  in  animation  and  composition.  His  angel 
figures  are  especially  admirable.  Perhaps  his  finest  work  is 
the  altar  in  the  church  of  Monte  Oliveto  at  Naples. 

Matteo  Civitale.  —  Matteo  Civitale  of  Lucca  (1435- 
1501)  belongs  to  the  Florentine  school  and  is  a  follower, 
though  not  a  mere  imitator,  of  Antonio  Rossellino.  Many, 
but  by  no  means  all,  of  his  works  are  in  his  native  city.  They 
are  distinguished  for  freshness  and  earnestness  of  feeling 
rather  than  for  technical  perfection. 

Most  of  the    Florentine    sculptors   after    Donatello    were 


272 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  144.  —  Tomb  of  Count  Ugo,  Marchese  di  Toscana,  by  Mino 
da  FiesoJe.    Florence. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     273 

almost  exclusively  marble  workers  (except  that  the  school  of 
the  della  Robbia  worked  in  terra-cotta)  and  most  of  their 
works  were  decorative  sculpture  in  connection  with  archi- 
tecture. Sculpture  in  bronze,  to  which  Donatello's  later 
years  had  been  devoted,  was,  however,  continued,  and  in 
this  kind  of  work  the  sculptors  aimed  to  add  to  Donatello's 
naturalism  greater  beauty  and  charm  together  with  techni- 
cal perfection.  The  foremost  of  these  artists  were  Pollaiuolo 
and  Verrocchio. 

Antonio  del  Pollaiuolo.  —  Antonio  del  Pollaiuolo  (1432- 
1498),  the  greatest  goldsmith,  draughtsman,  and  anatomist 
of  his  time,  was  also  a  painter  and  a  sculptor.  His  chief 
works  of  sculpture  are  the  tombs  of  Pope  Sixtus  IV  and  Pope 
Innocent  VIII,  in  St.  Peter's,  Rome.  The  former  (finished 
in  1493)  is  entirely  of  bronze  and  is  unlike  any  other  tomb. 
Raised  slightly  above  the  floor  on  concave  sides  is  the  flat 
slab  on  which  lies  the  effigy  of  the  Pope,  surrounded  by  reliefs 
of  the  seven  Virtues.  On  the  concave  sides  are  representa- 
tions of  the  seven  Arts,  Rhetoric,  Dialectics,  Theology, 
Grammar,  Geometry,  Music,  and  Arithmetic,  to  which  is 
added  Perspective,  at  that  time  a  new  and  much-studied 
science.  The  figure  of  the  Pope  is  powerful  and  impressive, 
though  the  face  (evidently  a  true  portrait)  is  not  beautiful. 
The  lesser  figures  are  full  of  grace  and  charm,  and  the  work- 
manship is  extremely  delicate.  The  monument  of  Innocent 
VIII  is  built  into  the  wall.  On  the  sarcophagus  lies  the 
effigy,  and  above  is  the  seated  figure  of  the  Pope,  at  the  sides 
of  which  are  the  Virtues  wrought  in  relief.  The  two  por- 
traits of  the  Pope  are  apparently  made  from  a  death  mask. 
The  workmanship  is  admirable  throughout,  and  the  effect 
•of  the  whole  monument  is  striking.  Other  works  of  sculp- 
ture by  Pollaiuolo  are  a  few  busts,  several  statuettes,  and  a 
small  number  of  reliefs  in  which  the  craftsmanship  of  the 
goldsmith-sculptor  is  conspicuous. 

Verrocchio.  —  Andrea  di  Cione,  called  Verrocchio  (1435- 
1488)  was,  like  Pollaiuolo,  trained  as  a  goldsmith  and  was 
also  a  painter.  Almost  at  the  outset  of  his  career  he  gained 
the  favor  of  the  Medici,  for  whom  many  of  his  works  were 


274 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


created,  among  them  the  marble  fountain  and  the  bronze 
monument  of  Piero  and  Giovanni  dei  Medici  (1472)  in  the 
sacristy  of  San  Lorenzo,  several  portrait  busts,  the  bronze 


FIGURE  145. — Colleoni,  by  Verrocchio.    Venice. 

David  (about  1465)  in  the  Bargello,  the  Boy  with  a  Fish 
in  the  Palazzo  Vecchio,  and  the  monuments  of  Francesca 
di  Luca  Pitti  (Tuornabuoni,  d.  1477)  and  Cardinal  Forti- 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     275 

guerri  (d.  1473)  at  Pistoia.  The  bronze  group  of  Christ 
and  St.  Thomas,  in  a  niche  of  Or  San  Michele,  was  ordered 
in  1465  and  finished  in  1483.  In  1479  Verrocchio  was  called 
to  Venice  to  undertake  the  equestrian  statue  of  the  condot- 
tiere  Bartolommeo  Colleoni  (Fig.  145),  but  he  died  in  1488 
before  the  completion  of  the  work,  which  was  finally  cast 
and  set  up  by  the  Venetian  Alessandro  Leopardi.  The 
statue  is,  however,  essentially  Verrocchio's  work.  The 
number  of  his  lesser  works,  scattered  in  various  collections, 
is  considerable.  Verrocchio  is  distinguished  for  his  excellent 
workmanship,  his  careful  study  of  nature,  and  the  beauty  and 
charm  of  his  figures,  qualities  which  are  admirably  exhibited 
in  the  graceful,  vigorous,  and  delightful  bronze  David.  The 
Colleoni  is  perhaps  the  finest  of  all  equestrian  statues.  More 
theatrical  than  Donatello's  Gattamelata,  it  is  also  more 
animated  and  more  perfectly  finished.  This  work  alone 
would  suffice  to  place  Verrocchio  among  the  great  sculptors 
of  the  Renaissance. 

Siena.  Jacopo  delta  Quercia. — Florence  was  the  chief  cen- 
tre of  sculpture  in  the  Early  Renaissance,  but  other  cities 
were  not  without  sculptors.  At  Siena  Jacopo  della  Quercia 
(1374-1438)  is  the  most  important  and  far  the  most  original 
artist.  In  his  decoration,  in  the  curving  lines  of  his  figures, 
in  the  thick,  almost  clumsy  folds  of  his  draperies,  and  in  his 
lack  of  anatomical  knowledge  he  is  still  mediaeval,  but  in 
the  vigor  and  animation  of  his  powerful  figures  the  spirit 
of  the  Renaissance  is  manifest.  Owing  to  his  lack  of  anatomi- 
cal knowledge,  his  reliefs  are  generally  superior  to  his  stat- 
ues. The  earliest  known  work  currently  ascribed  to  him, 
on  the  authority  of  Vasari,  is  the  tomb  of  Ilaria  del  Carretto, 
at  Lucca,  which  was  probably  erected  in  1406.  This  tomb, 
especially  the  recumbent  effigy  of  the  deceased  lady,  is  a 
work  of  great  beauty  and  refinement;  but  the  ascription 
to  Jacopo  della  Quercia  has  been  questioned,1  and  certainly 
the  style  of  the  recumbent  effigy  is  far  more  delicate  than 
that  of  any  other  work  of  this  sculptor.  Apart  from  this 

1  A.  Marquand,  "The  Tomb  of  Ilaria  del  Carretto,"  American  Journal  of 
Archaeology,  XIX,  1915,  pp.  24-33. 


276  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

tomb  his  most  important  works  are  the  fountain  (Fontana 
Gaia,  1409-1419)  at  Siena,  now  for  the  most  part  destroyed, 
the  font  in  the  baptistery  at  Siena  (1417-1430;  the  statuette 
of  St.  John,  four  reliefs  of  prophets,  and  the  bronze  relief 
of  Zacharias  driven  from  the  temple  are  his),  and  the  portal 
of  San  Petronio,  at  Bologna  (1425-1438;  Fig.  146).  The 
sculptured  decoration  of  this  portal  is  his  greatest  work. 
At  the  sides  of  the  door  and  on  the  lintel  are  low  reliefs  repre- 


FIGURE  146.  —  Portal  of  San  Petronio,  Bologna,  by  Jacopo  della  Quercia. 

senting  scenes  from  the  life  of  Christ  and  from  Genesis,  and 
in  the  lunette  are  figures  of  St.  Anthony,  the  Virgin,  and  St. 
Petronius,  carved  in  the  round.  These  powerful  and  dra- 
matic works  seem  to  have  exerted  no  little  influence  upon 
Michael  Angelo. 

Other  Sienese  Sculptors.  —  Other  Sienese  sculptors  are 
Antonio  Federighi  (ca.  1425-1490),  Giovanni  di  Stefano 
Sassetta  (working  1466-1499),  Lorenzo  Vecchietta  (ca. 
1412-1480),  Turino  di  Sano,  his  son  Giovanni  di  Turino 


(d.  ca.  1454),  Francesco  di  Giorgio  (1439-1502),  Giacomo 
Cozzarelli  (1453-1515),  Neroccio  di  Bartolommeo  (1457- 
1500),  and  Lorenzo  di  Mariano  (d.  1537),  called  il  Marrina.1 
None  of  these  is  great,  and  none  continues  the  manner  of 
Jacopo  della  Quercia,  though  he  seems  to  have  exerted  some 
influence  upon  Federighi.  This  sculptor's  works  testify 
to  diligent  study  of  nature  and  of  ancient  art.  He  is  at  his 
best  in  statues  and  purely  decorative  work.  Perhaps  the 
best  of  his  vigorous  and  dignified  figures  is  his  St.  Ansanus 
(after  1456)  in  the  Casino  dei  Nobili.  Vecchietta's  numerous 
works  are  technically  excellent,  but  show  little  originality. 
The  bronze  angels  by  Francesco  di  Giorgio  in  the  cathedral 
at  Siena  (1497)  are  attractive,  but  somewhat  artificial. 
Lorenzo  di  Mariano  exhibits  tenderness  of  sentiment  and 
great  richness  of  ornament.  His  altar  in  the  church  of 
Fontegiusta  is  an  admirable  example  of  these  typical  qualities 
of  Sienese  art. 

The  Paduan  School  of  Donatello.  —  Donatello  was  employed 
at  Padua  in  the  creation  of  extensive  works  wrhich  demanded 
the  collaboration  of  many  hands.  Some  of  his  assistants 
came  with  him  from  Florence,  others  were  Paduans  or  were 
attracted  from  other  places,  and  even  after  Donatello's 
departure  Padua  remained  an  important  centre  of  art,  partly, 
no  doubt,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  the  painter  Man- 
tegna,  but  in  great  measure  also  because  Donatello's  assist- 
ants continued  to  practise  the  art  of  their  master.  Their 
works,  chiefly  in  bronze,  exhibit  the  naturalism,  the  lack  of 
care  for  beauty  as  an  aim  in  itself,  and  the  fine,  rather  sharp 
folds  of  drapery  characteristic  of  Donatello's  later  style,  but 
they  lack  the  freshness  and  dramatic  power  of  the  great 
master's  own  creations.  The  influence  of  the  Paduan  school 
was  widespread,  but  was  strongest  in  the  neighboring  cities 
of  Mantua  and  Ferrara. 

Giovanni  da  Pisa,  one  of  the  most  gifted  of  Donatello's 
assistants,  is  the  author  of  the  natural,  animated,  and  attrac- 
tive terra-cotta  figures  of  the  altar  in  the  chapel  of  the  Eremi- 

1  Several  others  are  known  by  name,  but  they  and  their  works  are  of 
little  importance. 


278  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

tani.  The  less  talented  Bartolommeo  Bellano  (ca.  1430- 
1498)  was  more  productive  and  is  therefore  more  widely 
known.  His  works  are  chiefly  at  Padua,  where  they  com- 
prise several  tombs  and  a  series  of  reliefs  on  the  choir  screen 
of  San  Antonio.  He  imitated  the  style  of  Donatello,  but 
his  figures  lack  life  and  his  compositions  are  ineffective.  In 
some  of  them  an  artificial  striving  for  dramatic  effect  is 
evident.  Giovanni  Minelli  (b.  ca.  1460;  d.  after  1527) 
excelled  Bellano  in  his  ornamental  work  and  in  the  beauty 
of  his  figures.  One  of  his  chief  works  is  the  colored  terra- 
cotta relief  of  the  baptism  of  Jesus,  in  the  church  of  S.  Gio- 
vanni at  Bassano.  His  son  Antonio  worked  with  him  in  the 
marble  chapel  of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua.  Antonio  Briosco, 
called  Riccio  (1470-1532),  a  pupil  of  Bellano,  belongs  in 
date  to  the  Developed  Renaissance.  He  is  the  most  gifted 
of  the  Paduan  school.  Some  of  his  works,  such  as  the 
statue  of  St.  Sebastian  (1516)  in  the  cathedral  at  Treviso  and 
the  bronze  bust  of  Antonio  Trombetta  (1522)  in  the  church 
of  St.  Anthony  at  Padua,  are  of  life  size,  but  his  chief  activity 
was  in  the  minor  arts.  His  bronze  statuettes,  candlesticks, 
jewel-boxes,  and  small  reliefs  for  the  decoration  of  chests 
and  other  household  objects  are  admirable.  They  are  various 
and  animated,  bearing  witness  to  his  ability  in  composition, 
his  study  of  nature  and  of  ancient  art,  and  his  techni- 
cal skill.  He  had  numerous  followers  in  this  kind  of  minia- 
ture sculpture,  among  them  those  who  are  known  by  the 
pseudonyms  Antico  (Pier  Jacopo  Alari-Bonacolsi,  1460- 
1528),  Moderno,  and  Ulacrino.1 

Sculpture  at  Bologna.  Guido  Mazzoni.  —  At  Bologna  the 
influence  of  the  Paduan  school  was  strong,  though  not  so 
predominant  as  at  Mantua  and  Ferrara.  It  is  very  evident 
in  the  works  of  the  Mantuan  Sperandio  (1425-1495),  who 
passed  the  latter  part  of  his  life  at  Bologna.  He  is  best 
known  as  a  medal-maker,  but  several  large  works  of  terra- 

1  Such  miniature  bronze  work  was  very  popular.  It  is  somewhat  akin 
to  the  work  of  the  medal-makers,  such  as  Pisanello  of  Verona  (1397-1455) 
and  his  imitators  (Laurana,  Sperandio,  etc.),  the  Florentine  Niccpl6  Fioren- 
tino  (1430-1514),  and  the  Mantuans  Cristoforo  Geremia,  Lysippus,  and 
Talpa. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     279 

cotta  by  his  hand  are  vigorous  and  natural,  though  for  the 
most  part  rather  carelessly  wrought.  Niccolo  da  Bari 
(1414-1494)  is  called  Niccolo  dell'  Area,  from  his  chief  work, 
the  area  or  sarcophagus  of  St.  Domenic  in  San  Domenico 
at  Bologna.1  In  his  terra-cotta  Madonna  on  the  front  of 
the  palazzo  pubblico  at  Bologna  he  appears  almost  as  an 
imitator  of  Jacopo  della  Quercia,  but  the  area  of  St.  Domenic, 
with  its  rich  ornamentation  and  its  natural,  free,  and  spirited 
figures  of  saints  and  prophets,  is  the  work  of  an  independent 


FIGURE  147.  —  The  Lamentation,  by  Mazzoni.     Modena. 

artist.  In  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  della  Vita,  at  Bologna, 
is  another  work  of  Niccolo,  a  large  terra-cotta  group  of  the 
Lamentation  over  the  body  of  the  dead  Christ  (1463).  In 
this  the  figures  are  grouped  as  by  chance,  the  expressions 
and  attitudes  are  unrestrained,  the  faces  and  costumes  for 
the  most  part  such  as  were  common  in  Italy  at  the  time. 
This  extreme  realism  was  imitated  in  other  groups  of  terra- 
cotta, the  chief  subjects  of  which  are  the  Nativity  and  the 

1  Begun  in  the  thirteenth  century  (see  p.  189).     Niccold  began  his  work 
on  it  in  1469. 


280  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Pieta  or  Lamentation  over  the  body  of  Jesus.  The  most 
important  artist  of  such  groups  was  Guido  Mazzoni  of 
Mantua  (1450-1518),  whose  works  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  Italy.  The  best  and  earliest  is  the  Lamentation 
in  the  church  of  S.  Giovanni  at  Modena  (1477-1480;  Fig. 
147). 

Lombard  Sculpture  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  In  Lom- 
bardy  the  sculpture  of  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century 
was  still  mediaeval.  In  various  places,  notably  Verona, 
Florentine  sculptors  were  employed,  but  their  works  had 
little  influence.  At  Milan  the  sculptures  of  the  cathedral 
show  progress  towards  naturalism,  the  credit  for  which  may 
be  due  to  the  Florentine  Niccolo  d'  Arezzo,  and  Michelozzo's 
activity  at  Milan,  after  1456,  increased  the  influence  of 
Florence.  But  the  Lombard  sculpture  which  developed 
soon  after  the  middle  of  the  century  shows  clearly  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Paduan  school.  Lean  figures,  irregular,  thin 
folds  of  drapery,  a  tendency  towards  dramatic  action  and 
the  expression  of  strong  feeling  are  seen  in  Lombard  as  in 
Paduan  sculpture ;  but  the  free  use  of  color  and  gilding,  the 
preference  for  numerous  small  figures  and  groups,  the  lik- 
ing for  wood  and  terra-cotta  as  materials,  and  the  habit 
of  covering  almost  the  whole  exterior  of  buildings  with  sculp- 
'ture  are  peculiar  to  Lombardy.  Some  of  the  qualities  of 
Lombard  sculpture  are  probably  due  to  Flemish  and  Ger- 
man works  in  wood  and  to  northern  artists  and  artisans 
employed  in  building  and  adorning  the  cathedral.  Though 
no  province  of  Italy  is  richer  in  sculpture  of  the  second  half 
of  the  fifteenth  century  than  Lombardy,  the  Lombard  sculp- 
tors who  rise  noticeably  above  the  ranks  of  their  fellows  are 
relatively  few. 

The  Mantegazza.  Amadeo.  Other  Lombard  Sculptors.  — 
The  chief  sculptors  of  the  Certosa  at  Pa  via  were  Cristoforo 
(d.  1482)  and  Antonio  (d.  1495)  Mantegazza  and  Amadeo 
or  Omodeo  (Giovanni  Antonio  di  Amadei,  1447-1522).  The 
work  of  the  Mantegazza  is  full  of  feeling,  but  is  restless, 
sometimes  exaggerated,  and  often  crowded  with  small  figures. 
Their  sharply  cut,  clinging  draperies  somewhat  resemble 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     281 

wet  paper  (cartaceous  drapery)  and  call  to  mind  the  draperies 
of  German  wood  carvings.  Amadeo's  most  extensive  works 
are  probably  among  the  interior  and  exterior  sculptures  of 
the  Certosa  at  Pa  via,  but  it  is  difficult  —  not  to  say  impos- 
sible —  to  distinguish  them  with  certainty  from  the  work  of 
his  assistants  and  associates.  At  Bergamo  he  did  the  tombs 
of  Medea  (1470-1475)  and  Bartolommeo  Colleoni  and  the 
decorative  work  of  the  chapel  in  which  they  are  contained. 
The  Borrommeo  tombs  at  Isola  Bella  in  the  Lago  Maggiore 
are  by  him,  and  many  other  works  are  attributed  to  him  with 
more  or  less  certainty.  In  1490  he  was  made  director  of  the 
work  at  the  Certosa  at  Pavia,  and  his  later  years  seem  to 
have  been  devoted  chiefly  to  the  cathedrals  of  Pavia  and 
Milan.  His  style  partakes  of  the  faults  of  that  of  the  Mante- 
gazza,  but  he  exhibits  more  feeling  for  classic  beauty.  His 
influence  was  widespread.  His  work  at  the  Certosa  was 
continued  by  Briosco  (Benedetto  di  Andizolo  Briosco  or 
dei  Brioschi,  working  1490-1510),  Gian  Cristoforo  Romano 
(about  the  same  time),  and  others,  with  little  change  of 
style. 

Cristoforo  Solari,  called  il  Gobbo,  made,  about  1498,  the 
tomb  of  Beatrice  d'  Este,  wife  of  Ludovico  il  Moro.  Only 
the  effigies  of  Beatrice  and  Ludovico  now  remain  in  the  Cer- 
tosa. Their  draperies  retain  something  of  the  Lombard 
character,  but  the  statues  are  dignified  and  finely  executed. 
In  some  of  his  later  works  Solari  exaggerates  the  love  of  heroic 
and  classic  nudities  which  is  one  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Developed  Renaissance. 

Cristoforo  Foppa,  called  Caradosso  (1452?-1527)  is  espe- 
cially famous  as  a  goldsmith  and  medal-maker.  If  the 
terra-cotta  reliefs  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  Satiro  are  his  work,  he 
deserves  the  credit  of  introducing  a  breath  of  simplicity  into 
the  Lombard  style  of  overloaded  ornamentation.  Tom- 
maso  Cazzaniga  (working  1483)  and  Andrea  Fusina  (d. 
1526)  made  a  number  of  tombs  in  Milanese  churches,  which 
exhibit  good  taste,  moderation  in  ornament,  and  a  fine  sense 
of  proportion.  Agostino  Busti,  called  Bambaja  (1480?- 
1548),  retained  at  first  some  of  the  finest  qualities  of  the 


282 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Lombard  style,  but  gradually  fell  into  mannerism.  In  his 
unfinished  tomb  of  Gaston  de  Foix  (begun  1515)  the  recum- 
bent effigy  is  beautiful  and  dignified,  but  the  reliefs  are  pretty, 
artificial,  and  theatrical.  The  works  of  Andrea  Bregno 
(1421-1506)  are  chiefly  in  Rome,  where  his  style  was  modi- 
fied by  classic  influences.  Ambrogio  da  Milano  (working 
1475)  is  known  chiefly  by  his  work  at  Urbino,  Ferrara,  and 

Venice.  He  was  an  art- 
ist of  taste  and  ability, 
but  not  of  marked  origi- 
nality. 

Venetian  Sculpture  of 
the  Early  Renaissance.  — 
In  Venice  the  transition 
from  the  Middle  Ages 
to  the  Renaissance  took 
place  by  gradual,  almost 
imperceptible,  degrees. 
Throughout  a  large  part 
of  the  fifteenth  century 
Gothic  decoration  and 
mediaeval  expression  of 
faces  were  retained  even 
in  works  of  sculptors  who 
came  from  other  parts  of 
Italy.  Niccolo  d'  Arezzo 
and  his  son  Piero,  in  1420 
and  the  following  years, 
decorated  the  upper  part 
of  the  fa?ade  of  St. 
Mark's ;  the  same  Piero  di  Niccolo  and  Giovanni  di  Martino 
erected  the  monument  of  the  Doge  Tommaso  Mocenigo  (d. 
1423),  in  which  they  show  themselves  to  be  Florentine  sculp- 
tors under  the  influence  of  Donatello  and  Michelozzo.  The 
tomb  of  Beato  Pacifico  Buon  (1435)  is  Florentine,  and  the 
fine  corner  capital  of  the  Doge's  Palace  (the  Judgment  of 
Solomon ;  Fig.  148)  is  the  work  of  anonymous  Florentines. 
Donatello  himself  made  the  figure  of  St.  John  the  Baptist 


FIGURE  148.  —  The  Judgment  of  Solomon. 
Doge's  Palace,  Venice. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     283 


in  the  Frari.  Elsewhere  in  Venice  —  on  the  facade  of  St. 
Mark's,  on  the  Ca  d'  Oro,  in  the  Doge's  Palace  —  Lombard 
sculptors  were  much  employed.  The  chief  of  these  were 
the  Buon  (or  Bon)  family,  Bartolommeo,  Giovanni,  Paci- 
fico,  and  Pantaleone, 
whose  works  show  the 
naturalism  of  the  Re- 
naissance with  the  full 
forms  and  serious  dignity 
of  the  earlier  Venetian 
school.  At  the  same 
time  sculptors  of  the 
Paduan  school  worked 
in  Venice,  and  their  in- 
fluence was  important. 

Rizzo.  —  Antonio 
Rizzo  (1430-1499?), 
from  Verona,  went  to 
Venice  about  1464.  In 
the  tomb  of  Francesco 
Foscari,  in  the  Frari, 
the  figures  are  finely 
modelled,  but  the  effect 
of  the  whole  is  mediaeval 
and  not  altogether  har- 
monious. The  tomb  of 
Niccolo  Tron  (1473), 
with  its  nineteen  large 
statues,  numerous  re- 
liefs, and  ornamental 
detail,  is  a  truly  monu- 
mental work,  though  its 


FlGURE  149'  ~ 


of  Nicco16  Tron" 


parts  lack  cohesion  (Fig. 

149).       Some    of    the 

statues  show  the  influence   of  the   Paduan  school.     This 

is    the    first    of    the    great    tombs    which    are    the    most 

striking    interior   decoration    of   Venetian    churches.     The 

Adam  and  Eve  on  the  Foscari  monument  in  the  court  of 


284  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  Doge's  Palace  are  somewhat  earlier  works  by  Rizzo. 
The  records  of  his  life  are  confused,  and  the  ascription  to 
him  of  many  works  is  disputed;  but  he  was  clearly  an 
important  factor  in  the  progress  of  Renaissance  architecture 
and  sculpture  in  Venice,  though  not,  apparently,  an  artist 
of  great  original  genius. 

Pietro  Lombardi  and  his  Sons.  —  Pietro  Solari  (ca.  1435- 
1515),  called  Lombardi,  was  both  architect  and  sculptor. 
In  his  large  works  he  was  usually  assisted  by  his  sons  Antonio 
(d.  1516)  and  Tullio  (d.  1532).  His  signed  statuettes  of  St. 
Jerome  and  St.  Paul  in  S.  Stefano  are  purely  Lombard  sculp- 
ture, in  the  style  of  the  Mantegazza,  and  in  general  his  Lom- 
bard origin  shows  clearly  in  his  works,  though  modified  by 
the  Venetian  love  of  beauty  and  fine  execution.  In  the 
work  of  his  sons  the  Lombard  qualities  are  less  marked. 
The  monument  of  the  Doge  Niccolo  Marcello  (d.  1474) 
resembles  Rizzo's  work  very  closely;  that  of  the  Doge 
Pietro  Mocenigo  (d.  1476),  with  its  figures  in  ancient  cos- 
tume and  reliefs  in  which  ancient  motifs  are  noticeable, 
shows  the  individual  style  of  Pietro  Lombardi.  Several 
smaller  monuments  in  Venice  and  neighboring  places  are 
ascribed  to  him.  The  greatest  joint  work  of  Pietro  and  his 
sons  is  the  church  of  Sta.  Maria  dei  Miracoli  in  Venice  (1481- 
1489),  perhaps  the  finest  example  of  Venetian  decorative 
art.  The  monument  of  the  Doge  Andrea  Vendramin  (fin- 
ished 1494),  by  Tullio  and  Antonio  (possibly  collaborating 
with  Leopardi),  is  the  most  extensive  and  elaborate  of  Vene- 
tian tombs.  The  figure  sculpture  of  the  Lombardi  does 
not  equal  in  freedom  or  grandeur  the  masterpieces  of  Floren- 
tine art,  but  the  decorative  effect  of  their  great  composite 
works  is  so  excellent  that  they  naturally  exerted  a  powerful 
and  lasting  influence  upon  Venetian  sculpture. 

Leopardi.  —  Allessandro  Leopardi  (d.  1522)  was  chiefly 
architect  and  decorator.  After  Verrocchio's  death,  Leo- 
pardi, as  a  skilful  bronze-caster,  was  employed  to  cast  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Colleoni.  He  also  designed  the  pedestal 
with  its  frieze  of  weapons,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  effect 
of  the  monument.  The  bronze  sockets  of  the  flagstaffs 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     285 

in  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco,  admirable  examples  of  decora- 
tion and  casting,  are  also  his  work. 

Other  Venetian  Sculptors.  —  The  number  of  works  of  sculp- 
ture of  the  last  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  in  Venice  and  her 
subject  towns  is  very  great,  and  the  sculptors  must  have  been 
numerous.  To  some  of  them,  such  as  Antonio  Dentone, 
Camelio,  Andrea  Vicentino,  and  Pyrgoteles,  definite  works 
are  ascribed  with  certainty,  others  are  mere  names,  and  many 
works  are  anonymous.  In  general,  the  school  of  Pietro 
Lombardi  predominates. 

The  Early  Renaissance  in  Rome.  Filarete.  Simone  Ghini. 
—  In  Rome  the  monuments  of  the  early  years  of  the  fifteenth 
century  —  the  tomb  of  Philippe  d'  Alencon,  the  Caraffa 
tomb,  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Stefaneschi  —  are  simple,  digni- 
fied, and  effective  works,  but  mark  the  end  of  the  Roman 
school  of  the  Cosmati,  not  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance, 
which  was  brought  in  some  years  later  by  Tuscan  and  Lom- 
bard artists.  Donatello's  brief  sojourn  in  Rome  (1432-1433) 
had  no  lasting  influence.  The  Florentines  Filarete  (Antonio 
Averlino,  ca.  1400-1469)  and  Simone  Ghini  (1407-after 
1480)  were  busy  for  some  years  in  Rome.  The  chief  work 
of  the  former  is  the  bronze  door  of  St.  Peter's  (1433-1445), 
which  is  elaborate  and  crowded  with  figures,  but,  in  spite 
of  its  beautiful  scrollwork,  not  by  any  means  equal  to  Ghi- 
berti's  doors  in  Florence.  Ghini's  bronze  tomb  of  Pope 
Martin  V  (1433  ?)  shows  the  influence  of  Donatello ;  it  is  a 
fine  work,  but  is  somewhat  lacking  in  originality. 

Other  Sculptors  in  Rome.  —  Isaia  da  Pisa  is  best  known  by 
the  tomb  of  Pope  Eugene  IV  (d.  1447),  though  several  other 
tombs  in  Rome  are  his  work.  He  was  a  mediocre  sculptor, 
but  helped  to  introduce  the  Renaissance  into  Rome.  Paolo 
Taccone  (ca.  1414  -  ca.  1470),  called  Romano,  worked  at 
first  with  Isaia  da  Pisa,  later  with  Mino  da  Fiesole  and  others. 
His  figures  show  more  study  of  antiquity  than  of  nature. 
Giovanni  Dalmata  (ca.  1440-after  1509)  is  more  vigorous 
and  original.  He  worked  in  Rome  for  ten  years  (1470-1480), 
sometimes  with  Mino  da  Fiesole,  whose  name  is  connected 
with  more  works  in  Rome  than  that  of  any  other  sculptor 


286  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  this  period.  Second  only  to  Mino  in  the  number  of  his 
works,  and  often  associated  with  him,  is  Andrea  Bregno 
(1421-1506),  whose  slender  figures  with  finely  folded  draper- 
ies betray  his  Lombard  origin,  though  their  dignified  pose 
and  lack  of  animation  show  the  influence  of  ancient  art. 
Another  Lombard  is  Luigi  Capponi,  of  Milan,  who  worked  in 
Rome  during  the  last  decades  of  the  fifteenth  century.  His 
works  are  distinguished  by  their  finely  wrought  ornamenta- 
tion. Gian  Cristoforo  Romano  (d.  1512),  the  son  of  Isaia 
da  Pisa,  worked  chiefly  in  Lombardy  and  can  hardly  be 
classed  as  a  Roman  artist.  Several  other  sculptors  who 
worked  in  Rome  are  known  by  name  and  by  isolated  works. 

In  general,  the  sculpture  of  the  Early  Renaissance  in  Rome 
was  the  work  of  artists  from  Tuscany  and  Lombardy,  who 
worked  much  together,  so  that  the  same  monument  often 
exhibits  the  styles  of  several  sculptors.  Decorative  effect, 
rather  than  progress  in  the  art  of  sculpture,  was  here,  as  in 
Venice,  the  chief  aim  of  the  sculptors.  Rome  was  an  impor- 
tant centre  of  production,  but  not  of  original  and  progressive 
work. 

The  Early  Renaissance  in  Southern  Italy.  —  Somewhat 
the  same  condition  existed  in  southern  Italy,  though  here 
more  of  Byzantine  tradition  persisted  than  in  Rome.  Dona- 
tello,  Michelozzo,  Isaia  da  Pisa,  Paolo  Romano,  Andrea 
d'  Aquila  (working  1446-1458),  Antonio  Rossellino,  Guido 
Mazzoni,  Benedetto  da  Majano  and  his  brother  Giuliano, 
all  worked  at  various  times  in  Naples.  Sometimes,  as  in 
Rome,  several  sculptors  joined  in  one  work,  with  much  the 
same  general  results.  The  two  sculptors  who  may  be  called 
Neapolitans,  Andrea  Ciccione  and  Antonio  di  Domenico 
da  Bamboccio,  although  they  were  active  until  about  1420, 
belong  to  the  Middle  Ages,  not  to  the  Renaissance.  Fran- 
cesco Laurana  (d.  between  1500  and  1502),  by  birth  a  Vene- 
tian subject,  since  he  was  born  in  Dalmatia,  worked  chiefly 
at  Naples,  in  Sicily,  and  in  southern  France.  Some  of  his 
portraits  of  young  women  are  charming  in  their  modest 
simplicity,  and  his  decorative  work  is  excellent.  The  Lom- 
bard Domenico  Gagini,  who  went  from  Genoa  to  Palermo  in 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY     287 

1463,  retained  the  peculiarities  of  Lombard  sculpture, 
though  somewhat  influenced  by  Laurana,  and  this  influence 
is  stronger  in  the  works  of  his  son  Antonio  Gagini  (1478- 
1536),  which  are  distinguished  for  beautiful  forms,  good 
technique,  and  pleasing  expression,  but  not  for  deep  feeling 
or  great  originality. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY.  THE 
DEVELOPED  AND  THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE.  THE 
BAROQUE 

Tendencies  of  the  Sculpture  of  the  Developed  Renaissance.  — 
Before  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  formative  period 
of  Renaissance  sculpture  was  over.  The  methods  and  motifs 
of  decoration  were  established,  technical  processes  had  been 
learned,  beauty  of  form  had  been  attained  by  study  of  na- 
ture and  of  ancient  art.  Already  in  the  works  of  some  of 
the  sculptors  discussed  in  the  previous  chapter  a  lack  of 
spontaneity,  a  tendency  to  repeat  accepted  formulas  may  be 
observed,  and  this  tendency  becomes  characteristic  of  the 
Developed  Renaissance.  The  beautiful  low  relief,  which  had 
been  usual  in  the  Early  Renaissance,  gives  place  to  high  re- 
lief, in  which  the  figures  appear  almost  as  statues,  and  in 
general  the  statue  becomes  more  important,  sometimes 
taking  such  complete  possession  of  large  monuments  as  to 
reduce  their  architecture  to  insignificance.  The  direct  and 
careful  study  of  nature  gives  place  to  admiration  of  ancient 
art,  which  was  known  almost  exclusively  through  Roman 
works  or  Roman  copies  of  Greek  originals.  Care  in  model- 
ling, in  selection  of  effective  poses,  in  arrangement  of  drapery 
are  evident,  sometimes  resulting  in  obvious  straining  for 
effect,  sometimes  in  mere  academic  correctness.  The  only 
really  great  sculptor  of  the  period  is  Michael  Angelo,  though 
several  others  merit  brief  consideration. 

Andrea  Sansovino.  —  Andrea  Sansovino  (Andrea  Con- 
tucci  dal  Monte  Sansovino,  1460-1529)  was,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Michael  Angelo,  the  most  admired  sculptor  of  the 

288 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    289 

period.  In  his  earliest  work,  a  terra-cotta  altar  at  Monte 
Sansovino,  his  style  resembles  that  of  Giovanni  della  Robbia. 
Of  his  activity  in  Portugal,  where  he  spent  eight  years 
(1491-1498)  nothing  is  known,  and  several  works  produced 
soon  after  his  return  to  Italy  possess  little  merit.  In  1502 
he  began  the  group  of  the  Baptism  of  Jesus  over  the 
baptistery  door  at  Florence  (finished  long  after  by  Vincenzo 
Danti),  which  is  distinguished  for  depth  of  sentiment  and 
beauty  of  form,  though  it  lacks  the  perfect  naturalism  of  the 
Early  Renaissance  and  shows  too  clearly  the  influence  of 
ancient  art.  The  same  defects  are  seen  in  his  statues  of  the 
Madonna  and  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  the  baptistery  at  Genoa. 
From  1504  to  1513  he  was  in  Rome,  where  he  executed,  in 
addition  to  minor  works,  a  number  of  important  tombs,  the 
chief  of  which  are  those  of  the  cardinals  Ascanio  Maria  Sforza 
(1505)  and  Girolamo  Basso  (1507)  in  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo. 
In  general  design  these  follow  the  precedents  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  decorative  work  and  some  of  the  figures  are 
excellent,  but  the  total  effect  is  not  entirely  harmonious. 
From  1514  to  1529  Sansovino  was  occupied  with  the  sculp- 
tural adornment  of  the  Santa  Casa  at  Loreto.  He  is  probably 
the  author  of  the  entire  design,  though  many  portions  were 
executed  by  others,  in  part  after  his  death.  Here  the 
statues  are  inspired  by  Michael  Angelo's  paintings,  and  the 
effect  of  the  reliefs  is  injured  by  the  excessive  prominence  of 
individual  figures.  Nevertheless,  the  work  as  a  whole  is 
beautiful  and  impressive. 

Michael  Angela.  Early  Works.  —  Michael  Angelo  Buon- 
arroti (1475-1564)  was  born  at  Caprese,  in  the  Casentino, 
of  an  ancient  Florentine  family.  Though  distinguished  as 
architect  and  painter,  he  was  primarily  a  sculptor.  In  his 
earliest  works,  the  Battle  of  the  Centaurs  and  the  Madonna, 
now  in  the  museum  of  the  Casa  Buonarroti,  he  follows  in 
general  the  traditions  of  the  school  of  Donatello,  but  in  the 
type  of  face,  the  style  of  the  drapery,  and  the  remarkable 
treatment  of  the  vigorous  nude  forms  he  already  exhibits 
the  distinguishing  qualities  of  his  own  genius.  In  October, 
1494,  at  the  approach  of  Charles  VIII,  he  fled  from  Florence 


290  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

to  Bologna,  where  he  carved  for  the  area  of  St.  Domenic  the 
St.  Proculus  (now  lost),  the  kneeling  angel,  and  the  St. 
Petronius.  These  show  the  influence  of  Jacopo  della  Quercia. 
The  next  spring  he  returned  to  Florence  and  in  June,  1496, 
went  to  Rome.  In  the  decade  following  his  return  from 


FIGURE  150.  —  Piet&,  by  Michael  Angelo.    Rome. 

Bologna  he  produced  a  sleeping  Cupid  in  ancient  style  (now 
lost),  the  youth*  al  St.  John  in  Berlin  (for  this  is  probably 
his),  the  Cupid  in  South  Kensington,  the  Drunken  Bacchus 
in  the  Bargello,  the  two  tondi  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and 
several  other  works.  The  chief  work  of  his  first  sojourn 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    291 


in  Rome  is  the  Pieta  in  St.  Peter's  (finished  in  1499 ;  Fig. 
150).  Here  the  influence  of  Jacopo  della  Quercia  is  seen  in 
the  heavy  folds  of  the  draperies,  that  of  the  della  Robbia 
in  the  face  of  the  Madonna, 
that  of  ancient  art  in  the  nude 
figure  of  Jesus,  but  the  wonder- 
ful portrayal  of  death  and  the 
mastery  of  anatomy  in  that 
figure,  the  power  and  harmony 
of  the  composition  are  the 
young  sculptor's  own.  This  is 
the  greatest  of  his  early  works 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  all 
groups  of  devotional  sculpture. 
The  small  Madonna  in  Bruges 
resembles  the  Pieta  in  manner 
and  is  probably  little  later  in 
date.  But  it  is  impossible  to 
give  here  a  complete  list  of  the 
master's  works. 

The  David.— In  1501  Michael 
Angelo  returned  to  Florence, 
where  he  remained  until  1505. 
During  this  time  he  was  con- 
stantly occupied  with  sculpture 
and  painting,  but  the  chief  work 
of  these  years  is  the  colossal 
David  in  the  Accademia  (Fig. 
151),  in  which  the  influence 
of  Donatello  is  mingled  with 
that  of  the  Apollo  of  the  Bel- 
vedere. The  statue  is  not  en- 
tirely satisfactory,  for  the  co- 
lossal size  harmonizes  ill  with 
the  juvenile  forms  of  the  youthful  David,  nevertheless  it  is 
a  remarkable  work,  and  the  head  and  face  are  powerful  and 
impressive. 

The  Tomb  of  Julius  II.  —  In  1505  Michael  Angelo  was 


FIGURE  151. — David,  by  Michael 
Angelo.    Florence. 


292 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


called  to  Rome  to  make  a  tomb  for  the  reigning  Pope,  Julius 
II,  which  was  to  be  a  superb  and  elaborate  work,  but  which 
was  finished  after  forty  years  only  in  a  much  curtailed  and 
very  imperfect  form.  In  January,  1506,  the  Laocoon  group 
(see  page  134)  was  found,  and  the  "  slaves  "  in  the  Louvre  show 
how  powerful  and  lasting  was  its  effect  upon  Michael  Angelo. 
In  April,  1506,  the  sculptor,  considering  himself  insulted  by 
the  Pope,  fled  to  Florence.  In  November  of  the  same 

year  he  met  the  Pope  at 
Bologna  and  obtained 
his  pardon  together  with 
a  commission  to  make 
a  colossal  bronze  statue 
of  his  Holiness,  which 
was  erected  in  1508,  but 
was  taken  down  after 
four  years  by  the  Bo- 
lognese  and  melted  to 
make  a  cannon  (called 
the  Giulia)  with  which 
to  bombard  the  papal 
army.  In  March,  1508, 
Michael  Angelo  was 
called  by  the  Pope  from 
Florence  to  Rome  and 

BBS  ordered  to  decorate  with 

paintings  the  ceiling  of 
the  Sistine  chapel ;  he 
was  engaged  in  this 
work  until  September,  1512.  Julius  II  died  in  1513.  His 
executors  made  a  new  contract  with  Michael  Angelo,  who 
worked  on  the  tomb  part  of  the  time  for  three  years; 
but  he  was  interrupted  by  other  cares  and  projects.  Pope 
Leo  X  ordered  him  to  undertake  great  works  —  the  facade  of 
S.  Lorenzo  and  the  tombs  of  the  Medici  at  Florence  —  and 
the  tomb  of  Julius,  as  it  was  finally  completed  in  1545  in  the 
church  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli  bears  little  resemblance 
to  the  original  plan.  Only  the  colossal  Moses  (Fig.  152)  and 


FIGURE  152.  —  Moses,  by  Michael  Angelo. 
Rome. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    293 


the  figures  of  Leah  and  Rachel  are  by  Michael  Angelo ;  the 
rest  is  the  work  of  his  pupils.  The  Moses  is  a  wonderfully 
powerful  and  impressive  figure,  with  mighty  limbs,  energetic 
attitude,  and  an  expression  of  suppressed  emotion.  The 
"slaves"  in  the  Louvre,  four  unfinished  colossal  statues  in 
the  Boboli  gar- 
dens at  Flor- 
ence, and  per- 
haps the  group 
of  Victory  in  the 
Bargello,  were 
originally  in- 
tended for  this 
monument  and 
show  what  its 
variety,  splen- 
dor, and  power 
might  have 
been. 

The  Tombs  of 
the  Medici.  - 
The  second  great 
monument — the 
tombs  of  the 
Medici  in  S. 
Lorenzo  at  Flor- 
e  n  c  e  —  was 
planned  in  1519, 
but  not  begun 
until  1524.  Only 
part  of  the  orig- 
inal plan  was 


FIGURE  153.  —  Tomb  of  Giuliano  dei  Medici,   by 
Michael  Angelo.    Florence. 


carried  out,  and  even  this  was  not  completely  finished 
when  Michael  Angelo  left  Florence  in  1534  never  to  re- 
turn. The  chapel  —  of  dignified,  but  somewhat  cold  and 
lifeless  architecture  —  now  contains  the  seated  statues 
of  the  younger  Lorenzo  and  the  younger  Giuliano  de' 
Medici  (Fig.  153),  each  in  its  niche;  below  them,  on 


294  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  sarcophagi,  colossal  statues  of  Day  (male),  and  Night 
(female),  Evening  (male)  and  Dawn  (female) ;  and  on  a 
third  wall  the  Madonna  between  Sts.  Cosmas  and  Damian, 
the  patron  saints  of  the  Medici.  The  two  last-mentioned 
figures  were  executed  by  Montorsoli  and  Montelupo.  The 
head  of  the  Evening  is  not  finished,  and  that  of  the  Day  is 
even  less  near  completion.  In  the  statues  of  Lorenzo  and 
Giuliano  the  element  of  portraiture  is  almost  entirely  omitted  ; 
but  the  contrast  between  the  two  is  admirable,  and  the  deeply 
thoughtful  face  of  Lorenzo  is  wonderfully  impressive.  In 
the  four  tremendously  powerful  recumbent  figures  the 
sculptor  seems  to  have  embodied  the  sombre  and  passionate 
sadness  which  oppressed  his  spirit.  The  Dawn  seems 
awakening  to  the  woes,  not  the  pleasures  of  life ;  Day  looks 
with  angry,  threatening  glance  over  his  shoulder;  Evening 
turns  wearily  away  from  the  world ;  and  Night  sleeps  with- 
out desire  of  waking.1 

Later  Works.  —  While  he  was  occupied  with  the  tomb  of 
the  Medici  and  during  all  the  later  years  of  his  life,  Michael 
Angelo  completed  only  one  work  of  sculpture,  the  Christ 
in  Sta.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  in  Rome,  and  even  in  this 
some  details  are  by  the  hand  of  an  assistant.  In  1535  he 
was  made  by  the  Pope  chief  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor 
of  the  Vatican,  and  in  1547  architect  of  St.  Peter's.  His 
Last  Judgment,  the  most  stupendous  of  paintings,  which 
covers  the  end  wall  of  the  Sistine  chapel,  was  finished  in 
1541.  In  these  last  years,  filled  as  they  were  with  great 
interests  and  activities,  he  began  several  works  of  sculpture, 
but  none  of  them  was  finished.  Only  the  Pieta,  now  in  the 
cathedral  at  Florence,  approached  completion,  but  this  was 
broken  by  the  sculptor,  whether  on  account  of  defects  in 
the  marble  or  because  he  was  not  satisfied  with  his  work. 
The  fragments  were  collected  by  a  Florentine  sculptor, 
Tiberio  Calcagni,  who  finished  the  group.  The  figure  of 

1  This  is  expressed  by  Michael  Angelo  in  one  of  his  sonnets : 

Caro  mi  e  '1  sonno  e  piu  1'esser  di  sasso 
Mentre  che  '1  danno  e  la  vergogna  dura : 
Non  veder,  non  sentir,  mi  &  gran  ventura.   .  .  . 
Pero  non  mi  destra,  deh  !  parla  basso. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    295 

the  Magdalen,  correct  and  insipid,  is  his  work ;  the  rest  of 
the  group  — the  dead  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  —  combines  in  the  highest  degree  skill  in  composi- 
tion, beauty  of  line,  anatomical  correctness,  and  depth  of 
sentiment.  Even  in  its  present  condition  it  is  a  masterpiece. 

In  originality,  technical  skill,  dramatic  power,  and  bold- 
ness Michael  Angelo  is  a  sculptor  without  parallel  in  the 
history  of  art.  It  is  no  wonder  that  his  influence  was  supreme 
among  his  contemporaries  and  their  successors.  ( 

Other  Sculptors  of  the  Developed  Renaissance.  —  The  num- 
ber of  sculptors  of  the  sixteenth  century  is  great,  but  few 
of  them  are  really  important.  The  Florentine  Lorenzetto 
(Lorenzo  di  Ludovico,  1489-1541)  executed,  from  designs 
by  Raphael,  the  sculptural  decoration  of  the  Chigi  chapel 
in  Sta.  Maria  del  Popolo  in  Rome.  The  statue  of  Jonah  and 
the  bronze  relief  of  Jesus  and  the  Woman  of  Samaria  are 
admirable,  but  his  later,  independent  works  are  of  little 
interest.  Several  other  Florentines  may  be  mentioned. 
Andrea  Ferrucci  (1465-1526)  was  most  successful  in  pic- 
turesque decorative  work.  Benedetto  da  Rovezzano  (1476- 
1556),  admirable  in  decoration  and  portraits,  was  inferior  in 
figure  sculpture;  he  was  called  to  England  to  execute  the 
monument  of  Cardinal  Wolsey.  Pietro  Torrigiano  (b. 
1472)  is  the  artist  of  the  fine  monument  of  Henry  VII  in 
Westminster  Abbey  and  of  several  other  works  in  England. 
He  went  also  to  Spain,  where  his  chief  works  are  a  St.  Jerome 
and  a  Madonna  in  the  museum  at  Seville.  Francesco  di 
Sangallo  (1495-1570),  best  known  as  an  architect,  is  less 
important  as  a  sculptor,  for  his  work  lacks  simplicity  and 
directness.  Giovanni  Francesco  Rustici  (1474-1554)  is 
known  chiefly  by  the  bronze  group  of  the  Preaching  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  in  the  baptistery,  and  Baccio  da  Monte- 
lupo  (1469-1535)  by  the  statue  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist, 
on  Or  San  Michele. 

Gian  Cristoforo  Romano  (ca.  1465-1512),  the  son  of  Isaiah 
da  Pisa,  retains  much  of  the  spirit  of  the  Early  Renaissance, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  Pietro  Bariloto  of  Faenza  (working 
ca.  1520-1545)  and  Gian  Francesco  da  Grado  (working  about 


296  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

1525).  Antonio  Begarelli  (ca.  1498-1565)  modelled  life- 
like figures,  especially  in  groups,  of  colored  terra-cotta,  as 
did  Alfonso  Lombardi  (1497-1537)  in  Bologna,  whose  reliefs 
in  S.  Petronio  and  on  the  base  of  the  area  of  St.  Domenic  are 
tasteful  and  picturesque.  The  Florentine  Tribolo  (Niccolo 
Pericolo,  1485-1550),  who  worked  on  the  fa?ade  of  S.  Petronio 
with  Alfonso  Lombardi  and  later  in  the  Santa  Casa  at  Loreto, 
was  a  pupil  of  Jacopo  Sansovino  (Jacopo  Tatti,  1486-1570), 
himself  a  pupil  of  Andrea  Sansovino.  Jacopo's  early  works 
in  Florence  are  in  the  style  of  his  master,  and  in  Rome  he  was 
influenced  by  Michael  Angelo ;  his  chief  activity  was,  how- 
ever, in  Venice,  where  his  works  are  many  and  Various,  show- 
ing the  influence  of  Andrea  Sansovino,  Michael  Angelo, 
the  Paduan  school  of  Donatello,  and  earlier  Venetian  sculp- 
ture. They  are  attractive  and  effective,  for  the  most  part, 
but  not  great.  Raffaello  da  Montelupo  (1505-1567),  Fra 
Giovanni  Angiolo  della  Porta  (d.  1577 ;  son  of  Guglielmo 
della  Porta),  and  Baccio  Bandinelli  (1493-1560)  were  imi- 
tators of  Michael  Angelo. 

Benvenuto  Cellini.  —  The  famous  goldsmith  Benvenuto 
Cellini  (1500-1572)  shows  in  his  larger  works  —  the  Perseus 
in  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  the  crucifix  in  the  Escorial,  and 
portrait  busts  —  and  in  his  statuettes  great  care  in  execu- 
tion and  serious  study  of  nature.  His  figures  have  also  an 
easy  grace  unusual  at  this  period.  The  habits  of  the  gold- 
smith influenced  him  in  the  execution  of  all  his  works,  but 
that  fact  hardly  detracts  from  their  beauty.  He  is  the  most 
noted  bronze  worker  of  the  Developed  Renaissance. 

THE  LATE  RENAISSANCE 

Giovanni  Bologna.  —  In  the  Late  Renaissance  the  most 
prominent  sculptor  in  Italy  is  the  French  Fleming  Jean 
Boulogne  (called  Giovanni  Bologna,  1529-1608),  who  re- 
ceived his  education  as  a  sculptor  at  Antwerp  and  settled 
in  Florence  in  1563.  His  most  popular  work,  the  Flying 
Mercury  in  the  Bargello  (ca.  1566),  is  much  admired  for  the 
boldness  of  its  graceful  pose.  The  marble  groups  of  the  Rape 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    297 


of  the  Sabine  Women  (1581-1583;  Fig.  154)  and  Hercules 
and  Nessus  (1599)  in  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  are  beautiful, 
animated,  and  bold  in  composition,  though  the  forms  of  the 
figures  are  hardly  superior  to  those  produced  by  other  sculp- 
tors of  the  time.  The  equestrian 
statue  of  Cosimo  I  (set  up  in 
1594),  in  the  street  close  by,  is 
noble  and  serious.  But  his  great- 
est successes  are  his  fountains 
-  the  Fountain  of  Neptune  in 
Bologna  (1563-1567)  and  two 
fountains  in  the  Boboli  gardens 
in  Florence  (1576  and  1585). 
Each  of  these  is  a  masterpiece  in 
general  design,  beauty  of  indi- 
vidual figures,  and  skilful  use  of 
decorative  forms.  His  works  are 
numerous,  and  their  popularity 
was  increased  by  the  fact  that 
many  small  copies  of  them  were 
made  by  the  sculptor  himself, 
or,  at  least,  in  his  atelier.  These 
small  bronzes  were  then,  as  now, 
much  prized  by  collectors.  The 
influence  of  Giovanni  Bologna 
was  great  and  was  not  confined 
to  his  immediate  pupils,  but  it 
was  not  sufficient  to  keep  Italian 
sculpture  from  the  faults  of  the 
baroque  style,  to  which,  indeed, 
his  art  is  not  altogether  opposed. 
Other  Sculptors  of  the  Late 
Renaissance.  -  -  Several  other 
sculptors  from  the  Netherlands  were  in  Italy  for  a  time, 
among  them  Elia  Candido,  his  son  Peter  Candid,  and  A.  de 
Vries.  Pietro  Francanilla  (1548-1618),  from  Cambrai, 
was  a  pupil  of  Giovanni  Bologna,  as  was  also  the  Italian 
Pietro  Tacca  (d.  ca.  1650),  whose  equestrian  statue  of  Philip 


FIGURE  154. —  The  Rape  of 
the  Sabines,  by  Giovanni  Bo- 
logna. Florence. 


298  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

IV,  at  Madrid,  is  especially  famous ;  much  of  his  decorative 
work  is  tasteful  and  original. 

Jacopo  Sansovino  had  many  pupils,  most  of  whom  fol- 
lowed the  style  of  their  master  pretty  closely.  Chief  among 
these  were  Alessandro  Vittoria  (1525-1608),  from  Trient, 
Girolamo  Campagna  (working  1542),  from  Verona,  and 
Danese  Cattaneo  (1509-1573),  of  Carrara,  all  of  whom  have 
left  many  works,  chiefly  in  Venice.  The  architect  Bartol- 
ommeo  Ammanati  (1511-1592)  was  a  pupil  of  Jacopo  Sari- 
sovino,  but  had  studied  previously  under  Bandinelli,  whose 
influence  shows  in  his  work.  Vincenzo  Danti  (1530-1576) 
shows,  as  do  all  his  contemporaries,  the  influence  of  Michael 
Angelo,  but  is  not  without  originality. 

THE  BAROQUE 

Qualities  of  the  A  rt  of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  —  The  archi- 
tecture and  sculpture  of  the  seventeenth  century  go  by  the 
name  of  Baroque,  as  the  great  art  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  called 
Gothic,  and  both  names  were  first  applied  as  terms  of  derision 
by  those  who  had  ceased  to  understand  the  art  which  they 
decried.  In  the  seventeenth  century  magnificence  and  splen- 
dor were  the  externals  of  greatness  and  were  desired  by  all. 
Buildings  were  covered  inside  and  outside  with  elaborate 
decorations  of  stone  or  stucco,  and  the  chief  occupation  of 
sculptors,  apart  from  portraits,  was  in  the  creation  of  such 
decorations,  among  which  immense  and  gorgeous  tombs 
are  to  be  reckoned.  Gardens  and  public  places  were  adorned 
with  fountains  of  elaborate  design,  some  of  which  are  among 
the  most  brilliant  productions  of  the  period.  And  men  were 
thinking  high  thoughts.  Science,  religion,  and  philosophy, 
statecraft,  national,  dynastic,  and  political  aspirations  were 
deeply  pondered.  Allegories  which  now  seem  overfanciful 
and  incomprehensible  were  admired  and  understood.  Under 
such  conditions  it  is  natural  that  sculpture  lost  its  simplicity, 
that  attitudes  in  statues  and  reliefs  show  violent  motions, 
that  draperies  float  wildly,  that  the  forms  of  men  are  over- 
muscular  and  those  of  women  too  voluptuous.  Such  sculp- 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ITALY    299 


ture  was  not  insincere ;   it  was  the  proper  expression  of  the 
spirit  of  the  time. 

Bernini.  —  The  sculptor  wrhose  genius  dominated  the  cen- 
tury was  Gian  Lorenzo  Bernini  (1598-1680).  His  father, 
Pietro,  was  a  Florentine  sculptor;  his  mother  was  a  Nea- 
politan, and  Lorenzo  passed  

the  first  six  years  of  his  life 
at  Naples.  Then  the  family 
moved  to  Rome.  When  he 
was  but  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years  old,  Lorenzo  made  two 
busts,  of  Bishop  Santoni  and 
Monsignor  Montoya,  the 
first  of  a  long  series  of  re- 
markable portraits.  'His 
other  works  are  groups  repre- 
senting ancient  myths  or 
stories,  religious  sculptures 
of  mystical  intensity,  and 
fountains.  He  was  also 
author,  painter,  draughts- 
man, and  architect.  The 
mythological  works  are 
Aeneas  and  Anchises,  the 
Rape  of  Proserpine,  and 
Apollo  and  Daphne,  to  which 
his  David  may  be  added. 
In  all  of  these  he  shows  the 
most  consummate  technique 
(though  they  are  early 
works),  and  the  forms  he 
produced  are  of  exquisite  beauty.  Here  is,  to  be  sure, 
nothing  of  the  calm  and  restraint  which  we  generally  asso- 
ciate with  statuary,  but  neither  is  there  anything  unnatural 
or  theatrical  (Fig.  155).  In  his  ecclesiastical  sculpture 
Bernini  was  vastly  prolific  and  original.  His  angels  float- 
ing on  clouds  above  the  papal  throne  in  St.  Peter's  are  only 
the  most  familiar  examples  of  the  angel  figures  in  which  he 


FIGURE  155.  —  Apollo  and  Daphne, 
by  Bernini.     Rome. 


300  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

excelled.  His  saints  are  inspired  with  mystic,  passionate 
holiness.  His  tombs  of  Urban  VIII  and  Alexander  VII  are 
dramatic  and  superb,  with  their  living  portrait  statues  and 
allegorical  figures.  In  his  earlier  works,  even  in  the  Saint 
Bibiena  (1626),  there  is  a  trace  of  classic  influence,  but  this 
soon  disappears,  and  the  exuberance  of  his  fancy  expresses 
itself  unhampered  in  free,  unrestrained  motions,  intense  or 
exalted  expressions  of  face,  and  copious,  fluttering  draperies. 
Algardi  and  Others.  The  Rococo.  —  Bernini's  chief  rival, 
if  rival  he  can  be  called,  was  Alessandro  Algardi  (1598-1654), 
from  Bologna,  whose  works  exhibit  greater  care  for  natural- 
istic detail  and  less  decorative  instinct  than  those  of  Bernini, 
though  their  general  qualities  are  similar.  Rome  was  at 
this  time  full  of  sculptors,  and  the  baroque  style  was  carried 
to  other  parts  of  Italy,  to  France,  and  to  Germany,  where  it 
flourished  abundantly.  A  list  of  the  Italian  sculptors  of 
this  time  would  be  very  long,  for  sculpture  was  never  more 
popular  than  at  this  period.  It  was  for  the  most  part  decora- 
tive work,  in  connection  with  architecture,  and  much  of  it 
was  carried  out  in  stucco,  even  on  the  exteriors  of  buildings. 
Some  of  the  names  are :  Stefano  Maderna,  Antonio  Raggi, 
Ercole  Ferrata,  Francesco  Baratta,  Mattia  Rossi,  Paolo 
Naldini,  Giacomo  Serpotta,  Antonio  Calegari,  and  the 
Fleming  Frans  Duquesnoy  at  Rome,  Sammartino,  Corradini, 
and  Queirolo  at  Naples,  Giovanni  Battista  Foggini  at  Flor- 
ence, and  Pietro  Baratta  at  Venice.  These  men,  and  many 
others,  were  extremely  skilful,  and  it  is  hardly  just  to  call 
them  mere  imitators  of  Bernini.  Their  work,  seen  in  its 
proper  surroundings,  is  sometimes  effective,  even  brilliant, 
as  architectural  decoration,  but  none  of  them  possessed  the 
genius  of  Bernini,  with  whose  work  they  were  obliged  to 
compete.  Inferior  sculptors  who  worked  in  the  baroque 
style  easily  transformed  its  exuberance  and  emotionalism 
into  caricature.  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  vigorous 
and  emphatic  qualities  of  the  baroque  were  transformed  into 
lightness  and  grace,  the  Rococo  style,  as  it  is  called,  just  as 
in  France  the  magnificent  style  of  Louis  XIV  passed  into 
the  more  playful  and  airy  style  of  Louis  XV. 


SCULPTURE   OF  THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   FRANCE 

Tendency  of  French  Sculpture  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  — 
French  sculpture  of  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century 
is  characterized  by  pleasant  realism,  observation  of  nature, 
simplicity  of  pose  and  action,  and  (in  many  cases)  intense 
religious  feeling,  for  art  was  still  chiefly  religious.  The  forms 
of  angels  were  popular  and  are  often  of  great  beauty,  with  a 
more  familiar  and  human  beauty  than  is  found  in  the  angels 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  Saints,  too,  are  portrayed  in  a 
more  realistic  manner.  Saint  Joseph  is  a  French  carpenter, 
Saints  Cosmas  and  Damian  are  French  physicians,  Saint 
George  is  a  knight  armed  as  for  a  tourney,  and  the  faces,  as 
well  as  the  costumes  and  attitudes,  are  such  as  the  sculptor 
saw  constantly  about  him.  The  arrangement  of  figures 
on  or  in  the  churches  was  no  longer  determined  by  a  learned 
and  elaborate  system,  but  by  the  wishes  or  caprices  of 
individuals.  Side  by  side  with  familiar  realism,  joined  with 
it,  in  fact,  was  a  spirit  of  mysticism  and  devotion.  The 
scenes  of  grief  and  sorrow  which  followed  the  crucifixion  — 
the  pieta  and  the  entombment  —  were  carved  in  countless 
repetitions.  Even  now,  though  many  have  disappeared,  these 
groups  are  counted  by  hundreds.  In  date  and  style  they 
vary  greatly,  and  it  is  difficult  to  classify  them  in  local  schools. 
A  chronological  development  may  be  traced  in  details  of  or- 
namentation, in  growth  of  demonstrative  gesticulation  and 
dramatic,  even  affected,  attitudes,  and  finally  in  the  loss  of 
individuality  in  the  faces,  coupled  with  conventional  regular- 
ity of  feature.  In  these  changes  the  influence  of  Italian  art 
is  seen,  but  they  are  chiefly  noticeable  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. 

301 


302  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Italians  in  France.  —  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  influence 
of  Italian  art  was  slight.  Laurana  and  Pietro  da  Milano 
were  in  Provence,  at  the  court  of  King  Rene,  from  1461  to 
1466,  but  their  works  of  this  period  were  few  (largely  medals) 
and  seem  to  have  exerted  little  or  no  influence.  Laurana 
returned  to  France  about  1475  and  remained  until  his  death 
in  1483.  Charles  VIII  brought  back  from  Italy,  in  1496, 
not  only  works  of  art,  but  also  artists,  among  them  Guido 
Mazzoni,  who  made  the  elaborate  tomb  of  the  king,  formerly 
at  St.  Denis,1  and  from  this  time  on  Italian  sculpture  exerts 
great  influence  in  France,  as  Italian  architecture  supplants 
the  late  or  flamboyant  Gothic. 

Michel  Colombe.  —  The  most  representative  French  sculp- 
tor of  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  first  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century  is  Michel  Colombe  (ca.  1430-1512),  the 
chief  of  the  "  School  of  Tours."  Of  his  early  life  and  works 
nothing  is  known.  He  seems  to  have  been  at  Bourges  in 
1467  and  to  have  had  already  a  great  reputation,  but  definite 
information  begins  in  1473,  when  he  was  settled  at  Tours. 
His  greatest  extant  work,  the  monument  of  Francis  II, 
duke  of  Brittany,  and  his  wife  Marguerite  de  Foix  (1502- 
1507),  is  in  the  cathedral  at  Nantes.  The  general  design  and 
the  architecture  (in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance)  are  by  the 
architect  and  painter  Jean  Perreal ;  the  recumbent  effigies, 
the  statues  of  Justice,  Temperance,  Prudence,  and  Strength, 
three  angels,  the  smaller  figures  of  the  twelve  Apostles,  Saints 
Charlemagne,  Louis,  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  Margaret,  and  of 
monks  and  priests  are  by  Michel  Colombe.  They  are  all 
natural,  lifelike,  and  graceful,  not  inferior  to  corresponding 
works  by  the  best  Italian  sculptors  of  the  time,  but  appar- 
ently little,  if  at  all,  affected  by  Italian  art.  The  style  of 
Michel  Colombe  may  be  judged  by  the  relief  of  St.  George 
and  the  dragon  in  the  Louvre  which  was  carved  about  1508 
for  the  high  altar  of  the  chateau  de  Gaillon  (Fig.  156) .  These 
are  the  only  existing  works  which  are  certainly  by  the  hand  of 
Michel  Colombe.  If  the  "Vierge  d'Olivet"  in  the  Louvre 
and  the  Entombment  at  Solesmes  are  his  work,  which  is 

1  Several  other  important  works  in  France  are  ascribed  to  Mazzoni. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE   303 

not  unlikely,  they  probably  belong  to  a  somewhat  earlier 
time. 

The  School  of  Tours.  —  In  his  work  for  the  tomb  of  Fran- 
cois II  and  Marguerite  de  Foix,  Michel  Colombe  was  assisted 
by  his  pupils  Guillaume  Regnault  (ca.  1451-ca.  1533)  and 
Jean  de  Chartres ;  he  employed  also,  for  the  ornamentation, 
two  Italians,  one  of  whom,  Girolamo  da  Fiesole,  aided  him 
on  other  occasions.  The  exquisite  monument  of  Louis  Pon- 


FIGURE  156.  —  St.  George  and  the  Dragon,  by  Michel  Colombe.    The 
Louvre,  Paris. 

cher  and  his  wife  Roberte  Legendre,  now  in  the  Louvre,  is 
by  Regnault  and  Guillaume  Chaleveau.  Several  other 
works,  among  them  the  fine  tomb  of  the  Bastarnay,  at 
Montresor,  are  properly  attributed  to  the  school  of  Tours, 
which  combined  naturalistic  French  sculpture  with  Italian 
decorative  and  architectural  forms. 

Local  Schools.  Various  Sculptors.— The  influence  of 
the  school  of  Tours  was  widespread,  and  the  same  conditions 
which,  apart  from  his  own  genius,  produced  the  art  of  Michel 
Colombe  existed  also  in  other  parts  of  France.  There  are 


304  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

works  of  sculpture  in  many  places  which  exhibit  the  qualities 
of  the  school  of  Tours  mingled  with  those  of  the  "Burgun- 
dian"  and  other  schools.  In  Normandy,  where  Italian 
influence  was  especially  strong  at  Gaillon,  there  was  much 
activity  among  sculptors,  but  progress  was,  on  the  whole, 
along  French,  not  Italian,  lines.  At  Rouen,  Pierre  des 
Aubeaulx  carved  the  "Tree  of  Jesse"  in  the  tympanum  of  the 
central  door  (begun  in  1573)  and,  with  the  aid  of  Pierre  Doulis, 
Jean  Theroulde,  Richard  le  Roux,  Nicholas  Quesnel,  and 
Denis  le  Rebours,  a  host  of  statues  and  statuettes  on  the 
facade  of  the  cathedral. 

The  tomb  of  the  Cardinals  of  Amboise,  in  the  cathedral  of 
Rouen,  begun  in  1515,  was  designed  by  Roulland  le  Roux, 
but  the  chief  sculptor  was  Pierre  des  Aubeaulx,  who  was 
assisted  by  several  other  French  and  Flemish  sculptors  and, 
for  the  ornamental  work,  by  Italians  who  came  from  Gaillon. 
The  elaborate  tomb  combines  Italian  ornamentation  with  the 
styles  of  Normandy  and  the  school  of  Tours.  At  the  same 
time  a  school  of  sculpture  flourished  in  Champagne,  in  which 
the  chief  qualities  are  moderation,  delicacy  rather  than  vigor, 
and  a  certain  pleasing  refinement.  Several  artists  of  this 
school  are  known  by  name,  —  Jacques  Bachot,  Jean  Gailde, 
Nicolas  Haslin,  —  but  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  between 
them. 

Italian  Influence.  —  Italian  influence  becomes  predomi- 
nant in  France  under  the  patronage  of  Fran£ois  I  (1515- 
1547).  Even  earlier,  in  1502,  Louis  XII  engaged  Italian 
sculptors  (two  Lombards,  Michele  d'  Aria  and  Girolamo 
Viscardo,  and  two  Florentines,  Benedetto  da  Rovezzano 
and  Donate  di  Battista  di  Mateo  Benti)  to  make  the  tomb 
of  his  grandparents,  his  father,  and  his  uncle,  which  is  now  at 
St.  Denis ;  Lorenzo  di  Mugiano,  of  Milan,  made  a  statue  of 
Louis  XII  for  Gaillon,  Antonio  della  Porta,  called  Tomag- 
nino,  made  the  tomb  of  Raoul  de  Lannoy.  The  brothers 
known  as  Jean  and  Antoine  Juste,  of  Tours,  were  Florentines 
(Antonio  di  Giusto  Betti,  1479-1519;  Giovanni  di  Giusto 
Betti,  1485-1549),  naturalized  in  1515.  Juste  de  Juste, 
son  of  Antoine,  and  Jean  II,  son  of  Juste  de  Juste,  were  also 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE    305 

sculptors.  The  most  important  of  the  family  is  Jean  Juste 
the  elder.  The  monument  of  the  Bishop  of  Dol  (ca.  1504), 
by  Jean,  is  purely  Italian,  but  in  the  later  works  of  Jean  and 
Antoine  —  the  tomb  of  Louis  XII  and  Anne  of  Brittany  at 
St.  Denis,  and  those  of  Artus  Gouffier  and  Philippe  de  Mont- 
morency,  at  Oiron  —  the  influence  of  Michel  Colombe  is 
visible.  Other  Italian  sculptors  were  doubtless  established 
in  France  under  Louis  XII,  but  under  Francois  I  a  greater 
number  came,  first  to  decorate  the  chateaux,  such  as  Fontaine- 
bleau,  Blois,  Chambord,  St.  Germain,  Madrid,  then  to  extend 
the  Italian  style  to  private  houses,  public  buildings,  and 
churches  in  nearly  all  the  larger  cities.  Among  them  were 
Girolamo  della  Robbia,  Lorenzo  Naldini  (Laurent  Renau- 
din),  Francesco  Primadizzi  or  Primaticcio  (Le  Primatice), 
Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  Domenico  del  Barbiere  of  Florence 
(Domenique  Florentin).  Their  works  were  many,  and  their 
influence  grew  until  the  Italian  style  became  the  prevailing 
style  in  France. 

Survival  of  French  Style.  Ligier  Richier.  —  Nevertheless, 
especially  in  the  North,  sculpture  of  really  French  style  con- 
tinued in  vogue.  The  parts  of  the  choir  screen  at  Amiens 
carved  in  1531,  of  exquisite  workmanship  and  charming  pic- 
turesque design,  are  still  "Gothic"  in  decoration  and  style 
of  sculpture,  as  are,  with  gradual  changes  in  style,  the  parts 
of  the  beautiful  choir  screens  at  Chartres  which  were  carved 
between  1514  and  1542  l  (Fig.  157) ;  so  also  are  the  historical 
reliefs  of  the  Bourgtheroulde,  at  Rouen,  and  many  other 
examples  might  be  cited.  Ligier  Richier,  the  most  noted 
sculptor  of  the  school  of  Lorraine,  was  born  at  Saint-Mihiel 
in  1500  and  died  at  Geneva  in  1567.  His  style  was  much 
affected  by  Italian  art,  especially  that  of  Guido  Mazzoni, 
but  retained  also  much  of  the  spirit  of  French  art  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  works,  almost  all  of  which  depict 
scenes  of  sorrow  or  death,  show  sentiment  and  realism,  with 

1  These  were  under  the  direction  of  Jean  Texier  (d.  1529).  Parts  were 
carved  by  Jean  Soulas  (1519-1525),  by  his  pupils  (1530-1640),  and  by 
Francois  Marchand  (1542).  The  names  are  known  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  French  sculptors  of  the  sixteenth  century  whose  style  was  but  slightly 
affected  by  Italian  art. 


306 


A  HISTORY-  OF  SCULPTURE 


fine  dramatic  instinct  and  careful  execution.  The  best 
known  among  them  is  his  latest,  the  Entombment  at  Saint- 
Mihiel,  begun  in  1553  (Fig.  158).  His  earliest  known  work, 
the  retable  at  Hattonchatel,  includes  the  same  subject,  with 
the  Bearing  of  the  Cross  and  the  Crucifixion.  Francois 
Gentil  (ca.  1510-1588),  of  Troyes,  and  Nicholas  Bachelier 
(1485-1572),  of  Toulouse,  are  the  chief  representatives  of 


FIGURE  157.  —  Death  and  Funeral  of  the  Virgin;  Choir  screen,  Cathedral 

of  Chartres. 

their  respective  schools,  in  which  something  of  the  mediaeval 
spirit  still  remains. 

Pierre  Bontemps.  —  Pierre  Bontemps  (working  1536- 
1562)  was  one  of  the  great  sculptors  of  his  time.  He  collabo- 
rated with  several  others,  among  them  Germain  Pilon,  in 
making  the  statues  and  reliefs  of  the  tomb  of  Francois  I  at 
St.  Denis,  begun  in  1548.  The  general  classic  (that  is,  Re- 
naissance) design  of  the  monument  is  due  to  Philibert  de 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE    307 

rOrme,  but  documents  prove  that  most  of  the  sculpture  is  by 
Bontemps.  He  was  evidently  acquainted  with  the  works 
of  ancient  art  brought  from  Italy  by  Primaticcio,  but  in  the 
statues  and  reliefs  of  this  tomb  he  shows  himself  thoroughly 
French,  not  in  any  way  an  imitator  of  the  Italian  style. 
The  exquisite  decoration  of  the  urn  for  the  heart  of  Francois 
I,  in  the  abbey  church  of  Haute  Bruyeres,  is  also  compara- 
tivelv  free  from  Italian  influence. 


FIGURE  158.  —  The  Entombment,  by  Ligier  Richier.    Saint-Mihiel. 

Jean  Goujon.  —  Jean  Goujon,  the  great  artist  of  the  new 
style,  appears  first  at  Rouen  in  1540  and  died  at  Bologna  be- 
tween 1564  and  1568.  At  Rouen  he  made  two  columns  of 
black  marble  and  alabaster  which  support  part  of  the  organ 
in  the  church  of  St.  Maclou.1  He  probably  worked  on  the 
tomb  of  the  Amboise  in  the  cathedral  of  Rouen,  and  perhaps 
on  the  tomb  of  Louis  de  Breze.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1541, 
where  he  carved  part  of  the  rood  screen  of  Saint  Germain 

1  The  attribution  of  any  parts  of  the  doors  of  St.  Maclou  to  Goujon  is 
extremely  doubtful. 


308 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  159.  —  Nymph,  by 
Jean  Goujon.  Fountain  of  the 
Innocents,  Paris. 


1'Auxerrois,  one  slab  of  which 
(the  Entombment)  is  now  in  the 
Louvre.  The  altar  with  Abra- 
ham's Sacrifice,  now  at  Chantilly, 
and  several  other  reliefs  date 
from  the  years  1545  and  1546. 
His  most  famous  work,  the  Foun- 
tain of  the  Innocents  (Fig.  159), 
in  Paris,  is  a  few  years  later. 
The  Diana  with  the  Stag,  which 
is  without  doubt  his  work,  though 
no  document  attests  the  fact,  was 
probably  executed  between  1550 
and  1553 ;  the  Caryatides  in  the 
Louvre  and  several  reliefs  for  the 
same  building  are  works  of  the 
next  years.  With  the  exceptions 
of  the  Diana  and  the  Caryatides, 
his  works  are  all  in  low  relief,  ex- 
quisitely carved.  Their  chief 
qualities  are  grace,  charm,  and 
delicate  sentiment,  rather  than 
vigor  or  dramatic  power.  The 
influence  of  the  Italian  art  of  the 
Early  Renaissance  is  evident,  but 
the  individual  genius  of  the  artist 
is  no  less  apparent. 

Germain  Pilon.  —  Germain 
Pilon  (1535-1590)  was  engaged  in 
1558  to  furnish  sixteen  figures  for 
the  tomb  of  Francois  I,  but  these 
were  never  put  in  place;  some 
of  them  may  have  been  used  for 
the  tomb  of  Henri  II.  In  his 
early  works  he  follows  the  style 
of  Bontemps,  who  may  have  been 
his  teacher,  though  the  Three 
Graces,  made  in  1561  to  support 


the  urn  for  the  heart  of  Henri  II  are  entirely  in  the  Italian 
style.  Thetombof  Henri  II  and  Catharine desMedicis (1565- 
1570)  is  essentially  the  work  of  Primaticcio  and  Germain  Pilon. 
The  semi-nude  effigies  (Fig.  160)  and  the  praying  figures  of  the 
king  and  queen  are  by  Pilon,  the  four  Virtues  at  the  corners 
by  Primaticcio.  Here  Pilon  exhibits  his  remarkable  deli- 
cacy in  execution,  his  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  his  ability 
to  depict  emotion.  The  same  qualities  characterize  his  other 
works.  The  kneeling  figure  from  the  tomb  of  the  chancellor 
Rene  de  Birague,  now  in  the  Louvre,  is  a  masterpiece  of  por- 
traiture. Bontemps,  Goujon,  and  Pilon  are  the  great  French 


FIGURE  160.  —  Tomb  of  Henry  II  and  Catharine  des  Medicis,  by  Germain 
Pilon.    St.  Denis. 

sculptors    of    the    sixteenth    century,    through    whom    the 
Renaissance  took  possession  of  French  sculpture. 

Other  Sculptors  of  the  French  Renaissance.  —  Other  sculp- 
tors of  some  importance,  whose  lives  extended  into  the  seven- 
teenth century,  are  Barthelemy  Prieur  (b.  1540-1550,  d.  161 1), 
the  best  of  Pilon's  pupils,  Pierre  Briard  (1 559-1 609)  /  Guil- 
laume  Berthelot  (b.  1570-1580,  d.  1648),  Simon  Guillain 
(1581  ?-1658),  Jacques  Sarrazin  (1558  ?-1660).  Gilles  Guerin 
(1606-1678)  and  the  brothers  Francois  (1604?-1669)  and 
Michel  (1612-1686)  Anguiers  lived  entirely  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  works  of  all  these  belong,  of  course,  to  the 

1  His  son,  Pierre  Briard  the  younger  (ca.  1590-1661),  was  also  a  sculptor, 
but  of  less  note. 


310  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Renaissance.  Many  of  them  are  beautiful,  and  some  por- 
traits among  them  are  admirable;  but  these  sculptors, 
whatever  the  merits  of  their  works,  mark  no  new  epoch 
and  effect  little  or  no  real  progress. 

Sculpture  under  Louis  XIV.  —  A  new  epoch  begins  with  the 
assumption  of  full  regal  power  by  Louis  XIV,  in  1661.  This 
was  a  period  of  great  external  prosperity  and  great  ostentation. 
Splendor  and  magnificence  were  sought  in  architecture, 
painting,  sculpture,  and  dress.  The  chief  themes  of  sculp- 
ture were  portraits,  tombs,  and  mythological  subjects.  In 


FIGURE  161. — Nymphs  Bathing,  by  Girardon.     Versailles. 

the  earlier  works  something  of  classical  restraint  is  still  pres- 
ent, but  as  time  goes  on  sculpture  becomes  more  sensational. 
The  foreign  influences  which  most  affected  French  sculpture 
at  this  time  proceeded  from  Michael  Angelo  and  Bernini. 
The  chief  French  sculptors  were  Francois  Girardon  (1628- 
1715)  of  Troyes,  Antoine  CoyseVox  (1640-1720)  of  Lyons, 
and  Pierre  Puget  (1622-1694)  of  Marseilles. 

Girardon.  Le  Lorrain.  —  Girardon's  reliefs  at  Versailles, 
especially  the  Bathing  Nymphs  (Fig.  161),  show  a  fine 
sense  of  form  and  great  skill  in  composition,  with  a  feeling  for 
classic  grace.  His  tomb  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  in  the  Sor- 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE    311 

bonne,  is  somewhat  pompous  and  theatrical,  but  is  impres- 
sive and  admirably  executed.  Though  the  general  design 
may  be  by  Le  Brun,  the  modelling  and  workmanship  show  the 
exceptional  ability  of  the  sculptor.  In  the  Rape  of  Proser- 
pine, at  Versailles,  the  influence  of  Bernini  is  evident.  Many 
sculptors  worked  with  Girardon  at  Versailles,  where  the  pro- 
ductions of  his  school  may  best  be  studied.  The  chief  of  his 
pupils  was  Robert  le  Lorrain  (1666-1743),  whose  most  re- 
markable work  is  the  Horses  of  the  Sun,  a  wonderfully  spir- 
ited relief  over  a  doorway  of  the  Hotel  de  Rohan  (now  the 
Imprimerie  nationale),  in  Paris. 

Coysewx.  —  Coysevox  was  a  versatile,  original,  and  pro- 
ductive artist.  Much  of  the  ornate  and  magnificent  sculp- 
ture at  Versailles  is  his  work.  His  portrait  busts,  such  as 
those  of  himself,  of  Le  Brun,  of  Louis  XIV,  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde,  are  admirably  characteristic,  lifelike,  and  dignified. 
The  full-length  portrait  of  Marie  Adelaide  of  Savoy  in  the 
Guise  of  Diana  is  a  skilfully  designed  and  charming  statue. 
The  statues  of  Fame  and  Mercury  on  winged  horses,  which 
decorate  the  entrance  from  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  to  the 
Garden  of  the  Tuileries,  are  spirited  and  vigorous.  The 
works  of  Coysevox's  later  years  are  chiefly  monumental 
tombs,  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  tomb  of  Mazarin,  in 
the  Institut  de  France. 

Puget.  —  Puget,  older  than  Girardon,  was  somewhat  slow 
in  making  a  name  for  himself.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he 
went  to  Italy,  but  returned  to  Marseilles  in  1643.  Soon  he 
was  again  in  Italy,  but  in  1653  was  once  more  in  Marseilles. 
His  Caryatides  at  the  Hotel  de  Ville  of  Toulon,  in  which  he 
exaggerates  the  manner  of  Michael  Angelo,  date  from  this 
period.  From  1661  to  1669  he  was  at  Genoa,  where  are 
several  statues  from  his  hand.  The  works  by  which  he  is 
chiefly  known  are  the  Milo  of  Croton,  Perseus  delivering 
Andromeda,  and  the  relief  of  Diogenes  and  Alexander,  all  now 
in  the  Louvre.  In  these  he  exhibits  masterly  technique, 
great  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  ability  to  represent  emo- 
tion, but  his  desire  to  show  his  own  ability  is  too  evident. 
The  life  and  energy  portrayed  seem  artificial  and  exaggerated. 


312 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


The  Coustou.  —  Nicholas  (1658-1733)  and  Guillaume 
(1678-1746)  Coustou  were  the  chief  pupils  of  Coysevox. 
Their  works  are  both  graceful  and  spirited.  The  horses 
(chevaux  de  Marly)  at  the  entrance  to  the  Champs  Elysees, 
by  Guillaume,  are  full  of  life  and  spirit,  and  the  group  of 

the  Rhone  and  Saone,  by 
Nicholas,  in  the  Garden  of  the 
Tuileries,  is  an  admirable  com- 
position. The  taste  of  the  age 
is  seen  in  the  portrait  statue 
of  Marie  Leczinska,  by  Guil- 
laume (Fig.  1 62) .  Guillaume's 
son  Guillaume  (1716-1777)  is 
best  known  by  his  tomb  of  the 
Dauphin,  at  Sens,  in  which 
classical  traditions,  Christian 
faith,  and  human  sentiment 
are  mingled  in  somewhat 
theatrical  fashion.  He  be- 
longs entirely  to  the  eight- 
eenth century. 

Art  under  Louis  XV. — Art 
under  Louis  XIV  aimed  at 
grandeur  and  magnificence ; 
under  Louis  XV  (1774-1792) 
its  aim  was  rather  grace  and 
charm.  Sculpture  was  popu- 
lar, and  the  number  of  sculp- 
tors was  great,  but  many  of 
their  works  were  destroyed 
during  the  Revolution. 
Bouchardon.  —  Edme  Bouchardon  (1698-1762)  was  a  pupil 
of  Guillaume  Coustou  and  was  in  Italy  from  1722  to  1732, 
when  he  returned  to  France  and  was  made  sculpteur  ordinaire 
of  Louis  XV.  His  chief  remaining  works  are  the  fountain  in 
the  rue  de  Grenelle  Saint-Germain  and  Cupid  bending  a  bow 
which  he  forces  from  the  club  of  Hercules.  In  the  latter  a 
fanciful  subject  is  lightly  and  gracefully  treated.  On  the 


FIGURE  162.  —  Marie  Leczin- 
ska, by  Guillaume  Coustou.  The 
Louvre,  Paris. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE    313 

fountain  are  statues  of  Paris,  seated  with  the  rivers  Marne 
and  Seine  reclining  at  her  feet ;  two  niches  contain  statues  of 
Seasons,  and  beneath  the  niches  are  charming  reliefs  of  chil- 
dren playfully  engaged  in  the  labors  of  the  seasons. 

Lemoyne.  —  Jean  Baptiste  Lemoyne  (1704-1788)  was  a 
pupil  of  Robert  le  Lorrain.  His  chief  works  were  bronze 
statues  of  Louis  XV,  which  have  been  destroyed,  but  many 
excellent  busts  remain,  by  means  of  which  his  ability  in  por- 
traiture and  the  delicacy  of  his  style  may  be  appreciated. 
Among  his  numerous  pupils  were  Pigalle,  Falconet,  Caffieri, 
and  Pajou. 

Slodtz.  Allegrain.  —  Michel  Slodtz  (1705-1764)  was  the 
son  of  Sebastian  Slodtz,  who  came  from  Antwerp  to  Paris 
and  studied  under  Girardon.  Michel  received  the  prix  de 
Rome  in  1730  and  remained  in  Italy  until  1747.  His  most 
noted  work  of  this  period  is  the  St.  Bruno  in  St.  Peter's.  In 
the  tomb  of  the  Abbe  Lanquet  de  Gerzy,  in  St.  Sulpice,  Paris 
(1750),  he  introduced  Death  as  a  skeleton  taking  part  in  the 
action  represented.  Gabriel  Christophe  Allegrain  (1710- 
1795)  was  much  admired  by  Diderot  for  the  classic  grace  of 
his  statues,  but  the  works  by  which  he  is  chiefly  known  — 
"Diana  surprised  by  Actaeon"  and  a  "Girl  bathing"  —are 
not  the  works  of  a  great  artist. 

Pigalle.  Falconet.  —  Jean  Baptiste  Pigalle  (1714-1785), 
a  pupil  of  Robert  le  Lorrain  and  Lemoyne,  was  a  sculptor  of 
greater  originality  and  power.  His  "  Mercury  fastening  his 
Wings  to  his  Feet "  is  graceful  and  full  of  life.  He  executed 
a  number  of  monumental  tombs  which  are  admirably  done, 
but  too  elaborate  and  eccentric  in  composition  to  suit  modern 
taste ;  they  appealed,  however,  to  the  taste  of  the  time.  The 
most  noted  of  these  is  the  monument  to  Maurice  of  Saxony, 
in  Strassburg.  Maurice  Etienne  Falconet  (1716-1781) 
was  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne.  Like  Allegrain  he  admired  and, 
in  some  degree,  imitated  ancient  art.  His  "  Nymph  entering 
the  Bath  "  (in  the  Louvre)  is  a  graceful,  pleasing  study  of  the 
nude,  and  his  great  bronze  equestrian  statue  of  Peter  the 
Great,  in  Petrograd,  is  a  really  powerful  and  impressive 
work. 


314  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Caffieri.  Pajou.  Clodion.  —  Jean  Jacques  Caffieri  (1725- 
1792)  is  the  most  celebrated  of  a  family  of  artists.  His 
father,  Jacques  (1678-1755)  and  his  grandfather,  Philippe 
(1634-1716),  who  came  from  Italy  to  Paris,  were  sculptors 
of  some  ability.  Jean  Jacques  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
portrait  busts,  a  branch  of  sculpture  in  which  he  has  been 
surpassed  by  few.  Seven  of  his  busts  are  in  the  museum  of 
the  Comedie  Francaise.  Augustin  Pajou  (1730-1809)  ex- 
celled in  soft  and  graceful  forms,  usually  nude  or  only 
partly  draped.  Neither  entirely  natural  nor  purely  classic, 
his  statues,  like  the  paintings  of  his  contemporary  Boucher, 
are  elegant  and  decorative.  The  bust  of  Madame  du  Barry, 
the  statue  of  Psyche,  and  the  statue  of  Marie  Leczinska  as 
Charity,  all  in  the  Louvre,  are  good  examples  of  his  work. 
Louis  Michel  Claude  (1738-1814),  called  Clodion,  though  he 
produced  a  few  large  and  serious  works,  is  known  chiefly  for 
elegant  and  playful  reliefs  and  statuettes  of  nymphs,  satyrs, 
cupids,  and  children.  These  works  are  chiefly  of  terra-cotta, 
plaster,  or  porcelain.  They  are  fanciful,  graceful,  and  attrac- 
tive. 

Houdon.  Other  Sculptors  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  —  The 
greatest  French  sculptor  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Jean 
Antoine  Houdon  (1744-1828),  a  pupil  of  Lemoyne,  Michel 
Slodtz,  and  Pigalle,  who  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  por- 
traiture, though  his  graceful  and  airy  Diana  in  the  Hermitage 
(and  also  in  the  Louvre)  shows  that  he  could  excel  also  in 
ideal  sculpture.  He  gained  the  prix  de  Rome  when  but 
twenty  years  old,  and  spent  ten  years  in  Rome.  His  most 
famous  work  of  this  period  is  the  St.  Bruno  in  Sta.  Maria 
degli  Angeli,  a  strikingly  realistic  figure  of  an  earnest,  inspired 
monk.  His  statues  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau,  and  his  very 
numerous  busts,  among  which  are  those  of  Voltaire,  Franklin, 
Washington,  Moliere,  Mirabeau,  Diderot,  and  Buffon,  are 
extremely  naturalistic  and  make  the  character  of  the  sitter 
express  itself  in  the  face  more  clearly  than  is  often  the  case  in 
nature.  Houdon  lived  through  the  Revolution  and  the 
Empire,  but  most  of  his  work  was  done  under  the  old  regime, 
to  which  he  belonged  in  spirit,  in  spite  of  the  naturalism  of  his 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE    315 

works.  Many  other  French  sculptors  were  active  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  among  them  Pierre  Julien  (1731-1804), 
Adam  (the  uncle  of  Clodion),  Vasse  (1716-1772),  Boizot, 
Roland,  and  Edme  Dumont.  Their  works  exhibit  the  quali- 
ties peculiar  to  the  period,  but  are  neither  so  numerous  nor, 
as  a  rule,  so  characteristic  as  those  of  the  greater  artists. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SCULPTURE   OF   THE   RENAISSANCE   IN   GERMANY 

Naturalism  in  the  Fifteenth  Century.  —  In  Germany,  as  in 
France,  the  sculpture  of  the  second  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century  differed  from  that  of  the  earlier  years  by  a  greater 
naturalism,  which  was  not,  as  in  Italy,  coupled  with  the 
study  of  ancient  art.  In  Germany  ancient  art,  and  Italian 
art  which  was  influenced  by  the  study  of  antiquity,  had  less 
influence  than  in  France.  Nature  was  studied  directly. 
Sculpture  now  freed  itself  from  architecture  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, and  even  those  sculptures  which  were  made,  as  most 
were,  for  churches  were  designed  with  little  or  no  regard  for 
their  architectural  setting.  The  Germans  naturally  seldom 
saw  human  beings  nude,  and  therefore  the  heads,  hands, 
feet,  and  draperies  were  modelled  without  much  attention  to 
the  body.  Sentiment  was  still  of  more  importance  than 
beauty  of  form,  and  is  often  expressed  with  much  grace  and 
charm.  Madonnas  and  scenes  from  the  childhood  of  Jesus 
or  of  Mary  were  favorite  subjects.  The  most  successful 
figures  are  those  of  women  or  of  such  men,  as,  for  instance, 
St.  John  the  Evangelist,  who  could  be  represented  with 
something  of  feminine  grace.  As  before,  sculpture  was 
painted  and  gilded.  Portraits  were  often  introduced  in 
scriptural  scenes  by  German  sculptors,  as  by  Italian  painters. 
There  were  many  sculptors  and  many  schools,  which  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Northern  and  the  Southern. 
Of  these  the  Southern  group,  the  chief  seats  of  which  were  in 
Franconia,  is  the  more  important.  The  centres  of  the 
Northern  group  are  on  the  lower  Rhine. 

School  of  Nuremberg.  —  In  Franconia  the  most  important 
school  is  that  of  Nuremberg.  Here  Adam  Kraft  worked  in 

316 


SCULPTURE  OF  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY      317 

stone,  Veit  Stoss  almost  exclusively  in  wood,  and  Peter  Vischer 
in  bronze.  Each  of  these  had  his  helpers,  and  there  were 
many  other  sculptors  in  Nuremberg.  The  works  of  this 
school  are  many,  and  dated  examples  are  not  few.  In  the 
ateliers  of  some  painters  (e.g.  Michael  Wohlgemuth)  works 
of  sculpture  were  undertaken  but,  owing  to  the  close  guild 
system,  artists  confined  themselves  to  one  kind  of  work  and 
were  not,  as  in  Italy,  painters,  sculptors,  and  architects  in 
one  person.  So  the  works  of  sculpture  ascribed  to  Wohlge- 
muth were  probably  made  from  his  designs  by  sculptors  in 
his  employ,  not  actually  carved  or  modelled  by  himself.  The 
Deposition  in  the  Kreuzkapelle  at  Nuremberg  is  probably 
the  best  known  of  these  works.  Albrecht  Diirer  also  made 
designs  for  sculpture  to  be  executed  by  others. 

Veit  Stoss.  —  Veit  Stoss  (1438?-1533)  was  born  at  Nurem- 
berg, spent  the  years  1477-1486  and  1489-1496  at  Cracow, 
and  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  native  city.  His  earliest  attested 
work  is  the  altar-screen  (Marienaltar)  at  Cracow,  which  was 
probably  begun  in  1477  or  soon  after.  The  central  panel 
represents  the  death  of  the  Virgin,  with  figures  of  more  than 
life  size,  and  above  this  the  Virgin  received  into  Heaven  by 
her  Son.  Below,  in  the  predella,  is  the  Tree  of  Jesse.  In 
the  wings  are  eighteen  scenes  of  the  lives  of  Mary  and  Jesus. 
The  work  is  characterized  by  dramatic  attitudes,  expressive 
faces,  and  voluminous  draperies  deeply  undercut.  The  work 
by  which  the  sculptor  is  best  known  is  the  Annunciation  (der 
engiische  Gruss)  in  the  Lorenzkirche  at  Nuremberg.  Here 
the  Virgin  and  the  Angel  stand  in  a  carved  wreath  of  roses, 
on  which  are  medallions  of  scenes  from  the  life  of  the  Virgin. 
The  chief  figures  are  more  graceful  and  beautiful  than  in  his 
earlier  work,  but  less  vigorous.  Many  other  works  are  as- 
cribed to  Veit  Stoss,  some  of  them  without  due  reason. 

Adam  Kraft.  —  Adam  Kraft  (ca.  1450-1509)  seems  to  have 
spent  his  entire  life  at  Nuremberg.  His  earliest  known  works 
are  the  reliefs  of  Christ  bearing  the  Cross,  the  Entombment, 
and  the  Resurrection  in  the  Schreyer  tomb  on  the  outside 
of  the  Sebalduskirche.  The  contract,  dated  1492,  calls  for 
the  reproduction  in  stone  of  the  paintings  which  adorned  the 


318 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


tomb,  and  the  carefully  executed  reliefs,  with  figures  in  differ- 
ent planes  and  landscape  backgrounds,  certainly  do  produce 
the  effect  of  pictures,  an  effect  which  was  doubtless  much 
stronger  before  the  original  coloring  was  lost.  Kraft's  most 
remarkable  work  is  the  magnificent  tabernacle,  about  65  feet 
in  height,  in  the  Lorenzkirche.  This  is  an  openwork  pyramid, 
like  the  spires  of  some  German  Gothic  churches,  richly 
adorned  with  figure  sculpture,  some  of  which,  in  the  upper 
parts  of  the  structure,  is  almost  hidden  from  view.  The 

reliefs  of  the 
Seven  Stations 
of  the  Cross,  on 
the  way  to  the 
cemetery  of  St. 
John  (about 
1505),  are  sim- 
pler and  more 
vigorous  than 
the  earlier  works 
(Fig.  163).  The 
great  tabernacle 
was  evidently 
famous  at  the 
time  of  its  erec- 
tion, for  it  was 
imitated  in  sev- 
eral places.  The 
picturesque  style 
of  Kraft's  work  may  also  have  led  to  the  remarkable  imita- 
tions of  tree  trunks,  flowers,  and  the  like  in  some  Saxon 
churches,  for  instance,  that  of  Freiberg.  Kraft  was  the 
author  of  various  Madonnas  and  reliefs,  the  most  interesting 
of  which  is  the  half-comic  representation  of  the  City  Scales 
over  the  gateway  of  the  Weighing  House  of  Nuremberg. 

Peter  Vischer.  Flotner.  —  Peter  Vischer  (1460-1529)  was 
the  son  of  a  bronze  worker,  Hermann  Vischer,  who  cast  the 
Gothic  font  in  Wittenberg  (1457).  He  moved  his  establish- 
ment from  Ulm  to  Nuremberg,  where,  under  Peter's  manage- 


FIGURE  163.  — The  Fifth  Station  of  the  Cross, 
by  Adam  Kraft.  Nuremberg.  (Photo.  Dr.  F. 
Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.) 


SCULPTURE  OF  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY      319 


ment,  it  gained  an  international  reputation.  The  works  of 
Peter  Vischer  are  all  tombs,  either  simple  slabs,  ornamented 
epitaphs,  or  elaborate  free-standing  structures.  The  earli- 
est of  these  is  the  tomb  of  Archbishop  Ernst  of  Saxony,  at 
Magdeburg,  the  sculptured  figures  of  which  show,  in  the 
simplicity  of  attitudes  and  draperies,  the  beginning  of  the 
Renaissance.  His  most  important  monument  is  the  tomb 
of  St.  Sebaldus  at  Nurem- 
berg, an  elaborate  structure 
of  Gothic  form,  the  first 
sketch  for  which  dates  from 
1488,  whereas  the  work  was 
done  between  1507  and  1519. 
In  the  figure  sculpture  of  this 
monument  the  influence  of 
Italian,  specifically  Venetian, 
art  is  clearly  seen.  This 
may  be  due  in  part  to  Durer, 
but  Peter's  sons,  Peter  the 
younger  and  Hans,  had,  ap- 
parently, both  visited  Italy 
and  both  worked  with  him 
on  this  tomb.  Perhaps, 
then,  their  part  in  the  work 
was  considerable.  In  1513 
Peter  was  called  by  the 
Emperor  Maxmilian  to  Inns- 
bruck to  work  on  the  great 
tomb  of  the  Hapsburgs.  He 
received  payment  for  two 

statues,  and  it  is  generally  assumed  that  the  statues  of 
Theodoric  and  Arthur  (Fig.  164)  are  his  work.  They  are 
certainly  the  best  of  the  statues  of  the  tomb,  and  are  remark- 
able works.  The  statue  of  Arthur  is  one  of  the  finest  bronze 
statues  in  existence.  After  their  father's  death  Peter  the 
younger  and  Hans  continued  to  work  in  bronze,  but  their 
productions,  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance,  are  for  the  most 
part  no  longer  tombs,  but  small  objects  of  decorative  art. 


FIGURE  164. 
King  Arthur, 
Innsbruck. 


-  Bronze  Statue  of 
by    Peter    Vischer. 


320 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


Of  the  numerous  lesser  masters  of  Nuremberg  the  most  im- 
portant was  Peter  Flotner,  or  Flettner  (ca.  1485-1546),  who 
was  chiefly  a  wood-carver,  but  was  also  architect,  decorator, 
and  maker  of  medals.  His  activity  hastened  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

Riemenschneider.  —  In  Lower  Franconia  there  were  sculptors 
of  various  merits,  but  the  only  one  of  importance  is  Til- 
man  Riemenschneider 
(1468-1531),  who  was 
born  at  Osterode  in 
the  Harz,  came  to 
Wiirzburg  at  least  as 
early  as  1483,  was 

1 520,  became  involved 
in  the  peasant  insur- 
rection in  1525,  and 
died  in  prison  in  1531. 
He  worked  in  wood 
and  in  stone.  His 
earliest  known  work  is 
the  wooden  altarpiece 
in  Miinnerstadt 
(1490) ;  the  Adam  and 
Eve  (1493)  at  the 
doorway  of  the  chapel 
of  the  Virgin  at  Wiirz- 
burg  and  the  Ma- 

FIGURE  165.  — The  Creglingen  Altarpiece,  donna  of  the  NeU- 
by  Tilman  Riemenschneider.  (Photo.  Dr.  mi'ino+oT-l'Ji^Vio  (^A./C^^^\ 
F.  Stoedtner,  Berlin,  NW.)  ie.  I* 

show    his    ability    in 

the  representation  of  the  nude  (at  that  time  unusual  in 
Germany)  and  in  the  treatment  of  draperies  respectively. 
Three  works  which  were  formerly  attributed  to  an  anony- 
mous master  are  now  found  to  be  by  Riemenschneider :  the 
altarpieces  at  Creglingen  (Fig.  165),  Rotenburg,  and  Det- 
wang,  the  finest  of  which,  that  at  Creglingen,  was  carved 
between  1495  and  1499.  The  tomb  of  the  Emperor  Henry  II 


SCULPTURE  OF  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY      321 


(1499-1513),  at  Bamberg,  is  often  spoken  of  as  his  master- 
piece. Even  in  his  latest  works,  Riemenschneider  is  still 
Gothic  in  manner.  He  is  distinguished  for  excellent  work- 
manship, picturesque  realism,  and  delicate  sentiment. 

Swabia  and  the  Upper  Rhine,  Multscher,  Syrlin,  Dauer 
—  Medal-makers.  —  The  school  of  Swabia  and  the  Upper 
Rhine  seems  to  have  derived  its  inspiration  from  the  Flemish- 
Burgundian  school  of  Dijon.  In  Swabia  the  chief  centre  is 
Ulm,  where  the  first  sculptor  of  much  importance  is  Hans 
Multscher,  from  Reichenhofen  in  the  Allgau,  who  was  en- 
rolled as  a  citizen  of  Ulm  in  1427.  His  great  work  is  the  altar- 
piece  at  Sterzing,  in  Tyrol  (1458),  a  monumental  composition 
comprising  thirty-five  figures. 
These  are  now  scattered, 
though  most  of  them  are  still 
in  Sterzing,  but  not  together. 
The  central  figure,  the  Ma- 
donna, is  still  in  its  original 
place.  It  is  graceful,  with  an 
expression  of  great  sweetness, 
and  with  admirable  drapery. 
Some  of  the  other  figures  of 


FIGURE  166.  —  A  \\  orkman,  by  Jorg 
Syrlin  the  Elder.     Munich. 


this  great  work  were  certainly 
by  other  hands,  perhaps  in  part 
by  Jorg  Syrlin  (ca.  1430-1491),  the  successor  of  Multscher 
and  the  most  popular  sculptor  of  the  school  of  Ulm.  In  the 
choir  stalls  of  the  cathedral  at  Ulm  (1469-1474)  the  half 
figures  of  prophets  and  sibyls  above  the  seats  are  portraits 
of  great  individuality,  liveliness,  and  realism,  remarkable 
alike  for  their  expression  of  character  and  their  fine  technique. 
The  slender  figures  of  knights  about  the  fountain  in  the 
market-place  (1482)  are  also  by  Syrlin.  Twelve  busts  of 
oak,  from  the  abbey  of  Weingarten  (Fig.  166)  are  attributed 
to  him  on  grounds  of  style.  His  son,  Jorg  Syrlin  the  younger, 
carved  (1493-1495)  the  stalls  in  the  Benedictine  church  at 
Blaubeuren,  in  imitation  of  those  at  Ulm.  The  altarpiece 
in  the  same  church  is  a  characteristic  work  of  the  school  of 
Syrlin.  In  general,  this  school  is  less  dramatic  than  the  school 


322  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  Nuremberg  and  shows  less  ability  in  composition.  Single 
figures  are  preferred  to  groups.  These  figures  are  natural, 
serious,  sometimes  even  noble ;  but  the  attitudes  are  uncer- 
tain, and  there  is  little  motion.  At  Augsburg,  which  suc- 
ceeded Ulm  as  the  centre  of  Swabian  sculpture,  the  chief 
sculptors  of  the  sixteenth  century  were  Adolf  and  Hans 
Dauer,  or  Daucher,  whose  style  is  more  graceful  and  less 
archaic  than  that  of  the  school  of  Ulm.  Adolf  Dauer  is  the 
author  of  the  altarpiece  and  the  stalls  of  the  Fugger  chapel, 
which  have  been  broken  up  and  dispersed ;  the  museum  at 
Berlin  possesses  sixteen  busts  of  personages  of  the  Old 
Testament,  which  are  portraits  of  members  of  the  Fugger 
family.  Adolf's  son  Hans  carved  small  bas  reliefs  after  the  en- 
gravings of  Diirer  and  Schongauer.  His  mythological  reliefs, 
now  in  the  museums  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Sigmaringen,  are 
remarkable  for  rich  Renaissance  architecture,  excellent  per- 
spective, and  fine  execution.  Swabian  artists,  among  them 
Hans  Schwarz,  Hans  Kels,  and  Ludwig  Krug,  made  many 
medals  of  soft  stone  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  these  do 
not  equal  the  medals  made  in  Italy  at  the  same  time. 

Mainz.  Conrad  Meit.  Nicolas  Lerch.  —  At  various  places 
along  the  Upper  Rhine  and  the  Upper  Danube  are  interesting 
works  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  So  at  Mainz, 
in  the  cathedral,  is  a  fine  series  of  tombs,  two  of  which,  that 
of  Cardinal  Albert  von  Brandenburg  (1504)  and  that  of  Uriel 
von  Gemmingen  (1514),  are  by  Hans  Backofen.  The  latter 
especially,  with  its  heavy  draperies  and  broad  style,  its  ef- 
fective contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  is  a  powerful  and  im- 
pressive work.  At  Trier  also  are  some  fine  tombs,  the  finest 
perhaps  that  of  Johann  von  Metzhausen.  One  of  the  best 
of  the  Rhenish  sculptors  of  the  period  is  Conrad  Meit,  of 
Worms,  who  was  known  in  Italy  as  Corrado  Fiammengo. 
In  1487  he  carved  a  series  of  reliefs  of  scenes  of  the  childhood 
of  Jesus,  in  the  baptistery  of  the  cathedral  at  Worms ;  in  the 
early  years  of  the  sixteenth  century  he  worked  at  Wittenberg 
and  at  Malines ;  and  Margaret  of  Austria  employed  him  in  the 
decoration  of  the  chapel  in  the  church  of  Brou,  which  she 
erected  in  honor  of  her  husband  (1526).  His  work  is  remark- 


SCULPTURE  OF  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY      323 


able  for  close  observation  of  nature  and  delicate  workmanship. 
Among  Dutch  sculptors  who  worked  in  Germany  Nicholas 
of  Leyden  (Claus  Gerhaert,  known  as  Nicolas  Lerch)  is  the 
most  noted.  His  work  at  Baden  (1461),  Strassburg  (1464), 
Constance  (1470),  and  Vienna  (the  tomb  of  Emperor  Fred- 
erick III)  is  distinguished  for  its  vigorous  realism. 

Bavaria.  —  In  Bavaria  stone  sculpture  predominates, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  red  marble  and  Solenhof  limestone. 
The  figures  are  strong,  thick-set,  some- 
times coarse,  simple  in  pose  and  move- 
ment, often  stiff;  the  drapery  has 
small,  irregular  folds,  with  no  clearly 
expressed  motives.  Yet  there  is  real 
naturalism,  and  earnestness  in  expres- 
sion and  composition.  The  gravestone 
of  the  Emperor  Ludwig  the  Bavarian, 
in  the  Frauenkirche  at  Munich  (soon 
after  1468),  by  master  Hans,  is  a  work 
of  dignity  and  power.  The  churches 
of  Munich,  Landshut,  Passau,  and 
Ratisbon  contain  many  monuments 
of  this  coarse  and  vigorous  art.  The 
chief  of  the  Munich  school  was  Eras- 
mus Grasser,  who  was  active  in  1480 
and  certainly  for  some  years  before 
and  after  that  date.  The  finest  wooden 
sculptures  of  Bavaria  are  the  statues 
of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  the  twelve 
Apostles  in  the  monastery  of  Blutenburg,  near  Munich  (Fig. 
167),  which  exhibit  more  slender  proportions,  more  impres- 
sive drapery,  and  a  finer  sense  of  beauty  than  other 
Bavarian  works. 

Tyrol.  —  In  Tyrol  wood  is  almost  the  only  material  of 
sculpture,  and  the  only  sculptor  of  importance  is  Michael 
Pacher  of  Bruneck.  He  is  first  mentioned  in  1467  and  died 
in  1498.  His  altarpiece  of  St.  Wolfgang  (1477-1481)  is  his 
finest  work,  and  shows  most  fully  his  naturalism,  his  liking 
for  rich  garments,  for  variety  of  pose,  and  for  dramatic  group- 


FIGURE  167.  — St.  Mat- 
thew.   Blutenburg. 


324  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

ing.  His  altarpieces  contain  paintings  and  sculpture,  all  his 
work,  and  produce  the  effect  of  carved  pictures.  Pacher's 
art  was  influenced  by  that  of  Bavaria  and  also  by  that  of 
northern  Italy.  The  same  is  the  case  with  Tyrolese  art  of 
this  period  in  general. 

Northern  Germany.  —  In  northern  Germany  the  influence 
of  the  Netherlands  was  predominant ;  in  fact,  many  of  the 
works  of  this  period  in  these  regions  are  by  Flemish  or  Dutch 
artists.  Wood  was  the  favorite  material,  and  the  general 
tendency  of  the  sculptors  was  toward  fine  detail  rather  than 
broad  surfaces,  many  figures  rather  than  simple  groups, 
picturesque  effects  rather  than  statuesque  dignity.  Under 
Netherland  influence  local  centres  developed  at  Calcar,  in 
the  Hanse  cities,  and  in  Schleswig-Holstein.  Many  altar- 
pieces  were  exported  from  Liibeck  to  the  Baltic  provinces 
and  the  Scandinavian  countries,  but  these  commercial  pro- 
ductions are  anonymous  and  of  little  interest.  At  Calcar  the 
chief  works  are  by  artists  from  the  Netherlands.  The  great 
altarpiece  in  the  cathedral  at  Schleswig  (1515-1521),  by  Hans 
Briiggemann,  is  wonderfully  decorative,  with  its  elaborate 
Gothic  ornament  and  its  scores,  even  hundreds,  of  finely 
carved  figures;  but  with  all  its  richness  it  exhibits  little 
power  of  invention.  This  is  the  masterpiece  of  a  school  which 
flourished  throughout  the  fifteenth  century  and  into  the  six- 
teenth. 

Silesia  and  Saxony.  —  In  Silesia  the  local  art  was  strongly 
influenced  by  the  school  of  Nuremberg.  In  Saxony  much 
wood-carving  of  little  importance  was  done,  and  there  was 
some  good  sculpture  in  stone,  which  shows  the  influence  of 
Peter  Vischer  and  of  the  painter  Wohlgemuth.  Such  are  the 
reliefs  (1499-1525),  by  Theophilus  Ehrenfried  and  his  helpers, 
and  the  "Schone  Pforte"  (beautiful  gate;  1512),  by  an  un- 
known artist,  at  Annaberg. 

Period  of  Decadence.  Foreign  Sculptors.  —  About  1530 
the  decadence  of  German  sculpture  becomes  marked  and 
continues  until  about  1680.  The  causes  of  this  were  the 
Reformation,  the  impoverishment  of  the  people,  and  the 
thirty  years'  war.  Popular  art  gave  way  to  court  art,  and 


the  princes  called  to  their  courts  Dutchmen  or  Italianized 
Flemings.  German  sculptors  were  reduced  to  the  condition 
of  artisans.  Alexander  Colin,  of  Malines,  who  decorated  in 
Flemish  style  the  facade  of  the  castle  at  Heidelberg,  was 
called  to  Innsbruck  in  1562  to  finish  the  tomb  of  Emperor 
Maximilian.  He  modelled  the  bronze  statue  of  the  kneeling 
emperor  and  carved  the  picturesque  alabaster  reliefs  of  the 
sarcophagus.  The  tomb  of  Emperor  Ludwig  I,  the  Bavarian, 
in  the  Frauenkirche  at  Munich, 
was  designed  by  Pieter  de  Witte,, 
better  known  as  Pietro  Candido 
or  Peter  Candid,  who  had  ac- 
quired the  "grand  style"  in 
Italy.  He  was  for  many  years, 
beginning  with  1586,  the  real 
director  of  art  in  Munich.  At 
Augsburg  the  fountain  of  the 
Emperor  Augustus  (1593)  is  by 
Hubert  Gerhard  of  Antwerp, 
and  the  fountains  of  Mercury 
and  of  Hercules  (1599)  are  by 
Adriaen  de  Vries,  a  pupil  of 
Giovanni  Bologna,  who  was 
afterwards  called  to  Prague  as 
sculptor  to  Emperor  Rudolf  II. 
These  names  suffice  to  show  the 
character  of  sculpture  in  Ger- 
many; it  was  not  German 
sculpture.  Even  before  the  thirty  years'  war  German 
sculpture  had  ceased  to  exist. 

Revival  of  Sculpture.  Schliiter.  —  Toward  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century  Germans  began  again  to  practise  sculp- 
ture, chiefly  for  architectural  decoration.  Foreign  influence, 
which  at  this  time  is  the  influence  of  the  Italian  baroque,  is 
very  strong.  The  first  important  sculptor  is  Andreas 
Schliiter  (1664-1714).  He  was  probably  at  some  time  in 
Italy,  for  he  shows  the  Italian  sense  for  monumental  effect, 
but  in  other  respects  he  is  attached  rather  to  the  Dutch  school, 


FIGURE  168.  —  The  Great  Elec- 
tor, by  Schluter.     Berlin. 


326  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

which  was  predominant  in  northern  Germany  in  his  early 
days.  His  first  work  of  importance  is  a  not  very  successful 
bronze  statue  of  the  Elector  Frederick  III  (cast  1697),  now 
in  Konigsberg.  His  equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  III  (cast 
1700),  in  Berlin,  is  the  finest  equestrian  statue  of  the  time 
(Fig.  168).  The  twenty-one  masks  of  dying  warriors  in  the 
court  of  the  arsenal  at  Berlin  belong  to  the  same  period  and 
constitute  Schliiter's  most  brilliant  work.  The  marble  pulpit 
of  the  Marienkirche  (1703)  with  its  marble  angels  sporting 
upon  marble  clouds,  and  the  tomb  of  the  goldsmith  Mannlich, 
in  the  Nicolaikirche  are  slightly  later.  Many  of  Schliiter's 
other  works  are  lost  or  are  small  and  not  identified.  He  was 
an  artist  of  ability,  but  not  of  great  originality.  He  is  the 
chief  German  representative  of  the  baroque  style. 

Donner.  Messerschmidt.  —  Georg  Raphael  Donner  (1692- 
1741)  aimed  at  simplicity,  truth,  and  beauty  of  form,  through 
study  of  nature  and  (to  some  extent)  antiquity.  He  marks 
a  reaction  against  the  baroque  and  rococo.  His  last  and 
ripest  work  is  the  fountain  in  the  Neumarkt,  Vienna.  Here,  in 
the  centre  of  a  basin,  is  a  seated  female  figure  (Prudence)  raised 
on  a  base  about  which  are  nearly  nude  urchins  with  spouting 
fishes.  Round  the  edge  of  the  basin  are  the  four  rivers  of 
Austria.  The  figures  are  long,  the  heads  not  very  individual ; 
but  the  general  design  is  excellent  and  the  execution  good. 
Various  other  works  of  Donner  are  in  Vienna,  Pressburg,  and 
Salzburg.  He  belongs  entirely  to  the  south  of  Germany,  as 
Schliiter  to  the  north.  Of  the  sculptors  who  worked  with 
and  about  Donner  none  was  more  than  a  skilful  decorator. 
His  chief  successor  was  Franz  Xaver  Messerschmidt  (1732- 
1783),  who  produced  portraits  of  marked  individuality. 

Decorative  Sculpture.  Peter  Wagner.  —  In  connection  with 
baroque  and  rococo  architecture  much  sculpture  was  created, 
and  not  a  little  of  this  is  really  good  as  decoration,  though  it  is 
often  carelessly  executed  and  shows  much  exaggeration  of  atti- 
tude and  expression.  Peter  Wagner  (b.  1730),  who  produced 
over  one  hundred  altars  and  pulpits  in  Bavaria,  shows,  in 
some  of  them,  a  fine  sense  of  beauty  and  harmony  of  line ;  had 
he  not  produced  so  much,  he  might  have  been  a  great  artist. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  THE 
NETHERLANDS   AND   IN   ENGLAND 

THE  NETHERLANDS 

Earlier  Sculpture  in  the  Netherlands.  —  Before  discussing 
the  sculpture  of  the  Renaissance  in  the  Netherlands  a  few 
words  must  be  devoted  to  the  sculpture  of  earlier  times. 
Unfortunately  the  ravages  of  the  iconoclasts  in  the  second 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  especially  in  1566,  destroyed  a 
very  great  part  of  the  sculpture  which  then  existed,  and  how 
great  the  destruction  in  the  war  that  began  in  1914  may  prove 
to  be  cannot  yet  be  determined.  Certainly  many  of  the 
works  to  be  mentioned  presently  are  no  longer  in  existence. 

There  seems  to  have  been  little  Romanesque  or  early 
Gothic  sculpture,  and  what  there  was  showed  little  national 
character,  but  was  dependent  upon  French  or  Rhenish  art. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  there  was  an  important  school  at 
Tournai,  where  interesting  funereal  monuments  were  pro- 
duced, the  reliefs  of  which  contained  relatively  few  figures, 
and  these  natural  and  dignified  and  arranged  in  simple  groups. 
In  the  fifteenth  century  the  sculpture  of  the  Netherlands 
attained  great  importance  throughout  Europe.  Janin 
Lomme  at  Pampeluna,  in  Spain  (see  page  252),  Claus  Sluter 
and  his  fellow-workers  at  Di j  on  (see  page  213),  and  many  others 
practised  their  art  in  foreign  lands,  and  the  number  of  works 
of  sculpture  exported  from  the  Netherlands  was  very  great. 
They  are  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  country  of  Europe. 

Sculpture  in  Small  Dimensions.  —  The  art  in  which  the 
sculptors  of  the  Netherlands  excelled  is  not  great  monumental 
art,  but  sculpture  of  small  dimensions,  for  the  most  part  in 

327 


328  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

relief,  employed  for  the  adornment  of  church  furnishings 
rather  than  for  that  of  the  buildings  themselves.  Com- 
paratively little  of  this  work  is  of  stone,  though  there  are 
some  fine  stone  choir  screens  and  tabernacles,  as  in  St.  Pierre 
at  Louvain,  at  Aerschot,  Dixmude,  Tesserenderloo,  and  Lierre. 
An  early  and  typical  tabernacle,  in  St.  Martin  at  Hal,  was 
erected  in  1409  by  Henri  van  Lattem,  Meyere  and  Nicolas 
Clerc.  This  is  already  elaborate,  but  much  less  so  than  that 
in  St.  Pierre  (1535)  or  that  in  Saint  Jacques  (1539)  at  Lou- 
vain,  which  rise  as  sculptured  pyramids  to  the  vaulted  roofs. 
The  choir  screens  mentioned  resemble  those  of  Chartres  and 
Amiens  in  their  picturesque  sculptured  adornment. 

Sculpture  in  Wood.  Altarpieces.  —  But  the  favorite  ma- 
terial was  wood,  and  the  most  frequent  use  of  sculpture 
was  in  the  adornment  of  altarpieces  (retables,  reredoses), 
which  were  made  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  hundreds. 
Some  altarpieces  were  of  gold  and  silver  (as  at  Stavelot),  a 
few  were  of  stone  (as  at  Gheel),  and  some  (as  at  Hal,  1533) 
were  faced  with  alabaster,  but  far  the  greatest  number  was 
of  wood.  The  earliest  and  most  famous  of  these  was  ordered 
in  1390  from  Jacob  de  Baerse  by  Philip  the  Bold,  and  is  now 
in  the  Museum  of  Dijon.  Its  reliefs  represent  scenes  from  the 
New  Testament.  The  figures  are  heavy,  a  trifle  awkward, 
and  draped  in  voluminous  garments.  In  the  reliefs  of  the 
Hakendover  reredos,  which  was  made  toward  the  end  of  the 
fourteenth  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  there 
are  some  isolated  figures,  or  figures  arranged  in  small,  simple 
groups,  which  have  something  of  the  monumental  Gothic 
style,  but  the  thirteen  groups  recording  the  erection  of  the 
village  church  are  in  a  new  style,  with  lifelike  figures  clad  in 
well-draped  garments. 

Picturesque  Art  of  the  Altarpieces.  —  The  art  of  the  altar- 
pieces  of  the  Netherlands  is  picturesque,  anecdotic,  and 
realistic.  The  sculptures  were  brightly  colored  and  much 
gilding  was  employed.  The  reliefs  were  framed  in  a  florid 
Gothic  setting.  With  all  their  liveliness,  they  are  more  or  less 
conventional,  and  many  of  them  are  merely  industrial  works, 
made  doubtless  in  considerable  numbers  by  workers  in  large 


THE  .RENAISSANCE  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS     329 

shops  and  sold  to  such  customers  as  chose  to  buy  them,  not 
made  with  special  reference  to  the  places  where  they  were  to 
be  set  up.  Their  style,  which  was  somewhat  stiff  and  heavy 
at  first,  gains  in  freedom  and  grace  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  chief  centres  of  this  art  were  Antwerp 
and  Brussels,  but  there  were  many  sculptors  also  at  Malines, 
Haarlem,  Leyden,  and  Utrecht.  The  work  done  at  all  these* 
centres,  and  at  other,  less  important,  places,  was  essentially 
similar,  with  only  slight  local  differences.  Some  altarpieces 
are,  however,  really  original  works  of  art.  Such  are  those  at 
Herenthals  (1510-1537)  and  in  Notre  Dame  of  Lembeck, 
by  Passchier  Borremans,  that  from  Notre  Dame  hors  la 
Ville  at  Louvain  (now  in  the  museum  at  Brussels),  by  Jan 
Borremans,  another  in  the  museum  at  Brussels  which  con- 
tains the  portraits  of  the  donors,  Claude  de  Villa  and  Gentine 
Solaro,  that  of  Oplinter,  done  at  Antwerp  in  1525,  and  those 
of  Loenhout,  Villiers-la-Ville,  and  St.  Denis  at  Liege.  In  all 
these  and  not  a  few  others  the  individuality  of  a  real  artist  is 
seen,  though  the  essential  elements  of  style  are  the  same  in  all. 

Statues.  —  A  limited  number  of  statues  exists  which  were 
made  in  the  Netherlands  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. They  are  naturalistic,  realistic,  and  expressive.  At 
Dinant,  Malines,  and  Tournai  were  skilful  metal  workers, 
who  produced  reliefs  and  statuettes  possessing  much  the 
same  qualities  as  the  wooden  sculptures  of  the  altarpieces. 

The  Italian  Renaissance  in  the  Netherlands.  —  In  the  six- 
teenth century  the  Italian  style  reaches  the  Netherlands. 
The  tomb  of  Mary  of  Burgundy,  by  Jan  de  Backere  of 
Brussels  (1495),  already  shows  traces  of  Italian  influence,  and 
this  influence  increased  rapidly.  The  fireplace  in  the  council 
room  of  the  Franc  de  Bruges,  designed  by  the  painter  Lance- 
lot Blondeel,  executed  by  Guyot  de  Beaugrand  and  three 
others,  was  set  up  in  1529.  The  reliefs  with  which  it  is 
decorated  contain  life-size  figures  of  Charles  V,  Maximilian  I 
and  his  wife  Mary  of  Burgundy,  Ferdinand  of  Aragon  and 
Isabella  of  Castile.  The  quiet  grace  and  relatively  simple 
draperies  of  these  figures  show  a  break  with  the  traditions  of 
Flemish  art,  and  the  ornamental  motives  —  putti,  escutch- 


330 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


eons,  scrollwork  —  are  fully  in  the  style  of  the  Renais- 
sance. So  even  in  altarpieces,  which  had  been  the  chief 
productions  of  the  earlier  art,  the  Renaissance  changes  first 
the  ornamental  framework,  then  the  arrangement,  the 
drapery,  the  attitudes,  and  the  expression  of  the  figures. 
In  the  altarpiece  of  Saint  Martin,  at  Hal,  by  Jehan  Mone 
(1533),  the  change  is  complete.  Many  examples  could  be 
cited,  and  many  names  might  be  given,  but  the  works  seldom 
rise  above  skilful  mediocrity,  and  the  sculptors  exhibit  little 
originality.  Only  a  few  need  be  mentioned.  Jacques  du 

B  r  o  e  u  c  q,  of 
Mons  (b.  be- 
tween 1500  and 
1510,  d.  1548), 
studied  in  Rome 
and  returned  to 
Mons  in  1535. 
His  works  are 
chiefly  in  his 
native  town. 
His  style  is  that 
of  the  Renais- 
sance, retaining 
little  or  nothing 
of  the  mediaeval 
spirit.  Some  of 
the  work  of  the 
rood-screen  of  Sainte  Waudru,  at  Mons,  has  a  grace  and 
elegance  which  calls  to  mind  Sansovino  or  Jean  Goujon. 
Cornelis  de  Vriendt,  or  Floris  (Antwerp,  1518-1575),  pre- 
serves in  his  art  no  trace  of  his  northern  origin.  His 
chief  extant  works  are  the  tabernacle  of  Leau  (1551),  the 
tabernacle  of  Zuerbempde,  the  tomb  of  Christian  of 
Denmark,  at  Roeskilde,  and  the  choir  screen  at  Tournai 
(Fig.  169),  though  this  last  is  attributed  to  him  without 
documentary  evidence.  His  work  is  pleasing,  and  his  deco- 
ration rich,  but  he  shows  no  great  power  or  originality. 
Sculptors  who  worked  in  the  manner  of  Cornelis  de  Vriendt 


FIGURE  169.  —  Choir  Screen  at  Tournai,  by  Cornelis 
de  Vriendt. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS     331 

in  the  sixteenth  century  were  numerous ;  among  them  were 
Pieter  Coecke  of  Alost  (1507-1550),  the  unknown  artist  of 
the  tomb  of  Jean  de  Merode  (d.  1559)  at  Gheel,  and  Alexander 
Colin  or  Colyns  (1529-1622),  whose  work  at  Innsbruck  and 
Prague  has  already  been  mentioned.  There  was  much  orna- 
mental sculpture  of  putti  and  scrollwork  ("grotesques")  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  especially  in  the  first  half,  which 
resembles  closely  the  contemporary  work  of  the  same  kind 
done  in  Italy.  The  most  famous  example  of  this  is  in  the 
town  hall  at  Audenarde,  by  Paul  van  der  Schelde  (1531). 

The  Baroque  in  the  Netherlands.  —  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury the  baroque  style  flourished  abundantly  in  the  Nether- 
lands. Among  the  earliest  artists  in  this  style  were  Jan  and 
Robert  de  Nole,  who  came  from  Utrecht  but  were  made 
citizens  of  Antwerp  in  1593.  Their  works  —  tombs  and 
figures  of  saints  —  are  seen  in  a  number  of  churches  in 
Antwerp,  Brussels,  and  Ghent.  Francois  Duquesnoy  (1594- 
1642),  the  most  distinguished  Flemish  sculptor  of  his  time, 
was  the  son  of  a  sculptor,  Jerome  Duquesnoy,  who  was 
active  at  Brussels  until  1641.  Fran£ois  went  to  Italy  in  1618 
and  remained  there  until  his  death.  His  activity  was  chiefly 
in  Rome,  where  he  was  known  as  Francesco  Fiamingo,  and 
the  only  work  by  him  in  Belgium  is  the  admirable  tomb  of 
the  Bishop  of  Trieste,  in  the  church  of  St.  Bavon  at  Ghent ; 
even  this  was  finished  by  his  brother  Jerome  (1602-1654). 
Another  family  of  sculptors  bore  the  name  of  Quellin,  or 
Quellinus,  and  each  of  the  three  known  members  of  the 
family  was  named  Artus.  The  eldest  was  admitted  to 
the  guild  of  St.  Luke  in  1606.  His  son  Artus  Quellin 
(1609-1668)  is  the  best  artist  of  the  family  and  the  one 
meant  when  the  name  is  mentioned  without  further  quali- 
fication. His  chief  work  is  the  sculptured  decoration  of 
the  town  hall  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  a  sculptor  of  no  little 
power,  and  his  influence  extended  into  Germany.  His 
nephew,  Artus  Quellin  the  younger  (1625-1700),  assisted  him 
in  his  work  at  Amsterdam  and  made  many  statues  for 
churches.  Still  another  family  of  sculptors  is  that  of  Ver- 
bruggen.  The  father,  Pierre  Verbruggen  the  elder,  was  a 


332  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

pupil  of  his  brother-in-law,  Artus  Quellin,  and  the  teacher  of 
his  two  sons,  Pierre  the  younger  and  Henri  Fran£ois.  Hardly 
a  church  in  their  native  Antwerp  is  without  some  work  of  this 
gifted  family.  The  most  famous  of  all  their  works,  however, 
is  the  pulpit  of  Ste.  Gudule,  at  Brussels,  by  Henri  Francois 
(1700),  with  its  picturesque  representation  of  the  expulsion  of 
Adam  and  Eve  from  paradise.  Other  well-known  sculptors 
are  Jean  Delcour,  of  Liege  (1627-1707),  and  Lucan  Fayd'- 
herbe  (161 7-1 697) ,  of  Malines.  The  works  of  these  and  many 
more,  for  the  number  of  sculptors  at  this  time  was  great, 
consists  chiefly,  though  by  no  means  exclusively,  of  church 
furnishings,  choir  screens,  altars,  stalls,  confessionals,  pulpits, 
communion  benches,  and  tombs.  In  these  much  invention 
and  great  technical  skill  is  displayed.  The  gorgeousness  and 
freedom  of  the  paintings  of  Rubens,  and  sometimes  his 
ability  in  portraiture,  seem  transferred  to  wood  and  marble. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  a  reaction  toward  classicism  set  in, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  which  was  Lambert  Godecharle,  of 
Brussels  (1750-1835). 

ENGLAND 

A  Period  of  Decadence.  Tombs.  Nicholas  Stone.  Grin- 
ling  Gibbons.  —  The  period  of  the  Renaissance  is  a  time  of 
decadence  in  English  sculpture.  Most  of  the  important 
monuments  are  the  work  of  foreigners,  and  the  few  English 
sculptors  show  little  ability.  The  engraved  brasses  on 
tombs  of  the  fifteenth  century  are  for  the  most  part  imported 
or  were  made  by  artists  from  the  Netherlands,  as  were  also 
many  decorative  sculptures.  In  the  sixteenth  century 
alabaster  carvings  were  still  popular,  but  were  mere  com- 
mercial work.  Much  building  went  on  early  in  the  century, 
and  in  connection  with  churches  and  castles  there  was  much 
good  ornamental  carving  of  wood  and  stone.  The  chapel  of 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  contains  fine  examples  of  such 
work.  The  chapel  of  Henry  VII,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  is 
richly  adorned  with  purely  ornamental  sculpture  and  also  — 
which  is  very  exceptional  —  with  figures.  In  these  some 
Flemish  influence  is  evident,  which  gives  them  variety  of 


THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ENGLAND 


333 


pose  and  action.  These  are  the  last  examples  of  English 
figure  sculpture  before  the  coming  of  Italian  art.  The 
tomb  of  Henry  VII  and  the  bronze  effigy  of  Margaret  of 
Richmond  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII  in  Westminster  Abbey 
are  the  work  of  Pietro  Torrigiano  (see  page  295) ,  and  Benedetto 
da  Rovezzano  (see  page  295)  designed  a  tomb  for  Cardinal 
Wolsey ; l  other  Italian  sculptors  also  worked  in  England, 
but  their  works  exercised  little  influence  upon  native  art, 
which  was  more  affected  by  the  art  of  the  Netherlands.  It 


FIGURE  170.  —  The  Tomb  of  Sir  Francis  Vere,  by  Stone.    Westminster 

Abbey. 

was  from  the  Netherlands  that  the  Renaissance  came  to 
England,  where  it  had  triumphed  completely  before  the 
middle  of  the  century.  In  the  seventeenth  century  many 
highly  ornamental  tombs  of  marble  and  alabaster  were 
erected  in  England,  but  their  figure  sculpture  is  neither 
beautiful  in  design  nor  fine  in  execution.  The  chief  native 
English  sculptor  was  Nicholas  Stone  (1586-1647),  who  worked 
much  under  the  supervision  of  the  architect  Inigo  Jones  and 

1  The  sarcophagus  of  this  tomb  is  now  in  St.  Paul's  and  holds  the  body 
of  Lord  Nelson. 


334  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

made  many  tombs.  He  is  generally  regarded  as  the  artist 
of  the  tombs  of  Sir  Francis  Vere  (d.  1607)  and  George  Villiers, 
duke  of  Buckingham  (d.  1628),  and  his  wife,  both  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  These  are  the  finest  tombs  in  England  of  this 
period.  Apparently  the  Villiers  monument  is  the  work  of 
two  sculptors,  and  no  documentary  evidence  connects,  either 
of  these  tombs  with  Nicholas  Stone.  The  Vere  monument 
(Fig.  170),  with  its  recumbent  effigy,  over  which  four  kneeling 
men-at-arms  hold  up  a  slab  covered  with  armor,  is  almost  a 
copy  of  the  tomb  of  Engelbert  II  of  Vianden-Nassau.  The 
execution  is  fine.  In  the  Villiers  monument  the  effigies  are 
exceptionally  good,  and  the  kneeling  figures  of  the  duke's 
children  are  well  designed,  but  the  allegorical  figures  are  with- 
out interest.  Grinling  Gibbons  (1648-1721)  was  a  native  of 
Holland.  He  was  a  skilful  sculptor,  who  exercised  his  skill 
largely  in  carving  realistic  fruit  and  flowers  in  wood.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  he  worked  under  Sir 
Christopher  Wren.  His  work  may  be  seen  in  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  in  the  stalls  and  screens  of  St.  Paul's,  London,  and 
in  other  churches. 

The  Eighteenth  Century.  Foreigners.  John  Bacon. 
Thomas  Banks.  —  In  the  eighteenth  century  French  and 
Flemish  sculptors  were  employed  in  most  of  the  important 
works.  The  chief  among  them  were  Roubiliac  (1695-1762), 
Peter  Scheemakers  (1691-1773),  and  J.  M.  Rysbrack  (1694- 
1770).  Joseph  Nollekens  (1737-1823),  a  pupil  of  Schee- 
makers, was  the  author  of  many  portrait  busts.  John  Bacon 
(1740-1799)  was  English,  and  his  work,  especially  portraits, 
is  not  without  merit.  Thomas  Banks  (1735-1805)  studied  in 
Rome  and  was  affected  by  ancient  art;  his  works  have 
something  of  the  neo-classic  manner. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN   SPAIN 

Plateresque  Decoration.  —  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  art 
of  the  Netherlands  and  of  Germany  had  supplanted  the  French 
art  which  had  prevailed  in  Spain  in  earlier  times.  Meanwhile 
the  old  mudejar  traditions  were  still  strong,  and  in  some 
places,  as  in  the  cathedral  (formerly  the  mosque)  at  Cordova, 
fine  stucco  decoration  in  pure  mudejar  style  was  still  em- 
ployed. In  other  places  the  combination  of  flamboyant 
Gothic,  Renaissance,  and  mudejar  elements  produced  a  rich 
and  characteristic  style  of  decoration,  of  which  the  facade 
of  the  university  at  Salamanca  (about  1480)  is  a  fine  example. 
Such  decoration,  called  plateresque,  from  its  resemblance  to 
goldsmith's  work,  is  prevalent  until  the  final  triumph  of  the 
Renaissance.  An  example  in  which  the  Renaissance  ele- 
ments are  stronger  than  in  the  university  at  Salamanca  is  the 
portal  of  the  hospital  of  Santa  Cruz  at  Toledo  (Fig.  171),  by 
Enrique  de  Egas  (1494-1514). 

Foreign  Artists  and  Influences.  —  Many  fine  wood-carvings 
in  churches  —  stalls,  screens,  altarpieces  —  in  the  fifteenth 
and  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  centuries  are  the  work  of 
foreigners ;  the  names  of  Jean  de  Malines  and  the  German 
Theodoric  are  connected  with  the  stalls  at  Leon ;  a  Fleming, 
a  Hollander,  and  three  Frenchmen  were  at  work  in  Zamora 
from  1512  to  1516;  Rodrigo  Aleman carved  the  stalls  at  Pla- 
sencia  and  those  of  Toledo  with  their  lively  battle  scenes ; 
the  Fleming  Dancart  wrought  the  wonderful  altarpiece  at 
Seville ;  Copin,  of  Holland,  was  the  artist  of  the  royal  tombs, 
and  some  parts,  at  least,  of  the  great  altarpiece  at  Toledo 
(1507).  In  these  works  the  style  is  northern,  only  the 
increased  splendor  and  magnificence  being  Spanish.  The 

335 


336 


A   HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  171.  —  Portal  of  the  Hospital  of  Santa  Cruz,    Toledo. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  SPAIN     337 

foreign  artists  had  native  assistants.  So  Sebastian  Almonacid 
was  employed  with  Copin  at  Toledo ;  he  had  carved  twelve 
statues  of  apostles  at  Parral  in  1494,  and  in  1509  he  worked  at 
Seville  with  a  sculptor,  Pedro  Millan,  who  may  have  been  a 
Fleming.  It  is  as  yet  impossible  in  most  cases  to  tell  what 
part  in  any  great  work  belongs  to  the  Spanish  workers,  but 
not  a  little  of  the  sculpture  of  the  many  fine  tombs  and  other 
works  of  this  period  must  be  attributed  to  Spaniards.  The 
rich  and  splendid  sculpture  of  San  Juan  de  los  Reyes,  at 
Toledo,  begun  by  Juan  Guas,  perhaps  a  Fleming,  is  neither 
Flemish  nor  Gothic,  in  spite  of  the  Gothic  form  of  its  setting. 

Gil  de  Siloe  and  the  School  of  Burgos.  —  The  most  brilliant 
work  of  Castillian  sculpture  is  the  burial  chapel  in  the  Cartuja 
of  Miraflores  (Fig.  172),  near  Burgos,  which  contains  the 
alabaster  tombs  of  King  Juan  II  and  his  queen  Isabella  and 
of  Alfonso  (father,  mother,  and  brother  of  the  great  Isabella), 
and  a  magnificent  reredos  of  wood.  The  tombs  were  begun 
in  1489,  the  reredos  in  1496.  The  whole  was  finished  in  1499, 
and  forms  an  ensemble  of  surpassing  richness,  gleaming  with 
gold,  color,  and  the  warm  glow  of  alabaster.  The  almost 
confusing  wealth  of  detail  is  elaborated  with  the  greatest  care. 
The  effigies  of  the  dead  are  admirable,  and  each  accessory 
figure  and  statuette  is  a  work  of  art  in  itself.  Of  the  artist, 
Gil  de  Siloe,  little  is  known  except  his  works.  He  collaborated 
with  the  foreigners  who  worked  in  the  cathedral  at  Burgos, 
and  was  the  artist  of  the  tomb  of  Juan  de  Padilla  (d.  1491), 
which  is  now  in  the  museum  at  Burgos.  At  Miraflores  he 
combines  the  teachings  of  the  Flemish  and  German  masters 
with  the  traditions  of  mudejar  art.  Other  masters  of  the 
school  of  Burgos  are  Diego  de  la  Cruz  and  master  Guillen, 
to  whom  the  great  reredos  in  the  chapel  of  the  Conception  in 
the  cathedral  at  Burgos  is  attributed.  Their  work  is,  except 
in  its  size  and  magnificence,  northern  in  character.  Several 
other  similar  altarpieces,  which  make  the  whole  wall  dis- 
appear behind  a  mass  of  reliefs,  are  to  be  seen  at  Burgos. 

Portuguese  Sculpture.  —  In  Portugal  the  art  of  this  period 
was  also  a  mixture  of  northern  realism  with  the  rich  geo- 
metrical ornament  of  oriental  art.  It  is  vigorous  and 


338 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  172. — Tomb  of  Juan  II  and  Isabella  of  Portugal.     Miraflores,  near 

Burgos. 

decorative,  giving  more  prominence  than  Spanish  sculpture 
to  the  Arab  elements. 

Italian  Sculptors  in  Spain.  —  Italian  sculpture  came  to 
Spain  in  the  fifteenth  century.     Between  1417  and  1420,  a 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  SPAIN     339 

Florentine,  Giuliano  da  Poggibonsi,  who  had  worked  under 
Ghiberti  on  the  earlier  bronze  door  of  the  baptistery,  carved 
twelve  alabaster  panels  with  biblical  scenes  in  the  cathedral 
at  Valencia.  An  altarpiece  (destroyed  in  1812)  at  Valencia 
was  made  soon  after  1469  by  a  Pisan  silversmith.  A  Floren- 
tine, Giovanni  Moreto,  who  was  settled  at  Saragossa  before 
1513  and  worked  there  until  after  1542,  was  undoubtedly 
influential  in  making  the  Italian  style  prevail  in  Aragon. 
His  chapel  and  altarpiece  at  Jaca  (1523),  his  two  altarpieces 
and  his  stalls  at  Saragossa  are  all  in  the  style  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance.  In  Murcia  and  Granada  two  Florentines, 
Francesco  and  Jacopo  Indaco,  worked  as  architects  and 
sculptors  about  1520,  and  at  Granada  a  Milanese,  Martino, 
was  also  employed.  The  tomb  of  the  Infanta  Don  Juan 
(1512)  at  Avila  and  the  double  tomb  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  (1517)  at  Granada  are  works  of  a  Florentine, 
Domenico  di  Sandro  Fancelli,  to  whom  the  tombs  of  Cardinal 
Pedro  de  Mendoza,  at  Toledo,  and  Archbishop  Don  Diego 
Hurtado  may  also  be  attributed.  A  "Miguel  Florentin" 
also  worked  at  Seville  about  the  same  time.  Somewhat 
earlier  Nicoluso  di  Francesco,  of  Pisa,  had  brought  to  Seville 
the  glazed  polychrome  terra-cotta  of  the  della  Robbia.  Pietro 
Torrigiano  was  at  Seville  in  1526  and  died  there  in  1528. 
His  chief  works,  a  series  of  painted  terra-cotta  statues, 
probably  exercised  considerable  influence.  Several  other 
Italian  sculptors  worked  in  Spain,  and  the  trade  in  finished 
Carrara  marbles,  which  was  carried  on  chiefly  at  Genoa,  also 
served  to  spread  the  style  of  the  Renaissance  in  Spain. 

Early  Spanish  Sculptors  who  adopted  the  Italian  Style.  — 
Spaniards  were  quick  to  adopt  the  Italian  style.  In  Granada 
Juan  Garcia  de  Pradas  made  the  doorway  to  the  royal  chapel 
(1522),  decorated  in  the  style  of  the  Renaissance.  At 
Sigiienza,  in  Castile,  under  the  leadership  of  Domenico 
Fancelli,  a  group  of  Spanish  sculptors  —  Francisco  Guillen 
of  Toledo,  Francisco  de  Baeza,  Juan  de  Talavera,  and  a  Sebas- 
tian, no  doubt  Almonacid  —  worked  together  in  the  new 
style.  The  chief  Spanish  sculptor  in  Castile  was  the  highly 
gifted  Vasco  de  la  Zanza,  who  retains  in  the  ornamentation  of 


340  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

the  tomb  of  the  bishop  Alonso  Carrillo  de  Albornoz  (d.  1514) 
of  Toledo  few  traces  of  the  Gothic  style,  and  in  his  other 
works  none  at  all.  His  chief  pupil  was  Juan  Rodriguez, 
whose  most  important  work  is  the  rich  —  too  rich  —  decora- 
tion of  the  church  at  Parral.  Bartolome  Ordonez,  of  Burgos, 
after  a  sojourn  in -Italy,  established  an  atelier  at  Barcelona, 
where  his  statues  and  reliefs  of  the  choir  screen  in  the  ca- 
thedral are  the  first  important  works  of  the  Renaissance  in 
Catalonia.  He  was  soon  called  upon  to  finish  a  series  of 
tombs,  including  that  of  Cardinal  Ximenez  de  Cisneros,  at 
Henares,  begun  by  Fancelli  for  the  Fonseca  family,  and  to 
make  the  tomb  of  Philip  the  Fair  and  Joanna  the  Mad  at 
Granada.  For  greater  ease  and  rapidity  of  work  he  removed 
to  Carrara,  where  he  died  in  1520.  The  works  he  had  begun 
were  finished  accord  ing  to  his  plans  by  the  workers  of  Carrara. 
He  had  assimilated  the  Italian  style  completely. 

Borgona. —  Felipe  Vigarni  (Felipe  de  Borgona;  d.  1543), 
of  Burgundian  origin,  but  born  at  Burgos,  one  of  the  most 
important  Spanish  sculptors  of  his  time,  carved  (1500-1505) 
the  great  tras-sagrario  altar  screen  in  the  cathedral  at  Burgos, 
the  most  stupendous  of  the  great  Spanish  altarpieces,  in  the 
Flemish-Gothic  style,  with  hundreds  of  figures  (Fig.  173). 
Later  he  carved  some  of  the  stalls  in  the  cathedral  at  Toledo, 
and  his  last  work  is  the  altarpiece  of  the  royal  chapel  in 
Granada  (Fig.  174)  in  which  he  has  adopted  the  style  of  the 
Renaissance  completely. 

Berruguete,  his  PupiU,  and  his  Influence.  —  But  the  most 
famous  Spanish  sculptor  of  the  Renaissance  was  Alonso  Ber- 
ruguete (1480-1561)  of  Paredesde  Nava,  in  Castile,  son  of  the 
painter  Pedro  Berruguete.  In  1506  he  was  in  Rome  as  a  pupil 
of  Michael  Angelo.  In  1520  he  returned  to  Spain  and  was 
soon  established  at  Valladolid.  He  carved  marble  tombs  for 
which  he  took  the  general  designs  from  Spanish  works,  but 
his  figures  are  in  the  style  of  Michael  Angelo,  somewhat 
exaggerated.  His  last  work,  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Juan  de 
Tavera,  represents  the  cardinal  extended  on  his  funeral 
couch,  in  imitation  of  the  tomb  of  Cardinal  Ximenez  de 
Cisneros,  by  Fancelli  and  Ordonez.  His  most  extensive 


SCULPTURE   OF  THE  RENAISSANCE   IN   SPAIN     341 


FIGURE  173.  —  The  Crucifixion.    Part  of  an  Altarpiece,  by  Felipe  de  Bor- 
gona.     Burgos. 

work  is  the  decoration  of  the  stalls  of  the  cathedral  of  Toledo, 
in  which  the  exaggerated  attitudes  and  powerful  forms  betray 
the  imitator  of  Michael  Angelo.  Berruguete's  influence  was 
great,  and  its  effect  is  seen  in  many  Spanish  works  of  the 


342 


A  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE 


FIGURE  174. — Altarpiece  by  Felipe  de  Borgofia.    Granada. 

Renaissance.  Among  his  pupils  and  imitators  were  his 
nephew  Inocencio,  Gaspar  de  Tordesillas,  Francisco  Giralte, 
and  Tudesilla.  Gaspar  Becerra  (1520-1571),  painter  as 
well  as  sculptor,  studied  in  Italy  and  was  an  imitator  of 
Michael  Angelo  as  much  as  of  Berruguete. 


Damian  Forment.  —  In  Aragon  the  chief  sculptor  of  the 
Renaissance  was  Damian  Forment  (d.  1541)  of  Valencia, 
where  his  early  works  show  the  influence  of  the  local  school. 
In  1509  he  went  to  Saragossa;  here  he  carved  the  great 
alabaster  altarpiece  of  the  church  of  La  Pilar  (1511).  In  its 
architecture  this  work  still  retains  some  Gothic  traits,  but 
many  of  the  figures  are  entirely  in  the  style  of  the  Renais- 
sance. This  is  true  also  of  Ferment's  alabaster  altarpiece  at 
Huesca  (1520),  but  in  the  wooden  altarpiece  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo de  la  Calgarda  and  that  of  Barbastro  the  Renaissance, 
as  introduced  by  Berruguete,  is  completely  triumphant. 
Ferment's  pupils,  like  their  master,  came  completely  under 
the  influence  of  Berruguete. 

The  Leoni.  Juan  de  A  rfe.  —  Under  Charles  V  and  Philip  II 
two  Italians,  Leone  Leoni  (1509-1592)  and  his  son  Pompeo 
Leoni  (d.  1608),  were  the  court  sculptors.  Leone  is  the  artist 
of  various  works  in  Italy  and  of  an  allegorical  group  in  bronze 
of  Charles  V  trampling  upon  Rage,  and  father  and  son 
produced  the  remarkable  kneeling  statues  of  the  royal  family 
in  the  Escorial,  of  gilded  and  incrusted  bronze.  Juan  de 
Arfe  (1523-1603),  though  primarily  a  goldsmith,  was  also 
a  sculptor  of  note.  His  bronze  kneeling  figure  of  Cristobal 
de  Rojas  y  Sandoval,  archbishop  of  Seville,  is  a  masterpiece. 

Juan  de, Juni.  Hernandez.  Peyrera.  Montanes.  Roldan. 
Gixon.  —  Before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  Juan  de 
Juni  (d.  1614),  painter,  architect,  and  sculptor,  was  sum- 
moned by  the  bishop  of  Oporto  to  build  a  palace.  Of  his 
origin  nothing  certain  is  known.  He  settled  at  Valladolid, 
where  his  Entombment  and  Virgin  of  the  Swords  are  his 
chief  works.  His  Descent  from  the  Cross  in  Segovia  is  a 
third  masterpiece.  He  excells  in  expression  of  emotion. 
Gregorio  Hernandez,  or  Fernandez  (1566-1636),  like  Juan  de 
Juni  and  most  Spanish  sculptors,  used  color  freely  on  his 
sculptures.  His. Virgin  of  Sorrows  in  Valladolid  is  a  remark- 
able example  of  emotional  polychrome  statuary.  The 
Portuguese  Manuel  Peyrera  (1600?-!  667)  is  known  chiefly 
by  his  St.  Bruno,  at  the  monastery  of  Miraflores,  near  Burgos, 
an  impressive  and  powerful  work.  Juan  Martinez  Montanes 


344 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


(ca.  1564-1649)  worked  almost  exclusively  in  and  near 
Seville.  His  most  noted  works  are  figures  of  Christ  omnip- 
otent, Christ  dying,  and  Christ  of  the  Passion,  in  which  his 
fervent  piety  and  his  ability  to  express  poignant  emotion 
find  their  proper  element.  His  other  most  familiar  works  are 
the  St.  Jerome  of  the  altarpiece  at  Santiponce,  the  St.  Bruno 
at  Cadiz  (1641),  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  at  Seville 
(1630).  His  school  was  continued  at  Seville  by  Pedro  Roldan 

(1624-1700),  Juan  An- 
tonio Gixon,  and  others. 
Luisa  Roldan  (1656- 
1704),  daughter  of 
Pedro,  was  a  talented 
sculptor  of  terra-cottas 
and  large  religious  fig- 
ures and  groups. 

Alonso  Cano  and  hi-s 
School.  —  Among  the 
pupils  and  successors  of 
Montanes  the  chief  is 
Alonso  Cano  (1601- 
1667),  of  Granada.  He 
was  more  prolific  as  a 
painter  than  as  a  sculp- 
tor, though  many  works 
of  sculpture  are  cur- 
rently ascribed  to  him. 
His  St.  Bruno  at  the 
Cartuja,  the  head  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  (Fig.  175)  in  the  hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dios, 
the  St.  Anne  with  the  Virgin  and  the  Infant  Jesus,  and  the 
"Soledad,"  a  figure  of  the  Virgin,  all  at  Granada,  show  his 
mastery  of  technique,  his  skill  in  the  use  of  color,  and  his 
power  to  express  emotion.  His  chief  pupils  were  Jose  de 
Mora  (1638-1725),  Pedro  de  Mena  (d.  1963),  and  Diego  de 
Pesquera. 

The  Baroque.    Chirriguera.    The  Eighteenth  Century.   Zar- 
cillo  and  Other  Sculptors.  —  In  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 


FIGTJRE  175.  —  Head  of  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, by  Alonso  Cano.     Granada. 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  SPAIN     345 

teenth  century  the  baroque  style  in  its  most  exaggerated  form 
invaded  Spain.  The  chief  baroque  sculptor  was  Chirriguera 
(d.  1725).  At  the  same  time  some  works  retain  something  of 
the  earlier  emotional  purity,  but  in  general  the  period  of 
baroque  sculpture  is  without  interest.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  Philip  V  undertook  to  revive  art  by  bringing  sculptors 
from  France,  and  numerous  French  works  of  his  time  testify 
to  theiractivity.-  Fraijbisco  Zarcillo;(1707-17£8)~of  .Miircia, 
whose  father,  Nicola,  from  Capua,  in  Italy,  was  a  sculptor, 
created  statues  of  remarkable  emotional  effect  and  truth  to 
life,  though  their  draperies  are  confused  and  their  attituHes 
exaggerated.  The  number  of  his  works,  is  said  to, be  more 
than  1800.  The  teaching  of  the  Academy. of  San  Fernando 
(founded  in  1751  by  Ferdinand  VI)  undoubtedly  tended  to 
restrain  exaggerations  and  excesses  in  sculpture,  but. [ also 
to  repress  originality.  In  general,  Spanish  sculpture  of  .the 
eighteenth  century  lacks  interest,  though  the  number  of 
sculptors  is  considerable.  Among;them  may  be. mentioned 
A.  Pujol  of  Catalonia,  P.  Duque  of  Seville,  'Juan  de  Hines- 
trosa,  A.  Salvador  (d.  1766),  Philip  de  .Castro  of^Galicia 
(d.  1775),  Francisco  Gutierrez  (d.  1782),  Juan  de  Villanueva, 
the  Ron  brothers,  Salvador  Carmona,  Juan  Alonso"  Villa- 
brille,  Felipe  del  Corral,  Alfonso  Bergaz,  and  Manuel  Alvarez. 
The  works  of  these  men  are  seldom  original  in  any  marked 
degree.  They  follow  the  prevailing  style  of  the  French 
sculptors,  often  with  a  certain  degree  of  grace  and  charm. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

MODERN   SCULPTURE  IN   ITALY,   DENMARK, 
NORWAY  AND   SWEDEN 

Change  Inevitable.  —  The  sculpture  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  developed  naturally  from  that  of  the 
Renaissance,  for  the  germs  of  the  exaggerations  and  manner- 
isms of  the  Baroque  and  Rococo,  the  styles  of  Louis  XIV  and 
Louis  XV,  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Michael  Angelo. 
These  exaggerations  and  mannerisms  were  carried  so  far  by 
the  successors  and  imitators  of  Bernini  that  further  develop- 
ment in  the  same  direction  was  almost  impossible.  Sculpture 
must  become  simpler  and  quieter,  and  must  be  made  less 
dependent  upon  architecture.  The  study  of  ancient  litera- 
ture and  the  practice  of  collecting  works  of  ancient  art  had 
never  been  discontinued  since  the  beginning  of  the  Renais- 
sance, and  the  publication,  in  1764,  of  Winckelmann's  History 
of  Ancient  Art  had  turned  the  attention  of  the  learned  more 
than  ever  toward  the  study  of  the  existing  remains  of  Greek 
and  Roman  sculpture.  It  wras  natural,  therefore,  that  the 
change  in  development  of  sculpture,  which  was  almost 
inevitable,  should  take  the  form  of  a  reversion  to  classical 
ideals  and  imitation  of  classical  models. 

Canova. —  The  sculptor  who  began  the  classical  revival 
was  Antonio  Canova  (1757-1822),  who  was  born  at  the  little 
town  of  Possagno,  near  Venice.  Assisted  by  the  Senator 
Giovanni  Falieri,  he  was  able  to  study  sculpture  at  Venice, 
and  the  success  of  his  early  works  —  Orpheus  and  Eurydice, 
Aesculapius,  Daedalus  and  Icarus  —  enabled  him  to  go  to 
Rome  in  1779.  Here  he  rose  to  great  fame  and  influence,  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  artists  who  followed  the  tradi- 
tions of  Bernini.  He  was  a  very  productive  sculptor,  for  he 

346 


MODERN   SCULPTURE  IN   ITALY 


executed  59  statues,  14  groups,  22  monuments,  and  54  busts, 
besides  a  number  of  reliefs.  When  compared  with  the  pro- 
ductions of  his  immediate  predecessors,  his  works  are  seen 
to  be  far  more  simple,  natural,  and  graceful.  There  is  some- 
thing theatrical  in  some  of  them,  as  in  the  Theseus  of  the 
Vatican,  showing  that  Canova's  return  to  classicism  was, 
after  all,  only  external.  His 
choice  of  subjects,  when  he  was 
free  to  choose,  makes  it  clear 
that  classic  art  was  his  ideal,  for 
nearly  all  his  groups  and  statues, 
except  portraits  and  monuments, 
represent  ancient  gods  or  heroes, 
and  even  his  portraits  show  his 
admiration  for  antiquity ;  he 
represented  Washington  as  a 
Roman  senator,  Napoleon's 
mother  in  the  attitude  of  Agrip- 
pina,  and  Napoleon  himself  in 
the  costume  of  a  Roman  em- 
peror. Among  his  most  widely 
known  works  are  the  Theseus 
and  the  Minotaur,  the  Venus, 
the  Perseus,  and  the  Cupid  and 
Psyche  (Fig.  176),  to  which  may 
be  added  the  tombs  of  Popes 
Clement  XIII  arid  XIV.  In  his 
reliefs  he  is,  on  the  whole,  less 
successful  than  in  his  statues. 
He  is  most  successful  in  those 
groups  and  statues,  like  the  Cupid  and  Psyche,  in  which 
grace  and  charm,  rather  than  vigor  and  power,  are  to 
be  expressed.  Even  in  these  there  seems  to  be  a  lack 
of  reality.  Canova  was  consciously  imitating  antiquity 
and  he  was  living  and  working  at  a  time  when  the  habits 
and  traditions  of  baroque  art  were  still  strong.  That  his 
works  should  impress  us  to-day  as  somewhat  artificial  is  only 
what  might  be  expected.  Even  he,  undoubtedly  the  greatest 


FIGURE  176.  —  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  by  Canova.  The 
Louvre,  Paris. 


348  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

sculptor  of  his  time,  could  not  free  himself  entirely  from  the 
influences  of  that  time. 

The  Neo-classic  School  in  Italy.  —  Canova's  pupils  are 
relatively  few,  for  the  classical  school  of  sculpture  soon  ac- 
knowledged Thorvaldsen  as  its  chief.  Of  him  it  will  be  best 
to  speak  elsewhere,  though  he  lived  and  worked  chiefly  in 
Rome  and  his  influence  was  supreme  for  a  time  throughout 
Italy.  After  Canova  the  chief  Italian  sculptor  of  the  classical 
school  was  Pietro  Tenerani  (1798-1869),  a  pupil  first  of 
Canova,  then  of  Thorvaldsen.  His  works  are  numerous  and 
comprise  both  mythological  and  Christian  subjects.  Among 
the  former  are  Psyche  with  Pandora's  Box,  a  Venus,  a  Cupid, 
a  Flora,  and  a  Faun,  among  the  latter  the  most  noted  are  a 
relief  of  the  Deposition,  in  the  Capella  Torlonia  of  the  Lat- 
eran,  and  the  tomb  of  the  Duchess  Lante  in  Sta.  Maria  sopra 
Minerva.  His  style  is  correct,  academic,  and  frigid.  The 
sculptors  of  the  neo-classic  school  were  numerous  in  Italy, 
but  it  is  hardly  worth  while  to  record  their  names.  Their 
works  exhibit  little  variety,  as  their  one  desire  was  to  imitate 
the  style  of  Greek,  or  rather  Greco-Roman,  sculpture.  One 
who  enjoyed  no  little  fame  in  his  day  was  Francesco  Mas- 
similiano  Laboureur  (1767-1831),  who  taught  sculpture  with 
Canova  and  Thorvaldsen  at  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  in 
Rome  and  made  a  statue  of  Napoleon  clad  in  a  toga. 

The  Romantic  School.  —  The  neo-classic  school  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  romantic  school,  which  enlivened  the  academic 
coldness  of  the  classicists  by  the  infusion  of  sentiment  and 
naturalism.  Some  indications  of  this  tendency  are  visible 
in  the  works  of  Stefano  Ricci  (1767-1837),  though  he  is  for 
the  most  part  a  submissive  imitator  of  Canova.  Much  more 
important  is  Lorenzo  Bartolini  (1777-1850),  distinguished 
alike  as  practical  sculptor  and  as  teacher.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he  became  imbued  with  the 
new  spirit  of  naturalism.  His  works  now  seem,  to  be  sure, 
somewhat  academic,  but  to  his  contemporaries  in  Italy  they 
marked  a  revolt  from  the  pure,  serene,  and  cold  style  of  the 
neo-classic  school,  and  a  return  to  the  study  of  nature. 
Among  them  the  Charity  in  the  Pitti  palace,  the  Macchiavelli 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY  349 

in  the  entrance  to  the  Uffizi  gallery,  the  Inconsolable  in  the 
Campo  Santo  at  Pisa,  and  the  Pyrrhus  and  Astyanax  in  the 
Poldo  Pezzoli  Museum  in  Milan  may  be  mentioned  as  char- 
acteristic. Luigi  Pampaloni  (1791-1847)  was  considered  the 
equal  of  Bartolini.  He  was  distinguished  as  a  sculptor  of 
children,  but  also  produced  many  larger  works,  such  as  the 
statues  of  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  Filippo  Brunelleschi,  and  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci,  and  the  monument  to  the  singer  Virginia  de 
Blasiis,  at  Florence,  the  colossal  statue  of  Pietro  Leopoldo  at 
Pisa,  and  the  tomb  of  Lazzaro  Papi  at  Pistoja.  His  works 
show  spontaneity,  sentiment,  and  taste.  Among  the  other 
Italian  sculptors  who  may  be  classed  as  romanticists  are 
Pietro  Magni  (1817-1877),  Giovanni  Strazza  (1818-1875), 
Antonio Tantardini(  1829-1 879), Francesco Somaini  (d.  1894), 
and  Tommaso  Solari  (1820-1889). 

The  Realistic  School.  —  The  romantic  school  mingled  senti- 
ment and  naturalism  with  the  traditions  of  the  classicists. 
The  progress  of  science,  democracy,  and  individualism  in  the 
nineteenth  century  led  to  still  further  development  and  pro- 
duced the  realistic  school.  It  was  from  Paris  that  Bartolini 
had  brought  romanticism  to  Italy,  and  Paris  was  the  chief 
centre  of  the  realistic  school  in  its  turn.  Thence  it  passed  to 
Italy.  The  first  Italian  sculptor  of  the  realistic  school  was 
Giovanni  Dupre  (1817-1882),  a  follower  of  Bartolini  who  went 
further  than  his  master  in  the  direction  of  naturalism.  His 
first  important  work  was  the  Death  of  Abel,  in  the  Pitti 
gallery  at  Florence.  His  statues  of  Giotto  and  Sant'  Anto- 
nino  in  the  porch  of  the  Uffizi  expr.ess  admirably  the  characters 
of  the  persons  represented ;  his  Pieta  in  Siena  is  an  excellent 
piece  of  work,  and  his  monument  to  Cavour,  at  Turin,  shows 
individuality  and  originality.  Vincenzo  Vela  (1822-1891) 
was  even  more  modern  and  realistic  than  Dupre.  His 
works  are  many  and  various,  including  public  monuments  and 
portrait  statues,  dramatic  figures,  such  as  the  Spartacus  and 
the  Dying  Napoleon,  and  more  ideal  creations,  such  as  Prayer 
and  Resignation.  Ettore  Ximenes  (b.  1855)  is  a  productive 
artist,  whose  works  possess  something  of  the  nobility  and 
delicacy  of  the  Early  Renaissance  and  are  at  the  same  time 


350  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

realistic.  The  earlier  among  them  are  for  the  most  part 
single  figures ;  in  later  life  he  has  devoted  himself  chiefly  to 
monumental  compositions,  such  as  the  monument  to  Ciceru- 
acchio  (1908)  and  the  Quadriga  for  the  Palace  of  Justice  in 
Rome.  Eugenio  Maccagnani  (b.  1852)  has  also  been  prolific. 
To  him  are  due  many  of  the  sculptures  of  the  great  monu- 
ment to  Victor  Emanuel  in  Rome.  One  of  his  most  important 
works  is  a  monument  to  Garibaldi  at  Buenos  Ayres.  The  list 
of  modern  Italian  sculptors  is  long,  and  many  of  them  do 
excellent  work.  Their  subjects  are  for  the  most  part, 
though  by  no  means  exclusively,  taken  from  daily  life  and 
are  treated  with  no  little  grace  and  charm,  sometimes  also 
with  impressive  power.  There  is,  however,  a  tendency 
toward  excessive  elaboration  of  details  and  accessories,  which 
sometimes  detracts  from  the  dignity  of  their  works. 

Denmark.  Thorvaldsen.  —  Denmark  attained  sudden  im- 
portance in  the  history  of  sculpture  through  Bertel  Thor- 
valdsen (1770-1844)..  Until  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  Danish  art  had  been  dependent  upon  the  art 
of  the  Netherlands,  but  then  French  art  became  predominant. 
A  Frenchman,  Jacques  Saly,  was  the  first  director  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  his  successor,  Johannes  Wiede- 
welt,  was  a  pupil  of  the  younger  Coustou  at  Paris ;  he  had 
also  been  in  Rome,  where  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
Winckelmann.  Weidenhaupt,  a  Professor  in  the  Academy, 
had  studied  at  Paris  under  Pajou ;  his  pupil  Nicholas  Dajou 
was  Thorvaldsen's  first  teacher.  In  1797  Thorvaldsen  went 
to  Rome.  "  I  was  born  on  the  8th  of  March,  1797/'  he  was 
wont  to  say ;  "before  then  I  did  not  exist."  He  studied  the 
works  of  ancient  art,  and  of  Canova,  and  became  a  more 
complete  classicist  than  Canova  himself.  His  first  important 
work  was  a  statue  of  Jason,  which  an  English  banker,  Mr. 
Hope,  ordered  carved  in  marble.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a 
career  of  extraordinary  success.  Canova,  the  archaeologist 
Zoega,  and  others  united  in  admiring  him,  and  pupils  flocked 
to  his  studio.  His  works  for  some  time,  perhaps  owing  to  the 
influence  of  Canova's  example,  were  such  as  called  for  grace, 
rather  than  power.  Among  them  are  Cupid  and  Psyche, 


THORVALDSEN  AND  HIS  SUCCESSORS 


351 


Venus  (Fig.  177),  Hebe,  and  Adonis.  In  1812  he  modelled 
a  great  relief,  The  Triumph  of  Alexander,  for  a  hall  in  the 
Quirinal,  to  prepare  the  palace  for  the  visit  of  Napoleon. 
This  relief  was  immensely  admired  and  raised  the  artist  to 
the  height  of  fame  and  popularity.  Many  well-known  works 
belong  to  the  next  years :  Nessus  and  Deianeira  (1814),  Love 
Victorious  (1814),  a  Boy  Cupid  (1814),  the  Workshop  of 
Vulcan,  and  Night  and  Morning 
(1815),  Hebe  and  Ganymede  (1816), 
Mercury  (1819).  In  1816  he  began 
the  restoration  of  the  ancient  Greek 
statues  from  Aegina  for  Prince  Lud- 
wig  of  Bavaria.  In  1819  he  went 
to  Denmark  for  a  short  time,  and 
on  his  way  received  from  the  people 
of  Lucerne  the  commission  for  the 
famous  "Lion  of  Lucerne."  He  re- 
turned to  Rome  in  1820,  but  was 
again  in  Copenhagen  in  1838.  An- 
other visit  to  Rome  intervened  be- 
fore his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Copenhagen  in  1844.  In  his  journeys 
between  Rome  and  Copenhagen  he 
was  overwhelmed  with  honors  and 
commissions.  The  works  executed 
at  Copenhagen  are  for  the  most 
part  of  a  religious  nature,  for  in- 
stance, Christ  and  the  Twelve  Apos- 
tles, Angels  keeping  Christmas  in 
Heaven,  the  Angel  of  Baptism,  and  the  Preaching  of  St.  John 
the  Baptist.  His  productions  are  very  numerous  and  can 
best  be  seen  in  the  Thorvaldsen  Museum  at  Copenhagen, 
which  contains  over  600  models  and  original  works. 

Thorvaldsen's  Influence.  Bissen,  Sergell,  Fogelberg,  Jeri- 
chau.  —  Thorvaldsen  studied  and  imitated  ancient  art,  but 
could  not  reproduce  the  spirit  and  vigor  of  Greek  art  of  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries  before  Christ.  His  works  have 
grace,  dignity,  and  beauty  of  form ;  but  they  lack  life.  His 


FIGURE  177.  —  Venus, 
by  Thorvaldsen.  Copen- 
hagen. 


352  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

influence  was  great,  even  predominant,  throughout  Europe 
and  was  continued  in  Denmark  by  H.  W.  Bissen  (1798-1868), 
who,  however,  preferred  to  choose  his  subjects  from  Xorse 
rather  than  Greek  mythology  and  in  his  later  years  turned  to 
more  naturalistic  methods  and  to  portraiture.  No  sculptors 
of  really  international  reputation  have  arisen  in  Sweden  and 
Norway.  J.  T.  Sergell  (1736-1813),  in  Sweden,  was  a  classi- 
cist, who  has  been  compared  with  Thorvaldsen  himself,  and 
the  Swede  Fogelberg  produced  statues  of  Norse  gods  which 
are  much  -admired.  J.  A.  Jerichau,  in  Norway,  continued 
the  style  of  Thorvaldsen  even  to  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
MODERN   SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND   BELGIUM 

The  Classical  Revival.  —  In  France  the  classic  revival  was 
encouraged  by  the  influence  of  the  Comte  d'Angevilliers, 
director  of  arts,  manufactures,  palaces,  and  parks  under 
Louis  XVI,  by  the  authority  of  the  eminent  scholar  and  critic 
Quatremere  de  Quincy,  and  by  the  example  of  the  famous 
painter  David.  Among  the  sculptors  who  were  active 
chiefly  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XVI  and  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion are  Philippe  Laurent  Roland  (1746-1816),  Jean  Guil- 
laume  Moitte  (1747-1810),  Joseph  Chinard  (1756-1813), 
Pierre  Cartellier  (1757-1831),  and  Antoine  Denis  Chaudet 
(1763-1810),  all  of  whom  were  essentially  neo-classicists. 
The  most  important  among  them  is  Chaudet;  he  was 
strongly  influenced  by  Canova,  with  whom  he  shared  the 
favor  of  Napoleon.  Many  of  the  works  of  these  artists  were 
made  of  perishable  material  for  temporary  exhibition  and 
have  now  disappeared,  but  enough  remain  to  enable  us  to 
judge  of  their  artificial  and  conventional  style. 

Francois  Joseph  Bosio  (1763-1845),  an  admirer  and  imita- 
tor of  Canova,  was  constantly  employed  by  Napoleon,  Louis 
XVIII,  and  Louis  Philippe.  The  equestrian  statue  of 
Louis  XIV  in  the  Place  des  Victoires,  in  Paris,  is  probably 
his  best-known  extant  work.  Some  of  the  sculptures  of  the 
Arc  du  Carrousel  and  the  monument  in  the  Place  Vendome 
are  by  him,  and  several  of  his  works,  including  the  "  Nymph 
Salmacis,"  a  semi-nude  female  figure,  are  in  the  Louvre. 
Charles  Mercier  Dupaty  (1771-1825)  belonged  to  the  same 
school.  Jean  Baptiste  Giraud  (1783-1836)  was  another 
classicist;  two  works  in  the  Louvre,  however,  a  marble 
statue  of  a  dog  and  a  group,  in  wax,  of  a  dead  woman  and 
2  A  353 


354 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


her  two  dead  children,  are  realistic.  Jean  Pierre  Cortot 
(1787-1843)  is  best  known  by  his  "Apotheosis  of  Napoleon" 
on  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  a  striking  high  relief,  classical  in 
conception  and  theatrical  in  poses  and  gestures.  James 
Pradier  (1792-1852)  was  a  popular  and  prolific  sculptor. 
His  public  monuments  are  many,  among  them  the  Muses  of 
the  Fontaine  Moliere,  the  figures  of  Victory  in  the  spandrels 

of  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  the 
figures  of  Lille  and  Stras- 
bourg in  the  Place  de  la 
Concorde,  and  the  twelve 
figures  about  the  tomb  of 
Napoleon  in  the  Invalides, 
all  in  Paris.  In  such  works 
he  combines  dignity  with 
grace.  In  his  works  of  less 
monumental  character, 
chiefly  nude  female  figures, 
such  as  the  Atalanta  in  the 
Louvre  or  the  Three  Graces 
at  Versailles,  there  is  per- 
haps a  trace  of  sensuality, 
in  spite  of  the  classic  char- 
acter of  his  art. 

Rude.  —  Francois  Rude 
(1784-1885)  broke  away 
from  classic  traditions  and 
made  sculpture  dramatic, 
vital,  and  national.  Many 
of  his  works,  either  originals  or  casts,  are  in  the  museum 
of  his  native  Dijon.  His  most  famous  composition 
is  the  great  group  of  figures  in  high  relief  on  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe,  called  "Le  Depart."  Here  a  winged  goddess 
of  war  floats  above  a  group  of  men  of  various  ages  and  urges 
them  with  a  shout  to  go  forth  to  battle  for  their  country. 
The  costume  of  the  men  is,  in  part  at  least,  Roman,  and  the 
idea  of  a  goddess  of  war  is  of  classic  origin,  but  the  intensity 
of  expression,  the  dramatic  vigor  of  action,  and  the  powerful 


FIGURE    178.  —  Jeanne     d'Arc,    by 
Rude.    The  Louvre,  Paris. 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       355 

feeling  contained  in  the  whole  composition  have  nothing  in 
common  with  the  art  of  Canova  or  Thorvaldsen.  Of  Rude's 
other  works  the  most  characteristic  are  the  Napoleon  at 
Fixin,  near  Dijon,  a  half-recumbent  figure  nearly  covered 
with  a  military  cloak,  the  tomb  of  Godefroi  Cavaignac,  in  the 
cemetery  of  Montmartre,  the  statue  of  Gaspard  Monge,  at 
Beaune,  the  statue  of  Marshal  Ney,  in  Paris,  and  the  "Jeanne 
d'Arc,"  now  in  the  Louvre  (Fig.  178).  In  all  of  these  he 
shows  himself  a  master  of  dramatic  sculpture.  Less  impor- 
tant, because  less  characteristic,  is  the  attractive  statue  of  a 
Neapolitan  fisher  boy.  In  his  latest  works,  a  Hebe  and  a 
Cupid,  in  the  museum  at  Dijon,  Rude  is  less  original  and  less 
successful.  As  a  sculptor  of  great  power  and  as  the  first  of 
the  French  sculptors  who  made  sculpture  the  vehicle  for  the 
expression  of  emotion  and  freed  it  from  the  conventions  of  the 
neo-classic  school,  Rude  is  one  of  the  important  figures  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

David  d' Angers.  —  Pierre  Jean  David  (1789-1856)  is  called 
David  d'Angers,  for  he  was  born  at  Angers  and  is  thus  most 
easily  distinguished  from  the  painter  David.  His  works  are 
very  numerous  and  are  to  be  seen  in  many  cities  of  France. 
His  statue  of  the  Great  Conde,  the  plaster  model  of  which 
was  exhibited  in  1817,  was  finished  in  marble  in  1827  and  is 
now  at  Versailles.  This  statue,  a  realistic  figure  of  the  young 
Conde  in  the  costume  he  actually  wore  and  in  the  act  of 
throwing  his  general's  baton  over  the  walls  of  Freiburg,  as- 
sured the  sculptor's  reputation.  His  works  were  sought  from  all 
parts  of  France,  and  sometimes  they  were  hurriedly  executed. 
But  his  vigorous,  realistic  style  and  the  great  number  of  his 
works  make  him  an  important  factor  in  the  development  of 
sculpture.  In  the  pediment  group  of  the  Pantheon,  France, 
standing  between  seated  figures  of  Liberty  and  History, 
holds  out  bunches  of  wreaths  to  the  Frenchmen  who  have 
been  distinguished  in  war  and  peace.  The  composition  is  not 
entirely  successful,  though  the  central  figures  are  dignified  and 
some  of  the  portraits  are  good.  The  statue  of  Philopoemen, 
in  the  Louvre,  is  classic  in  theme,  but  in  effect  is  a  vigorous 
study  of  the  nude  male  form  in  a  rather  contorted  posture. 


356  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

One  of  his  works,  a  statue  of  Jefferson,  is  in  Philadelphia. 
The  numerous  medals,  for  which  he  was  celebrated,  vary 
in  excellence,  but  the  best  of  them,  for  instance,  that  of 
Napoleon,  are  strong  and  characteristic  portraits. 

Barye.  —  Antoine  Louis  Barye  (1796-1875)  was  almost 
exclusively  a  sculptor  of  animals.  His  small  bronzes  are 
universally  popular  and  are  to  be  seen  in  all  museums  of 
sculpture.  His  large  works,  the  Tiger  devouring  a  Crocodile, 
the  Lion  and  Serpent,  the  Seated  Lion,  and  the  Centaur  in 
Combat  with  a  Lapith,  all  in  the  gardens  of  the  Tuileries,  are 
masterpieces  of  vigorous  realism  and  action.  Barye  ranks 
with  Rude  and  David  d' Angers  as  one  who  freed  sculpture 
from  the  trammels  of  conventional  classicism.1 

Fremiet.  —  Two  pupils  of  Rude,  Fremiet  and  Carpeaux, 
are  among  the  most  distinguished  sculptors  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Of  the  two  Carpeaux  is  the  more  important,  though 
somewhat  the  younger.  Emmanuel  Fremiet  (1824-1900) 
was  distinguished  as  a  sculptor  of  animals,  though  after  the 
middle  of  the  century  human  figures  played  the  more  impor- 
tant part  in  his  compositions.  The  wounded  dog  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Luxembourg  gallery  and  the  "  Faun  playing 
with  Cub  Bears"  in  the  gallery  are  especially  well  known, 
because  they  are  seen  by  almost  all  foreigners  who  visit 
Paris.  The  "  Marine  Horses  "  of  the  fountain  of  the  Observa- 
tory, the  "St.  George  and  the  Dragon,"  the  equestrian  statue 
of  Duguesclin,  and  the  standing  statue  of  Meissonier  are 
only  a  few  of  his  works,  in  which  vigor,  power,  and  truth  to 
life  are  admirably  combined. 

Carpeaux,  —  Jean  Baptiste  Carpeaux  (1827-1875)  more 
than  any  other  one  sculptor  carried  on  the  work  of  Rude, 
David  d'Angers,  and  Barye  in  making  sculpture  vital  and 

1  Contemporaries  of  Rude,  David  d'Anger,  and  Barye  are  Antoine 
Etex  (1808-1888),  Philippe  Henri  Lemaire  (1798-1880),  Bernard  Gabriel 
Seurre  (1795-1867),  Jean  Francois  Theodore  Gechter  (1796-1845),  Charles 
Marochetti  (1805-1867),  Sylvestre  Joseph  Brun,  Laitife,  Georges  Jacquot 
(1794-1874),  Louis  Denis  Caillouette  (1790-1868),  all  of  whom  did  parts 
of  the  decoration  of  the  Arc  de  Triomphe ;  Augustin  Alexandre  Dumont 
(1801-1884),  Francisque  Joseph  Duret  (1804-1865),  who  belonged  to  the 
classic  school ;  and  three  pupils  of  Pradier  :  Francois  Jouffroy  (1806-1882), 
Jean  Joseph  Perraud  (1819-1876),  and  Jean  Baptiste  Claude  Eugene  Guil- 
laume  (1822-1904),  of  whom  Guillaume  is  the  most  important. 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       357 


modern.  His  first  important  work,  the  "Neapolitan  Fisher 
Boy"  is  humorous,  lifelike,  and  graceful.  In  1858  Carpeaux 
conceived  the  idea  of  representing  in  a  group  of  statuary  the 
torment  of  Ugolino  as  described  by  Dante  in  the  "Inferno," 
canto  XXXIII.  The  director  of  the  Academy  at  Rome 
refused  him  permission  to  undertake  such  a  work,  and  its 
execution  was  delayed  until  1861.  The 
group  consists  of  Ugolino  and  his  four 
sons,  all  nude  and  all,  except  the  son  who 
lies  dead,  in  more  or  less  contorted  pos- 
tures. The  anatomical  knowledge  dis- 
played is  remarkable,  and  the  group 
makes  a  powerful,  though  unpleasant, 
impression.  In  the  decoration  of  the 
Pavilion  de  Flore  of  the  Louvre  and  that 
of  the  Opera-house  in  Paris  Carpeaux 
produced  brilliant  examples  of  very  high 
relief,  and  the  group  which  crowns  the 
Fountain  of  the  Observatory  (the  four 
continents,  represented  as  nude  women, 
holding  up  the  celestial  globe)  is  full  of 
grace,  movement,  and  power.  Carpeaux 
died  before  he  was  fifty  years  of  age,  but 
his  influence,  not  only  in  France,  but  also 
in  other  countries,  was  deservedly  great. 

Paul  Dubois.  — Paul  Dubois  (1829- 
1905)  was  a  sculptor  of  great  refinement. 
The  finish  of  his  statues  is  exquisite.  He 
was  evidently  influenced  by  the  works  of  Donatello  and 
other  Italians  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  his  work  possesses 
something  of  the  charm  of  the  Early  Renaissance,  combined 
with  the  realism  of  modern  times.  His  "Florentine  Singer" 
(Fig.  179)  in  the  Luxembourg,  the  tomb  of  General  Lamori- 
ciere  at  Nantes,  and  the  Jeanne  d'Arc  at  Rheims  (replica  in 
Paris)  are  perhaps  his  most  widely  known  works  and  are 
characteristic  of  the  variety  and  charm  of  his  style.1 

1  None  of  the  pupils  of  David  d'Angers  attained  the  eminence  of  Fre- 
miet  or  Carpeaux.     The  most  distinguished  among  them  are :    Denis  Foy- 


FIGUKE  179.  —  A 
Florentine  Singer,  by 
Dubois.  The  Luxem- 
bourg, Paris. 


358  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Falguiere.  Chapu. — Jean  Alexandra  Joseph  Falguiere 
(1831-1890)  is  probably  best  known  by  his  bronze  "  Victor  in 
the  Cock  Fight,"  a  nude  boy  carrying  a  cock.  This  is  in  the 
Luxembourg,  as  is  also  the  marble  "Tarcissius,  Christian 
Martyr,"  a  recumbent  figure  of  a  boy  dying  in  pain,  but 
happy  in  his  consciousness  of  salvation.  These  are  early 
works ;  in  his  later  statues  he  shows  exceptional  clearness 
in  expression,  ability  to  seize  the  essential  points  of  a  char- 
acter or  a  situation,  and  appreciation  of  sentiment.  The 
rapidity  with  which  he  executed  his  very  numerous  com- 
missions led  to  some  carelessness  and  diminished  the  value 
of  some  of  his  later  works ;  the  great  group  of  Progress  over- 
throwing Error,  in  the  Pantheon,  is  striking,  but  •  hardly 
successful  as  a  whole.  In  the  figure  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Falguiere  shows  his  mastery  of  expression  and  his  apprecia- 
tion of  character,  and  in  several  works  of  his  latest  period, 
such  as  "The  Dancer"  or  the  Diana,  he  appears  as  an 
exceptionally  skilful  modeller  of  the  nude  female  form. 
Henri  Michel  Antoine  Chapu  (1833-1891)  is  best  known  by 
his  Jeanne  d'Arc,  a  young  peasant  girl  crouching  on  the 
ground  with  an  expression  at  once  serious,  visionary,  and 
determined.  The  beautiful  figure  of  Youth  which  forms  part 
of  the  monument  to  Regnault  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts, 
the  monument  to  Berrier  in  the  Palais  de  Justice,  and  numer- 
ous funerary  monuments  exhibit  Chapu  as  a  sculptor  of 
dignified  and  impressive  figures.  His  portrait  busts  and 
medals  are  justly  admired. 

Dalou.  —  Jules  Dalou  (1838-1902)  is  the  artist  of  the  great 
and  striking  group  "The  Triumph  of  the  Republic"  in  the 
Place  de  la  Nation  at  Paris  (Fig.  180).  The  figure  of  the 

atier  (1793-1863),  whose  connection  with  David  d'Angers  is  not  certain; 
his  most  noted  work  is  the  equestrian  Jeanne  d'Arc  at  Orleans ;  Antoine 
Auguste  Preault  (1809-1879),  best  known  for  his  medallions;  Jean  Bonas- 
sieux  (1810-1892),  the  author  of  the  colossal  Virgin  at  Le  Puy;  he  was 
most  successful  in  works  of  a  religious  character ;  Pierre  Jules  Cavelier 
(1814-1894),  whose  works  are  dignified,  simple,  and  finely  executed ;  Aim6 
Millet  (1819-_1891),  an  artist  of  ability,  who  was  popular  in  his  day,  but 
created  nothing  of  surpassing  merit;  Carrier-Belleuse  (1824-1887),  the 
author  of  some  refined  and  charming  works  of  sculpture,  such  as  the  Hebe 
in  the  Luxembourg,  but  whose  chief  activity  was  in  designing  models  for 
the  Sevres  porcelain  factory. 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       359 

Republic  stands  upon  a  ball  supported  on  a  structure  that  is 
hidden  by  leaves  and  volutes ;  the  whole  rising  from  a  chariot 
drawn  by  two  lions.  An  almost  nude  male  figure  holding  a 
torch  rests  upon  the  lions ;  other  figures  symbolize  Labor, 
Justice,  and  Fecundity,  and  the  last  two  are  accompanied  by 
Cupids.  The  composition  as  a  whole  is  not  clear,  and  the 
attitudes  of  some  of  the  figures  are  justly  criticised,  but  the 
figure  of  the  Republic  is  dignified,  beautiful,  and  impressive. 


FIGURE  180.  —  The  Republic,  by  Dalou.     Paris. 

In  his  other  works,  as  in  this,  Dalou  shows  the  influence  of 
ancient  art,  but  this  is  never  so  strong  as  to  detract  from  his 
originality.  The  relief  in  the  Chambre  des  Deputes,  which 
represents  Mirabeau  defying  the  orders  of  the  king,  is  a 
masterly  composition. 

Barrios.  —  Louis  Ernest  Barrias  (1841-1905)  was  an  artist 
of  power  and  originality,  though  perhaps  not  of  the  highest 
order  of  genius.  He  executed  many  public  monuments,  the 
most  conspicuous  of  which  is  the  monument  to  Victor  Hugo 


360  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

in  the  Place  Victor  Hugo,  Paris.  The  combination  of  the 
seated  figure  of  the  poet  with  the  severely  classic  pedestal 
and  the  allegorical  figures  in  somewhat  violent  attitudes  is  not 
entirely  happy,  though  the  figures  themselves  are  fine  in 
design  and  execution.  Of  his  many  other  works  perhaps 
"The  First  Funeral,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  is  the  most  im- 
pressive. The  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve  bearing  the  dead 
body  of  Abel  are  made  to  typify  the  grief  which  the  death  of 
those  we  love  brings  to  us  all.  In  his  "  Nature  disclosing 
Herself,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  Barrias  makes  effective  use 
of  colored  marbles. 

Mercie.  —  Marius  J.  Antonin  Mercie  (b.  1845)  is  a  sculptor 
of  unusual  ability.  His  "David,"  in  the  Luxembourg,  has 
the  charm  of  a  work  of  Donatello,  his  "Gloria  Victis,"  a 
magnificent  group  of  Fame  bearing  aloft  the  body  of  one  who 
has  fallen  in  battle,  is  inspiring  and  beautiful,  his  "Quand 
meme,"  representing  an  Alsatian  mother  who  has  seized  her 
dead  son's  musket  to  defend  her  country,  appeals  most 
strongly  to  the  patriotic  feelings.  Several  of  his  funereal 
monuments,  especially  those  of  Louis  Philippe  and  his 
queen  at  Dreux,  are  masterpieces. 

Bartholome.  Puech.  —  Paul  Albert  Bartholome  (b.  1848) 
is  known  chiefly  on  account  of  the  great  Monument  to  the 
Dead  (Fig.  181),  at  Pere  Lachaise,  and  the  monument  to 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  in  the  Pantheon.  The  former  is  the 
most  consummate  representation  of  the  grief  caused  by  death. 
In  the  upper  part  a  young  man  and  a  young  woman  enter 
an  opening  over  which  is  the  inscription  Aux  Moris.  Only 
their  backs  are  seen  as  they  enter.  At  the  sides  are  groups  of 
mourners.  In  another  opening  below  are  the  corpses  of  a 
man,  a  woman,  and  a  child,  upon  whom  a  crouching  woman 
with  outstretched  arms  is  gazing  in  an  agony  of  grief.  The 
entire  composition  is  terrible  in  its  uncompromising  realism, 
but  at  the  same  time  dignified  and  beautiful.  The  monu- 
ment to  Rousseau  possesses  the  dignity  and  beauty  without 
the  emotional  intensity.  In  other  works  Bartholome  shows 
good  technique,  skill  in  composition,  and  appreciation  of 
beauty.  Denys  Puech  (b.  1860)  is  another  whose  work 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       361 

entitles  him  to  special  mention.  His  portrait  busts  are  ad- 
mirable, and  his  imaginative  works  and  monuments  possess 
in  an  unusual  degree  the  qualities  of  sentiment  and  charm.1 


FIGURE  181.  —  Monument  to  the  Dead,  by  Bartholome,    Paris. 


1  Other  sculptors  of  recent  years  and  the  present  time  are  :  Pierre  Charles 
Simart  (1806-1857),  classic  in  taste ;  Jean  Baptiste  August  C16singer  (1814- 
1883),  who  excelled  in  statues  and  in  representation  of  animals;  Emile 
Eugene  Thomas  (1817-1882),  best  in  busts  and  religious  subjects;  Gabriel 
Jules  Thomas  (1824-1905),  an  excellent  sculptor  in  all  branches  of  his  art, 
though  not  very  original;  Mathurin  Moreau  (b.  1822),  a  prolific  sculptor 
who  possesses  admirable  technique ;  J.  Leon  Gerome  (1824-1904),  an  artist 
of  excellent  technique,  who  used  color  to  some  extent  in  his  statuary ;  Gus- 
tave  Adolphe  Desire  Crauk  (1827-1905),  an  artist  of  somewhat  classic  bent, 
best  known  by  his  dignified  "Coligny"  in  Paris;  Emile  Chatrousse  (1830— 
1889),  a  prolific  sculptor,  very  popular  in  his  day,  possessed  of  good  tech- 
nique, but  not  much  originality;  Fred6ric  Auguste  Bartholdi  (1834-1904), 
whose  Lion  of  Belfort  and  "Switzerland  succoring  Strasbourg"  (at  Bale) 
prove  that  the  "Liberty  enlightening  the  World"  (in  New  York  Harbor) 
and  even  the  statue  of  La  Fayette  (in  New  York)  do  not  give  a  fair  measure 
of  his  ability ;  Jean  Paul  Aube  (b.  1837),  author  of  the  rather  bizarre  monu- 
ment to  Gambetta,  in  Paris,  and  other  works,  sometimes  more  or  less  ec- 
centric ;  Eugene  Delaplanche  (1838-1891),  especially  noted  for  nude  female 
figures ;  Victor  Peter  (b.  1840) ;  Jean  Gautherin  (b.  1840),  sculptor  of  public 
monuments  and  ideal  figures;  Emile  Andre  Boisseau  (b.  1842),  a  skilful 
sculptor,  especially  of  nude  figures,  who  has  made  trials  of  polychromy ; 
Mme.  Marie  Cazin  (b.  1844) ;  Charles  Rene  de  Saint-Marceau  (b.  1845), 
author  of  "Genius  guarding  the  Secret  of  the  Tomb,"  in  the  Luxembourg, 
of  the  monument  to  Daudet,  in  the  Champs  Elysees,  and  other  works  which 


362  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Auguste  Cain.  Georges  Gardet.  —  Two  sculptors  of  animals 
deserve  mention  here :  Auguste  Cain  (1822-1904),  whose 
works  rival  those  of  Barye  in  vigor,  truth  to  life,  and  evidence 
of  accurate  observation,  and  Georges  Gardet  (b.  1863)  who 
represents  animals  in  a  more  playful  manner  than  Barye  and 
Cain,  and  with  equal  truth. 

Rodin.  —  But  the  French  sculptor  who  exerts  the  greatest 
influence  upon  the  art  of  the  present  time,  both  in  France  and 
in  other  countries,  is  Auguste  Rodin  (b.  1840).  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Barye,  then  worked  for  six  years  in  the  atelier  of 
Carrier-Belleuse,  after  which  he  was  in  Brussels,  where  he 
worked  under  Van  Rasbourg  on  the  facade  of  the  Brussels 
Bourse;  he  was  also  for  a  time  employed  as  designer  and 
modeller  at  the  porcelain  factory  at  Sevres. 

Carpeaux  had  made  movement  the  chief  element  in  his 
sculpture,  and  for  Rodin  too  movement  is  often  the  most  im- 
portant thing.  He  is  also  a  master  of  pathos  and  sentiment. 
He  has  been  at  different  times  much  influenced  by  ancient  art 
and  by  the  French  art  of  the  Middle  Ages,  but  throughout  he 
has  striven  after  truth  —  not  photographic  truth  in  the 
reproduction  of  the  facts  of  nature  as  presented  by  his  model, 

show  originality  and  good  technique;  Andre  Joseph  Allar  (b.  1845),  of 
somewhat  academic  tendency;  Jean  Antoine  Injalbert  (b.  1845),  distin- 
guished for  fine  busts  and  admirable  treatment  of  the  nude ;  Theophile 
Barrau  (b.  1848),  a  sculptor  of  the  nude;  Alphonse  Amedee  Cordonnier 
(b.  1848)  ;  Jean  Antoine  Marie  Idrac  (1849-1884),  whose  early  death  re- 
moved a  sculptor  of  brilliant  promise;  Leon  Eugene  Longepied  (1849- 
1888) ;  Alfred  Boucher  (b.  1850),  a  brilliant  sculptor  of  the  nude,  both  male 
and  female,  in  motion  and  in  repose ;  Laurent  Honqre  Marqueste  (b.  1850), 
successful  and  popular,  chiefly,  though  not  exclusively,  a  sculptor  of  the 
nude;  Edmond  Emile  Peynot  (b.  1850),  author  of  good  public  monuments; 
Leon  Fagel  (b.  1851),  whose  busts  and  statues  are  well  wrought,  but  exhibit 
no  marked  originality;  Gustave  Frederic  Michel  (b.  1851),  who  has  pro- 
duced some  excellent  statues  and  decorative  work,  but  is  best  known  for 
his  portrait  busts;  Antonin  Jean  Carles  (b.  1853),  whose  early  statues  are 
graceful  and  delicate,  those  of  later  date  more  powerful,  and  whose  portrait 
busts  are  excellent;  Charles  Raoul  Verlet  (b.  1857),  a  popular  artist,  ex- 
cellent teacher,  and  author  of  several  public  monuments ;  Louis  Auguste 
Theodore  Riviere  (1857-1912),  whose  small  groups  of  metals,  marbles,  and 
colored  stones  in  combination  are  much  prized ;  Jean  Auguste  Dampt  (b. 
1858),  whose  works,  often  small,  are  of  marble,  bronze,  ivory,  and  combina- 
tions of  different  materials;  Henri  Desire  Gauquie  (b.  1858),  whose  style 
is  easy,  attractive,  even  playful  at  times ;  Roger-Bloch,  the  sculptor  of  the 
poor;  Francois  Raoul  Larche  (b.  I860):  Francois  Leon  Sicard  (b.  1862); 
Georges  Bareau  (b.  1866);  Victor  Joseph  Jean  Ambroise  (b.  1867).  The 
list  might  be  greatly  extended  by  the  inclusion  of  a  great  number  of  younger 
sculptors,  among  whom  are  many  able  artists. 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       363 

but  truth  in  the  expression  of  his  own  thought.  As  a  result 
of  this  striving,  and  of  his  own  development,  his  works  vary 
greatly  in  style  and  in  technique.  Some  are  exquisitely 
finished,  some  are  at  first  sight  mere  rough  sketches,  and 
others  are  left  partly  in  the  rough  and  partly  finished  with 
great  care.  His  first  work  "The  Man  with  the  Broken 
Nose"  (1864)  aroused  opposition  on  account  of  its  realism, 
and  the  "St.  John"  (1879)  was  criticised  severely  for  the  same 
reason  and  for  its  walking  posture.  Nevertheless  the  power 
of  these  works  was  appreciated  by 
many  even  then.  "The  Kiss" 
(1898)  is  finely  modelled  and  full 
of  sentiment,  "The  Burghers  of 
Calais"  (clay  1889,  bronze  1895)  is 
a  wonderfully  realistic  presentation 
of  the  supposed  feelings  of  the 
burghers  who  walked  forth  to  die 
for  their  native  city,  "The  Thinker" 
(1904)  is  a  powerful  embodiment 
of  the  brooding  thought  of  primi- 
tive man  (Fig.  182).  The  portrait 
of  Balzac,  a  short,  stout  man  in  a 
loose  robe,  such  as  Balzac  actually 
wore  in  writing,  was  rejected  as 
unfinished ;  and  indeed  it  is  un- 
finished, if  to  be  finished  is  to  have 
the  details  worked  out  as  they 

are  in  nature.  Here  nearly  even-thing  is  left  rough,  and 
no  accessories  or  unessentials  are  even  indicated.  The 
result  is  impressive,  if  viewed  from  the  proper  distance,  but 
incomprehensible  to  the  layman  unless  sufficiently  removed. 
In  his  later  works  Rodin  has  usually  aimed  to  suppress 
unessential  details,  he  being,  of  course,  the  judge  as  to  what 
is  and  is  not  essential.  He  has  attempted  to  express  his 
thoughts  in  solid  material,  without  giving  to  the  material  a 


FIGURE  182. —  The  Thinker, 
by  Rodin.1 


1  The  illustration  is  from  the  small  bronze  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum 
in  New  York,  which  is  an  original  work  of  the  sculptor  no  less  than  the  large 
bronze  in  Paris. 


364  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

form  that  is  definitely  worked  out  in  detail.  As  a  result  his 
thought  is  often  difficult  to  understand.  Vigorous,  powerful, 
original,  and  often  beautiful  as  the  art  of  Rodin  is,  its  effect 
upon  his  contemporaries  has  not  always  been  good,  for  his 
freedom  from  all  academic  restraint,  his  daring  employment 
of  contorted  attitudes  and  of  contrasts  of  light  and  shade,  and 
his  habit  of  leaving  unfinished  what  is  for  him  unessential  — 
all  these  peculiarities  become  gross  defects  when  imitated  by 
men  of  less  genius  than  his  own.  It  is  not  without  some 
justice  that  Rodin  has  been  held  in  a  measure  responsible 
for  the  vagaries  of  some  of  his  younger  contemporaries. 

BELGIUM 

The  Neo-classic  School.  —  In  Belgium  the  pseudo-classic 
style  replaced  the  rococo  as  elsewhere  in  Europe,  and  with 
much  the  same  results,  though  the  best  of  the  Belgian  classi- 
cists produced  works  somewhat  less  lifeless  than  those  of  other 
countries.  The  six  Geefs  brothers  were  among  the  most 
noted  sculptors  of  the  classic  school  in  Belgium,  and  of  these 
the  most  gifted  was  the  eldest,  Guillaume  Geefs  (1805-1883). 
In  his  style  something  of  the  exuberance  of  the  rococo 
remains  to  enliven  the  academic  calm.  He  produced  a  great 
number  of  tombs,  pulpits,  statues,  busts,  and  groups ;  among 
them  the  statue  of  General  Beliard,  the  tomb  of  Count  Frederic 
de  Merode  in  Ste.  Gudule,  the  statue  of  Leopold  I,  and  the 
romantic  and  sentimental  group  of  a  nude  woman  and  a  lion, 
all  in  Brussels,  may  be  mentioned.  Joseph  Geefs  (1808- 
1885)  was  quite  as  prolific  as  his  brother  Guillaume,  but  not 
quite  as  able,  in  spite  of  his  good  technique.  Of  his  numerous 
works  the  monument  of  Leopold  I  at  Antwerp  is  most 
deserving  of  mention.  Louis  Eugene  Simonis  (1810-1882)  is 
best  known  by  his  spirited  equestrian  statue  of  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon,  at  Brussels,  but  his  other  works,  which  are  many, 
exhibit  the  same  vigorous  and  dramatic  style.  Pierre  de 
Vigne  (1812-1877),  Charles  August  Fraikin  (1817-1893),  and 
Joseph  Jacques  Ducaju  (1823-1891)  are  among  the  most 
important  sculptors  of  the  period  when  the  newly  acquired 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND  BELGIUM       365 

independence  of  Belgium  gave  a  fresh  impetus  to  sculpture, 
especially  in  the  creation  of  public  monuments.  In  their 
works  the  classic  style  is  modified  by  romantic  and  rococo 
traits. 

The  New  School.  De  Vigne.  Van  der  Stappen.  Dillens. 
—  The  new  Belgian  school,  beginning  about  1880,  is  more 
realistic,  that  is,  more  in  touch  with  real  life,  than  the  school 
which  preceded  it.  The  manifestations  of  this  realism  are 
as  various  as  the  personalities  of  the  sculptors.  Paul  de 
Vigne  (1843-1901)  was  a  poetic  artist,  who  had  been  much 
impressed  in  Italy  by  Donatello  and  in  France  by  the  modern 
French  school.  His  figures  express  by  turns  tenderness, 
revery,  religious  or  patriotic  fervor;  they  are  always  irre- 
proachable in  form  and  graceful  in  pose.  Among  them  the 
"Immortality"  and  the  "Poverella"  in  the  Brussels  museum, 
the  "Triumph  of  Art"  in  the  front  of  the  Palais  des  Beaux- 
Arts  in  Brussels,  and  the  "  Breydel  and  De  Coninck"  at  Bruges 
may  be  mentioned.  Charles  van  der  Stappen  (1843-1910) 
showed  greater  vigor  than  Paul  de  Vigne,  but  was,  like  him, 
a  portray er  of  human  feelings  and  sentiments.  His  "Man 
with  the  Sword "  in  the  museum  at  Brussels  and  his  "Death 
of  Ompdrailles"  are  powerful  and  characteristic  works. 
Julien  Dillens  (1849-1904)  showed  good  ability  in  his  monu- 
mental groups,  such  as  the  "Justice"  in  the  Palais  de  Justice 
at  Brussels,  and  charming  sentiment  in  his  funereal  monu- 
ments. These  three  artists,  and  some  others  among  their 
contemporaries,  still  exhibit  the  lingering  influence  of  the 
classic  school,  though  not  its  academic  coldness. 

Realists.  De  Groot.  Cathier.  Meunier.  —  The  realists 
in  the  stricter  sense  make  the  laborer  the  chief  subject  of  their 
art.  Guillaume  de  Groot  (b.  1839)  glorified  manual  labor  in 
a  powerful  dramatic  figure  in  the  Brussels  museum,  and 
Cathier  (1830-1892)  represented  in  1872  a  group  of  workmen 
at  the  base  of  the  Cockerill  monument  in  Brussels,  but  the 
man  who  made  the  glorification  of  labor  the  chief  end  of 
Belgian  sculpture,  the  most  powerful,  original,  and  complete 
sculptor  of  the  realistic  school,  was  Constantin  Meunier  (1831- 
1904).  As  a  young  man  he  was  for  a  time  a  sculptor,  then  he 


366 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


worked  for  many  years  exclusively  as  a  painter,  returning  to 
sculpture  in  1885.  In  his  statues,  such  as  "The  Sower," 
"The  Smith,"  "The  Stevedore"  (Fig.  183),  and  "Firedamp" 
(Le  Grisou),  in  his  reliefs  representing  laborers  in  various 
industries,  he  showed  himself  a  master  who,  like  the  sculptors 
of  the  great  days  of  Greece,  imitated  nature  with  complete 
fidelity,  yet  not  the  individual  person,  but  the  type,  and  who 

endowed  the  type  with  the 
reality  of  life.  His  subjects 
seem  to  have  little  in  common 
with  those  of  the  ancients ;  but 
his  spirit  is  the  spirit  of  the 
great  masters. 

Lambeaux.  Vinqotte.  Lalaing. 
Other  Sculptors. — Jef  Lambeaux 
(1859-1908)  is  not  so  much  the 
sculptor  of  labor  as  of  violence 
and  passions.  Indeed  his  most 
extensive  single  work,  a  great 
relief  in  the  temple  in  the  Pare 
du  Cinquantenaire  at  Brussels, 
bears  the  title  "Human  Pas- 
sions." It  is  a  powerful,  emo- 
tional work,  impressive  in  its 
daring  freedom  from  restraint, 
its  energy,  and  its  originality. 
Similar  qualities,  though  not  so 
strongly  marked,  are  seen  in  his 
groups,  "The  Kiss"  in  the  mu- 
seum at  Antwerp  and  "The  Wrestlers"  in  the  museum  at 
Brussels,  and  in  the  beautiful  "Fontaine  de  Brabon"  in 
the  Grand'  Place  at  Antwerp.  Thomas  Vincotte  (b.  1850) 
possesses  a  strong  and  delicate  technique  and  great  love 
of  truth.  His  portraits  are  excellent.  He  has  filled  the 
pediments  of  the  museums  at  Antwerp  and  Brussels  and 
that  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  at  Brussels  with  impressive, 
though  perhaps  somewhat  crowded,  reliefs,  and  his  statues 
are  vigorous  as  well  as  attractive.  Count  Jacques  de 


FIGURE  183. —  The  Steve- 
dore, by  Meunier.  The  Luxem- 
bourg. 


SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE  AND    BELGIUM       367 

Lalaing,  better  known,  perhaps,  as  a  painter,  showed  him- 
self a  sculptor  of  great  dramatic  power  in  his  monument  to 
the  British  officers  who  fell  at  Waterloo  and  his  "Fighting 
Horses"  in  Brussels ;  his  statue  of  La  Salle  in  Chicago  is  also 
excellent.  Several  recent  Belgian  sculptors  have  distin- 
guished themselves  by  their  representations  of  animals ; 
among  them,  besides  Vincotte  and  Lalaing,  are  Leon  Mejnon 
(1847-1898)  and  Josue  Dupon  (b.  1864).  Other  sculptors 
worthy  of  mention  are  Desenfans  (b.  1845),  Isidore  de  Rudder 
(b.  1855),  Pierre  Braeck  (b.  1859),  Jules  Lagae  (b.  1862), 
especially  gifted  as  a  portrait  sculptor,  and  Charles  Samuel 
(b.  1862).  Delicate  and  charming  statuettes  of  ivory  have 
been  carved  by  Julien  Dillens,  Charles  Samuel,  Charles  van 
der  Stappen,  Josue  Dupon,  and  Alphonse  van  Beuren. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 

MODERN   SCULPTURE  IN   GERMANY,   SPAIN,   AND 
RUSSIA 

The  Classical  Revital.  Dannecker.  —  In  Germany  the 
rococo  style  had  reigned  with  absolute  power  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  and  under  its  sway  much  rich  decorative 
sculpture  had  been  produced,  but  little  that  had  a  national 
character  or  genuine  sculptural  significance.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  a  revival  of  classic  art  took  place  under  the 
influence  of  Winckelmann,  Lessing,  and  other  scholars. 
The  German  sculptors  looked  to  Rome  for  instruction  and 
inspiration.  Johann  Heinrich  Dannecker  (1758-1841)  was 
the  head  of  the  classic  school  at  Stuttgart.  He  studied  under 
Pajou  at  Paris,  then  went  to  Rome  where  Canova  was  re- 
garded as  the  great  master.  Here  he  was  influenced  also  by 
the  Swiss  classical  sculptor  Alexander  Trippel.  Dannecker's 
works  are  graceful,  but,  like  nearly  all  works  of  the  neo- 
classic  school  in  all  countries,  somewhat  lifeless.  The  best 
known  among  them  is  the  Ariadne  on  a  Panther,  at  Frankfort. 
The  most  important  of  Dannecker's  associates  at  Stuttgart 
was  P.  J.  Scheffauer  (1756-1808). 

Schools  of  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Munich.  —  Classic  sculp- 
ture was  not  confined  to  Stuttgart,  but  was  produced  by 
numerous  second-rate  sculptors  in  different  places  during 
the  period  of  the  ascendency  of  Canova  and  Thorvaldsen. 
Soon,  however,  three  schools  with  more  or  less  clearly  marked 
differences  developed  at  Berlin,  Dresden,  and  Munich. 
The  work  of  the  Berlin  school  was  chiefly  historical  and 
tended  toward  realism,  that  of  the  Munich  school  was  ro- 
mantic, and  that  of  the  Dresden  school  intermediate  between 
the  two  others. 

368 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY 


369 


Schadoiv.  —  Johann  Gottfried  Schadow  (1764-1850)  was  a 
pupil  of  J.  B.  Antoine  Tassaert  (1729-1788),  a  Fleming  who 
had  been  at  the  court  of  Louis  XV  and  was  called  to  Berlin 
by  Frederick  the  Great  in  1774.  In  1785  Schadow  went  to 
Rome  and  came  under  the 
influence  of  classic  art,  the 
study  of  which  gave  his 
work  a  tendency  toward 
simplicity,  though  he  still 
retained  a  close  connection 
with  the  rococo  style.  His 
statues  of  Ziethen  (Fig. 
184),  Leopold  of  Dessau,  and 
King  Frederick  are  strong 
works,  well  modelled,  no 
longer  pseudo-classic,  but 
German  in  spirit  as  well 
as  costume  (though  the 
soldiers  in  the  reliefs  of 
the  pedestal  of  the  monu- 
ment of  Leopold  are  in 
Roman  garb).  The  group 
of  Queen  Louise  and  her 
sister,  at  Charlottenburg,  is 
simple  and  somewhat  senti- 
mental, with  rounded  figures 
and  soft  drapery.  His  later 
works  are  less  simple  and 
seem  to  show  a  stronger  in- 
fluence of  ancient  art.  The 
quadriga  on  the  Branden- 
burg gate  in  Berlin  is  spirited 
and  effective.  In  his  ideal 
works  Schadow  was  less  suc- 
cessful, from  the  point  of  view  of  the  present  day,  than 
in  his  portrait  statues.  Schadow's  pupils  produced  nothing 
of  great  importance.  The  best  known  among  them  are 
his  eldest  son  Rudolf  Schadow  (1786-1822),  whose  works  are 
2n 


FIGURE  184.  —  Von  Ziethen,  by 
Schadow.    Berlin. 


370  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

rather  insipid  ideal  figures,  and  Christian  Friedrich  Tieck 
(1776-1851)  to  whom  the  mythological  reliefs  in  the  Royal 
Theatre  in  Berlin  are  due. 

Ranch.  —  Christian  Daniel  Rauch  (1777-1857)  was 
Schadow's  successor  as  the  head  of  the  Berlin  school.  His 
finest  work  is  the  monument  to  Frederick  the  Great  in  Berlin, 
which  is  impressive,  full  of  life  and  dignity,  and  carefully 
modelled.  His  monuments  of  Generals  Billow  and  Scharn- 
horst  in  Berlin,  of  Albrecht  Diirer  at  Nuremberg,  and  of 
Maximilian  I  at  Munich  are  good  examples  of  his  powerful 
and  dignified  style.  His  monument  of  Queen  Louise  at 
Charlottenburg  is  greatly  admired  as  a  portrait  and  as  a 
presentation  of  the  true  German  type  of  womanhood.  Al- 
though well  modelled,  it  is,  however,  somewhat  sentimental. 

Others  of  the  Berlin  School.  —  Rauch's  -best  pupil  was 
Friedrich  Drake  (1805-1882),  whose  chief  work  is  probably 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Emperor  William  I  at  Cologne; 
other  statues  by  him  are  those  of  Rauch  and  Schinkel  at 
Berlin.  He  followed  closely  in  the  footsteps  of  his  master. 
Gustav  Blaser  (1813-1874)  and  Friedrich  Hermann  Schievel- 
bein  (1817-1867)  were  also  close  followers  of  Rauch,  though 
Schievelbein  was  more  influenced  than  Rauch  by  the  art  of 
antiquity,  Canova,  and  Thorvaldsen.  August  Kiss  (1804- 
1865),  also  a  pupil  of  Rauch,  worked  only  in  metal.  His 
most  famous  work  is  the  spirited  group  of  a  mounted  Amazon 
fighting  with  a  panther.  His  group  of  St.  George  and  the 
Dragon,  in  a  courtyard  of  the  royal  palace  in  Berlin,  is  also 
a  fine  and  spirited  composition.  Albert  Wolff  (1814-1892) 
modelled  the  "  Horseman  attacked  by  a  Lion,"  which  stands 
as  a  companion  piece  to  the  Amazon  by  Kiss  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Museum  in  Berlin ;  another  of  his  works  is  the  eques- 
trian statue  of  King  Ernst  August  at  Hanover. 

The  Dresden  School.  Rietschel,  Hdhnel,  Schilling.  —  Ernst 
Friedrich  August  Rietschel  (1804-1861),  a  pupil  of  Rauch, 
who  studied  also  at  Rome,  was  the  head  of  the  Dresden 
school.  His  early  work  is  somewhat  lifeless,  but  he  gradually 
freed  himself  from  the  influence  of  Rauch  and  of  the  neo- 
classic  school  and  developed  a  more  realistic  and  vigorous 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY  371 

style.  His  most  widely  known  work  is  probably  the  monu- 
ment to  Goethe  and  Schiller  at  Weimar,  which  is  strong  and 
dignified.  His  statue  of  Lessing  at  Brunswick  is  refined 
and  well  executed.  Something  of  the  romantic  spirit  ap- 
pears in  the  monument  to  Luther  at  Worms.  Rietschel 
was  also  the  author  of  works  of  other  kinds,  such  as  the 
Pieta  at  Potsdam,  in  which  he  exhibits  ability  to  express 
religious  sentiment.  On  the  whole  he  was  the  best  of  the 


FIGURE  185. — The  Rhine  and  the  Moselle.    From  the  Germania-Denkmal, 
by  Schilling.    Rildesheim. 

German  sculptors  of  his  day.  Ernst  Hahnel  (b.  1811), 
who  was  trained  in  Italy  and  in  Munich,  was  a  sculptor  of 
considerable  ability,  especially  in  reliefs.  Most  of  his  works 
are  in  Dresden.  Some  of  them  are  classic  in  style,  but  the 
romantic  spirit  appears  in  others.  The  reliefs  on  the  pedestal 
of  his  monument  to  Beethoven,  at  Bonn,  show  the  influence 
of  the  romantic  school  of  Munich.  Johannes  Schilling 
(1828-1910)  shows,  like  Hahnel,  the  influence  of  his  classic 
training,  especially  in  his  earlier  works,  such  as  the  groups  of 


372  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Night  and  Morning  on  the  terrace  in  Dresden.  His  colossal 
Germania  at  Riidesheim,  with  the  figures  and  reliefs  of  its 
pedestal  (Fig.  185),  is  not  entirely  free  from  classicism, 
though  its  most  striking  qualities  are  the  peculiar  combination 
of  sentiment  and  ostentation  which  pervaded  German  art 
after  the  war  of  1870-1871.  The  monument  to  Arminius 
(the  " Hermanndenkmal")  in  the  Teutoburg  Forest  near 
Detmold  is  a  simpler  and  more  impressive  work  by  Ernst 
von  Bandel  (1800-1876). 

The  Munich  School.  Schwanthaler,  Eberhard. — At  Munich 
the  chief  sculptor  of  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  Ludwig  Schwanthaler  (1802-1848),  who  studied  in 
Rome  and  was  for  a  time  a  docile  member  of  the  neo-classic 
school.  Later  he  treated  national  subjects  in  a  romantic 
style,  in  imitation  rather  of  mediaeval  than  of  ancient  art. 
He  was  much  employed  by  King  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  exe- 
cuted a  large  number  of  reliefs  and  statues  in  Munich,  the 
colossal  bronze  Bavaria  in  front  of  the  Ruhmeshalle,  and  the 
group  of  the  "  Hermannschlacht "  in  one  of  the  pediments  of 
the  Walhalla  near  Ratisbon.  He  exerted  great  influence, 
though  his  work  is  not  especially  refined  or  powerful.  He 
appealed  to  the  rising  national  feeling  of  the  Germany  of 
his  time.  The  way  had  been  prepared  for  him  at  Munich 
by  Konrad  Eberhard  (1768-1859),  who  had  studied  at  Rome 
and  executed  a  number  of  works  in  the  neo-classic  style, 
but  turned  to  religious  sculpture  in  imitation  of  mediaeval 
works. 

Revolt  from  Classicism.  Begas.  Uphues. — Throughout  the 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  indeed  until  well 
into  the  second  half,  the  prevailing  style  of  sculpture  was 
the  pseudo-classic,  for  even  the  relative  realism  of  the  Berlin 
school  was  strongly,  if  unconsciously,  influenced  by  the 
authority  of  Canova,  Thorvaldsen,  and  their  followers. 
The  beginning  of  more  independent  work  was  made  by 
Reinhold  Begas  (b.  1831),  who  broke  away  from  classi- 
cism and  drew  his  inspiration  from  nature  and  from  the  works 
of  Michael  Angelo.  His  figures  are  full  of  life  and  animation, 
he  excels  in  the  rendering  of  textures,  but  his  work  is,  for 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY  373 

the  most  part,  less  akin  to  that  of  Michael  Angelo  than  to 
that  of  Bernini's  successors.  He  strains  for  effect,  and  in- 
troduces too  many  and  too  various  decorative  motifs. 
Among  his  very  numerous  large  works,  the  Neptune  foun- 
tain, the  Monument  of  Emperor  William  I,  and  the  Schiller 
monument,  all  in  Berlin,  are  perhaps  the  best.  Some  of 
his  portrait  busts  are  admirable.  The  tendency  to  ostenta- 
tion visible  in  many  of  his  works  is  still  more  evident  in  those 
of  some  of  his  many  pupils,  some  of  which  may  be  studied 
in  the  Siegesallee  in  Berlin.  The  most  distinguished  of  his 
pupils  is  Joseph  Uphues  (1850-1910),  among  whose  works 
are  the  Moltke  monument  in  Berlin  and  the  Frederick  the 
Great  in  the  Siegesallee  (replica  in  Washington).  The 
realistic  tendency  was  represented  at  this  time  in  Munich 
by  Caspar  Zumbusch  (b.  1831). 

The  New  Sculpture.  —  In  Germany,  as  in  England,  the 
closing  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw  a  great  awaken- 
ing of  public  interest  in  sculpture  and  a  remarkable  increase 
in  the  number  of  sculptors  who  seriously  and  conscientiously 
work  for  the  progress  of  their  art.  The  new  German  sculp- 
ture, like  the  new  sculpture  in  other  countries,  is  primarily 
realistic  and  naturalistic,  striving  to  present  things  as  they 
are,  or,  in  some  instances,  as  they  seem  to  be  to  one  who 
examines  them  not  too  closely.  Mingled  with  realism  is 
sometimes  a  touch  of  learned  pedantry,  as  when  Hahn 
imitates  the  drapery  of  an  Athenian  figure  of  about  500 
B.C.,  or  Hoetger  the  style  of  the  sculptures  of  the  cathedral 
at  Strassburg.  The  Roman  costume  given  by  Tuaillon  to 
the  equestrian  statue  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I  at  Bremen 
is  almost  without  parallel  in  recent  sculpture.  The  German 
tendency  to  theorize  has  led  in  some  instances  to  the  pro- 
duction of  bizarre  or,  as  the  case  may  be,  academic  works, 
and  the  experiments  that  have  been  made  with  polychromy 
and  the  employment  of  various  materials  have  not  always 
led  to  good  results.  But  in  spite  of  occasional  errors  and 
failures,  German  sculpture  of  recent  years  is  vigorous  and 
earnest,  thoughtful,  progressive,  and  often  inspired  by  a 
distinctively  national  sentiment  which  lends  it  a  peculiar 


374 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


- 


charm.     The    foreign    sculptors    whose    influence    is   most 
clearly  seen  are  Rodin  and  Meunier. 

Only  the  leaders  among  German  sculptors  of  recent  years 
can  be  metioned  here. 

Adolf  Hildebrand  (b.  1847)  has  produced  many  works, 
among  them  the  Wittelsbach  fountain  at  Munich,  the 
Reinhard  fountain  at  Strassburg,  the  equestrian  statue  of 
Bismarck  at  Bremen,  several  other  public  monuments, 

numerous  portraits,  re- 
liefs, and  ideal  figures. 
His  work  is  realistic  in 
the  best  sense  of  the 
word,  is  well  conceived 
and  carefully  executed. 
Robert  Diez  (b.  1844) 
has  produced  a  number 
of  works,  chiefly  public 
monuments,  but  his  im- 
portance lies  in  his  long 
and  successful  activity 
as  a  teacher  in  Dresden. 
Max  Klinger  (b.  1857), 
who  is  also  a  painter 
and  etcher,  is  a  sculptor 
of  no  little  power ;  he  is 
chiefly  known,  however, 
as  the  most  noted  advo- 
cate of  polychrome  sculp- 
ture. Some  of  his  colored  statues  are  very  successful.  The 
most  famous  of  his  works  is  probably  the  Beethoven  monu- 
ment in  Leipzig.  Ernst  Moritz  Geyger  (b.  1861),  Louis 
Tuaillon  (b.  1862),  and  August  Gaul  (b.  1869)  are  known 
chiefly  as  sculptors  of  animals,  though  Geyger  and  Tuaillon 
have  modelled  also  many  human  figures  (Fig.  186).  Georg 
Wrba  (b.  1872),  also  a  remarkable  animal  sculptor,  is  the 
artist  of  numerous  fine  fountains  and  other  works.  Hugo 
Lederer  (b.  1871)  is  distinguished  for  his  massive  and  power- 
ful public  monuments,  chief  of  which  is  the  Bismarck  monu- 


FIGUBE    186.  —  Mounted  Amazon,   by 
Tuaillon.    Berlin. 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN  375 

ment  in  Hamburg.  August  Hudler  (1868-1905)  was  an 
exceedingly  able  realistic  sculptor,  some  of  whose  later  works 
(e.g.  the  Ecce  Homo  and  the  David)  are  dignified  and  full 
of  restrained  sentiment.  Benno  Elkan  (b.  1877)  has  been 
greatly  influenced  by  Bartholome  and  Rodin.  Among  his 
best  works  are  medals  and  small  bronze  reliefs.  He  has  also 
experimented  with  polychromy.  Hermann  Hahn  (b.  1868) 
is  especially  successful  with  portrait  statues,  busts,  and 
medals.1 

SPAIN 

The  Neo-classic  Period.  —  In  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  Spanish  sculptors  joined  those  of  other  coun- 
tries in  producing  academic  allegories  and  mythological 
works.  Jose  Alvarez  (1768-1827)  is  known  by  his  "Defence 
of  Saragossa"  (1817)  and  his  monument  of  "The  Second  of 
May,"  spirited  works  of  patriotic  significance.  Other 
artists  of  the  early  part  of  the  century  are  Jose  Alvarez  y 
Bougel  (1805-1830),  son  of  Jose  Alvarez,  Ramon  Barba 
(1767-1831),  whose  statue  of  Cervantes  in  Madrid  is  well 
known,  the  brothers  Bellver,  Francisco  (b.  1812),  Mariano 
(1817-1876),  Jose  (1824-1869),  and  their  relative  Ricardo 
Bellver  (b.  1845),  Jose  Piquer  (d.  1871),  Jose  Vilches, 
Medardo  Sanmarti,  who  departs  from  the  classic  and  aca- 
demic precedents  in  his  charming  statue  "The  Fisher," 
Agapito  and  Venancio  Vallmitjana,  Elias,  Martin,  Andres 
Aleu,  and  Juan  Figueres. 

The  Rise  of  Naturalism.  —  An  approach  to  naturalism  is 
seen  in  the  works  of  Ponciano  Ponzano  (181 3-1877),  Manuel 

1  Other  German  sculptors  of  the  present  time,  some  of  whom  are  not 
inferior  to  those  mentioned  in  the  text,  are  the  following :  Artur  Volkmann 
(b.  1851),  Hermann  Lang  (b.  1856),  Franz  Stuck  (b.  1863),  Paul  Peterich 
(b.  1864),  Emil  Dittler  (b.  1868),  Richard  Engelmann  (b.  1868),  Hans 
Luetkens  (b.  1869),  Ernst  Barlach  (b.  1870),  Franz  Metzner  (b.  1870), 
Wilhelm  Riedisser  (b.  1870),  Ignatius  Taschner  (b.  1871),  Ludwig  Habich 
(b.  1872),  Theodor  von  Gosen  (b.  1873),  Fritz  Hoernlein  (b.  1873),  Johannes 
Bpssard  (b.  1874),  Bernhard  Hoetger  (b.  1874),  Georg  Kolbe  (b.  1877), 
Richard  Langer  (b.  1879),  Josef  Hoeffler  (b.  1879),  Hermann  Haller  (b. 
1880),  Wilhelm  Lehmbruck  (b.  1881),  Hans  Schwegerle  (b.  1882),  and 
Richard  Adolf  Zutt  (b.  1887).  All  of  these  had  attained  considerable 
reputation  before  1914. 


376  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Oms,  Eduardo  Barren,  Jose  Pagnucci,  Sabino  de  Medina, 
Angel  Diaz,  and  Jose  Monserrat.  This  tendency  becomes 
more  pronounced  in  the  later  part  of  the  century,  and  the 
modern  Spanish  sculpture  is  frankly  naturalistic.  At  the 
head  of  the  innovators  stands  Mariano  Benlliure,  whose 
group  of  Isabella  receiving  Christopher  Columbus  (1892) 
is  the  best  known  of  his  many  excellent  works.  With  him 
Jose  Alcoverro  and  Jose  de  Gandaris  should  be  mentioned ; 
the  latter  is  especially  a  sculptor  of  female  figures. 

Spanish  Sculptors  of  the  Present  Time.  —  Spanish  sculptors 
of  recent  years  and  the  present  time  are  numerous,  for  in 
Spain,  as  in  most  other  countries  of  Europe,  sculpture  has 
become  more  popular  than  it  was  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Their  work  is  earnest  and  serious; 
they  strive  after  truth,  and,  although  influenced  by  Rodin 
and  other  French  sculptors,  are  not  lacking  in  sincerity  and 
originality.1 

RUSSIA 

Small  Bronzes.  Prince  Troubetskoy. — Sculpture  in  Russia 
has  hardly  existed  until  recent  times.  The  church  is  hostile 
to  sculpture  in  the  round,  the  state  has  forbidden  the  erec- 
tion of  bronze  statues  except  in  honor  of  emperors  or  great 
officials,  marble  is  lacking,  and  the  climate  is,  at  least  in 
the  great  centres,  so  harsh  as  to  discourage  the  erection  of 
marble  or  stone  monuments  in  the  open  air.  Nevertheless 
Russian  sculptors  have  produced  in  the  nineteenth  and  twen- 
tieth centuries  a  considerable  number  of  interesting  works, 
chiefly  small  bronzes.  Lancere's  subjects  are  chiefly  eques- 
trian —  Cossacks,  Arabs,  or  others,  with  their  horses ;  Lie- 
berich  (b.  1828)  was  a  skilful  sculptor  of  animals;  Samon- 

1  Among  them  are  Francisco  Pages  y  Serratora,  Andres  Rodriguez, 
Jose  Gragera,  Agustin  Querol,  Aniceto  Marinas,  Miguel  Blay,  Fuxa  y  Leal, 
Miguel  Embil,  Julio  Echeandia,  the  brothers  Luciano  and  Miguel  Osle, 
Rafael  Atche,  Jose  Reynes,  Antonio  Alsina,  Llimona  y  Brugera,  Susillo, 
Juan  Vancell,  Miguel  Angel  Trilles,  Jose  Campeny,  Gabriel  Borras  Abella, 
Juan  Samso,  Jose  Gines,  Enrique  Claraso,  Gustavo  Obiols,  Zamorano 
Alcaide,  Carbonell,  Lorenzo  Coullant-Valera,  Pedro  Estany  y  Capella, 
Cipriano  Folgueras,  Ecequeil  Ruiz  Martinez,  and  the  list  might  be  still 
further  lengthened. 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  RUSSIA  377 

off,  Posene,  Naps,  and  Gratchoff  chose  chiefly  Russian  genre 
subjects ;  Feodor  Kamensky  and  Gensburg  have  shown 
ability  and  a  sense  of  beauty  in  graceful  and  expressive  figures. 
Prince  Paul  Troubetskoy  is  a  powerful,  original,  and  versatile 
sculptor,  whose  works,  ranging  from  colossal  groups  to  stat- 
uettes, are  full  of  life  and  energy.  He  is  a  realist  and  an 
impressionist,  a  distinguished  representative  of  two  of  the 
strongest  tendencies  of  the  present  day.  Born  (1866)  in 
Italy  of  an  American  mother,  and  now  living  in  the  United 
States,  he  is  a  cosmopolitan  rather  than  a  Russian  artist. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
MODERN   SCULPTURE   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 

The  Classical  Revival.  Flaxman.  Baily.  —  The  revival  of 
classicism  in  English  sculpture  was  initiated  by  John  Flax- 
man (1755-1826).  His  early  works  are  of  little  importance, 
but  in  1787  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  remained  for  seven 
years  subject  to  the  influence  of  Canova  and  of  the  conditions 
by  which  Canova  himself  was  affected.  From  that  time 
his  work  was  entirely  in  the  neo-classic  style.  His  best  work 
was  done  in  making  designs  for  Josiah  Wedgewood,  the 
potter,  and  in  drawing  illustrations  to  the  poems  of  Homer 
and  Dante.  Some  of  his  marble  reliefs  are  designed  with 
classic  purity  and  possess  a  cold  and  formal  beauty;  his 
larger  works  of  sculpture  are  less  successful.  His  chief 
pupil  was  Edward  H.  Baily  (1788-1867),  who  combined  the 
classic  manner  with  religious  themes  in  his  Eve  at  the  Foun- 
tain and  Eve  Listening ;  the  Nelson  on  the  column  in  Trafal- 
gar square  is  his  work. 

Chantrey.  Westmacott.  Gibson.  —  Sir  Francis  Legatt 
Chantrey  (1781-1842)  produced  many  sepulchral  monu- 
ments, busts,  and  statues,  in  which  he  showed  technical 
ability,  good  taste,  and  refinement,  but  little  originality. 
His  few  ideal  works,  such  as  the  Sleeping  Children,  at  Lich- 
field,  and  the  Resignation,  at  Worcester,  are  classic  in  treat- 
ment, with  a  touch  of  sentiment.  Sir  Richard  Westmacott 
(1775-1856)  was  a  pupil  of  Canova.  He  produced  several 
statues  in  neo-classic  style,  but  his  principal  works  are 
monumental.  The  pediment  sculptures  of  the  British 
Museum,  the  monuments  of  Pitt,  Fox,  and  Percival,  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  those  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie 
and  Lord  Collingwood,  in  St.  Paul's,  are  good  examples  of 

378 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN      379 

his  correct  and  uninspired  style.  John  Gibson  (1790-1866) 
was  the  most  noted  English  sculptor  of  the  classic  school. 
In  1817  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  studied  under  Canova 
and  Thorvaldsen  and  remained  until  1844.  His  earliest 
original  work  is  the  Sleeping  Shepherd ;  then  followed  Mars 
and  Cupid,  Psyche  borne  by  Zephyrs,  Narcissus,  Hylas, 
Hero  and  Leander,  and  other  similar  sculptures,  all  in  the 
strictly  correct  classic  style.  His  Queen  Victoria  is  robed 
in  classic  garments.  In  1862  he  exhibited  his  "Tinted 
Venus,"  an  attempt  to  revive  the  coloring  of  statuary  prac- 
tised by  the  Greeks.  His  colors  were  rather  timidly  used, 
and  the  work  was  not  well  received ;  it  lost  the  beauty  of 
white  marble  without  acquiring  the  richness  and  brilliancy 
of  mediaeval  or  modern  polychrome  statuary. 

Others  of  the  Classic  School.  —  Other  sculptors  of  the 
strictly  classic  school  were  William  Theed  (1764-1817), 
William  Pitts  (1790-1840),  Thomas  Campbell  (1790-1858), 
Richard  John  Wyatt  (1795-1858),  Patrick  Macdowell  (1799- 
1870),  and  Joseph  Durham  (1814-1877),  whose  works,  like 
those  of  other  contemporaries,  are  little  more  than  attempts 
to  imitate,  in  slightly  varying  forms,  the  qualities  of  ancient 
art.  Allan  Cunningham  and  Henry  Weekes,  who  worked 
with  Chantrey  on  some  of  his  monuments,  were  well-known 
portrait  sculptors,  as  were  also  William  Behnes  (1790-1864), 
Thomas  Kirk  (1784-1845),  and  John  E.  Jones  (1806-1864). 

Alfred  Stevens.  —  Although  the  classical  school  survived 
until  some  time  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
the  movement  toward  greater  life  and  reality  in  sculpture 
began  considerably  before  that  time.  The  first  man  who 
broke  away  from  the  classical  traditions  sufficiently  to 
be  regarded  as  the  beginner  of  the  transition  to  naturalism 
was  Alfred  George  Stevens  (1817-1875),  a  pupil  of  Thorvald- 
sen, but  one  who  did  not  follow  the  precepts  of  his  master. 
He  received  his  chief  inspiration  from  the  works  of  Michael 
Angelo,  and  in  his  monument  to  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
in  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  produced  a  work  of  real  power.  His 
decorative  sculptures  exhibit  a  breadth  and  freedom  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  feeble  efforts  of  most  of  his  contemporaries. 


380  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Foley.  Marshall.  Woolner.  —  John  Henry  Foley  (1"818- 
1875)  followed  the  classic  traditions  in  his  earlier  works,  but 
his  portrait  busts  and  statues  are  more  modern  and  naturalis- 
tic. The  figure  of  the  Prince  Consort  and  the  group  of  Asia, 
on  the  Albert  Memorial,  are  his  work.  His  statue  of  Sir 
Joshua  Reynolds,  in  the  Tate  galley,  is  vigorous  and  lifelike, 
but  the  equestrian  statue  of  Sir  James  Outram,  in  Calcutta, 
is  perhaps  his  greatest  achievement.  One  of  the  latest  ex- 
amples of  his  art  is  the  statue  of  General  "Stonewall" 
Jackson,  at  Richmond,  Virginia.  W.  Calder  Marshall 
(1813-1894)  continued  faithfully  in  the  neo-classic  traditions, 
except  that  in  his  "Prodigal  Son"  he  showed  some  originality 
and  power.  His  popularity  is  a  proof  of  the  strength  of  the 
classic  school  late  in  the  nineteenth  century.  Thomas 
Woolner  (1825-1893)  was  also  a  classicist  in  his  earlier  works, 
but  developed  a  vein  of  romantic  sentiment  and,  in  his 
latest  important  work,  The  Housemaid,  accepted,  at  least 
in  his  choice  of  subject,  the  principles  of  the  naturalistic 
school.  He  was  an  original  member  of  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood,  founded  in  1848,  and  in  some  of  his  works  he, 
like  other  members  of  the  Brotherhood,  tried  to  catch  the 
spirit  of  the  Early  Renaissance.  His  portrait  statues,  busts, 
and  medallions  are  refined  and  elevated  in  conception. 

Boehm.  Armstead.  —  Sir  Joseph  Edgar  Boehm  (1834-1891), 
an  Austrian  by  birth,  was  instrumental  in  aiding  the  movement 
toward  naturalism.  His  portrait  busts  are  usually  excellent. 
Among  his  portrait  statues  the  Carlyle  in  Chelsea  is  possibly 
the  best,  though  the  John  Bunyan,  at  Bedford,  and  the 
statues  of  Dean  Stanley  and  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  nearly,  or  quite,  equal  it.  In  some  of 
his  ideal  works  he  exhibits  the  modern  spirit.  His  efforts 
to  infuse  new  life  int9  English  sculpture  were  ably  seconded 
by  Alfred  Gilbert,  Edouard  Lanteri,  and  others.  Henry 
Hugh  Armstead  (1828-1905)  was  an  active  sculptor  in 
various  kinds  of  work.  His  chief  activity  was  in  archi- 
tectual  decoration,  of  which  the  Colonial  Office  in  White- 
hall offers  a  good  example;  he  was  also  the  author  of  the 
best  part  of  the  decoration  of  the  Albert  Memorial,  of  the 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN      381 

fountain  in  King's  College,  Cambridge,  of  the  "Entomb- 
ment" in  Hythe  church,  and  the  marble  doorway  of  the 
Holborn  restaurant.  He  produced  also  a  considerable 
number  of  effigies  and  busts,  besides  several  ideal  works, 
such  as  "Playmates"  (1897;  a  girl  with  a  kitten),  "Re- 
morse" (1901),  and  "Ariel"  (1882).  His  work  has  nobility, 
solidity,  and  largeness  of  style. 

Lawson.  Simonds.  —  George  Anderson  Lawson  (1832- 
1904)  received  his  artistic  education  in  Scotland  and,  in  a 
measure,  in  Rome.  His  "Dominie  Sampson"  (1888)  is 
frankly  humorous;  in  his  later  work  he  aimed  at  Greek 
severity,  tempered  by  modern  feeling.  His  work  is  virile 
and  possesses  distinction,  but  possibly  lacks  animation. 
George  Simonds  (b.  1844)  was  a  pupil  of  Schilling  in  Dresden, 
then  worked  in  Brussels  and  Rome.  In  addition  to  monu- 
mental and  decorative  sculpture,  he  has  produced  many 
ideal  works,  such  as  "  Dionysus  astride  his  Leopard," 
"The  Goddess  Gerd,"  "The  Falconer"  (in  Central  Park, 
New  York).  His  work  is  intellectual,  imaginative,  refined, 
and  well  executed. 

Brock.  Bates.  Thornycroft. — Sir  Thomas  Brock  (b.  1847) 
has  produced  a  great  quantity  of  sculpture.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Foley,  but  has  advanced  far  beyond  his  master.  His 
works  include  many  portrait  busts  and  statues,  as  well  as 
numerous  ideal  figures,  such  as  "Eve,"  "Salamacis,"  and 
"Hercules  and  Antaeus"  in  his  early  style,  and  "The  Mo- 
ment of  Peril"  (a  combat  of  an  American  Indian  and  his 
horse  against  a  great  serpent)  and  "The  Genius  of  Poetry" 
in  his  later  manner.  He  is  the  author  of  the  Queen  Victoria 
Memorial  in  London.  In  his  earlier  works  he  is  still  classic, 
but  later  adopted  the  romantic  and,  in  some  measure, 
naturalistic  style.  His  work  is  scholarly,  refined,  and  dig- 
nified. Harry  Bates  (1850-1899)  united  modern  treatment 
and  classic  form.  His  style  is  serene  and  free  from  all 
restlessness  (Fig.  187).  His  portrait  busts  are  excellent 
both  in  technique  and  in  portrayal  of  character.  His 
reliefs  are  especially  good.  W.  Hamo  Thornycroft  (b.  1850) 
received  his  early  training  from  his  father,  who  was  an  in- 


382 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


different  sculptor,  and  his  natural  tendency  was  toward  the 
imitation  of  Flaxman  and  the  antique.  This  is  seen  in  some 
of  his  early  work,  but  his  "Lot's  Wife"  (1878)  and  his 
"Artemis"  (1880)  have  a  romantic  quality,  and  his  "Teucer" 
(1881)  is  already  more  realistic.  The  "Medea"  (1888) 
retains  traces  of  classicism,  mingled  with  romanticism  and 
realism.  The  "Sower"  and  the  "Mower"  are  frankly 
realistic.  He  is  the  author  of  a  number  of  public  monuments 

and  of  ideal  and  real  portraits. 
In  general,  his  work  in  the 
round  is  better  than  his  reliefs; 
but  in  all  his  work  he  exhibits 
strength,  refined  taste,  and  a 
sense  of  beauty. 

Beginnings  of  the  New  School. 
Its  Character.  -  -  The  change 
which  has  been  noted  in  the 
works  of  Brock  and  Thornycroft 
is  typical  of  the  change  in  the 
character  of  British  sculpture. 
The  dull  classicism  of  the  pre- 
vious generation  has  passed  away, 
and  a  more  vigorous  spirit  has 
taken  its  place.  This  change  is 
due  originally  to  the  influence 
of  Carpeaux,  but  that  influence 
was  brought  to  England  mainly  by  Jules  Dalou,  a  refugee 
from  Paris  at  the  time  of  the  commune,  who  was  for  some 
years  master  of  the  modelling  classes  at  South  Kensington. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Edouard  Lanteri,  and  W.  S.  Frith,  Alfred 
Gilbert,  and  others  helped  to  encourage  the  new  tendency. 
The  modern  English  sculpture  aims  at  restrained  and  taste- 
ful picturesqueness.  It  is  realistic,  but  its  realism  is  tem- 
pered by  poetry  and  grace.  Not  beauty  of  form  alone, 
but  sentiment  and,  above  all,  action  are  the  objects  of 
the  sculptor's  interest.  Drapery  is  likely  to  hide  the  action, 
and  therefore  a  preference  for  nude  figures  is  evident.  Occa- 
sionally this  leads  to  the  production  of  statues  which  are 


FIGURE    187.  —  Pandora,    by 
Bates.    Tate  Gallery,  London. 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN     383 

little  more  than  studies  of  the  nude.  The  number  of 
modern  sculptors  is  considerable,  and  it  will  be  impossible 
to  mention  all  whose  work  is  meritorious. 

Thomas.  Ford.  Swan.  Lucchesi.  —  J.  Havard  Thomas 
(b.  1854)  produced  several  portrait  busts  and  monuments 
between  1872  and  1889.  His  "Slave  Girl"  (1886)  is  a 
realistic  figure,  exquisitely  carved,  for  this  sculptor  carves 
his  marbles  (when  they  are  not  too  large)  himself,  whereas 
most  modern  sculptors  content  themselves  -with  modelling. 
In  1889  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  devoted  himself  for  several 
years  to  carving  realistic  heads  of  South  Italian  types.  His 
statue  "Lycidas"  is  classic  in  type,  but  not  neo-classic.  It 
is  full  of  life  and  superbly  modelled.  In  general,  this  artist's 
work  is  restful,  delicate,  and  full  of  poetic  feeling.  Edward 
Onslow  Ford  (1852-1901)  was  the  artist  of  many  portraits, 
both  busts  and  statues.  Among  the  latter  are  Irving  as 
Hamlet,  and  Gordon  mounted  on  a  camel.  The  most 
noted  of  his  other  memorial  monuments  is  that  of  Shelley, 
at  University  College,  Oxford,  which  is  finely  executed,  but 
somewhat  artificial  in  design.  Onslow  Ford's  portraits 
are  almost  unsurpassed.  His  ideal  statues  are  chiefly 
female  nudes.  In  all  his  works  he  displayed  a  fine  feeling 
for  beauty  and  great  refinement,  though  occasionally  he 
employed  too  much  elaborate  detail.  John  Macallan  Swan 
(1847-1910)  was  especially  a  sculptor  of  animals,  chiefly 
of  the  felidae.  His  naturalistic  presentation  of  the  move- 
ment of  the  great  cats  is  remarkably  lifelike  and  powerful. 
His  modelling  is  fine  and  accurate.  In  the  relatively  few 
human  figures  he  produced,  he  showed  originality  and 
skill.  Andrea  Carlo  Lucchesi  (b.  1860)  is  a  sculptor  of 
pleasing  ideal  figures,  chiefly  female  nudes.  His  work  is 
realistic  and  at  the  same  time  romantic. 

Watts.  Leighton.  —  Two  painters,  George  Frederick  Watts 
(1817-1904)  and  Sir  Frederick  (later  Lord)  Leighton  (1830- 
1896),  distinguished  themselves  and  exerted  great  influence 
by  a  few  works  of  sculpture.  Watts  produced  several  large 
statues  and  groups,  among  them  "Bishop  Lonsdale"  in 
Lichfield,  "Hugh  Lupus"  for  the  Duke  of  Westminster,  and 


384 


A  HISTORY   OF  SCULPTURE 


"Physical  Energy,"  which  was  executed  in  duplicate  and 
stands  in  South  Africa  and  in  London.  In  all  these  there  is 
great  vigor,  breadth,  and  simplicity.  But  his  most  admired 
work  is  a  bust  of  Clytie,  which  shows  how  a  classic  subject 
can  be  so  treated  as  to  be  full  of  life  and  reality.  Lord 

Leighton's  "Athlete  strang- 
ling a  Python"  (1877),  his 
later  statue  "  The  Sluggard  " 
(Fig.  188),  and  the  statuette 
"Needless  Alarms"  prove 
him  a  master  of  the  tech- 
nique of  modelling  and  the 
possessor  of  remarkable 
knowledge  of  the  human 
form  and  its  movements. 

Gilbert.  Frampton.  Reyn- 
olds-Stephens. Drury. 
Frith.  Pegram.  Jones.  — 
Alfred  Gilbert  (b.  1854)  is 
the  author  of  many  busts, 
monuments,  and  ideal  fig- 
ures, such  as  Perseus,  Icarus, 
"The  Kiss  of  Victory," 
"Comedy  and  Tragedy." 
His  statue  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria, at  Winchester,  is  not 
merely  an  admirable  por- 
trait, but  an  embodiment 
of  the  majesty  of  royalty. 
He  has  done  also  a  great 
deal  of  decorative  work  in 
metal,  and  the  revival  of 
the  use  of  the  cire  perdue 
method  of  bronze  casting  in  England  is  due  to  him.  His  work 
is  full  of  life,  is  playful  and  broad.  His  manner  is  sometimes 
a  little  florid,  but  his  taste  is  pure  and  refined.  He  is  one  of 
those  who  combine  metal  and  colored  stones  with  white 
marble.  Sir  George  James  Frampton  (b.  1860)  is  a  sculptor 


FIGURE    188.  —  The   Sluggard,   by 
Leighton.    Tate  Gallery,  London. 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN     385 


of  varied  powers.  His  first  important  work  is  a  Socrates 
(1884),  which  was  followed  by  several  ideal  figures.  In  1893 
he  exhibited  the  "  Mysteriarch, "  his  first  polychrome  statue, 
since  which  time  he  has  employed  color  freely  in  his  sculptures. 
His  decorative  work  is  rich,  original,  and  varied.  The 
"Peter  Pan,"  in  Kensington 
Gardens  (Fig.  189),  shows  the 
delicacy,  refinement,  and  charm 
which  characterize  his  work. 
Portraiture  seems  to  interest 
him  less  than  ideal  work,  but 
he  has  produced  many  excel- 
lent portraits.  W.  S.  Frith 
deserves  mention  chiefly  as 
an  excellent  and  influential 
teacher,  though  his  work  in  all 
fields  of  sculpture  is  vigorous 
and  intelligent.  Henry  A. 
Pegram  (b.  1862)  was  a  little 
conventional  in  his  earliest 
works,  but  with  "The  Bather" 
(1895)  and  "Labor"  (1896)  he 
showed  himself  as  a  realist.  His 
monument  to  Mrs.  Michaelis 
combines  beauty  with  pathos. 
He  exhibits  much  decorative 
feeling,  sense  of  the  values  of 
light  and  shade,  with  a  big  style 
and  much  movement  and  life. 
Captain  Adrian  Jones  (b.  1845) 
made  a  specialty  of  groups  which 
contain  horses.  William  Reyn- 
olds-Stephens (b.  1862  at  Detroit)  has  worked  much  in 
metals,  as  well  as  in  marble.  His  work  is  refined  and  deli- 
cate. Some  of  his  purely  decorative  work  is  remarkably 
good.  The  work  of  Alfred  Drury  (b.  1857)  consists  of  pub- 
lic monuments,  portrait  busts,  ideal  figures,  and  decorative 
sculpture.  He  is  a  good  observer  and  his  technique  is 
2c 


FIGURE  189.  —  Peter  Pan; 
bronze  by  Frampton.  Kensing- 
ton Gardens,  London. 


386  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

clever.  His  work  is  quiet,  contemplative,  and  well  de- 
signed. 

Pomeroy.  Toft.  Lanteri.  Fehr.  Cotton.  —  Frederick 
William  Pomeroy,  like  Drury  a  pupil  of  the  Lambeth  schools 
under  Dalou,  is  an  artist  of  great  taste,  ability,  and  productiv- 
ity. His  work  is  realistic,  full  of  truth  and  vigor ;  his  tech- 
nique and  modelling  are  excellent,  and  his  decorative  designs 
good  and  effective.  He  has  produced  many  ideal  works, 
such  as  "Dionysus,"  "The  Nymph  of  Loch  Awe,"  "Perseus" 
(with  reminiscences  of  Benvenuto  Cellini),  and  "The 
Spearman,"  also  numerous  public  monuments  and  portrait 
statues.  Albert  Toft,  after  modelling  several  reliefs,  ex- 
hibited his  first  statue,  "Lilith,"  in  1889.  This  was  followed 
by  several  ideal  statues,  for  the  most  part  nude  female 
figures.  The  "Spirit  of  Contemplation,"  a  nude  female 
seated  in  an  arm-chair,  is  a  dignified,  refined,  and  thoughtful 
composition.  Toft's  memorials  of  the  Boer  War  at  Cardiff 
and  Birmingham,  his  portrait  busts,  and  his  ideal  composi- 
tions, especially  those  of  recent  date,  are  full  of  refined 
thoughtfulness  and  poetry.  Edouard  Lanteri,  a  naturalized 
Belgian,  is  a  sculptor  of  varied  gifts,  but  his  chief  importance 
is  due  to  his  teaching  at  the  Royal  College  of  Art.  Henry 
C.  Fehr  is  a  productive  sculptor,  but  his  work,  with  all  its 
fine  workmanship,  cleverness,  life,  vivacity,  and  excellence 
of  design,  lacks  depth  and  seriousness.  W.  R.  Colton 
(b.  1867),  the  author  of  public  monuments  in  England  and 
in  India  and  of  numerous  ideal  works,  showed  himself 
strongly  influenced  by  Rodin  in  his  attractive  and  graceful 
high  relief  "The  Crown  of  Love,"  but  he  possesses  too  much 
individuality  to  become  a  blind  follower  of  any  school. 
His  work  is  varied  and  full  of  life. 

Other  English  Sculptors.  —  Other  modern  English  sculptors 
are  William  Birnie  Rhind,  W.  Goscombe  John  (b.  1860), 
Bertram  Mackennal  (b.  1863),  who  is  much  influenced  by 
French  art,  especially  that  of  Rodin,  G.  Herbert.  Hampton 
(b.  1862),  F.  E.  Schenck  (d.  1908),  George  Edward  Wade, 
Gilbert  Bayes  (b.  1871),  David  McGill,  Charles  John  Allen, 
Frank  Mowbray  Taubman  (b.  1868),  James  Pittendrigh 


MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN      387 

MacGillivray  (b.  1856),  Paul  R.  Montford  (b.  1868),  Francis 
Derwent  Wood  (b.  1872),  and  Alfred  Turner.  Indeed  there 
are  still  others,  such  as  Frederick  Thomas,  Frank  Fisher, 
Mortimer  Brown,  and  J.  C.  McClure,  who  are  clearly  sculp- 
tors of  ability ;  but  a  complete  list  would  be  uninstructive, 
and  enough  has  been  said  to  indicate  the  numerical  strength 
and  the  genuine  excellence  of  the  modem  English  sculptors, 
who,  although  influenced  by  foreign,  especially  French  and 
Belgian,  art,  really  form  a  national  English  school. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
SCULPTURE   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES 

Early  Attempts.  —  Sculpture  in  the  United  States  is, 
naturally  enough,  only  of  recent  growth.  The  earliest 
attempts  possess  little  interest,  but  may  be  mentioned  for 
the  sake  of  completeness.  Mrs.  Patience  Wright  (1725- 
1785)  of  Bordentown,  New  Jersey,  made  wax  busts  and 
statues  which  were  greatly  admired  both  in  America  and  in 
England.  John  Dixey,  an  Irishman,  after  coming  from 
Italy  in  1789,  made  a  few  statues,  but  busied  himself  chiefly 
with  decorative  carving  for  private  houses.  The  great  French 
sculptor  Houdon  visited  the  United  States  in  1785  and  made 
the  statue  of  Washington  which  is  in  the  State  Capitol  at 
Richmond,  Virginia,  but  his  stay  was  brief  and  his  work 
exerted  no  permanent  influence.  The  ardent  and  eccentric 
Italian,  Giuseppe  Cerrachi  (b.  Rome,  1740),  came  to  America 
in  1791  with  a  plan  for  an  elaborate  monument  to  Liberty, 
but  his  project  met  with  little  support,  and  he  returned  to 
Europe,  after  making  a  number  of  good  busts  of  prominent 
men,  several  of  which  still  exist,  though  his  bust  of  Wash- 
ington has'  disappeared.  William  Rush  (1757-1833),  of 
Philadelphia,  had  little  or  no  training,  but  apparently  some 
ability,  if  we  may  judge  by  his  statue  of  the  Nymph  of  the 
Schuylkill,  the  wooden  original  of  which  has  been  replaced  by 
a  bronze  copy  which  stands  in  Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia. 
Rush's  most  important  contribution  to  American  art  was  his 
activity  in  founding  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine  Arts, 
in  which  his  bust  of  Washington  is  preserved.  John  Frazee 
(1790-1852),  of  Rah  way,  New  Jersey,  was  also  deficient  in 
training.  He  made,  in  1824  or  1825,  the  first  marble  portrait 

388 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE   UNITED  STATES         389 

by  an  American  sculptor,  a  bust  of  John  Wells  for  Grace 
Church,  New  York.  He  also  made  busts  of  Daniel  Webster, 
John  Jay,  and  others.  Hezekiah  Augur  (1791-1858),  of 
New  Haven,  seems  to  have  had  no  little  native  ability,  but 
he  was  almost  entirely  without  training,  and  his  work  exerted 
no  influence. 

The  Classic  School.  Greenough.  Powers.  Crawford.  — 
American  sculpture  as  an  art  practised  by  trained  sculptors 
begins  with  the  work  of  Horatio  Greenough  (1805-1852). 
He  it  was  who  first  led  Americans  to  study  sculpture  in  Italy, 
and  the  classical  school  of  Canova  and  Thorvaldsen  domi- 
nated sculpture  in  the  United  States  until  the  last  quarter  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Greenough  is  most  widely  known 
by  his  statue  of  Washington  in  the  garb  and  attitude  of 
Olympian  Zeus,  a  statue  which  might,  if  placed  within  the 
capitol,  where  its  author  intended  it  to  be,  produce  a  much 
better  effect  than  it  produces  in  its  present  position  in  the 
open  air.  His  "  Chanting  Cherubs  "  is  an  adaptation  of  figures 
from  a  painting  by  Raphael.  His  best  works  are  his  portrait 
busts.  Hiram  Powers  (1805-1873),  like  Greenough  a 
thorough  classicist,  lived  a  great  part  of  his  life  in  Italy. 
His  "Greek  Slave"  was  exceedingly  popular.  There  is  a 
gentle  sentiment  in  the  face,  and  the  rest  of  the  statue  is  so 
refined  as  to  remove  all  suggestion  of  human  nakedness  from 
its  marble  nudity.  His  portrait  busts  and  statues  are  good, 
but  he  cannot  be  said  to  have  shown  great  originality. 
Thomas  Crawford  (1813-1857)  was  more  original  than 
Powers,  but  was  a  pupil  of  Thorvaldsen  and  a  classicist.  His 
colossal  "Freedom,"  which  was  cast  by  Clark  Mills  and  sur- 
mounts the  dome  of  the  capitol  at  Washington,  is  a  dignified 
and  impressive  figure.  His  bronze  doors  of  the  capitol,  in- 
spired by  Ghiberti's  doors  of  the  baptistery,  are  well  designed, 
and  his  pediment  group  of  the  Indian  mourning  the  Decay 
of  his  Race,  also  part  of  the  adornment  of  the  capitol,  though 
not  a  great  work,  is  independent  and,  on  the  whole,  well 
conceived.  The  Washington  Monument  at  Richmond  is 
not  especially  fine,  but,  as  one  of  the  earliest  equestrian 
statues  in  the  country,  it  deserves  mention. 


390  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Hughes.  Brown.  Palmer.  — Ball  Hughes  (1806-1868) 
was  an  Englishman,  who  came  to  America  in  1829.  His 
statue  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1835,  is 
said  to  be  the  first  marble  statue  actually  carved  in  this 
country,  and  his  bronze  statue  of  Dr.  Bowditch,  in  Mount 
Auburn  cemetery  (now  recast),  is  said  to  be  the  first  bronze 
statue  cast  here.  Henry  Kirke  Brown  (1814-1886)  went 
early  to  Italy,  but  refused  to  become  a  classicist,  believing 
that  American  art  should  be  concerned  with  American  sub- 
jects. His  equestrian  monument  of  Washington,  in  Union 
Square,  New  York,  is  his  chief  work,  though  the  equestrian 
statue  of  General  Winfield  Scott,  in  Washington,  is  also 
excellent.  His  other  works  are  rather  commonplace.  Clark 
Mills  (1815-1883)  modelled  the  first  equestrian  statue  erected 
in  this  country,  that  of  General  Jackson  in  Washington, 
erected  in  1853.  He  also  made  an  equestrian  statue  of  Wash- 
ington and  cast  Crawford's  "Freedom."  Erastus  Dow 
Palmer  (b.  1817),  at  first  a  carpenter,  obtained  what  little 
training  he  had  in  this  country.  Not  until  1873  did  he  visit 
Europe,  and  then  only  for  a  short  time.  His  "Indian  Girl" 
and  "White  Captive,"  strictly  American  subjects,  were  very 
popular.  In  these,  as  in  his  other  works,  such  as  Resigna- 
tion, Spring,  the  Infant  Flora,  the  "Spirit's  Flight,"  Faith, 
Mercy,  The  Angel  of  the  Sepulchre,  many  of  which  were 
reliefs,  he  exhibits  much  poetic  sentiment.  His  portrait 
busts  are  also  creditable. 

Ball.  Story.  R.  Rogers.  Rinehart.  Hosmer.  —  Thomas 
Ball  (b.  1819)  produced  a  few  works  of  strictly  classical  style 
and  lived  in  Florence  most  of  his  life  after  the  age  of  thirty- 
five,  but  remained  thoroughly  American.  His  most  im- 
portant works  are  public  statues,  such  as  the  equestrian 
Washington  in  Boston,  the  Daniel  Webster  in  New  York, 
and  the  Emancipation  group  in  Washington.  He  was  an 
artist  of  high  ideals,  which  he  handed  down  to  his  pupils 
Milmore  and  French.  William  Wetmore  Story  (1819-1895) 
lived  after  1851  in  Florence.  His  works  comprise  a  number 
of  strictly  correct  and  classic  statues,  such  as  the  Cleopatra, 
Semiramis,  Polyxena,  and  Medea  in  the  Metropolitan  Mu- 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         391 

seum  in  New  York,  and  several  portrait  figures.  His  Cleo- 
patra and  his  Libyan  Sibyl  were  greatly  admired  in  England 
and  are  less  cold  and  lifeless  than  most  of  his  productions. 
Randolph  Rogers  (1825-1892)  lived  in  Rome  after  1851. 
His  "Nydia,  the  Blind  Girl  of  Pompeii,"  a  graceful  figure, 
but  somewhat  lifeless,  was  much  admired  in  England  and  in 
his  native  country.  The  "Lost  Pleiad"  and  the  Ruth  are 
of  similar  character.  For  the  capitol  at  Washington  he 
designed  the  bronze  doors  illustrating  the  life  of  Columbus. 
Among  his  larger  works  the  "America"  at  Providence  and 
the  "Michigan"  at  Detroit  are  most  noted.1  William  Henry 
Rinehart  (1825-1874)  went  to  Italy  for  a  short  stay  in  1855 
and  returned  thither  in  1858  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life.  In 
the  Rinehart  Museum  of  the  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore, 
are  forty-two  casts  and  three  originals  (marble)  of  his  works. 
He  was  a  thorough  classicist.  His  Endymion  sleeps  in  the 
same  room  of  the  Corcoran  Gallery  in  Washington  which 
contains  Powers'  Greek  Slave,  and  a  bronze  replica  adorns 
the  sculptor's  grave  at  Greenmount  cemetery.  His  most 
famous  work,  the  Clytie,  is  greatly  superior  to  the  Greek 
Slave,  though  hardly  more  original.  His  seated  statue  of 
Chief  Justice  Taney,  at  Annapolis  and  Baltimore,  is  a  dig- 
nified and  worthy  monument.  Miss  Harriet  Hosmer  (1830- 
1908)  was  a  pupil  of  the  English  sculptor  Gibson,  at  Rome. 
She  produced  two  amusing  little  figures,  "Puck"  and  "Will- 
o-the-Wisp,"  but  her  other  works,  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  portrait  statues,  are  cold  and  formal  classical  produc- 
tions. Such  are  the  Oenone,  the  Zenobia,  the  Beatrice 
Cenci,  and  the  Sleeping  Faun.  Miss  Hosmer  was  the  last  of 
the  strictly  classic  school. 

Other  '  Sculptors.  —  Other  sculptors  whose  activity  falls 
before  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876  were  Henry  Dexter 
(1806-1876),  John  King  (b.  1806),  Joel  T.  Hart  (1810-1877), 
Shobal  Vail  Clevenger  (1812-1843),  Joseph  Mozier  (1812- 
1870),  Edward  A.  Brackett  (b.  1818),  Edward  Sheffield  Bar- 
tholomew (1822-1858),  Benjamin  Paul  Akers  (1825-1861), 

1  A  collection  of  casts  of  his  works  is  at  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  where  he 
passed  some  years  of  his  youth. 


392  A   HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

John  Adams  Jackson  (1825-1879),  Thomas  R.  Gould  (1825- 
1881),  Leonard  Volk  (b.  1828),  John  Rogers  (b.  1829), 
William  Rimmer  (b.  1816),  Thomas  Gould  (1818-1881), 
Richard  Saltonstall  Greenough  (1819-1904),  Chauncey  B. 
Ives,  Henry  J.  Haseltine,  Mrs.  Dubois,  Emma  Stebbins 
(1815-1882),  Margaret  Foley,  Edmonia  Lewis,  Vinnie  Ream 
(Mrs.  Hoxie),  and  Blanche  Nevin.  These  sculptors  followed 
for  the  most  part  the  traditions  of  the  classic  school,  though 
they  frequently  chose  biblical  subjects  and  produced  also 
many  portrait  busts  and  statues.  John  Rogers  devoted  him- 
self to  genre  subjects  and  produced  many  statuettes  and 
small  groups  which  were  immensely  popular  on  account  of 
their  realism  and  also  because  his  subjects,  connected  with 
the  Civil  War  and  with  the  negroes,  appealed  to  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  people. 

Ward.  —  John  Quincy  Adams  Ward  (b.  1830)  was  trained 
by  Henry  Kirke  Brown.  His  work  is  honest,  serious,  well 
executed  (not  merely  modelled  for  others  to  carve),  and  full 
of  life.  His  early  works,  The  Indian  Hunter,  The  Freedman, 
The  Pilgrim,  The  Private  of  the  Seventh  Regiment,  were 
followed  by  many  portrait  monuments,  among  them  the 
equestrian  statues  of  Generals  Thomas,  Sheridan,  and  Han- 
cock, and  the  admirable  standing  statue  of  Henry  Ward 
Beecher  in  Brooklyn.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  well-con- 
ceived sculptures  in  the  pediment  of  the  Stock  Exchange  in 
New  York.  As  president  of  the  National  Sculpture  Society 
for  many  years,  Mr.  Ward  has  exerted  great  influence. 

P.  and  L.  Powers.  Waldo  Story.  Ezekiel.  —  The  Italian 
influence  which  was  so  strong  in  the  early  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  yielded  to  the  influence  of  Paris.  The  change 
began  even  before  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  but  did  not 
become  pronounced  until  later.  A  few  American  sculptors 
still  clung  to  the  Italian  school.  Such  are  Preston  and  Long- 
worth  Powers,  sons  of  Hiram  Powers,  and  T.  Waldo  Story 
(d.  1915),  son  of  W.  W.  Story.  Moses  Jacob  Ezekiel,  born 
in  1844  at  Richmond,  Virginia,  received  his  artistic  training 
in  Germany.  His  style  was  thoroughly  German  until  he  took 
up  his  residence  in  Italy,  after  which  it  became  Italian.  He 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         393 

produced  many  busts  and  some  public  monuments,  but  after 
1886  his  work  was  chiefly  ideal  and  religious. 

Thompson.  Mead.  Bissell.  Simmons.  Milmore.  — 
Several  sculptors  should  be  mentioned  here,  whose  work 
hardly  belongs  to  the  new  school,  though  much  of  it  is  modern 
in  date.  For  the  most  part  they  devoted  themselves  chiefly 
to  the  production  of  the  public  monuments  erected  after  the 
Civil  War.  Launt  Thompson  (1833-1894),  born  in  Ireland, 
came  to  America  and  became  a  pupil  of  Erastus  D.  Palmer. 
His  portrait  statues  and  public  monuments  are  dignified  and 
well  conceived.  Larkin  Goldsmith  Mead  (b.  1835)  is  the 
author  of  the  Lincoln  Memorial  at  Springfield,  Illinois,  of 
many  other  public  monuments,  and  of  numerous  ideal  works. 
Most  of  his  time  after  1862  was  spent  in  Italy,  and  his  works 
show  strongly  the  Italian  influence.  George  Edwin  Bissell 
(b.  1839)  produced  designs  and  models  for  public  monuments 
and  a  complete  marble  statue  without  professional  training. 
In  1875-1876  and  much  of  the  time  in  1883-1896  he  was  in 
Europe.  His  work,  which  includes  many  portrait  busts, 
statues,  and  public  monuments,  is  serious,  careful,  and  full  of 
character.  Franklin  Simmons  (b.  1839)  has  executed  about 
one  hundred  portrait  busts,  numerous  public  monuments, 
and  a  number  of  ideal  statues,  including  Penelope,  Medusa, 
Galatea,  the  Seraph  Abdiel,  and  the  Mother  of  Moses. 
Martin  Milmore  (1844-1883)  came  from  Ireland  in  1851. 
His  most  important  work  is  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monu- 
ment in  Boston,  certainly  one  of  the  best  works  of  its  class 
in  the  whole  country.  His  other  works  are  chiefly  war 
monuments  and  portrait  busts. 

French  Influence.  Roberts.  Connelly.  Hartley.  Warner. 
Mrs.  Whitney.  Miss  Ney.  —  Howard  Roberts  (1845-1900) 
exhibited  a  figure  called  "La  Premiere  Pose"  at  the  Centen- 
nial Exposition  in  1876,  which  aroused  great  interest,  as  it 
was  the  first  notable  example  of  the  modern  French  style  in 
American  sculpture.  A  few  ideal  busts  and  statues  or 
statuettes,  Hester  Prynne,  Hypatia,  Lot's  Wife,  Eleanor, 
make  up  nearly  the  sum  of  Roberts'  works,  but  he  has  the 
honor  of  having  introduced  the  French  style.  Pierce  Francis 


394  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Connelly,  like  Roberts,  made  his  appearance  at  the  Centen- 
nial Exposition  and  soon  disappeared.  Among  his  works 
exhibited  there  are  a  vigorous  romantic  group  of  "  Honor  and 
Death"  and  a  classic  "Thetis,"  showing  the  wide  range  of 
the  sculptor's  taste  and  ability.  Jonathan  Scott  Hartley 
(b.  1845)  studied  under  Erastus  Dow  Palmer,  at  the  Royal 
Academy  in  London,  in  Berlin,  Italy,  and  Paris.  His  works 
are  almost  all  public  monuments  or  busts,  in  which  he  shows 
himself  an  admirable  portraitist.  Olin  Levi  Warner  (1844- 
1896)  worked  for  three  years  under  Jouffroy  and  Carpeaux 
in  Paris.  He  produced  fine,  characteristic  portrait  busts  and 
statues,  a  few  admirable  nude  figures,  a  beautiful  fountain  at 
Portland,  Oregon,  and  a  number  of  fine  reliefs,  among  them 
those  of  one  of  the  bronze  doors  of  the  Congressional  Library. 
Among  his  public  monuments  Ihe  "Governor  Buckingham," 
at  Hartford,  the  "  William  Lloyd  Garrison,"  in  Boston,  and 
the  "General  Devens,"  also  in  Boston,  are  especially  good. 
Two  women  —  Mrs.  Anne  Whitney  and  Miss  Elisabet  Ney 
—  should  also  be  mentioned  here.  Mrs.  Whitney  (b.  1821) 
did  not  begin  the  study  of  modelling  until  she  was  nearly 
thirty-five  years  of  age,  but  produced  a  considerable  number 
of  interesting  works.  Among  them  are  statues  of  Leif  Eric- 
son  (Boston  and  Milwaukee),  Samuel  Adams,  Ethiopia,  and 
Roma.  Of  her  other  works  some  are  portraits,  some  ideal 
subjects.  Miss  Ney  was  born  in  Westphalia  and  was  for 
some  years  a  popular  sculptress  at  Munich.  She  left  Ger- 
many for  political  reasons  and  settled  in  Texas  soon  after 
the  Civil  War.  She  has  modelled  a  number  of  statues  and 
many  portrait  busts.  Her  work  is  always  thoughtful  and 
sincere,  but  her  isolation  has  probably  prevented  her  progress 
in  technique. 

Augwtus  St.  Gaudens.  —  Augustus  St.  Gaudens  (1848- 
1907)  was  born  in  Ireland  (his  father  was  French),  but  came 
to  America  as  an  infant.  He  was  trained  in  Paris,  but  studied 
also  in  Rome.  Even  before  he  went  to  Paris  he  had  worked 
for  six  years  as  a  cameo-cutter,  to  which  fact  is  probably  due 
in  part  his  subsequent  mastery  in  the  treatment  of  low  relief. 
To  him  more  than  to  anv  other  one  man  is  due  the  remarkable 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


395 


development  of  American  sculpture  in  recent  years.  In  his 
work  the  thorough  technique,  freedom  and  delicacy  of 
modelling,  appreciation  of  movement,  and  ability  to  produce 


FIGURE  190.  —  Abraham  Lincoln,  by  St.  Gaudens.     Chicago. 

the  impression  of  realism  without  undue  insistence  upon 
details,  qualities  which  belong  to  the  pupils  of  the  Ecole  des 
Beaux-Arts,  are  joined  with  insight  into  character,  depth  of 
sentiment,  and  poetic  charm.  His  Farragut  monument  in 


396  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

New  York  was  a  revelation  to  American  sculptors  and  the 
American  public.  It  was  followed  by  the  Deacon  Chapin  in 
Springfield  and  the  Lincoln  in  Chicago  (Fig.  190).  In  all  of 
these  his  power  to  feel  and  express  character  is  exemplified. 
In  the  equestrian  Sherman  in  New  York  the  same  quality  is 
seen,  and  the  symbolic  figure  of  Victory  adds  a  poetic  charm 
which  lifts  the  monument  out  of  the  realm  of  portraiture  into 
that  of  ideal  composition.  In  the  magnificent  Shaw  Me- 
morial in  Boston  a  similar  figure  floats  above  the  mounted 
officer  and  his  marching  colored  troops.  This  memorial  —  a 
bronze  relief  so  high  as  to  be  partly  modelled  in  the  round  - 
combines  realism  with  poetry,  historical  fact  with  patriotic 
and  martial  inspiration.  In  the  relief  portraits  of  President 
McCosh,  at  Princeton,  and  of  Dr.  Bellows,  in  New  York, 
grace  and  power  are  present  in  the  proportion  befitting  the 
characters  of  the  two  men.  The  caryatides  for  the  house  of 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt  and  the  angels  for  the  tomb  of  Gov- 
ernor Morgan  (unfortunately  the  models  were  destroyed)  have 
all  the  grace  of  the  angel  figures  of  the  Early  Renaissance. 
In  the  mysterious  bronze  figure  of  the  Adams  Memorial  in 
Rock  Creek  Cemetery,  Washington  (called  "The  Peace  of 
God"  or  "Grief"  or  "Death"),  there  is  a  compelling  power 
seldom  seen  in  any  work  of  art.  St.  Gaudens  was  deservedly 
regarded  during  his  life  as  the  chief  of  American  sculptors. 

French.  —  Daniel  Chester  French  (b.  1850)  had  enjoyed  vir- 
tually no  training  beyond  a  month  in  the  studio  of  J.  Q.  A.  Ward 
and  some  slight  study  of  anatomy  when  he  produced,  in  1875, 
the  statue  of  the  Minute  Man,  at  Concord,  Massachusetts. 
A  cast  of  the  Apollo  of  the  Belvedere  was  his  only  model,  but 
his  dependence  upon  this  classic  original  is  not  merely  con- 
cealed, it  is  overcome  by  the  earnest  feeling  and  the  serious 
purpose  of  the  young  sculptor.  For  a  year  he  lived  in 
Florence  in  the  house  of  Preston  Powers  and  worked  in  the 
studio  of  Thomas  Ball,  since  which  time  his  training  has  been 
gained  merely  in  the  practice  of  his  art.  He  has  produced 
figures  and  pedimental  groups  for  the  Custom  House  in  St. 
Louis,  the  Court  House  in  Philadelphia,  and  the  Post  Office 
in  Boston,  a  considerable  number  of  public  monuments  and 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


397 


FIGURE  191.  —  The  Mourning  Victory,  by  French.     Melvin  Memorial,  Con- 
cord, Mass.1     (Photo.  A.  W.  Elson  and  Co.,  Boston.) 


1  From  the  sculptor's  original  plaster, 
the  Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York. 


A  marble  replica  of  this  figure  is  in 


398  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

portraits,  the  remarkable  relief  of  Death  and  the  Sculptor 
in  memory  of  Martin  Milmore,  and  many  other  works. 
Among  them  the  group  of  Gallaudet  teaching  a  deaf  mute, 
the  monument  to  John  Boyle  O'Reilly,  the  memorial  relief 
to  Mrs.  Alice  Freeman  Palmer,  and  the  Melvin  Memorial 
at  Concord,  Massachusetts  (1908),  may  be  singled  out  for 
especial  commendation  (Fig.  191).  He  is  a  sculptor  of 
power  and  refinement.  His  work  shows  self-restraint, 
appreciation  of  beauty  of  form,  and  breadth  of  treat- 
ment. 

MacMonnies.  Barnard.  Bartktt.  —  Frederick  William 
MacMonnies  (b.  1863)  was  a  pupil  of  St.  Gaudens,  of  Fal- 
guiere  (Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts),  and  Mercie.  Among  his 
works  are  Nathan  Hale,  in  New  York,  bronze  angels  in  St. 
Paul's  Church,  New  York,  James  S.  T.  Stranahan,  in  Brook- 
lyn, Sir  Harry  Vane,  in  the  Boston  Public  Library,  groups 
for  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Monument  at  Indianapolis,  the 
figure  of  Victory  on  the  Battle  Monument,  West  Point,  the 
"Bacchante"  in  the  Luxembourg  and  the  Metropolitan 
Museum.  His  style  is  more  thoroughly  French  than  that 
of  St.  Gaudens  and  exhibits  less  restraint  than  that  of  Daniel 
C.  French.  Sometimes  his  work  lacks  simplicity,  but  it  is 
always  well  executed  and  possesses  the  charm  of  individuality. 
George  Grey  Barnard  (b.  1863)  studied  in  the  Chicago  Art 
Institute  and  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  His  works  include 
"Boy,"  "The  Two  Natures,"  "Brotherly  Love,"  "The  God 
Pan,"  "The  Hewer,"  and  various  portrait  busts.  He  is  an 
artist  of  marked  originality  and  power,  but  may  perhaps  be 
accused  of  lack  of  restraint  and,  if  his  sincerity  were  not  un- 
questioned, of  striving  for  effect.  Paul  Wayland  Bartlett 
(b.  1865)  received  his  artistic  education  .entirely  in  Paris. 
His  skill  as  a  sculptor  of  animals  is  seen  in  his  "Bohemian 
Bear  Tamer,"  and  his  remarkable  dexterity  in  modelling  and 
his  knowledge  of  the  human  body  in  his  "Ghost  Dancer." 
He  is  the  author  of  several  equestrian  monuments  and  of  the 
admirable  Columbus  and  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Congres- 
sional Library  at  Washington,  besides  a  considerable  number 
of  other  statues.  Among  his  recent  works  are  six  excellent 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         399 

symbolic  figures  for  the  facade  of  the  Public  Library  in 
New  York. 

Adams.  Niehaus.  Boyle.  —  Herbert  Adams  (b.  1858), 
a  pupil  of  Mercie,  is  especially  noted  for  his  charming  busts 
of  women,  among  which  a  bust  of  Miss  Pond,  one  of  his 
earliest  works,  may  be  singled  out  for  peculiar  praise  on 
account  of  the  delicacy  of  workmanship  and  of  sentiment 
which  it  discloses.  Among  his  other  works  are  statues  of 
Richard  Smith  (Philadelphia),  William  Ellery  Channing 
(Boston),  and  Joseph  Henry  (Washington),  the  bronze  doors 
representing  "Writing,"  in  the  Library  of  Congress,  the 
bronze  doors  of  the  Vanderbilt  Memorial,  in  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's Church,  New  York,  and  a  number  of  bronze  memorial 
tablets.  In  all  his  works  delicacy  and  charm,  rather  than 
power,  are  the  prevailing  qualities.  Charles  H.  Niehaus 
(b.  1855  at  Cincinnati)  received  his  education  as  a  sculptor 
in  Munich.  His  statue  of  Garfield,  in  Cincinnati,  is  his 
first  important  work,  and  one  of  his  best.  After  making  this 
statue  he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  made  several  nude  figures 
of  classic  subjects  in  realistic  manner.  Of  these  "  The  Greek 
Athlete  using  a  Strigil"  is  the  most  widely  known.  Most  of 
his  works  are  monumental  statues,  among  them  Hahnemann, 
Garfield,  Gibbon,  Moses  (all  in  Washington),  Hooker  and 
Davenport  (Hartford),  Lincoln,  Farragut,  and  McKinley 
(Muskegon,  Michigan),  and  the  equestrian  General  Forrest 
(Memphis,  Tennessee).  He  is  also  the  author  of  a  number 
of  excellent  reliefs.  His  work  is  always  dignified  and  well 
modelled.  John  J.  B9yle  (b.  1851)  was  educated  in  Phila- 
delphia and  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  His  work  is 
powerful  and  original.  His  favorite  field  is  the  representa- 
tion of  the  American  Indian.  "The  Stone  Age"  (1888),  in 
Fairmount  Park,  Philadelphia,  a  group  of  an  Indian  woman 
and  her  two  children,  is  vigorous  and  impressive,  as  is  also 
his  group,  "The  Alarm,"  in  Chicago.  The  same  qualities 
were  seen  in  the  two  groups  "The  Savage  Age,"  exhibited 
at  the  Pan-American  Exposition  at  Buffalo.  He  is  also  the 
author  of  the  Bacon  in  the  Library  of  Congress,  a  Franklin 
in  Philadelphia,  and  a  number  of  other  works. 


400  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Couper.  Elwell.  Ruckstuhl.  Partridge.  —  William  Cou- 
per  (b.  1853),  son-in-law  of  Thomas  Ball,  lived  for  a  long 
time  in  Italy  and  acquired  the  modern  Italian  style,  with  its 
inclination  toward  delicate  workmanship  and  fine  detail.  In 
Italy  he  made  several  ideal  figures  and  a  number  of  portraits. 
Since  his  return  to  America,  in  1897,  he  has  made  numerous 
portrait  busts  and  statues,  several  charming  reliefs,  and  a 
number  of  angel  figures,  in  which  he  excels.  Frank  Edwin 
Elwell  (b.  1858)  studied  in  Boston  and  Paris.  He  is  a  thought- 
ful and  imaginative  sculptor,  who  has  produced  many  im- 
pressive and  interesting  ideal  figures,  portrait  statues  (among 
them  the  fine  equestrian  statue  of  General  Hancock,  at 
Gettysburg),  and  lesser  works.  Frederick  Wellington  Ruck- 
stuhl (b.  1853)  studied  in  Paris.  He  has  produced  many 
ideal  figures,  among  which  the  "Evening"  in  the  Metro- 
politan Museum  is  perhaps  still  the  best.  In  this  his  treat- 
ment is  less  realistic  than  that  which  is  seen  in  most  nude 
figures  of  the  French  school.  In  his  other  works  also  he 
shows  himself  to  be  an  artist  of  poetic  temperament  and 
marked  individuality.  William  Ordway  Partridge  (b.  1861) 
has  written  and  lectured  on  art,  in  addition  to  his  work  as 
a  productive  sculptor.  His  portrait  busts  and  statues  are 
sympathetic,  and  show  the  broad  culture  and  imagination  of 
the  artist. 

Konti.  Bitter.  Martiny.  Rhind.  —  Isidore  Konti  (b. 
1862),  an  Austrian  by  birth,  is  an  excellent  sculptor  whose 
special  field  is  decorative  work,  though  his  public  monuments 
and  ideal  figures  are  neither  few  nor  lacking  in  merit.  Karl 
Bitter  (1867-1915),  another  Austrian,  distinguished  himself 
by  brilliant  decorative  sculpture  and  also  by  excellent  work 
of  other  kinds.  His  influence  was  strong  and  growing  when 
death  put  an  end  to  his  career.  Philip  Martiny  (b.  1858) 
has  been  more  decidedly  a  creator  of  decorative  sculpture 
than  either  Konti  or  Bitter,  though  his  monumental  work  is 
also  extensive.  J.  Massey  Rhind  (b.  1858)  has  found  the 
chief  field  of  his  activity  in  architectural  sculpture,  and  has 
exerted  a  very  important  influence  upon  the  development  of 
architectural  decoration.  He  has  also  produced  several  por- 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


401 


trait  statues  for  public  monuments.  Martiny,  Rhind,  Konti, 
and  Bitter,  all  of  foreign  birth,  have  given  a  much  needed 
impulse  to  decorative  sculpture  in  the  United  States. 

Sculptors  of  New  York.  —  New  York  has  been  for  several 
decades  the  chief  centre  of  art  in  this  country,  and  nearly 
all  the  sculptors  of  the  present  time  whose  names  have  thus 
far  been  mentioned  are  settled  in  that  city.  Other  New 
York  sculptors  are:  Charles  Calverley  (b.  1833),  known 
chiefly  by  his  medallions  and  busts,  William  R.  O'Donovan 
(b.  1844),  a  maker 
of  portraits  and  re- 
liefs, John  Donoghue 
(1853-1903),  Louis 
St.  Gaudens  (b. 
1854),  a  talented 
sculptor,  brother  of 
Augustus  St.  Gaud- 
ens,  James  E.  Kelly 
(b.  1855),  whose 
works  are  chiefly 
portrait  monuments, 
Frederick  Moynihan, 
Alexander  Doyle  (b. 
1858),  known  chiefly 
by  his  portrait 
statues,  Thomas 
Shields  Clarke  (b. 
1860),  who  has  been 
engaged  in  several  large  monumental  works,  George  Thomas 
Brewster  (b.  1862),  Frederick  E.  Triebel  (b.  1865),  Henry 
Linder,  Rudolph  Schwarz,  Frederick  Robert  Kaldenberg  (b. 
1855),  Hermon  Atkins  MacNeil  (b.  1866),  who  makes  rather 
a  specialty  of  the  American  Indian,  Roland  Hinton  Perry  (b. 
1870),  Henry  Augustus  Lukeman  (b.  1870),  Edward  Berge, 
Adolph  Alexander  Weinman  (b.  1870),  Andrew  O'Connor 
(now  living  in  Paris),  and  many  more.1 

1  A  complete  list  of  American  sculptors  of  the  present  day  cannot  be 
attempted  here.     Some  further  names  may,  however,  be  given  :   Charles  A, 

2D 


FIGURE  192.  —  The  End  of  the  Trail,  by  Fraser. 
Exhibited  at  the  Panama  Exposition. 


402  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Sculptors  of  Animals.  —  Several  sculptors  have  made  a 
specialty  of  animals.  The  chief  of  these  men  are  Edward 
Kemeys  (b.  1843),  who  has  represented  wild  beasts ;  Edward 
C.  Potter,  who  has  devoted  himself  to  horses  (on  several 
occasions  for  riders  by  Daniel  C.  French) ;  Henry  Kirke 
Bush-Browne  (b.  1857),  who  has  also  produced  good  public 
monuments  and  other  human  figures;  Eli  Harvey  (b.  1860), 
who  prefers  animals  of  the  cat  family;  Phimister  Proctor 
(b.  1862),  a  sculptor  of  animals  in  combination  with  human 
figures ;  Solon  H.  Borglum  (b.  1868) ;  Henry  M.  Shrady 
(b.  1871),  whose  work  is  by  no  means  confined  to  animals, 
though  he  has  distinguished  himself  as  an  animal  sculptor ; 
and  Frederick  G.  Roth  (b.  1872),  who  has  also  done  good 
work  in  other  fields. 

Boston.  S.  Kitson.  H.  H.  Kiteon.  Pratt.  Dallin.  Brooks. 
Bachmann.  —  In  Boston  two  Englishmen,  Samuel  Kitson 
(b.  1848)  and  Henry  Hudson  Kitson  (b.  1865),  have 
done  good  work  as  sculptors  and  teachers;  the  elder  is 
especially  productive  in  architectural  decoration.  Bela  L. 
Pratt  (b.  1867),  who  studied  his  art  at  Yale  University,  New 
York,  and  Paris,  is  a  sculptor  of  rare  ability  and  versatility. 
His  works  include  busts,  medals,  ideal  figures,  and  reliefs, 
in  all  of  which  he  reveals  delicate  imagination  and  exquisite 
modelling.  Cyrus  E.  Dallin  (b.  1861)  has  produced  numer- 
ous good  portraits  and  other  works,  but  his  reputation  rests 
largely  upon  his  equestrian  statues  of  Indians,  the  "Signal 
of  Peace"  in  Chicago,  the  "Medicine  Man"  in  Philadelphia, 
the  "Protest"  wrhich  was  exhibited  at  the  St.  Louis  exposi- 
tion, and  the  "Appeal  to  the  Great  Spirit"  in  Boston  (Fig. 
193).  All  of  these  are  powerful,  dignified  works,  testifying 
to  profound  study  and  high  imaginative  power.  Richard 
E.  Brooks  (b.  1865)  and  Max  Bachmann,  an  architectural 
sculptor,  are  also  to  be  mentioned. 

Lopez  (b.  1869),  Jerome  Conner,  John  H.  Roudebush,  John  Flanagan  (b. 
1865),  Victor  D.  Brenner  (b.  1871),  Amory  C.  Simmons  (b.  1869),  Louis 
Potter,  Carl  E.  Tefft,  James  E.  Eraser  (whose  "End  of  the  Trail,"  at  the 
Panama  Exposition,  is  a  work  of  dramatic  realism;  Fig.  192),  Gustave 
Gerlach,  Antonin  Skodik,  all  of  New  York,  and  these  are  by  no  means  all 
the  sculptors  of  that  city  who  deserve  mention. 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


403 


Philadelphia.  Early  Sculptors.  Grafly.  Colder.  Murray. 
Cox.  —  In  Philadelphia  Joseph  A.  Bailly  (b.  1825),  a  French- 
man, was  occupied  with  portraits  and  commercial  art,  and 
did  much  to  make  sculpture  popular.  Albert  E.  Harnisch, 
Henry  J.  Haseltine,  Henry  Jackson  Ellicott,  and  Alexander 
Milne  Calder  were  productive  about  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  and  for  some  time  after.  Charles  Grafly 
(b.  1862)  has  been  an  active  teacher  and  has  produced 
much  sculpture,  chiefly  small 
groups  in  bronze,  also  busts, 
and  some  fine  large  figures. 
His  "Fountain  of  Man"  at 
the  Pan-American  Exposi- 
tion and  "Truth,"  which 
decorates  the  Art  Building 
at  St.  Louis,  are  full  of  grace 
and  power.  Alexander  Stir- 
ling Calder  (b.  1870)  is  also 
a  teacher,  and  much  of  his 
work  has  been  industrial, 
but  as  Acting  Chief  of 
Sculpture  at  the  Panama 
Exposition  he  has  shown 
great  originality  and  power. 
Samuel  Murray  and  Charles 
Brinton  Cox  are  also  Phila- 
delphians. 

Valentine.    Keyser.    Barn- 
horn.  Frankenstein.  Rebisso. 

— Edward  V.  Valentine  (b.  1838),  of  Richmond,  Virginia, 
studied  at  Paris,  in  Italy,  and  under  Kiss  in  Berlin.  He  has 
produced  numerous  portraits  and  monuments,  among  them 
the  Lee  Memorial  at  Washington  and  Lee  University,  and 
a  few  interesting  genre  figures  of  negroes.  His  ideal  group 
of  Andromache  and  Astyanax  is  a  curious  mixture  of  senti- 
ment and  archaeology.  Ephraim  Keyser  (b.  1852),  of  Bal- 
timore, studied  at  Munich  and  Rome.  His  most  widely 
known  work  is  the  very  impressive  monument  to  Chester  A. 


FIGURE  193.  —  Appeal  to  the  Great 
Spirit,  by  Dallin.     Boston. 


404  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Arthur  in  the  cemetery  at  Albany,  New  York.  The  Stein 
Memorial,  in  the  Jewish  cemetery  at  Baltimore,  a  work  in 
relief,  is  even  more  admirable.  At  Cincinnati  Clement  J. 
Barnhorn  (b.  1857)  has  produced  many  portraits  and  public 
monuments.  His  nude  "Magdalen"  is  finely  modelled  and 
shows  originality  and  imagination.  Earlier  sculptors  at 
Cincinnati  are  John  Frankenstein  and  Louis  T.  Rebisso. 
The  latter  has  long  been  a  successful  teacher  of  his  art.  He 
has  produced  many  equestrian  statues,  which  are  satisfactory, 
though  not  great. 

Chicago.  Taft  and  his  School.  Bock.  Crunelle.  Mulli- 
gan. Hibbard.  —  In  Chicago  the  chief  sculptor  is  Lorado 
Taft  (b.  1860),  a  pupil  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts.  He  is 
an  active  teacher  at  the  Art  Institute,  a  writer,  and  lecturer.1 
His  works  of  sculpture  are  in  great  part  portraits  and  mili- 
tary monuments.  One  of  the  latest  is  the  Columbus  Me- 
morial in  Washington.  He  is  a  serious  and  conscientious 
sculptor  and  a  master  of  technical  processes.  Other  sculp- 
tors at  Chicago  are  Richard  Bock,  Leonard  Crunelle  (b. 
1872),  a  sculptor  of  marked  originality  and  talent,  who  makes 
a  specialtv  of  children,  Charles  J.  Mulligan,  and  Frederick 
C.  Hibbard. 

St.  Louis..  Cleveland.  The  Pacific  Coast.  —  In  St.  Louis 
Robert  P.  Bringhurst  (b.  1855)  has  produced  many  decora- 
tive works,  some  of  which  were  seen  at  the  expositions  at 
Omaha  and  St.  Louis;  others  adorn  the  chief  buildings  of 
St.  Louis.  His  ideal  works,  a  Faun,  the  "Awakening  of 
Spring,"  and  the  "Kiss  of  Eternity,"  show  that  his  ability  is 
not  limited  to  the  production  of  fine  decorative  sculpture. 
In  Cleveland  Herman  N.  Matzen,  though  much  occupied  as 
professor  in  the  Cleveland  School  of  Art,  has  produced  a 
considerable  number  of  busts,  portrait  reliefs,  and  public 
monuments.  His  work  is  thoughtful,  sympathetic,  and  well 
modelled.  In  California  Douglas  Tilden  (b.  1860)  is  a  very 
skilful  sculptor  who  seems  to  prefer  modern  subjects. 
Among  his  works  are  "The  Tired  Walker,"  the  "Base  Ball 

1  Most  of  the  information  about  American  sculptors  contained  in  this  book 
is  derived  from  his  American  Sculpture  (1903  ;  second  edition,  1916). 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES         405 

Player,"  "The  Tired  Boxer,"  the  "Young  Acrobat,"  the 
"Football  Players,"  a  large  and  extremely  animated  group 
called  "The  Bear  Hunt,"  the  "Native  Sons'  Fountain,"  and 
the  "Mechanics'  Fountain."  His  work  shows  great  tech- 
nical ability  and  vivid  imagination,  not  always  controlled  by 
perfect  taste.  Robert  Ingersoll  Aitken  (b.  1878),  a  pupil  of 
Tilden,  is  an  able  sculptor  now  resident  in  New  York.  He 
has  produced  several  large  monuments,  numerous  busts,  and 
a  fine  relief,  "The  Gates  of  Silence,"  besides  other  works. 
Haig  Patigian  (b.  1876  in  America),  Melvin  Earl  Cummings 
(b.  1876),  Edgar  Walter  (b.  1877),  Ralph  W.  Stackpole  (b. 
1885),  and  Marion  F.  Wells  (d.  1903)  are  other  sculptors  of 
the  Pacific  Coast. 

Nearly  all  American  sculptors  of  note  are  active  as  teachers, 
and  many  of  them,  especially  in  the  parts  of  the  country 
where  sculptors  are  few,  find  their  time  occupied  in  great 
part  by  their  duties  as  instructors  in  the  local  schools  of  art. 
That  their  works  are  nevertheless  so  many  and  so  good, 
testifies  to  their  energy  and  ability. 

Women  Sculptors.  —  Among  the  women  who  have  made 
sculpture  their  profession,  the  most  important  are  perhaps 
Mrs.  Bessie  Potter  Vonnoh  (b.  1872)  of  New  York,  whose 
small  groups  of  women  and  children  are  delightful ;  Miss 
Anna  Vaughn  Hyatt  (b.  1876)  of  Cambridge,  Massachusetts, 
a  most  admirable  sculptor  of  animals;  Miss  Julia  Bracken 
(b.  1871)  of  Chicago;  Mrs.  Edith  Woodman  Burroughs  (b. 
1871),  Mrs.  Hermon  A.  MacNeil,  Miss  Carol  Brooks  (b. 
1871),  Miss  Helen  Mears  (b.  1876),  Miss  Janet  Scudder, 
Miss  Evelyn  B.  Longman  (b.  1874),  Miss  Elsie  Ward,  Mrs. 
Harry  Payne  Whitney,  Miss  Enid  Yandell,  Mrs.  Clio 
Bracken,  Mrs.  Anna  Coleman  Ladd,  all  of  New  York ;  Miss 
Katherine  Cohen  of  Philadelphia ;  Mrs.  H.  H.  Kitson  (Miss 
Theo  Ruggles)  of  Boston. 

Young  Sculptors.  —  There  are  also  many  promising  young 
sculptors,  some  of  whom  have  already  attracted  no  little 
attention.  Only  a  few  can  be  mentioned  here.  Paul  Man- 
ship,  Albin  Polasek,  Harry  D.  Thrasher,  Abastenia  St.  Leger 
Eberle,  Albert  Laessle,  Fred  Torrey,  Miss  Nellie  Walker, 


406  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

Miss  Clyde  Giltner  Chandler,  will  be  enough  to  indicate  that 
the  younger  sculptors  promise  to  continue  the  activity  of  their 
elders. 

American  Sculpture.  —  It  is  true  that  no  American  sculp- 
tor has  yet  arisen  who  can  claim  to  be  the  equal  of  the  greatest 
masters  of  all  time,  but  many  sculptors  in  the  United  States 
to-day  are  working  earnestly,  seriously,  and  conscientiously ; 
they  possess  complete  command  of  technique ;  they  have 
imagination,  ability,  and  increasing  opportunity.  Sculpture 
is  becoming  a  national  art  and  an  art  which  Americans  can 
regard  with  satisfaction  and  pride.  At  the  Panama  Exposi- 
tion, in  1915,  the  decorative  and  architectural  sculpture, 
created  by  many  artists  under  the  general  direction  of  the 
Acting  Chief  of  Sculpture,  A.  Stirling  Calder,  was  of  remark- 
able excellence,  and  in  the  United  States  section  of  the 
Department  of  Fine  Arts  nearly  six  hundred  works  were 
brought  together.  These  exhibit  the  art  of  one  hundred 
and  thirty-six  sculptors,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  living  and 
most  of  whom  are  still  in  the  prime  of  life  or  younger.  The 
variety,  as  well  as  the  excellence,  of  their  works  shows  the 
vigor  and  promise  of  American  sculpture. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  — INDIA,  CHINA,  AND 

JAPAN 

Persia.  —  Alexander  the  Great  extended  Greek  civilization 
over  the  entire  Persian  empire  and  into  India.  Persia  was 
subsequently  ruled  for  nearly  a  century  by  the  Greek  Se- 
leucidae,  who  were  followed  by  the  Parthian  Arsacidae.  In 
226  A.D.  the  Persians  under  Ardeschir  (Artaxerxes)  I  re- 
volted, and  the  new  Persian  (Sassanide)  empire  lasted  until 
the  conquest  by  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  in  1641.  In  all 
this  time  the  sculpture  of  Persia,  which  is  not  very  plentiful, 
is  clearly  an  offshoot  of  Hellenistic  art.  The  monuments 
are  for  the  most  part  large  reliefs  cut  in  the  living  rock  or 
small  reliefs  of  metal.  In  both  classes  of  work  there  is  a 
good  deal  of  liveliness,  but  not  much  delicacy,  either  in 
design  or  in  execution. 

Indian  Sculpture  —  its  Periods.  —  The  sculpture  of  India 
is  also  in  great  measure  descended  from  Hellenistic  art, 
though  religion,  Indian  taste  and  modes  of  thought,  and 
presumably  an  earlier  sculpture  in  perishable  materials, 
which  has  entirely  disappeared,  changed  it  so  much  as  to 
make  it  almost  entirely  oriental.  About  250  B.C.  King 
Asoka,  of  Magadha,  made  Buddhism  his  state  religion  in  lieu 
of  the  old  Brahmanism.  Buddhism  spread  rapidly  and  estab- 
lished itself  firmly  in  Ceylon,  Farther  India,  Thibet,  China, 
and  Japan ;  but  in  India  proper  it  wras  largely  reabsorbed  in 
the  seventh  century  by  polytheistic  Brahmanism.  So  in  India 
Buddhist  art  extends  approximately  from  250  B.C.  to  700  A.D. 
with  occasional  later  manifestations  as  late  as  the  eleventh 
century.  The  new  Brahmanism  was  at  its  height  when  the 
Mohammedans  entered  India  in  the  eleventh  century,  since 

407 


408  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

which  time  there  has  been  little  real  development  of  sculp- 
ture. The  periods  into  which  the  history  of  Indian  art 
may  be  divided  are :  (1)  the  early  period,  about  250  B.C.  to 
350  A.D.  ;  (2)  the  Gupta  period,  about  350  to  650  A.D.  ;  (3) 
the  Mediaeval  period,  about  650  A.D.  to  the  beginning  of 
(4)  the  Modern  period,  which  may  be  said  to  begin  about  the 
sixteenth  century,  though  there  is  no  clear  division  between 
it  and  its  predecessor. 

Early  Buddhist  Art.  Bar  hut.  Buddha-Gaya.  —  The  ear- 
liest Buddhist  sculpture  is  not  primitive.  Its  technique  is 
admirable  from  the  beginning.  Although  the  art  is  clearly 
derived  from  the  Hellenistic  art  of  western  Asia,  the  native 
Indian  rotundity  of  form  and  suppleness  of  limb  are  evident 
at  the  outset.  These  qualities  are  not  expressed  through 
careful  study  of  anatomy,  but  are  superficial  and  often  ex- 
aggerated. There  is  great  liking  for  rich  personal  adorn- 
ment, and  reliefs  are  often  overcrowded  at  all  periods. 
Strictly  Indian  motifs,  especially  the  elephant,  are  common 
at  a  very  early  date.  At  Barhut  (about  200  B.C.)  the  exten- 
sive and  brilliantly  executed  reliefs  represent  legends  of 
Buddha  and  processions  of  elephants  and  lions ;  at  Buddha- 
Gaya  (perhaps  a  little  later)  domestic  scenes,  plant  orna- 
ments, and  the  adoration  of  trees  and  Buddhistic  symbols 
form  the  varied  content  of  the  reliefs.  In  both  places  the 
work  is  decidedly  Indian  in  spirit,  even  though  centaurs 
and  some  purely  ornamental  motifs  of  western  origin  occur. 

Sanchl.  Udayagiri.  Bedsa.  —  The  reliefs  from  the  tope 
(stupa)  of  Sanchl,  which  belong  to  the  second  century  B.C., 
are  admirable  in  technique.  Much  of  the  plant  ornament 
is  of  western  origin,  but  more  is  purely  Indian.  The  ele- 
phants and  other  beasts  are  very  true  to  life.  The  nar- 
rative reliefs  represent  legends  of  Buddha,  but  here,  as  in 
the  reliefs  of  Barhut  and  Buddha-Gaya,  the  figure  of  Buddha 
himself  does  not  occur.  Indra  and  other  Indian  divinities, 
spirits,  and  hybrid  creatures  are  frequent.  Some  of  these 
last  are  of  western  origin,  but  all  the  human  forms  have  the 
soft,  rounded,  supple  appearance  characteristic  of  Indian 
art.  The  reliefs  in  one  of  the  caves  at  Udayagiri  (about 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  409 

150  B.C.)  are  of  purely  national  style.  The  subjects  are 
obscure  myths.  The  observation  of  natural  forms  exhibited 
is  superficial,  but  the  narrative  style  of  the  reliefs  is  lively 
and  attractive.  The  groups  of  beasts  on  the  columns  at 
Bedsa,  admirably  true  to  nature,  and  the  earliest  sculptures 
of  the  cave-temple  at  Karli  date  from  the  first  century  B.C. 
The  latter  represent  human  figures  and  elephants.  They 
are  purely  Indian  in  their  round,  soft  forms,  which  are  com- 
bined to  form  an  admirable  decoration. 

Gandhdra.  Hellenistic  Styles. — On  the  northwestern  fron- 
tier of  India,  in  the  province  of  Gandhara,  a  school  of  sculp- 
ture arose  which  culminated  between  50  and  200  A.D.  The 
style  seen  here  is  evidently  derived  from  late  Hellenistic 
(Graeco-Roman)  art.  This  is  perhaps  most  plainly  seen  in 
the  standing  type  of  Buddha,  a  modification  of  the  Graeco- 
Roman  Apollo.  The  seated  type  of  Buddha  probably  ex- 
isted elsewhere  at  an  earlier  date,  but  this  type  also  was 
developed  and  modified  by  the  Gandhara  school.  The 
sculptures  of  Mathura  and  Sarnath  are  decidedly  Hellenistic 
in  character,  though  not  identical  in  style  with  the  Gand- 
hara works.  Probably  the  western  influence  came  by  dif- 
ferent routes.  The  reliefs  from  Amaravati  (about  200  A.D.) 
are  a  development  of  the  style  of  Barhut  and  Sanchi,  with 
Hellenistic  traits.  Their  subjects  are  legends  and  decorative 
repetitions  of  the  forms  of  beasts  and  boys.  Buddha  him- 
self appears  here,  with  the  nimbus,  but  standing  among  his 
disciples,  not,  as  in  later  art,  seated  with  his  feet  drawn  under 
him.  Probably  the  artists  of  these  reliefs  were  more  or  less 
under  the  influence  of  the  school  of  Gandhara.  It  was 
through  the  Hellenistic-Indian  art  of  northern  India  during 
the  Kushan  period  (ca.  1-300  A.D.)  that  the  type  of  Buddha 
was  spread  far  and  wide  in  India,  Thibet,  China,  Korea, 
and  Japan. 

The  Gupta  Period.  —  During  the  Gupta  period  there  are 
still  traces  of  Hellenistic  influence,  but  forms  and  postures 
are  Indian.  The  subjects  are  chiefly  Brahmanic.  As  a 
rule  the  technique  is  excellent,  and  the  attitudes  are  natural, 
except  that  they  are  often  exaggerated.  Statues  of  Buddha 


410  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

are  common  in  all  parts  of  India  after  the  fourth  century, 
always  in  "frontal"  posture,  whether  seated  or  standing. 
The  colossal  Buddhas  in  the  vestibule  of  the  cave-temple  of 
Kenheri  and  the  interesting  reliefs  of  the  twenty-sixth 
grotto  at  Ajanta  belong,  apparently,  to  the  fifth  century. 
The  sculptures  of  the  temple  at  Deogarh  are  a  little  later. 

Mediaeval  and  Modern  Indian  Sculpture.  —  Mediaeval  and 
modern  art  is  Brahmanic,  rather  than  Buddhistic,  though 
directly  descended  from  Buddhistic  art.  Sculpture  is  em- 
ployed chiefly  in  the  decoration  of  temples  and  pagodas. 
The  monolithic  temples  of  Mahavellipur  and  Ellora  are  cut 
entirely  from  the  living  rock  and  adorned  with  sculpture 
within  and  without.  In  Indian  temples  the  surfaces  are 
much  broken  by  pilasters,  niches,  and  the  like,  and  are 
covered  with  reliefs  of  deities,  demons,  elephants  and  other 
animals,  and  luxuriant  plant  ornament,  often  of  great  beauty. 
The  rotundity  and  boneless  suppleness  of  form  which  char- 
acterize Indian  art  from  the  beginning  are  even  more  marked 
in  mediaeval  and  modern  times,  and  the  inorganic,  fantastic 
forms  of  some  of  the  divinities  add  to  the  general  effect  of 
unreality.  The  human  spirit  and  the  naturalistic  treatment 
seen  in  the  earlier  art  are  now  wanting.  Buddha  is  no  longer 
the  sympathetic  human  teacher,  but  has  become  a  passion- 
less ascetic.  In  general,  the  subjects  of  sculpture  are  as- 
ceticism and  Hindu  mythology.  The  sculptors  attempt  to 
"reproduce  literally  in  stone  or  bronze  the  descriptions  of 
the  deities  as  given  in  the  books,  with  little  regard  to  aesthetic 
considerations,  and  no  form  is  too  monstrous  for  plastic 
representation."  J  The  Hindu  devotee  may  find  in  such 
representations  religious  aid  and  comfort,  but  to  others  they 
can  be  only  repulsive  or,  at  best,  objects  of  curiosity.  In- 
deed, beauty  is  not  attempted  in  these  forms.  But  the 
technique  of  mediaeval  Indian  sculpture  is  often  wonderfully 
fine,  the  knowledge  of  composition  and  of  the  effect  of  light 
and  shade  exhibited  is  sometimes  surprising,  and  the  purely 
ornamental  designs  are  hardly  to  be  surpassed.  Sometimes 
passion  is  most  admirably  expressed  by  attitudes  and 

1  V.  A.  Smith,  History  of  Fine  Art  in  India  and  Ceylon,  p.  182. 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  411 

gestures,  occasionally  even  by  facial  expression.  The  mod- 
elling of  hands  and  other  details  is  frequently  exquisite. 

The  great  number  of  mediaeval  works  of  Indian  sculpture 
makes  it  impossible  to  mention  even  any  considerable  part 
of  them.  On  the  whole,  their  qualities,  though  by  no  means 
identical  at  different  times  and  places,  are  so  similar  that  a 
more  detailed  discussion  of  individual  monuments  cannot 
be  undertaken  here.  In  modern  times,  Indian  sculpture 
has  continued,  as  in  the  Middle  Ages,  with  no  real  develop- 
ment, but,  on  the  whole,  with  deterioration  of  technical 
qualities.  The  purely  ornamental  carvings  of  Mohammedan 
art  in  India  lie  outside  the  scope  of  this  book. 

Ceylon,  —  In  Ceylon  there  was  no  relapse  into  Brahman- 
ism  and  no  Moslem  conquest.  Buddhist  art  therefore  con- 
tinued undisturbed.  Standing  and  seated  Buddhas  are 
numerous,  and  decorative  sculpture  of  animals  and  plants 
is  found  in  temples,  but  there  is  little  or  no  narrative  relief. 
The  chief  remains  of  sculpture  in  Ceylon  are  at  Anaradhapura, 
the  early  capital,  where  the  monuments  date  from  the  first 
centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  and  at  Pollanarua,  which  was 
most  powerful  about  1100  A.D.  The  great  rock-cut  relief 
of  the  sage  Kapila,  at  Anaradhapura  is  one  of  the  most 
impressive  works  of  sculpture  in  the  Orient.  Its  date  is 
apparently  between  400  and  700  A.D. 

Java.  Farther  India. — At  Boro-Budur,  in  Java,  is  a  great 
tope  (stupa)  of  uncertain  date  adorned  with  narrative  re- 
liefs which,  both  in  execution  and  in  design,  rank  among  the 
finest  works  of  Indian  sculpture.  Their  subjects  are  purely 
Buddhistic  and  their  technique  purely  Indian.  Statues  of 
Buddha,  in  which  little  or  no  Gandhara  influence  is  seen, 
are  found  in  Java,  and  these  are  among  the  finest  statues  of 
Buddha  in  existence.  Brahmanic  sculpture  is  also  found  in 
Java,  but  Indian  art  disappeared  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
when  the  island  became  again  completely  Javanese.  Indian 
art  extended  also  to  Burma,  Siam,  and  Cambodia,  where  it 
has  flourished  with  local  variations.  It  is  likely  that  the  art 
of  southern  China  received  its  impulse,  in  some  measure,  by 
way  of  Farther  India,  even  though  Chinese  art  in  general 


412  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

was  inspired  by  Indian  art  that  travelled  through  Thibet 
from  Gandhara. 

Chinese  Sculpture.  —  There  is  in  China  little  stone  sculp- 
ture of  large  size,  and  even  that  is,  for  the  most  part,  of  in- 
ferior quality.  There  are  some  reliefs  of  the  Han  dynasty 
(206  B.C.-221  A.D.),  some  rock-cut  reliefs  of  later  date,  a  few 
colossal  figures  of  men  and  of  animals  set  up  along  roads, 
but  in  general  Chinese  sculpture  is  an  art  of  small  dimen- 
sions. It  employs,  however,  many  materials  —  bronze, 
stone,  especially  jade,  wood,  lacker,  ivory,  and  porcelain  — 
both  for  work  in  the  round  and  for  reliefs. 

Early  Chinese  Art.  —  Sculpture  of  the  Shang  dynasty 
(1766?-1122  B.C.)  and  the  Chu  dynasty  (1122-255  B.C.)  is 
known  to  us  only  by  bronze  vessels,  sometimes  in  the  shape 
of  animals,  sometimes  adorned  with  human  or  animal  forms 
(often  symbolic  or  fantastic)  and  geometrical  decoration. 
Possibly  some  jades  may  belong  to  these  early  times,  but  as 
yet  there  is  no  certainty  on  this  point.  Hellenistic  influence 
appears  in  decoration  under  the  Han  dynasty  (206  B.C.- 
221  A.D.).  Buddhism  was  introduced  in  67  A.D.  and  Bud- 
dhist art  came  in  its  train,  though  at  first  only  in  the  form  of 
imported  objects.  In  grave-chambers  chiefly  in  the  province 
of  Shantung  are  reliefs  which  belong  apparently  to  the  second 
century  A.D.  They  are  lightly  carved  or  engraved  in  very 
flat  relief.  The  subjects  are  taken  from  Chinese  history 
and  legend,  and  no  foreign  influence  is  discernible.  The 
design  is  clear,  orderly,  and  natural,  and  the  work  shows  a 
sureness  of  method  by  no  means  primitive,  though  there 
are  many  faults  in  drawing.  These  may,  perhaps,  be  the 
results  of  decadence,  and  at  any  rate  these  carvings  are 
probably  the  work  of  mere  artisans.  They  may  represent 
an  early  art,  the  other  monuments  of  which  have  been  lost. 

Buddhist  Art.  —  Chinese  art  from  the  end  of  the  Han 
dynasty  (221  A.D.)  to  the  end  of  the  Yuan  dynasty  (1368 
A.D.)  was  purely  Buddhistic,  though  Buddhism  was  pro- 
scribed about  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  and  about 
45,000  Buddhist  temples  and  monasteries  are  said  to  have 
been  destroyed.  Four  centuries  later  Buddhism  was,  how- 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE   FAR  EAST  413 

ever,  again  the  ruling  religion.  With  Buddhism  there  came 
into  Chinese  art  a  great  variety  of  ornamental  motifs  and  of 
subjects,  most  important  of  which  was  the  human  form  as 
seen  in  figures  of  Buddha  and  various  divinities.  The 
Buddhism  of  China  is  the  northern  type,  and  Chinese  sculp- 
ture is  derived  from  the  Gandhara.  It  is  therefore  Hel- 
lenistic, as  is  seen  in  the  flow  of  draperies,  the  treatment  of 
hair,  greater  definiteness  in  human  forms,  and  clearer  con- 
nection of  actions,  as  compared  with  Indian  sculpture  in  gen- 
eral. In  northern  China  the  human  figure  is  elongated  be- 
yond nature ;  in  southern  China  it  is  short  and  broad.  The 
northern  type  is  seen  also  in  works  from  Afghanistan,  Bactria, 
and  other  regions  of  central  Asia,  and  in  those  from  Korea. 
The  chief  figures  of  Chinese  sculpture  in  the  round  are  the 
seated  Buddha  and  the  seated  Kuan  Yin,  the  deity  of  com- 
passion, who  was  originally  male  in  India,  but  is  often  female 
in  China  and  regularly  so,  under  the  name  of  Kwannon,  in 
Japan.  Standing  figures  of  Buddha  and  Kuan  Yin  are  also 
numerous.  There  is  much  relief  work,  the  subjects  of  which 
are  chiefly  legends  of  the  Buddha,  in  addition  to  lions, 
elephants,  and  fabulous  beasts.  In  the  lions,  dragons, 
unicorns,  and  the  like  there  is  much  fantastic  exaggeration. 
The  Tang  and  Sung  Dynasties.  —  Buddhist  art  was  gener- 
ally prevalent  in  China  by  the  fourth  century  A.D.  In  the 
fifth  century  it  was  still  a  little  archaic,  but  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury it  attained  great  excellence  of  technique  and  freedom 
in  posture  and  motion  (Fig.  194).  It  reached  its  greatest 
height  under  the  Tang  dynasty  (618-907  A.D.).  The  strik- 
ing, animated,  and  powerful  figures  in  the  reliefs  of  the  Lung- 
men  caves  of  Honen  date  from  the  seventh  century.  The 
reaction  against  Buddhism  and  the  reversion  to  the  religion 
of  Lao-tse,  or  Confucianism,  in  the  ninth  century  led  to  the 
rejection  of  some  elements  of  Buddhist  art  and  the  de- 
velopment of  an  art  that  was  more  national  and  more  real- 
istic. Lao-tse  was  the  chief  saint.  He  is  represented  as  a 
bald-headed,  bearded  old  man,  riding  on  a  bull  or  a  stag, 
doubtless  in  conscious  opposition  to  the  youthful  figures  of 
Buddha.  Often  Lao-tse  is  regarded  as  the  god  of  longevity. 


414 


A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 


At  this  time  historical  personages  were  deified,  and  they  as 
well  as  Lao-tse  were  represented  with  the  greatest  naturalism. 
This  kind  of  sculpture  continued  through  the  Sung  dynasty 

(960-1278  A.D.),  though 
Buddhist  sculpture  also 
continued  to  exist. 

The  Yuan,  Ming,  and 
Tlising  Dynasties.  —  Un- 
der the  Mongol  Tartar 
Yuan  dynasty  (1260- 
1368  A.D.)  the  Thibetan 
form  of  Buddhism  was 
introduced,  with  its  hosts 
of  demons,  and  at  the 
same  time  some  new  Ind- 
ian and  Persian  in- 
fluences are  noticed  in 
Chinese  art.  Under  the 
Mongol  Ming  dvnastv 
(1368-1644  A.D./  fine, 
small  sculpture  of  various 
materials,  including  por- 
celain, was  produced,  and 
along  the  road  that  led  to 
the  Ming  tombs  colossal 
human  and  animal  fig- 
ures were  set  up.  These 
aim  at  nobility  and 
grandeur,  but  are  jejune 
in  execution.  Sculpture, 
especially  in  works  of 
small  dimensions,  of 
bronze,  ivory,  wood,  and 
porcelain,  continued  to 
flourish  under  the  Manchu  Thsing  dynasty  (1644-1912 
A.D.).  The  execution  is  often  exquisite  in  detail,  but 
there  is  little  originality  or  real  progress,  and  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  time  deterioration  is  noticeable.  The  best 


FIGURE  194.  —  Kuan  Yin.  Chinese; 
Late  Sixth  or  Early  Seventh  Century ; 
Stone ;  above  Life  Size.  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  Boston. 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST  415 

sculpture  of  this  long  period  was  under  Khang-Hi  (1662- 
1723  A.D.),  Yung-Ching  (1723-1736  A.D.),  and  Kin  Long 
(1736-1796  A.D.). 

Thibet  and  Korea.  —  In  Thibet  sculpture  is  derived  al- 
most'entirely  from  Gandhara  art,  except  that  real  naturalism 
appears  in  the  portraits  of  the  Grand  Lama.  The  sculpture 
of  Korea  is  perhaps  best  studied  in  Japan.  It  was  derived 
from  China,  though  some  influence  was  exerted  from  Thibet. 
The  elongated  human  figure  of  northern  Chinese  art  pre- 
dominates, but  the  broad  figure  of  southern  China  was  also 
known,  and  before  the  sixth  century  A.D.  the  two  were  com- 
bined, and  Korean  sculpture  appears  as  a  national  art. 

Japanese  Sculpture.  —  Japanese  sculpture  is  derived  en- 
tirely from  China,  at  first  through  Korea.  The  large  works 
are  chiefly  figures  of  Buddha  and  Kwannon  (the  Chinese 
Kuan  Yin),  all  of  which  are  strictly  "frontal"  in  attitude, 
though  other  sculptures  exhibit  great  life  and  freedom  in 
pose  and  gesture.  The  Buddha  figures,  some  of  which  are 
of  colossal  size,  show  clearly  their  connection,  through  the 
Buddhist  art  of  China  and  India,  with  Hellenistic  sculpture. 
The  small  works  of  Japanese  sculpture  exhibit  immense 
diligence  in  the  execution  of  details,  wonderful  naturalism, 
and  surpassing  sense  of  decorative  values. 

Early  Sculpture  Korean.  Japanese  History.  —  In  the 
early  religion  of  Japan  there  was  no  place  for  images,  and 
nothing  is  known  of  Japanese  sculpture  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  Buddhism  from  Korea,  in  552  A.D.  By  593  A.D.  the 
new  religion  wras  definitively  triumphant.  With  Buddhism 
the  perfected  Korean  sculpture  was  introduced,  and  the 
works  of  sculpture  created  under  the  emperor  (Mikado) 
Suiko  (593-628  A.D.),  some  of  which  are  remarkably  vig- 
orous, animated,  and  expressive,  are  probably  for  the  most 
part,  at  least,  the  works  of  Korean  sculptors.  At  this  time, 
and  for  a  considerable  period,  the  province  of  Yamato  was 
the  centre  of  political,  intellectual,  and  artistic  development 
in  Japan.  The  capital  was  at  Nara  until  it  was  moved  to 
Kyoto  by  the  emperor  Kuammu  (782-806  A.D.).  In  the 
ninth  century  Xara  and  Kyoto  flourished  side  by  side.  At 


416  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

this  time  and  for  several  centuries  thereafter  the  great 
families  were  struggling  with  each  other  and  with  the  Mikado 
for  the  supreme  power.  The  Minamoto  were  opposed  first 
by  the  Taira  and  then  by  the  Fujiwara.  Finally  Yoritomo, 
of  the  Minamoto  family,  was  recognized  by  the  Mikado  as 
Shogun  (Tycoon),  with  independent  temporal  power,  and 
established  his  capital  in  1184  A.D.  at  Kamakura.  The 
Mikado,  now  merely  a  nominal  sovereign,  had  his  court 
at  Kyoto.  In  1 334  the  family  of  the  Ashikaga  obtained  the 
chief  power,  and  from  1603  to  1867  the  Shoguns  were  of  the 
Tokagawa  family. 

Ndrd  Epoch.  Ninth  Century.  —  Sculpture  in  the  seventh 
century  was  essentially  Korean,  though  even  at  that  early 
date  some  Indian  influence  appears  and  the  qualities  of  the 
national  Japanese  art  —  anatomical  study,  liveliness  of 
pose,  and  correctness  of  form  —  begin  to  make  themselves 
evident.  The  first  Kara  epoch  (708-749)  was  a  brilliant 
period.  Statues  of  Buddha  and  Kwannon  were  dignified 
and  serious,  figures  of  guardian  deities  were  energetic  and 
frightful,  small  clay  statuettes  realistic  and  amusing.  The 
colossal  seated  bronze  statue  of  Buddha  at  Nara,  which 
would,  if  standing,  be  nearly  140  feet  in  height,  is  a  remark- 
ably fine  and  dignified  figure.  It  was  cast  in  739,  but  the 
head  was  restored  about  a  thousand  years  later.  There  is 
little  or  nothing  in  the  style  of  this  colossus  which  is  native 
Japanese.  Evidently  the  foreign  influence  was  still  dom- 
inant. One  of  the  most  noted  sculptors  of  this  time  was 
the  Korean  priest  Gyoji  Bosatsu  (d.  749).  The  second 
Nara  epoch,  from  749  until  the  removal  of  the  capital  to 
Kyoto,  was  a  period  of  decadence  in  art,  though  fine  technique 
is  frequently  seen  in  works  of  this  time.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  ninth  century  renewed  study  of  the  Chinese  art  of  the 
Tang  dynasty  (eighth  century)  led  to  a  revival  of  art.  The 
Japanese  artists  wished,  apparently,  to  copy  their  Chinese 
models  exactly,  but  were  unable  to  restrain  their  own  orig- 
inal ability,  and  produced  works  of  very  high  merit.  It  is 
true,  however,  that  at  this  time  —  and  indeed  at  all  times  — 
painting,  rather  than  sculpture,  was  the  chief  Japanese  art. 


SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST 


417 


Fujiwara  and  Kamakura  Epochs.  —  In  the  first  Fujiwara 
epoch  (888-986)  excellent  work  was  done,  to  be  sure,  but  on 
the  whole  art  lost  something  of  its  vigor.  In  the  middle 
Fujiwara  epoch  (986-1072)  the  sculptor  Jocho  (d.  1053) 
tried  to  revive  the  grand  art  of  the  early  Nara  times  and  to 
combine  it  with  the  style  of  the  Tang  dynasty.  Another 
sculptor  of  the  same  period  was  Eshin  Sozu  (942-1017). 
The  style  of  Jocho  was  continued  during 
the  late  P'ujiwara  epoch  (1072-1155).  In 
the  Kamakura  period  (1186-1333)  there 
wyas  much  activity  among  sculptors.  Their 
work  is  brilliant,  lively,  natural,  and  ex- 
pressive (Fig.  195).  The  most  famous 
sculptor  of  this  time  was  Unkei  (about 
1180-1215),  unless  that  title  be  given  to 
his  son  Tankei.  Koben,  also  a  son  of 
Unkei,  was  a  noted  sculptor,  and  others 
of  about  the  same  time  were  Jitsiigen, 
Kwakei,  and  Kosho.  The  colossal  seated 
bronze  Buddha  (Amida)  of  Kamakura, 
once  in  the  great  temple  which  has  disap- 
peared, was  cast  in  1252  by  Ono  Goroyema. 
It  is  a  most  impressive  work,  fine  in  tech- 
nique and  admirable  in  its  calm,  contem- 
plative dignity.  Much  fine  engraved  armor 
also  belongs  to  this  time. 

Ashikdga^and  Tokugdra  Periods.  —  The 
style  of  Unkei  continued  to  prevail 
during  the  Ashikaga  period  (1334-1567), 
but  there  is  a  tendency  toward  excessive  attention  to  de- 
tail and  toward  over-elaboration.  In  the  fifteenth  century 
the  "Chinese  Renaissance"  took  place.  This  was  a  re- 
vival of  the  study  of  earlier  (Sung  dynasty,  950-1278) 
Chinese  painting,  which  had  its  effect  also  upon  sculpture. 
The  Buddhist  sculpture  of  large  size  had  outlived  its  power 
in  Japan  and  had  become  conventional.  In  portraiture 
good,  simple  characteristic  work  was  done  by  Katakin  and 
other  sculptors,  especially  in  wood.  Naturalistic  sculpture 
2E 


FIGURE  195.  — 
Seishi  paying  Rev- 
erence to  a  Soul 
newly  arrived  in 
Paradise.  Wooden 
Statuette.  Kama- 
kura Period.  Mu- 
seum of  Fine  Arts, 
Boston. 


418  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

of  small  size  is  also  noticeable  at  this  time.  In  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  many  memorial  statues  were 
erected,  generally  examples  of  idealistic  portraiture,  not  of 
pure  realism.  The  Tokugara  period  (1003-1867)  was  for 
the  most  part  a  time  of  general  artistic  activity.  The  temple 
erected  at  Nikko  in  memory  of  the  Shogun  Yeyes  (d.  1616) 
by  the  architect  and  sculptor  Zengoro  is  a  marvel  of  con- 
struction in  wood,  adorned  with  reliefs  of  surpassing  richness 
and  delicacy  —  dragons,  trees,  plants,  animals,  and  gods. 
Other  remarkable  work  by  Zengoro  is  to  be  seen  at  Kyoto. 
On  the  exterior  of  the  temple  of  Matsunomori,  at  Nagasaki, 
are  thirty  slabs  of  reliefs  by  Kiushu,  scenes  of  Japanese 
industrial  life.  These,  as  well  as  Zengoro's  works,  are  richly 
colored.  In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
sculpture  of  small  dimensions  became  more  important,  along- 
side of  the  great  decorative  work  in  wood.  Many  of  the 
small  bronzes  are  marvels  of  delicate  workmanship  and  truth 
to  life,  testifying  to  the  careful  training,  unwearied  industry, 
keen  observation,  and  sympathetic  imagination  of  their 
makers.  The  names  of  a  number  of  artists  in  this  kind 
of  work  are  known,  among  them  Kinai,  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  Tomoyoshi  and  Yeiyiu  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  and  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  Miwa 
the  elder,  of  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  Tad- 
otoshi,  who  lived  somewhat  later.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  Japanese  art  was  greatly  aft'ected,  not 
altogether  to  its  improvement,  by  the  art  of  Europe. 

Eastern  and  Western  Art.  —  The  influence  of  Greek  art  is 
seen  in  the  earliest  known  sculptures  of  India,  and  from  India 
the  art  of  sculpture  spread,  with  Buddhism,  to  the  other 
countries  of  the  Far  East.  So  sculpture  even  in  China  and 
Japan  is,  in  a  sense,  the  distant  descendant  of  Greek  art. 
But  the  spirit  of  the  East  is  not  the  spirit  of  Greece,  and  the 
sculpture  of  India,  China,  and  Japan  breathes  the  contem- 
plative, fantastic,  dreamy,  and  at  the  same  time  often  in- 
tensely human  spirit  of  the  East,  not  the  more  scientific 
spirit  which  shows  itself  from  the  beginning  in  the  art  of 
Europe. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

SOME  of  the  more  important  and  accessible  books  on  the  subject  of 
sculpture  are  here  mentioned  in  the  hope  of  aiding  the  readers  of  this 
brief  manual  who  wish  to  pursue  their  studies  further.  Bibliographical 
information  is  contained  in  many  of  the  books  mentioned  below  :  the 
Archdologischer  Anzeiger,  published  by  the  German  Archaeological 
Institute,  contains  a  bibliography  of  Greek  and  Roman  art ;  the  Orien- 
talistische  Literaturzeitung  gives  the  titles  of  works  on  ancient  Oriental 
art ;  the  Internationale  Bibliographie  der  Kunstwissenschaft  is  an  exhaus- 
tive annual  bibliography  of  art  in  general ;  and  a  bibliography  which 
covers  all  periods  except  modern  times  is  published  annually  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Archaeology.  Catalogues  of  museums  and  re-, 
ports  of  excavations  are  often  very  important  to  the  student  of  sculp- 
ture. Much  information  and  many  illustrations  relating  to  sculpture 
are  found  in  the  volumes  of  "Les  Villes  d'Art  celebres, "  "Beriihmte 
Kunststatten, "  "Maitres  de  1'Art,"  "Kiinstlermonographien,"  and 
other  series  of  popular  books  on  art. 

GENERAL  WORKS 

Periodicals.  —  American  Journal  of  Archaeology;  Archaeologia  ;  Archi- 
vio  storico  dell'  Arte;  Bollettino  d'Arie;  Burlington  Magazine; 
Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts ;  Monatshefte  fur  Kunstwissenschaft;  Miinch- 
ner  Jahrbuch  der  bUdenden  Kunst;  Rassegna  d'Arte;  Revue  Archeo- 
logique;  Revue  de  I' Art  ancien  et  moderne;  Zeitschrift  fiir  bildende 
Kunst. 

D'Agincourt,  Histoire  de  I' Art  (six  volumes,  with  325  plates),  1823. 

E.  Benezit,  Dictionnaire  criiique  et  documentaire  des  peintres,  dessina- 

teurs,  graeeurs  et  scidpteurs  .  .  .  1911  —  (in  progress). 
A.  M.  Brooks,  Architecture  and  the  Allied  Arts,  1914. 
J.  Burckhardt,  The  Cicerone  (last  English  ed.  1908). 

F.  Burger  and  others,  Handbuch  der  Kunstwissenschaft  (an  illustrated 

work  in  14  volumes,  as  yet  only  begun). 

C.  J.  Cavallucci,  Manuale  di  Storia  della  Scultura,  1884. 

Cicognara,  Storia  della  Scultura,  1823-1825  (2d  ed.). 

Dehio  and  Winter,  Kunstgeschichte  in  BUdern  (a  great  number  of  illus- 
trations of  the  art  of  all  ages,  grouped  on  folio  pages). 

Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  s.v.  Sculpture,  also  under  the  names  of 
distinguished  sculptors. 

419 


420  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

E.  Faure,  Histaire  de  I' Art,  1909-. 

G.  F.  Hill,  One  Hundred  Masterpieces  of  Sculpture,  from  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury B.C.  to  the  Time  of  Michelangelo,  1909. 

W.  Liibke,  History  of  Sculpture  (several  editions  exist  in  German  and 
English). 

Marquand  and  Frothingham,  Text-book  of  the  History  of  Sculpture,  1896. 

Monuments  et  memoires  publiees  par  V Academic  des  Inscriptions  (Monu- 
ments Piot;  expensive  volumes  with  fine  illustrations,  appearing 
about  once  a  year). 

Nagler,  Allgemeines  Kiinstlerlexicon. 

R.  Peyre,  Repertoire  chronologique  de  I'histoire  universelle  des  Beaux~ 
Arts,  no  date;  about  1910. 

S.  Reinach,  Apollo,  an  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  History  of  Art  throughout 
the  Ages,  2d  ed.,  1910. 

Sehnaase,  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kunste,  2d  ed.,  1855-1879. 

Springer,  Handbuch  der  Kunstgeschichte,  9th  ed.  191 1-. 

L.  von  Sybel,  Weltgeschichte  der  Kunst  im  Altertum,  2d  ed.,  1903. 

Thieme  and  Becker,  Allgemeines  Lexikon  der  bildenden  Kiinstler  von 
der  Antike  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (a  great  work  in  many  volumes,  not 
yet  completed). 

K.  Woermann,  Geschichte  der  Kunst,  1900-1911. 

MATERIALS  AND  METHODS 

H.   Bliimner,    Technologic  nnd   Terminologie  der   Gewerbe  und  Kunste 

bei  Griechen  und  Ronwrn,  1887,  new  ed.  in  preparation. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  s.v.  Sculpture,  also  s.v.  Metal-working. 
Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  grecqms  et  romaines, 

s.v.  Statuaria. 
H.  Liier,  Technik  der  Bronzeplastik  (Monographien  des  Kunstgewerbes, 

IV,  pp.  19  ff.). 
E.  Pernice,  in  Jahreshefte  des  Oesterreichischen  Archdologischen  Institutes, 

VII,  1904,  pp.  154  ff. ;  VIII,  1905,  pp.  51  ff . ;  XI,  1908,  pp.  212  ff. 
Albert  Toft,  Modelling  and  Sculpture,  1911. 

ANCIENT  SCULPTURE  IN  GENERAL 

Periodicals.  —  Those  mentioned  under  General  Works,  also  Jahrbuch 
des  kaiserlich  deutschen  archaologischen  Institute;  Jahreshefte  des 
oesterreichischen  archaologischen  Institutes;  Monumenti  Antichi 
(Accademia  dei  Lincei) ;  and  publications,  annual  or  irregular,  of 
many  learned  societies. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  I'Art  datu  VAntiquite,  Vols.  I-X,  1882- 
1914  (Egypt,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  Judaea, 
Sardinia,  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Greece  in  the  prehellenic  and  archaic 
periods.  A  great  storehouse  of  information,  with  many  illustra- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  421 

tions.  Vols.  I-V  are  translated  into  English  under  separate 
titles  —  History  of  Art  in  Egypt,  History  of  Art  in  Chaldaea  and 
Assyria,  etc.  —  each  French  volume  forming  two  in  English.  The 
translation  of  vols.  IV  and  V  is  very  bad). 

Rayet,  Monuments  de  I' Art  antique,  1884. 

See  also  the  General  Works  mentioned  above. 

EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURE 

Periodicals.  —  A  ncient  Egypt;  The  Journal  of  Egyptian  Archaeology ;  Bul- 
letin de  Vlnstitut  egyptien;  Recueil  de  tracaiu  relatifs  a  la  philologie 
et  a  I'archeologie  egyptiennes  et  assyriennes;  Mitteilungen  der 
deutschen  Morgenldndschen  Gesellschaft ;  Memoirs  and  Reports  of 
the  Egypt  Exploration  Fund. 

F.  W.  von  Bissing,  Denkmaler  Aegyptischer  Sculptur,  1913  (150  plates, 

.with  explanatory  text). 
L.  Borchardt,  Kunstwerke  am  dem  Aegyptischen  Museum  zu  Kairo, 

1912  (50  plates,  with  brief  text). 
J.  Capart,  Primitive  Art  in  Egypt,  1906. 
Catalogue  general  des  antiquites  egyptiennes  du  musee  du  Caire  (a  great 

work  in  many  volumes  by  different  authors). 

G.  Maspero,  Egyptian  Archaeology,  5th  ed.,  1902;   Art  in  Egypt  ("Ars 

Una"  series),  1912;   Egypte  (Histoire  de  1'Art,  VII),  1913. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt. 

The  illustrations  are  still  valuable  in  several  early  works :  Prisse 
d'Avennes'  Histoire  de  I' art  egyptienne;  Lepsius,  Denkmaler  aus 
Aegypten  und  Nubien;  Champollion,  Monuments  de  I  Egypte  et 
de^la  Nubie;  Rossellini,  I  monumenti  dell'  Egitto  e  della  Nubia. 

BABYLONIAN  AND  ASSYRIAN  SCULPTURE 

Periodicals.  —  Mitteilungen  and  Zeitschrift  der  deutschen  Morgenldn- 
dischen  Gesellschaft;  Wiener  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgen- 
landes;  Zeitschrift  fur  Assy riologie;  publications  of  various  Orien- 
tal Societies. 

E.  Babelon,  Manual  of  Oriental  Antiquities,  new  ed.,  1906. 

P.  S.  P.  Handcock,  Mesopotamian  Archaeology,  1912. 

Heuzey,  Un  palais  chaldeen,  1900. 

L.  W.  King,  A  History  of  Sumer  and  Akad,  1910. 

R.  Koldewey,  Das  wieder  erstehende  Babylon,  1913  (trans.  "The  Ger- 
man Excavations  at  Babylon,"  1914). 

B.  Meissner,  Grundziige  der  babylonisch-assyrischen  Plastik,  1915  ("Der 
alte  Orient"). 

A.  Paterson,  Assyrian  Sculptures.     The  Palace  of  Sennacherib,  1912. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Chaldaea  and  Assyria. 

Pinches,  The  Gates  of  Balawat,  1880. 


422  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

De  Sarzec,  Decouvertts  en  Chaldee,  1884-  (an  elaborate  and  richly 
illustrated  account  of  discoveries). 

Relatively  early  books  which  may  still  be  consulted  with  profit  are 
Botta  and  Flandin,  Monuments  de  Ninive;  Layard,  Monuments 
of  Nineveh;  Loftus,  Travels  and  Researches  in  Chaldaea  and  Susi- 
ana;  Place,  Ninive  et  VAssyrie;  Rassam,  Recent  Discoveries  of 
Ancient  Babylonian  Cities;  George  Smith,  Assyrian  Discoveries. 

HITTITE  SCULPTURE 

J.  Garstang,  The  Land  of  the  Hittites,  1910. 

Humann  and  Puchstein,  Reisen  in  Kleinasien  and  Nord-Syrien,  1890. 

L.  Messerschmidt,  Die  Hittiter  ("Der  alte  Orient"),  1903  (trans.  "The 
Hittites,"  1903;  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution, 1903,  "The  Ancient  Hittites"). 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judaea,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor. 

O.  Puchstein  and  others,  Boghaz  Keui,  Die  Bauwerke  (Deutsche  Orient- 
Gesellschaft),  1912. 

W.  Wright,  The  Empire  of  the  Hittites,  2d  ed.,  1886. 

PERSIAN  SCULPTURE 

Dieulafoy,  L'art  antique  de  la  Perse,  1884-1889 ;  L'acropole  de  Suse, 
1890-1892. 

L.  W.  King  and  others  (British  Museum),  The  Sculptures  and  Inscrip- 
tions of  Darius  the  Great  on  the  Rock  of  Behistun  in  Persia,  1907. 

Noldeke,  Persepolis,  die  achaemenischen  und  sassanidischen  Denkmaler, 
1882. 

M.  L.  Fillet,  Le  palais  de  Darius  I  a  Suse,  1914. 

Texier,  Description  de  VArmenie,  de  la  Perse  et  de  la  Mesopotamia,  1842- 
1852. 

PHOENICIAN  AND  CYPRIOTE  SCULPTURE 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Phoenicia,  and  Cyprus. 

J.  L.  Myres,  Handbook  of  the  Cesnola  Collection  of  Antiquities  from 

Cyprus,  1915. 
J.  L.  Myres  and  M.  Ohnefalsch-Richter,  Catalogue  of  the  Cyprus  Museum, 

1899. 

GREEK  AND  ROMAN  SCULPTURE 

(Works  treating  of  Greek  and  Roman  art,  not  exclusively  of  either). 
P.  Arndt  and  W.  Amelung,  Photographische  Einzelaufnahmen  antiker 
Sculpturen  nach  Auswahl  und  mit  Text,  1893-1913  (photographs 
and  a  catalogue  containing  discussions). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  423 

Baumeister,  Denkmaler  des  klassischen  Altertums,  3  vols.,  1885-1888. 

Brunn-Bruckmann-Arndt,  Denkmaler  griechischer  und  romischer  Sculptur 
(large  photographic  plates;  in  the  second  series,  now  in  progress, 
which  begins  with  pi.  501,  elaborate  discussions  accompany  the 
plates). 

Brunn-Bruckmann-Arndt,  Griechische  und  romische  Portrats  (a  series 
of  plates,  etc.,  similar  to  the  Denkmaler  griechischer  und  romischer 
Sculptur). 

Daremberg  and  Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquites  grecques  ei  romaines 
(in  progress). 

R.  Delbruck,  Antike  Portrats,  1912. 

A.  Furtwangler,  Intermezzi,  1896. 

S.  Lami,  Dictionnaire  des  sculpteurs  de  I'antiquite  jusqu'au  VIe  siecle 
de  noire  ere,  1884. 

E.  v.  Mach,  Handbook  of  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture  to  accompany 
a  Collection  of  Reproductions  of  Greek  and  Roman  Sculpture,  1906 
(a  catalogue,  with  descriptions  and  discussions,  accompanying 
500  illustrations). 

S.  Reinach,  Repertoire  de  la  statuaire  grecque  el  romaine,  1897-1910; 
Repertoire  de  reliefs  grecs  et  romaines,  1909-1912  (great  numbers 
of  small  cuts  of  statues  and  reliefs  respectively,  with  bibliographi- 
cal notes). 

Roscher,  Ausfuhrliches  Lexikon  der  griechischen  und  romischen  Mytho- 
logie  (in  progress;  contains  many  illustrations). 

Smith,  Dictionary  of  Antiquities. 

Wissowa  and  Kroll,  Pauly's  Real-Encyclopadie  der  classischen  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft  (in  progress). 

Several  other  useful  illustrated  dictionaries  of  antiquities  exist. 

GREEK  SCULPTURE 

Periodicals.  —  Those  mentioned  under  General  Works  and  Ancient 
Sculpture  in  General,  also  Bulletin  de  correspondence  hellenique; 
Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies;  Mitteilungen  des  kaiserlich  deutschen 
archdologischen  Instituts,  Athenische  Abteilung;  Revue  des  etudes 
grecs;  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens. 

J.  Baikie,  The  Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  1913. 

R.  Dussaud,  Les  civilisations  prehelleniques  dans  le  bassin  de  la  mer 
Egee,  2d  ed.,  1914. 

A.  J.  Evans,  The  Nine  Minoan  Periods,  1914. 

A.  Frickenhaus  and  others,  Tiryns.  Die  Ergebnisse  der  Ausgrabunyen  des 
K.  d.  Archdologischen  Instituts  in  Athen,  1912. 

H.  R.  Hall,  Aegean  Archaeology,  1915. 

A.  Mosso,  The  Dawn  of  Mediterranean  Civilization,  1911. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Vart  dans  I'antiquite,  Vol.  V. 

Tsountas  and  Manatt,  The  Mycenaean  Age,  2d  ed.,  1914. 


424  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

M.  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la  sculpture  grecque,  1892-1897 ;     Les  statues 

funeraires  dans  I'art  grec,  1913;   Le  Parthenon,  1914. 
A.  Conze,  Die  attischen  Grabreliefs  (a  great  publication  not  yet  fully 

completed). 

Fowler  and  Wheeler,  Handbook  of  Greek  Archaeology,  1909. 
A.  Furtwangler,  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Sculpture,  1895. 
E.  A.  Gardner,  Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,   revised   ed.,    1910;     Six 

Greek  Sculptors,  1911. 
P.  Gardner,  The  Principles  of  Greek  Art,  1914;    Sculptured  Tombx  of 

Hellas,  1896 ;   Types  of  Greek  Coins,  1883. 
H.  Stuart  Jones,  Select  Passages  from  Ancient  Writers  illustrative  of  the 

History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  1895. 
A.  Joubin,  La  sculpture  grecque  entre  les  guerres  mediques  et  I'epoqae  de 

Pericles,  1901. 

R.  Kekule  v.  Stradonitz,  Die  griechische  Skulptur,  2d  ed.,  1907. 
H.  Lechat,  Au  musee  de  I'acropole  d'Athenes,  1903. 
W.  Lermann,  Altgriechische  Plastik,  1907. 
E.  Loewy,  Die  griechische  Plastik,  1911. 
A.  Murray,  The  Scidptures  of  the  Parthenon,  1903. 
J.  Overbeck,  Die  antiken  Schriftquellen  zur  Geschichte  der  bildenden 

Kilnste  bei  den  Griechen,  1868;    Geschichte  der  griechischen  Plastik, 

4th  ed.,  1893-1894. 

Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  I' art  dans  rantiquite,Voh.  VI-X. 
R.  B.  Richardson,  A  History  of  Greek  Sculpture,  1910. 
H.  Schrader,  Archaische   Marmorskulpturen   im  Akropolismuseum    zu 

Athen,  1909. 

A.  H.  Smith,  The  Sculptures  of  the  Parthenon,  1910. 
H.  B.  Walters,  The  Art  of  the  Greeks,  1906. 

ETRUSCAN  SCULPTURE 

J.  Martha,  L'art  etruaque,  1899;    Archeologie  etrusque  et  romaine,  no 

date. 

Special  information  concerning  Etruscan  sculpture  must  be  sought 
in  archaeological  periodicals,  catalogues  of  museums,  and  the  like. 

ROMAN  SCULPTURE 

Periodicals.  —  Those  mentioned  under  General  Works  and  Ancient 
Sculpture  in  General,  also  Bullettino  della  commixsione  archeologica 
comunale  di  Roma;  Journal  of  Roman  Studies;  Mitteilungen  des 
kaiserlich  deutschen  archdologischen  Institute,  rdmische  Abteilung; 
Notizie  degli  Scavi  di  Antichita;  Papers  of  the  British  School  in 
Rome. 

Altmann,  Die  romischen  Grabaltare  der  Kaiserzeii,  1905. 

C.  Cichorius,  Die  Trajanssdule,  1896-1900. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  425 

E.  Petersen,  Am  Pads  Augustae,  1902. 

A.  Riegl,  Die  spatromische  Kunstindustrie  nach  den  Funden  in  Oester- 

reich-Ungarn,  1901. 
Mrs.  Arthur  Strong,  Roman  Sculpture  from  Augustus  to  Constantine, 

1907. 

L.  v.  Sybel,  Christliche  Antike,  Vol.  2,  1909. 
H.  B.  Walters,  The  Art  of  the  Romans,  1911. 

F.  Wickhoff,  Roman  Art,  1900  (first  appeared  as  "Die  Wiener  Genesis," 

1895). 

SCULPTURE  OF  CHRISTIAN  TIMES  IN  GENERAL 

Periodicals  and  general  works  mentioned  above. 

Dohme,  Kunst  und  Kiinstler  des  Mittelalters  und  der  Neuzeit,  1877-1886. 

A.  Michel,  Histoire  de  I' art  depuis  les  premiers  temps  chretiens  jusqu'a 

nos  jours  (a  comprehensive  work  in  many  volumes  and  by  many 

authors;  not  yet  completed). 
Musee  de  Sculpture  Comparee  (Palais  du  Trocadero),  les  chefs-d'oeuvre 

d' architecture  et  de  sculpture,  du  XIIe  au  XIXe  siecle,  1913. 
W.  R.  Lethaby,  Mediaeval  Art  from  the  Peace  of  the  Church  to  the  Eve  of 

the  Renaissance,  312-1350,  new  ed.,  1912. 
The  "Ars  Una"  series  of  small  volumes  by  different  authors  contains 

chapters  on  the  sculpture  of  the  different  countries. 

EARLY  CHRISTIAN  AND  BYZANTINE  SCULPTURE 

Periodicals.  —  Those  mentioned  under  General  Works,  also  Bullet- 
tino  di  archeologia  cristiana;  Byzantinische  Zeitschrift;  Revue  de 
Vart  chretien;  Romische  Quartalschrift  fur  christliche  Altertiimer  und 
Kirchengeschichte. 

O.  M.  Dalton,  Byzantine  Art  and  Archaeology,  1911. 

Ch.  Diehl,  Manuel  d'Art  byzantin,  1910. 

R.  Garrucci,  Storia  dell'  arte  cristiana,  1873-1881  (2  volumes  on  ivor- 
ies, sarcophagi,  etc.). 

H.  Marucchi,  Elements  d'archeologie  chretien,  1889,  1890. 

Millet,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  Vart,  vol.  I. 

Perate,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  Vart,  vol.  I. 

A.  Perate,  L'archeologie  chretienne,  1894. 

J.  Strzygowski,  Kleinasien  ein  Neuland  der  Kunstgeschichte,  1903; 
Orient  oder  Rom?  1901. 

L.  v.  Sybel,  Christliche  Antike,  vol.  II,  1909. 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  already  mentioned. 
E.  Bertaux,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  Vart,  vol.  I. 


426  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

W.  Bode,  Italienische  Plastik,  1911. 

P.  Bouchaud,  IM  sculpture  venetienne,  1913. 

M.  Mattioni,  II  duomo  di  Orvieto,  1914. 

C.  Ricci,  Art  in  Northern  Italy,  1911  ("Ars  Una"  series). 

A.  Venturi,  Storia  dell'  arte  italiana,  vols.  I,  II,  III. 

W.  G.  Waters,  Italian  Sculptors,  1911. 

Max  Zimmermann,  Oberitalienische  Plastik  im  Mittelalter,  1897. 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  as  above. 

A.  Boinet,  I^es  sculptures  de  la  facade  occidentale  de  la   cathedrale  de 

Bourges,  1913. 

L.  Gonse,  L'art  gothique,  1890;   IM  sculpture  francaise,  1895. 
L.  Hourticq,  Art  in  France,  1911  ("Ars  Una"  series). 
A.  Humbert,  La  sculpture  sous  les  dues  de  Bourgogne  (1361-1483),  1913. 

E.  Male,  Religious  Art  in  France;    Thirteenth    Century,   1914   (L'art 

religietix  du  XIII6  siecle  en  France) ;    L'art  religieux  de  la  fin  du 

moyen  age  en  France,  1908. 

M.  and  E.  Marriage,  The  Sculptures  of  Chartres  Cathedral,  1910. 
Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  II. 
L.  Pillion,  Les  sculpteurs  francais  du  XIIIr  siecle  ("Maitres  de  I'art" 

series),  1912. 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  GERMANY 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  as  above. 

W.  Bode,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Plastik,  1885-1887. 

Dehio  and  von  Bezold,  Die  Denkmdler  der  deutschen  Bildhauerkun«t, 

1905-. 

G.  Delahache,  La  cathedrale  de  Strasbourg,  1910. 
P.  Hartmann,  Die  gotische  Monumental- Plastik  in  Schwaben,  1910. 

F.  Liibbecke,  Die  gotische  K diner  Plastik,  1910. 
Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  II. 

M.  Sauerlandt,  Deutsche  Plastik  des  Mittelalters,  3d  ed.,  1911. 
A.  Schmarsow  and  E.  v.  Flottwell,  Meisterwerke  der  deutschen  Bild- 
nerei  des  Mittelalters,  19 10-. 

MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS 

Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  II. 

M.  Rooses,  Art  in  Flanders,  1914  ("Ars  Una"  series). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  427 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  ENGLAND 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  as  above. 

W.  Armstrong,  Art  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,   1909   ("Ars  Una" 

series). 

C.  Enlart,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,,  vols.  II,  III. 
E.  S.  Prior  and  A.  Gardner,  An  Account  of  Medieval  Figure-Sculpture 

in  England,  1912. 
L.  Weaver,  Memorials  and  Monuments,  1915. 


MEDIAEVAL  SCULPTURE  IN  SPAIN 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  as  above. 

E.  Bertaux,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  II. 
A.  F.  Calvert,  Sculpture  in  Spain,  1912. 

M.  Dieulafoy,  Art  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  1913  ("Ars  Una"  series); 
La  statuaire  polychrome  en  Espagne,  1908. 

F.  Araujo  Gomez,  HiMoria  de  la  escultura  en  Espana,  1885. 

P.  Lafart,  La  sculpture  espagnole,  1909  (Bibliotheque  de  1'enseignement 
des  Beaux- Arts). 


SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  GENERAL 

Periodicals  and  General  Works  already  mentioned. 

E.  Miintz,  Histoire  de  I'art  pendant  la  Renaissance,  3  vols.,  1889-1895 

(chiefly  on  Italian  art). 
L.  Scott  (Mrs.  Baxter),  Sculpture,  Renaissance  and  Modern,  1886. 


General  Works  mentioned  above. 

G.  Beaume,  Michel  Ange,  1912. 

E.  Bertaux,  Donatella  ("Maitres  d'art"),  1910. 

W.  Bode,  Italienwche  Plastik,  1911;  Florentiner  Bildhauer  der  Renais- 
sance, 2d  ed.,  1910. 

M.  v.  Boehm,  I^orenzo  Bernini,  1912  ("Kiinstlermonographien"). 

P.  Bouchaud,  La  sculpture  venetienne,  1913. 

H.  Brockhaus,  Michelangelo  und  die  Medici-Kapelle,  1912. 

J.  Burckhardt,  The  Civilization  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  5th  English 
ed.,  1904. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  Autobiography. 

M.  Crutwell,  Donatella,  1911. 

J.  Desjardins,  La  vie  et  I'oeuvre  de  Jean  Bologne,  1883. 

H.  Focillon,  Benvenuto  Cellini,  1912  ("Les  grands  artistes"). 

L.  F.  Freeman,  Italian  Sculptors  of  the  Renaissance,  1902. 


428  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

K.  Frey,  Michelangiolo  Buonarroti,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke,  19 11-. 

R.  S.  Gower,  Michael  Angela,  1903. 

E.  Hildebrandt,  Michelangelo,  1913. 

C.  Holroyd,  Michelangelo,  1903. 

A.  Marquand,  Delia  Robbias  in  America,  1912;  Luca  delta  Robbia,  1914. 

Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vols.  Ill,  IV,  V. 

E.  Molinier,  Bencenuto  Cellini,  1894. 

R.  Norton,  Bernini  and  Other  Studies,  1914. 

M.  Reymond,  Le  Bernin  ("Maitres  de  I'art"),  1911. 

C.  Ricci,  Art  in  Northern  Italy  ("Ars  Una"  series),    1911;    Baroque 

Architecture  and  Sculpture  in  Italy,  1912;   Michel-Ange,  1902. 
A.  Riegl,  FUippo  Baldinucci's  Vita  des  Giovanni  I^orenzo  Bernini,  1912; 

Die  Entstehung  der  Barockkunst  in  Rom,  1908. 
C.  Strutt,  Michael  Angelo,  1903. 
J.  A.  Symonds,  The  Life  of  Michelangelo,  3d  ed.,  1899 ;    The  Renaissance 

in  Italy,  The  Fine  Arts,  last  ed.,  1913. 
H.  Thode,   Michelangelo,  kritixche   Untersuchnngen  iiber  seine   Wrrkc, 

1913 ;  Michelangelo  und  das  Ende  der  Renaissance,  1903-1912. 

A.  Venturi,  Storia  dell'  arte  italiana,  vols.  IV-  (in  progress). 
W.  G.  Waters,  Italian  Sculptors,  1911. 

H.  Wolfflin,  The  Art  of  the  Italian  Renaissance,  1903  (also  1913). 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE 

General  Works  already  mentioned. 

Lady  E.  Dilke,  French  Architects  and  Sculptors  of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
1900. 

L.  Gonse,  La  sculpture  en  France  depuis  le  XIVe  siecle,  1894. 

L.  Hourticq,  Art  in  France  ("Ars  Una"  series),  1911. 

H.  Jouin,  Antoine  Coysevox,  1883 ;  Jean  Goujon,  1906. 

S.  Lami,  Dictionnaire  des  scidpteurs  de  I'ecole  francai-se  du  moi/cn  age  au 
regne  de  Louis  XIV ;  .  .  .  sous  le  regne  de  IMU'IS  XIV ;  ...  aw 
XVIIIe  siecle;  .  .  .  au  XI Xe  siecle  (in  progress). 

Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vols.  Ill,  IV,  V. 

H.  Thirion,  Les  Adam  et  Clodion,  1885. 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  GERMANY 

The  General  Works  on  German  sculpture  mentioned  under  Mediaeval 

Sculpture  in  Germany. 
J.  Baum,  Die  Ulmer  Plastik  wm  1500,  1911. 
P.  Clemen,  Die  rheinische  und  die  westfdlische  Kunst,  1903. 

B.  Daun,  Adam  Kra/t,  1897. 

C.  Headlam,  Peter  Vischer,  1901. 

L.  Reau,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  V. 
G.  Seeger,  Peter  Vischer  der  Aeltere,  1898. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  429 

E.  Tonnies,  TUmann  Riemenschneider,  1900. 

F.  Wanderer,  Adam  Krafft  und  seine  Schide,  1896. 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  THE  NETHERLANDS 

J.  de  Bosschere,    IM  sculpture  anversoise,  1909  (collection  des  "Grands 

artistes  des  Pays  Bas"). 

J.  Helbig,  La  sculpture  an  pays  de  Liege,  1890. 
M.  Rooses,  Art  in  Flanders  ("Ars  Una"  series),  1914. 
H.  Rousseau,  La  sculpture  beige  aux  XVI Ie  et  XVI IP  siecles,  191 1. 
P.  Vitry,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  V. 
W.  Vogelsang,  Die  Holzskulptur  der  Niederlande,  I,  1911,  II,  1914. 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  ENGLAND 

Sir  W.  Armstrong,  Art  in  England  ("Ars  Una"  series),  1909. 
P.  Biver,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  V. 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  article  Sculpture. 
L.  Weaver,  Memorials  and  Monuments,  1915. 

SCULPTURE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  SPAIN 

The  General  Works  on  Spanish  sculpture  mentioned  under  Mediaeval 

Sculpture  in  Spain. 

E.  Bertaux,  in  Michel,  Histoire  de  I'art,  vol.  IV. 
J.  Agapito  y  Revilla,  Alonso  Berruguete,  1913. 
O.  Fatigati,  Escultura  en  Madrid,  1913. 

MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  ITALY 

L.  Callari,  Storia  dell'  arte  contemporanea  italiana,  1909. 
A.  G.  Meyer,  Canova,  1898. 

MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  FRANCE 

G.  Benedite,  Al.  Falguiere,  1902. 

L.  Benedite,  Les  sculpteurs  francais  content  porains,  1901. 

M.  Ciolkowska,  Rodin,  1912  ("Little  Books  on  Art"). 

J.  Cladel,  Auguste  Rodin,  Venture  et  I'homme,  1908. 

E.  Claris,  De  I'impressionisme  en  sculpture  (Rodin  and  Meunier),  1903. 

M.  Dreyfous,  Dalou,  1903. 

D.  C.  Eaton,  Handbook  of  Modern  French  Sculpture,  1913. 
L.  de  Fourcaud,  Francois  Rude,  1903. 

E.  Guillaume,  Francois  Rude,  1903. 

C.  H.  Hart  and  E.  Biddle,  Jean  Antoine  Houdon,  1911. 


430  A  HISTORY  OF  SCULPTURE 

H.  Jouin,  David  d' Angers. 

G.  Kahn,  Auguste  Rodin,  1909. 

S.  Lami,  Dictionnaire  des  sculpteurs  de  I'ecole  francaise  du  XIX*  siecle, 

19 14-. 
F.  Lawton,  Life  and  Work  of  Auguste  Rodin,  1907. 

MODERN  SCULPTURE  IN  THE   NETHERLANDS,   ENGLAND,   GERMANY, 
DENMARK,  SWEDEN,  SPAIN,  AND  RUSSIA 

W.  Armstrong,  Art  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  ("Ars  Una"  series), 

1909. 

M.  Dieulafoy,  Art  in  Spain  and  Portugal  ("Ars  Una"  series),  1913. 
Lady  Eastlake,  Life  of  John  Gibson,  1870. 
F.  Eggers,  Christian  Daniel  Ranch,  1873-1891. 

F.  Araujo  Gomez,  Historia  de  la  escultura  en  Espana,  1885. 

G.  Gurlitt,  Die  deutsche  Kunst  des  XIX  Jahrhunderts,  1900. 
P.  Lafart,  JM  sculpture  espagnole,  1909. 

E.  Plon,  Thorwaldsen's  Life  and  Works,  1874. 

W.  Radenberg,  Moderne  Plastik,  1912. 

S.  Redgrave,  Dictionary  of  Artists  of  the  English  School,  1874. 

M.  Rooses,  Art  in  Flanders  ("Ars  Una"  series),  1914. 

J.  M.  Thiele,  The  Life  of  Thorwaldsen  (English  translation),  1865. 

G.  Treu,  Max  Klinger  als  Bildhauer,  1900 ;   Constantin  Meunier,  1903. 

L.  Weaver,  Memorials  and  Monuments  (English  monuments),  1915. 

SCULPTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

C.  H.  Caffin,  American  Masters  of  Sculpture,  1903. 

C.  L.  Hind,  Augustus  St.  Gaudens,  1908. 

Juliet  James,  Sculpture  of  the  Exposition  Palaces  and  Courts,  1915. 

E.  Neuhaus,  T he  Art.  of  the  Exposition,  1915  (the  Panama  Exposition 

at  San  Francisco) ;   The  Galleries  of  the  Exposition,  1915. 
Lorado  Taft,  American  Sculpture,  1903,  2d  edition,  1916. 

NOTE.  Two  periodicals,  Art  in  America  and  Art  and  Progress, 
in  addition  to  the  periodicals  on  art  in  general  mentioned  above,  are 
of  importance  to  the  student  of  modern  art.  Many  articles  on  sculp- 
ture and  sculptors  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the  illustrated  maga- 
zines and  papers.  Information  concerning  sculptors  is  also  to  be  found 
in  various  dictionaries  of  biography. 

SCULPTURE  IN  THE  FAR  EAST 

M.  Anesaki,  Buddhist  Art  in  its  Relation  to  Buddhist  Ideals,  1915. 
K.  Woermann,  in  Geschichte  der  Kunst,  vol.  I  (a  general  account). 
L.  D.  Barnett,  Antiquities  of  India,  1913. 

J.  Burgess,  The  Ancient  Monuments,  Temples,  and  Sculptures  of  India 
.  .  .,  1897  and  1911  (folio  plates). 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  431 

A.  Foucher,  L'art  greco-buddhique  du  Gandhara,  1905-. 

A.  Griinwedel,  Buddhist  Art  in  India,  1911. 

M.  Maindron,  L'art  indien,  1908. 

A.  Rea,  Smith  Indian  Buddhist  Antiquities,  1894. 

Reports  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  of  India. 

Vincent  A.  Smith,  A  History  of  Fine  Art  in  India  and  Ceylon,  1911. 

F.  Brinkley,  Japan  and  China,  their  History,  Arts,  and  Literature,  1903. 

E.  Chavannes,  La  sculpture  mr  pierre  en  Chine,  1893. 

E.  F.  Fenollosa,  Epochs  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  Art,  1912. 

F.  Hirth,  China  and  the  Roman  Orient,  1885 ;    Ueber  fremde  Einfltisse 

in  der  chinesischen  Kunst,  1896. 
J.  E.  Lodge,  Introduction  to  the  Collection  of  Chinese  Sculpture,  in  the 

Museum  of  Fine  Arts  Bulletin,  Boston,  1915. 
M.  Paleologue,  L'art  chinois,  1887. 
L.  Gonse,  L'art  japonais,  1900. 
T.  Hayashi,  Histoire  de  Vart  du  Japan,  1 900. 

G.  C.  Pier,  Temple  Treasures  of  Japan,  1914. 


INDEX 


Abella,  G.  B.,  376. 

Adam,  French  sculptor,  315. 

Adams,  Herbert,  399. 

Aegina,  sculpture  at,  68-71,  75,  79,  81. 

Agesander,     of    Antioch,     129 ;      of 

Rhodes,  134. 
Agoracritus,  93,  94. 
Agostino  di  Duccio,  271. 
Aitken,  Robert  Ingersoll,  405. 
Akers,  Benjamin  Paul,  391. 
Alabaster,   Assyrian,  xxii,  31 ;    Eng- 
lish, 234,  235,  237,  238,  239. 
Alamant,  Enrich,  253. 
Alcaide,  Zamorano,  376. 
Alcamenes,  83,  93,  94. 
Alcoverro,  Jose  de,  376. 
Aleman,  Juan,  256 ;    Rodrigo,  335. 
Aleu,  Andres,  375. 
Alexander  the  Great,  43,    109,    119, 

125,  137,  166,  407. 
Algardi,  Alessandro,  300. 
Allar,  A.  J.,  362. 

Allegrain,  Gabriel  Christophe,  313. 
Allen,  Charles  John,  386. 
Almonacid,  S.,  337,  339. 
Alsina,  Antonio,  376. 
Altar  of   Neptune,    150;     of   Peace, 

151-153,  154,  155. 
Alvarez,    Manuel,    345 ;     Jose,    375 ; 

Jose  the  younger,  375. 
Amadeo,  280,  281. 
Ambrogio,  Giovanni  di,  196  ;  Lorenzo 

di  Giovanni  di,   196 ;    da  Milario, 

282. 

Ambroise,  V.  J.  J.,  362. 
Ammanati,  Bartolommeo,  298. 
Andrea  Pisano,    190,    191,   192,   195, 

257,258,259. 
Angelion,  67. 

Anguiers,  Francois  and  Michel,  309. 
Anselmo  (at  Milan),  182. 
Antelami,  Benedetto,  183  f. 


Antenor,  74,  78. 

Antico  (Pier  Jacopo  Alari-Bonacolsi), 
278. 

Antinous,  161. 

Antonine  period,  161  f. 

Antonio,  195. 

Aphrodite  (see  Venus) ,  by  Alcamenes, 
94,  136;  of  Cnidus,  114,  136; 
Medici,  115,  136;  Capitoline,  115, 
135. 

Apollo,  type  of  early  Greek  statues, 
60,  61;  Choiseul-Gouffier,  79;  of 
Belvedere,  129,  132,  291,  396. 

Apollo  nius,  135. 

Aquila,  Andrea  d',  286. 

Ara  Pacis,  151-153,  154,  155. 

Area,  Nicol6  dell',  279. 

Arcesilas,  136. 

Archaic  Greek  sculpture,  59-76 ;  at 
Athens,  71-76. 

Archermus,  63,  64. 

Arezzo,  Niccolo  d',  280-282;  Piero 
d',  282. 

Arfe,  Juan  de,  343. 

Argos,  sculpture  at,  67,  68,  77. 

Aria,  Michele  d',  304. 

Aristogeiton,  statue  of,  with  Har- 
modius,  77,  78,  80. 

Armstead,  H.  H.,  380. 

Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  188,  189. 

Arras,  Jean  de,  212. 

Artaxerxes,  45. 

Asshurbanipal,  38,  39,  44. 

Asshurnazirpal,  32,  33.  34,  35,  36,  37. 

Astyages,  43. 

Atche,  Rafael,  376. 

Athanadorus,  134. 

Athena,  Parthenos,  88,  89,  90,  91, 
101 ;  Lemnian,  91 ;  Nike,  sculp- 
tures of  temple,  102.  103  ;  of  balus- 
trade, 103,  104. 

Athenis,  63. 


433 


434 


INDEX 


Athens,  archaic  sculpture,  71-76 ; 
chief  centre  of  sculpture  in  fifth 
century,  77. 

Attic,  sculpture,  archaic,  71-76 ;  in 
fifth  century,  77,  78,  85-90,  94- 
105;  in  Asia  Minor,  106,  121,  122, 
123;  gravestones,  123,  124. 

Aube,  J.  P.,  361. 

Aubeaulx,  Pierre  des,  304. 

Augur,  Hezekiah,  389. 

Augustus,  149,  150,  151,  155. 

Auvergne,  school  of,  197,  198. 

Averlino,  Antonio,  285. 

Babylon,  sculpture  at,  29,  30. 

Babylonia,  24-31. 

Bachelier,  Nicholas,  306. 

Bachman,  Max,  402. 

Bachot,  J.,  304. 

Backere,  Jan  de,  329. 

Backofen,  Hans,  322. 

Bacon,  John,  334. 

Baerse,  Jacob  de,  328. 

Baeza,  Francisco  de,  339. 

Baily,  Edward  H.,  378. 

Bailly,  Joseph  A.,  403. 

Balduccio, -Giovanni  di,  190,  193  f. 

Ball,  Thomas,  390,  396,  400. 

Bambaja,  281. 

Bamboccio,  Antonio  di  Domenico  da, 

286. 

Bandel,  Ernst  von,  372. 
Bandinelli,  Baccio,  296,  298. 
Banks,  Thomas,  334. 
Baratta,  F.,  300 ;   P.,  300. 
Barba,  Ramon,  375. 
Bari,  Niccolo  da,  279. 
Bariloto,  Pietro,  295. 
Barlach,  Ernst,  375. 
Barnard,  George  Grey,  398. 
Barnhorn,  Clement  J.,  404. 
Baroque,  298-300,  325,  326,  331,  344, 

345,  346. 

Barrau,  Theophile,  362. 
Barrias,  Louis  Ernest,  359  f. 
Barren,  Eduardo,  376. 
Bartholdi,  F.  A.,  361. 
Bartholome,  P.  A.,  360,  361,  375. 
Bartholomew,  Edward  Sheffield,  391. 
Bartlett,  Paul  Wayland,  398. 
Bartolini,  Lorenzo,  348. 
Bartolo  di  Michele,  258. 


Barye,  Antoine  Louis,  356,  362. 

Bassalettus,  see  Vasalletto. 

Bates,  Harry,  381,  382. 

Bathycles,  67. 

Bayes,  Gilbert,  386. 

Beaugrand,  Guyot  de,  329. 

Beauneveu,  Andre,  212 ;   Pierre,  212. 

Becerra,  Gaspar,  342. 

Begaretti,  Antonio,  296. 

Begas,  Reinhold,  372  f. 

Behnes,  William,  379. 

Bellver,    Francisco,    Mariano,    Jose, 

and  Ricardo,  375. 
Benedetto,    Antelami,     183    f. ;     da 

Majano,  271,  286;    da  Rovezzano, 

295,  304,  333. 
Benlliure,  Mariano,  376. 
Benti,  Donato  di  Battista  di  Mateo, 

304. 

Bergaz,  Alfonso,  345. 
Berge,  Edward,  401. 
Bernini,  Gian  Lorenzo,  299  f.,  310, 

311,  346,  373. 
Bernward,  177,  216. 
Berrugueti,    Alonso,    340,    341,    342, 

343 ;    Inocencio,  342. 
Berthelot,  Guillaume,  309. 
Betti,  see  Justi. 
Beuren,  Alphonse  van,  367. 
Biduino,  181. 

Bissell,  George  Edwin,  393. 
Bissen,  H.  W.,  352. 
Bitter,  Karl,  400,  401. 
Blaser,  Gustav,  370. 
Blay,  Miguel,  376. 
Blondel,  Lancelot,  329. 
Blutenburg,  sculptures  at,  323. 
Bock,  Richard,  404. 
Boehm,  Sir  J.  E.,  380. 
Boisseau,  E.  A.,  361. 
Boizot,  315. 

Bologna,  Giovanni,  258,  296  f.,  325. 
Bonafe,  Martin,  256. 
Bonannus,  177,  182. 
Bonassieux,  Jean,  358. 
Bonino  da  Campione,  194. 
Bontemps,  Pierre,  306  f.,  309. 
Borglum,  Solon  H.,  402. 
Borgona,  Felipe  de,  340,  341,  342. 
Borremans,  Passchier,  329 ;  Jan,  329. 
Bosio,  Francois  Joseph,  353. 
Bossard,  Johannes,  375. 


INDEX 


435 


Bouchardon,  Edme,  312. 

Boucher,  Alfred,  362. 

Boulogne,  see  Bologna. 

Bouteiler,  Jean  le,  212. 

Boyle,  John  J.,  399. 

Bracken,  Mrs.  Clio,  405 ;   Julia,  405. 

Bracket,  Edward  A.,  391. 

Braeck,  Pierre,  367. 

Brahmanic  art,  409,  410,  411. 

Branchidae,    statues    from,    62,    63 ; 

statue  by  Canachus  at,  67,  68. 
Brasses,  engraved,  225,  235,  332. 
Bregno,  Andrea,  282,  286. 
Brenner,  Victor"  D.,  402. 
Brewster,  George  Thomas,  401. 
Briard,  Pierre,  309. 
Bringhurst,  Robert  P.,  404. 
Briosco,  Antonio,  278,  281. 
Brock,  Sir  Thomas,  381,  382. 
Broeucq,  Jacques  du,  330. 
Bronze,  composition,  xxiv ;   methods 

of  casting,  xxiv,  xxv ;  patina,  xxvi ; 

early  Egyptian  statues,  9  ;    Etrus- 
can work,  144-146  ;   doors  in  Italy, 

176  f. ;    work  in  Germany,  216  f . ; 

cire   perdu   process    of    casting   in 

England,  384. 

Brooks,  Carol,  405 ;  Richard  E.,  402. 
Brown,     Henry    Kirke,     390,     392; 

Mortimer,  387. 
Bruggemann,  Hans,  324. 
Brun,  S.  J.,  356: 
Brunelleschi,  258. 
Bryaxis,  120. 
Buddha,  137,  408,  409,  410,  413,  415, 

416,  417. 
Buddhistic    art,   44,    407,    408,    409, 

410,  411,  412-417. 
Bull  capitals,  Persian,  47 ;    bull  and 

lion,  46. 
Buon,  Bartolommeo,  Giovanni,  Paci- 

fico,  and  Pantaleone,  283. 
Buonamicus,  181. 
Buonarroti,  see  Michael  Angelo. 
Bupalus,  63. 
Burgundy,  school  of,  197,  199,  200  f., 

244  ;    at  Dijon,  212,  213-215,  304  ; 

in  Spain,  256. 
Burma,  sculpture  in,  411. 
Burroughs,    Mrs.   Edith    Woodman, 

405. 
Bush-Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  402. 


Busti,  Agostino,  281. 

Busts,  Roman,  154,  157,  159,  164. 

Caffieri,  J.  J.,  313,  314  ;  Jacques,  314  ; 

Philippe,  314. 

Caillouette,  Louis  Denis,  356. 
Cain,  Auguste,  362. 
Cala-mis,  78,  79,  85,  93. 
Calcagni,  Tiberio,  294. 
Calder,    Alexander   Milne,   403 ;    A. 

Stirling,  403,  406. 
Calegari,  A.,  300. 
Gallon,  67. 

Calverley,  Charles,  401. 
Camaino,  Tino  di,  190. 
Cambodia,  sculpture  in,  411. 
Camelio,  285. 
Campagna,  Girolamo,  298. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  389. 
Campeny,  Jose,  376. 
Canachus,  67,  68. 
Candid,  Peter,  297,  325. 
Candido,  Elia,  297. 
Cano,  Alonso,  344. 
Canova,  Antonio,   347  f.,   348,   350, 

368,  370,  372,  378,  389. 
Caradosso,  281. 

Carbonell,  Spanish  sculptor,  376. 
Cariat,  43. 
Carles,  A.  J.,  362. 
Carmona,  Salvador,  345. 
Carolingian  renaissance,  174, 175, 197. 
Carpeaux,  Jean  Baptiste,  356  f.,  362, 

382,  394. 

Carrier-Belleuse,  358,  362. 
Cartellier,  Pierre,  353. 
Castalys,  Jayme,  251. 
Castro,  Philip  de,  345. 
Catell,  Arnall,  241. 
Cathier,  365. 
Cattanes,  Danese,  298. 
Cavelier,  Pierre  Jules,  358. 
Cazin,  Marie,  361. 
Cazzaniga,  Tommaso,  281. 
Cellini,  Benvenuto,  296,  305. 
Cerrachi,  Giuseppe,  388. 
Ceylon,  art  in,  411. 
Chaleveau,  G.,  303. 
Chandler,  Clyde  Giltner,  406. 
Chantry,  Sir  F.  L.,  378,  379. 
Charioteer  at  Delphi,  79,  80. 
Chartres,  Jean  de,  303. 


436 


INDEX 


Chatrousse,  E.,  361. 

Chaudet,  Antoine  Denis,  353. 

Chelles,  Jean  de,  212  ;  Pierre  de,  212. 

Chephren  (Khafra),  7,  8. 

Chian  sculpture,  63,  64,  73,  74,  75. 

Chinard,  Joseph,  353. 

Chinese  sculpture,  137,  411-415. 

Chirisophus,  67. 

Chirriguera,  345. 

Ciccione,  Andrea,  286. 

Cinerary  statues,  urns,  groups,  141  f. 

Cione,  Andrea  di,  191  f. 

Civitale,  Matteo,  271. 

Claperos,  Anton,  251,  253. 

Claude,  Louis  Michel  (Clodion),  314, 

315. 

Clay,  sculpture  in,  xx. 
Clesinger,  J.  B.  A.,  361. 
Clevenger,  Shobal  Vail,  391. 
Clodion,  314. 

Cluny,  abbey  of,  198,  200,  229. 
Coecke,  Peter,  331. 
Cohen,  Katherine,  405. 
Colin  (Colyns),  Alexander,  325,  331. 
Collet,  Jacques,  212. 
Colombo,  Michel,  302,  303,  305. 
Colonia,  Juan  de,  256. 
Colotes,  93. 
Colton,  W.  R.,  386. 
Connelly,  Pierce  Francis,  394. 
Conner,  Jerome,  402. 
Constantine,  arch  of,  164. 
Conventions,    of   Egyptian    art,    13 ; 

of  Greek  art,  97,  100. 
Copies  of  Greek  statues,  85,  86,  88, 

92,  93,  150. 
Copin,  Dutch  sculptor  in  Spain,  335, 

337. 

Cordonnier,  A.  A.,  362. 
Corradini,  300. 
Corral,  Felipe  del,  345. 
Cortot,  Jean  Pierre,  354. 
Cosmati,  180  f.,  189,  285. 
Coullant-Valera,  Lorenzo,  376. 
Couper,  William,  400. 
Couston,    Guillaume    and    Nicholas, 

312,  350. 

Cox,  Charles  Brinton,  403. 
Coysevox,  Antoine,  310,  311,  312. 
Cozzarelli,  Giacomo,  277. 
Crauk,  G.  A.  D.,  361. 
Crawford,  Thomas,  389. 


Cresilas,  93,  94. 
Critius,  78,  85,  86,  89,  113. 
Crunelle,  Leonard,  404. 
Cummings,  Melvin  Earl,  405. 
Cunningham,  Allan,  379. 
Cypriote  sculpture,  49-52. 
Cyrus,  30,  43,  44. 

Daedalus,  67. 

Dajou,  Nicholas,  350. 

Dallin,  Cyrus  E.,  402,  403. 

Dalmata,  Giovanni,  285. 

Dalou,  Jules,  358  f.,  382,  386. 

Dammartin,  Andre  and  Gui,  212. 

Damophilus,  148. 

Damophon,  133. 

Dampt,  J.  A.,  362. 

Dancart,  Fleming  in  Spain,  335. 

Dannecker,  J.  H.,  368. 

Danti,  Vincenzo,  289,  298. 

Darius,  44,  45. 

Darius  Codomannus,  43. 

Daudu,  26. 

Dauer  (Daucher),  Adolf  and  Hans, 

322. 
David,  Pierre  Jean  (d" Angers),  355  f., 

357. 
Definitions,  sculpture,  xix  ;  relief,  xix ; 

decorative,  xx ;  substantive,  xx. 
Delaplanche,  Eugene,  361. 
Delcour,  Jean,  332. 
Delia  Robbia,  see  Robbia. 
Demosthenes,  statue,  127. 
Dentone,  Antonio,  285. 
Desenfans,  367. 

Desiderio  da  Settignano,  270,  271. 
Dexter,  Henry,  391. 
Diana  of  Versailles,  129. 
Diaz,  Angelo,  376. 
Diego  de  la  Cruz,  337. 
Diez,  Robert,  374. 
Dijon,  sculpture  at,  212,  213-215. 
Dillens,  Julien,  365,  367. 
Dipoenus,  67. 
Dittler,  Emil,  375. 
Dixey,  John,  388. 
Domenico  del  Barbiere  (Domenique 

Florentin),  305. 
Domitian,  156. 
Donatello,    258,    260,    262-266,   268, 

270,  271,  273,  275,  277,  278,  282, 

285,  286,  289,  291,  296,  365. 


INDEX 


437 


Donner,  Georg  Raphael,  326. 

Donoghue,  John,  401. 

Dontas,  67. 

Doric  sculpture,  63,  6(3,  67,  68. 

Doryclidas,  67. 

Doulis,  Pierre,  304. 

Doyle,  Alexander,  401. 

Drake,  Friedrich,  370. 

Drury,  Alfred,  385,  386. 

Dubois,  Paul,  357  ;   Mrs.,  392. 

Ducaju,  J.  J.,  364. 

Dumont,  A.  A.,  356;  E.,  315. 

Dungi,  29. 

Dupon,  Josue,  367. 

Dupre,  Giovanni,  349. 

Duque,  P.,  345. 

Duquesnoy,  F.,  300,  331 ;  J.,  331. 

Diirer,  Albrecht,  317,  322. 

Duret,  Francisque  Joseph,  356. 

Durham,  Joseph,  379. 

Dying  Gaul,  130,  131,  133. 

Eannatum,  25. 

Eberhard,  Konrad,  372. 

Eberle,  Abastenia  St.  Leger,  405. 

Echeandia,  Julio,  376. 

Egas  (Van  Eyck),  256,  335. 

Egypt,  1-23  ;  chronology  of,  2  ;  con- 
ventions of  art  in,  13. 

Ehrenfried,  Theophilus,  324. 

Elamite  kingdom,  44. 

Elgin  marbles,  95. 

Elias,  Spanish  sculptor,  375. 

Elkan,  Benno,  375. 

Ellicott,  Henry  Jackson,  403. 

Elwell,  Frank  Edwin,  400. 

Embil,  Miguel,  376. 

Empire  in  Egypt,  17-21. 

Engelmann,  Richard,  375. 

Ephesus,  early  temple,  65 ;  later 
temple,  122. 

Epigonus,  130. 

Erechtheum,  sculptures  of,  102,  104, 
105. 

Eshin  Sozu,  417. 

Estany  y  Capella,  Pedro,  376. 

Etex,  Antoine,  356. 

Euphranor,  120. 

Euthydicus,  75. 

Ezekiel,  Moses  Jacob,  392. 

Fagel,  Leon,  362. 


Falconet,  M.  E.,  313. 

Falguiere,  J.  A.  J.,  358. 

Families    of     artists    in     mediaeval 

Rome,  180  f. 
Fancelli,  Domenico  di   Sandro,   339, 

340. 

Fay  d'herbe,  L.,  332. 
Federighi,  Antonio,  276,  277. 
Fehr,  Henry  C.,  386. 
Ferrata,  E.,  300. 
Ferrucci,  Andrea,  295. 
Fiesole,  Girolamo  da,  303. 
Figueres,  Juan,  375. 
Filarete,  285. 
Fiorentino,  Niccolo,  278. 
Fisher,  Frank,  387. 
Flanagan,  John,  402. 
Flavian  sculpture,  156  f. 
Flaxman,  John,  378,  382. 
Floris,  330. 

Flotner  (Flettner),  Peter,  320. 
Fogelberg,  Swedish  sculptor,  352. 
Foggini,  G.  B.,  300. 
Foley,  John  Henry,  380 ;    Margaret, 

392. 

Folgueras,  Cipriano,  376. 
Foppa,  Cristoforo,  281. 
Ford,  Edward  Onslow,  383. 
Forment,  Damian,  255,  343. 
Foyatier,  357. 
Fraikin,  C.  A.,  364. 
Frampton,  Sir  G.  J.,  384  f. 
Francanilla,  Pietro,  297. 
Francesco  di  Giorgio,  277. 
Frankenstein,  John,  404. 
Fraser,  James  E.,  401,  402. 
Frederick  II,  179. 
Fremiet,  Emmanuel,  356,  357. 
French,  Daniel  Chester,  396-398. 
Frith,  W.  S.,  382,  385. 
Frontality,  10,  164,  415. 
Fusina,  Andrea,  281. 
Fuxa  y  Leal,  376. 

Gagini,  Domenico,  286  f. ;  Antonio, 
287 

Gailde,  J.,  304. 

Gambarelli,  Matteo,  270. 

Gandaris,  Jose  de,  376. 

Gandhara,  Hellenistic-Indian  sculp- 
ture, 409,  411,  413,  415. 

Gardet,  Georges,  362. 


438 


INDEX 


Gaul,  August,  374. 

Gauquie,  H.  D.,  362. 

Gautherin,  Jean,  361. 

Gechter,  Theodore,  356. 

Geefs,  Guillaume,  Joseph,  etc.,  364. 

Gensburg,  Russian  sculptor,  377. 

Gentil,  Francois,  306. 

Geremia,  Cristoforo,  278. 

Gerhaert,  Claus,  323. 

Gerhard,  Hubert,  325. 

Gerlach,  Gustave,  402. 

G6rome,  J.  L.,  361. 

Geyger,  E.  M.,  374. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo,  258-262,  266,  268, 
271,  339,  389  ;  Vittorio,  191. 

Ghini,  Simone,  285. 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  334. 

Gibson,  John,  379,  391. 

Gilabertus,  199. 

Gilbert,  Alfred,  380,  382,  384. 

Gil  de  Siloe,  337. 

Gines,  Jose,  376. 

Giotto,  191,  192,  254. 

Giovanni  di  Martino,  282 ;  Pisano, 
185,  186,  187  f.,  189,  191,  192. 

Giralte,  Francisco,  342. 

Girardon,  Francois,  310  f.,  313. 

Gitiadas,  67. 

Giusto,  Giovanni  and  Antonio,  304  f. 

Gjol  Baschi,  105,  106. 

Glazed  tiles,  Persian,  45,  46. 

Glycon,  136. 

Gobbo,  il,  281. 

Godecharle,  L.,  332. 

Gomar,  Anton  and  Francesch,  256. 

Gorgasus,  148. 

Goro  di  Gregorio,  190. 

Goroyema,  Ono,  417. 

Gosen,  Theodor  von,  375. 

Gothic  sculpture,  174,  175,  184-196 ; 
in  France,  203-215 ;  subjects  of, 
203-207  ;  relation  to  architecture, 
207  f. ;  quantity,  208  f . ;  methods, 
209  f. ;  schools,  210  ;  in  thirteenth 
century,  210  f. ;  in  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, 211-214;  in  Germany,  221- 
226;  in  England,  229-239;  in 
Spain,  246,  248-256;  in  Nether- 
lands, 327. 

Goujon,  Jean,  307  f.,  309,  330. 

Gould,  Thomas  R.,  392;  Thomas, 
392. 


Grado,  Gian  Francecso  da,  295. 

Graeco-Roman  sculpture,  135-137. 

Gragera,  Jose,  376. 

Grafly,  Charles,  403. 

Crasser,  Erasmus,  323. 

Gratchoff,  Russian  sculptor,  377. 

Greenough,  Horatio,  389  ;   R.  S.,  392. 

Groot,  Guillaume  de,  365. 

Gruamons,  181. 

Guas,  Juan,  337. 

Gudea,  ruler  of  Lagash,  28,  29,  30,  32, 

33 

Guerin,  Gilles,  309. 
Guglielmo,  of  Modena,  182,  183 ;   of 

Verona,  182,  183  ;   Fra,  188  f. 
Guido  of  Como,  184. 
Guillain,  Simon,  309. 
Guillaume,  J.  B.  C.  E.,  356. 
Guillen,    sculptor    at    Burgos,    337 ; 

Francisco,  339. 
Gutierrez,  Francisco,  345. 
Gyoji  Bosatsu,  416. 

Habich,  Ludwig,  375. 

Hadrian,  150,  160,  161. 

Hageladas,  67,  85. 

Hahn,  Hermann,  373,  375. 

Hahnel,  Ernst,  371. 

Haller,  Hermann,  375. 

Hampton,  G.  Herbert,  386. 

Hans,  Bavarian  sculptor,  323. 

Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton,  77,  78, 

80,  89,  113. 

Harnisch,  Albert  E.,  403. 
Harpy  tomb,  65. 
Hart,  Joel  T.,  391. 
Hartley,  Jonathan  Scott,  394. 
Harvey,  Eli,  402. 
Haseltine,  Henry  J.,  392,  403. 
Haslin,  N.,  304. 
Hellenes,  enter  Greece,  53. 
Henry  VII,    chapel  in  Westminster 

Abbey,  332  f. 
Hera,    of    Polyclitus,     91,     93;     of 

Samos,  61,  63. 
Hernandez,  Gregorio,  343. 
Hibbard,  Frederick  C.,  404. 
Hildebrand,  Adolf,  374. 
Hinestrosa,  Juan  de,  345. 
Hittites,  41-43. 
Hoeffler,  Josef,  375. 
Hoernlein,  Fritz,  375. 


INDEX 


439 


Hoetger,  Bernhard,  373,  375. 
Hosmer,  Harriet,  391. 
Houdon,  J.  A.,  314,  388. 
Hudler,  August,  375. 
Huerta,  Juan  de  la,  214,  253. 
Hughes,  Ball,  390. 
Hyatt,  Anna  Vaughn,  405. 

lie  de  France,   mediaeval  school  of 

sculpture,  197,  203. 
Indaco,  Francesco  and  Jacopo,  339. 
Indian  sculpture,  407-412. 
Injalbert,  J.  A.,  362. 
Ionic  sculpture,  63,  65,  67,  68,  77,  .84. 
Isocephalism,  97. 
Ives,  Chauncey  B.,  392. 
Ivory,  in  Byzantine  art,  168,  170,  171, 

182,    198;     in    Italy,    175    f . ;     in 

France,    197,    200;     in    Germany, 

216. 

Jackson,  John  Adams,  391. 

Jacopo  della  Quercia,  see  Quercia. 

Jacquot,  Georges,  356. 

Japanese  sculpture,  137,  415-418. 

Java,  art  in,  411. 

Jerichau,  J.  A.,  352. 

Jitsligen,  417. 

Jocho,  417. 

John,  W.  Goscombe,  386. 

Jones,     Adrian,     385 ;      Inigo,     333 ; 

John  E.,  379. 

Jouffroy,  Francois,  356,  394. 
Julien,  Pierre,  315. 
Juni,  Juan  de,  343. 
Juste,  Jean,  Antoine  and  Juste,  304  f . 

Kaldenberg,  Frederick  Robert,  401. 

Kamensky,  Feodor,  377. 

Katakin,  417. 

Kelly,  James  E.,  401. 

Kels,  Hans,  322. 

Kemeys,  Edward,  402. 

Keyser,  Ephraim,  403. 

Kinai,  418. 

King,  John,  391. 

Kirk,  Thomas,  379. 

Kiss,  August,  370,  403. 

Kitson,  Henry  Hudson,  402  ;  Samuel, 

402  ;   Mrs.  H.  H.,  405. 
Kiushu,  418. 
Klinger,  Max,  374. 


Koben,  417. 
Kolbe,  Georg,  375. 
Konti,  Isidore,  400,  401. 
Korea,  sculpture  in,  415. 
Kosho,  417. 

Kraft,  Adam,  316,  317  f. 
Krug,  Ludwig,  322. 
Kwakei,  417. 

Laboureur,  F.  M.,  348. 

Ladd,  Mrs.  Anna  Coleman,  405. 

Laessle,  Albert,  405. 

Lagae,  Jules,  367. 

Laitie,  French  sculptor,  356. 

Lalaing,  Jacques  de,  366  f. 

Lambeaux,  Jef,  366. 

Lamberti,  Nicola  di  Piero,  196. 

Lancere,  Russian  sculptor,  376. 

Lanfrani,  Jacopo,  195. 

Lang,  Hermann,  375. 

Langer,  Richard,  375. 

Languedoc,  school  of,  197,  199  f. 

Lanteri,  Edouard,  380,  382,  386. 

Laocoon,  134,  135,  292. 

Larche,  F.  R.,  362. 

Launoy,  Robert   de,  212 ;    Jean   de, 

212. 

Laurana,  278,  286,  287,  302. 
Laurentius,  18. 
Lawson,  G.  A.,  381. 
Lederer,  Hugo,  374. 
Lehmbruck,  W.,  375. 
Leighton,  Lord  Frederick,  383,  384. 
Lemaire,  Philippe  Henri,  356. 
Lemoyne,  J.  B.,  313,  314. 
Leochares,  120,  129. 
Leonardo  di  Ser  Giovanni,  195,  268. 
Leoni,  Leone  and  Pompeo,  343. 
Leopardi,  Alessandro,  275,  284  f. 
Lerch,  Nicholas,  323. 
Lessing,  368. 
Lewis,  Edmonia,  392. 
Lieberich,  Russian  sculptor,  376. 
Liege,  Jean  de,  212. 
Hinder,  Henry,  401. 
Lion,    in   Assyrian   art,    34, 37,  38 ; 

lion  and  bull,  Persian,  46. 
Llimona  y  Brugera,  376. 
Loisel,  Robert,  212. 
Lombardi,  Pietro  and  his  sons,  284, 

285 ;  Alfonso,  296. 
Lomme,  Janin,  252,  253,  255,  327. 


440 


INDEX 


Longepied,  L.  E.,  362. 

Longman,  Evelyn  B.,  405. 

Longuer,  Michael,  256. 

Lopez,  Charles  A.,  402. 

Lorenzetto,  295. 

Lorenzo  di  Mariano,  277. 

Lorrain,  Robert  le,  310,  311,  313. 

Lucchesi,  Andrea  Carlo,  383. 

Luetkens,  Hans,  375. 

Lukeman,  Henry  Augustus,  401 . 

Lycia,  Greek  sculpture  in,  65,  106. 

Lycians,  43. 

Lycius,  93. 

Lydians,  43. 

Lysippus,  109,  116-119,  128, 137,  149; 

Italian  medal-maker,  278. 
Lysistratus,  119. 

Maccagnani,  Eugenio,  350. 
Macdonell,  Patrick,  379. 
MacGillivray,     James     Pittendrigh, 

386. 

Mackennal,  Bertram,  386. 
MacMonnies,  Frederick  William,  398. 
MacNeill,  Hermon  Atkins,  401  ;  Mrs. 

Hermon  A.,  405. 
Maderna,  S.,  300. 
Magni,  Pietro,  349. 
Maitani,  Lorenzo,  192. 
Majano,    Benedetto    da,    271,    286; 

Giuliano  da,  286. 
Malines,  Jean  de,  335. 
Manship,  Paul,  405. 
Mantegazza,    Antonio    and    Cristo- 

foro,  280,  281. 
Marchand,  Francois,  305. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  161,  162. 
Marinas,  Aniceto,  376. 
Marochetti,  Charles,  356. 
Marqueste,  L.  H.,  362. 
Marrina,  il.,  277. 
Marshall,  W.  Calder,  380. 
Martin,  Spanish  sculptor,  375. 
Martinez,  E.  R.,  376. 
Martiny,  Philip,  400,  401. 
Marville,  Jean  de,  212,  213,  214. 
Massegne,  Jacobello  and  Pier  Paolo 

delle,  195. 
Matheus,  at  Santiago  de  Compostela, 

243. 

Matzen,  Herman  N.,  404. 
Mausoleum,  109,  120-122,  126. 


Mazzoni,  Guido,  278-280,  286,  302, 

305. 

McClure,  J.  C.,  387. 
McGill,  David,  386. 
Mead,  Larkin  Goldsmith,  393. 
Mears,  Helen,  405. 
Medes,  44. 

Medina,  Sabino  de,  376. 
Medon,  67. 
Meit,  Conrad,  322. 
Mejnon,  Leon,  367. 
Mena,  Pedro  de,  344. 
Menelaus,  136. 
Mercadente,  Laurent,  256. 
Mercie,  M.  J.  A.,  360,  399. 
Messerschmidt,  F.  X.,  326. 
Metzner,  Franz,  375. 
Meunier,  Constantin,  365  f.,  374. 
Michael  Angelo,  258,  276,  288,  289- 

295,  296,  298,  310,  311,  340,  341, 

342,  346,  372,  373,  379. 
Michel,  G.  F.,  362. 
Michelozzo,  263,  269  f.,  280,  282,  286. 
Michiel,  Jean,  215. 
Middle  Kingdom,  Egypt,  14-17. 
Mikkiudes,  63,  64. 
Millan,  Pedro,  337. 
Millet,  Aime,  358. 
Mills,  Clark,  390. 
Milmore,  Martin,  393,  397. 
Minelli,    Giovanni,    278;      Antonio, 

278. 

Mino  da  Fiesole,  271,  272,  285. 
Minoan  art,  54-58. 
Miwa,  418. 
Moderno,  278. 

Moitte,  Jean  Guillaume,  353. 
Moiturier,  Antoine  le,  214. 
Mone,  Jehan,  330. 
Monserrat,  Jose,  376. 
Montafies,  Juan  Martinez,  343,  344. 
Montelupo,  Raffaello  da,  296. 
Montford,  Paul  R.,  387. 
Mora,  Jose  de,  344. 
Moreau,  Mathurin,  361. 
Morel,  Jacques,  215. 
Moreto,  Giovanni,  339. 
Morey,  Pere,  251 ;  Guillem,  251. 
Mosselmans,  Jean,  253. 
Mota,  Guillem  de  la,  254. 
Moynihan,  Frederick,  401. 
Mozier,  Joseph,  391. 


INDEX 


441 


Mudejar  art  in  Spain,  246,  249,  252, 

255,  335,  337. 
Mugiano,  Lorenzo  di,  304. 
Mulligan,  Charles  J.,  404. 
Multscher,  Hans,  321. 
Murray,  Samuel,  403. 
Mussulman  art  in  Spain,  240,  241. 
Mycenaean  art,  54-58. 
Mycerinus,  8,  9. 
Myron,  67,  85-88,  93,  94. 

Nabu-aplu-iddin,  30. 

Naldini,  P.,  300 ;   Lorenzo,  305. 

Nanni  di  Banco,  196,  268  f. 

Naps,  Russian  sculptor,  377. 

Naram-Sin,  stele  of,  27. 

Naturalism,  see  Realism. 

Navarro,  Miguel,  255. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  30. 

Neo-Attic  reliefs,  137. 

Nereid  monument,  105,  106. 

Nesiotes,  78,  85,  86,  89,  113. 

Nevin,  Blanche,  392. 

Ney,  Elisabet,  394. 

Nicandra,  61,  63. 

Nicholaus,  183. 

Nicola  (Nicolo)  Pisano,  184-187,  188, 

189,  257;   di  Piero  Lamberti,  196 ; 

dell'    Area,    279;    d'  Arezzo,    280, 

282. 

Nicoluso  di  Francesco,  339. 
Niconaus  de  Angelo,  180. 
Niehaus,  Charles  H.,  399. 
Nike  of  Paeonius,  84,  128 ;   of  Samo- 

thrace,  127,  128. 
Nino  Pisano,  192,  193. 
Niobe  group,  128. 
Nole,  Jan  and  Robert  de,  331. 
Nollekens,  J.,  334. 
Normandy,  school  of,  197,  202. 
Nouriche,  Guillaume  de,  212. 

Obiols,  Gustavo,  376. 

O'Connor,  Andrew,  401. 

O'Donovan,  William  R.,  401. 

Old  Kingdom,  Egypt,  5 ;  reliefs  of, 
10,  11,  12. 

Oiler,  Pere,  254. 

Olympia,  sculptures  of  temple  of 
Zeus,  77,  81-84,  113;  Nike  of 
Paeonius,  84,  128 ;  Zeus  by  Phid- 
ias, 88,  89,  90,  91. 


Oms,  Manuel,  376. 

Onatas,  68. 

Orcagna,  191  f.,  257,  269. 

Ordonez,  Bartolome,  340. 

Osle,  Luciano  and  Miguel,  376. 

Pacher,  Michael,  323  f. 

Paeonius,  83,  84,  93,  94,  128. 

Pages  y  Serratora,  F.,  376. 

Pagnucci,  Jose,  376. 

Pajou,  Augustin,  314,  350. 

Palmer,  Erastus  Dow,  390,  393,  394. 

Pampaloni,  Luigi,  349. 

Parthenon,  sculptures  of ,  94-102,  107, 
128. 

Partridge,  William  Ordway,  400. 

Pasiteles,  136,  137,  150,  154. 

Patigian,  Haig,  405. 

Paul  us,  mediaeval  sculptor,  181. 

Pegram,  Henry  A.,  385. 

Pergamon,  Pergamene  art,  130-133. 
134. 

Periods,  in  Egypt,  2 ;  of  Greek  art, 
58 ;  of  Byzantine  art,  168  f . ;  of 
mediaeval  art,  174  f . ;  of  Gothic 
sculpture  in  England,  229 ;  of 
Italian  Renaissance,  257  f . ;  of 
Indian  sculpture,  407  f . ;  of  Chinese 
sculpture,  412  ff. ;  of  Japanese 
sculpture,  415  ff. 

Perraud,  Jean  Joseph,  356. 

Perry,  Roland  Hinton,  401. 

Persian  sculpture,  43-47 ;  after 
Alexander,  407. 

Perut,  Jacques,  249  f . 

Pesquera,  Diego  de,  344. 

Peter,  Victor,  361. 

Peterich,  Paul,  375. 

Peynot,  E.  E.,  362. 

Peyrera,  Manuel,  343. 

Phidias,  67,  83,  84,  85,  88-91,  93,  94, 
101. 

Phigaleia,  sculptures  from,  105,  121, 
126. 

Phoenicians,  47-49,  58. 

Phrygians,  43. 

Picard,  Laurent,  253. 

Picturesque  reliefs,  133,  154,  328. 

Pietro  da  Milano,  302. 

Pigalle,  J.  B.,  313,  314. 

Pilon,  Germain,  308  f. 

Piquer,  Jose,  375. 


442 


INDEX 


Pisa,  Giovanni  da,  277 ;  Isaia  da, 
285,  286,  295. 

Pisanello,  278. 

Pisano,  Nicola,  184-187,  188,  189, 
257;  Giovanni,  185,  186,  187  f., 
189,  191,  192;  Andrea,  190,  191, 
192,  195,  257 ;  Nino,  192,  193. 

Pisistratus,  73,  74. 

Pitts,  William,  379. 

Poggibonsi,  Giuliano  da,  339. 

Polasek,  Albin,  405. 

Pollaiuolo,  Antonio  del,  273. 

Polyclitus,  67,  85,  91-93,  94,  135, 136. 

Polydorus,  134. 

Polyeuctus,  127. 

Pomeroy,  F.  W.,  386. 

Ponzano,  Ponciano,  375. 

Porta,  Fra  Giovanni  Angiolo  della, 
296;  Guglielmo  della,  296;  An- 
tonio, 304. 

Portraits,  Egyptian,  5,  6,  7,  16,  18, 
19,  21,  22;  Roman,  149,  154,  155, 
157,  159,  161,  162,  164,  165;  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  212,  213 ;  in 
Germany,  221. 

Portuguese  sculpture,  337  f. 

Posene,  Russian  sculptor,  377. 

Potter,  Edward  C.,  402 ;   Louis,  402. 

Powers,  Hiram,  389,  392;  Preston 
and  Longworth,  392,  396. 

Pradas,  Juan  Garcia  de,  339. 

Pradier,  James,  354,  356. 

Pratt,  Bela  L.,  402. 

Praxias,  93. 

Praxiteles,  109,  111-117,  119,  120, 
123,  128,  129,  133. 

Preault,  A.  A.,  358. 

Prehellenic  art,  53—58. 

Prieur,  Barthelemy,  309. 

Primaticcio  (Le  Primatice),  305,  307, 
309. 

Prindale,  Hennequin,  212. 

Prive,  Thomas,  212. 

Proctor,  Phimister,  402. 

Provence,  school  of,  197,  202  f. 

Puech,  Denys,  360  f. 

Puget,  Pierre,  310,  311  f. 

Pujol,  A.,  345. 

Pyrgoteles,  285. 

Queirolo,  300. 

Quellin,  Artus,  331,  332. 


Quercia,  Jacopo  della,  275,  277,  279, 

290. 

Querol,  Agustin,  376. 
Quesnel,  Nicholas,  304. 

Raggi,  A.,  300. 

Ranucius,  181. 

Rauch,  C.  D.,  370. 

Ravy,  Jean,  212. 

Raymond  du  Temple,  212. 

Realism,  119,  212,  213,  215,  221,  223, 
224, 226,  301, 349  f.,  355, 356, 365  f., 
373  f.,  375  f.,  417  f. 

Ream,  Vinnie,  392. 

Rebisso,  Louis  T.,  404. 

Rebours,  Denis  le,  304. 

Regnault,  G.,  303. 

Reliefs,  definition,  xix ;  early  Egyp- 
tian, 2,  3,  10,  11,  12;  of  Middle 
Kingdom,  16 ;  of  Empire,  20 ; 
early  Babylonian,  24,  25 ;  late 
Babylonian,  30;  Assyrian,  31,  32— 
39 ;  Persian,  44—46 ;  archaic  Greek, 
64,  65,  66,  67,  68,  71,  72 ;  various 
Greek,  106  f. ;  on  gravestones,  124 ; 
picturesque,  133,  154,  328;  Neo- 
Attic,  137,  154  ;  from  altar  of  Nep- 
tune, 150  f. ;  from  ara  Pacis,  151- 
153,  154 ;  of  arch  of  Titus,  156  f . ; 
of  Trajan,  157-159 ;  in  contin- 
uous style,  158,  159,  160,  163; 
Byzantine,  170-172 ;  in  England, 
230,  236,  237  ff. 

Religion  and  art  in  Egypt,  4. 

Renaudin,  305. 

Reynes,  Jose,  376. 

Reynolds-Stevens,  W.,  385. 

Rhind,  J.  Massey,  400,  401 ;  William 
Birnie,  386. 

Rhodes,  125,  134,  135. 

Rhoecus,  63. 

Ricci,  Stefano,  348. 

Riccio,  278. 

Richier,  Ligier,  305  f. 

Riedisser,  Wilhelm,  375. 

Riemeiischneider,  Tilman,  320  f. 

Rietschel,  E.  F.  A.,  370  f. 

Rimmer,  William,  392. 

Rinehart,  William  Henry,  391. 

Ritlius,  198. 

Riviere,  L.  A.  T.,  362. 

Rizzo,  Antonio,  283  f. 


INDEX 


443 


Roberts,  Howard,  393,  394. 

Robbia,  della,  Luca,  191,  258,  266- 

268 ;   Andrea,  268  ;    Giovanni,  268, 

289;    Fra  Mattia,  268;    Fra  Am- 

brogio,  268 ;  Luca  di  Andrea,  268  ; 

Girolamo,  268,  305  ;  school  of,  268, 

273  339 
Rococo,  300,  326,  346,  364,  365,  368, 

369 
Rodin,  Auguste,  362-364,  374,  375, 

386. 

Rodriguez,  Andres,  376  ;   Juan,  340. 
Roger-Bloch,  362. 

Rogers,  Randolph,  391 ;   John,  392. 
Roland,   sculptor  in  the   eighteenth 

century,    315;     Philippe    Laurent, 

353. 

Roldan,  Pedro  and  Luisa,  344. 
Roman  sculpture,  137,  148-165. 
Romanesque  sculpture,  174-183, 197- 

203,    216-221,    227-229,    241-247, 

250,  327. 
Romano,  Gian  Cristoforo,  281,  286, 

295  ;   Paolo,  285,  286. 
Romantic  School,  348,  354  ff.,  370- 

373,  380  f. 

Ron  brothers,  Spanish  sculptors,  345. 
Rossellino,  Antonio,  270,   271,   286; 

Bernardo,  270,  271. 
Rossi,  M.,  300. 
Roth,  Frederick  G.,  402. 
Roubiliac,  334. 
Roudebush,  John  H.,  402. 
Roux,  Richard  le,  304  ;    Roulland  le, 

304. 

Rovezzano,  Benedetto  da,  295,  304. 
Rubens,  332. 
Ruckstuhl,  F.  W.,  400. 
Rudder,  Isidore  de,  367. 
Rude,  Francois,  354  f.,  356. 
Rudolfino,  181. 
Ruggles,  Theo,  405. 
Rupy,  Jean  de,  212. 
Rush,  William,  388. 
Russia,  modern  sculpture  in,  376  f . 
Rustici,  Giovanni  Francesco,  295. 
Rysbrack,  J.  M.,  334. 

Sagrera,  Francesch,  Guillem,  Jaime, 

Juan,  and  Miquel,  253. 
St.  Gaudens,  Augustus,  394-396,  398, 

401 ;  Louis,  401. 


Saint-Marceau,  C.  R.  de,  361. 
St.  Romain,  Jean  de,  212. 
Saintonge  and  Poitou,  school  of,  197, 

201. 

Saiite  period,  22. 
Salvador,  A.,  345. 
Saly,  Jacques,  350. 
Sammartino,  300. 
Sammuramat  (Semiramis),  35. 
Samonoff,  Russian  sculptor,  376. 
Samso,  Juan,  376. 
Samuel,  Charles,  367. 
Sanctis,  Andriolo  de,  195. 
Sangallo,  Francesco  di,  295. 
Sanmarti,  Medardo,  375. 
Sansovino,  Andrea,  288  f .,  296,  330 ; 

Jacopo,  296,  298. 
Santiago  de   Compostela,    199,    229, 

241-243. 
Sarcophagi,    of    Mourners,    123 ;     of 

Alexander,  125  f. ;  from  Sidamara, 

137    f.,    167;    Etruscan,   141-144; 

Roman,   160,   163,  165;  Christian, 

163,  164,  165. 

Sardanapalus,  see  Asshurbanipal. 
Sargon,  27,  36,  37. 
Sarrazin,  Jacques,  309. 
Sassanide  kings,  44. 
Sassetta,  Giovanni  di  Stefano,  276. 
Saxon   sculpture   of   thirteenth   cen- 
tury, 218. 

Scaligers,  tombs  of,  194. 
Schadow,  J.  G.,  369  ;   Rudolf,  369. 
Scheemakers,  P.,  334. 
Scheffauer,  P.  J.,  368. 
Schelde,  Paul  van  der,  331. 
Schenck,  F.  E.,  386. 
Schievelbein,  F.  H.,  370. 
Schilling,  Johannes,  371  f.,  381. 
Schliiter,  Andreas,  325. 
Schongauer,  Martin,  322. 
Schools  of  early  mediaeval  sculpture 

in  France,  197  ff. 
Schwanthaler,  Ludwig,  372. 
Schwarz,  Hans,  322  ;   Rudolph,  401. 
Schwegerle,  Hans,  375. 
Scopas,  109-111,  113,  118,  119,  120, 

122,  123. 

Scudder,  Janet,  405. 
Scyllis,  67. 

Selinus,  metopes  from,  66,  67,  80. 
Sennacherib,  37. 


444 


INDEX 


Septimius  Severus,  162,  163. 

Sergell,  J.  T.,  352. 

Serpotta,  G.,  300. 

Seurre,  Bernard  Gabriel,  356. 

Shalmaneser,  35. 

Shamshi-Adad,  35. 

Sheik  el  Beled,  5,  7,  59. 

Shrady,  Henry  M.,  402. 

Siam,  sculpture  in,  411. 

Sicard,  F.  L.,  362. 

Sicyon,  sculpture  at,  67,  68. 

Siloe,  Gil  de,  337. 

Simart,  P.  C.,  361. 

Simmons,  Amory  C.,  402 ;  Franklin, 
393. 

Simonds,  George,  381. 

Simonis,  L.  E.,  364. 

Skodik,  Antonin,  402. 

Slodtz,  Michel,  313,  314  ;  Sebastian, 
313. 

Sluter,  Glaus,  212,  213,  214,  253,  327. 

Smilis,  67. 

Solari,  Cristoforo,  281 ;  Pietro,  An- 
tonio, and  Tullio,  284  ;  Tommaso, 
349. 

Somaini,  Francesco,  349. 

Sonnecte,  Georges  de  la,  215. 

Soulas,  Jean,  305. 

Sperandio,  278. 

St.,  see  under  Saint. 

Stackpole,  Ralph  W.,  405. 

Stappen,  Charles  van  der,  365,  367. 

Stebbins,  Emma,  392. 

Stephanus,  136. 

Stevens,  Alfred  George,  379. 

Stone,  different  kinds,  xxi ;  methods 
of  work  in,  xxii-xxiv. 

Stone,  Nicholas,  333,  334. 

Story,  William  Wetmore,  380,  392; 
T.  Waldo,  392. 

Stoss,  Veit,  254,  317. 

Strazza,  Giovanni,  349. 

Strongylion,  93. 

Stuck,  Franz,  375. 

Styppax,  93. 

Susillo,  Spanish  sculptor,  376. 

Swan,  John  Macallan,  383. 

Syrlin,  Jorg,  321. 

Tacca,  Pietro,  297. 
Taccone,  Paolo,  285. 
Tadotoshi,  418. 


Taft,  Lorado,  404. 

Talavera,  Juan  de,  339. 

Talpa,  278. 

Tankei,  417. 

Tantardini,  Antonio,  349. 

Taschner,  Ignatius,  375. 

Tatti,  Jacopo,  296,  298. 

Taubman,  Frank  Mowbray,  386. 

Tauriscus,  135. 

Tefft,  Carl  E.,  402. 

Tenerani,  Pietro,  348. 

Terra-cotta,  xx ;   statues  in  Etruria, 

141. 

Texier,  Jean,  305. 
Theed,  William,  379.    ' 
Theocles,  67. 
Theodoric,  German  sculptor  in  Spain, 

335. 

Theodorus  of  Samos,  63. 
Theroulde,  Jean,  304. 
Theseum,  sculptures  of,  102. 
Thibet,  sculpture  in,  415. 
Thomas,    E.   E.,   361;    G.   J.,   361; 

Frederick,  387  ;   J.  Havard,  383. 
Thompson,  Launt,  393. 
Thornycroft,  W.  Hamo,  381  f. 
Thorvaldsen,  Bertel,  68,  348,  350  f., 

351,  352,  370,  372,  379,  389. 
Thrasher,  Harry  D.,  405. 
Thrasymedes,  120. 
Tieck,  C.  F.,  370. 
Tiglathpileser,  32. 
Tilden,  Douglas,  404  f. 
Timotheus,  120. 
Titus,  arch  of,  156,  157,  159. 
Toft,  Albert,  386. 
Tomagnino,  304. 
Tomoyoshi,  418. 
Tordesillas,  Gaspar  de,  342. 
Torrey,  Fred,  405. 
Torrigiano,  Pietro,  295,  333,  339. 
Toulouse,  sculpture  of,  199,  218,  229, 

241. 

Tours,  school  of,  302,  303,  304. 
Trajan,  157,  158,  159,  160. 
Tribolo  (Niccolo  Pericolo),  296. 
Triebel,  Frederick  E.,  401. 
Trilles,  Miguel  Angel,  376. 
Trippel,  Alexander,  368. 
Troubetskoy,  Paul,  377. 
Tuaillon,  Louis,  373,  374. 
Tudesilla,  342. 


INDEX 


445 


Turino  di   Sano,   276 ;    Giovanni  di 

Turino,  276. 
Turner,  Alfred,  387. 
Types,  of  Egyptian  royal  portraits, 

7,  8 ;    of  early  Greek  statues,  59- 

63. 

Ulacrino,  278. 
Unkei,  417. 
Uphues,  373. 
Ur,  sculpture  at,  29. 
Ur-Engur,  29. 
Ur-Nina,  25,  26. 

Valenciennes,  Johan  of,  253. 
Valentine,  Edward  V.,  403. 
Vallfogona,  Pere  Juan  de,  253,  254, 

255. 
Vallmitjana,  Agapito  and  Venancio, 

375. 

Vancell,  Jean,  376. 
Van  Rasbourg,  362. 
Vassalletto,  180. 
Vasse,  315. 

Vecchietta,  Lorenzo,  276,  277. 
Vela,  Vincenzo,  349. 
Venus    (see   Aphrodite),    "genetrix," 

94,  136;    of  Ciiidus,  114,  136;   de' 

Medici,  115,  136;   Capitoline,  115, 

135. 
Verbruggen,  Pierre,  331 ;    Pierre  the 

younger,     332 ;     Henri     Francois, 

332 

Verlet,  C.  R.,  362. 
Verrocchio,  Andrea,  273-275,  284. 
Vicentino,  Andrea,  285. 
Victorg  (see  Nike). 
Vigarni,  Felipe,  340,  341,  342. 
Vigne,  Pierre  de,  364,  365. 
Vilches,  Jose,  375. 
Villabrille,  Juan  Alonso,  345. 
VUlanueva,  Juan  de,  345. 
Vincotte,  Thomas,  366. 
Viscardo,  Girolamo,  304. 
Vischer,    Peter,    317,    318    f.,    324; 

Hermann,  318 ;  Peter  the  younger, 

319 ;   Hans,  319. 
Vittoria,  Alessandro,  298. 
Volk,  Leonard,  392. 
Volkmann,  Artur,  375. 


Vonnoh,  Mrs.  Bessie,  405. 
Vriendt,  Cornelis  de,  330. 
Vries,  A.  de,  297,  325. 
Vulture-stele,  25,  27. 

Wade,  George  Edward,  386. 

Wagner,  Peter,  326. 

Walker,  Nellie,  405. 

Walter,  Edgar,  405. 

Ward,     Elsie,     405 ;      John    Quincy 

Adams,  392. 
Warner,  Olin  Levi,  394. 
Watts,  G.  F.,  383  f. 
Weekes,  Henry,  379. 
Weidenhaupt,  350. 
Weinman,  Adolph  Alexander,  401. 
Wells,  Marion  F.,  405. 
Werve,  Glaus  de,  214. 
Westmacott,  Sir  R.,  378. 
Westphalian  sculpture  of  thirteenth 

century,  219  f. 
Whitney,    Mrs.    Anne,    394;      Mrs. 

Harry  Payne,  405. 
Wiedewelt,  Johannes,  350. 
Wiligelmus,  of  Modena,  182,  183 ;  of 

Verona,  182,  183. 
Winckelmann,  346,  350,  368. 
Witte,  Peter  de,  325. 
Wohlgemuth,  Michael,  317,  324. 
Wolff,  Albert,  370. 
Wood,  Francis  Derwent,  387. 
Wood,  sculpture  in,  xxi. 
Woolner,  Thomas,  380. 
Wrba,  Georg,  374. 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  334. 
Wright,  Mrs.  Patience,  388. 
Wyatt,  Richard  John,  379. 

Xerxes,  45. 
Ximenes,  Ettore,  349. 

Yandell,  Enid,  405. 
Yeiyiu,  418. 

Zanza,  Vasco  de  la,  339. 
Zarcillo,  Francisco,  345. 
Zengoro,  418. 

Zeus  at  Olympia,  88,  89,  90,  91. 
Zumbusch,  Casper,  373. 
Zutt,  R.  A.,  375. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 


BINDING  1937