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LEAGUE

OF THE

H O-D E'-N O-S A U-N E E

IROQJUOIS

HO-DE'-NO-SAU-NEE

PEOPLE OF THE LONG HOUSE

I. Ga-ne-a'-ga-o-no', or People Possessors of the Flint

MOHAWK NATION

II. O-nun'-da-ga-o-no', or People on the Hills

ONONDAGA NATION

III. Nun-da'-wa-o-no', or Great Hill People

SENECA NATION

IV. O-na'-yote-ka-o-no', or Granite People

ONEIDA NATION

V. Gwe-u'-gweh-o-no', or People at the Mucky Land

CAYUGA NATION

VI. Dus-ga'-o-weh-o-no', or Shirt Wearing People

TUSCARORA NATION

LEAGUE

OF THE

HO-DE'-NO-SAU-NEE

IROQUOIS

. BY LEWIS H. MORGAN

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY ; OF
THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, ETC.

NESCIT VOX MISSA REVERTI

HORACE De Art. Poet.^ v.

A NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONAL MATTER. EDITED
AND ANNOTATED BY

HERBERT M. LLOYD

TWO VOLUMES IN ONE

NEW YORK

DODD, MEAD' AND COMPANY
1922

Printed in U. S. A.

UNIVERSITY PRESS • JOHN WILSON
AND SON • CAMBRIDGE, U.S. A

HA-SA-NO-AN'-DA

(ELY S. PARKER)
A SENECA INDIAN,

Cfna SMorfc,

THE MATERIALS OF WHICH ARE THE FRUIT OF
OUR JOINT RESEARCHES,

3I& Jnsmbefc:

IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE OBLIGATIONS, AND
IN TESTIMONY OF THE FRIENDSHIP OF

THE AUTHOR

+93347

Preface

TO encourage a kinder feeling towards the In-
dian,(3) founded upon a truer knowledge of
his civil and domestic institutions, and of
his capabilities for future elevation, is the motive in
which this work originated.

The present Iroquois, the descendants of that gifted
race which formerly held under their jurisdiction the
fairest portions of our Republic, now dwell within our
limits as dependent nations, subject to the tutelage and
supervision of the people who displaced their fathers.
Their numbers, the circumstances of their past history
and present condition, and more especially the relation
in which they stand to the people of the State, suggest
many important questions concerning their future
destiny.

Born to an unpropitious fate, the inheritors of many
wrongs, they have been unable, of themselves, to es
cape from the complicated difficulties which accelerate
their decline. To aggravate these adverse influences,

PREFACE

the public estimation of the Indian, resting, as it does,
upon an imperfect knowledge of his character, and
tinctured, as it ever has been, with the coloring of
prejudice, is universally unjust.

The time has come in which it is befitting to cast
away all ancient antipathies, all inherited opinions; and
having taken a nearer view of their social life, condition
and wants, to study anew our duty concerning them.
Notwithstanding the embarrassments which have ob
structed their progress, the obscurity in which they
have lived, and the prevailing indifference to their
welfare, they have gradually overcome many of the
evils inherent in their social system, and raised them
selves to a considerable degree of prosperity. Their
present condition, when considered in connection with
the ordeal through which they have passed, testifies to
the presence of an element in their character which
must eventually lead to important results. It brings
before us the question of their ultimate reclamation,
certainly a more interesting subject, in itself, than any
other connected with the Indian. Can the residue of
the Iroquois be reclaimed, and finally raised to the
position of citizens of the State ? To secure this end,
at once so just and so beneficent, our own people have
an important part to perform.

As this work does not profess to be based upon
authorities, a question may arise in the mind of the

PREFACE

reader, whence its materials were derived, or what
reliance is to be placed upon its statements. The
credibility of a witness is known to depend chiefly upon
his means of knowledge. For this reason, it may not
be inappropriate to state, that circumstances in early
life, not necessary to be related, brought the author
in frequent intercourse with the descendants of the
Iroquois, and led to his adoption as a Seneca.(1> 5> 9)
This gave him favorable opportunities for studying
minutely into their social organization, and the structure
and principles of the ancient League. Copious notes
were made from time to time, when leisure enabled him
to prosecute his researches among them, until these
had accumulated beyond the bounds of the present
volume. As the materials increased in quantity and
variety, the interest awakened in the subject finally
induced the idea of its arrangement for publication.

The work properly commences with the second
chapter. The first, being introductory, has no neces
sary connection with the residue, but was introduced
to give to those unfamiliar with the civil history of the
Iroquois, some preliminary information concerning
the rise and decline of the League.

It remains for the author to acknowledge his obli
gations to Ely S. Parker, Ha-sa-no-an'-da,(2' 13) an
educated Seneca Indian, to whom this volume is
inscribed. He is indebted to him for invaluable

PREFACE

assistance during the whole progress of the research,
and for a share of the materials. His intelligence,
and accurate knowledge of the institutions of his fore
fathers, have made his friendly services a peculiar
privilege.

To Charles T. Porter, Esq.,(15) of New York, who has
made extensive inquiries into the civil and domestic
institutions of the Iroquois, and prosecuted them,
in many instances, in connection with the author,(1)
he is indebted for many valuable suggestions and
for some material.

ROCHESTER, N. Y., January, 1851.

* The numbers in parentheses refer to the notes contained in Appen
dix B at the end of the work.

GENERAL CONTENTS

VOLUME I

BOOK I
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE

BOOK II
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE

VOLUME II

BOOK III
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE

APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B

VOWEL SOUNDS

a as in arm
& as in at
a as in ale
£ as in met
5 as in tone

Table of Contents

VOLUME I

BOOK I
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE

CHAPTER I

Introductory Outline — Origin of the Iroquois — Formation of
the League — Intercourse with Europeans — Wars with
Indian Nations — Wars with the French — Jesuit Mis
sionaries — Number of the Iroquois — Fidelity to the
English — Dispersion of the Nations — Present Condition

— Future Prospects 3

CHAPTER II

Indian Geography — Home Country of the Iroquois — Na
tional Boundaries — Trails — Indian Map — Ho-de'-no-
sau-nee — National Names 35

CHAPTER III

Interest in our Predecessors — The Hunter State — Its Institu
tions Transitory — Origin of the League — Sachemships

— Hereditary Titles — Council of the League — Equal
ity of the Sachems — Chiefs — Military Chieftains —
Popular Influence — Unity of the Race 51

CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV

Division into Tribes — Family Relationships — Descent in the
Female Line — Degrees of Consanguinity — Succession
of Sachems — Names — Nature of a Tribe — Equality
„ of the Nations — National Epithets — Office of Chief
elective — Distinguished Men were Chiefs — Stability of
the Oligarchy J4

CHAPTER V

Councils of the Iroquois — Influence of Public Sentiment —
Oratory — Civil Councils — Unanimity — Mourning
Councils — Wampum — Festivities — Religious Councils 99

CHAPTER VI

Species of Government — Progress of Governments from
Monarchy to Democracy — Illustrated by a View of
Grecian Institutions — The League an Oligarchy — Liberty £/
of the People — Stability of the League — Prospects at
the Discovery — Its Decline I 20

BOOK II

SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
CHAPTER I

Faith of the Iroquois — Belief in the Great Spirit — The Evil-
Minded — He'-no, the Thunderer — Ga'-o, Spirit of the

Winds The Three Sisters — The Invisible Aids -

Witches — False Faces — Legendary Literature —
Immortality of the Soul — - Future Punishments — Moral
Sentiments — Burial Customs — Abode of the Great
Spirit — Washington — Spirituality of their Faith — Its

Influence 141

xvi

CONTENTS

CHAPTER II

Worship of the Iroquois — Keepers of the Faith — Thanks to
the Maple — Planting Festival — Berry Festival —
Green Corn Festival — Harvest Festival — New Year's
Jubilee — Sacrifice of the White Dog — Address to the
Great Spirit — Influence of their Worship 175

CHAPTER III

The New Religion — Ga-ne-o-di'-yo, the Instructor — Pre
tended Revelation — Sose-ha'-wa, his Successor — Speech
of Da-at'-ga-dose — Speech of Sose-ha'-wa — Doctrines
of the New Religion 217

CHAPTER IV

National Dances — Influence of the Dance — Costume —
War Dance — Speeches in the War Dance — Great
Feather Dance — Trotting Dance — Fish Dance — Dance
for the Dead — Concerts 249

CHAPTER V

National Games — Betting — Ball Game — Game of Javelins
— Game of Deer Buttons — Snow Snake Game — Snow
Boat Game — Archery — Peach-Stone Game — Enthu
siasm for Games 280

CHAPTER VI

Indian Society — Ancient Villages Stockaded — Bark House —
Marriage — Passion of Love Unknown — Divorce —
Rights of Property — Hospitality — Criminal Code — Faith
of Treaties — Use of Wampum — Usages of War — Cap
tives not Exchanged — Adoption — The Hunt — Indian
Life . . . 305

BOOK III

INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE

CHAPTER I

Inventions — Basket Making — Costumes — Wampum

Saby Frame — Diffusion of Indian Arts — Improvement

of the Iroquois 3

CHAPTER II

Language of the Iroquois — Alphabet — The Noun — Adjec
tive — Comparison — Article — Adverb — Preposition —
Species of Declension — The Verb — Fulness of Conju
gation — Formation of Sentences — The Lord's Prayer 61

CHAPTER III

Indian Geography — Method of Bestowing Names — Central
Trail — Its Course — Ko-la-ne'-ka — Highway of the
Continent — Derivation of Niagara — Ontario Trail —
Genesee Trail — Conhocton Trail — Susquehanna Trail —
Indian Runners — Iroquois Map ........ 78

xviii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER IV

Future Destiny of the Indian — His Reclamation — Schools of
the Missionaries — The Christian Party — Schools of the
State — Future Citizenship — Their Indebtedness to
Missionaries — Rights of Property — Injustice of Neg
lect — System of Superintendence — Duty of the Amer
ican People — The Indian Department 108

APPENDIX A

No. i
Schedule Explanatory of the Indian Map . I 27

No. 2

Table exhibiting, in the Seneca Dialect, the Conjugation of the

Verb Ge'-yase, "I shoot" HO

APPENDIX B

Introduction 145

Personal Reminiscences, by Charles T. Porter 153

Lewis H. Morgan 162

Ely S. Parker i?9

Charles T. Porter, by Robert H. Thurston 182

Notes 187

List of Works Cited 311

Index 319

xix

List of Illustrations

VOLUME I

PAGE
Map of the Territory of the Troquois in 1720 .... Frontispiece

Bark House To face 3

Moccason for Male «' 35

Deer Skin Moccason " 44

Breech- cloth «« 51

Porcupine Quills " 58

Conch Shell Breast Plate " 58

Moccason for Female " 79

Belt " 10 1

Pipes " 105

Skirt st 122

False Face ........157

Kilt To face 184

Over-dress, front " 190

Over-dress, back " 191

Knee Band " 216

Wrist Band " 216

Arm Band «« 216

Head-dress, frame work of 254

Head Dress To face 254

Neck Lace " 254

Knee Rattle of Deer's Hoofs 255

War Club 256

Male Leggin To face 256

xxi

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Drum 257

Turtle-shell Rattle .'...;• 268

Female Leggin To face 274

Squash-shell Rattles 276

Ball Bat (La Crosse) 283

Javelin . , ' 287

Deer-buttons 290

Snow Snake 292

Snow Boat 293

Bow 296

Arrow 296

Arrow, Horn-pointed 297

Sheaf (Quiver) 298

Peach Stones (Dice) 300

Bowl (Gaming) . . 300

VOLUME II

PAGE

Map of Territorial Divisions of New York Aborigines, 1600 Frontis.
Bark Canoe To face 3

Pipe . • • . . 7

Silver Beads To face 8

" Mound Builders " Pipe . 8

Earthen Vessel 9

Stone Tomahawk (Grooved Axe) I I

War-club 14

Deer-horn War-club 14

Tomahawk 15

Skein of Slippery-elm Filaments 16

Burden Strap 1 6

Moose-hair Burden Strap To face 20

Burden Frame or Litter 21

xxii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Bark Barrel . .' ^

Bark Tray

Bird Trap

• • • • • • -. 2)

Bark Sap-tub 27

Corn Mortar 2

Bread Turner • . * * 30

Needle Book TQ face ^

Pop-corn Sieve , , j

Snow-shoe

Saddle ........... 36

Air-gun 37

Air-gun Arrow 27

Flute 38

Tobacco Pouch m -g

Fawn Skin Bag ?g

Fire-drill .Q

Corn-husk Salt Bottle . T

Basket Fish-net . 2

Wooden Ladle ..

Hommony Blade .,.

Bark Ladle 46

Embroidered Skirt To face 48

Silver Ear Ring « j-o

Silver Finger Rings « rO

Silver Broach « ,-o

Belt of Wampum « r2

String of Wampum « r2

Silver Medal 55

Sea-shell Medal 56

Baby-frame (frame work) rg

Baby-frame To face 58

Pin Cushion « 82

Deer Skin Leggin « Ioo

Deer Skin Shoulder Belt « 105

xxiii

ILLUSTRATIONS

Work Bag . ,.

Pocket Book « M-

Baby-frame Belt « j , g

Portrait of Lewis H. Morgan (in photogravure) ... << 153

Diagram of Long House — Bartram 294

" " " " -Morgan 294

" " " " -Lafitau 295

XXIV

VOLUME I

BOOK FIRST

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE

GA-NO-SOTE
or

Interior View of

League of the Iroquois

BOOK I

STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE

Chapter I

Introductory Outline — Origin of the Iroquois — Formation of the
League — Intercourse with Europeans — Wars with the Indian Na
tions — Wars with the French — Jesuit Missionaries— Number of
the Iroquois — Fidelity to the English — Dispersion of the Nations
— Present Condition — Future Prospects

AMONG the Indian nations whose ancient seats
were within the limits of our republic, the
Iroquois have long continued to occupy the
most conspicuous position. They achieved for them
selves a more remarkable civil organization, and ac
quired a higher degree of influence, than any other
race of Indian lineage, except those of Mexico and
Peru. In the drama of European colonization, they
stood, for nearly two centuries, with an unshaken
front, against the devastations of war, the blighting
influence of foreign intercourse, and the still more fatal
encroachments of a restless and advancing border pop
ulation. Under their federal system, the Iroquois
flourished in independence, and capable of self-protec
tion, long after the New England and Virginia races
had surrendered their jurisdictions, and fallen into the

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

condition of dependent nations ; and they now stand
forth in our Indian history, prominent alike for the
wisdom of their civil institutions, their sagacity in the
administration of the League, and their courage in its
defence. When their power and sovereignty finally
passed away, it was through the events of peaceful in
tercourse, gradually progressing to this result, rather
than from conquest or forcible subjugation. They
fell under the giant embrace of civilization, victims of
the successful warfare of intelligent social life upon
the rugged obstacles of nature; and in a struggle
which they were fated to witness as passive and silent
spectators.

As there is no connected history (34) of the rise,
progress, and decline of this Indian League, a brief
general outline seems to be demanded, to refresh the
mind of the reader, and to furnish a proper introduc
tion to the following pages, which are devoted to
an exposition of its structure, principles, and spirit.
The eventful history of this interesting portion of our
indigenous population furnishes ample materials for a
separate work, the execution of which, it is to be
hoped, will ere long be accomplished by capable
hands.

At the era of Dutch discovery (1609), the Iroquois
were found in the possession of the same territories
between the Hudson and the Genesee rivers, upon
which they afterwards continued to reside until near
the close of the eighteenth century. At that time,
the Five Nations, into which they had become sub
divided, were united in a League ; but its formation
was subsequent to their establishment in the terri-

ORIGIN OF THE IRO^UOIS

tories out of which the state of New York has since
been erected.

Their remote origin, and their history anterior to
the discovery, are both enshrouded with obscurity. (16)
Tradition interposes its feeble light to extricate, from
the confusion which time has wrought, some of the
leading events which preceded and marked their polit
ical organization. It informs us, that prior to their
occupation of New York, they resided in the vicinity
of Montreal, upon the northern bank of the St.
Lawrence, where they lived in subjection to the Adi-
rondacks, a branch of the Algonkin race, then in
possession of the whole country north of that river.
At that time, the Iroquois were but one nation, and
few in number. From the Adirondacks they learned
the art of husbandry,(19) and while associated with
them, became inured to the hardships of the war-path
and of the chase. After they had multiplied in num
bers and improved by experience, they made an at
tempt to secure the independent possession of the
country they occupied ; but having been, in the
struggle, overpowered and vanquished by the Adiron
dacks, they were compelled to retire from the country,
to escape extermination. (18)

The period of their migration from the north can
not now be ascertained. Tradition informs us, that
having ascended the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario,
and coasted its eastern shore to the mouth of the
Oswego river, they entered through this channel the
central parts of New York.(17) Their first settle
ments, they believe, were located upon the Seneca
river, where for a time they dwelt together. At a

LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O 1 S

subsequent day they divided into bands, and spread
abroad to found new villages. One, crossing over
.to the Mohawk, established itself at G'd-ne-ga-ha-gd^
below Utica, and afterwards became the Mohawk
nation. This village, situated upon the south side
of the Mohawk river, in Herkimer county, is sup
posed to have been the oldest settlement of that
nation. For some years the Oneidas and Mohawks
were one nation ; but one part of it having become
established at Gd-no-a-lo-hdle^ east of the Oneida lake,
in time became independent. The Onondagas plant
ing themselves in the Onondaga valley and on the
hills adjacent, became also a separate nation. In like
manner, the Cayugas and Senecas were many years
united, and resided upon the Seneca river ; but one
band of them having located themselves upon the east
bank of the Cayuga lake, grew up in time into a dis
tinct nation ; while the residue, penetrating into the
interior of western New York, finally settled at Nun-da-
wa-Oy at the head of the Canandaigua lake, and there
formed the nucleus of the Seneca nation.

The Onondagas have a legend that they sprang out
of the ground on the banks of the Oswego river ; and
the Senecas have a similar legend, that they sprang
from the ground at Nun-da-w'd-o. By these legendary
inventions, they designed to convey an impression of
the remoteness of the period of their first occupation
of New York.

These several bands were, at first, obliged to con
tend with the various tribes whom they found in pos
session of the country .(20) After their expulsion, the
interests and pursuits of the five nations not only

FORMATION OF THE LEAGUE

became distinct, but the severance was followed by a
gradual alienation, finally resulting in a state of open
warfare, which continued for an unknown period.
The project of a League originated with the Onon-
dagas, among whom it was first suggested, as a means
to enable them more effectually to resist the pressure
of contiguous nations. The epoch of its establish
ment cannot now be decisively ascertained ; although
the circumstances attending its formation are still
preserved by tradition with great minuteness. These
traditions all refer to the northern shore of the Onon-
daga lake, as the place where the Iroquois chiefs as
sembled in general council, to agree upon the terms
and principles of the compact, by which their future
destinies were to be linked together. It is evident
from their traditionary history, which is entitled to
considerable credit, that they had long occupied the
country before their necessities or increase of numbers
made the League a feasible or desirable consumma
tion. In relation to the period of its origin, there are
some circumstances connected with their first inter
course with Europeans tending to show that it had
subsisted about a century or a century and a half at
the era of Dutch discovery ; on the other hand,
their principal traditions indicate a period far more
remote.(18)

After the formation of the League, the Iroquois
rose rapidly in power and influence. It gave them
additional strength by concentration of effort ; a con
stant increase of numbers by the unity of the race ;
and a firmer establishment, through their more ample
means for self-protection and foreign conquest. One

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

of the first results of their federal system was a uni
versal spirit of aggression ; a thirst for military glory
and political aggrandizement, which made the old
forests of America resound with human conflicts from
New England to the Mississippi, and from the north
ern confines of the great lakes to the Tennessee
and the hills of Carolina. Unrecorded, except by
tradition, is the narrative of the warlike achievements
of this gifted and progressive race, who raised them
selves, through the vicissitudes of incessant strife, to a
general and acknowledged supremacy over these bound
less territories. Without considering the terrible and
ferocious characteristics of Indian warfare, it must be
admitted that the empire which they reared over
Indian nations, furnishes no slight evidence of their
hardihood, courage, and sagacity.

With the first consciousness of rising power, they
turned their long-cherished resentment upon the Adi-
rondacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy as
a nation, and had expelled them from their country, in
the first struggle for the ascendency. This war raged
for a long time with unceasing animosity, and was
continued nearly fifty years after the commencement
of French occupation, until the descendants of the
ancient Adirondacks were almost totally extirpated.
At the era of French discovery (1535), the latter
nation appear to have been dispossessed of their
original country, and driven down the St. Lawrence
as far as Quebec. When Jacques Cartier first ascended
this river in 1535, the country about Quebec was in
the possession of a people speaking the Algonkin
language, doubtless the Adirondacks, while the site

INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS

of Montreal was occupied by a nation speaking the
Huron tongue, of which the language of the Iroquois
is a branch. (21) After the permanent occupation
of Canada by the French, in 1607, the Adirondacks
became their allies ; but the protection of the former
was insufficient to shield them against the hostile visi
tations of their hereditary enemy.

A new era commenced with the Iroquois upon the
establishment of the Dutch trading-post at Orange,
now Albany, in 1615. The principal Indian nations
upon the north were the Hurons and Adirondacks ;
upon the west, the Eries, Neuter Nation, Miamis,
Ottawas, and Illinois ; upon the south, the Shawnees,
Cherokees, Catawbas, Susquehannocks, Nanticokes,
Delawares, and some lesser tribes ; and upon the east,
the Minsi and New England Indians. Some of these
nations had been subdued and made tributary. At
this time, the Iroquois had grown up into a populous
and powerful confederacy and were rapidly advancing
to a general supremacy in the north-eastern section of
the continent. No Indian race east of the Mississippi
had reached such a position of authority and influence,
or were bound together by such enduring institutions.
Firmly established upon the territory of New York^
and above the danger of displacement from adjacent
nations, they had already entered upon that career of
conquest which they afterwards prosecuted with such
signal success.

Friendly relations were established between the
Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued without
interruption until the latter surrendered their posses
sions upon the Hudson to the English, in 1664.

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

During this period, a trade sprang up between them
in furs, which the Iroquois exchanged for European
fabrics, but more especially for firearms, in the use
of which they were afterwards destined to become
so expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the same
relations of friendship which had been commenced
with them by the Dutch. A " covenant chain " was
established between them, which the Iroquois, with
singular fidelity, preserved unbroken, until the inde
pendence of the American states terminated the juris
diction of the English over the country.

It was otherwise, however, with the French. From
the first to the last, they encountered the uncom
promising and inveterate enmity of the League. As
early as 1609, Champlain, having ascended through
the lake which now bears his name into lake George,
accompanied by the Adirondacks, fell in with a war-
party of the Mohawks, numbering about two hundred,
and an engagement ensued between them on the
western shore of the lake.(22) This was the first battle
between the Iroquois and the Europeans, and the
first time the former heard the sound of firearms,
by the marvellous power of which they were then
easily vanquished. The French having allied them
selves with the Adirondacks and Hurons, given them
arms and assistance, and incited them against the Iro
quois, a spirit of hatred was aroused against them,
which never ceased to burn until the final subjugation
of Canada by the English, in 1760. Besides this alli
ance with their ancient enemies, the French were more
inclined to resort to intimidation in their intercourse
with the Iroquois, than to conciliation and forbearance.

INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS

In addition to these errors of policy, was the deep
and abiding interest taken by the latter in the country
about Montreal, which in ancient times had been the
home of their fathers, which had been the theatre
of their first military success, and which they had long
continued to hold by the slender tenure of Indian
conquest.(17) As the rival colonies of France and Eng
land were for many years nearly equally balanced, the
enmity and power of the Hode'nosaunee were suffi
cient to turn the scale against the former. To this
Indian League, France must chiefly ascribe the final
overthrow of her magnificent schemes of colonization
in the northern part of America.

With the possession of firearms commenced not
only the rapid elevation, but absolute supremacy of
the Iroquois over other Indian nations. In 1649—50,
after a number of sanguinary conquests, the Hurons
were overthrown and their power in Canada was
destroyed. In 1651, they expelled the Neuter Nation
from the Niagara peninsula, and established a perma
nent settlement at the mouth of that river. They
nearly exterminated, in 1654, the Eries, who occupied
the south side of lake Erie and from thence east to
the Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the
whole area of western New York, and the northern
part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after they had
finally completed the dispersion and subjugation of
the Adirondacks, they acquired possession of the whole
country between lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and
of the north bank of the St. Lawrence, to the mouth
of the Otawas river, near Montreal. On the north
shore of lake Ontario they founded several villages, in

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the nature of colonial towns, to maintain possession of
the conquered territory.

They also made constant inroads upon the New
England Indians, who, after their partial subjugation
by the English, were unable to cope with the for
midable Iroquois.(<23) About the year 1670, they com
pelled them to break up many of their settlements,
and flee for safety and protection to the borders of the
English plantations. The name of the Iroquois had
then become a terror among Indian nations. " I have
been told," (says Golden) " by old men in New Eng
land, who remembered the time when the Mohawks
made war on their Indians, that as soon as a single
Mohawk was discovered in their country, their In
dians raised a cry from hill to hill, a Mohawk! a
Mohawk ! upon which they fled like sheep before
wolves, without attempting to make the least resist

ance."

In 1680, the Senecas with • six hundred warriors
invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the borders
of the Mississippi river, while La Salle was among
the latter, preparing to descend that river to the sea.
So great was the dread and consternation of the Illinois,
that they were inclined to abandon their villages, and re
tire from the country, to escape the fury of the conquer
ing foe. At various times, both before and after this
period, the Iroquois turned their warfare against the
Cherokees upon the Tennessee, and the Catawbas in
South Carolina, frequently returning from their distant
expeditions with numerous captives, to grace the nar
rative of their invasions. Of these inroads they still
preserve many traditions. All the intermediate coun-

I 2

WARS WITH THE INDIAN NATIONS

try between the Allegany and the Tennessee acknowl
edged their authority, and the latter river became their
southern boundary. War parties of the League also
made irruptions into the country of the Miamis,
others penetrated into the peninsula of Michigan, and
still others were seen upon the distant shores of lake
Superior. No distant solitude or rugged fastness was
too obscure or difficult to escape their visitation ; no
enterprise was too perilous, no fatigue too great for
their courage and endurance. The fame of their
achievements resounded over the continent.

On the south-east, also, they extended their con
quests. As early as 1607, Captain John Smith, the
founder of Virginia, encountered a band of the Iro-
quois, in several canoes, upon the upper part of the
Chesapeake bay, then on their way to the territories
of the Powhattan confederacy. The Shawnees, Nanti-
cokes, Unamis, Delawares, and Minsi were vanquished
one after another, and reduced to the condition of
dependent nations. Even the Canarese Indians, in
their sea-girt home upon Long Island, found no pro
tection against their attacks. In fact, they traversed
the whole country from the St. Lawrence to the Ten
nessee, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.

For three quarters of a century, from the year
1625 to the year 1700, the Iroquois were involved
in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the close of
this period, they had subdued and held in nominal
subjection all the principal Indian nations occupying
the territories which are now embraced in the states
of New York, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, the northern and western parts of Vir-

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

ginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Northern Tennessee, part of
Illinois, Indiana and Michigan, a portion of the New
England states, and the principal part of Upper
Canada. Over many of these nations, the haughty
and imperious Iroquois exercised a constant super
vision. If any of them became involved in domestic
difficulties, a delegation of chiefs went among them
and restored tranquillity, prescribing at the same time
their future conduct. Some of these nations, like the
Delawares, they prohibited from going out to war,
having denationalized them by taking from them all
civil powers. According to the Indian notion, they
were made women, and were henceforth to confine
themselves to pursuits appropriate to the India'n
female. Such was the general awe and fear inspired
by their warlike achievements, that they dictated to
Indian nations their own terms of intercourse, and in
sisted upon the fulfilment of their requirements. In
the conquered territories they often established set
tlements or colonies of their own people, to exer
cise a species of superintendence over their acquired
possessions.

The multitude of independent tribes into which the
generic stocks of the continent had become sub
divided, and their want of concert and unity were
extremely favorable to the career of conquest pursued
by the Iroquois. In their disunited condition, they
could but feebly resist the concentrated energies secured
to the latter through the League.

About the year 1700, the Iroquois reached their
culminating point. They had reared a formidable
Indian power, so far as its sway over the aborigines

WARS WITH THE FRENCH

was concerned, and in comparison with any Indian
power which had risen north of the Aztec monarchy.
Having established their dominion securely against
all races of Indian lineage, and strengthened the bonds
of union among themselves beyond the power of
civil dissensions, they would seem to have prepared
themselves for a still higher progress, through the
pursuits of peace; but a different and more deadly
enemy than the Indian had already stretched out its
arms to enfold them in its withering embrace.

During the same period, or rather from about the
year 1640 to the year 1700, a constant warfare was
maintained between the Iroquois and the French,
interrupted occasionally by negotiations and brief in
tervals of peace. As the former possessed both banks
of the St. Lawrence, and the circuits of lakes Erie and
Ontario, they intercepted the fur trade, which the
French were anxious to maintain with the western
nations. Upon this trade much of the prosperity of
the new colony depended, for it furnished the chief
article of export, and yielded the most profitable
returns. But the war parties of the League ranged
through these territories so constantly, that it was
impossible for the French to pass in safety through
the lakes, or even up the St. Lawrence above Mon
treal. Their traders were captured, and the rich furs
of the west not only became the spoil of the victors,
but the traders themselves were often led into captiv
ity, and perhaps to the stake. So great was the fear
of these sudden attacks, that both the traders and the
missionaries were obliged to ascend the Otawas river
to near its source, and from thence to cross over to

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the Sauit St. Marie, and the shores of lake Superior.
For these reasons the French were extremely anxious,
either to detach the Iroquois from the English and
gain their alliance, or to reduce them to subjection by
conquest. They tried each successively, and in both
were equally defeated. The untractable and politic
Iroquois were averse to the former, and too powerful
for the latter. On numerous occasions the ambassa
dors of the League were at Montreal and Quebec, to
negotiate with them for the adjustment of difficulties,
and the exchange of prisoners ; in some of which
negotiations, the terms of a peace, or at least of an
armistice, were agreed upon ; but these respites from
warfare were of short duration. The ravages com
mitted upon the settlements of the French were so
frequent and so devastating as to place the colony in
imminent peril. But for the constant supplies from
the mother country, the French power in Canada
would inevitably have been overthrown at several
different periods prior to 1700.

To retaliate for these frequent inroads, and to pre
vent their recurrence, the country of the Iroquois was
often invaded by the French. On several occasions
they drew out the whole force of the colony, to devas
tate the villages of the League ; but after the most
toilsome expeditions into the heart of the wilderness
of New York, they returned without having accom
plished sufficient to reward them for the fatigues and
perils of the enterprise. The Iroquois invariably re
tired into the depths of the forest, leaving nothing but
their deserted tenements and fields of corn to await
the invader. In this manner the unwearied persever-

WARS WITH THE FRENCH

ance and indomitable courage of the French were ren
dered futile against such an evanescent adversary.

In 1665, M. Courcelles, governor of Canada, led a
strong party into the country of the Mohawks; but
the hardships they encountered rendered it necessary
for them to return, without accomplishing their pur
pose. The next year, M. De Tracy, viceroy of New
France, with twelve hundred French and six hundred
Indians, renewed the invasion with better success.
He captured Te-a-ton-ta-ld-ga^ one of the principal
villages of the Mohawks, situated at the mouth of
the Schoharie creek ; but after destroying the town,
and the stores of corn, which they found in caches,
they were obliged to retire without meeting an oppos
ing force. Again, in 1684, M. De La Barre, then
governor of Canada, entered the country of the Onon-
dagas with about eighteen hundred men. Having
reached Hungry bay, on the east shore of lake
Ontario, a conference was had with a delegation of
Iroquois chiefs, headed by Garangula, the celebrated
Onondaga orator.(24) After they had exchanged re
criminations and mutual defiance, a species of armis
tice was finally agreed upon, and thus the expedition
ended.

A more successful enterprise was projected and car
ried into execution, in 1687, by M. De Nonville,
then governor of Canada. Having raised a force of
two thousand French and six hundred Indians, he
embarked them in a fleet of two hundred bateau and
as many birch bark canoes. After coasting lake On
tario from Kingston to Irondequoit bay, in the terri
tory of the Senecas, he landed at the head of this bay,

VOL. I. — 2

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

and found himself within a few miles of the principal
villages of the Senecas, which were then in the coun
ties of Ontario and Monroe. The nearest village was
Ga-o-sd-ga'-o, near Victor, in the county of Ontario,
and the next Ga-nun-da-gwa, at the foot of the Canan-
daigua lake. Taking the trail which led directly to
these villages, De Nonville marched upon the first.
After repulsing a body of five hundred Senecas, with
whom he had a sharp engagement, he took and de
stroyed the town, which had been deserted by its in
habitants. Meeting with no further opposition, as
the Senecas had retired into the interior, he marched
southward as far as Da-yo-de-hok'-to, a village situated
at the bend of the Honeoye outlet, west of Mendon,
in the county of Monroe. This was the largest vil
lage of the Senecas, according to the official statement
of De Nonville, and was the place selected for the ex
ecution of the act'e^ by which they took formal posses
sion of the country of the Seneca-Iroquois, in the
name of France. Four villages, with their extensive
fields of corn then growing, were burned and devas
tated, after which the French army retired.

To retaliate for this invasion, a formidable party of
the Iroquois, in the fall of the same year, made a sud
den descent upon fort Chambly, on the Sorel river,
near Montreal. Unable to capture the fort, which
was resolutely defended by the garrison, they ravaged
the settlements adjacent, and returned with a number of
captives. About the same time, a party of eight hun
dred attacked Frontenac, on the site of Kingston, and
destroyed and laid waste the plantations and establish
ments of the French without the fortification. In July

WARS WITH THE FRENCH

of the ensuing year, the French were made to feel still
more sensibly the power of their revenge. A band of
twelve hundred warriors, animated with the fiercest re
sentment, made a descent upon the island of Montreal.
They had covered their plans with such secrecy, and
advanced with such celerity, that the inhabitants had
no admonition of their approach. Their first intima
tion of impending danger was the fearful onset of the
Iroquois. Unprepared, and without the means of
resistance, they were overpowered and slain in every
direction. All that were without the fortifications fell
under the rifle or the relentless tomahawk. Their
houses were burned, their plantations ravaged, and the
whole island covered with desolation. About a thou
sand of the French, according to some writers, perished
in this invasion, or were carried into captivity. When
the work of destruction was completed, the Iroquois
retired, bearing with them the spoils of the island, and
about two hundred prisoners.

Overwhelmed by this sudden disaster, the French
destroyed their forts at Niagara and Frontenac, and
thus yielded the whole country west of Montreal to
the possession of the Iroquois. At this critical period
Count Frontenac again became governor of Canada,
and during the short residue of his life devoted him
self, with untiring energy, to restore its declining pros
perity. War had now commenced between the
English and French, which drew his first attention to
the defence of Quebec against the attack of the Eng
lish ; but after this had been successfully resisted, he
again sought to chastise the fierce enemy who had
so long disputed with the French the possession of

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

Canada. In the winter of 1692-3, he sent a detach
ment of six hundred French and Indians against the
Mohawks ; which, after travelling through the dense
forests upon snow-shoes, and encountering almost
insurmountable obstacles, finally reached in safety the
vicinity of the Mohawk villages. They surprised and
captured three of these, took three hundred prisoners,
and returned with the loss of thirty men. Again, in
1696, Count Frontenac conducted an expedition in
person against the Onondagas and Oneidas, with a
thousand French and as many Indians.(25) Having
ascended the St. Lawrence in bateau and bark canoes,
he coasted the eastern shore of the lake, to the mouth
of the Oswego river. From thence he marched to
the salt springs, near the site of Syracuse, and up
the Onondaga valley to the principal village of the
Onondagas. He found it, as usual, deserted, although
fortified with palisades, and supplied with stores of
corn. The village was then burned, and the growing
corn, which was found in great abundance in the fields
adjacent, was cut down with the sabre. A detachment
was then sent against the Oneidas, under M. De Vau-
dreuil, by whom their fields also were laid waste, after
which the French army returned to Canada.

This was the last French invasion of the territories
of the Iroquois. A general peace soon followed, and
continued without interruption, until the war of 1755,
which finally resulted in the conquest of Canada by
the English, in ij6o.(2G}

From the commencement of English intercourse
with the Iroquois, down to the independence of the
American states, the covenant of friendship between

ENGLISH INTERCOURSE

them remained unbroken. The importance of con
ciliating this powerful confederacy was fully appreci
ated by the colonial authorities, especially during the
infancy of the English establishments. Unwearied
pains were taken by them to secure and retain their
favor and confidence. Each successive governor an
nounced his arrival to the Sachems of the League,
and invited them to meet him in council, at an early
day, to renew the " covenant chain." Each new
alliance was cemented by presents, by mutual pro
fessions of kindness, and by assurances of mutual
assistance. An intercourse sprang up between them
in matters of trade, and in public affairs, which con
tinued to increase, until councils with the Iroquois
became nearly as frequent as the sessions of the
provincial legislature. Independent of the profitable
trade in furs, with which they enriched their com
merce, they felt the necessity of interposing the power
of the Indian League, as a barrier to French prog
ress, not only towards their own settlements, but
also towards the west. The French were constantly
striving to open an extensive fur trade with the
western nations, and for its necessary protection, to
extend their possessions up the St. Lawrence, and
upon the northern shores of Lake Ontario. With
the exclusive navigation of this river and lake, they
would have obtained nearly the absolute control of
this important trade ; under the powerful stimulus
of which, the strength and prosperity of the French
colony would have risen with such rapidity as to
threaten the security of the English possessions.
Both the English and the French were fully aware

LEAGUE OF THE IROQJJOIS

of the important part the Iroquois were destined to
bear in the drama of colonization ; but the former,
by their superior advantage of position, and from
their greater dependence upon the forbearance of the
League, were induced to pursue a course of policy
which gained their unchangeable friendship. The
French would inevitably, if unopposed by them, have
possessed themselves of the greater part of New York,
and, perhaps, have established their empire so firmly,
that the united forces of the English colonies would
have been unable to effect their displacement. At
one period, the French had pushed their settlements
up Lake Champlain, until both sides of the lake,
as far up as the foot of Lake George, were covered
with French grants.

A reference, at least, to the missionary efforts of
the French, while in the occupation of Canada, ought
not to be omitted. While the English entirely neg
lected the spiritual welfare of the Indians, the French
were unremitting in their efforts to spread Christian
ity among them.(35) The privations and hardships
endured by the Jesuit missionaries, and the zeal, the
fidelity and devotion, exhibited by them, in their
efforts for the conversion of the Indian, are unsur
passed in the history of Christianity. They trav
ersed the forests of America alone and unprotected;
they dwelt in the depth of the wilderness, without
shelter, and almost without raiment; they passed the
ordeal of Indian captivity, and the fires of the torture;
they suffered from hunger and violence ; but in the
midst of all, they never forgot the mission with which
they were intrusted. The fruits of these labors of

JESUIT MISSIONARIES

Christian devotion are yet visible among the descend
ants of the ancient Iroquois : for the precepts spread
abroad among them by the missionaries are still in
the Indian mind, and many of them have been incor
porated by them into their own religious system.
The intercourse of the French Jesuits with the Iro
quois furnishes, in some respects, the most pleasing
portion of their history.

In 1715, the Tuscaroras, having been expelled
from North Carolina, turned to the north, and sought
a home among the Iroquois, on the ground of a
common origin. That they were originally descended
from the same stock is sufficiently evinced by their
language. They we're admitted into the League as a
constituent member, and a portion of the Oneida terri
tory assigned to them as their future home. After
this event, the Iroquois, who had before been styled
by the English the " Five Nations," were known
by them under the name of the " Six Nations."

With this brief and barren outline of prominent
events, the civil history of the Iroquois, prior to
1760, is dismissed.

It is difficult to form a correct estimate of their
number; the opinions of those having the best oppor
tunities of judging have been so various. La Hontan
placed them at seventy thousand. The estimate
made by Colonel Coursey, at Albany, in 1677, gave
them about fifteen thousand ; but it is known that his
means of judging were very imperfect. Bancroft esti
mates them, including the Tuscaroras, at seventeen
thousand. Calculations made at a later day, after
they had greatly declined in number, allowed them

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

ten thousand. This was substantially the estimate
of Sir William Johnson, in 1763. There is a tradi
tion among the Senecas, that at the period of their
highest prosperity and numbers, they took a cen
sus of their nation, by placing a kernel of white
flint corn for each Seneca, in a corn husk basket,
which, from the description of its size, would hold
ten or twelve quarts. Taking the smallest size, and
making the estimate accordingly, it will give us the
number of Senecas alone at 17,760. At the present
time there are about seven thousand Iroquois within
the United States and Canada, who have continued
to preserve their lineage and nationality through all
their vicissitudes. This appears from the reports of
the Indian Department, and from other sources of
information/59)

It is well understood, that the decline of the Iro
quois commenced with their first intercourse with
Europeans. The possession of firearms, and their
use in Indian warfare, the introduction of ardent
spirits among them, with its train of frightful excesses,
and their incessant conflicts with the French, and with
Indian nations, were calculated to waste them away
with great rapidity. In 1750, from these various
causes, they had become diminished about one half.
Another and a prominent cause of the decline of the
Iroquois, was the large numbers induced, at various
times, to emigrate to the banks of the St. Lawrence,
under the influence of the Jesuit missionaries, and
who, by placing themselves under French protection,
became the enemies of their kindred and of the
League. The most successful colony of this descrip-

NUMBER OF THE IRO^UOIS

tion was that established by the Abbe Picquet at
Swe-ga-che, on the site of Ogdensburg, in 1749. The
first year, he constructed a fort of palisades, and com
menced with six Iroquois families ; in the second
year, the number of families had increased to eighty-
seven, and in the third, to 396. Such was the influx
from the territories of the League to the new mis
sionary establishment, that, in 1754, the number of
inhabitants in their three villages, at and near Swe-
ga-chey were estimated by the French at three thousand.
This band were afterwards known as the " Praying
Indians," from their conversion to Christianity. Their
descendants now reside upon the St. Regis reservation,
in the county of St. Lawrence.

The period of their greatest prosperity, and of their
highest numbers, was evidently about the year 1650,
shortly after the commencement of their intercourse
with Europeans. At that time, their total population
may be safely placed at twenty-five thousand. A
higher estimate would be better supported by such
data as the case affords, than a lesser one ; although
the impression of later writers seems to be the con
trary. An approximation to the relative strength
of the several nations of the League, upon this basis,
may be made by the following apportionment : To
the Senecas, ten thousand ; to the Cayugas, three
thousand ; to the Onondagas, four thousand ; to the
Oneidas, three thousand ; and to the Mohawks, five
thousand. A century later, their total population was
probably about half this number, the Mohawks having
wasted away the most rapidly.(59)

A few brief observations upon the modern trans-

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

actions of the Iroquois will close this outline. From
the close of the French war until the commencement
of the American Revolution, was a time of general
peace. The Revolution placed them in a position of
great difficulty, as the Continental congress negotiated
to secure their neutrality, and the English to obtain
their assistance. Their sympathies, as was anticipated,
were strongly enlisted in favor of their ancient ally>
with whom, for upward of a century, they had main
tained an unbroken friendship. They were thor
oughly English in sentiment. Having no motive of
self-interest to engage them on either side, neutrality
was the true policy of the League ; more especially,
as the final success of the American arms might lead
to the forfeiture of their country, if they enlisted
against them. In the end, the appeals and the ap
pliances of the English were found irresistible ; and,
placing their country and the homes of their fathers
in the event of the struggle, the people of the Long
House went out for the last time in battle array, not
to peril their lives for themselves, but to keep the
" covenant chain " with a transatlantic ally.(28)

When the question of declaring for the English
came before the council of sachems and chiefs, the
Oneidas alone resisted the measure, as unwise and
inexpedient. Their opposition defeated the war
measure, as an act of the League, unanimity being
a fundamental law in the legislation of the Iroquois.
But the course of events had, at this time, greatly
impaired and weakened the confederacy. Their power
and numbers had wasted away ; their political exist
ence, as an independent people, was drawing to its

DISPERSION OF THE NATIONS

close; and it was found impossible, under the pressure
of circumstances, to adhere to the ancient principles
of the League. It was finally determined, that each
nation might engage in the war upon its own respon
sibility ; so that, ultimately, the Mohawks, Onondagas,
Cayugas and Senecas took up the rifle for the English.
The border wars of the Revolution, in which the Iro-
quois participated, and the devastations which they
committed in the valleys of the Mohawk and Susque-
hanna, and their tributaries, are too familiar to require
a recital. Their irruptions into the border settlements
were so frequent, and the track of their invasions was
marked with such desolation, that the American con
gress were obliged to send against them a powerful
detachment, to lay waste their villages, and to over
awe them with the fear of final extirpation. General
Sullivan, in 1779, led an army of four thousand men
into the Seneca territory, which he penetrated as far
as the Genesee, at that time the centre of their pop
ulation. After destroying their principal towns, their
fruit orchards, and stores of grain, he returned to
Pennsylvania ; having first sent a detachment into the
Cayuga territory to ravage their settlements.

The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the
United States, in 1783, made no provision for the
Iroquois, who were abandoned in adversity by their
ally, and left to make such terms as they could with
the successful republic.(29) A few years afterwards a
general peace was established with the northwestern
Indian nations, including the Iroquois, all of whom
had, more or less, become involved in the general
controversy. With the restoration of peace, the po-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

litical transactions of the League were substantially
closed. This was, in effect, the- termination of their
political existence. The jurisdiction of the United
States was extended over their ancient territories,
and from that time forth they became dependent na-
tions.(28)

During the progress of the Revolution, the Mo
hawks abandoned their country and removed to Can
ada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Grand
river, in the Niagara peninsula, and partly near
Kingston, where they now reside upon two reserva
tions secured to them by the British government.

The Oneidas, notwithstanding their friendly position
during the war, in the end fared little better than their
Mohawk brethren. A rapid influx of population, the
tide of which set to the westward with the restoration
of peace, soon rendered their possessions valueless.
Negotiations were immediately commenced by the
State for the purchase of their lands, which they
yielded from time to time in large grants, until their
original possessions were narrowed down to one small
reservation. In these negotiations, as well with the
other Iroquois nations as with the Oneidas, the policy
of the State of New York was ever just and humane.
Although their country, with the exception of that of
the Oneidas, might have been considered as forfeited
by the event of the Revolution, yet the government
never enforced the rights of conquest, but extinguished
the Indian title to the country by purchase, and treaty
stipulations. A portion of the Oneida nation emi
grated to a reservation on the river Thames, in Can
ada, where about four hundred of them now reside.

PRESENT CONDITION

Another and a larger band removed to Green Bay, in
Wisconsin, where they still make their homes to the
number of seven hundred. But a small part of the
nation have remained around the seat of their ancient
council-fire. One hundred and twenty-six, according
to the census of the last year, are now dwelling near
Oneida castle, in the county of Oneida, and have
become fully habituated to an agricultural life.

Perhaps, in the result, the Onondagas have been
the most fortunate nation of the League. They still
retain their beautiful and secluded valley of Onondaga,
with sufficient territory for their comfortable main
tenance, even with the limited production of Indian
husbandry. After the Revolution, they granted their
lands to the State by treaty, with the exception of the
tract they now occupy, the proceeds, as in other cases,
being invested by the government for their benefit.
About a hundred and fifty Onondagas now reside with
the Senecas ; another party are established on Grand
river, in Canada, and a few have removed to the west.
The total number still remaining at Onondaga is about
two hundred and fifty.

Over the fate of the Cayugas a feeling of regret and
sympathy is awakened, as having been even less for
tunate than their unfortunate kindred. This nation
has become literally scattered abroad. Immediately
after the Revolution, the tide of population began to
press upon them, and hem them in on every side, to
such a degree that they were obliged wholly to sur
render their domain. In the brief space of twelve
years after the first house of the white man was erected
in Cayuga county (1789) the whole nation was up-

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

rooted and gone. In 1795, they ceded, by treaty, all
their lands to the State, with the exception of one
reservation, which they finally abandoned about the
year 1800. A portion of them removed to Green
Bay, another to Grand river, and still another, and a
much larger band, settled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from
whence they were removed by government, a few
years since, into the Indian Territory, west of the
Mississippi. About one hundred and twenty-five still
reside among the Senecas, in western New York, and
yet retain their name and lineage, and have their sepa
rate chiefs. Those west of the Mississippi, and those
residing with the Senecas, divide between them the
State annuity of $2,300, which was secured to them
upon the sale of their former possessions.

The Tuscaroras, after removing from the Oneida
territory, finally located near the Niagara river, in the
vicinity of Lewiston, on a tract given to them by the
Senecas, where about three hundred of them now
reside.

After the displacement of the Cayugas, the flow of
population, still advancing westward with constantly
augmenting force, next began to press upon the broad
domains of the Senecas. They passed through the
same ordeal to which the other nations had been sub
jected, by means of which they were speedily induced
to grant away their lands, not by townships and coun
ties, but from river to river, reserving here and there
a small oasis, sufficient to rescue a favorite village with
its burial-place. Their wide-spread territories were in
a few years narrowed down, to gratify the demands of
the white man, until the residue of the Senecas are

PRESENT CONDITION

now shut up within three small reservations, the
Tonawanda, the Cattaraugus and the Allegany, which,
united, would not cover the area of one of the lesser
counties of the State. To embitter their sense of
desolation as a nation, the " preemptive right " to these
last remnants of their ancient possessions is now held
by a company of land speculators, the Ogden Land
Company,(30) who, to wrest away these few acres, have
pursued and hunted them for the last fourteen years,
with a degree of wickedness hardly to be paralleled
in the history of human avarice. Not only have
every principle of honesty, every dictate of humanity,
every Christian precept been violated by this company,
in their eager artifices to despoil the Senecas ; but the
darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and the most exe
crable intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest,
have been practiced, in open day, upon this defence
less and much-injured people. The natural feelings
of man, and the sense of public justice are violated
and appalled at the narration of their proceedings. It
is no small crime against humanity to seize the fire
sides and the property of a whole community, without
an equivalent, and against their will ; and then to drive
them, beggared and outraged, into a wild and inhospi
table wilderness. And yet this is the exact scheme of
the Ogden Land Company ; the one in which they
have long been engaged, and the one which they still
continue to prosecute. The Georgia treaty with the
Cherokees, so justly held up to execration, is a white
page, compared with the treaties of 1838 and 1842,
which were forced upon the Senecas. This project has
already, however, in part, been defeated, by the load

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

of iniquity which hung upon the skirts of these treaties ;
and it is to be hoped, for the credit of humanity, that
the cause of the Indian will yet triumph, and that the
residue of the Senecas will be permitted to dwell in
peace in the land of their nativity.1

The census of last year fixes the number of Sen
ecas upon their then reservations, in western New
York, at two thousand seven hundred and twelve,
A small band, after the Revolution, emigrated to
Grand river, where they now have a miniature of the
ancient League, and another removed to Sandusky,
and from thence into the Indian Territory. Those
at present within the State are rapidly improving
in their social and moral condition ; as also, it is
believed, are those residing upon Grand river, in
Canada, where there are now about seven hundred
Mohawks, besides five hundred near Kingston, four
hundred Onondagas, seven hundred Cayugas, three
hundred Tuscaroras, and two hundred Senecas and
Oneidas.

From the sales of the lands of the Iroquois, at vari
ous times, large sums of money have accrued, which
have been invested by the State and national govern
ments for their benefit ; and the interest arising from
the same is now paid over and distributed among
them semi-annually. The Senecas alone have an

1 The Buffalo Reservation, which made the fourth reserved tract, and
was the most valuable, has fallen into the hands of the Ogden Company,
but not so much by virtue of the treaties as by skilful management.
It contains forty-nine thousand acres of land bordering the corporate
limits of the city of Buffalo, and was supposed to be worth over a
million of dollars. For the land, and its farming improvements, the
Company paid the Senecas about one hundred thousand dollars.

FUTURE PROSPECTS

annual income from these sources, amounting to
$ 1 8, ooo.

There are still residing in the State of New York
about four thousand Iroquois. The several fragments
of the nations yet continue their relationships and
intercourse with each other, and cling to the shadow
of the ancient League. At intervals of one or two
years, they assemble in general council to raise up,
with their primitive forms and ceremonies, sachems
to fill vacancies occasioned by death or deposition.
These councils are summoned and conducted, in all
respects, as they were wont to be in the days of
Indian sovereignty. They still cherish the remem
brance of their fathers, and the institutions which they
transmitted to them, with religious affection. In each
nation, also, with the exception of the Oneidas and
Tuscaroras, the larger portion of the people continue
to adhere to their ancient faith and worship;
celebrating their religious festivals after the original
method, and preserving, in their social intercourse,
the habits and the customs of their ancestors. It is
another singular fact, in connection with their history,
that since their adoption of agricultural pursuits, as
the exclusive source of subsistence, their further de
cline has been arrested, and they are now increasing
in numbers. In many respects they have become an
interesting portion of our population, yielding many
hopes of their future elevation. The policy of the
State towards them has ever been enlightened, hu
mane and just, the government seizing upon every
opportunity to promote their welfare, to protect their
interests, and to extend to them facilities for education.

VOL. i. — 3 33

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

It is a pleasing and a proud reflection, that there is
a universal spirit of kindness, sympathy and benev
olence towards the Iroquois, among the people of New
York. They would shield them in their defenceless
condition, stimulate their efforts for social improve
ment, encourage their aspirations for a higher life, and
finally, when they have become sufficiently advanced in
agricultural life, raise them to the condition of citizens
of the State.

The materials for the preceding chapter were drawn from
the following sources : Colden's Hist. Five Nations ; Charle-
voix's Hist. New France ; Smith's Hist. N. Y. ; Macauley's
Hist. N. Y.; Doc. Hist. N. Y. ; Morse's Hist. Am. Rev.;
Bancroft's Hist. U. S. ; Warburton's Conquest of Canada ;
Marshall's Nar. De Nonville's Exped. ; Schoolcraft's Notes
on the Iroquois ; Doc's of the Indian Department ; MSS.
Treaties with the Iroquois, State Dep. Alby. ; Traditions of
the Onondagas,Tuscaroras, Senecas and Cayugas.

AH-TA-QUA-0-WEH OR MOCCASIN FOR MALE,

Chapter II

Indian Geography — Home Country of the Iroquois — National
Boundaries — Trails — Indian Map — Ho-de'-no-sau-nee — Na
tional Names

OUR Indian geography, excluding lines of lati
tude, descriptions of soil and climate, and
precise territorial limits, confines itself to the
external features of the country, and to the period
when the hemlock and the maple, the pine and the
oak, interlocked their branches in endless alternation,
spreading out from river to river, and from lake to
lake, in one vast, continuous, interminable forest.

As the aboriginal, or poetic period of our territo
rial history recedes from us, each passing year both
deepens the obscurity upon the Indian's footsteps,
and diminishes the power of the imagination to recall
the stupendous forest scenery by which he was sur
rounded. To obtain a glance at the face of nature
during the era of Indian occupation, the wave of im
provement must be rolled backward, not only displac
ing, in its recession, the city and the village which have
sprung up in the wilderness; but restoring, also, by a
simultaneous effort, the original drapery of nature,
when clothed in her wild attire.1

1 In those forest days, the graceful swan folded her wings in unmo
lested seclusion upon our inland lakes ; but with the departure of the
Indian, she spread them again, and followed him. They sat upon the

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

Surrounded by all the grandeur of this forest scenery,
the Indian constructed his Ga-no'-sote, or Bark House,
upon the winding stream, or on the margin of the
lake; and, one of the multitudinous inhabitants of the
forest, he passed his days and years in sylvan pursuits,
unless he went forth upon the war-path in quest of
adventure or renown.

Between the Hudson and lake Erie, our broad
territory was occupied by the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee^ or
Iroquois, scattered far and wide, in small encampments,
or in disconnected villages. Their council-fires, em
blematical of civil jurisdiction, burned continuously
from the Hudson to Niagara. At the era of Dutch
discovery (1609), they had pushed their permanent
possession as far west as the Genesee ; and shortly
after, about 1650, they extended it to the Niagara.
They then occupied the entire territory of our State
west of the Hudson, with the exception of certain
tracts upon that river below the junction of the Mo
hawk, in the possession of the River Indians, and the
country of the Delawares, upon the Delaware river.
But both these had been subdued by the conquering
Iroquois, and had become tributary nations.

The villages of the Mohawks were chiefly located
in the valley of the Mohawk, upon the south side of
the river. Around and near the Oneida lake were the
principal villages of the Oneidas. The Onondagas
were established in the valley of the river of that name,
and upon the hills adjacent. On the east shore of the

water in pairs, and not in flocks. It is said they still frequent the small
lakes in the wild regions of northern New York. The American swan
(Cygnus Americanus) was called by the Senecas Ah-fweh'-ah-ah.

HOME COUNTRT OF THE IROQUOIS

Cayiiga lake, and upon the ridge to the eastward, were
the settlements of the Cayugas. In the counties of
Ontario and Monroe were found the principal villages
of the Senecas, the most populous nation of the
League. These were their chief localities at the era
of their discovery. At a later period, in the progress of
their intercourse and warfare with the whites, many
of their ancient settlements were abandoned, and new
ones established. This was especially the case with
the Senecas, until their villages, at various periods,
have been sprinkled over the whole area of western
New York.<89>

This territory, lying between the Hudson and
lake Erie, and embracing the most valuable portions
of our State, constituted the Home Country of the
Iroquois, as distinguished from other territories upon
the north, south, east and west, which they held in
subjection by conquest, and occupied only in the sea
son of the hunt. At the era of their highest military
supremacy, about the year 1660, the Iroquois, in
their warlike expeditions, ranged unresisted from
New England to the Mississippi, and from the St.
Lawrence to the Tennessee. They held under their
dominion the greater part of these vast territories
by the slender tenure of Indian conquest. But New
York was their hereditary country, the centre of
their power, and the seat of their council-fires. Here
were their villages, their fields of maize and tobacco,
their fishing and hunting grounds, and the burial-
places of their fathers. The Long House, to which
they likened their political edifice, opened its eastern
door upon the Hudson, while the western looked out

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

upon Niagara. At the epoch of their discovery,
this fair domain was the patrimony of the Iroquois,
the land of their nativity, if not of their remote origin,
and they had defended it against hostile bands with a
patriotism as glowing as such a fair possession could
inspire in the heart of man. They were not insen
sible to the political advantages afforded by their
geographical position. It was their boast that they
occupied the highest part of the continent. Situated
upon the head-waters of the Hudson, the Delaware,
the Susquehanna, the Ohio and the St. Lawrence
flowing in every direction to the sea, they held within
their jurisdiction as it were, the gates of the country,
and could, through them, descend at will upon any
point. At the same time, lake Ontario, and the
mountains upon the north, and the range of the Alle-
ganies upon the south gave to their country itself an
isolation which protected them, in a great measure,
against the external pressure of migratory bands ;
while the lakes and streams, which in so remarkable
a manner intersected every part of the Long House,
and whose head-waters were separated only by short
portages, and its continuous valleys, divided by no
mountain barriers, offered them every facility for the
most rapid intercommunication. They themselves
declared that " their country possessed many advan
tages superior to any other part of America."

A boundary line would seem at first to be a dif
ficult problem in Indian geography.(42) But a pecu
liar custom of our predecessors has divested this
subject of much of its embarrassment, and enabled
us to ascertain with considerable certainty the terri-

NATIONAL BOUNDARIES

torial limits of the nations of the League.(5G) The
Iroquois rejected all natural boundaries, and substi
tuted longitudinal lines. This appears to have re
sulted from the custom of establishing themselves
upon both banks of the streams upon which they
resided. Having no knowledge of the use of wells,
they were accustomed to fix their habitations upon
the banks of creeks, and easily forded rivers, or in
the vicinity of copious springs. Inland lakes were
never divided by a boundary line ; but the line itself
was deflected, that the entire circuit of each lake
might be possessed by a single nation. The natural
limits which rivers and lakes might furnish having
thus been disregarded, and straight lines substituted,
the inquiry is freed from some of its difficulties, and
greater certainty is given to their boundaries, when
certain points upon them are decisively ascertained.

After the expulsion of the Neuter Nation (Je-gd-
sa-sa] from the borders of the Niagara river, in I65I,1
and of the Eries (Ga-qua-ga-o-no) from the country
between the Genesee and lake Erie in 1655^ the
Senecas, who before these periods had resided east
of the Genesee, extended their jurisdiction over the
whole area between the Seneca lake and lake Erie.
On the east, their territory joined that of the Cayugas.
The line of boundary between them, which is well
authenticated, commenced at the head of Sodus bay,
on lake Ontario, and running south, nearly upon the

1 Charlevoix, v. i. p. 377. The Neuter Nation were known to the
Iroquois as the "Cat Nation ;" the word itself (Je-go' -sa-sa} signifying
"a wild cat.1' Charlevoix has assigned this name to the Eries (v. ii.
p. 6z).

2 Ib. v. ii. p. 62.

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

longitude of Washington, crossed the Clyde river
near the village of that name, and the Seneca river
about four miles east of its outlet from the Seneca
lake. Continuing south, and inclining a little to the
east, the line ran near the lake at its head, and having
crossed the Chemung river east of Elmira, it passed
into Pennsylvania.

The territory of the Cayugas lay upon both sides
of the Cayuga lake, and extended to the eastward
so as to include the Owasco. As the Senecas were
the hereditary " Door-keepers " of the Long House,
in their figurative way of designating each other, they
were styled the first fire ; and so on to the Mohawks,
who were the fifth. Between the Cayugas and Onon-
dagas, who were the third fire, the limital line is not
as well defined ; as the latter claimed farther to the
westward than the boundary assigned. It commenced
on lake Ontario, near the mouth of the Oswego river,
and on its west side, and passing between the Cross
and Otter lakes, continued south into Pennsylvania,
crossing the Susquehanna west of Owego.

On the boundary line between the Onondagas and
Oneidas, the most prominent point was the Deep
Spring (De-o-song'-wa) near Manlius, in the county
of Onondaga. This spring not only marked the
limital line between them, but it was a well known
stopping-place on the great central trail or highway
of the Iroquois, which passed through the heart of
their territories from the Hudson to lake Erie. From
the Deep Spring, the line ran due south into Pennsyl
vania, crossing the Susquehanna near its confluence
with the Chenango. North of this spring the line was

NATIONAL BOUNDARIES

deflected to the west, leaving in the Oneida territory
the whole circuit of that lake. Crossing the She-u-ka,
or Oneida outlet, a few miles below the lake, the line
inclined again to the east, until it reached the meridian
of the Deep Spring. From thence it ran due north,
crossing the Black river at the site of Watertown, and
the St. Lawrence to the eastward of the Thousand
Islands.

The testimony of the Iroquois concerning this
boundary line is confirmed by facts contained in exist
ing treaties. At the treaty of Fort Schuyler, the
Oneidas, after ceding " all their lands to the people
of the state of New York forever," reserved, in addi
tion to their principal reservation, " a convenient piece
of land at the fishing-place in the Oneida river, about
three miles from where it issues from the Oneida lake,
and to remain as well for the Oneidas and their pos
terity, as for the inhabitants of the said State to land
and encamp upon." In the same treaty it appears,
that the Deep Spring was upon the west boundary
of the Oneida reservation.2

1 Vide Treaty of Fort Schuyler, September 22, 1788. MSS. State
Department, Albany.

2 Judge Jones of Utica, in 1846, in a letter in the author's possession,
speaks of this spring as follows : " Near the summit of what was for
merly called the Canaseraga hill, near where now runs the road from
Chittenango to Manlius, is a large, well-known ever-living spring, famil
iarly known as the 'Big Spring.' The excavation, whether made by
Omnipotence, or by human hands, may be fifteen feet in diameter, and
several feet deep, with sloping sides, easy of descent, and in the bottom
is a reservoir ever full. What is quite singular is, that the water runs in
at the lower, and disappears at the upper side of the reservoir. This
spring, while the old woods were its shade, and the wild deer descended
to taste its limpid waters, was long the favorite meeting-place between
the Oneidas and Onondagas. Here for ages had the old men of the two

LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S

The Tuscaroras, upon their expulsion from North
Carolina, in 1712, turned to the north, and sought
the protection of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee^ on the ground
of generic origin. They were admitted into the
League as the Sixth nation, and were ever afterwards
regarded as a constituent member of the confed
eracy, although never admitted to a full equality/ m)
A portion of the Oneida territory was assigned to
them, lying upon the Unadilla river on the east,
the Chenango on the west, and the Susquehanna on
the south. Whether they occupied entirely across the
southern skirt of the Oneida territory, as their boun
dary is run upon the accompanying map, is a matter
of doubt, as the Oneidas might thereby have cut off
their southern possessions in Pennsylvania and Vir
ginia. To these southern lands the Tuscaroras had
no title, and it is probable that their territorial rights,
which were never absolute, were restricted between
the Unadilla and the Chenango. The Oneidas, as the
original owners of this tract, were made a party, with
the Tuscaroras, to the treaty of Fort Herkimer, in
1785, by which it was ceded to the State.1 The
Tuscaroras were partially scattered among the other
nations, although they continued to preserve their
nationality. They had some settlements at a later
day near the Oneida lake, a village at the inlet of the
Cayuga, and one in the valley of the Genesee, below
Avon. At a subsequent period, the Senecas gave

nations met to rehearse their deeds of war ; here the young braves
met in friendly conclave. . . . This was the boundary between the
nations."

1 Vide Treaty of Fort Herkimer, June 28, 1785. MSS. State Dep.

NATIONAL BOUNDARIES

them a tract upon the Niagara river, where they after
wards removed ; and their descendants still occupy a
reserved portion of this land, near Lewiston, in the
county of Niagara.

There were two other small bands, or remnants of
tribes, located within the territories of the Oneidas ;
the Mohekunnuks, situated a few miles south of
Oneida castle, and the New England Indians, south
of Clinton. For these lands they also were indebted
to the generosity of the Oneidas, to whom, as refu
gees, they applied for " a place to spread their blan
kets ; " and their possessions were subsequently se
cured to each band by treaty.

Of the several boundaries, that between the Oneidas
and the Mohawks is the most difficult to establish ;
there being a disagreement between the line of boun
dary as given by the Iroquois, and that indicated,
although imperfectly, by existing treaties. According
to their own evidence, and it is the safest authority,
this line came down from the north near the west
boundary of Herkimer county, and, crossing the
Mohawk about five miles below Utica, continued
south into Pennsylvania. On the other hand, it
appears from various treaties with the Oneidas, that
they sold lands to the State on both sides of the
Mohawk, as low down as Herkimer and the German
Flats, and also on the Mohawk branch of the Dela
ware, as far east as Delhi. After the departure of
the Mohawks, the Oneidas might have asserted claims
against the State, which they would not against their
brethren ; so also the State may have preferred to
include these lands, to prevent all future disputation.

LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS

The upper castle of the Mohawks, Gd-ne-ga-ha-gd^
was situated in the town of Danube, Herkimer county,
nearly opposite the junction of the West Canada creek
with the Mohawk. From these facts, the boundary
given may be regarded as the most reliable. The
territory of the Mohawks extended to the Hudson
and lake Champlain on the east, with the exceptions
before mentioned, and northward to the St. Lawrence.

Such were the territorial divisions between the sev
eral nations of the League. In their hunting excur
sions they were accustomed to confine themselves to
their own domains : which, to a people who subsisted,
in part, by the chase, was a matter of some moment.
Upon their foreign hunting grounds, which were
numerous and boundless, either nation was at liberty
to encamp. By establishing these territorial limits
between the nations of the League, the political in
dividuality of each was continued in view.

In intimate connection with our Indian geography
are the Trails, or forest highways of the Iroquois.(41)
A central trail passed through the State from east to
west, intersected at numerous points by cross trails,
which passed along the banks of the lakes and
rivers. It commenced at the site of Albany on the
Hudson, and having touched the Mohawk at Sche-
nectady, it followed up this river to the carrying-
place at Rome. From thence, proceeding westward,
it crossed the Onondaga valley, the foot of the
Cayuga and of the Seneca lakes, the Genesee valley

1 This was, doubtless, the oldest village of the Mohawks ; as it is
the one from which the nation takes its name. It is Ga-ne-d'-ga in
the Seneca dialect. (42)

AH TA QUA 0 WEH OR MOCCASON
Emhroi d ered with porcupine guilts

TRAILS

at Avon, and finally came out upon the Buffalo
creek, at the site of Buffalo. This route of travel
was so judiciously selected, that after the country
was surveyed, the turnpikes were laid out upon the
Indian highway, with slight variations, through the
whole length of the State.(44) This trail not only con
nected the principal villages of the Iroquois, but
established the route of travel into Canada on the
west, and over the Hudson on the east. The pur
suits of trade, and the development of the resources
of the country in modern times have shown this
to be one of the great natural highways of the conti
nent. It appears now to be indicated by the geo
graphical features of the territory ; but as extensive
intercourse was necessary to its discovery, the es
tablishment of this great route of travel furnishes evi
dence of a more general intercourse of the Iroquois
with the east and west, than has ever been ascribed
to them.

Upon the banks of the Susquehanna and its
branches, the sources of which are near the Mohawk,
and upon the banks of the Chemung and its tribu
taries, which have their sources near the Genesee,
were other trails, all of which converged upon Tioga,
at the junction of these two principal rivers. They
became thus gathered into one, which, descending the
Susquehanna, formed the great southern trail into
Pennsylvania and Virginia.

For centuries upon centuries, and by race after
race, these old and deeply worn trails had been trod
by the red man. From the Atlantic to the Missis
sippi, and from the northern lakes to the Mexican

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

gulf, the main Indian routes through the country
were as accurately and judiciously traced, and as
familiar as our own. On many of these distant foot
paths the Iroquois had conducted warlike expedi
tions, and had thus become practically versed in the
geography of the country. Within their immediate
territories, they were quite as familiar with the geo
graphical features, the routes of travel, the lakes,
and hills and streams, as we ourselves have since
become.

In the accompanying map, an attempt has been
made to restore the geographical names of the Iro
quois, as they stood at the period of its date (1720).
Many of our own names have their radices in the
dialects of the Iroquois ; and as to such names, this
map is designed to furnish an index of their origin
and signification. Our geography is as yet incom
plete in the christening of some of the features of
nature, while some of the names in actual use might
be profitably exchanged for the aboriginal; in both
of which cases such a map will at least offer a choice.
The date given to it introduces some anachronisms,
which will be obvious to the critical eye ; but these
do not furnish a sufficient reason for an earlier, or
a later date. The descendants of the Iroquois have
preserved, with great fidelity, the names of their
ancient localities ; and have bestowed them upon our
cities and villages as they have successively appeared.
It is but a fit tribute to our Indian predecessors, to
record the baptismal names of our rivers, lakes and
streams, and also of their ancient sites.

An effort has been made to furnish these names

INDIAN MAP

in the particular dialect of the nation within whose
territories the places or objects named were situated ;
and, with a few exceptions, this has been accomplished.
The nations spoke different dialects of a common
language; and although they could understand each
other with readiness, the distinctions between them
were very decisive. These dialectical differences are
more strongly marked in their geographical names
than in the body of the several dialects themselves;
furnishing, perhaps, the principal reason why these
names are written so variously. Thus the Iroquois
name of Buffalo, in the Seneca dialect is, Do-sho'-weh,
in Cayuga De-o-sho'-weh, in Onondaga De-o-sa-wehy in
Oneida De-ose'-lole, in Mohawk De-o-hose-lole and
in Tuscarora Ne-o-thro'-rd. For the same purpose,
and in the same order, the variations in the name
of Utica may be cited : Nun-da-da-sis, Nun-da-da '-ses,
N one-da-da -sis ^ Ya-nun-da-da-sis, Yo-none-da-sis, Ya-
nun-ria-rats. The resemblances in these examples are
nearer than they are usually found. In the transi
tion of these names from the unwritten dialects of
the Iroquois into our language, they lose much of
their euphony, and the force of their accent. It
would therefore be difficult to judge of the language
itself from these specimens. That entire accuracy
has been attained in the spelling of these words is
not expected. Indeed, many of their elementary
sounds, in the manner, and in the combination in
which they use them, it is impossible to express
with our letters. But they are as nearly accurate,
as the frequent repetition of each name by the native
speaker, that the sound of each syllable might be

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

obtained, together with a careful revision of the
whole, would enable the author to make them. In
the Appendix A. i, will be found a table, contain
ing a list of all the names upon the map, arranged
by counties, with the signification of each. As the
county lines are dotted on the map, it will be easy
to refer to any locality.

The trails (41) (Wa-a-gwen-ne-yuH)^ or highways of
travel pursued by our predecessors, are also traced
upon the map.(42) Among the number will be found
the great central trail from the site of Albany to
that of Buffalo, which is traced minutely from point to
point, throughout its whole extent.

It remains to notice the origin and signification of
the names of the several nations. After the forma
tion of the League, the Iroquois called themselves the
Ho-de'-no-sau-nee^ which signifies " the people of the
long house." It grew out of the circumstance, that
they likened their confederacy to a long house, having
partitions and separate fires, after their ancient method
of building houses, within which the several nations
were sheltered under a common roof. Among them
selves they never had any other name. The vari
ous names given to them at different periods were
entirely accidental, none of them being designations
by which they ever recognized themselves.(12G)

The Senecas called themselves the Nun-da-wa-o-no^
which signifies " the great hill people." Nun-da-
wa-O) the radix of the word, means " a great hill," and
the terminal syllables, o-no, convey the idea of " peo
ple." This was the name of their oldest village, sit
uated upon a hill at the head of the Canandaigua lake,

NATIONAL NAMES

near Naples, where, according to the Seneca fable,
they sprang out of the ground.

Gue'-u-gweh-o-no, the name of the Cayugas, signifies
" the people at the mucky land ; " the root of the
word literally meaning " the mucky land.'* It doubt
less referred to the marsh at the foot of the Cayuga
lake, near which their first settlement was, in all prob
ability, established.

O-nun-da-ga, the origin of the name of the Onon-
dagas, signifies " on the hills ; " hence the name they
gave themselves, 0-nun-da-ga-o-no, is rendered " the
people on the hills." It appears from various
authors, that their principal village, at the era of their
discovery, was on one of the eminences overlooking
the Onondaga valley.

The Oneidas have been so long distinguished as
"the people of the stone," that it is perhaps venture
some to suggest a change. O-na-yote-ka, however, the
radix from which their name is derived, signifies not
only " a stone/' but one of the species known to us
as granite. In the Seneca dialect, it means this par
ticular rock ; hence the propriety of rendering literally
their national name, O-na-yote'-ka-o-no, " the granite
people."

There is doubt about the signification of the name
of the Mohawks, Ga-ne-a-ga-o-no, from the fact that
the Oneidas, Onondagas and Senecas have lost its
meaning. (70) But the Mohawks render the root
of the word, " the possessor of the flint," without
being able to give any further explanation. It is to

1 The original Oneida Stone, now in the cemetery at Utica, is said to
be a boulder of granite.

VOL. L — 4 49

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

be observed, however, that the word as given by the
latter, Ga-ne-ga-ha-ga, has one syllable more than the
corresponding word in Seneca, which may account for
the loss of its signification. In a report enumerating
our Indian nations, ascribed to M. De Joncaire, is the
following passage bearing upon this subject : " The
Mohawks have for a device of the village a steel and a
flint" 1 The possession of such a novelty may have
been, at an early day, sufficient to change not only
the name of the village, but also of the nation.

The name of the Tuscaroras, Dus-ga-o'-weh, is ren
dered " the shirt-wearing people ; " and was a name
adopted before their emigration from Carolina, and
after the commencement of their intercourse with the
whites. All of the preceding names are given in the
Seneca dialect to preserve uniformity ; as not only
the terminations, but the radices themselves are differ
ent in the several dialects. (129)

The geographical names, the courses of the trails,
and the locations of the villages of the Iroquois, will
be more particularly considered in a subsequent
chapter.

1 Doc. Hist. N. Y., v. i. p. 22.

5°

GA-KA OR BREECH CLOTH,

Chapter III

Interest in our Predecessors — The Hunter State — Its Institutions
Transitory — Origin of the League — Sachemships — Hereditary
Titles — Council of the League — Equality of the Sachems —
Chiefs — Military Chieftains — Popular Influence — Unity of the
Race
^

THE social history and political transactions of
the Indian are as easily enveloped in obscur
ity, as his footsteps through the forest are
obliterated by the leaves of autumn. Nation upon
nation, and race after race have sprung up and hast
ened onward to their fall ; and neither the first nor
the last could explain its origin, or number the years
of its duration.

From this general uncertainty of knowledge which
surrounds our Indian races, we turn with some degree
of encouragement to the Iroquois, the last in the order
of succession which exercised dominion over the ter
ritories out of which New York was . erected. We
stand with them in many interesting relations. Hav
ing flourished side by side with our early population,
the events of their decline became interwoven with
our civil affairs ; and having finally yielded up their
sovereignty, from the rulers of the land, they became
dependent nations, dwelling under the protection of
the government which displaced them.

To the Iroquois, by common consent, has been as
signed the highest position among the Indian races of

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the continent living in the hunter state. In legisla
tion, in eloquence, in fortitude and in military sagacity
they had no equals. " No frightful solitude in the
wilderness, no impenetrable recess in the frozen north "
was proof against their courage and daring. Spice
offered no protection, distance no shelter from their
war parties, which ranged equally the hills of New Eng
land, the declivities of the Alleganies, the prairies of the
Mississippi, and the forests of the Tennessee. In the
establishment of a League for the double purpose of
acquiring strength and securing peace, their capacity for
civil organization, and their wisdom in legislation were
favorably exhibited. During the expansion of the
power of the Iroquois, from the commencement of the
seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth centuries,
there sprang up among them a class of orators and chiefs,
unrivalled among the red men for eloquence in council,
and bravery upon the war-path. In a word, the League
of the Iroquois exhibited the highest development of
the Indian ever reached by him in the hunter state.

Many circumstances thus unite to invest its history
with permanent interest. An analysis of its civil and
domestic institutions will exhibit all the elements of
Indian society, and of Indian life, throughout the re
public. From the higher legislation of the Iroquois,
and the increased weight and diversity of affairs under
the League, there resulted a fuller manifestation of the
Indian character than is to be found in any other race
except the Aztec. Their institutions contain the sum
and substance of those of the whole Indian family.
While, however, their political events have been dili
gently collected and arranged, the government which

THE HUNTER STATE

they constructed, the social ties by which they were
bound together, and the motives and restraints by
which they were influenced have scarcely been made
subjects of inquiry, and never of extended investiga
tion. The League of the Iroquois, dismembered and
in fragments, still clings together in the twilight of its
existence, by the shreds of that moral faith, which no
political misfortunes could loosen, and no lapse of
years could rend asunder. There are reasons for this
spectacle, which no mere alliance of nations can explain,
and which history has hitherto failed to reach. It is not
the purpose of this work to narrate their political events ;
but to inquire into the structure and spirit of the gov
ernment, and the nature of the institutions, under and
through which these historical results were produced.

In entering upon such a theme of inquiry as an
Indian organization, there are some general considera
tions which press upon the attention, and which are
worthy of previous thought. By the formation of
societies and governments, mankind are brought largely
under the influence of the social relations, and their
progress has been found to be in exact proportion to
the wisdom of the institutions under which their minds
were developed. The passion of the red man for the
hunter life has proved to be a principle too deeply in
wrought, to be controlled by efforts of legislation. His
government, if one was sought to be established, must
have conformed to this irresistible tendency of his
mind, this inborn sentiment ; otherwise it would have
been disregarded. The effect of this powerful prin
ciple has been to enchain the tribes of North America
to their primitive state. Another effect of this prin-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

ciple, and still more fatal to their political prosperity,
is to be found in the repeated subdivisions of the
generic stocks of the continent, by which all large
accumulations of numbers and power, in any race or
nation, have been prevented. Whenever a hunting-
ground became too thickly populated for the easy sub
sistence of its occupants, a band, under some favorite
chief, put forth, like the swarm from the parent hive,
in quest of a new habitation ; and in course of time
became independent. We have here the true reason,
why the red race has never risen, nor can rise above
its present level. The fewness of the generic stocks,
the unlimited number of independent tribes, and their
past history establish the correctness of this position.
It is obvious that the founders of the League were
aware of the enfeebling effects of these repeated sub
divisions, and sought, by the counter principle of
federation, to arrest the evil. They aimed to knit the
whole race together under such a system of relation
ships, that, by its natural expansion, an Indian empire
would be developed, of sufficient magnitude to control
surrounding nations, and thus secure an exemption
from perpetual warfare. We/nust regard it, therefore,
as no ordinary achievement, that the legislators of the
Iroquois united the several tribes into independent
nations, and between these nations established a per
fect and harmonious union. And beyond this, that
by a still higher effort of legislation, they succeeded in
so adjusting the confederacy, that as a political fabric
composed of independent parts, it was adapted to the
hunter state, and yet contained the elements of an
energetic government.(10)

ITS INSTITUTIONS TRANSITORT

It is another singular feature, in connection with
Indian organizations, that their decline and fall are
sudden, and usually simultaneous. A rude shock
from without or within but too easily disturbs their
inter-relations ; and when once cast back upon the
predominating sentiment of Indian life, the hunter
inclination, a powerful nation rapidly dissolves into a
multitude of fragments, and is lost and forgotten in
the undistinguished mass of lesser tribes. But the
League of the Iroquois was subjected to a severer test.
It went down before the Saxon, and not the Indian
race. If it had been left to resist the pressure of sur
rounding nations, living, like the Iroquois themselves,
a hunter life, there is reason to believe that it would
have subsisted for ages ; and perhaps, having broken
the hunter spell, would have introduced civilization
by an original and spontaneous movement.

Of the Indian character it is an original peculiarity,
that he has no desire to perpetuate himself in the
remembrance of distant generations, by monumental
inscriptions, or other erections fabricated by the art
and industry of man.- The Iroquois would have
passed away without leaving a vestige or memorial of
their existence behind, if to them had been intrusted
the preservation of their name and deeds. A verbal
language, a people without a city, a government with
out a record, are as fleeting as the deer and the wild
fowl, the Indian's co-tenants of the forest. With the
departure of the individual, every vestige of Indian
sovereignty vanishes. He leaves but the arrow-head
upon the hillside, fit emblem of his pursuits ; and the
rude pipe and ruder vessel entombed beside his

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

bones — at once the record of his superstition, and the
evidence of his existence. If the red man had any
ambition for immortality, he would intrust his fame to
the unwritten remembrance of his tribe and race,
rather than to inscriptions on columns in his native
land, or other monument more durable than brass,
which neither wasting rain, nor raging wind, nor flight
of time could overthrow.1

Since this race must ever figure upon the opening
pages of our territorial history, and some judgment be
passed upon them, it becomes our duty to search out
their government and institutions, and to record with
impartiality their political transactions ; lest, in addi
tion to the extinguishment of their Council Fires, we
subject their memory, as a people, to an unjust and
unmerited judgment.

Upon an extended examination of their institutions,
it will become apparent, that the League was estab
lished upon the principles, and was designed to be but
an elaboration, of the Family Relationships. These
relations are older than the notions of society or
government, and are consistent alike with the hunter,
the pastoral and the civilized state. The several
nations of the Iroquois, united, constituted one Family,
dwelling together in one Long House ; and these ties

1 Compare the sentiments of with those of Horace, —
Pericles, — Exegi monumentum acre perennius, *

, A $ . x , . ~ / Reealique situ pyramidum altius :

Avdpdiv yap etrKpavoiv iraaa 777 ra- r;

\ , . - / . - , , Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impo-
(pos, Kal ou (TTr)\cav \JLOVOV iv TTI oiKtia,

01) fj.aife i ciriypa(f)T). a\\a Kal €v ry fify

Trpotr-nKotar, &ypa<pos prfiw irap'eKd- Possit diruere» aut mnumerabiles

<TT<? r9,s yv£ws /iaAAoy $ rov tpyov Annorum series, et fuga temporum.

HOR-> Lib- 3> Ode 3°»
THUCYD., Lib. a, c. 43. * See Vol. II. p. 161.

ORIGIN OF THE LEAGUE

of family relationship were carried throughout their
civil and social system, from individuals to tribes,
from tribes to nations, and from the nations to the
League itself, and bound them together in one com
mon, indissoluble brotherhood.

In their own account of the origin of the League,
the Iroquois invariably go back to a remote and un
certain period, when the compact between the Five
Nations was formed, its details and provisions were
settled, and those laws and institutions were established,
under which, without essential change, they afterwards
continued to flourish. If we may trust their testi
mony, the system under which they confederated was
not of gradual construction, under the suggestions of
necessity ; but was the result of one protracted effort
of legislation. (18) The nations were, at the time, separate
and hostile bands, although of generic origin, and were
drawn together in council to deliberate upon the plan
of a League, which a wise man of the Onondaga nation
had projected, and under which, he undertook to
assure them, the united nations could elevate them
selves to a general supremacy. Tradition has pre
served the name of Da-gd-no-we-dd as the founder of
the League, and the first lawgiver of the Ho-de'-no-sau-
nee. It likewise points to the northern shore of the
Ga-nuri-ta-ahy or Onondaga lake, as the place where
the first council-fire was kindled, around which the
chiefs and wise men of the several nations were gath
ered, and where, after a debate of many days, its estab
lishment was effected.

Their traditions further inform us, that the con
federacy, as framed by this council, with its laws, rules,

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

inter-relationships of the people and mode of administra
tion, has come down through many generations to the
present age, with scarcely a change ; except the addi
tion of an inferior class of rulers, called chiefs, in con
tradistinction to the sachems, and a modification of the
law in relation to marriage. Without entering here
upon any inquiry to show the probable accuracy of their
traditions, it will be sufficient to investigate the struc
ture of the government, as it stood in its full vigor at
the commencement of the last century, and to deduce
the general principles upon which it was founded.

The central government was organized and admin
istered upon the same principles which regulated that
of each nation, in its separate capacity ; the nations
sustaining nearly the same relation to the League, that
the American states bear to the Union. In the
former, several oligarchies were contained within one,
in the same manner as in the latter, several republics
are embraced within one republic.(38) To obtain a
general conception of the character of a government
the ruler, or ruling body, or bodies, as the case may be,
would be the first object of attention ; and when their
powers and tenure of office are discovered, the true
index is obtained to the nature of the government.
In the case of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee, the organization
was externally so obscure as to induce a universal be
lief that the relations between ruler and people were
simply those of chief and follower — the earliest and
lowest political relation between man and man ; while,
in point of fact, the Iroquois had emerged from this
primitive state of society, and had organized a sys
tematic government.

i.O-HA DAOR PORCUPINE QUILL
ZGA-NOSA OR CONCH SHELL BREAST PLATE

S ACHEMSHIP S

At the institution of the League, fifty (47) per
manent sachemships were created, with appropriate
names ; and in the sachems who held these titles
were vested the supreme powers of the confederacy. (40)
To secure order in the succession, and to determine
the individuals entitled, the sachemships were made
hereditary, under limited and peculiar laws of descent.
The sachems themselves were equal in rank and au
thority, and instead of holding separate territorial
jurisdictions, their powers were joint, and co-extensive
with the League. As a safeguard against contention
and fraud, each sachem was " raised up," and invested
with his title by a council of all the sachems, with suit
able forms and ceremonies. Until this ceremony of
confirmation or investiture, no one could become a
ruler. He received, when raised up, the name of the
sachemship itself, as in the case of titles of nobility,
and so also did his successors, from generation to gen
eration. The sachemships were distributed unequally
between the five nations, but without thereby giving to.
either a preponderance of political power. Nine of
them were assigned to the Mohawk nation, nine to the
Oneida, fourteen to the Onondaga, ten to the Cayuga
and eight to the Sentca. The sachems, united, formed
the Council of the League, the ruling body, in which
resided the executive, legislative and judicial authority.
It thus appears that the government of the Iroquois
was an oligarchy, taking the term, at least, in the
literal sense, " the rule of the few ; " and, while more
system is observable in this than in the oligarchies of
antiquity, it seems, also, better calculated, in its frame
work, to resist political changes.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

This specimen of Indian legislation is so remarkable,
that a table of these sachemships, with their division
into classes, indicating certain inter-relations, hereafter
to be explained, is inserted in the Seneca dialect.

Titles or Sachemships of the Iroquois, founded at the institution of
the League ; which have been borne by their Sachems in succes
sion, from its formation to the present tinted

GA-NE-A'-GA-O-NO, OR MOHAWK NATION.

I. I. Da-ga-e'-o-ga.1 2. Ha-yo-went'-ha.2 3. Da-ga-
no-we'-da.3

II. 4. So-a-e-wa'-ah.4 5. Da-yo'-ho-go.5 6. O-a-a'-
go-wa.6

III. 7. Da-an-no-ga'-e-neh.7 8. Sa-da'-ga-e-wa-deh.8
9. Has-da-weh'-se-ont-ha.9

O-NA-YOTE'-KAH-O-NO, OR ONEIDA NATION.

I. i. Ho-das'-ha-teh.10 2. Ga-no-gweh'-yo-do.11 3. Da-
yo-ha'-gwen-da.12

II. 4. So-no-sase'.18 5. To-no-a-ga'-o.14 6. Ha-de-a-dun-
nent'-ha.15

III. 7. Da-wa-da'-o-da-yo.16 8. Ga-ne-a-dus'-ha-yeh.17
9. Ho-wus'-ha-da-o.18

1 This name signifies "Neutral," or "the Shield." 2 " Man who
combs." 8 " Inexhaustible." 4 <£ Small speech." 6 <c At the forks."
6 " At the great river." 7 " Dragging his horns." 8 " Even tempered."
9 " Hanging up rattles." The Sachems of the first class belonged to the
Turtle Tribe, of the second to the Wolf Tribe, and of the third to the
Bear Tribe.

10 " A man bearing a burden." n " A man covered with cat tail
down," 12 « Opening through the woods." 13 "A long string."
14 " A man with a headache." 15 " Swallowing himself." 16 " Place
of the echo."/ 17 <{ War club on the ground." 18 " A man steaming
himself." The sachems of the first class in the Oneida nation belonged
to the Wolf Tribe, of the second to the Turtle Tribe, and of the third to
the Bear Tribe.

SACHEMSHIPS

O-NUN-DAH'-GA-O-NO, OR ONONDAGA NATION.
I. I. To-do-da-ho.1 2. To-nes'-sa-ah. 3. Da-at-ga-

dose.2

II. 4. Ga-nea-da'-je-wake.3 5. Ah-wa'-ga-yat.4 6. Da-

a-yat'-gwa-e.

III. 7. Ho-no-we-na'-to.5

IV. 8. Ga-wa-na'-san-do.6 9. Ha-e'-ho.7 10. Ho-yo-ne-
a'-ne.8 u. Sa-da'-qua-seh.9

V. 12. Sa-go-ga-ha'.10 13. Ho-sa-ha'-ho.11 14. Ska-no'-
wun-de.12

GUE'-U-GWEH-O-NO, OR CAYUGA NATION.
I. i. Da-ga'-a-yo.13 2. Da-je-no'-da-weh-o. 3. Ga-da'-
gwa'-sa. 4. So-yo-wase'. 5. Ha-de-as'-yo-no.

II. 6. Da-yo-o-yo'-go. 7. Jote-ho-weh'-ko.14 8. De-a-
w ate '-ho.

III. 9. To-da-e-W. 10. Des-ga'-heh.

NUN-DA-WAH'-O-NO, OR SENECA NATION.
I. I. Ga'-ne-o-di'-yo.15 2. Sa-da-ga'-o-yase.16
II. 3. Ga-no-gi'-e.17 4. Sa-geh'-jo-wa.18

III. 5. Sa-de-a-no'-wus.19 6. Nis-ha-ne-a'-nent.20

IV. 7. Ga-no-go-e-da'-we.21 8. Do-ne-ho-ga'-weh.22

1 "Tangled." This was the most dignified title in the list. It
belonged to the Bear Tribe. 2 " On the watch," Bear Tribe. This
sachem and the one before him were hereditary counsellors of To-do-da' -ho.

3 This word signifies " Bitter body." The title belonged to the Snipe
Tribe. 4 Turtle Tribe. 6 This sachem was the hereditary keeper of
the Wampum, Wolf Tribe. (83) e Deer Tribe. 7 Deer Tribe. 8 Turtle
Tribe. 9 Bear Tribe. 10 Signifies " Having a glimpse," Deer Tribe.
11 « Large mouth," Turtle Tribe. 12 «« Over the creek," Turtle Trib~.

18 «' Man frightened." 14 " Very cold." The tribes of the Cayuga
sachems were as follows: i Deer, 2 Heron, 3 and 4 Bear, 5 and 7 Turtle,
8 Heron, 9 and 10 Snipe.

15 "Handsome lake," Turtle Tribe. 10 "Level heavens," Snipe
Tribe. 17 Turtle Tribe. 18 « Great forehead," Hawk Tribe. 19 "'As
sistant," Bear Tribe. 20 " Falling day," Snipe Tribe. 21 « H^tir
burned off," Snipe Tribe. 22 " Open door," Wolf Tribe.

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

These titles or names were hereditary in the several
tribes of which each nation was composed. When an
individual was made a sachem,(53) upon the death
or deposition of one of the fifty, his name was "taken
away," (G8) and the name of the sachemship held by his
predecessor was conferred upon him. Thus, upon the
demise of the Seneca sachem who held the title Gd-
ne-o-di-yO) a successor would be raised up from the
Turtle tribe, in which the sachemship was hereditary,
and after the ceremony of investiture, the person
would be known among the Iroquois only under the
name of Ga-ne-o-di'-yo. These fifty titles, excepting
two, have been held by as many sachems, in succes
sion, as generations have passed away since the forma
tion of the League.(50)

The Onondaga nation, being situated in a central
position, were made the keepers both of the Council
Brand, and of the Wampum, in which the structure
and principles of their government, and their laws and
treaties were recorded. At stated periods, usually in
the autumn of each year, the sachems of the League
assembled in council at Onondaga, which was in effect
the seat of government, to legislate for the common
welfare. Exigencies of a public or domestic character
often led to the summoning of this council at extra
ordinary seasons, but the place was not confined to
Onondaga. It could be appointed in the territory of
either of the nations, under established usages. Orig
inally the object of the general council was to raise up
sachems to fill vacancies. In the course of time, as
their intercourse with foreign nations became more
important, it assumed the charge of all matters which

COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE

concerned the League. It declared war and made
peace, sent and received embassies, entered into trea
ties of alliance, regulated the affairs of subjugated
nations, received new members into the League, ex
tended its protection over feeble tribes, in a word,
took all needful measures to promote their prosperity,
and enlarge their dominion.

Notwithstanding the equality of rights, privileges
and powers between the members of this body of
sachems, there were certain discriminations between
them, which rendered some more dignified than others.
The strongest illustration is found in the Onondaga
sachem, To-do-da-ho, who has always been regarded
as the most noble sachem of the League. As an
acknowledgment of his eminence, two of the Onon
daga sachems were assigned to him as hereditary I
counsellors. The great respect and deference paid
by the Iroquois to this title, has led to the vulgar
error, that JTo-do-da-ho was the king or civil head of
the confederacy. He possessed, in fact, no unusual
or executive powers, no authority which was not
equally enjoyed by his compeers ; and when the light
of tradition is introduced, to clear up the apparent
anomaly, it will be seen that the reverence of the
people was rather for the title itself than for the per
son who held it, as it was one of their illustrious
names. At the establishment of the League, an~
Onondaga by the name of T'o-do-da-ho had rendered
himself a potent ruler, by the force of his military
achievements. Tradition says that he had conquered
the Cayugas and the Senecas. It represents his head
as covered with tangled serpents, and his look, when

\\J t/

N\N

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

angry, as so terrible that whoever looked upon him
fell dead. It relates that when the League was
formed, the snakes were combed out of his hair by a
Mohawk sachem, who was hence named Ha-yo-went'-
ha, <c the man who combs." To-do-da-ho was reluctant
to consent to the new order of things, as he would
thereby be shorn of his absolute power, and be placed
among a number of equals. To remove these objec
tions in some measure, and to commemorate his mag
nanimity, the first sachemship was named after him,
and was dignified above the others by special marks
of honor ; but such, however, as were in perfect con
sistency with an equal distribution of powers among
all the sachems as a body. Down to the present day,
among the Iroquois, this name is the personification
of heroism, of forecast, and of dignity of character;
and this title has ever been regarded as more illus
trious than any other in the catalogue of Iroquois
nobility.

To several other of these officers or names, par
ticular duties were affixed at the institution of the
League. For example: the Senecas were made the
door-keepers of the Long House ; and having imposed
upon Do-ne-ho-g'd-weh) the eighth sachem,(13) the duty
of watching the door, they gave to him a sub-sachem,
or assistant, to enable him to execute this trust. This
sub-sachem was raised up at the same time with his
superior, with the same forms and ceremonies, and
received the name or title which was created simulta
neously with that of the sachemship. It was his
duty to stand behind the sachem on all public occa
sions, and to act as his runner or attendant, as well as

EQUALITY OF THE SACHEMS

in the capacity of a counsellor.(51) Ho-no-we-na-to,
the Onondaga sachem who was made the keeper of
the wampum, had also a sub-sachem, or assistant.
Several other sachems, to whom special responsibilities
were confided, were allowed sub-sachems, to enable
them to fulfil their duties, or perhaps as a mark of
honor. All of these special marks of distinction
were consistent with perfect equality among the
sachems, as members of one ruling body, in the
administration of the affairs of the League. When
their method of legislating is considered, this fact will
appear with greater distinctness.

The several sachems, in whom, when united in
general council, resided the supreme powers of the
League, formed, when apart in their own territories,
the ruling bodies of their respective nations. When
assembled as the Council of the League, the power
of each sachem became co-extensive with the gov
ernment, and direct relations were created between
all the people and each individual ruler; but when
the sachems of a nation were convened in council, all
its internal affairs fell under their immediate cogni
zance. For all purposes of a local and domestic, and
many of a political character, the nations were entirely
independent of each other. The nine Mohawk
sachems administered the affairs of that nation with
joint authority, precisely in the same manner as they
did, in connection with their colleagues, the affairs of
the League at large. With similar powers, the ten
Cayuga sachems regulated the domestic affairs of their
nation.

As the sachems of each nation stood upon a per-

VOL. i. — 5 65

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

feet equality, in authority and privileges, the meas
ure of influence was determined entirely by the
talents and address of the individual. In the coun
cils of the nation, which were of frequent occurrence,
all business of national concernment was transacted ;
and, although the questions moved on such occa
sions would be finally settled by the opinions of
the sachems, yet such was the spirit of the Iroquois
system of government, that the influence of the
inferior chiefs, the warriors, and even of the women
would make itself felt, whenever the subject itself
aroused a general public interest.

If we seek their warrant for the exercise of power
in the etymology of the word Ho-yar-na-go-war^ by
which the sachems were known as a class, it will be
found to intimate a check upon, rather than an
enlargement of their authority ; for it signifies, simply,
"counsellor of the people," a beautiful as well as
appropriate designation of a ruler. But within their
sphere of action, their powers were highly arbitrary in
ancient times.

Next to the sachems, in position, stood the Chiefs,
an inferior class of rulers, the very existence of whose
office was an anomaly in the oligarchy of the Iroquois.
Many years after the establishment of the League,
even subsequent to the commencement of their inter
course with the whites, there arose a necessity for
raising up this class. It was an innovation upon the
original framework of the confederacy, but it was
demanded by circumstances which could not be re
sisted. The office of chief, Hd-seh-no-wa-neh, which
is rendered " an elevated name," was made elective,

CHIEFS

and the reward of merit ; but without any power of
descent, the title terminating with the individual.
No limit to the number was established. The Sen-
ecas, still residing in New York, number about two
thousand five hundred, and exclusive of the eight
sachems, they have about seventy chiefs. At first
their powers were extremely limited, and confined to
a participation in the local affairs of their own nation,
in the management of which they acted as the coun
sellors and assistants of the sachems, rather than in
the capacity of rulers. But they continued to increase
in influence, with their multiplication in numbers, and
to encroach upon the powers of the sachems, until at
the present time, when the League is mostly dismem
bered, and their internal organization has undergone
some essential changes, they have raised themselves to
an equality, in many respects, with the sachems them
selves. After their election, they were raised up by
a council of the nation ; but a ratification, by the
general council of the sachems, was necessary to com
plete the investiture. The tenure of this office still
continues the same.

The powers and duties of the sachems and chiefs
were entirely of a civil character, and confined, by their
organic laws, to the affairs of peace. No sachem
could go out to war in his official capacity, as a civil
ruler. If disposed to take the war-path, he laid aside
his civil office, for the time being, and became a
common warrior. It becomes an important inquiry,
therefore, to ascertain in whom the military power,
was vested. The Iroquois had no- distinct class of
war-chiefs, raised up and set apart to command in

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

time of war; neither do the sachems or chiefs appear
to have possessed the power of appointing such persons
^s they considered suitable to the post of command.
\ All military operations were left entirely to private
enterprise, and to the system of voluntary service,
the sachems seeking rather to repress and restrain,
than to encourage the martial ardor of the people.
vTheir principal war-captains were to be found among
the class called chiefs, many of whom were elected
to this office in reward for their military achievements.
The singular method of warfare among the Iroquois
renders it extremely difficult to obtain a complete and
satisfactory explanation of the manner in which their
warlike operations were conducted. Their whole civil
policy was averse to the concentration of power in
the hands of any single individual, but inclined to
the opposite principle of division among a number
of equals ; and this policy they carried into their
military as well as through their civil organization.
Small bands were, in the first instance, organized by
individual leaders, each of which, if they were after
wards united upon the same enterprise, continued
under its own captain, and the whole force, as well
as the conduct of the expedition, was under their
joint management. They appointed no one of their
number to absolute command, but the general direction
was left open to the strongest will, or the most persua
sive voice.

As they were at war with all nations not in their
actual alliance, it was lawful for any warrior to or
ganize a party, and seek adventures wherever he
pleased to direct his steps. Perhaps some chief, filled

MILITARY CHIEFTAINS

with martial ardor, planned an inroad upon the Cher-
okees of the south ; and, having given a war-dance,
and thus enlisted all who wished to share the glory
of the adventure, took the war-path at once, upon
his distant and perilous enterprise. In such ways as
this, many expeditions originated ; and it is believed
that a great part of the warlike transactions of the
Iroquois were nothing more than personal adventures,
or the daring deeds of inconsiderable war-parties.
Under such a state of things, a favorite leader, pos
sessed of< the confidence of the people from his war
like achievements, would be in no want of followers,
in the midst of a general war; nor would the League
be in any danger of losing the services of its most
capable military commanders. To obviate the dan
gerous consequences of disagreement, when the several
nations were prosecuting a common war, and their
forces were united into one body, an expedient was
resorted to for securing unanimity in their plans, in
the establishment of two supreme military chieftain
cies. The two chieftains who held these offices were
designed rather to take the general supervision of the
affairs of war, than the actual command in the field,
although they were not debarred from assuming it,
if they were disposed to do so. These war-chiefships
were made hereditary, like the sachemships, and va
cancies were filled in the same manner. When the
Senecas, at the institution of the League, were made
the door-keepers, these chieftaincies were assigned to
them, for the reason that being at the door, they
would first take the war-path to drive back the in
vader. The first of these was named Ta-wan-ne-

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

arSy1 " needle breaker," and the title made hereditary in
the Wolf tribe ; the second was named So-nd-so-wa,
"great oyster shell," and the office assigned to the
Turtle tribe. To these high chieftains, as the Iroquois
now affirm, was intrusted the supreme command of the
forces of the League, and the general management of
its military affairs.(48)

During the Revolution, Ta-yen-da-na'-ga, Joseph
Brant, commanded the war-parties of the Mohawks ;
and, from his conspicuous position and the high con
fidence reposed in him, rather than from any claim
advanced by himself, the title of military chieftain
of the League has been conceded to him by some
writers. But this is entirely a mistake, or rather, a
false assertion, which is expressly contradicted by
all of the Iroquois nations, including the Mohawks
themselves. (37)

It is, perhaps, in itself singular, that no religious
functionaries were recognized in the League. This
is shown by the fact, that none were ever raised up
by the general council of sachems, to fill a sacerdo
tal office. There was, however, a class in each nation,
styled Ho-nun-de'-unt) " keepers of the faith," who were
regularly appointed to officiate at their festivals, and
to take the general supervision of their religious
affairs.

To the officers above enumerated, the adminis
tration of the League was intrusted. The congress
of sachems took the charge of all those matters

1 Governor Blacksnake, who now resides upon the Allegany reser
vation, and is upwards of a hundred years of age, now holds this
title. (33)

POPULAR INFLUENCE

which pertained to the public welfare. With them
resided the executive, legislative and judicial authority,
so far as they were not possessed by the people ;
although their powers in many things appear to have
been rather advisory than executive. The chiefs,
from counsellors and intermediaries between the
sachems and the people, increased in influence, until
they became rulers with the sachems themselves,
thus widening and liberalizing the oligarchy. In all
matters of war, the power appears to have resided
chiefly with the people, and its prosecution to have
been left to private adventure. If several bands
united, they had as many generals as bands, who
governed their proceedings by a council, in which,
as in civil affairs, unanimity was a fundamental law.
The two high military chieftains had rather the
planning and general management of the campaign,
than the actual conduct of the forces. Running
through their whole system of administration, was
a public sentiment, which gave its own tendency to j
affairs, and illustrated to a remarkable degree, that |
the government rested upon the popular will, and;
not upon the arbitrary sway of chiefs.

From whatever point the general features of the
League are scrutinized, it must be regarded as a
beautiful, as well as a remarkable structure — the
triumph of Indian legislation. When the posses
sions of the Iroquois were enlarged by conquest
followed by occupation, it was an expansion, and
not a dismemberment of the confederacy, one of its
leading objects being the absorption of contiguous
nations. To the Eries and to the Neuter nation,

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

according to tradition, the Iroquois offered the alter
native of admission into the League, or extermina
tion; and the strangeness of this proposition will
disappear, when it is remembered that an Indian
nation regards itself as at war with all others not
in actual alliance. Peace itself was one of the ulti
mate objects aimed at by the founders of this Indian
oligarchy, to be secured by the admission, or subju
gation of surrounding nations. In their progressive
course, their empire enlarged, until they had stretched
their chain around the half of our republic, and ren
dered their names a terror from the hills of New
England to the deepest seclusions upon the Missis
sippi ; when the advent of another race arrested their
career, and prepared the way for the gradual extin
guishment of their council-fires, and the desolation
of the Long House.

With a mere confederacy of Indian nations, the
constant tendency would be to a rupture, from
remoteness of position and interest, and from the
inherent weakness of such a compact. In the case
under consideration, something more lasting was
aimed at, than a simple union of the five nations,
in the nature of an alliance. A blending of the
national sovereignties into one government was
sought for and achieved by these forest statesmen.
The League made the Ho-de-no-sau-nee one people,
with one government, one system of institutions, one
executive will. Yet the powers of the government
were not so entirely centralized that the national
independencies disappeared. This was very far from
the fact. The crowning feature of the League, as

UN ITT OF THE RACE

a political structure, was the perfect independence
and individuality of the national sovereignties, in the
midst of a central and embracing government, which
presented such a cemented exterior that its subdivi
sions would scarcely have been discovered in the
general transactions of the League.

How these ends were attained we have yet to
examine.

The government sat lightly upon the people, who,
in effect, were governed but little. It secured to each
that individual independence, which the Ho-de'-no-
sau-nee knew how to prize as well as the Saxon race ;
and which, amid all their political changes, they have
continued to preserve.

Chapter IV

Division into Tribes — Family Relationships — Descent in the
Female Line — Degrees of Consanguinity — Succession of Sa
chems — Names — Nature of a Tribe — Equality of the Nations
— National Epithets — Office of Chief Elective — Distinguished
Men were Chiefs — Stability of the Oligarchy

THE division of a people into tribes is the
most simple organization of society. (54)
Each tribe being in the nature of a family,
the ties of relationship which bind its individual
members together are indispensable, until they are
rendered unnecessary by the adoption of a form
of government, and the substitution of other ties,
which answer the same ends of protection and
security.

When a people have long remained in the tribal
state, it becomes extremely difficult to remove all
traces of such organic divisions by the substitution
of new institutions.(11) In the tribes of the Jews,
this position is illustrated. Among the Greeks also,
especially the Athenians, the traces of their original
divisions never entirely disappeared. Solon substi
tuted classes for tribes, but subsequently Cleisthenes
restored the tribes, retaining however the classes, and
increased the number ; thus perpetuating this early
social organization of the Athenians among their civil
institutions. The Athenian tribe was a group of
families, with subdivisions ; the Roman tribes, estab-

DIVISION INTO TRIBES

lished by Romulus, the same. On the other hand,
the Jewish tribes embraced only the lineal descendants
of a common father; and its individual members
being of consanguinity, the tribe itself was essentially
different from the Grecian. The Iroquois tribe was
unlike them all. It was not a group of families ; -
neither was it made up of the descendants of a
common father, as the father and his child were never
of the same tribe. In the sequel, however, it will
be discovered to be nearest the Jewish ; differing
from it, as from all other similar institutions of the
old world, chiefly in this, that descent followed, in
all cases, the female line.

The founders of the Iroquois Confederacy did not
seek to suspend the tribal divisions of the people, to
introduce a different social organization ; but on the
contrary, they rested the League itself upon the tribes,
and through them, sought to interweave the race into
one political family. A careful exploration of those
tribal relationships which characterize the political sys
tem of the Iroquois, becomes, therefore, of importance.
Without such knowledge as this will afford, their gov
ernment itself is wholly unmeaning and inexplicable.

In each nation there were eight tnf>es,(58) which
were arranged in two divisions/55 and named as
follows : —

Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle.

Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk.

These animals are common to all latitudes between
Louisiana and Montreal, and hence in themselves
are incapable of throwing any light upon the land, or

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

locality in which the race originated.1 These names
had doubtless an emblematical signification, which
reached beyond the object itself. Of the origin of
their tribal divisions but little is known, and to it,
perhaps, but little importance attaches. Tradition
declares that the Bear and the Deer were the original
tribes, and that the residue were subdivisions/54'55'
57,58. Evidence of the existence of seven of the
tribes at the establishment of the Oligarchy, is fur
nished in the distribution of the Onondaga and Seneca
sachemships. The fourteen assigned to the former
nation were divided between the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
Turtle, Snipe, and Deer tribes ; while the eight be
longing to the latter, were given to the Wolf, Bear,
Turtle, Snipe, and Hawk, to the exclusion of the
others, if they then existed ; and in these several tribes
they were made perpetually hereditary.

1 Table exhibiting the scientific names of the animals adopted by the
Iroquois as the emblems of their respective tribes. It follows the classi
fication employed in the Nat. History of New York. The species have
been determined from careful descriptions obtained of the Senecas.

Seneca Name. Order. Family. Genus. Species.

Wolf. Tor-yoh'-ne. Carnivora. Canidap. Lupus. Occidentalis.

Bear. Ne-e-ar'-gu-ye. Carnivora. Ursidae. Ursus. Americanus.

Beaver. Non-gar-ne'-e-ar-goh. Rodentia. Castorid*. Castor. Fiber.

Turtle. Ga-ne-e-ar-teh-go'-wa. Chelonia. Chelonidae. Chelonura. Serpentina.

Deer. Na-o'-geh. Ungulata. Ccrvidae. Cervus. Virginianus.

Snipe. Doo-ese-doo-we'. Grallae. Scolopacidx. Totanus. Semipalmatus.

Heron. Jo-as'-seh. Grail*. Ardeida.-. Ardea. Candidissima.

Hawk. Os-sweh-ga-da-ga'-ah. Accipitres. Falconidae. Falco. Columbarius.

NOTE. Some doubt rests upon the Heron .and the Snipe concerning
the species. In the former case the choice lies between the Ardea Can
didissima and the Ardea Leucc. In the latter, the large number of the
species introduces a difficulty. The Semipalmatus corresponds most
nearly with the description of the bird.

DIVISION INTO TRIBES

The division of the people of each nation into eight
tribes, whether pre-existing, or perfected at the estab
lishment of the Confederacy, did not terminate in its
objects with the nation itself.1 It became the means
of effecting the most perfect union of separate nations
"ever devised by the wit of man." (57) , In effect,
the Wolf tribe was divided into five parts, and one
fifth of it placed in each of the five nations. The re
maining tribes were subjected to the same division
and distribution. Between those of the same name —
or in other words, between the separated parts of each
tribe — there existed a tie of brotherhood, which
linked the nations together with indissoluble bonds.
The Mohawk of the Wolf tribe recognized the. Seneca
of the Wolf tribe as his brother, and they were bound
to each other by the ties of consanguinity. In like
manner the Oneida of the Turtle or other tribe re
ceived the Cayuga or Onondaga of the same tribe, as
a brother, and with a fraternal welcome. This rela
tionship was not ideal, but was founded upon actual
consanguinity. In the eyes of an Iroquois, every
member of his own tribe, in whatever nation, was as
much his brother or his sister as it children ot the
same mother. This cross-relationship between the"

1 The Senecas had eight tribes, the Cayugas eight, the Tuscaroras
seven, the Onondagas eight, the Oneidas three, and the Mohawks three.
The descendants of the ancient Oneidas and Mohawks affirm that their
ancestors never had but three tribes, the Wolf, Bear, and Turtle. On
old treaties with these nations now in the State Department, these titles
appear as their only social divisions. But by the original laws of the
League, neither of these tribes could intermarry. Hence there appears
to have been a necessity for the existence originally of the remaining
tribes, or some of them, to admit of the verity of this law in relation to
marriage. (58)

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

tribes of the same name, and which was stronger, if
possible, than the chain of brotherhood between the
several tribes of the same nation, is still preserved in
all its original strength. It doubtless furnishes the
chief reason of the tenacity with which the fragments
of the League still cling together. If either of the
five nations had wished to cast off the alliance, it must
also have broken this bond of brotherhood. Had the
nations fallen into collision, it would have turned Hawk
tribe against Hawk tribe, Heron against Heron, brother
against brother. The history of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee
exhibits the wisdom of these organic provisions ; for,
during the long period through which the League sub
sisted, they never fell into anarchy, nor even approx
imated to dissolution from internal disorders. (39)

With the progress of the inquiry, it becomes more
apparent that the Confederacy was in effect a League
of Tribes.' With the ties of kindred as its principle
of union, the whole race was interwoven into one
great family, composed of tribes in its first subdivision
(for the nations were counterparts of each other) ; and
the tribes themselves, in their subdivisions, composed
of parts of many households. Without these close
inter-relations, resting, as many of them do, upon
the strong impulses of nature, a mere alliance between
the Iroquois nations would have been feeble and
transitory.

In this manner was constructed the League of the
Ho-de'-no-sau-nee^ in itself an extraordinary specimen
of Indian legislation. Simple in its foundation upon
the family relationships, effective in the lasting vigor
inherent in the ties of kindred, and perfect in its suc-

AH-TA-QUA-0-WEH OR MOCCASIN FOR FEMALE.

FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

cess, in achieving a permanent and harmonious union
of the nations, it forms an enduring monument to that
proud and progressive race, who reared under its pro
tection a wide-spread Indian sovereignty.

All the institutions of the Iroquois have regard to ^
the division of the people into tribes/54 Originally
with reference to marriage, the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
and Turtle tribes, being brothers to each other, were
not allowed to intermarry. The four opposite tribes,
being also brothers to each other, were likewise pro
hibited from intermarrying. Either of the first four
tribes, however, could intermarry with either of the
last four, the relation between them being that of
cousins. Thus Hawk could intermarry with Bear or
Beaver, Heron with Turtle ; but not Beaver and
Turtle, nor Deer and Deer. Whoever violated these
laws of marriage incurred the deepest detestation and
disgrace. In process of time, however, the rigor of
the system was relaxed, until finally the prohibition
was confined to the tribe of the individual, which,
among the residue of the Iroquois, is still religiously
observed. They can now marry into any tribe but
their own. Under the original as well as modern
regulation, the husband and wife were of different
tribes. The children always followed the tribe of
the mother.

As the whole Iroquois system rested upon the
tribes as an organic division of the people, it was
•very natural that the separate rights of each should
be jealously guarded. Not the least remarkable
among their institutions, was that which confined the
transmission of all titles, rights and property in the

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS.

female line to the exclusion of the male. It is
strangely unlike the canons of descent adopted by
civilized nations, but it secured several important ob
jects. If the Deer tribe of the Cayugas, for example,
received a sachemship at the original distribution of
these offices, the descent of such title being limited to
the female line, it could never pass out of the tribe.
It thus became instrumental in giving to the tribe
individuality. A still more marked result, and per
haps a leading object of this enactment was the
perpetual disinheritance of the son.(57) Being of the
tribe of his mother formed an impassable barrier
against him ; and he could neither succeed his father
as a sachem, nor inherit from him even his medal,
or his tomahawk. (103) The inheritance, for the pro
tection of tribal rights, was thus directed from the
lineal descendants of the sachem, to his brothers, or
his sisters' children, or, under certain circumstances,
to some individual of the tribe at large ; each and all
of whom were in his tribe, while his children, being in
another tribe, as before remarked, were placed out of
the line of succession.

By the operation of this principle, also, the cer
tainty of descent in the tribe, of their principal chiefs,
was secured by a rule infallible ; for the child must be
the son of its mother, although not necessarily of its
mother's husband. If the purity of blood be of any
moment, the lawgivers of the Iroquois established the
only certain rule the case admits of, whereby the as
surance might be enjoyed that the ruling sachem was
of the same family or tribe with the first taker of the
titled

DEGREES OF CONSANG UINITT

The Iroquois mode of computing degrees of con
sanguinity was unlike that of the civil or canon law ;
but was yet a clear and definite system. (12) No dis-
tinction was made between the lineal and collateral
lines, either in the ascending or descending series.
To understand this subject, it must be borne in mind,
that of the grandparents one only, the maternal grand
mother, necessarily was, and of the parents only the
mother, and, in the descending line, only the sisters'
children could be of the same tribe with the proposi-
tus, or individual from whom the degrees of relation
ship were reckoned. By careful attention to this rule,
the reasons of the following relationships will be read
ily perceived. The maternal grandmother and her
sisters were equally grandmothers ; the mother and
her sisters were equally mothers ; the children of a
mother's sisters were brothers and sisters ; the children
of a sister were nephews and nieces ; and the grand
children of a sister were his grandchildren. These
were the chief relatives within the tribe, though not
fully extended as to number. Out of the tribe, the
paternal grandfather and his brothers were equally .
grandfathers ; the father and his brothers equally
fathers ; the father's sisters were aunts, while, in the
tribe, the mother's brothers were uncles ; the father's
sister's children were cousins as in the civil law ; the
children of these cousins were nephews and nieces, and
the children of these nephews and nieces were his
grandchildren, or the grandchildren of the propositus.
Again : the children of a brother were his children,
and the grandchildren of a brother were his grand
children ; also, the children of a father's brother were
VOL. i. — 6 8 1

\^—

LEAGUE OF THz IROQUOIS

his brothers and sisters, instead of cousins, as under
the civil law ; and lastly, their children were his grand
children.^

It was the leading object of the Iroquois law of
descent, to merge the collateral in the lineal line, as
sufficiently appears in the above outline. By the
civil law, every departure from the common ancestor
in the descending series, removed the collateral from
the lineal ; while, by the law under consideration, the
two lines were finally brought into one.1 Under the
civil law mode of computation, the degrees of relation
ship become too remote to be traced among collater
als ; while, by the mode of the Iroquois, none of the
collaterals were lost by remoteness of degree. The
number of those linked together by the nearer family
ties was largely multiplied by preventing, in this man
ner, the subdivision of a family into collateral branches.
These relationships, so novel and original, did not
exist simply in theory, but were actual, and of con
stant recognition, and lay at the foundation of their
political as well as social organization. (72)

The succession of the rulers of the League is one
of the most intricate subjects to be met with in the
political system of the Iroquois. It has been so diffi-

1 The following are the names of the several degrees of relationship
recognized among the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee, in the language of the Sene-
cas : (54,r>G)_

Hoc-sote', Grandfather. Hoc-no'-seh, Uncle.

Uc-sote', Grandmother. Ah-geh'-huc, Aunt.

Ha'-nih, Father. Ha-yan-wan-deh', Nephew.

Noh-yeh', Mother. Ka-yan-wan-deh', Niece.

Ho-ah'-wuk, Son. Da-ya-gwa'-dan-no-da, Brothers and Sisters.

Go-ah'-wuk, Daughter. Ah-gare'-seh, Cousin.

Ka-ya'-da, Grandchildren.

SUCCESSION OF SACHEMS

cult to procure a satisfactory exposition of the enact
ments by which the mode of succession was regulated,
that the sachemships have sometimes been considered
elective, at others as hereditary. Many of the ob
stacles which beset the inquiry are removed by the
single fact, that the title of sachem was absolutely
hereditary in the tribe to which it was originally /
assigned, and could never pass out of it but with its
extinction. How far these titles were hereditary in
that part of the family of the sachem who were of the
same tribe with himself, becomes the true question to
consider. The sachem's brothers, and the sons of his
sisters were of his tribe, and, consequently, in the line
of succession. Between a brother and a nephew of
the deceased, there was no law which established a
preference ; neither between several brothers, on the
one hand, and sons of several sisters on the other, was
there any law of primogeniture ; nor, finally, was there
any positive law, that the choice should be confined to
the brothers of the deceased ruler, and the descendants
of his sisters in the female line, until all these should
fail, before a selection could be made from the tribe at
large. Hence, it appears, so far as positive enactments
were concerned, that the office of sachem was heredi
tary in the particular tribe in which it ran ; while it was
elective, as between the male members of the tribe itself.1

1 Laws of succession somewhat similar existed among the Aztecs.
" The sovereign was selected from the brothers of the deceased prince,
or, in default of them, from his nephews, thus the election was always re
stricted to the same family. * * * The scheme of election, how
ever defective, argues a more refined and calculating policy than was to
have been expected from a barbarous nation.1' — Prescott's Conquest of
Mexico, vol. i. p. 23.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

In the absence of laws, designating with certainty
the individual upon whom the inheritance should fall,
custom would come in and assume the force of law, in
directing the manner of choice, from among a number
equally eligible. Upon the decease of a sachem, a
tribal council assembled to determine upon his suc
cessor. The choice usually fell upon a son of one of
the deceased ruler's sisters, or upon one of his brothers
— in the absence of physical and moral objections;
and this preference of one of his near relatives would
be suggested by feelings of respect for his memory.
Infancy was no obstacle, it involving only the necessity
of setting over the infant a guardian, to discharge the
duties of a sachem until he attained a suitable age. It
sometimes occurred that all the relatives of the deceased
were set aside, and a selection was made from the
tribe generally ; but it seldom thus happened, unless
from the great unfitness of the near relatives of the
deceased.

When the individual was finally determined, the
nation summoned a council, in the name of the de
ceased, of all the sachems of the League ; and the new
sachem was raised up by such council, and invested
with his office.

In connection with the power of the tribes to desig
nate the sachems, should be noticed the equal power of
deposition. If, by misconduct, a sachem lost the con
fidence and respect of his tribe, and became unworthy
of authority, a tribal council at once deposed him ; and,
having selected a successor, summoned a council of
the League to perform the ceremony of his investiture.

Still further to illustrate the characteristics of the

NAMES

tribes of the Iroquois, some reference to their mode
of bestowing names (G8) would not be inapt.1 Soon
after the birth of an infant, the near relatives of the
same tribe selected a name. At the first subsequent
council of the nation, the birth and name were publicly
announced, together with the name and tribe of the
father, and the name and tribe of the mother. In
each nation the proper names were so strongly marked
by a tribal peculiarity, that the tribe of the individual
could usually be determined from the name alone.
Making, as they did, a part of their language, they
were all significant. When an individual was raised
up as a sachem, his original name was laid aside, and
that of the sachemship itself assumed. In like man
ner, at the raising up of a chief, the council of the
nation which performed the ceremony, took away the
former name of the incipient chief and assigned him a
new one, perhaps, like Napoleon's titles, commemora
tive of the event which led to its bestowment. Thus,
when the celebrated Red-Jacket was elevated by
election to the dignity of a chief, his original name,
O-te-ti-'dri-iy " always ready," was taken from him, and
in its place was bestowed Sa-go-ye-w'dt'-ha, " keeper
awake," in allusion to the powers of his eloquence.

Each tribe in the nation thus formed a species of
separate community. The members were all of con
sanguinity, and their relationships easily traced. In
like manner those of the same tribe in each of the

1 Like the ancient Saxons, the Iroquois had neither a prenomen, nor a
cognomen ; but contented themselves with a single name. The name of
an individual was often changed at different periods of life, as when the
youth became a warrior ; and again, at the approach of age. ,

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

other nations were their consanguinii, and their rela
tionships, near and remote, were also traceable. As
two tribes were necessarily joined in each family, there
was a perfect diffusion of tribes throughout the nation,
and throughout the League. In this manner the race
of the Iroquois, although consisting of different nations,
was blended into one people. The League was in
effect established, and rested for its stability, upon the
natural faith of kindred.

It now remains to define a tribe of the Ho-de'-no-
sau-nee. From the preceding considerations it suffi
ciently appears, that it was not, like the Grecian and
Roman, a circle or group of families ; for two tribes
were necessarily represented in every family; neither,
like the Jewish, was it constituted-o£tlie_lineal descend
ants of a common father; on the contrary, it distinctly
involved the idea of descent from a common mother;
nor has it any resemblance to the Scottish clan, or the
Canton of the Switzer. In the formation of an Iro
quois tribe, a portion was taken from many households,
and bound together by a tribal bond.

The wife, her children, and her descendants in the
female line, would, in perpetuity, be linked with the
destinies of her own tribe ; while the husband, his
brothers and sisters, and the descendants of the
latter, in the female line, would, in like manner, be
united to another teibe, and held by its affinities.
Herein was a bond of union between the several teibes
of the same jmtte«~, corresponding, in some degree,
with the cross-relationship founded upon consanguin
ity, which bound together the tribes of the same
emblem in the different nations.

NATURE OF A TRIBE

The Iroquois claim to have originated the idea of
a division of the people into tribes, as a means of '
creating new relationships by which to bind the people
more firmly together.(57) It is further asserted by
them, that they forced or introduced this social or
ganization among the Cherokees, the Chippeways,
(Massasaugas) and several other Indian nations, with
whom, in ancient times, they were in constant inter
course. The fact that this division of the people of
the same nation into tribes does not prevail generally
among our Indian races, favors the assertion of the
Iroquois.(57) On the other hand, the laws of de
scent, at least of the crown, among the Aztecs, dimly
shadows forth the existence of a similar social organi
zation, which may have been reproduced among the
Iroquois, or preserved through a remote affinity
of blood. At ail events, it was the life and strength'
of the League.

Of the comparative value of these institutions, when
contrasted with those of civilized countries, and of
their capability of elevating the race, it is not neces
sary here to inquire. It was the boast of the Iroquois
that the great object of their confederacy was peace -
to break up the spirit of perpetual warfare, which had
wasted the red race from age to age. Such an insight
into the true end of all legitimate government, by
those who constructed this tribal league, excites as
great surprise as admiration. It is the highest and
the noblest aspect in which human institutions can be
viewed; and the thought itself -- universal peace
among Indian races possible of attainment — was a
ray of intellect from no ordinary mind. To con-

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summate such a purpose, the Iroquois nations were
to be concentrated into one political fraternity ; and
in a manner effectively to prevent offshoots and seces
sions. By its natural growth, this fraternity would
accumulate sufficient power to absorb adjacent nations,
moulding them, successively, by affiliation, into one
common family. Thus, in its nature, it was designed
to be a progressive confederacy. What means could
have been employed with greater promise of success
than the stupendous system of relationships, which
was fabricated through the division of the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee into tribes ? It was a system sufficiently
ample to enfold the whole Indian race. Unlimited
in their capacity for extension, inflexible in their rela
tionships, the tribes thus interleagued would have
suffered no loss of unity by their enlargement, nor
loss of strength by the increasing distance between
their council-fires. The destiny of this League, if it
had been left to work out its own results among the
red races exclusively, it is impossible to conjecture.
With vast capacities for enlargement, and remark
able durability of structure, it must have attained a
great elevation, and a general supremacy.

It is apparent from the examination of such evi
dences as can be discovered, that the several Iroquois
nations occupied positions of entire equality in the
League, in rights, privileges and obligations. Such
special immunities as were granted to either, must be
put down to the chances of location, and to the
numerical differences at the institution of the Con
federacy ; since they neither indicate an intention to
establish an unequal alliance, nor exhibit the exercise

EQUALITY OF THE NATIONS

of privileges by either nation, inconsistent with the
principle of political equality, on which the League
was founded.

The sources of information, from which this con
clusion is drawn, are to be found in the mass of
Iroquois traditions, and in the structure of the Con
federacy itself. Those traditions which reach beyond
the formation of the League, are vague and unreliable,
while all such as refer to its establishment assume a
connected and distinctive form. It follows that confi
dence may be reposed in such inferences as are derived
from these traditions, and corroborated by the internal
structure of the government, and by the institutions
of the League.

There were provisions apparently vesting in certain
nations superior authority, which it is desirable to
introduce and explain. The most prominent was the
unequal distribution of sachemships, indicating an
unequal distribution of power : the Onondagas, for
example, having fourteen sachems, while the Senecas,
by far the most powerful nation in the Confederacy,
were entitled to but eight. It is true, ceteris paribus,
that a larger body of sachems would exercise a greater
influence in general council ; but it will appear, when
the mode of deciding questions is considered, that it
gave no increase of power, for each nation had an
equal voice, and a negative upon the others.

By another organic provision, the custody of the
" Council Brand," and also of the " Wampum," into
which the laws of the League " had been talked," was
given by hereditary grant to the Onondagas. This is
sufficiently explained by their central position, which

LEAGUE OF THE

made the council-fire in the Onondaga valley, in effect,
the seat of government of the League. It was equally
a convenience to all, and does not necessarily involve
a preference enforced by superior power.

The To-do-da-bo was likewise among the Onondaga
sachems. Upon this point it has heretofore been
stated that the higher degree of consideration attached
to this title resulted exclusively from the exalted esti
mation in which the original tfo-do-da-ho was held, on
account of his martial prowess and achievements.

An apparent inequality between the nations of
the League is also observable in the award of the
two highest military chieftains to the Senecas. It
will be sufficient, on this difficult feature in the system
of the Iroquois, to note that when they constructed
their political edifice, the Long House,(12G) with its
door opening upon the west, they admitted the sup
position that all hostile onsets were to be expected
from that direction ; and on placing the Senecas as
a perpetual shield before its western portal, these
war-captains were granted, as among the means need
ful for its protection.

The Mohawks were receivers of tribute from sub
jugated nations. This hereditary privilege must be
placed upon the same footing with the preceding.
It may, perhaps, indicate that the nations upon their
borders were in subjection.

Unequal terms in a Confederacy of independent
nations would not be expected. True wisdom would
dictate the principle of equality, as the only certain
foundation on which a durable structure could be
erected. That such was the principle adopted by

EQUALITY OF THE NATIONS

the legislators of the Iroquois, is evinced by the
equality of rights and immunities subsisting between
the sachems of the League. Their authority was
not limited to their own nation, but was co-extensive
with the Confederacy. The Cayuga sachem, while
in the midst of the Oneidas, could enforce from
them the same obedience that was due to him from
his own people ; and when in general council with
his compeers, he had an equal voice in the disposal
of all business which came before it. The special
privileges enumerated, and some others which existed,
were of but little moment, when compared with the
fact that the nations were independent, and that each
had an equal participation in the administration of
the government.

At the epoch of the League, the several nations
occupied the territory between the Hudson and the
Genesee, and were separated by much the same in
ternal boundaries, as at the period when they yielded
up their sovereignty. From geographical position,
or from relative importance, or yet, for the mere
purpose of establishing between the nations rela
tionships similar to those existing between the tribes,
certain rules of precedence, and national ties, were
constituted between them. The nations were divided
into two classes, or divisions ; and when assembled
in general council were arranged upon opposite sides
of the " council-fire." On the one side stood the
Mohawks, Onondagas and Senecas, who, as nations,\
were regarded as brothers to each other, but as fathers'
to the other nations. Upon the other side were the
Oneidas and Cayugas, and at a subsequent day, the \

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( Tuscaroras, who, in like manner, were brother nations
to each other, but children to the first three. These
divisions were in harmony with their system of rela
tionships, or more properly formed a part of it. They
may have secured for the senior nations increased
respect, but they involved no idea of dependence in
the junior, or inequality in civil rights.

When the nations were enumerated, the Mohawks
were placed first, but for what reason is not precisely
understood. In the councils of the Confederacy
they were styled Da-ga-e-o'-ga, which became their
national epithet. It was a term of respect, and signi
fies " neutral," or, as it may be rendered, " the shield."
Its origin is lost in obscurity.

The Onondagas were placed next in the order of
precedence, and were addressed in council by the
appellation Ho-de ' -san-no-ge-ta. This term signifies
" name-bearer," and was conferred in commemoration
of the circumstance that the Onondagas bestowed
the names upon the fifty original sachems. This was
a privilege of some moment, as these " names " were
to descend from generation to generation, upon the
successive rulers of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee.

Next in order stood the Senecas, justly proud of
their national designation, Ho-nan-ne-hd-ont^ or " the
door-keeper." To them, as elsewhere remarked,
belonged the hereditary guardianship of the door of
the Long House.

The Oneidas occupied the fourth place in the Iro-
quois order of precedence, and originally had no
appellation by which they were distinguished. At
a subsequent and quite modern period, the epithet

NATIONAL EPITHETS

Ne-ar-de-on-dar-gd-waT) or " Great Tree," was con
ferred upon them by their confederates. This name
was seized upon from some occurrence at a treaty
with the people of Wastow, or Boston.

Of the five original nations, the Cayugas were
placed last in the enumeration. They were desig
nated in council by the appellation, So-nus-ho-gwa-
to-war, signifying " Great Pipe." Tradition refers
this epithet to the incident that the leading Cayuga
chief in attendance at the council which established
the League smoked a pipe of unusual dimensions
and workmanship.

The admission of the Tuscaroras having been long
subsequent to the formation of the League, they were
never received into an equal alliance with the other
nations. After their disastrous overthrow, and expul
sion from North Carolina, they turned towards the
country of the Iroquois, and were admitted about
the year 1715, as the sixth nation, into the Confed
eracy. But they were never allowed to have a
sachem, who could sit as an equal in the council of
sachems. The five nations were unwilling to enlarge
the number of sachemships founded at the institution
of the League. For purposes of national government,
however, they were organized like the other nations,
with similar tribes, relationships, laws and institutions.
They also enjoyed a nominal equality in the councils
of the League, by the courtesy of the other five, and
their sachems were "raised up" with the same cere
monies. They were not dependent, but were admitted
to as full equality as could be granted them, without
enlarging the framework of the Confederacy. In

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the councils of the League, they had no national
designation. (12

At the establishment of the Confederacy, the office
of chief, Ha-seh-no-wa-nehy " an elevated name," was
entirely unknown among the Iroquois. Their tradi
tions, as elsewhere stated, affirm that this title was
instituted long subsequent to the foundation of the
fifty sachemships, and the full adjustment of the
League. The necessity in which this office had its
origin, and the illustration which it furnishes of a
position elsewhere advanced, that all political institu
tions, as they unfold, progress from monarchy towards
democracy, leads to the presentation of this subject in
this place.

When the power of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee began to
develop, under .the new system of oligarchies within
an oligarchy, there sprang up around the sachems a
class of warriors, distinguished for enterprise upon
the war-path, and eloquence in council, who de
manded some participation in the administration of
public affairs. The serious objections to the enlarge
ment of the number of rulers, involving, as it did,
changes in the framework of the government, for a
long period enabled the sachems to resist the encroach
ment. In the progress of events, this class became
too powerful to be withstood, and the sachems were
compelled to raise them up in the subordinate station
of chiefs. The title was purely elective, and the
reward of merit. Unlike the sachemships, the name
was not hereditary in the tribe or family of the indi
vidual, but terminated with the chief himself; unless
subsequently bestowed by the tribe upon some other

DISTINGUISHED MEN WERE CHIEFS

person, to preserve it as one of their illustrious names.
These chiefs were originally invested with very
limited powers, their principal office being that of
advisers and counsellors of the sachems. Having
thus obtained a foothold in the government, this class,
to the number of which there was no limit, gradually
enlarged their influence, and from generation to gen
eration drew nearer to an equality with the sachems
themselves.1 By this innovation the government was
liberalized, to the sensible diminution of the power of
the sachems, which, at the institution of the League,
was extremely arbitrary.

It is a singular fact, that none of the sachems of
the Iroquois, save Logan,2 have ever become distin
guished in history ; although each of the fifty titles
or sachemships have been held by as many individ
uals, as generations have passed away since the foun
dation of the Confederacy. If the immortality of
men, "worthy of praise/' is committed to the guar
dianship of the Muse-

" Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori,"

— the muse of tradition, if such a conception may
be indulged, has been enabled, out of this long line
of sachems, to record the deeds of none, save the
military achievements of the first To-do-da -ho ^ the

1 At the present time among the dismembered fragments of the Iro
quois nations, the chiefs are found to be nearly, if not in all respects,
upon an equality with the sachems, although the offices are still held by
different tenures.

2 Logan was one of the ten Cayuga sachems, but which of the ten
names or sachemships he held, is not at present ascertained. His father,
Shikellimus or Shikalimo, who is usually mentioned as a Cayuga sachem,
was but a chief.

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U 0 I S

wisdom in legislation of the first Da-ga-no-we'-dd*
and the sacred mission of Ga-ne-o-di-yo^ who pre
tended to have received a revelation from the Great
Spirit. The residue have left behind them no re
membrances conferring special dignity upon the sa-
chemships entrusted to their keeping.

The celebrated orators, wise men, and military
leaders of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee^ are all to be found
in the class of chiefs. One reason for this may exist
in the organic provision which confined the duties
of the sachems exclusively to the affairs of peace;
and another may be that the office of chief was be
stowed in reward of public services, thus casting it
by necessity upon the men highest in capacity among
them. In the list of those chiefs who have earned
a place upon the historic page, as well as in the " un
written remembrance " of their tribe and race, might
be enumerated many who have left behind them a
reputation which will not soon fade from the minds
of men.

By the institution of this office, the stability of
the government was increased rather than diminished.

1 Da-ga~no-rwef-daJ the founder of the confederacy, and Hd-yo-
ivent'-hd, his speaker, through whom he laid his plans of government
before the council which framed the League, were both "raised up1'
among the fifty original sachems, and in the Mohawk nation j but after
their decease these two sachemships were left vacant, and have since con
tinued so.

Da-gd-no-cwe'-dd was an Onondaga, but was adopted by the Mohawks
and raised up as one of their sachems. Having an impediment in his
speech, he chose Hd-yo-vuent'-hd for his speaker. They were both un
willing to accept office, except upon the express condition that their
sachemships should ever remain vacant after their decease. These are
the two most illustrious names among the Iroquois.

STABILITY OF THE OLIGARCHY

In their own figurative enunciation of the idea, the
chiefs served as braces in the Long House — an
apt expression of the place they occupied in their
political structure. It furnished a position and a
reward for the ambitious, and the means of allaying
discontent, without changing the ruling body. In
this particular, the oligarchy of the Iroquois ap
pears to have enjoyed some superiority over those
of antiquity .(126)

" In aristocratical governments," says Montesquieu,
" there are two principal sources of disorder : exces
sive inequality between the governors and the gov
erned, and the same inequality between the different
members of the body that governs." The govern
ment of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee was exposed to neither
of these difficulties. Between the people and the
sachems, the chiefs formed a connecting link ; while
the sachems themselves were perfectly equal in political
privileges.

The unchangeable number of the rulers, and the
stability of the tenure by which the office itself is
held, are both sources of security in an oligarchy.
To the former safeguard the Iroquois adhered so
firmly, that upon the admission of the Tuscaroras,
as the sixth nation of the League, they were unwilling
to increase the original number of sachemships ; and
the Tuscaroras have not to this day a sachem who is
admitted to all the privileges of a sachem of the Con
federacy. The latter is established by the career of
Sa-go-ye-wat-h'dy the most gifted and intellectual of the
race of the Iroquois, and, perhaps, of the whole

1 Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, lib. v. cap. 8.
VOL. i. — 7 97

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Indian family. With all the influence which he
exercised over the people by the power of his elo
quence, and with all the art and intrigue which his
capacity could suggest, he was never able to elevate
himself higher than to the title of Chief. To attain
even this dignity, it is said that he practiced upon
the superstitious fears of the people. The Senecas
themselves aver, that it would have been unwise
to raise up a man of his intellectual power and
extended influence to the office of sachem ; as it
would have concentrated in his hands too much au
thority. Nearly the same observations apply to the
celebrated Joseph Brant, fa-yen-da-na-ga, whose abil
ities as a military leader secured to him the com-
tmand of the war parties of the Mohawks during the
Revolution. He was also but a chief, and held no
other office or title in the nation, or in the Confeder
acy. (3T) By the force of his character, he acquired
the same influence over the Mohawks which Sa-go-ye-
wat'-ha maintained over the Senecas by his eloquence.
The lives of these distinguished chiefs, both equally
ambitious, but who pursued very different pathways
to distinction, sufficiently prove that the office of
sachem was surrounded by impassable barriers against
those who were without the immediate family of
the sachem, and the tribe in which the title was
hereditary.

Chapter V

Councils of the Iroquois — Influence of Public Sentiment — Oratory
— Civil Councils — Unanimity — Mourning Councils — Wam
pum — Festivities — Religious Councils

IN an oligarchy, where the administrative power
is vested in the members of the Ruling Body
jointly, a Council of the Oligarchs becomes the
instrumentality through which the will of this body
is ascertained and enforced. For this reason the
Councils of the Iroquois are important subjects of
investigation. By them were exercised all the legisla
tive and executive authority incident to the League,
and necessary for its security against outward attack
and internal dissensions. When the sachems were
not assembled around the general council-fire, the
government itself had no visible existence. Upon
no point, therefore, can an examination be better di
rected, to ascertain the degree of power vested in
the Ruling Body, and the manner in which their
domestic administration and political relations were
conducted. When the sachems were scattered, like
the people, over a large territory, they exercised a
local and individual authority in the matters of
every-day life, or in national council jointly adjusted
the afTairs of their respective nations. Those higher
and more important concernments, which involved
the interests of the League, were reserved to the

LEAGUE OF THE I RO^UOIS

sachems in general council. In this council resided
the animating principle, by which their political
machinery was moved. It was, in effect, the gov
ernment.

The oligarchical form of government is not without
its advantages, although indicative of a low state of
civilization. A comparison of views, by the agency
of a council, would at any time be favorable to the
development of talent. It was especially the case
among the Iroquois, in consequence of the greater
diversity of interests, and the more extended reach of
affairs incident to several nations in close alliance.
Events of greater magnitude would spring up in the
midst of a flourishing confederacy, than in a nation of
inconsiderable importance ; and it is demonstrated by
the political history of all governments, that men
develop intellect in exact proportion to the magni
tude of the events with which they become identified.
For these reasons, the League was favorable to the
production of men higher in capacity than would arise
among nations whose institutions and systems of
government were inferior.

The extremely liberal character of their oligarchy is
manifested by the modus procedendi of these councils.
It is obvious that the sachems were not set over the
people as arbitrary rulers, to legislate as their own
will might dictate, irrespective of the popular voice ;
on the contrary, there is reason to believe that a
public sentiment sprang up on questions of general
interest, which no council felt at liberty to disregard.
By deferring all action upon such questions until a
council brought together the sachems of the League,

100

GA-GEH-TA OR BELT.

ORATORY

attended by a concourse of inferior chiefs and warriors,
an opportunity was given to the people to judge for
themselves, and to take such measures as were neces
sary to give expression and force to their opinions.
If the band of warriors became interested in the
passing question, they held a council apart, and having
given it a full consideration, appointed an orator to
communicate their views to the sachems, their Patres
Conscripti. In like manner would the chiefs, and even
the women proceed, if they entertained opinions which
they wished to urge upon the consideration of the
council. From the publicity with which the affairs of
the League were conducted, and the indirect participa
tion in their adjustment thus allowed the people, a
favorable indication is afforded of the democratic spirit
of the government.

Oratory, from the constitutional organization of
the council, was necessarily brought into high repute.
Questions involving the safety of the race, and the
preservation of the League, were frequently before it.
In those warlike periods, when the Confederacy was
moving onward amid incessant conflicts with con
tiguous nations, or, perchance, resisting sudden tides
of migratory population, there was no dearth of those
exciting causes, of those emergencies of peril, which
rouse the spirit of the people, and summon into
activity their highest energies. Whenever events con
verged to such a crisis, the council was the first resort ;
and there, under the pressure of dangers, and in the.
glow of patriotism, the eloquence of the Iroquois
flowed as pure and spontaneous as the fountains of
their thousand streamlets.

101

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

The Indian has a quick and enthusiastic appreciation
of eloquence. Highly impulsive in his nature, and
with passions untaught of restraint, he is strongly
susceptible of its influence. By the cultivation and
exercise of this capacity, was opened the pathway to
distinction ; and the chief or warrior gifted with its
magical power could elevate himself as rapidly, as he
who gained renown upon the war-path. With the
Iroquois, as with the Romans, the two professions,
oratory and arms,1 could establish men in the highest
degree of personal consideration. To the ambitious
Roman in the majestic days of the Republic, and
to the proud Indian in his sylvan house, the two
pursuits equally commended themselves ; and in one
or the other alone, could either expect success.

It is a singular fact, resulting from the structure
of Indian institutions, that nearly every transaction,
whether social or political, originated or terminated in
a council. This universal and favorite mode of doing
business became interwoven with all the affairs of
public and private life. In council, public transactions
of every name and character were planned, scrutinized
and adopted. The succession of their rulers, their
athletic games, dances, and religious festivals, and
their social intercourse, were all alike identified with
councils. It may be said that the life of the Iroquois
was either spent in the chase, on the war-path, or at
the council-fire. They formed the three leading
objects of his existence ; and it would be difficult to

1 Duae sunt artes quae possunt locare homines in amplisshno gradu
dignitatis ; una imperatoris, altera orationis boni : ab hoc cnim pacis or-
namcnta retinentur : ab illo belli pcricula repelluntur. — CICERO Pro
Murana. § 14.

102

CIVIL COUNCILS

determine for which he possessed the strongest predi
lection. Regarding them in this light, and it is
believed they are not over-estimated, a narrative of
these councils would furnish an accurate and copious
history of the Iroquois, both political and social.
The absence of these records, now irreparable, has
greatly abridged the fulness, and diminished the
accuracy of our aboriginal history.

The councils of the League were of three distinct L
kinds ; and they may be distinguished under the heads
of civil, mourning and religious. Their civil councils,
Ho-de-os -seh) were such as convened to transact busi
ness with foreign nations, and to regulate the internal
administration of the Confederacy. The mourning
councils, Hen-nun-do-nuti-seh) were those summoned
to " raise up " sachems to fill such vacancies as
had been occasioned by death or deposition, and
also to ratify the investiture of such chiefs as the
nations had raised up in reward of public services.
Their religious councils, Gd-e-we-yo-do Ho-de-os-heri-
dd-ko, were, as the name imports, devoted to religious
observances.

No event of any importance ever transpired with
out passing under the cognizance of one or another
of these species of councils; for all affairs seem to
have converged towards them by a natural and in
evitable tendency. An exposition of the mode of
summoning each, of their respective powers and juris
dictions, and of the manner of transacting business,
may serve to unfold the workings of their political
system, their social relations, and the range of their
intellectual capacities.

103

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

The name Ho-de-os-seb, by which the Iroquois
designated a civil council, signifies " advising to
gether." It was bestowed upon any council of
sachems, which convened to take charge of the public
relations of the League, or to provide for its inter
nal administration. Each nation had power, under
established regulations, to convene such a council, and
prescribe the time and place of convocation. (G1)

If the envoy of a foreign people desired to submit
a proposition to the sachems of the League, and
applied to the Senecas for that purpose, the sachems
of that nation would first determine whether the ques
tion was of sufficient importance to authorize a coun
cil. If they arrived at an affirmative conclusion, they
immediately sent out runners to the Cayugas, the
nation nearest -in position, with a belt of wampum.
This belt announced that, on a certain day thereafter,
at such a place, and for such and such purposes, men
tioning them, a council of the League would assemble.
The Cayugas then notified the Onondagas, they the
Oneidas, and these the Mohawks. (81) Each na
tion, within its own confines, spread the information
far and wide ; and thus, in a space of time astonish
ingly brief, intelligence of the council was heralded
from one extremity of their country to the other. It
produced a stir among the people in proportion to
the magnitude and importance of the business to be
transacted. If the subject was calculated to arouse
a deep feeling of interest, one common impulse from
the Hudson to the Niagara, and from the St. Law
rence to the Susquehanna, drew them towards the coun
cil-fire. Sachems, chiefs and warriors, women, and

104

AH -SO-QUA-TA.

Pi PCS

CIVIL COUNCILS

even children, deserted their hunting grounds and
woodland seclusions, and taking the trail, literally
flocked to the place of council. When the day ar
rived, a multitude had gathered together, from the
most remote and toilsome distances, but yet animated
by an unyielding spirit of hardihood and endurance.

Their mode of opening a council, and proceeding
with the business before it, was extremely simple, yet
dilatory, when contrasted with the modes of civilized
life. Questions were usually reduced to single propo
sitions, calling for an affirmative or negative response,
and were thus either adopted or rejected. When the
sachems were assembled in the midst of their people,
and all were in readiness to proceed, the envoy was
introduced before them. One of the sachems, by
previous appointment, then arose, and having thanked
the Great Spirit for his continued beneficence in per
mitting them to meet together, he informed the envoy
that the council was prepared to hear him upon the
business for which it had convened. The council
being thus opened, the representative proceeded to
unfold the objects of his mission. He submitted his
propositions in regular form, and sustained them by
such arguments as the case required. The sachems
listened with earnest and respectful attention to the
end of his address, that they might clearly understand
the questions to be decided and answered. After the
envoy had concluded his speech, he withdrew from
the council, as was customary, to await at a distance
the result of its deliberations. It then became the
duty of the sachems to agree upon an answer ; in
doing which, as would be expected, they passed

105

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

through the ordinary routine of speeches, consulta
tions, and animated discussions. Such was the usual
course of proceeding in the Iroquois council. Varia
tions might be introduced by circumstances.

At this place another peculiar institution of the
Ho-de -no-sau-nee is presented. All the sachems of the
League, in whom originally was vested the entire civil
power, were required to be of " one mind," to give
efficacy to their legislation. Unanimity was a funda
mental law. The idea of majorities and minorities was
entirely unknown to our Indian predecessors. (30)

To hasten their deliberations to a conclusion, and
ascertain the result, they adopted an expedient which
dispensed entirely with -the necessity of casting votes.
The founders of the Confederacy, seeking to obviate
as far as possible altercation in council, and to facili
tate their progress to unanimity, divided the sachems
of each nation into classes, usually of two and three
each, as will be seen by referring to the table of
sachemships.(47) No sachem was permitted to express
an opinion in council, until he had agreed with the
other sachem or sachems of his class,wupon the opinion
to be expressed, and had received an appointment to
act as speaker for the class. Thus the eight Seneca
sachems, being in four classes, could have but four
opinions ; the ten Cayuga sachems but four. In this
manner each class was brought to unanimity within
itself. A cross-consultation was then held between
the four sachems who represented the four classes ;
and when they had agreed, they appointed one of
their number to express their resulting opinion, which
was the answer of their nation. The several nations

1 06

U NAN I MITT

having, by this ingenious method, become of " one
mind " separately, it only remained to compare their
several opinions, to arrive at the final sentiment of
all the sachems of the League. This was effected by
a conference between the individual representatives
of the several nations ; and when they had arrived
at unanimity, the answer of the League was deter
mined.

The sovereignty of the nations, by this mode of
giving assent, was not only preserved, but made sub
servient to the effort itself to secure unanimity. If
any sachem was obdurate or unreasonable, influences
were brought to bear upon him which he could not
well resist ; and it was seldom that inconvenience
resulted from their inflexible adherence to the rule.
When, however, all efforts to produce unanimity failed
of success, the whole matter was laid aside. Farther
action became at once impossible. A result, either
favorable or adverse, having, in this way, been reached,
it was communicated to the envoy by a speaker
selected for the purpose. This orator was always
chosen from the nation with whom the council origi
nated, and it was usual with him to review the whole
subject presented to the council in a formal speech,
and at the same time to announce the conclusions to
which the sachems of the Confederacy had arrived.
This concluding speech terminated the business of
the council, and the Indian diplomatist took his
departure.

The war against the Eries, which resulted in the
extermination or expulsion of that nation from the
western part of this State, about the year 1654, was

107

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

declared by the sachems of the Iroquois in general
council. The French war, also, which they waged
with such indomitable courage and perseverance for
so many years, was resolved upon in the same man
ner. Their traditions record other struggles with
Indian nations, some of which were engaged in by the
League, and others either commenced or assumed by
a nation separately. At the beginning of the Amer
ican Revolution, the Iroquois could not agree in
council to make war as a confederacy upon our con
federacy. A number of the Oneida sachems firmly
resisted the assumption of hostilities, and thus de
feated the measure as an act of the League, for the
want of unanimity. Some of the nations, however,
especially the Mohawks, were so interlinked with the
British, that neutrality was impossible. Under this
pressure of circumstances, it was resolved in council
to suspend the rule, and leave each nation to engage
in the war upon its own responsibility .(28

In the councils of the Iroquois, the dignity and
order ever preserved have become proverbial. The
gravity of Nestor was exemplified by their sages, and
more than the harmony of the Grecian chiefs existed
among their sachems. In their elevation to the high
est degree of political distinction ever reached by any
Indian race, except the Aztec, the clearest evidence is
presented of the wisdom and prudence with which
these councils watched over the public welfare.

The succession of the Ruling Body, whether secured
by election, or by laws of inheritance, is an event of
deep importance to the people, whose personal secur
ity and welfare are to a large extent under the guar-

108

MOURNING COUNCILS

dianship of their rulers. It seems to have been the
aim of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee to avoid the dangers of an
hereditary transmission of power, without fully adopt
ing the opposite principle of a free election, founded
upon merit and capacity. Their system was a modi
fication of the two opposite rules, and claims the
merit of originality, as well as of adaptation to their
social and political condition.

It is in accordance with the principles, and neces
sary to the existence of an oligarchy, that the ruling
body should possess a general, if not an absolute
authority over the admission of its members, and over
the succession to its dignities, where the vacancies are
occasioned by death. In some respects the oligarchy
of the Iroquois was wider than those of antiquity.
The tribes retained the power of designating succes
sors, independent of the oligarchs ; while, for the
security of the latter, the number was limited by the
fundamental law. It was the province of the ruling
body to " raise up " the sachems selected by the
tribes, and to invest them with office. In the ancient
oligarchies, which were less liberal and much less sys
tematic in their construction, the whole power of
making rulers appears to have been appropriated by
the rulers themselves.

To perform the ceremony adverted to, of " raising
up " sachems, and of confirming the investiture of
such chiefs as had been previously raised up by a na
tion, the Mourning council was instituted. Its name,
Hen-nun-do-nuti-seh) signifies, with singular propriety,
" a mourning council ; " as it embraced the two-fold
object of lamenting the deceased with suitable solem-

109

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

nities, and of establishing a successor in the sachem-
ship made vacant by his demise.

Upon the death of a sachem, the nation in which
the loss had occurred had power to summon a council,
and designate the day and place. If the Oneidas, for
example, had lost a ruler, they sent out runners at the
earliest convenient day, with " belts of invitation " to
the sachems of the League, and to the people at large,
to assemble around their national council-fire at G'a-
no-a-ld -hale . The invitation was circulated in the
same manner, and with the same celerity as in con
voking a civil council. These belts or the strings of
wampum, sent out on such occasions, conveyed a la
conic message : " the name " of the deceased " calls
for a council." It also announced the place and the
time.

The name and the appeal fell not in vain upon the
ear of the Iroquois. There was a potency in the
name itself which none could resist. It penetrated
every seclusion of the forest ; and reached every ga-no-
sote upon the hillside, on the margin of the lakes, or
in the deep solitudes of the wood. No warrior, wise
man or chief failed to hear, or could withstand the
call. A principle within was addressed, which ever
responded ; respect and veneration for the sachems of
the League.

For these councils, and the festivities with which
they were concluded, the Ho-de-no-sau-nee ever re
tained a passionate fondness. No inclemency of sea
son, nor remoteness of residence, nor frailty of age or
of sex offered impassable obstructions. To that
hardy spirit which led the Iroquois to traverse the

MOURNING COUNCILS

war-paths of the distant south and west, and to leave
their hunting trails upon the Potomac and Ohio, the
distance to a council within their immediate territories
would present inconsiderable hindrances. From the
Mohawk to the Genesee, they forsook their hunting-
grounds, and their encampments, and put themselves
upon the trail for the council-fire. Old men with
gray hairs and tottering steps, young men in the vigor
of youth, warriors inured to the hardships of incessant
strife, children looking out, for the first time, upon
life, and women, with their infants encased in the ga-
os'-ha, all performed the journey with singular rapidity
and endurance. From every side they bent their
footsteps towards the council ; and when the day ar
rived, a large concourse of warriors, chiefs, wise men
and sachems, from the most remote as well as the sub
jacent parts of their territory, greeted each other be
side the council-fire of the Oneidas.

This council, although entirely of a domestic char
acter, was conducted with many ceremonies. Before
the arrival of the day announced by the belt, the
several nations entered the country of the Oneidas in
separate bands, and encamped at a distance from the
council-house. To advance at once, would have been
a violation of Iroquois usages. Runners were sent on
by the approaching nation to announce its arrival, and
it remained encamped until the Oneidas had signified
their readiness for its reception. On the day appointed,
if the necessary arrangements had been perfected, a
rude reception ceremony opened the proceedings.
The several nations in separate trains, each one pre
ceded by its civil and military dignitaries, drew simul-

iii

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

taneously towards the council-fire, and were received
and welcomed by the Oneidas in a ceremonious man
ner. The latter advanced to meet them at a distance
from the village, where a temporary council-fire was
kindled ; after which the chief personages of the ad
vancing bands walked around the fire, singing the
songs of mourning designed for the occasion. When
the songs were finished, the pipe of peace was circu
lated. Speeches were exchanged between the parties,
and the belts of wampum, with which the council had
been called, were returned. The several bands, upon
the completion of these ceremonies, advanced in file, a
funeral procession, and singing the mourning songs, to
the general council-fire at the Indian village, where the
people arrayed themselves in two divisions. The
Mohawks, Onondagas and Senecas, who, as elsewhere
stated, were brother nations to each other, arid fathers
to the other three, seated themselves upon one side of
the fire. On the other side were arranged the Onei
das, Cayugas and Tuscaroras, who, in like manner,
were brothers to each other, but children to the three
first. By their peculiar customs, if the deceased sachem
belonged to either of the three elder nations, he was
mourned as a father by the three junior ; and it be
came the duty of the latter to perform the ceremony
of lamentation prescribed by their usages for the de
ceased, and afterwards that of raising up his successor.
If, on the contrary, the departed ruler belonged to
either of the junior nations, as in the case supposed,
it cast upon the elder nations the duty of lamenting
his death as a child, in the customary form, and of
installing a successor in the- vacant sachemship.

112

MOURNING COUNCILS

These observances were performed with the accus
tomed gravity and earnestness of the red man ; and
were, in themselves, neither devoid of interest, nor
unadapted to impress the mind. The lament was a
tribute to the virtues, and to the memory of the de
parted sachem, a mourning scene, in which not only
the tribe and nation of the deceased, but the League
itself participated. Surely, a more delicate testimonial
of affection than would have been looked for among
our Indian predecessors. The ceremony of raising up
a successor, which followed, was a succession of musi
cal chants, with choruses, intermingled with speeches
and responses. Upon the whole scene, rendered wild
and picturesque by the variety of eostumes, there rested
a spirit of silence and solemnity which invested it with
singular interest.

A prominent part of the ceremonial consisted in the
repetition of their ancient laws and usages, and an ex
position of the structure and principles of the League,
for the instruction of the newly-inducted rulers. In
the midst of each division, the chief personages of the
elder and junior nations were grouped together.
Between the two groups of sachems, the wise-man
who conducted the observances walked to and fro, re
peating those traditionary lessons, and unfolding those
regulations, which had been handed down from the
foundation of the Confederacy. Some of them were
salutary and instructive, while the most were indicative
of wisdom and forethought. Among the injunctions
left by Da-ga-no-we'-da, the founder of the League,
there was one designed to impress upon their minds

the necessity of union and harmony. It was clothed

VOL. i. — 8 n

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

in a figurative dress, as is the custom of the red man
when he would produce a vivid impression. He en
joined them to plant a tree with four roots, branching
severally to the north, south, east and west. Beneath
its shade the sachems of the League must sit down
together in perpetual unity, if they would preserve its
stability, or secure the advantages it was calculated to
bestow. If they did so, the power of the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee would be planted as firmly as the oak, and
the blasts of adverse fortune would rage against it in

vain.(83>

The laws explained at different stages of the cere
monial, were repeated from strings of wampum, into
which they " had been talked " at the time of their
enactment. In the Indian method of expressing the
idea, the string, or the belt can tell, by means of an
interpreter, the exact law or transaction of which it
was made, at the time, the sole evidence. It operates
upon the principle of association, and thus seeks to
give fidelity to the memory. These strings and belts
were the only visible records of the Iroquois ; and were
of no use except by the aid of those special personages
who could draw forth the secret records locked up in
their remembrance.(82)

It is worthy of note, that but little importance was
attached to a promise or assurance of a foreign power,
unless belts or strings were given to preserve it in
recollection. Verbal propositions, or those not con
firmed by wampum, were not considered worthy of
special preservation.1 As the laws and usages of the

1 " It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with Indian
affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of what conse-

114

WA MP U M

Confederacy were intrusted to the guardianship of such
strings, one of the Onondaga sachems, Ho-no-we-na-(o,
was constituted " Keeper of the Wampum," and was
required to be versed in its interpretation.(83)

On these occasions, the wise-man who officiated
interpreted strings from time to time, and carried them
from one division of sachems to the other. In reply,
as many others were subsequently returned with sim
ilar forms and explanations. In this manner, with
a multitude of forms and ceremonies, consuming the
greater part of a day in their repetition, were their
sachems raised up. The proceedings were closed with
a presentation of the newly-invested rulers to the
people, under the names of their respective sachem-
ships, which, from that day forth, they were permit
ted to assume.

Up to this stage of the Council, neither gaiety nor
mirthfulness was exhibited by the old or young.
The people were in mourning for the deceased, and
rendering the last acts of public respect. When, how
ever, these offices had been performed, and the places
left vacant among the rulers had been filled, the
reasons for lamentation had disappeared, and with them
disappeared the outward signs. The evening was
given up to feasting, and to their religious and do
mestic dances. It was not uncommon to spend sev
eral days in these festivities ; devoting the days in
succession to athletic games, and the evenings to the
feast, and to the social dance.

quence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings or belts of wam
pum, which they look upon as we our letters, or rather bonds." Letter
of Sir W. Johnson, 1753. Doc. Hist. N. Y., vol. ii. p. 624.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

The succession, under these simple regulations, was
rendered entirely free from turmoil and strife; and
became not only an easy transaction, but an impos
ing, and, to them, instructive ceremonial. Upon the
sachems was bestowed sufficient control over the trans
mission of the sachemships for their own protection ;
while the still more important power of naming those
to be raised up, and of deposing the unfaithful, which
was retained by the tribes, secured the people from
oppression and misgovernment.

A wider dissimilarity, than subsists between the
institutions of our Indian predecessors and our own,
cannot be easily conceived. They are as unlike as
the races themselves in their essential characteristics.
If, however, a correct impression is desired of the
state of society, political and social, in which the Iro-
quois have existed, and in which they have developed
whatever of character they possessed, it must be
sought in their customs and institutions ; it must be
furnished by the practical operation of that stupen
dous system of inter-relationships by which they were
bound together, and from which every act in their
social intercourse received a tinge.

The degree of social intercourse between the na
tions of the League was much greater than would
at first be suggested. (41) In the pursuits of the
chase and of conquest, and in attendance upon coun
cils, they traversed the whole territory far and near.
Their trails penetrated the forest in every direction,
and their main thoroughfares were as well beaten as
the highways now passing over the same lines. With
their habits of travelling over the whole area of the

116

FESTIVITIES

State, they were doubtless more familiar than ourselves
with its hills and plains, rivers and lakes, its wild
retreats and forest concealments. Much of their social
intercourse, especially between the nations, was around
their council-fires. The Councils themselves formed
a bond of union, and drew them together instinctively.
They furnished the excitements and the recreations of
Indian life, as well as relieved the monotony of peace.
It was here they recounted their exploits upon the
war-path, or listened to the eloquence of favorite
chiefs. Here they offered tributes of respect to those
deceased sachems who had rendered themselves illus
trious by public services ; or listened to the laws and
regulations of their ancestors, which were explained by
their sages in the ceremonial of raising up successors.
It was here, also, that they celebrated their athletic
games with Olympic zeal ; and joined in those national
dances, some of which were indescribably beautiful and
animated.

Custom required the particular tribe in which
sachems had been raised up, to furnish a daily enter
tainment to the multitude during the continuance of
the council. The pursuits of the day were suspended
as the shades of evening began to fall, and they all sat
down to a common repast, which the matrons of the
tribe had prepared. After the business upon which
the council convened had been consummated, each
day in succession was devoted to the simple but diver
sified amusements of Indian life, the twilight to the
feast, and the evening to the dance. The wild notes
of their various tunes, accompanied by the turtle-shell
rattle and the drum ; the rattles, which entered into the

117

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

costumes of the warriors, and the noise of the moving
throng, all united, sent forth a " sound of revelry "
which fell with strange accents in the hours of night
upon the solemn stillness of the woods. This sound
of pleasure and amusement was continued from day
to day, until " pleasure itself became satiety," and
amusement had lost its power to charm.

When the spirit of festivity had become exhausted,
the fire of the Hen-nun-do-nuk-seh was raked together,
and the several nations bent their way homeward
through the forest. Silence once more resumed her
sway over the deserted scene, as the sounds of merri
ment subsided, and the lingering hum of the dissolving
council died insensibly away. Obscurity next ad
vanced with stealthy mien, and quickly folding the
incidents of this sylvan pageant in her dusky mantle,
she bore them, with their associations, their teachings,
and their remembrances, into the dark realm of
Oblivion ; from which their recall would be as hope
less as would be the last shout which rang along the
valley.

The celebration of their religious festivals was
through the instrumentality of councils, and these
form the third class. But as they are described in
the succeeding pages, no further mention of them
will now be made, except to notice them as one of the
species into which the councils of the Iroquois are
properly divisible. In addition to the religious coun
cils which were held at the period of their festivals,
the mourning council was always made an occasion
for religious and moral instruction. Many of its
exercises were of a strictly religious character, and it

118 "

RELIGIOUS COUNCILS

would be more proper to designate it as a religious
council, than by any other name, but for the circum
stance that its object was to raise up rulers, and its
ceremonies were entirely distinct from those at the
regular festivals.

The influence of the civil, mourning and religious
councils upon the people would, of itself, furnish an
extensive subject of inquiry. Like all the pursuits of
Indian life, they changed but little from age to age,
and were alike in their essential characteristics, in their
mode of transacting business, in their festivities, and
in the spirit by which they were animated. From the
frequency of their occurrence, and the deep interest
with which they were regarded, it is evident that they
exercised a vast influence upon the race. The inter
course and society which they afforded, had, undoubt
edly, a power to humanize and soften down the
asperities of character which their mode of life was
calculated to produce.

119

Chapter VI

Species of Government — Progress of Governments from Monarchy
to Democracy — Illustrated by a View of Grecian Institutions —
The League an Oligarchy — Liberty of the People — Stability of
the League — Prospects at the Discovery — Its Decline

THE Ruling Body of the League, with its
powers, and the tenure of office of its mem
bers — the division of the people into tribes,
with the cross-relationships between them — the laws of
succession with their incidents — and the councils of the
Iroquois with their mode of proceeding, spirit and ef
fects, have severally been brought under consideration.

Upon the facts derived from these sources of in
vestigation, the true character of the Iroquois gov
ernment must be settled. If it is referable to any
determined species, the constituent parts and gen
eral features of the League, which have formed the
subjects of the preceding chapters, will determine its
position in the scale of civil organizations established
by political writers.

In their original, well-developed institutions, and
in their government, so systematic in its construc
tion, and so liberal in its administration, there is
much to enforce a tribute of respect to the intelli
gence of our Indian predecessors. Without such
institutions, and without that animating spirit which
they nourished and diffused, it would be difficult to
account for the production of such men as have

120

SPECIES OF GOVERNMENT

sprung up among the Iroquois. The development
of national intellect depends chiefly upon external,
reciprocal influences, and is usually proportionate to
the vitality and motive which the institutions of a
people possess and furnish.

To illustrate, substantially, the nature of their
government, it will be necessary to notice the several
species which have been instituted among men, the
natural order of their origination, the relations in
which they mutually stand to each other, and their
general characteristics. In no other way can a clear
conception be obtained of the character of the Iroquois
government, and the relation which it sustains to other
political fabrics. No apology, therefore, will be nec
essary for the digression.

Aristotle, and other Grecian political writers, rec
ognized but three species of government : the monar
chical, the aristocratical, and the democratical ; the
rule of " one," the " few," and the " many." Every
other variety was regarded as the wreck, or perversion,
of one of the three. If, for example, the first was
corrupted, it became a tyranny ; if the second degen
erated, it was styled an oligarchy ; and if the last
became tumultuous, it was called an ochlocracy. A
polity, or the rule of a large body of select citizens,
was a milder form of oligarchy. This classification
admits of a qualification to the definition of an aristoc
racy and oligarchy, hereafter to be noticed.

Modern political writers also recognize three spe
cies, as laid down by Montesquieu : the despotic, the
monarchical, and the republican. The aristocratic
and democratic forms of the Greeks are included in

121

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

the republican form of modern times : while the
monarchical government of the present day — "the
rule of a single person by fixed laws " — was entirely
unknown to the ancient Greeks. It is further ob
servable that a despotism, as defined by Montesquieu,
corresponds precisely with the monarchy of Aristotle.

The order of their origination suggests an impor
tant general principle ; that there is a regular pro
gression of political institutions, from the monarchical,
which are the earliest in time, on to the democratical,
which are the last, the noblest, and the most intellec
tual. This position can be established by the rise
and development of the Grecian institutions, and may
be further illustrated by the progressive change in
the spirit and nature of other governments.

An unlimited monarchy, or "the rule of a single
individual according to his own will," is the form
of government natural to a people when in an un
civilized state, or when just emerging from barbarism.
In the progress of time, by the growth and expansion
of civil liberty, the monarchy becomes liberalized
or limited, and a few steps forward introduce universal
democracy. Hence it is noticeable in the rise of all
races, and in the formation of all states, that the idea
of chief and follower, or sovereign and people, is
of spontaneous suggestion. This notion may be
regarded as inherent to society in its primitive state.

It will be remembered that when the Hellenic
tribes came down from Thessaly, and finally settled
themselves upon the shores of the Mediterranean,
their political relations were those of chief and fol
lower. After they had become subdivided into a

122

GA-KA-AH OR SKIRT,

VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS

large number of petty states, and migrations and
intermixtures had subsided, leaving each principality
under its own ruler, and to the formation of its own
institutions, the monarchical form of government
became fully "established. The small territory of
Greece was parcelled out between nearly twenty petty
kingdoms. During the Heroic ages, which are un
derstood to have commenced with this inundation
of the Grecian territory by the Hellenes, and to have
terminated with the Trojan war, a period of about
two hundred years, the kingly government was the
only one among the Greeks.

At the close of the Heroic ages, a new state of
affairs became apparent. Around the reigning fam
ilies in the several kingdoms, there had sprung up
a class of Eupatrids, or nobles, who were in possession
of most of the landed estates. Having elevated them
selves far above the mass of the people, in the social
scale, they gradually absorbed political powers which
had before been vested in the kings. By the silent
but natural growth of this aristocracy, continued
encroachments were made upon the prerogatives of
royalty, until at last the kings were brought down
to a level with their Eupatrids. An aristocracy was
thus substituted for monarchy ; and nearly all the
states of Greece, in their political progress towards
democracy, passed out of the monarchical into the aris-
tocratical form of government.

This form, although indicative of more liberality
than the former, and adapted to the state of civil
society then existing, pressed heavily upon the peo
ple ; and while it existed, was unfavorable to the ele-

123

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

vation of the race. The Demos, or common people,
were free, but were excluded from all political privi
leges ; hence, with the increase of their intelligence,
would be excited jealousies of the incumbent class.
At times, the very existence of the aristocracy de
pended upon the forcible subjection of the Demos ;
for when the great and just sentiment of " political
equality " began to be coupled with that of " personal
liberty," no form of government could rest in per
manent security, which limited the one, or denied the
other. The Grecian mind was eminently progressive.
No power could subdue or enslave that native energy,
which had exemplified itself in the hardy enterprises
of the Heroic ages. Nothing could repress or last
ingly fetter that majestic intellect, out of which, even
then, had sprung a system of mythology destined to
infuse itself into the literature of all generations, and
to quicken the intellects of every clime — a system so
remarkable as an exhibition of the unguided devotional
nature of man, and so brilliant as a creation of the
imagination, that it may be characterized as the great
est production of genius and credulity which ever
emanated from the mind of man.

In the progress of events, the aristocracies were suc
cessfully invaded by an uprising of men of wealth, or
of capacity, from among the common people. These
ambitious plebeians demanded a place in the ruling
body, and if refused, they became the champions of
the people, and engaged in measures for the over
throw of the government. Such difficulties were
usually avoided by admitting these new families to a
place among the Eupatrids, and to a participation in

124

VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS

the administration. In this way the aristocracy of
wealth and talent was in a measure placed upon an
equality with that of birth ; and by the act the gov
ernment itself was widened, or liberalized.

These inroads upon the aristocracy, which generally
resulted in the infusion of the popular element, may
be regarded as the introduction or commencement of
the oligarchy. The difference between the two species
is to be sought in the spirit by which each respectively
was actuated, and not in their forms ; for the same
body of aristocrats usually became oligarchs by a
change in the spirit of the government. When an
aristocracy became corrupt and odious to the people,
and sought only to perpetuate its own power, it be
came, in the Grecian sense, a faction, an oligarchy.
It ceased to be the rule of the " best men " (apioToi),
and became the rule of the " few " (oXtyot). This
definition admits of a qualification. When an aristoc
racy became widened or liberalized, by the admission
of men of capacity to an equal position, and the gov
ernment assumed a milder spirit, the aristocracy
would, in effect, be changed, but not into a faction.
It would be as unlike a rigorous aristocracy as an oli
garchical faction, and may be denominated a simple or
liberal oligarchy. The government of the Iroquois
falls under this precise definition. It cannot be called
an aristocracy, because the sachems of the League
possessed no landed estates, which, it is well known,
are the only true foundation of an aristocracy ; neither
were their titles or privileges hereditary, in the strict
sense, which is another important element of an aris
tocracy. Their government, however, was the rule

I25

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

of " the few." It was an aristocracy liberalized, until
it stood upon the very verge of democracy. It an
swers to the idea of an oligarchy, which is the last
form of government but one, in the progressive
series.

The governments of the Grecian states appear to
have oscillated for centuries between the rigorous aris
tocracies, oligarchical factions, and milder oligarchies.
These forms were rather transition than permanent
conditions of their civil institutions. During the
period of their prevalence, the people, who, as before
remarked, were personally free, but debarred from
political privileges, were gradually improving their
condition by the accumulation of wealth, and consoli
dating their strength by the uprearing of flourishing
cities. With the increase of their respectability, and
the expansion of their power, the struggle with the in
cumbent class was continued with greater and still
greater success. Principles of government became
better understood, and more enlarged views of the
rights of man continued to quicken the Grecian mind.
Every successive age added to the popular intelli
gence ; and the people gradually, but constantly, con
tinued to repossess themselves of their original
authority. The growth of liberty and free institutions
among the Greeks was slow, but irresistible. The
struggle of the people for emancipation lasted from
generation to generation, from century to century ;
until, having emerged from .the darkness of barbarism,
and worked their way through every species of gov
ernment ever devised by the genius of man, they
achieved at last a triumph ; and their institutions,

126

VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS

which had been planted and nourished during this
march of ages, finally ripened into universal democ
racy.

In the history of the States of Greece, there is
noticeable in the midst of a wide diversity of events,
a great uniformity of progress — with a difference in
the period of the development of political changes, a
marked tendency to the same results. Every change
in their institutions, from the era of absolute mon
archy, made them more liberal ; but it required up
ward of seven centuries to liberalize them into a " fin
ished democracy which fully satisfied the Greek notion ;
a state in which every attribute of sovereignty might
be shared, without respect to rank or property, by
every freeman." The Greeks began with monarchy,
and having passed through all the intermediate species
and shades of government in the progressive series,
they finally developed their highest capacities, their
most brilliant genius, under the bounding pulse of an
extreme, even enthusiastic democracy. How truthful
the exclamation of Herodotus : " Liberty is a brave
thing."

1 The Trojan War closed 1184 B. c., and the States of Greece soon
afterwards passed out of the monarchical form of government. At
Athens it was abolished in 1068 B. c. But not until about the year
470 B. C., when Aristides the Just removed the last aristocratical features
from the Athenian institutions, could Athens be called a " finished
democracy.'" He broke up the distinctions between the classes which
Solon had established, and opened all the dignities of the State to
every citizen. Between the Trojan war and this last period, the Atheni
ans had passed through Monarchy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Faction, An
archy, Oligarchy, Polity, and limited Democracy. With the legislation
of Aristides commenced the rapid elevation of the city of Minerva, and
of that noble, unequalled race.

127

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

The same tendency of institutions towards democ
racy, as races elevate themselves in the scale of civiliza
tion, can be observed in the progressive improvement
of British institutions. No people have been sub
jected to such tests, civil and religious ; and issued
from the throes of revolution with more character,
more civilization, more majesty of intellect, for
achievements in legislation, science and learning, than
our parent, Anglo-Saxon race. Their career, with all
its vicissitudes, from the union of the Heptarchies
under Egbert, down to the final settlement of the
government on the expulsion of the second James, is
full of instruction — full of great lessons. They have
tested monarchy in all its degrees of strength and
weakness, of popularity and odium, of oppression and
dependence. Their nobles have enjoyed all the priv
ileges, immunities, and powers, which possession of
the landed estates, the vassalage of the people, and
independence of the crown could secure; while in turn
they have been humble and submissive, even servile,
under the arbitrary sway of tyrannous kings. The
people, before the time of Edward the First, were
cyphers in the State. Since then, they have suffered
religious bondage, and the oppression of a feudal aris
tocracy. In the progress of events, however, they
have constantly enlarged the quantity of their liberty,
and strengthened the guarantees of personal security.
But if they finally achieved that personal freedom
which the Grecian citizen never lost, they never
have secured that " equality of privileges " which was
the constant aspiration of the Greek until attained,
which was the watchword in the struggle for American

128

THE LEAGUE AN OLIGARCHT

freedom, and which now lies at the foundation of our
own political edifice.

The British government has been liberalized from
age to age, until it may now be said t stand in
trenched upon the borders of free institutions.

Returning from this digression, which was designed
to illustrate the position, not very recondite, of a pro
gression of institutions, from the monarchical, the
earliest form of political society, on to the democrat-
ical, the last, and most truly enlightened ; we can now
take up the government of the Iroquois, and deter
mine the position which it occupies between the two
extremes of monarchy on the one hand, and democ
racy on the other.

The Iroquois had passed out of the earliest form
of government, that of chief and follower, which is
incident both to the hunter and nomadic states, into
the oligarchical form. It is obvious that the hunter
life is incompatible with monarchy, except in its minia
ture form of chief and follower; and the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee^ in improving upon this last relation, passed
over the monarchical, into the rule of " the few."
Several tribes first united into one nation. The
people mingled by intermarriage, and the power of
the chiefs ceased to be several, and became joint.
This gave to the nation an aristocratical, or oligarch
ical form of government, according to the spirit by
which it was actuated. By a still higher effort of
legislation, several nations were united in a league or
confederacy ; placing the people upon an equality, and
introducing a community of privileges. The national
rulers then became in a united body the rulers of the
VOL. i.— 9 129

LEAGUE OF THE IRQ QUO IS

League. In this manner would be constituted oli
garchies within an embracing oligarchy, imperium in
imperio, presenting the precise government of the
Iroquois, and with great probability the exact manner
of its origination, growth and final settlement.

The Grecian oligarchies do not furnish an exact
type of that of our Indian predecessors. In its con
struction the latter was more perfect, systematic and
liberal than those of antiquity. There was in the
Indian fabric more of fixedness, more of dependence
upon the people, more of vigor. It would be difficult
to find a fairer specimen of the government of the few,
than the one under consideration. In the happy con
stitution of its ruling body, and in the effective secur
ity of the people from misgovernment it stands
unrivalled. In assigning to this government its
specific name, it will be sufficient to adopt the etymol
ogy of the word oligarchy, the rule of the few, reject
ing the usual Grecian acceptation of the term, a
degenerated aristocracy. The substitution of the female
line for the male, effecting thereby the disinheritance
of the son,(57) the partially elective character of the
sachemships, the absence of all landed estates, and the
power of deposing lodged with the tribes, are reasons
conclusive for regarding the government of the Iro
quois as an oligarchy rather than an aristocracy.

The spirit which prevailed in the nations and in
the Confederacy was that of freedom. The people
appear to have secured to themselves all the liberty
which the hunter state rendered desirable. They fully
appreciated its value, as is evinced by the liberality of
their institutions. The red man was always free from

130

LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE

political bondage, and, more worthy still of remem
brance, his " free limbs never wore a shackle." His
spirit could never be bowed in servitude. In the
language of Charlevoix, the Iroquois were "entirely
convinced that man was born free, that no power on
earth had any right to make any attempts against
his liberty, and that nothing could make him amends
for its loss." It would be difficult to describe any
political society, in which there was less of oppression
and discontent, more of individual independence and
boundless freedom. The absence of family distinc
tions, and of all property, together with the irresist
ible inclination for the chase, rendered the social
condition of the people peculiar to itself. It secured
to them an exemption from the evils, as well as
denied to them the refinements, which flow from the
possession of wealth, and the indulgence of the social
relations.(12G)

At this point the singular trait in the character of
the red man suggests itself, that he never felt the
" power of gain." The auri sacra fames of Virgil, the
studium lucri of Horace, never penetrated his nature.
This great passion of civilized man, in its use and
abuse his blessing and his curse, never roused the
Indian mind.(103) It was doubtless the great rea
son of his continuance in the hunter state ; for the
desire of gain is one of the earliest manifestations of
progressive mind, and one of the most powerful pas
sions of which the mind is susceptible. It clears the
forest, rears the city, builds the merchantman — in a
word, it has civilized our race.

All things considered, the Iroquois oligarchy excites

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

a belief of its superiority over those of antiquity.
Those of Greece were exceedingly unstable, and
therefore incline us to regard them as transition states
of their institutions ; while that of the Ho-de -no-sau-
nee was guarded in so many ways for the resistance of
political changes, that it would have required a very
energetic popular movement for its overthrow. The
former retained many elements of aristocracy, while
the latter had become so far liberalized as to be almost
entirely free. Without the influence of cities, which
no people construct who live in the hunter state, and
the important consequences which result from the
aggregation of society into large communities, the
government of the Iroquois would doubtless have
retained its oligarchical form through many gener
ations. It would have lasted until the people had
abandoned the hunter state ; until they had given up
the chase for agriculture, the arts of war for those of
industry, the hunting-ground and the fishing encamp
ment for the village and the city.

It will not be necessary to extend the inquiry, to
exhibit more fully the gradual changes in the govern
ment of the Iroquois, by which it was brought upon
the verge of free institutions. The creation of the
class of chiefs furnishes the clearest evidence of the
development of the popular element. The proofs of
its extreme liberality have been sufficiently exhibited
in the structure of the government itself. Reflections
could be multiplied upon its spirit, its influence upon
the people, its operative force in the development of
talent, and its adaptation to produce its historical
results ; but it is not deemed necessary to carry for-

132

STABILITY OF THE LEAGUE

ward reflections of this description. An outline of
the structure of the League has been drawn, and from
its general characteristics its principles can be easily
deduced.

Under this simple but beautiful fabric of Indian
construction arose the power of the Iroquois, reach
ing, at its full meridian, over a large portion of our
republic. In their Long House, which opened its
door upon Niagara, they found shelter in the hour
of attack, resources for conquest in the season of
ambitious projects, and happiness and contentment in^
the days of peace. In adaptation to their mode of
life, their habits and their wants, no scheme of govern
ment could have been devised better calculated for
their security against outward attack, their triumph
upon the war-path, and their internal tranquillity. It
is, perhaps, the only league of nations ever instituted
among men, which can point to three centuries of
uninterrupted domestic unity and peace.

The institutions which would be expected to exist
under such a political system as that of the Iroquois,
would necessarily be simple. Their mode of life and
limited wants, the absence of property in a compar
ative sense, and the infrequency of crime dispensed
with a vast amount of the legislation and machinery
incident to the protection of civilized society. While,
therefore, it would be unreasonable to seek those high
qualities of mind which result from ages of cultivation,
in such a rude state of existence, it would be equally
irrational to regard the Indian character as devoid
of all those higher characteristics which ennoble the
human race. If he has never contributed a page to

LEAGUE OF THE I R O $U O I S

science, nor a discovery to art ; (93) if he loses in the
progress of generations as much as he gains ; still
there are certain qualities of his mind which shine forth
in all the lustre of natural perfection. His simple
f- integrity, his generosity, his unbounded hospitality,
his love of truth, and, above all, his unshaken fidelity
— a sentiment inborn, and standing out so conspic
uously in his character, that it has not untruthfully
become its characteristic : all these are adornments of
humanity, which no art of education can instil, nor
refinement of civilization can bestow. If they exist
at all, it is because the gifts of the Deity have never
been perverted.

There was, however, a fatal deficiency in Indian
society, in the non-existence of a progressive spirit.
The same rounds of amusement, of business, of
warfare, of the chase, and of domestic intercourse
continued from generation to generation. There was
neither progress nor invention, nor increase of political
wisdom. Old forms were preserved, old customs
adhered to. Whatever they gained upon one point
they lost upon another, leaving the second generation
but little wiser than the first. The Iroquois, in some
respects, were in advance of their red neighbors.
They had attempted the establishment of their insti
tutions upon a broader basis, and already men of high
capacity had sprung up among them, as their political
system unfolded. If their Indian empire had been
suffered to work out its own results, it is still
problematical whether the vast power they would have
accumulated, and the intellect which would have been
developed by their diversified affairs, would not,

T34

PROSPECTS AT THE DISCOVERT

together, have been sufficiently potent to draw the
people from the hunter into the agricultural state.
The hunter state is the zero of human society, and

while the red man was bound by its spell, there*
was no hope of his elevation.

In a speculative point of view, the institutions of
the Iroquois assume an interesting aspect. Would
they, at maturity, have emancipated the people from
their strange infatuation for a hunter life'; as those of
the Toltecs and Aztecs had before effected the disen-
thralment of those races in the latitudes of Mexico?
It cannot be denied that there are some grounds for
the belief that their institutions would eventually have
ripened into civilization. The Iroquois, at all times,
have manifested sufficient intellect to promise a high
degree of improvement, if it had once become awak
ened and directed to right pursuits. Centuries, how
ever, might have been requisite to effect the change.

But their institutions have a real, a present value,
for what they were, irrespective of what they might
have become. The Iroquois were our predecessors
in the sovereignty. Our country they once called
their country, our rivers and lakes were their rivers
and lakes, our hills and intervales were also theirs.
Before us they enjoyed the beautiful scenery spread
out between the Hudson and Niagara, in its wonder
ful diversity from the pleasing to the sublime. Before
us, were they invigorated by our climate, and were
nourished by the bounties of the earth, the forest and
the stream. The tie by which we are thus connected
carries with it the duty of doing justice to their
memory, by preserving their name and deeds, their

'35

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

customs and their institutions, lest they perish from
remembrance. We cannot wish to tread ignorantly
upon those extinguished council-fires, whose light, in
the days of aboriginal dominion, was visible over half
the continent.

The political structures of our primitive inhabitants
have, in general, proved exceedingly unsubstantial. Iso
lated nations, by some superiority of institutions, or
casual advantage of location, sprang up with an ener
getic growth, and for a season spread their dominion
far and wide. After a brief period of prosperity, they
were borne back by adverse fortune into their original
obscurity ; thus rendering these boundless territories
the constant scene of human conflict, and of the rise
and fall of Indian sovereignties. It was reserved for
the Iroquois to rest themselves upon a more durable
foundation, by the establishment of a League. This
alliance between their nations they cemented by the
imperishable bands of tribal relationship. At the
epoch of Saxon occupation, they were rapidly building
up an empire, which threatened the absorption or ex
termination of the whole Indian family east of the
Mississippi. Their power had become sufficient to
set at defiance all hostile invasions from contiguous
nations; and the League itself, while it suffered no loss
of numbers by emigrating bands, was endued with a
capacity for indefinite expansion. At the periods of
their separate discovery, the Aztecs on the south, and
the Iroquois in the north were the only Indian races
upon the continent, whose institutions promised, at
maturity, to ripen into civilization. Such were the
condition and prospects of this Indian League, when

136

ITS DECLINE

Hendrick Hudson, more than two centuries since
(1609), sailed up the river which constituted their east
ern boundary. This silent voyage of the navigator
may be regarded as the opening event in the series,
which resulted in reversing the political prospects of
the Ho-de-no-sau-nee, and in introducing into their Long
House an invader, more relentless in his purposes, and
more invincible in arms, than the red men against
whose assaults it had been erected, w ^ ' fa* p^f-v
Their council-fires, so far as they are emblematical of
civil jurisdiction, have long since been extinguished,
their empire has terminated, and the shades of evening
are now gathering thickly over the scattered and feeble
remnants of this once powerful League. Race has
yielded to race, the inevitable result of the contact of
the civilized with the hunter life. Who shall relate
with what pangs of regret they yielded up, from river
to river and from lake to lake, this fair broad domain
of their fathers. The Iroquois will soon be lost as a
people, in that night of impenetrable darkness in which
so many Indian races have been enshrouded. Already
their country has been appropriated, their forests
cleared, and their trails obliterated. The residue of
this proud and gifted race, who still linger around their
native seats, are destined to fade away, until they be
come eradicated as an Indian stock. We shall .ere
long look backward to the Iroquois, as a race blotted
from existence ; but tq remember them as a people
whose sachems had no cities, whose religion had no
temples, and whose government had no record.

BOOK SECOND
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE

BOOK II
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE

Chapter I

Faith of the Iroquois— Belief in the Great Spirit — The Evil-Minded
— He'-No, The Thunderer — Ga'-o, Spirit ot the Winds — The
Three Sisters — The Invisible Aids — Witches — False Faces —
Legendary Literature —Immortality of the Soul — Future Pun
ishments — Moral Sentiments — Burial Customs — Abode of
the Great Spirit — Washington — Spirituality of their Faith — Its
Influence

THE mind is, by nature, full of religious ten
dencies. Man, when left to the guidance of
his own inward persuasions, searches after the
Author of his being, and seeks to comprehend the
purposes of his existence, and his final destiny. In
every age and condition of society, the best thoughts
of the most gifted intellects have been expended upon
religious subjects. The conclusions reached by reflec
tive mind, under the inspiration of the works of nature,
are propagated from generation to generation, until they
grow, by natural enlargement, into a system of fixed
Beliefs. Upon them is afterwards engrafted a system of
Worship. The two flourish side by side with perpetual
vigor. They become interwoven with the civil and social
institutions of men, and by nurture and habit acquire
such a firm hold upon the affections, that they form a
part of the living, thinking, acting mind. Without a

141

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

knowledge, therefore, of the religious life of a people,
their institutions, and their political and domestic trans
actions would be wholly inexplicable.

Remarkable features are exhibited in the religious
system of the Iroquois, when contrasted with other
systems of similar origin. Emanating from the mind
of man alone, originating in the simplest form of hu
man society, it would naturally be encumbered by the
vagaries of fancy, and be upheld by affection rather
than logic. But man, shut out from the light of revela
tion, and left to construct his own theology, will discover
some part of the truth, as shadowed forth by the works
of nature. This will illuminate his footsteps, in pro
portion to his appreciation of its excellence, and his
faithful adherence to its divine monitions. The faith
and worship of the Iroquois are entitled to a favorable
consideration, by reason of the principles of belief which
they recognized, and the fundamental truths which
they inculcated. Established upon some of those
luminous principles which lie at the foundation of sound
theology, the blemishes in their spiritual edifice are com
pensated, in some degree, by the purity of its elements.

The Greeks discovered the traces of divinity in
every object in nature ; in the affections and passions,
in the elements of earth and air, in the rivulet, the
mountain and the sea. Ascending from these types
to their several supposed originals, they grasped at
Deity in a multitude of fragments, as proclaimed by
the divided works of creation. Failing, with all the
acumen and inspiration of their marvellous intellect, to
raise their mental vision above Olympus, and to ascend
from united nature up to the indivisible and Eternal

142

FAITH OF THE IRO^UOIS

One, they perfected and beautified that stupendous
production of genius and credulity, the polytheism
of the ancient world.

Between the popular belief of the ancients and that
of the Iroquois there are some coincidences. This
similarity of ideas is observable in a portion of their
legends and fables, but more especially in their notions
of the spiritual world. Like the ancients, they peopled
the invisible world with spiritual existences. In their
inferior spiritualities, they fell infinitely below the
splendid creations of the ancient mythology ; but in
their knowledge of the Supreme Being, they rose, in
many respects, far above the highest conceptions of
the ancient philosophy. It will be at once conceded,
that the Supreme Intelligence announced by Anaxago-
ras, Socrates and Plato, the Numen Pr<£stantissim<e
Mentis of the ancient philosophical religionists, was in
itself a more vague and indefinite conception, than
that divine Being worshipped by the entire red race
under the appellation of the Great Spirit.'62' 96)

Upon the first great question in theology, the Stoic,
the Epicurean, and the other sects of philosophers
equally reached the same fundamental conclusion, esse
Deos, "the Gods exist." This truth, they affirmed,
was not only revealed by the works of nature, but it
was also innate, and written in the mind of man.1 But

1 Omnibus enim innatum est et in animo quasi insculptum, esse Deos.
Cicero De Natura Deorum, Lib. ii. cap. iv. Solus enim vidit, (Epicurus,)
primum esse Deos, quod in omnium animis eorum notionem impressisset
ipsa natura. Ib. Lib. i. c. xvi. Quid enim potest esse tarn apertum tamque
perspicuum, quum caslum suspeximus, caelestiaque contemplati sumus,
quam esse aliquod numen prasstantissimse mentis, quo hsec segantur ? Ib.
Lib. ii. c. ii.

143

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

in a multitude of Gods, each clothed with separate and
distinct offices and powers, and all subject to a grada
tion in rank, the popular belief reposed. The idea
of one Supreme Being was a sublime induction of phi
losophy, and far above the level of popular intelligence.
This great truth, therefore, failed tD become even feebly
incorporated with the overshadowing mythology of
antiquity. With the red race, ho vever, the belief not
only prevailed that a Great Spirit existed, but they
made the same induction from the works of nature the
foundation of their religious system.

There is also a coincidence of belief in relation to
the origin of spiritual existences. The ancient mythol
ogy taught, that the Gods were born, natives esse Deos,
and furnished, at the same time, their genealogy, with
all the minuteness of legendary license. The Iroquois,
also, believed that the Great Spirit was born ; and
tradition has handed down the narrative, with embel
lishments of fancy which Hesiod himself would not
have disdained.1

Whether the Gods ruled the universe, and were in
terested in the affairs of men, was a disputed question
in the ancient schools. The Epicureans taught that
they were unmindful of all human transactions, and
spent their existence in ease and pleasure.2 But the
Stoics took the opposite view, and not only affirmed

1 The tradition of the birth of the Good Spirit and the Evil Spirit is
much the same among the numerous Indian races within the Republic. It
is not peculiar to the Iroquois.

2 Nihil enim agit : nullis occupationibus est implicatus : nulla opera
molitur : sua sapientia et virtute gaudet : habet exploratum, fore se sem
per turn in maximis, turn in asternis voluptatibus. Hunc Deum rite bea-
tum dixerimus. Cic. De Nat. Deo. Lib. i. cap. xix.

144

BELIEF IN THE GREAT SPIRIT

their constant supervision and intervention in human
affairs, but also their active administration of the works
of nature.1 This was also the popular belief. The
notions of the Iroquois approached nearest to the
latter. In error in ascribing to the Great Spirit a
finite origin, and with feeble conceptions of his attri
butes, they yet believed him to be their creator, ruler
and preserver ; and that in him was the residuum of
power.

The creation of the world was also a subject which
divided the ancient schools. In a belief in the eternity
of matter, they, in general, concurred. Plato and the
Stoics, however, taught that the visible universe was
fashioned and constructed by the direct agency of
God. This opinion, not of the creation of matter, but
of the formation of the world, encountered the ridicule
of the Epicureans.2 This is one of those questions
with which human wisdom is unable to cope. In their
religious system, the Iroquois have but little to do
with the creation of the visible universe. According
to the tradition, the earth grew miraculously, a self-
prepared abode for the Great Spirit. Concerning the
universe which existed before the advent of the Great
Spirit, they pretend to no knowledge. To the Great
Spirit, however, the Iroquois ascribed creative power.

1 Sunt autem alii philosophi, et hi quidem magni atque nobilis, qui
Deorum mente atque ratione omnem mundum administrari et regi cen-
seant : neque vero id solum, sed etiam ab iisdem vitae hominum consuli et
provideri. Id. Lib. i. cap. ii.

2 Quibus enim oculis animi intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam
tanti operis, qua construi a Deo atque aedificari mundum facit ? Quse
molitio ? quae ferramenta ? qui rectes ? quse machinae ? qui ministri tanti
muneris fuerunt ? Quemadmodurn autem obedire et parere voluntati
architect! aer, ignis, aqua, terra potuerunt. Id. 1. i. c. viii.

VOL. I.— 10

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

He created not only the animal and vegetable world,
but also adapted the elements, and the whole visible
universe to the wants of man.

That the Indian, without the aid of revelation,
should have arrived at a fixed belief in the existence of
one Supreme Being, has ever been matter of surprise
and admiration. In the existence of the Great Spirit,
an invisible but ever-present Deity, the universal red
race believed. His personal existence became a first
principle, an intuitive belief, which neither the lapse
of centuries could efface, nor inventions of man could
corrupt. By the diffusion of this great truth, if the
Indian did not escape the spell of superstition, which
resulted from his imperfect knowledge of the Deity,
and his ignorance of natural phenomena; yet he was
saved from the deepest of all barbarisms, an idolatrous
worship. The Iroquois believed in the constant
superintending care of the Great Spirit. He ruled
and administered the world, and the affairs of the red
race. As Moses taught that Jehovah was the God of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and of his chosen people,
so the Iroquois regarded the Great Spirit as the God
of the Indian alone. They looked up to him as the
author of their being, the source of their temporal
blessings, and the future dispenser of the felicities of
their heavenly home. To him they rendered constant
thanks and homage for the changes in the seasons, the
fruits of the earth, the preservation of their lives, and
for their social privileges and political prosperity ; and
to him they addressed their prayers for the continuance
of his protecting care. Their knowledge of the attri
butes of the Great Spirit was necessarily limited and

146

BELIEF IN THE GREAT SPIRIrI

imperfect. Of his goodness and beneficence they had
a full impression, and some notions, also, of his jus
tice and perfection. But they could not fully conceive
of the omnipresence of the Great Spirit, except
through the instrumentality of a class of inferior
spiritual existences, by whom he was surrounded.
His power was evidenced by the creation of man.
He was also believed to be self-existent and immor
tal. The ennobling and exalting views of the Deity
which are now held by enlightened and Christian na
tions would not be expected among a people excluded
from the light of revelation. In the simple truths of
natural religion they were thoroughly indoctrinated,
and many of these truths were held in great purity and
simplicity. Such is the power of truth over the hu
man mind, and the harmony of all truth, that the
Indian, without the power of logic, reached some of
the most important conclusions of philosophy, and
drew down from heaven some of the highest truths of
revelation.

While the religious system of the Iroquois taught
the existence of the Great Spirit Ha-wen-ne-yu, it
also recognized the personal existence of an Evil Spirit,
Ha-ne-go-ate-geh, the Evil-minded. According to the
legend of their finite origin, they were brothers, born
at the same birth, and destined to an endless existence.
To the Evil Spirit, in a limited degree, was ascribed
creative power. As the Great Spirit created man, and
all useful animals, and products of the earth, so the
Evil Spirit created all monsters, poisonous reptiles,

1 This is an original uncompounded word, and in the Seneca dialect.
It signifies simply " A Ruler."

147

LEAGUE OF THE I R O % U O I S

and noxious plants. In a word, while the former
made everything that was good and subservient, the
latter formed everything that was bad and pernicious
to man. One delighted in virtue, and in the happiness
of his creatures, to which end he exercised over them
his unceasing protection. The other was committed
to deeds of evil, and was ever watchful to scatter dis
cord among men, and multiply their calamities. Over
the Evil-minded the Great Spirit exercised no positive
authority, although possessed of the power to over
come him, if disposed to its exertion. Each ruled an
independent kingdom, with powers underived. Man's
free agency stood between them, with which, in effect,
he controlled his own destiny. A life of trust and
confidence in the Great Spirit, and of obedience to
his commands, afforded a refuge and a shelter to the
pious Indian against the machinations of the Evil-
minded.

Inferior spiritual beings were also recognized in
the theology of the Iroquois. Though not as ac
curately described and classified as those of the an
cient mythology, they yet exhibit with them some
singular coincidences ; although these coincidences,
real or imaginary, show nothing but the similarity
of human ideas in similar conditions of society.
They were classified into good and evil, the former
being the assistants and subordinates of the Great
Spirit, while the latter were the emissaries and de
pendents of the Evil-minded. To some of them
was assigned a bodily form, a " local habitation, and
a name." To the former class of these spiritual ex
istences, they were wont to render their acknowledg-

148

HE'- NO, THE THUNDERER

ments at their annual festivals for imagined favors,
and to supplicate of the Great Spirit the continuance
of their watchful care. In the creation of these sub
ordinate beings, the Iroquois manifested their knowl
edge of the necessity of an Omnipresent Ruler ; and
at the same time they exhibited their limited com
prehension of infinite power. Through these instru
mentalities, they believed the Great Spirit was enabled,
with ease and convenience, to administer the affairs
of nature, and of man.

To He -no he committed the thunderbolt; at once
the voice of admonition and the instrument of ven
geance. He also intrusted to him the formation of
the cloud, and the gift of rain. By He-no was the
earth to be cooled and refreshed, vegetation sus
tained, the harvest ripened, and the fruits of the
earth matured. The terror of the Thunderer was
held over evil-doers, but especially over witches.
With power to inflict the most instantaneous and
fearful punishment, he was regarded as the avenger
of the deeds of evil. He is represented as having
the form of a man, and as wearing the costume of
a warrior. Upon his head he wore a magical feather,
which rendered him invulnerable against the attacks
of the Evil-minded. On his back he carried a bas
ket filled with fragments of chert rock, which he
launched at evil spirits and witches, whenever he
discovered them, as he rode in the clouds. In the
spring-time when the seeds were committed to the
ground, there was always an invocation of He-no,
that he would water them, and nourish their growth.
At the harvest festival they returned thanks to He-no

149

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

for the gift of rain. They also rendered their thanks
to the Great Spirit for the harvest, and supplicated
him to continue to them the watchful care of the
Thunderer. There is a fanciful legend in relation
to He-no,, to the effect that he once made his habita
tion in a cave under Niagara Falls, behind the sheet,
where he dwelt amid the grateful noise and din of
waters. The Great Spirit gave to him three assistants,
who have continued nameless, to enable him to main
tain a more vigilant supervision over the important
interests committed to his guardianship. One of
these, the legend declares, was partly of human, and
partly of celestial origin.1 To bring He-no nearer to

1 The legend is as follows : A young maiden residing at Ga'-u-giua,
a village above Niagara Falls, at the mouth of Cayuga creek, had been
contracted to an old man of ugly manners and disagreeable person. As
the marriage was hateful to her, and, by the customs of the nation there
was no escape, she resolved upon self-destruction. Launching a bark
canoe into the Niagara, she seated herself within it, and composing her
mind for the frightful descent, directed it down the current. The rapid
waters soon swept them over the falls, and the canoe was seen to fall into
the abyss below, but the maiden had disappeared. Before she reached the
waters underneath, she was caught in a blanket by He' -no and his two
assistants, and carried without injury to the home of the Thunderer, be
hind the fall. Her beauty attracted one of the dependents of He'-no, who
willingly joined them in marriage.

For several years before this event, the people at Gd'-u-g^wa had been
troubled with an annual pestilence, ' and the source of the scourge had
baffled all conjecture. He'-no, at the expiration of a year, revealed to her
the cause, and out of compassion to the people, sent her back to them,
to make known the cause, and the remedy. He told her that a monstrous
serpent dwelt under the village, and made his annual repast upon the
bodies of the dead which were buried by its side. That to insure a
bountiful feast, he went forth once a year, and poisoned the waters of the
Niagara, and also of the Cayuga creek, whereby the pestilence was
created. The people were directed to move to the Buffalo creek. He
also gave her careful directions touching the education of the child of

'5°

GA'-OH, THE SPIRIT OF THE WINDS

their affections, the Iroquois always addressed him
under the appellation of Grandfather, and styled
themselves his grandchildren. In every act of his,
however, they recognized the hand of Ha-wen-ne'-yu.

Another of the spiritual creations of the Iroquois
is recognized in Ga'-oh, the Spirit of the Winds.
He is, also, a mere instrumentality, through whom

which she was to become the mother. With these directions she departed
on her mission.

After the people had removed as directed, the great serpent, disap
pointed of his food, put his head above the ground to discover the rea
son, and found that the village was deserted. Having scented their trail,
and discovered its course, he went forth into the lake, and up the Buffalo
creek, in open search of his prey. While in this narrow channel, He'-no
discharged upon the monster a terrific thunderbolt which inflicted a
mortal wound. The Senecas yet point to a place in the creek where
the banks are semicircular on either side, as the spot where the serpent,
after he was struck, turning to escape into the deep waters of the lake,
shoved out the banks on either side. Before he succeeded in reaching the
lake, the repeated attacks of the Thunderer took effect, and the monster
was slain.

The huge body of the serpent floated down the stream, and lodged
upon the verge of the cataract, stretching nearly across the river. A
part of the body arched backwards near the northern shore in a semicircle.
The raging waters thus dammed up by the body broke through the rocks
behind ; and thus the whole verge of the fall upon which the body rested
was precipitated with it into the abyss beneath. In this manner, says the
legend, was formed the Horse-Shoe fall.

Before this event there was a passage behind the sheet from one shore
to the other. This passage-way was not only broken up, but the home
of He'-no was also destroyed, in the general crash. Since then his habita
tion has been in the west.

The child of the maiden grew up to boyhood, and was found to possess
the power of darting the lightning at his will. It had been the injunction
of He'-no that he should be reared in retirement, and not be allowed to
mingle in the strifes of men. On a certain occasion having been beset by
a playmate with great vehemence, he transfixed him with a thunderbolt.
He'-no immediately translated him to the clouds, and made him the third
assistant Thunderer.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

the Great Spirit moves the elements. Having a
human form, with the face of an old man, Ga-oh is
represented as sitting in solitary confinement, sur
rounded by a tangle of discordant winds, and ever
impatient of restraint. His residence, Da-yo-da-do-
go-wa, the " Great Home of the Winds," is stationary,
in a quarter of the heavens toward the west. Sur
rounded and compressed by the elements, he ever
and anon struggles to free himself from their entan
glement. When perfectly quiescent, the winds are
at rest. A slight motion sends forth the breeze,
which is wafted gently over the face of the earth.
When he struggles with restlessness and impatience,
the strong wind goes forth to move the clouds, ruffle
the waters, and shake the foliage of the forest. But
when his restlessness mounts up to frenzy, he puts
forth his utmost strength to shake off the confining
element. These mighty throes of Ga-oh send forth
the blasts which sweep the plain, lay low the oak
upon the mountain side, and dash the waters against
the sky. Ga-oh is represented, however, as a be
neficent being, ever mindful of the will of the Great
Spirit, and solicitous to fulfil his commands.1

Perhaps the most beautiful conception in the my
thology of the Iroquois is that in relation to the
Three Sisters, the Spirit of Corn, the Spirit of the
Bean, and the Spirit of the Squash. These plants
were regarded as the special gift of Ha-wen-ne'-yu ; and

1 ./Eolus naturally suggests him- " Hie vasto rex /Eolus antro

self to the reader, although the Luctantes ventos, tempestatesque sonoras
analogy is slight. Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere

fraenat." v^Eneid, Lib. i. 52.

THE THREE SISTERS

they believed that the care of each was intrusted, for
the welfare of the Indian, to a separate Spirit. They
are supposed to have the forms of beautiful females,
to be very fond of each other, and to delight to dwell
together. This last belief is illustrated by the natural
adaptation of the plants themselves to grow up to
gether in the same field, and perhaps from the same
hill. Their apparel was made of the leaves of their
respective plants ; and in the growing season they
were believed to visit the fields, and dwell among
them. This triad is known under the name of De-o-
ha'-ko, which signifies Our Life, or Our Supporters.
They are never mentioned separately, except by de
scription, as they have no individual names. There
is a legend in relation to corn, that it was originally of
easy cultivation, yielded abundantly, and had a grain
exceedingly rich with oil. The Evil-minded, being
envious of this great gift of Ha-wen-ne'-yu to man,
went forth into the fields, and spread over it a uni
versal blight. Since then it has been harder to culti
vate, yields less abundantly, and has lost its original
richness. To this day, when the rustling wind waves
the corn leaves with a moaning sound, the pious Indian
fancies that he hears the Spirit of Corn, in her com
passion for the red man, still bemoaning, with unavail
ing regrets, her blighted fruitfulness.(19)

Among the inhabitants of the spiritual world, with
which the Iroquois surrounded themselves, may be
enumerated the Spirits of medicine, of fire, and of
water, the Spirit of each of the different species of
trees, of each of the species of shrubs bearing fruit,
and of the different herbs and plants. Thus there

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

was the Spirit of the oak, of the hemlock, and of
the maple, of the whortleberry and of the raspberry,
and also of the spearmint, and of tobacco. Most of
the objects in nature were thus placed under the
watchful care of some protecting Spirit. Some of
them were made tangible to the senses, by giving to
them a bodily form and specific duties ; as the Spirit
of springs, and of each of the several fruit trees. But
the most of them were feebly imagined existences. In
their worship, the Iroquois were accustomed to return
their thanks to these subordinates of Ha-wen-ne'-yu,
under the general name of H o-no-c he-no -keh. This
term signifies " the Invisible Aids," and included the
whole spiritual world, from He-no, the Thunderer,
down to the Spirit of the Strawberry. But few of
them had specific names, or were mentioned in their
worship, except conjointly. The Iroquois appear to
have had but a faint conception of the omnipresence
of the Great Spirit, as elsewhere observed ; or of any
individual power sufficiently potent to administer, un
assisted, the stupendous works of creation, and the
complicated affairs of man. In part from this cause,
undoubtedly, they believed that the Great Spirit had
surrounded himself with subordinate spiritual beings
of his own creation, to whom he intrusted the imme
diate supervision of the various works of nature. He
thus rendered himself, in a limited sense, omnipresent,
and ruled and regulated, with ease and convenience,
the works of creation. These Spirits were never
objects of worship. The Iroquois regarded them
merely as the unseen assistants of Ha-wen-ne-yu, and
the executors of his will.

'54

EVIL SPIRITS

Evil spirits were believed to be the creations of
Ha-ne-go-ate-geh. Pestilence and disease were sup
posed to be the work of evil spirits. Witches and
enchanters were believed to be possessed with them.
There were also the Spirits of poisonous plants and
roots. All the agencies of evil were brought into
existence by, and held under the dominion of the
Evil-minded. To counteract their machinations, the
efforts of the Great Spirit and his spiritual host were
incessantly put forth. At their religious festivals, the
Iroquois invoked Ha-wen-ne-yu to shield them against
their secret designs. " Great Spirit, master of all
things, visible and invisible ; Great Spirit, master of
other spirits, whether good or evil ; command the good
spirits to favor thy children ; command the evil spirits
to keep at a distance from them."

The Iroquois believed that tobacco was given to
them as the means of communication with the spiritual
world. By burning tobacco they could send up their
petitions with its ascending incense, to the Great Spirit,
and render their acknowledgments acceptably for his
blessings. Without this instrumentality, the ear of
Ha-wen-ne-yu could not be gained. In like manner
they returned their thanks at each recurring festival to
the Invisible Aids, for their friendly offices, and pro
tecting care. It was also their custom to return thanks
to the trees, shrubs and plants, to the springs, rivers
and streams, to the fire and wind, and to the sun,
moon and stars ; in a word, to every object in nature,
which ministered to their wants, and thus awakened
a feeling of gratitude. But this was done without

1 La Hontan.

'55

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the intervention of the incense of tobacco. They
addressed the object itself.

A belief in witches is to this day, and always has
been, one of the most deeply-seated notions in the
minds of the Iroquois. The popular belief on this
subject rose to the most extravagant degree of the
marvellous and the supernatural. Any person,
whether old or young, male or female, might be
come possessed of an evil spirit, and be transformed
into a witch. A person thus possessed could assume,
at pleasure, the form of any animal, bird or reptile,
and having executed his nefarious purpose, could
resume his original form, or, if necessary to escape
pursuit, could transmute himself into an inanimate
object. They were endued with the power of doing
evil, and were wholly bent upon deeds of wickedness.
When one became a witch, he ceased to be himself.
According to the current belief, he was not only will
ing to take the life of his nearest friend, but such an
one was the preferred object of his vengeance. The
means of death employed was an unseen poison.
Such was the universal terror of witches, that their
lives were forfeited by the laws of the Iroquois. Any
one who discovered the act, might not only destroy
the witch, but could take to himself the dangerous
power of deciding who it was. To this day, it is next
to impossible, by any process of reasoning, to divest
the mind of a Seneca of his deep-seated belief in
witches.1

1 But a year since a woman was shot on the Allegany (Seneca) reserva
tion, on the pretence of witchcraft. Such instances have been frequent
among the Senecas w.ithin the last fifty years. Not the least singular

156

FALSE FACES

There is a current belief among the Iroquois, that
these demons are banded together in a secret and
systematic organization, which has subsisted for ages ;
that they have periodical meetings, an initiation cere
mony, and a novitiate fee. These meetings were held
at night, and the fee of the neophyte was the life of
his nearest and dearest friend, to be taken with poison,
on the eve of his admission.

The tendency of the Iro
quois to superstitious beliefs
is especially exemplified in
their notion of the existence
of a race of supernatural
beings whom they call False-
faces. This belief has pre
vailed among them from the
most remote period, and still
continues its hold upon the
Indian mind. The Falsefaces
are believed to be evil spirits
or demons without bodies,
arms or limbs, simply faces,
and those of the most hideous
description. It is pretended
that when seen they are usu
ally in the most retired places,
darting from point to point,
and perhaps from tree to tree,

by some mysterious power ; and possessed of a look so
frightful and demoniacal as to paralyze all who behold

feature of the case is that they sometimes confess the act. There may be
some foundation for this strange delusion in the phenomena of nature.

157

pa-go'-sa, or False Face,

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

them. They are supposed also to have power to send
plagues and pestilence among men, as well as to de
vour their bodies when found, for which reasons they
were held in the highest terror. To this day there are
large numbers of the Iroquois who believe implicitly
in the personal existence of these demons.

Upon this belief was founded a regular secret organ
ization called the Falseface band, members of which
can now be found in every Iroquois village both in
this State and Canada, where the old modes of life are
still preserved. This society has a species of initia
tion, and regular forms, ceremonies and dances. In
acquiring or relinquishing a membership their super
stitious notions were still further illustrated, for it de
pended entirely upon the omen of a dream. If any
one dreamed he was a Falseface, it was only necessary
to signify his dream to the proper person, and give a
feast, to be at once initiated ; and so any one dreaming
that he had ceased to be a Falseface, had but to make
known his dream and give a similar entertainment to
effect his exodus. In no other way could a member
ship be acquired or surrendered. Upon all occasions
on which the members appeared in character they wore
false faces of the kind represented in the figure, the
masks being diversified in color, style and configura
tion, but all agreeing in their equally hideous appear
ance. The members were all males save one, who was
a female, and the Mistress of the Band. She was called
Gd-go-sa Ho-nun-nas-tase-ta^ or the keeper of the False-
faces ; and not only had charge of the regalia of the band,
but was the only organ of communication with the
members, for their names continued unknown.

FALSEFACES

The prime motive in the establishment of this or
ganization was to propitiate those demons called False-
faces, and among other good results to arrest pestilence
and disease. In course of time the band itself was be
lieved to have a species of control over diseases, and
over the healing art ; and they were often invoked for
the cure of simple diseases, and to drive away, or ex
orcise the plague, if it had actually broken out in their
midst. As recently as the summer of 1849, when the
cholera prevailed through the State, the Falsefaces, in
appropriate costume, went from house to house at
Tonawanda, through the old school portion of the
village, and performed the usual ceremonies prescribed
for the expulsion of the pestilence.

When any one was sick with a complaint within the
range of their healing powers, and dreamed that he saw
a Falseface, this was interpreted to signify that through
their instrumentality he was to be cured. Having in
formed the mistress of the band, and prepared the cus
tomary feast, the Falsefaces at once appeared, preceded
by their female leader, and marching in Indian file.
Each one wore a mask or false face, a tattered blanket
over his shoulders, and carried a turtle shell rattle in
his hand. On entering the house of the invalid they
first stirred the ashes upon the hearth, and then
sprinkled the patient over with hot ashes until his head
and hair were covered ;' after which they performed
some manipulations over him in turn, and finally led
him around with them in the falseface dance ( Ga-go-sa),
with which their ceremonies concluded. When these
performances were over, the entertainment prepared
for the occasion was distributed to the band, and by

LEAGUE OF THE I R O <^U O I S

them carried away for their private feasting, as they
never unmasked themselves before the people. Among
the simple complaints which the Falsefaces could cure
infallibly, were nose bleed, toothache, swellings, and
inflammation of the eyes. The false face shown in
the figure was purchased of an Onondaga on Grand
river.

The proneness of the Indian mind to supersti
tious beliefs is chiefly to be ascribed to their legen
dary literature.(94) The fables which have been
handed down from generation to generation, to be
rehearsed to the young from year to year, would fill
volumes. These fabulous tales, for exuberance of
fancy, and extravagance of invention, not only sur
pass the fireside stories of all other people, but to
their diversity and number there is apparently no
limit. There were fables of a race of pigmies who
dwelt within the earth,(94) but who were endued
with such herculean strength as to tear up by its
roots the forest oak, and shoot it from their bows ;
fables of a buffalo of such huge dimensions as to
thresh down the forest in his march ;(9^ fables of
ferocious flying-heads, winging themselves through
the air; of serpents paralyzing by a look ; of a mon
ster mosquito, who thrust his b'ill through the bodies
of his victims, and drew their blood in the twinkling
of an eye. There were fables of a race of stone giants
who dwelt in the north ; of a monster bear, more
terrific than the buffalo; of a monster lizard, more
destructive than the serpent. There were tales of
witches, and supernatural visitations, together with
marvellous stories of personal adventure. Super-

160

LEGENDARY LITERATURE

added to the fables of this description, were legends
upon a thousand subjects, in which fact was embel
lished with fiction. These legends entered into the
affairs of private life, and of individuals, and were
explanatory of a multitude of popular beliefs. Min
gled up with this mass of fable, were their historical
traditions. This branch of their unwritten literature
is both valuable and interesting. These traditions are
remarkably tenacious of the truth, and between them
all there is a striking harmony of facts. Any one
who takes occasion to compare parts of these tradi
tions with concurrent history, will be surprised at
their accuracy, whether the version be from the Oneida,
the Onondaga, the Seneca, or the Mohawk. The
embellishments gained by their transmission from hand
to hand are usually separable from the substance, and
the latter is entitled to credence. With these fables,
legends and traditions the Indian youth was familiar
ized from infancy. His mind became stored and
crowded with bewildering fictions. Without books,
and without employment, in the intervals between
the hunt, the council, and the warlike expedition, the
mind naturally fell back upon this unwritten literature
of the wilderness. The rehearsal of these marvellous
tales furnished the chief entertainment at the fireside
in the Indian village, and also at the lodge far hid
in the depths of the forest. The credulity of youth
would know no limits, when the narrator himself
credited the tale he was relating. Growing into man
hood under such intellectual influences, the young
warrior would not readily discriminate between that
which was too marvellous for belief and that which

VOL. I. — II

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

was consistent with truth, but would adopt the whole
as equally veritable. That early and constant famil
iarity with such a mass of uncorrected fancies should
beget a permanent tendency of mind to fall into super
stitious beliefs, is far less surprising than would be
an exemption from all such delusions.

From a vague and indefinable dread, these fables
were never related in the summer season,(94) when
the imagination was peculiarly susceptible. As soon
as the buds had opened on the trees, these stories
were hushed, and their historical traditions substituted.
But when the leaves began to fall, their rehearsal
again furnished the chief amusement of the hours of
leisure in Indian society.

The immortality of the soul was another of the
fixed beliefs of the Iroquois. This notion has pre
vailed generally among all the red races, under different
forms, and with different degrees of distinctness. " The
happy home beyond the setting sun," had cheered
the heart, and lighted the expiring eye of the Indian,
before the ships of Columbus had borne the cross
to this western world. This sublime conclusion is
another of those truths, written, as it were, by the
Deity, in the mind of man, and one easily to be
deciphered from the page of nature by unperverted
reason. This truth has always been taught among
the Iroquois, as a fundamental article of faith.

In connection with the immortality of the soul,
must be placed their belief in future punishments.
This is maintained to have been a part of their an
cient faith, but with how much truth it is difficult to
determine. It is now taught by the unchristian-

162

IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL

ized portion of the Iroquois, as an essential part of
their belief.

The worship of the Iroquois, it is believed, has
undergone no important change for centuries. It is
the same, in all respects, at this day, that it was at
the commencement of their intercourse with the whites.
But their faith appears to have suffered some en
largement. They seem to have silently adopted such
thoughts of the missionaries as could be interwoven
harmoniously with their own creed, while at the same
time they firmly and constantly excluded all those
beliefs which were inconsistent with their own relig
ious system, as a whole. The principal illustration
of this position is to be found in their present views
of the nature and office of punishment. They believe
that the wicked, after death, pass into the dark realm
of Ha-ne-go-ate-geh) there to undergo a process of
punishment for their evil deeds. Those who are not
consumed by the degree of punishment inflicted, are,
after this purification, translated to the abode of the
Great Spirit, and to eternal felicity. Evil deeds in
this life are neutralized by meritorious acts. After
the balance is struck between them, if the good pre
dominate, the spirit passes direct to Ha-wen-ne'-yu-geh ;
but if the bad overbalance, it goes at once to Ha-nis-
ha-o-no'-geh, the dwelling-place of the Evil-minded,
where punishments are meted out to it in proportion to
the magnitude of its offences. Certain crimes, like
those of witchcraft and murder, were punished eter
nally, but others temporarily. The resemblance be
tween this system of punishment and the purgatory
of the Catholic church leads to the inference, that they

163

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

derived from the Jesuits some of their ideas of the
nature and office of punishment, and of its limitations.
While, therefore, the Iroquois may have obtained
more systematic and enlarged views upon these sub
jects from without, at the same time, as they affirm,
they may always have believed that the wicked were
excluded from heaven, and sent to a place of infe
licity. Their traditions tend to establish a belief in
future punishments, as a tenet of their ancient faith.
There is another practice, now universal among
the Iroquois, which appears still more decisively to
be of Jesuit origin. It is the confession of sins.
Before each of their periodical religious festivals, there
is made a general and public confession. Several
days before the time designated for the festival, the
people assemble by appointment, and each one in
turn, who has a confession to make, rising, and taking
a string of white wampum in his hand, acknowl
edges his faults and transgressions, and publicly pro
fesses a purpose of amendment. The white wampum
is the emblem of purity and sincerity. With it he
confirms and records his words. The absolution or
forgiveness of sins formed no part of the motive or ob
ject in the confession. It had reference to the future con
duct exclusively. One who was willing to confess a fault
from a sense of religious duty, would, by the act,
strengthen his mind against future temptation. This
custom has prevailed so long among them, that they
have lost its origin. It contains no such analogy
to the practices of any Christian community as to
compel us to ascribe it to external influences, but yet
it has about it so much of the fragrance of Christ-

164

MORAL SENTIMENTS

ianity, that it awakens in the mind a doubt of its
Indian origin. It is by no means certain, however,
but that it is one of their own primitive religious
customs, under a modified form.

Reverence for the aged was also one of the precepts
of the ancient faith. Among the roving tribes of the
wilderness, the old and helpless were frequently aban
doned, and in some cases, hurried out of existence, as
an act of greater kindness than desertion. But the
Iroquois, at the epoch of the formation of the League,
resided in permanent villages, which afforded a refuge
for the aged. One of the prominent aims of their first
lawgiver, Da-ga-no-we'-da, was to bind the people to
gether by the family ties of relationship, and thus
create among them an universal spirit of hospitality,
and a lasting desire of social intercourse. After the
establishment of the Confederacy, certainly, these prac
tices never prevailed among the Iroquois.(121) On
the contrary, their religious teachers inculcated the
duty of protecting their aged parents, as divinely en
joined. " It is the will of the Great Spirit that you
reverence the aged, even though they be as helpless
as infants."

The obedience of children, their instruction in virtu
ous principles, kindness to the orphan, hospitality to
all, and a common brotherhood, were among the doc
trines held up for acceptance by their religious instruc
tors. These precepts were taught as the will of the
Great Spirit, and obedience to their requirements as
acceptable in his sight. "If you tie up the clothes of
an orphan child, the Great Spirit will notice it, and

1 Sose-ha'-wd (Johnson).
165

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

reward you for it." " To adopt orphans, and bring
them up in virtuous ways, is pleasing to the Great
Spirit." "If a stranger wander about your abode,
welcome him to your home, be hospitable towards
him, speak to him with kind words, and forget not al
ways to mention the Great Spirit." l

Respect for the dead was another element of their
faith. At various periods of their history, it has mani
fested itself under different and very singular forms.
The burial customs of every people interest the mind.
Death is the great catastrophe of humanity. And
whether man has reached the highest intellectual eleva
tion, or still sits beside the forest streamlet, in the in
fancy of his mental growth, this event seizes upon his
mind with solemn and absorbing earnestness. With
the Iroquois different customs have prevailed, in rela
tion to the mode of burial. At one period they buried
in a sitting posture, with the face to the east. Skele
tons are still found in this position, in various parts of
the State, with a gun barrel resting against the shoulder;
thus fixing the period of their sepulture subsequent to
the first intercourse of this people with the whites. It
is supposed that this custom was abandoned at the
persuasion of the missionaries, although there is a tra
dition ascribing it to a different cause. Another and
more extraordinary mode of burial anciently prevailed
among them. The body of the deceased was exposed
upon a bark scaffolding, erected upon poles, or secured
upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to waste to a
skeleton. After this had been effected by the process
of decomposition in the open air, the bones were re-

1 Johnson.
1 66

BURIAL CUSTOMS

moved, either to the former house of the deceased, or
to a small bark house by its side, prepared for their
reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole
family were preserved from generation to generation,
by the filial or parental affection of the living. After
the lapse of a number of years, or in a season of public
insecurity, or on the eve of abandoning a settlement,(89)
it was customary to collect these skeletons from
the whole community around, and consign them to a
common resting-place. To this custom, which was
not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless to be as
cribed the barrows and bone mounds which have been
found in such numbers in various parts of the country.
On opening these mounds, the skeletons are usually
found arranged in horizontal layers, a conical pyramid,
those in each layer radiating from a common centre.
In other cases they are found placed promiscuously.1

The religious system of the Iroquois taught that it
was a journey from earth to heaven of many days'
duration. Originally, it was supposed to be a year,
and the period of mourning for the departed was fixed
at that term. At its expiration, it was customary for
the relatives of the deceased to hold a feast; the soul
of the departed having reached heaven, and a state of
felicity, there was no longer any cause for mourning.
The spirit of grief was exchanged for that of rejoicing.
In modern times the mourning period has been re
duced to ten days, and the journey of the spirit is now

1 There are Senecas now residing at Tonawanda and Cattaraugus, who
remember having seen, about sixty years ago, at the latter place, these
bark scaffoldings, on which bodies were then exposed. The custom still
prevails among the Sioux upon the upper Mississippi, and among some of
the tribes in the far west.

167

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

believed to be performed in three. The spirit of the
deceased was supposed to hover around the body for a
season, before it took its final departure ; and not un
til after the expiration of a year according to the ancient
belief, and ten days according to the present, did it
become permanently at rest in heaven. A beautiful
custom prevailed in ancient times, of capturing a bird,
and freeing it over the grave on the evening of the
burial, to bear away the spirit to its heavenly rest.
Their notions of the state of the soul when disem
bodied, are vague and diversified ; but they all agree
that, during the journey, it required the same nourish
ment as while it dwelt in the body. They, therefore,
deposited beside the deceased his bow and arrows,
tobacco and pipe, and necessary food for the journey.
They also painted the face and dressed the body in its
best apparel. A fire was built upon the grave at night,
to enable the spirit to prepare its food. With these
tokens of affliction, and these superstitious concern
ments for the welfare of the deceased, the children of
the forest performed the burial rites of their departed
kindred.1 The wail and the lamentation evidenced the
passionate character of their grief.2 After the mourn-

1 To this universal custom of the red race, of depositing the valuable
articles of the deceased by his side, as well as utensils and vessels to pre
pare and contain his food, we are indebted for all the relics we possess of
the earlier epochs of our aboriginal history. (10~) Articles are still dis
entombed from the soil from year to year, some of which reach back to
the era of the Mound Builders.

2 In ancient times, the practice prevailed of addressing the dead before
burial, under the belief that they could hear, although unable to answer.
The near relatives and friends, or such as were disposed, approached the
body in turn ; and after the wail had ceased, they addressed it in a pa
thetic or laudatory speech. The practice has not even yet fallen entirely

1 68

BURIAL CUSTOMS

ing period had expired, the name of the deceased was
never mentioned, from a sense of delicacy to the tender
feelings of his friends.

Unless the rites of burial were performed, it was
believed that the spirits of the dead wandered for a
time upon the earth, in a state of great unhappiness.
Hence their extreme solicitude to procure the bodies
of their slain in battle.

Heaven was the abode of the Great Spirit, the
final home of the faithful. They believed there was
a road down from heaven to every man's door. On
this invisible way, the soul ascended in its heavenly
flight until it reached its celestial habitation. As

into disuse. The following address of an Iroquois mother over the body
of her son was made on a recent occasion. Approaching his inanimate
remains to look upon him for the last time, her grief for some moments
was uncontrollable. Presently, her wailing ceased, and she thus addressed
him : tf My son, listen once more to the words of thy mother. Thou
wert brought into life with her pains. Thou wert nourished with her
life. She has attempted to be faithful in raising thee up. When thou
wert young, she loved thee as her life. Thy presence has been a source
of great joy to her. Upon thee she depended for support and comfort in
her declining days. She had ever expected to gain the end of the path of
lite before thee. But thou hast outstripped her, and gone before her.
Our great and wise Creator has ordered it thus. By his will I am left to
taste more of the miseries of this world. Thy friends and relatives have
gathered about thy body, to look upon thee for the last time. They
mourn, as with one mind, thy departure from among us. We, too, have
but a few days more, and our journey shall be ended. We part now, and
you are conveyed from our sight. But we shall soon meet again, and
shall again look upon each other. Then we shall part no more. Our
Maker has called you to his home. Thither will we follow. Na-ho' '."
After this was over, the wail continued for a few moments, when the body
was borne away. The above was furnished to the author by Hd-sa-no-
an'-da (Ely S. Parker), who heard it delivered. See also a specimen of
an address to the dead in La Hontan's Voy. North Am. Lond. ed. 1735,
vol. ii. p. 54.

•

169

LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS

before observed, the spirit was supposed to linger for
a time about the body, and perhaps to revisit it. In
consequence of this belief, a superstitious custom pre
vailed of leaving a slight opening in the grave, through
which it might reenter its former tenement. To this
day, among a portion of the Iroquois, after the body
has been deposited in a coffin, holes are bored through
it for the same purpose. After taking its final depar
ture, the soul was supposed to ascend higher and
higher on its heavenly way, gradually moving to
the westward, until it came out upon the plains of
heaven.

The inhabitants of this sinless dwelling-place of
Ha-wen-ne'-yu were believed to possess a body, and
the senses, appetites and affections of the earthly life.
They carried their knowledge with them, and the
memory of former friends. Sex was in effect abol
ished, but families were reunited, and dwelt together
in perpetual harmony. All the powers of the Indian
imagination were taxed to picture the glowing beauties
of their celestial home. It was fashioned to please
the natural senses. A vast plain of illimitable exten
sion, it was spread out with every variety of natural
scenery which could please the eye, or gratify the
fancy. Forests clothed with ever-living foliage, flow
ers of every hue in eternal bloom, fruits of every
variety in perpetual ripeness, in a word, the meridian
charms of nature met the eye in every direction. To
form a paradise of unrivalled beauty, the Great Spirit
had gathered every object in the natural world which
could delight the senses, and having spread them out
in vast but harmonious array, and restored their bap-

170

WASHINGTON

tismal vestments, he diffused over these congregated
beauties of nature the bloom of immortality. In this
happy abode, they were destined to enjoy unending
felicity. No evil could enter this peaceful home of
innocence and purity. No violence could disturb,
no passions ruffle the tranquillity of this fortunate
realm. In amusement or repose they spent their
lives. The festivities in which they had delighted
while on the earth were re-celebrated in the presence
of the great Author of their being. They enjoyed
all the happiness of the earthly life, unencumbered
by its ills.

With the Iroquois, heaven was not regarded as a
" hunting ground," as it appears to have been by
some Indian nations. Subsistence had ceased to be
necessary. When the faithful partook of the sponta
neous fruits around them, it was for the gratification
of the taste, and not for the support of life.

Among the modern beliefs engrafted upon the
ancient faith, there is one which is worthy of partic
ular notice. It relates to Washington.1 According
to their present belief, no white man ever reached
the Indian heaven. Not having been created by the
Great Spirit, no provision was made for him in their
scheme of theology. He was excluded both from
heaven and from the place of punishment. But an
exception was made in favor of Washington. Because
of his justice and benevolence to the Indian, he stood
preeminent above all other white men. When, by
the peace of 1783, the Indians were abandoned by

1 His name among the Iroquois was Hd-no-dd-ga'-ne-arsy which signi
fies " Town Destroyer."

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

their English allies, and left to make their own terms
with the American government, the Iroquois were more
exposed to severe measures than the other tribes in
their alliance. At this critical moment, Washington
interfered in their behalf, as the protector of Indian
rights, and the advocate of a policy towards them
of the most enlightened justice and humanity .(29)
After his death, he was mourned by the Iroquois as
a benefactor of their race, and his memory was cher
ished with reverence and affection. A belief was
spread abroad among them, that the Great Spirit had
received him into a celestial residence upon the plains
of heaven, the only white man whose noble deeds had
entitled him to this heavenly favor. Just by the en
trance of heaven is a walled enclosure, the ample
grounds within which are laid out with avenues and
shaded walks. Within is a spacious mansion, con
structed in the fashion of a fort. Every object in
nature which could please a cultivated taste had been
gathered in this blooming Eden, to render it a de
lightful dwelling-place for the immortal Washington.
The faithful Indian, as he enters heaven, passes this
enclosure. He sees and recognizes the illustrious
inmate, as he walks to and fro in quiet meditation.
But no word ever passes his lips. Dressed in his uni
form, and in a state of perfect felicity, he is destined to
remain through eternity in the solitary enjoyment of the
celestial residence prepared for him by the Great Spirit.
Surely the piety and the gratitude of the Iroquois
have, jointly, reared a monument to Washington
above the skies, which is more expressive in its praise
than the proudest recitals on the obelisk, and more

172

SPIRITUALITY OF THEIR FAITH

imperishable in its duration than the syenite which
holds up the record to the gaze of centuries.

The beliefs of our primitive inhabitants, when
brought together in a connected form, naturally call
forth an expression of surprise. A faith so purely
spiritual, so free from the tincture of human passion,
and from the grossness of superstition, can scarcely be
credited, when examined under the ordinary estimate
of the Indian character. It has been the misfortune
of the Indian never to be rightly understood, espe
cially in his social relations. Their religious and
moral sentiments, such as they were, exercised as de
cisive an influence upon Indian society, as the precepts
of Christianity do over enlightened communities.
They furnished springs of action, rules of intercourse,
and powers of restraint. And yet, where is the pic
ture of Indian social life which reveals the domestic
virtues, the generous friendships, the integrity between
man and man, the harmony of intercourse, and the
sympathies of the heart, which bloomed and flourished
in the depths of the forest? We have met the red
man upon the war-path, and not at the fireside. We
have dealt with him as his oppressor, and not as his
friend. His evil traits, ever present with the mind,
form the standard of judgment ; and when his virtues
rise up before us, they create surprise, rather than an
swer expectation, because the standard of estimation is
universally unjust.

The mind of the Iroquois was deeply imbued with
religious sentiments, the practical results, the actual
fruits of which, unseen for the most part, by those
who know the Indian only in his intercourse with the

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

whites, reveal themselves in unexpected beauty, when
we examine his social relations, and view him in his
domestic life. Their influence upon the Iroquois, in
their intercourse with other nations, is necessarily sec
ondary. To judge of their religious system from its
direct effects, it is necessary to look into Indian society
itself. Here its primary influence, at least, must fall.
It would be a grateful task to array the virtues, which
sprang into existence in the seclusions of the wilder
ness, to light up the character of the red man. From
the harmony which characterized their political rela
tions under the League, down to the domestic quiet
of the sylvan home, the picture is much the same.
Peace, hospitality, charity, friendship, harmony, in
tegrity, religious enthusiasm, the domestic affections,
found a generous growth and cultivation among the
Iroquois. Genius, learning, and Christianity change
the features of society, and cast over it an artificial
garment, but its elements continue the same. It need
not awaken surprise that the Indian has rivalled many
ot the highest virtues of civilized and christianized
man ; or that in some of the rarest traits in the human
character, he has passed quite beyond him.

Whatever excellences the Iroquois character pos
sessed are to be ascribed, in a great measure, to their
beliefs, and above all, to their unfailing faith in the
Great Spirit. By adhering to that sublime but simple
rruth, that there was one Supreme Being, who created
and preserved them, they not only escaped an idola
trous worship, but they imbibed a more ennobling and
spiritual faith than has fallen to the lot of any other
unchristianized people. (G2)

Chapter II

Worship of the Iroquois — Keepers of the Faith — Thanks to the
Maple — Planting Festival — Berry Festival — Green Corn Festi
val — Harvest Festival — New Year's Jubilee — Sacrifice of the
White Dog — Address to the Great Spirit — Influence of their
Worship

THE Iroquois had a systematic worship. It
consisted in the celebration of periodical fes
tivals, which were held at stated seasons of
the year. These observances were suggested by the
changes in the seasons, the ripening of the fruits, and
the gathering of the harvest. They were performed
annually, with the same established ceremonies, which
had been handed down from age to age. The wor
ship of the Iroquois, as before remarked, has under
gone no change in centuries* It is still the same, in
all essential particulars, that it was at the period of
their discovery. Some slight additions, ascribable,
doubtless, to missionary instructions, will be detected,
but they are too inconsiderable to change the form, or
disturb the harmony of the whole. Upon an exam
ination of the principal features of the system, it will
become apparent that it was chiefly a thanksgiving
worship, although the supplication of the Great Spirit
for the continuance of his protection entered into it as
an essential element.

Six regular festivals, or thanksgivings, were ob
served by the Iroquois. The first, in the order of

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

time, was the Maple festival. This was a return of
thanks to the maple itself, for yielding its sweet
waters. Next was the Planting festival, designed,
chiefly, as an invocation of the Great Spirit to bless
the seed. Third came the Strawberry festival, in
stituted as a thanksgiving for the first fruits of the
earth. The fourth was the Green Corn festival, de
signed as a thanksgiving acknowledgment for the
ripening of the corn, beans and squashes. Next
was celebrated the Harvest festival, instituted as a
general thanksgiving to " Our Supporters," after the
gathering of the harvest. Last in the enumeration is
placed the New Year's festival, the great jubilee of the
Iroquois, at which trie white dog was sacrificed.

The principle involved in the formal worship of
the Great Spirit at stated periods, and the fidelity
with which the Iroquois, in prosperity and in ad
versity, adhered to these observances from generation
to generation, are of much more importance in form
ing a judgment of their religious sentiments than the
mere ceremonies themselves. In this constant rec
ognition of their dependence upon the divine power,
there is much to awaken a feeling of sympathy and
a sentiment of respect for a people who, untaught
by revelation, had reached such high conclusions.
By assembling at periodical seasons to render their
thanks to Ha-wen-ne'-yu for his gifts, they fully rec
ognized the duty which rested upon them as the re
cipients of such favors. And, also, by supplicating
the continuance of his watchful care, and by invok
ing his blessing upon their present acts, they mani
fested the sincerity of their faith, and the fulness

176

KEEPERS OF THE FAITH

of their trust in the great Author of their being.
But the ceremonies themselves are not without a
peculiar interest. They will convey to the mind a
more distinct impression of the nature and simplicity
of their worship. No attempt will be made to de
scribe these observances with the minuteness of a
picture. An outline of those appropriate to each
festival will sufficiently illustrate their general charac
ter and purpose.

The question here presents itself as to the religious
office or priesthood among the Iroquois. Under
the League itself no sacerdotal office was recognized.
Sachems were raised up, and invested with their titles
by a council of all the sachems of the League. Chiefs
were first raised up in the nation to which they be
longed, and their title was afterwards confirmed by the
same general council. But no religious dignitaries
were ever raised up by the council of sachems to fill
any priestly station. In each nation, however, there
was a select class appointed by the several tribes to
take the charge of their religious festivals, and the
general supervision of their worship. They were
styled Ho-nun-de -ont ) or " Keepers of the Faith," as
the term literally signifies. In the election of this
class, their powers and duties, and the tenure of their
office, there are many circumstances to distinguish
them as a sacerdotal order.(49) To their number
there was no limit, and they were usually about as
numerous as the chiefs. The chiefs themselves were
ex officio keepers of the faith/f)5) The office was
elective, and continued as long as the individual was
faithful to his trust. Suitable persons were selected
VOL.I. — 12 1 77

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

by the wise men and matrons out of their respective
tribes, and advanced to the office. Their original
names were then taken away, and new ones assigned,
out of a collection of names which belonged to this
class. At the first subsequent council of the nation,
their appointment and names were publicly an
nounced, which in itself completed the investiture.
The number furnished by each tribe was an evidence
of its fidelity to the ancient faith. They were, to
some extent, censors of the people ; and their ad
monitions were received with kindness, as coming
from those commissioned to remonstrate. In some
cases they reported the evil deeds of individuals to
the council, to make of them an example by exposure.
Sometimes they held consultations to deliberate upon
the moral condition of the people. It was the duty
of every individual to accept the office when be
stowed ; but he could relinquish it at any moment by
laying aside his new name and resuming his old.(G8)
It was their duty to designate the times for hold
ing the periodical festivals, to make the necessary
arrangements for their celebration, and to conduct the
ceremonies. Certain ones of their number, by previ
ous appointment, made the opening speech, and the
thanksgiving address at the council, and also delivered
religious discourses whenever they were deemed advis
able. All of the members of this class were equal in
authority and privileges. Those animated by the
highest zeal and enthusiasm would naturally assume
the most active charge ; but they had no acknowl
edged head. The distribution of all powers, duties
and offices among a number of equals was the pre-

178

KEEPERS OF THE FAITH

vailing feature of their civil polity. It was necessary
that women as well as men should be appointed
keepers of the faith, and about in equal numbers. To
the matrons more particularly was intrusted the charge
of the feast. The Iroquois never held a mourning or
religious council, without preparing an entertainment
for all the people in attendance on the evening of
each day. None but those matrons who were keepers
of the faith could take any part in its preparation.
But their duties were not confined to the supervision
of the feast. They had an equal voice in the general
management of the festivals, and of all of their re
ligious concernments. During a discourse or address,
all the keepers of the faith acted, if necessary, as
prompters to the speaker, and through him com
municated to the people any injunction or precept
which they deemed advisable. For this reason, one
of their names as a class was that of " prompters."
Notwithstanding the systematic organization of the
keepers of the faith, and the precise limitation of
their duties, there do not seem to be sufficient rea
sons for calling this class a religious order, or a
priesthood, as these terms are usually understood.
They were distinguished by no special privileges,
except while in the act of discharging their pre
scribed duties ; they wore no costume, or emblem
of office, to separate them from the people. In fact
they were common warriors, and common women,
and, in every sense, of and among the people. The
office was one of necessity, and was without reward,
like all Indian offices of every name, and also with
out particular honor to the individual.

179

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

O-TA-DE-NONE'-NE-O NA WA'-TA ;; OR, THANKS TO
THE MAPLE

This was the first festival of the spring. It was
usually called the Maple Dance. The primary idea
of this ceremonial was to return thanks to the maple
itself; but at the same time they rendered their thanks
to the Great Spirit for the gift of the maple. It lasted
but one day. When the sap began to flow, the
keepers of the faith announced the time and place for
commemorating the recurrence of this event, and
summoned the people to assemble for that purpose.
Some days before the time appointed for the festival,
the people assembled for the mutual confession of
their sins, both as an act of religious duty, and as a
preparation for the council. This act preceded all the
festivals ; but it was more general and thorough at the
three last than at the three first, as they were deemed
more important, and continued for a greater length of
time. This council, Sa-nun-dat-ha-wa-ta^ literally " a
meeting for repentance," was opened by one of the
keepers of the faith, with an address upon the pro
priety and importance of acknowledging their evil
deeds, to strengthen their minds against future tempta
tions. He then took the string of white wampum in
his hand, and set the example by a confession of his
own faults ; after which he handed the string to the
one nearest to him, who received it, made his confes
sion in like manner, and passed it to another. In this
way the wampum went around from hand to hand ;
and those who had confessions to make stated wherein
they had done wrong, and promised to do better in

180

THANKS TO THE MAPLE

the future. Old and young, men, women, and even
children all united in this public acknowledgment of
their faults, and joined in the common resolution of
amendment. On some occasions the string of wam
pum was placed in the centre of the room, and each
one advanced in turn to perform the duty, as the in
clination seized him. A confession and promise with
out holding the wampum would be of no avail. It
was the wampum which recorded their words, and gave
their pledge of sincerity. The object of the confession
was future amendment. The Iroquois appear to have
had no idea either of the atonement or of the forgive
ness of sins. Meritorious acts neutralized evil deeds,
but neither the one nor the other, when done, could
be recalled, or changed, or obliterated.

The celebration of this festival was not limited to
one particular place, but it was observed in all the
villages of the several nations of the League, which
were too remote to unite around the same council-fire.
At the time appointed, the people gathered from the
subjacent districts, some to offer religious admonitions,
some prepared for the dance, others for the games, and
still others for the enjoyment of the feast. It was one
of their festive days, awakening the eagerness of ex
pectation in the minds of all. On the morning of the
day, the matrons, to whom the duty appertained, com
menced the preparation of the customary feast for the
people, which was as sumptuous as the season and the
means of the hunter life would afford. Towards me
ridian, the out-door sports and games, which were
common to such occasions, were suspended, and the
people assembled in council. An opening speech was

181

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

then delivered, by one of the keepers of the faith.
The following, made at the opening of one of these
councils among the Senecas, is in the usual form, and
will illustrate their general character : —

" Friends and Relatives : — The sun, the ruler of the day,
is high in his path, and we must hasten to do our duty. We
are assembled to observe an ancient custom. It is an institu
tion handed down to us by our forefathers. It was given to
them by the Great Spirit. He has ever required of his people
to return thanks to him for all blessings received. We have
always endeavored to live faithful to this wise command.

" Friends and Relatives, continue to listen : — It is to per
form this duty that we are this day gathered. The season
when the maple tree yields its sweet waters has again returned.
We are all thankful that it is so. We therefore expect all of
you to join in our general thanksgiving to the maple. We
also expect you to join in a thanksgiving to the Great Spirit,
who has wisely made this tree for the good of man. We
hope and expect that order and harmony will prevail.

" Friends and Relatives : — We are gratified to see so many
here, and we thank you all that you have thought well of this
matter. We thank the Great Spirit, that he has been kind to
so many of us, in sparing our lives to participate again in the
festivities of this season. Na-hd '." l

Other speeches often followed, which were in the
nature of exhortations to duty. These occasions were
seized upon by their moral teachers, to inculcate anew
the precepts of their faith, and to offer admonitions
for their spiritual guidance. One of the keepers of

1 It is almost the universal custom among the Iroquois to conclude
their speeches, on all occasions, with this exclamation. It signifies sim
ply, " I have done.'*

182

THANKS TO THE MAPLE

the faith, addressing the people at such a time, would
inculcate the virtues which became a warrior, and un
fold the duties which were incumbent upon them as
members of one common brotherhood. The duty of
living in harmony and peace, of avoiding evil speaking,
.of kindness to the orphan, of charity to the needy,
and of hospitality to all, would be among the promi
nent topics brought under consideration. He would
remind them that the Great Spirit noticed and re
warded good acts, and that those who hoped for suc
cess in the affairs of life, should be ready to do them
whenever occasion offered ; that those who had done
wrong should not be treated harshly; that enmities
were not to be contracted, lest a spirit of revenge
should be awakened, which would never sleep ; and
finally, that those who pursued the right path would
never fall into trouble.

When these speeches and exhortations were con
cluded, the dance, which was a prominent feature of
their religious festivals, was announced. It is proper
here to observe, that dancing was regarded by the
Iroquois as an appropriate mode of worship. They
regarded the dance as a perpetual outward ceremonial
of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit. A belief prevailed
among them that the custom was of divine origin.
" The Great Spirit knew the Indian could not live
without some amusement, therefore he originated the
idea of dancing, which he gave to them." The
dance set apart in a peculiar manner for the worship
of the Great Spirit, at their festivals, was one of their

(Johnson).

183

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

own invention ; and the most spirited, graceful and
beautiful in their list. It is known as the Great
Feather Dance (O-sto-weh'-go-wa). It was performed
by a select band, in full costume, and was reserved
exclusively for religious councils and for great occa
sions. It lasted about an hour, never failing to arouse
a deep spirit of enthusiastic excitement. Before the
band came in, one of the keepers of the faith made a
brief speech, explanatory of its origin, nature and
objects ; in which the popular belief was interwoven,
that this dance would be enjoyed by the faithful in
the future life, in the realm of the Great Spirit, to
whose worship it was especially consecrated.

After the conclusion of this dance others fol
lowed, in which all participated. Before they were
ended, the usual thanksgiving address to the Great
Spirit, with the burning of tobacco, was made. In
ancient times the Maple festival was terminated with
these dances. One of the keepers of the faith
made a closing speech, after which the people par
took of the feast, and separated for their respective
homes.

There is a popular belief among the Iroquois that
the early part of the day is dedicated to the Great
Spirit, and the after part to the spirits of the dead ;
consequently their religious services should properly be
concluded at meridian. They still retain the theory,
and to this day religious discourses are seldom contin
ued after noon ; but in practice it was found impossible,
from the tardiness of the people in assembling, to con
clude the ceremonies of the festival before twilight.
A further innovation was made many years ago by

184

GA-KA-AH OR KILT.

THANKS TO THE MAPLE

devoting the evenings of these festive days to dancing,
for the entertainment of guests from other villages or
nations, who chanced to be with them. This became,
in time, the universal custom, and they now continue
the practice for their own amusement. These even
ing entertainments, however, in strictness, form no
part of the festival, although apparently it is one
proceeding from the opening of the council until late
at night, when the entertainment is ended. A
distinction should constantly be held in view, between
their proper religious exercises, and their amusements,
and also between the ancient mode of celebrating these
festivals, and the modern. The regular religious
ceremonies at the Maple festival consisted of the
opening discourse by one of the keepers of the faith,
the exhortations of others, the Feather dance, the
thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit, with the in
cense of tobacco, two or three other dances, the clos
ing speech, and the feast in common.

In ancient times these ceremonies were concluded
at meridian, but in modern times at twilight. Formerly
all the exercises at these festivals were of a strictly
religious character, except certain games which were
common to these occasions. But in later times other
dances have been added, and also an evening entertain
ment devoted exclusively to dancing. There were
likewise certain games of chance, sports, and athletic
games, common to all these festivals, which yet formed
no part of their religious ceremonies. They were
merely outside diversions for the people. Still the
Maple festival, as celebrated at the present day
among the descendants of the ancient Iroquois, is

'85

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the same, in its essential features, as at the period
of its institution.1

A-YENT'-WA-TA ; OR, PLANTING FESTIVAL

This word signifies " the planting season." When
this time arrived another festival was held to celebrate
the event. It continued but one day. In its observ
ances there was nothing to distinguish it very materially
from the Maple festival. A description is therefore
unnecessary, except to point out some peculiarities.
The object of this festival was two-fold : to render
thanks to the Great Spirit for the return of the planting
season, and to invoke his blessing upon the seed which
they had committed to the earth, that it might yield
an abundant harvest.

The Indian had no Sabbath, no sacred writings to
furnish him an inexhaustible fountain of instruction ;
but his gratitude was awakened by every returning
manifestation of divine goodness. When nature had
reclothed herself in the vestments of spring, and the
teeming earth invited him to commit the seeds to her
bosom, he recognized in the event the watchful kindness
of the Great Spirit. There is something eminently
spiritual and beautiful in this Indian conception of
the natural periods of worship. Seizing upon the
moment when the most conspicuous evidences of the
protecting care of the Deity were before him, he ac
knowledged both his existence and his beneficence,

1 The Iroquois have long been in the habit of manufacturing sugar from
the maple. Whether they learned the art from us, or we from them, may
be a difficult question ; although the former would seem the more prob
able, from the want of suitable vessels among them for boiling. (87)

186

PLANTING FESTIVAL

and manifested, at the same time, his gratitude and
devotion, by those simple rites which the piety of his
heart suggested.

At the time appointed by the keepers of the faith,
the people assembled to observe the day. After the
speeches were over, the Feather and other dances were
performed, as at the Maple festival. In ancient times,
the thanksgiving address, or prayer to the Great Spirit,
with the burning of tobacco, was confined to the last
three, or the principal festivals ; but in later days such
a prayer was offered generally at the first three also.
As elsewhere observed, when the Iroquois returned
thanks to the various objects in nature which ministered
to their wants, or when they acknowledged to each
other their thankfulness to the Great Spirit, or to the
lesser Spirits, they never burned tobacco. In these
cases, their thanks were returned to the trees and
plants and elements direct, to do which, according to
their theology, did not require the use of incense,
while, as to the spiritual world, they merely avowed to
each other that they returned their thanks. But when
they offered a prayer, or called upon the Great Spirit,
or his Invisible Aids, they were obliged to use the as
cending smoke to put themselves in communication
with the spiritual world.

This address occurred at no particular stage in the
ceremonies of the day. The keepers of the faith
having appointed one of their number to perform this
duty, the person designated selected a suitable moment
for its delivery. Advancing to the fire prepared for
the purpose, he called the attention of the people by
an exclamation, which was the known precursor of

187

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

this address. Having sprinkled a few leaves of Indian
tobacco upon the fire, he addressed Ha-wen-ne]-yu> as
the smoke ascended. The following, delivered at a
Planting festival among the Senecas, will illustrate the
general character of these prayers or thanksgiving
addresses : —

" Great Spirit, who dwellest alone, listen now to the words
of thy people here assembled. The smoke of our offering
arises. Give kind attention to our words, as they arise to thee
in the smoke. We thank thee for this return of the planting sea
son. Give to us a good season, that our crops may be plentiful.

" Continue to listen, for the smoke yet arises. (Throwing
on tobacco.) Preserve us from all pestilential diseases. Give
strength to us all that we may not fall. Preserve our old men
among us, and protect the young. Help us to celebrate with
feeling the ceremonies of this season. Guide the minds of thy
people, that they may remember thee in all their actions.
Na-bo1."

There was nothing further to distinguish this festi
val from the former.

If, after the planting season, a drought should come
upon the land, threatening a failure of the harvest, a
special council was frequently called, to invoke He-no^
the Thunderer, to send rain upon the earth. Before
the time appointed for this council, the people assem
bled, as before other festivals, for mutual confession.
They feared, as they expressed it, " that some of their
number had done some great wrong, for which the
Great Spirit was angry with them, and withheld the
rain as a merited punishment." After this special
council was opened in the usual form, the Thanksgiv-

188

BERRT FESTIVAL

ing dance, and the Ah-dd-weh, hereafter to be described,
were introduced, which were supposed to be peculiarly
acceptable to He'-no. At a proper time, in the progress
of these ceremonies, the keeper of the faith, who had
been appointed as usual, advanced to the fire, and having
laid on the leaves of tobacco, and gained the attention
of the people, he made the following invocation of the
Thunderer, as the incense ascended : —

" He -no, our Grandfather, listen now to the words of thy
grandchildren. We feel grieved. Our minds are sorely
troubled. We fear Our Supporters will fail, and bring famine
upon us. We ask our Grandfather that he may come, and
give us rain, that the earth may not dry up, and refuse to
produce for our support. Thy grandchildren all send their
salutations to their grandfather, He'-no"

Then taking another handful of tobacco, and
placing it upon the fire, he changed the address to

Ha-wen-ne'-yu : —

" Great Spirit : listen to the words of thy suffering chil
dren. They come to thee with pure minds. If they have
done wrong, they have confessed, and turned their minds, (at
the same time holding up the string of white wampum with
which the confession was recorded.) Be kind to us. Hear
our grievances, and supply our wants. Direct that He'-no may
come, and give us rain, that Our Supporters may not fail us,
and bring famine to our homes. Na-ho '."

After concluding the dance the assembly was dis
missed.

HA-NUN-DA'-YO ; OR, BERRY FESTIVAL
In the progress of the seasons, next came the
Strawberry, the first fruit of the earth. The Iroquois

189

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

seized upon this spontaneous gift of nature for their
sustenance, as another suitable occasion for a thanks
giving festival. By such ceremonials they habituated
their minds to a recognition of the providential care
of Ha-wen-ne'-yu ; cultivating, at the same time, a
grateful spirit for the constant return of his gifts.
The observances at this festival were the same as
those at the Maple, with a sufficient variation of terms
to designate the particular occasion. It was concluded
with a feast of strawberries. The berries were pre
pared with maple sugar, in capacious bark trays, in
the form of a jelly ; and in this condition the people
feasted upon this great luxury of nature.

The ripening of the Whortleberry was often made
the occasion of another festival. It was in all respects
like the last,, the only difference consisting in the fact,
that the former was an acknowledgment for the first
fruit of plants, and the latter for the first fruit of
trees.

AH-DAKE'-WA-O ; OR, GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

The word from which this takes its name signifies
"a feast." It continued four days, the proceedings
of each being different in most particulars, but each
one terminating with a feast.

When the green corn became fit for use, the season
of plenty with the Indian had emphatically arrived.
They made it another occasion of general thanksgiving
to the Great Spirit, and of feasting and rejoicing
among themselves. Corn has ever been the staple
article of consumption among the Iroquois. They
cultivated this plant, and also the bean and the

190

AH-DE-A-DA-WE-SA OR OVER-DRESS

r RONT

AH-DE -A-DA-WE-SA oft OVER-DRESS

8 ACK

GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

squash, before the formation of the League. From
the most remote period to which tradition reaches,
the knowledge of the cultivation and use of these
plants has been handed down among them.1 They
raised sufficient quantities of each to supply their ut
most wants, preparing them for food in a great variety
of ways, and making them at least the basis of their
sustenance.119 In their own mode of expressing
the idea, these plants are mentioned together, under
the figurative name of " Our Life," or " Our Sup
porters." It cannot, therefore, be affirmed with cor
rectness, that the Indian subsisted principally by
the chase. (84) After the formation of the League,
they resided in permanent villages, and within certain
well-defined territorial limits. The fruits of the chase
then became a secondary, although a necessary means
of subsistence.2

On the first day of this festival, after the intro
ductory speeches had been made, the Feather dance,
the thanksgiving address, with the burning of to-

1 According to the legend, the corn plant sprang from the bosom of
the mother of the Great Spirit, after her burial.

2 The quantities of corn raised by the Iroquois was a constant cause
of remark among those who went earliest among them. The first expe
dition into the Seneca country, of a warlike character, was made by the
Marquis De Nonville, as early as 1687, but a few years after the ge
ographical location of the Iroquois nations became known to the French
and English. He thus speaks of the quantity of corn: " We remained
at the four Seneca villages until the 24th of July. All that time we
spent in destroying the corn, which was in such great abundance, that
the1 loss, including old corn which was in cache which we burnt, and
that which was standing, was computed according to the estimate after
wards made, at four hundred thousand minots of Indian corn"
(1,200,000 bushels). Documentary Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 238.
This, however, must be regarded as an extravagant estimate. (88)

191

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

bacco, and three or four other dances, made up the
principal religious exercises. This address was intro
duced in the midst of one of the dances which suc
ceeded the first. One more specimen of these brief
prayers of the Iroquois, as made by the Senecas, will
be furnished. Having placed the leaves of tobacco
on the fire, as usual, the keeper of the faith thus

addressed Hd-wen-ne'-yu : —
t

" Great Spirit in heaven, listen to our words. We have
assembled to perform a sacred duty, as thou hast commanded.
This institution has descended to us from our fathers. We
salute thee with our thanks, that thou hast preserved so many
of us another year, to participate in the ceremonies of this
occasion.

" Great Spirit, continue to listen : We thank thee for thy
great goodness in causing our mother, the earth, again to bring
forth her fruits. We thank thee that thou hast caused Our
Supporters to yield abundantly.

u Great Spirit, our words still continue to flow towards thee.
(Throwing on tobacco). Preserve us from all danger. Pre
serve our aged men. Preserve our mothers. Preserve our
warriors. Preserve our children. We burn this tobacco ;
may its smoke arise to thee. May our thanks, ascending with
it, be pleasing to thee. Give wisdom to the keepers of the
faith, that they may direct these ceremonies with propriety.
Strengthen our warriors, that they may celebrate with pleasure
the sacred dances of thy appointment.

" Great Spirit ; the council here assembled, the aged men
and women, the strong warriors, the women and children, unite
their voice of thanksgiving to thee. Na-ho ! " l

1 Fora similar address in use among the Ottawas, see La Hontan's
North Am., Lond. Ed. 1735, vol. ii. p. 34.

192

GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

Before partaking of the feast, the people went out
to witness some of those games which were often in
troduced, as an amusement, to accompany the other
exercises of these festive days.

The second day commenced with the usual address,
after which they had the Thanksgiving dance, Ga-na-
o-ub, which was the principal religious exercise of the
day. This dance was not necessarily a costume per
formance, although it was usually given by a select
band in full dress. In figure, step, and music, it was
precisely like the Feather dance, the chief difference
between them being the introduction of short thanks
giving speeches between the songs of the dance. This
dance is fully explained elsewhere ; but it is proper to
say, to make it intelligible here, that the music con
sisted of a series of thanksgiving songs, performed by
select singers, who accompanied themselves with turtle-
shell rattles, to mark time. Each song lasted about
two minutes, during which the band danced around
the room, in column, with great animation. When
the song ceased, the dancers walked around the coun
cil-house, about the same length of time, to the beat
•of the rattles. The thanksgiving speeches were made
during these intervals between the songs. A person
arose, and perhaps thanked the Maple as follows :
" We return thanks to the Maple, which yields its
sweet waters for the good of man." Again the dance
was resumed, and another song danced out, after
which another speech was made by some other person,
perhaps as follows : " We return thanks to the bushes
and trees, which provide us with fruit." The dance

was then resumed as before. In this manner the
VOL. i.— 13 I93

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

thanksgiving speeches, the songs and the dance were
continued, until all the prominent objects in nature
had been made the subjects of special notice. There
were always set speeches introduced with the Thanks
giving dance, at the Green Corn and Harvest festivals,
and they formed a conspicuous part of the worship of
the Iroquois. These speeches, or the principal ones,
may be collected into one, for the purpose of showing
the range of subjects taken ; yet it must be borne in
mind that each object formed the subject of a separate
speech, and was followed by a thanksgiving song,
adapted to the case, which the band danced through.
It may be proper further to add, that these speeches
were consolidated to form the principal part of the
annual thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit, made
at the burning of the White Dog. The following is
their natural order : —

" We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which
sustains us. We return thanks to the rivers and
streams, which supply us with water. We return
thanks to all herbs, which furnish medicines for the
cure of our diseases. We return thanks to the corn,
and to her sisters, the beans and squashes, which give
us life. We return thanks to the bushes and trees,
which .provide us with fruit. We return thanks to
the wind, which, moving the air, has banished dis
eases. We return thanks to the moon and stars,
which have given to us their light when the sun was
gone. We return thanks to our grandfather He'-no,
that he has protected his grandchildren from witches
and reptiles, and has given to us his rain. We
return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon

194

GREEN CORN FESTIVAL

the earth with a beneficent eye. Lastly, we return
thanks to the Great Spirit, in whom is embodied all
goodness, and who directs all things for the good of
his children."

After the conclusion of the Thanksgiving dance,
two or three other dances followed, and after them
the feast, with which the exercises of the day were
concluded.

The third morning was set apart for a thanksgiving
concert, called the Ah-dd-weh> which constituted the
chief ceremony of the day. The council was opened
by an introductory speech by one of the keepers of
the faith, upon its nature, objects, and institution.
This novelty in their worship was a succession of short
speeches made by different persons, one after another,
returning thanks to a great variety of objects, each
one following his speech with an appropriate song, the
words of which were of his own composing, and often
times the music also. In a chorus to each song all
the people joined, thus sending forth a united anthem
of praise. They passed through the whole range of
natural objects, thanking each one directly, as in the
Thanksgiving dance; but they were not in the Ah-
do-weh confined either to the natural or to the spirit
ual world. Acts of kindness, personal achievements,
political events, in a word, all the affairs of public and
private life were open on this occasion to the indul
gence of the grateful affections. Oftentimes one or
two hours were consumed, before the people had all
expressed their thanks to each other for personal
favors, to the works of nature for their constant min
istration to their wants, and to the Great Spirit and

'95

LEAGUE OF THE IROgJLJOIS

the " Invisible Aids " for their protecting care. Many
of the speeches on these occasions, especially those
which referred to objects in the natural world, were
the same from year to year. But those which grew
out of their private relations would vary with circum
stances. This was esteemed one of their highest re
ligious exercises, and it always continued to be one of
their favorite observances. When the Ah-do'-weh
was concluded, two or three dances were generally
introduced before the enjoyment of the feast, with
which, as before remarked, each day's proceedings
were terminated.

On the fourth day, the festival was concluded with
the peach-stone game, Gus-ga-a, a game of chance, on
which they bet profusely, and to which they were ex
travagantly attached. It was not in the nature of a
religious exercise, but a favorite entertainment, with
which to terminate the Green Corn ceremonial. It is
elsewhere described.

It should be held in the memory, that at the period
of the institution of their religious festivals, they were
concluded at meridian ; during the middle period of
their history, they were continued until towards twi
light ; but in modern times, an evening entertainment,
in the way of dancing, always follows each day ot the
festival, so long as it continues, although it forms no
part of their religious observances. It may be further
observed, that at the present time, this festival lasts
but three days, the proceedings of the third and fourth
being completed on the former day.

At the close of each day, the people regaled them
selves upon a sumptuous feast of succotash. This

196

HARVEST FESTIVAL

was always the entertainment at the green corn sea
son. It was made of corn, beans and squashes, and
was always a favorite article of food with the red man.
It may be well to state in this connection, that among
the Iroquois at the present day, they do not sit down
together to a common repast, except at religious
councils of unusual interest. The feast, after being
prepared at the place of council, is distributed at its
close, and carried by the women, in vessels brought
for the purpose, to their respective homes, where it is
enjoyed by each family at their own fireside. But when
the people feasted together after the ancient fashion,
as they still do occasionally, they selected the hour of
twilight. The huge kettles of soup, or hommony, or
succotash, as the case might be, were brought into
their midst, smoking from the fire. Before partaking
of this evening banquet, they never omitted to say
grace, which, with them, was a simple ceremonial, but
in perfect harmony with their mode of worship. It
was a prolonged exclamation, upon a high key, by the
solitary voice of one of the keepers of the faith, fol
lowed by a swelling chorus from the multitude, upon
a lower note. It was designed as an acknowledgment
to each other of their gratitude to the great Giver of
the feast.

DA-YO-NUN'-NEO-QUA NA DE-O-HA'-KO; OR,
HARVEST FESTIVAL

After the gathering of the harvest, the Iroquois
held another general thanksgiving for four days. It
was the last in the year, as the New Year's obser
vances were not of the same general character. The

197

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

name given to this festival signifies " Thanksgiving
to Our Supporters." It was instituted primarily to
return thanks to the corn, beans and squashes, which
are always characterized by the Iroquois under this
figurative name. Also, to the triad of Spirits, who are
so intimately connected in their minds with the plants
themselves, that they are nearly inseparable. The
resulting object, however, of all these Indian rites,
was the praise of Ha-wen-ne'-yu. Nature having
matured and poured forth her stores for their suste
nance, they instituted this ceremonial as a perpetual
acknowledgment of their gratitude for each returning
harvest.

In the mode of summoning this council, and in the
religious ceremonies, and concluding festivities of each
day, it so closely resembled the Green Corn worship,
that a separate description is rendered unnecessary.

These religious councils were seasons of animation
and excitement. The greater activity in social inter
course among the people, generally awakened by these
ceremonies and festivities, contributed largely to keep
up the spirit of these occasions. In the evening, as
soon as the twilight hour was passed, the people
gathered for the dance, as this entertainment, since
the innovation before referred to, always follows the
religious ceremonies of each day. The Iroquois have
numerous dances, and to the practice itself they have
always been extravagantly addicted. On such occasions
the passion was gratified by a free indulgence, and the
hours of the night passed by unheeded. With the
Iroquois in their festivities, as with more refined com
munities, neither the admonition of the setting stars,

198

NEW TEAR'S JUBILEE

nor of the fallen dew, " counselled sleep." Not, per
haps, until the faint light of approaching day illumined
the east, did the spirit of enjoyment decline, and the
last murmur of the dispersing council finally subside.

GI'-YE-WA-NO-US-QUA-GO-WA ; OR, NEW YEAR'S
JUBILEE a*)

The name given to this festival literally signifies
" The most excellent faith," or " The supreme belief."

Among the ceremonies incident to the worship of
the Iroquois, the most novel were those which ushered
in the new year. In mid-winter, usually about the
first of February, this religious celebration was held.
It continued for seven successive days, revealing, in
its various ceremonials, nearly every feature of their
religious system. The prominent act which char
acterized this jubilee, and which, perhaps, indicated
what they understood by "The most excellent faith,"
was the burning of the White Dog, on the fifth day
of the festival. This annual sacrifice of the Iroquois
has long been known, attracting at various times con
siderable attention. But the true principle involved
in it appears not to have been rightly understood. In
the sequel, it will be found to be a very simple and
tangible idea, harmonizing fully with their system of
faith and worship.

Several days before the time appointed for the
jubilee, the people assembled for the confession of
their sins. On this occasion they were more thorough

1 This word will analyze as follows : Gi'-ye-wa, faith or belief; no-
us'-qua (superlative), excellent or best j and go'-wa, great or supreme.

199

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

in the work than at any other season, that they
might enter upon the new year with a firm purpose
of amendment. This council not unfrequently lasted
three days, before all the people had performed this
act of religious duty.

The observances of the new year were commenced
on the day appointed, by two of the keepers of the
faith, who visited every house in and about the Indian
village, morning and evening. (95) They were disguised
in bear skins or buffalo robes, which were secured
around their heads with wreaths of corn-husks, and
then gathered in loose folds about the body. Wreaths
of corn-husks were also adjusted around their arms
and ankles. They were robed in this manner, and
painted by the matrons, who, like themselves, were
keepers of the faith, and by them were they commis
sioned to go forth in this formidable attire, to an
nounce the commencement of the jubilee. Taking
corn-pounders in their hands, they went out in com
pany, on the morning of the day, to perform their
duty. Upon entering a house, they saluted the
inmates in a formal manner, after which, one of them,
striking upon the floor, to restore silence and secure
attention, thus addressed them : —

u Listen, Listen, Listen: — The ceremonies which the
Great Spirit has commanded us to perform, are about to com
mence. Prepare your houses. Clear away the rubbish.
Drive out all evil animals. We wish nothing to hinder or
obstruct the coming observances. We enjoin upon every one
to obey our requirements. Should any of your friends be taken
sick and die, we command you not to mourn for them, nor
allow any of your friends to mourn. But lay the body aside,

200

NEW TEAR'S JUBILEE

and enjoy the coming ceremonies with us. When they are
over, we will mourn with you." 1

After singing a, short thanksgiving song, they passed
out.

In the afternoon this visit was repeated in the same
manner. After saluting the family as before, one of
the keepers of the faith thus addressed them : -

" My Nephews, my Nephews, my Nephews : — We now
announce to you that the New Year's ceremonies have com
menced, according to our ancient custom. You are, each of
you, now required to go forth, and participate in their obser
vance. This is the will of the Great Spirit. Your first duty
will be to prepare your wooden blades (Ga-ger-we-sa) with
which to stir up the ashes upon your neighbors' hearths.
Then return to the Great Spirit your individual thanks for the
return of this season, and for the enjoyment of this privilege."

Having sung another song, appropriate to the occa
sion, they departed finally, and when they had in this
way made the circuit of the village, the ceremonies of
the first day were concluded.

On the first day, however, the White Dog was
strangled. (96) They selected a dog, free from phys-

1 This singular injunction exhibits the deep interest taken in the per
formance of these religious ceremonies. In practice, also, they possessed
sufficient self-control to carry out the requirement to the letter. If a per
son died during this festival, the body was laid aside until it was con
cluded, and the relatives of the deceased participated both in the religious
ceremonies, and in the amusements connected with them, with as much
interest and attention as if nothing had happened. Sometimes those festi
vals were broken up by a bad omen : as if, for instance, a dog should bite
one of the keepers of the faith on his visitorial round, they would stop the
festival, and appoint a new one.

201

LEAGUE OF THE I R 0 U O I S

ical blemish, and of a pure white, if such an one could
be found. The white deer, white squirrel, and other
chance animals of the albino kind, were regarded as
consecrated to the Great Spirit. White was the Iro-
quois emblem of purity and of faith. In strangling
the dog, they were careful neither to shed his blood
nor break his bones. The dog was then spotted, in
places, over his body and limbs, with red paint, and
ornamented with feathers in various ways. Around
his neck was hung a string of white wampum, the
pledge of their sincerity. In modern times, the dog
is ornamented with a profusion of many-colored rib
bons, which are adjusted around his body and limbs.1
The ornaments placed upon the dog were the voluntary
offerings of the pious ; and for each gift thus bestowed,
the giver was taught to expect a blessing. When the
dog had been thus decorated, it was suspended by the
neck about eight feet from the ground, on the branch
ing prong of a pole erected for that purpose. Here
it hung, night and day, until the morning of the fifth
day, when it was taken down to be burned. Often
times two dogs were burned, one for each four of the
tribes. (57) In this case, the people separated into
two divisions, and after going through separate pre
paratory ceremonies, they united around the same altar
for the burning of the dogs, and the offering of the
thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit.

On the second day all the people went forth, and

1 The author once (February 6, 1846) counted nine different colored
ribbons upon a white dog thus hung up during a New Year's celebration
among the Senecas at Tonawanda. They were tied around his mouth,
neck, legs, body and tail.

202

NEW YEAR'S JUBILEE

visited in turn the houses of their neighbors, either in
the morning, at noon, or in the evening. They went
in small parties apparelled in their best attire. It was
customary, however, for the people to be preceded by
the two keepers of the faith who made the recitations
the day previous, as a matter of etiquette ; the houses
not being open to all, until these personages had made
their call. At this time was performed the ceremony
of stirring the ashes upon the hearth, which appears
to have no particular idea attached to it, beyond that
of a formal visitation. (95) Putting aside the dis
guise of the day before, the keepers of the faith as
sumed the costume of warriors, plumed and painted,
in which attire they visited every family three times, in
the morning, at noon, and in the evening. Taking
in their hands wooden blades or shovels, they entered
the lodge and saluted the family. One of them then
stirred the ashes, and having taken up a quantity upon
the blade of the shovel, and sprinkled them upon the
hearth, he thus addressed the inmates, as they were in
the act of falling : " I thank the Great Spirit that he
has spared your lives again to witness this New Year's
celebration." Then repeating the process with another
shovel full of ashes, he continued : " I thank the Great
Spirit that he has spared my life, again to be an actor
in this ceremony. And now I do this to please the
Great Spirit." The two then united in a thanksgiving
song prepared for the occasion, upon the conclusion
of which they took their departure. Other parties of
the people then came in successively, and each went
through the same performances. In this manner every
house was thrice visited on the second day, by the

203

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

keepers of the faith in the first instance, and afterwards
by the whole community.

The proceedings upon the third and fourth days
were alike. Small dancing parties were organized,
which visited from house to house, and danced at the
domestic fireside. Each set selected a different dance,
appointed their own leader, and furnished their own
music. One party, for instance, took the Feather
dance, another the Fish dance, another the Trotting
dance, to give variety to the short entertainments
which succeeded each other at every house. It was
not uncommon, on such occasions, to see a party of
juveniles, about a dozen in number, dressed in full
costume, feathered and painted, dancing the War
dance, from house to house, with all the zeal and
enthusiasm which this dance was so eminently calcu
lated to excite. In this manner every house was made
a scene of gaiety and amusement, for none was so
humble or so retired as to remain unvisited.

Another pastime incident to these days was the
formation of a " thieving party," as it was called, a
band of mischievous boys, disguised with false faces,
paint and rags, to collect materials for a feast. This
vagrant company strolled from house to house, ac
companied by an old woman carrying a huge basket.
If the family received them kindly, and made them
presents, they handed the latter to the female carrier,
and having given the family a dance in acknowledg
ment of the present, they retired without committing
any depredations. But if no presents were made, or
such as were insufficient, they purloined whatever
articles they could most adroitly and easily conceal.

204

DREAMS

If detected, they at once made restitution, but if not,
it was considered a fair win. On the return of this
party from their rounds, all the articles collected were
deposited in a place open to public examination ;
where any one who had lost an article which he
particularly prized, was allowed to redeem it, on
paying an equivalent. But no one was permitted
to reclaim, as the owner, any article successfully taken
by this thieving party on its professional round.
Upon the proceeds of this forced collection, a feast
was eventually given, together with a dance in some
private family.

Guessing dreams was another of the novel practices
of the Iroquois, which distinguished these festive days.
It is difficult to understand precisely how far the self-
delusion under which the dreamer appeared to act
was real. A person with a melancholy and dejected
countenance, entering a house, announced that he had
a dream, and requested the inmates to guess it. He
thus wandered from house to house, until he found
a solution which suited him. This was either received
as an interpretation of an actual dream, or suggested
such a dream as the person was willing to adopt as
his own. He at once avowed that his dream had
been correctly guessed ; and if the dream, as inter
preted, prescribed any future conduct, he fulfilled it
to the letter at whatever sacrifice. The celebrated
Cornplanter, Gy-ant'-wa-ka, resigned his chiefship in
consequence of a dream.1 In relation to dreams, the

1 The dream of Cornplanter occurred about the year 1810. His in
fluence with the Senecas had been for some years on the wane, which his
friends ascribed to his friendly relations with the whites. During a New

205

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

Iroquois had ever been prone to extravagant and
supernatural beliefs. They often regarded a dream
as a divine monition, and followed its injunctions to
the utmost extremity. Their notions upon this sub
ject recall to remembrance the conceit of Homer,
that " dreams descend from Jove." (62)

During the first four days the people were without
a feast, from the fact that the observances themselves
did not require the assembling of the people at the
council-house. But entertainments were given in the

Year's celebration at his village on the Allegany, he went from house to
house for three days, announcing wherever he went that he had had a
dream, and wished to find some one to guess it. On the third day, a
Seneca told him that he could relate his dream. Seeing him nearly naked
and shivering with cold, he said : " You shall henceforth be called
O-no'-no," meaning " cold." This signified that his name, Gy-ant'-
•iva-ka, should pass away from him, and with it his title as a chief. He
then explained the interpretation to Cornplanter more fully : " That he had
had a sufficient term of service for the good of the nation. That he was
grown too old to be of much further use as a warrior or as a counsellor,
and that he must therefore appoint a successor. That if he wished to
preserve the continued good-will of the Great Spirit, he must remove from
his house and sight every article of the workmanship or invention of the
white man.'" Cornplanter, having listened with earnest attention to this
interpretation, confessed that it was correctly guessed, and that he was re
solved to execute it. His presents, which he had received from Wash
ington, Adams, Jefferson, and others, he collected together, with the
exception of his tomahawk, and burned them up. Among the presents
thus consumed was a full uniform of an American officer, including an
elegant sword and his medal given him by Washington. He then selected
an old and intimate friend to be his successor, and sent to him his toma
hawk and a belt of wampum, to announce his resolution and his wishes.
Although contrary to their customs, the Senecas, out of reverence for
his extraordinary dream, at once raised up as a chief the person selected
by Cornplanter, and invested him with the name of Gy-ant'-^va-ka, which
he bore during his life. Cornplanter, after this event, was always known
among the Iroquois under the name of O-no'-no. This tomahawk, the
last relic of Cornplanter, is now in the State Historical Collection at
Albany. (112)

206

SACRIFICE OF THE WHITE DOG

evenings at private houses, where the night was devoted
to the dance. Another amusement at this particular
season was the Snow-snake game, which, like all Indian
games, was wont to arouse considerable interest.

On the morning of the fifth day, soon after dawn,
the White Dog was burned on an altar of wood
erected by the keepers of the faith near the council-
house. It is difficult, from outward observation, to
draw forth the true intent with which the dog was
burned. The obscurity with which the object was
veiled has led to various conjectures. Among other
things, it has been pronounced a sacrifice for sin.
In the religious system of the Iroquois, there is no
recognition of the doctrine of atonement for sin, or
of the absolution or forgiveness of sins. Upon this
whole subject, their system is silent. An act once
done was registered beyond the power of change.
The greatest advance upon this point of faith was
the belief that good deeds cancelled the evil, thus
placing heaven, through good works, within the reach
of all. The notion that this was an expiation for
sin is thus refuted by their system of theology itself.
The other idea, that the sins of the people, by some
mystic process, were transferred to the dog, and by
him thus borne away, on the principle of the scape
goat of the Hebrews, is also without any foundation
in truth. The burning of the dog had not the slight
est connection with the sins of the people. On the
contrary, the simple idea of the sacrifice was, to send
up the spirit of the dog as a messenger to the Great
Spirit, to announce their continued fidelity to his
service, and also to convey to him their united

207

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

thanks for the blessings of the year. The fidelity
of the dog, the companion of the Indian, as a hunter,
was emblematical of their fidelity. No messenger so
trusty could be found to bear their petitions to the
Master of life. The Iroquois believed that the Great
Spirit made a covenant with their fathers to the effect,
that when they should send up to him the spirit of
a dog, of a spotless white, he would receive it as the
pledge of their adherence to his worship, and his ears
would thus be opened in a special manner to their
petitions. To approach Hd-wen-ne-yu in the most
acceptable manner, and to gain attention to their
thanksgiving acknowledgments and supplications in
the way of his own appointing, was the end and
object of burning the dog. They hung around his
neck a string of white wampum, the pledge of their
faith. They believed that the spirit of the dog hov
ered around the body until it was committed to
the flames, when it ascended into the presence of
the Great Spirit, itself the acknowledged evidence
of their fidelity, and bearing also to him the united
thanks and supplications of the people. This sacri
fice was the most solemn and impressive manner of
drawing near to the Great Spirit known to the Iro
quois. They used the spirit of the dog in precisely the
same manner that they did the incense of tobacco, as an
instrumentality through which to commune with their
Maker. This sacrifice was their highest act of piety.

The burning of the dog was attended with many
ceremonies. It was first taken down and laid out
upon a bench in the council-house, while the fire of
the altar was kindling. A speech was then made over

208

SACRIFICE OF THE WHITE DOG

it by one of the keepers of the faith, in which he
spoke of the antiquity of this institution of their
fathers, of its importance and solemnity, and finally
enjoined upon them all to direct their thoughts to
the Great Spirit, and unite with the keepers of the
faith in these observances. He concluded with thank
ing the Great Spirit, that the lives of so many of
them had been spared through another year. A
chant or song, appropriate to the occasion, was then
sung, the people joining in chorus. By the time
this was over, the altar was blazing up on every
side ready for the offering. A procession was then
formed, the officiating keeper of the faith preceding,
followed by four others bearing the dog upon a kind
of bark litter, behind which came the people in Indian
file. A loud exclamation, in the nature of a war-
whoop, announced the starting of the procession.
They moved on towards the altar, and having marched
around it, the keepers of the faith halted, facing the
rising sun. With some immaterial ceremonies, the dog
was laid upon the burning altar, and as the flames sur
rounded the offering, the officiating keeper of the faith,
by a species of ejaculation, upon a high key, thrice
repeated, invoked the attention of the Great Spirit.

"j^#tf, qua, qua : — (Hail, hail, hail.) Thou who hast cre
ated all things, who mlest all things, and who givest laws and
commands to thy creatures, listen to our words. We now
obey thy commands. That which thou hast made is returning
unto thee. It is rising to thee, by which it will appear that
our words are true." l

1 Some leaves of tobacco were attached to the wampum around the
dog's neck, with the incense of which this invocation was made.
VOL. i. — 14 209

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U 0 I S

Several thanksgiving songs or chants, in measured
verse, were then sung by the keepers of the faith, the
people joining in chorus. After this, was made the
great thanksgiving address of the Iroquois. The
keeper of the faith appointed to deliver it, invoked
the attention of Ha-wen-ne-yu by the same thrice-
repeated exclamation. As the speech progressed, he
threw leaves of tobacco into the fire from time to
time, that its incense might constantly ascend during
the whole address. The following is the address, as
delivered among the Senecas:1 —

"Hail, Hail, Hail: — Listen now, with an open ear, to the
words of thy people, as they ascend to thy dwelling, in the
smoke of our offering. Behold thy people here assembled.
Behold, they have come up to celebrate anew the sacred rites
thou hast given them. Look down upon us beneficently.
Give us wisdom faithfully to execute thy commands.

" Continue to listen : — The united voice of thy people con
tinues to ascend to thee. Forbid, by thy wisdom, all things
which shall tempt thy people to relinquish their ancient faith.
Give us power to celebrate at all times, with zeal and fidelity,
the sacred ceremonies which thou hast given us.

u Continue to listen : — Give to the keepers of the faith
wisdom to execute properly thy commands. Give to our
warriors, and our mothers, strength to perform the sacred cer
emonies of thy institution. We thank thee that, in thy wis
dom, thou hast given to us these commands. We thank thee
that thou hast preserved them pure unto this day.

" Continue to listen : — We thank thee that the lives of

1 Taken down by Hd-sa-no-an'-da (Ely S. Parker), as delivered by his
grandfather, Sose-/ta'-<wa, at Tonawanda. This is the ancient address
handed down from generation to generation, and unchanged in its essential
particulars. Sose-ha'-^wd has delivered it thus for the past twenty-five
years at Tonawanda.

210

ADDRESS TO THE GREAT SPIRIT

so many of thy children are spared, to participate in the exer
cises of this occasion. Our minds are gladdened to be made
partakers in the execution of thy commands.

" We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which sus
tains us. We thank thee that thou hast caused her to yield
so plentifully of her fruits. Cause that, in the season coming,
she may not withhold of her fulness, and leave any to suffer
for want.

u We return thanks to the rivers and streams, which run
their courses upon the bosom of our mother the earth. We
thank thee that thou hast supplied them with life, for our
comfort and support. Grant that this blessing may continue.

"We return thanks to all the herbs and plants of the earth.
We thank thee that in thy goodness thou hast blest them all,
and given them strength to preserve our bodies healthy, and to
cure us of the diseases inflicted upon us by evil spirits. We
ask thee not to take from us these blessings.

" We return thanks to the Three Sisters. We thank thee
that thou hast provided them as the main supporters of our
lives. We thank thee for the abundant harvest gathered in
during the past season. We ask that Our Supporters may
never fail us, and cause our children to suffer from want.

<cWe return thanks to the bushes and trees which provide
us with fruit. We thank thee that thou hast blessed them,
and made them to produce for the good of thy creatures. We
ask that they may not refuse to yield plentifully for our
enjoyment.

u We return thanks to the winds, which, moving, have
banished all diseases. We thank thee that thou hast thus
ordered. We ask the continuation of this great blessing.

" We return thanks to our grandfather He -no. We thank
thee that thou hast so wisely provided for our happiness and
comfort, in ordering the rain to descend upon the earth, giving
us water, and causing all plants to grow. We thank thee that

211

LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S

thou hast given us He'-no, our grandfather, to do thy will in
the protection of thy people. We ask that this great blessing
may be continued to us.

uWe return thanks to the moon and stars, which give us
light when the sun has gone to his rest. We thank thee that
thy wisdom has so kindly provided, that light is never wanting
to us. Continue unto us this goodness.

u We return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon the
earth with a beneficent eye. We thank thee that thou hast,
in thy unbounded wisdom, commanded the sun to regulate the
return of the seasons, to dispense heat and cold, and to watch
over the comfort of thy people. Give unto us that wisdom
which will guide us in the path of truth. Keep us from all
evil ways, that the sun may never hide his face from us for
shame and leave us in darkness.

"We return thanks to the Ho-no-che-no'-kek.1 We thank
thee that thou. hast provided so many agencies for our good
and happiness.

"Lastly, we return thanks to thee, our Creator and Ruler.
In thee are embodied all things. We believe thou canst do no
evil ; that thou doest all things for our good and happiness.
Should thy people disobey thy commands, deal not harshly
with them ; but be kind to us, as thou hast been to our fathers
in times long gone by. Hearken unto our words as they have

1 The Ho-no-che-no' -keh included the whole spiritual world, or subor
dinate spirits created by Hd-iven-ne'-yu. They were believed by the Iro-
quois to be mere agencies or instrumentalities through whom the Great
Spirit administered the government of the world. They were also believed
to have been created to minister to the happiness and protection of the
Indian upon earth.

It should also be noticed that the leading objects in the natural world
which are made the subject of their thanks, are designed to include all
lesser objects. Under each head, by a figure of speech, whole classes of
objects were included. Thus " the rivers and streams11 include all bodies
of water, springs, fishes, &c. ; "the wind11 includes all the birds of the
air.

212

ADDRESS TO THE GREAT SPIRIT

ascended, and may they be pleasing to thee our Creator, the
Preserver and Ruler of all things, visible and invisible.
Na-M."

After the delivery of this address, the people, leav
ing the partly consumed offering, returned to the
council-house, where the Feather dance was performed.
With this the religious exercises of the day were con
cluded. Other dances, however, followed, for the
entertainment of the people, and the day and evening
were given up to this amusement. Last of all came
the feast, with which the proceedings of the day were
terminated.

On the morning of the sixth day, the people again
assembled at the place of council. This day was
observed in about the same manner as one of their
ordinary religious days, at which the Thanksgiving
dance was introduced.

The seventh and last day was commenced with the
Ah-dd-weh ; after which the Peach-stone game was
introduced, with the determination of which ended
the New Year's jubilee.

Other incidents and circumstances connected with
the worship of the Iroquois might be pointed out,
and would be necessary to a full explanation of the
details of their religious system ; but sufficient has
been presented to exhibit its framework, and the
principles upon which it rested. No attempt has
been made to furnish a picture of either of these
religious councils, by a minute description of their
proceedings. All the detail has necessarily been
omitted. To realize these festive and religious cere
monials of our primitive inhabitants, it would be

213

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

^\j

necessary to have a delineation of the incidents of each
day, step by step, a description of the dances, the
several games, and of the preparation of the feast, and
also an explanation of their modes of social intercourse
and of action, the spirit by which the people were
animated, and the general character of the scene.

These festivals have been observed from generation
to generation, and at the same seasons of the year,
upon the Mohawk, at Oneida, in the valley of
Onondaga, on the shore of the Cayuga, and in the
several villages of the Senecas. Before the voice of
the white man was heard in these peaceful and
secluded retreats of the forest, that of the Indian had
been lifted up to the Great Spirit with thanksgiving
and praise. The origin of these festivals is lost, as
well as the date and order of their institution ; but
the Iroquois believe that they have been observed
among them, at least since the formation of the
League. They have no tradition, which professes to
have taken the custody of these dates and events.

To one who has witnessed these observances
from time to time, and learned to comprehend the
principles and motives in which they originated, they
possess a peculiar but almost indefinable interest.
These simple religious rites of a people, sitting, it
must be admitted, near the full meridian of natural
religion, are calculated to fill the mind with serious
impressions. In their earnest and constant efforts
to draw near to the great Author of their being,
to offer thanks for the unnumbered blessings strewn
upon their path, and to supplicate the continuance of
that watchful care without which there was no pres-

214

INFLUENCE OF THEIR WORSHIP

ervation, there is a degree of heart-felt piety which
the mind cannot resist. We may derive instruction
from the faith of any race, if it rises above the
grossness of superstition, into the regions of spiritual
meditation. The moral nature of man unfolds with
thought; and the Indian, in the shades of the forest,
as well as Socrates in the groves of Athens, or Moses
upon the skirts of Sinai, may contribute some new
lessons to the fund of moral instruction.

In this and the preceding chapter, the design has been
to expose the structure of the worship of the Iroquois,
and to elucidate the beliefs by which it was upheld.
By the standard of Christian judgment, it must be
confessed that the Faith and Worship of the Iroquois
make up a system which, in its approaches to the
truth, rises infinitely above the theological schemes of
all other races, both ancient and modern, which origi
nated independently of revelation. Having a firm
hold upon the great truths of natural religion, they
established a ceremonious but simple worship. Unlike
the bloody ritual of the Aztecs, its influence upon the
mind, and upon the social life of the Indian, was mild,
humanizing and gentle. The fruits of their religious
sentiments, among themselves, were peace, brotherly
kindness, charity, hospitality, integrity, truth and
friendship ; and towards the Great Spirit, reverence,
thankfulness and faith. More wise than the Greeks
and Romans in this great particular, they concentrated
all divinity into one Supreme Being ; more confiding
in the people than the priestly class of Egypt, their
religious teachers brought down the knowledge of the
" Unutterable One " to the minds of all. Eminently

2I5

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

pure and spiritual, and internally consistent with each
other, the beliefs and the religious ceremonies of the
Iroquois are worthy of a respectful consideration. A
people in the wilderness, shut out from revelation,
with no tablet on which to write the history of passing
generations, save the heart of man, yet possessed of the
knowledge of one Supreme Being, and striving, with
all the ardor of devotion, to commune with him in the
language of thankfulness and supplication, is, to say the
least, a most extraordinary spectacle ; not less sublime
in itself than the spectacle of the persecuted Puritan,
on the confines of the same wilderness, worshipping
that God in the fulness of light and knowledge, whom
the Indian, however limited and imperfect his con
ceptions, in the Great Spirit most distinctly discerned.
Their limited knowledge of the attributes which
pertained to a Being endued with creative power,
will not appear so surprising, when it is remembered
to be the highest achievement of learning and piety,
fully to comprehend the marvellous perfections of the
Deity. When the complicated structures of Egypt,
Greece and Rome are brought under comparison with
the simple and unpretending scheme of theology of
the children of the forest, there is found reason to
marvel at the superior acuteness and profundity of the
Indian intellect. It may be safely averred, that if
the sustaining faith and the simple worship of the
Iroquois are ever fully explored and carefully eluci
dated, they will form a more imperishable monument
to the Indian than is afforded in the purity of his
virtues, or in the mournfulness of his destiny.

216

GA-GEH-TA YEN-CHE-NO-HOS-TA-TA OR KNEE BAND,

YEN-NIS-HO-QUA-HOS-TA OR WRIST BAND,

GA-GEH-TA YEN-NIS-HA-HOS-TA OR ARM BAND,

Chapter III

The New Religion — Ga-ne-o-di'-yo, the Instructor— Pretended
Revelation — Sose-ha'-wa, his Successor — Speech of Da-aV-ga-
dose — Speech of Sose-ha'-wa — Doctrines of the New Religion

ABOUT the year eighteen hundred, a new
religious teacher arose among the Iroquois,
who professed to have received a revelation
from the Great Spirit, with a commission to preach to
them the doctrines with which he had been intrusted.
This revelation was received under circumstances so
remarkable, and the precepts which he sought to incul
cate contained within themselves such evidences of
wisdom and beneficence, that he was universally re
ceived among them, not only as a wise and good
man, but as one commissioned from Hd-wen-ne'-yu to
become their religious instructor. The new religion,
as it has since been called, not only embodied all the
precepts of the ancient faith, and recognized the
ancient mode of worship, giving to it anew the sanc
tion of the Great Spirit, but it also comprehended
such new doctrines as came in, very aptly, to lengthen
out and enlarge the primitive system, without impair
ing the structure itself. Charges of imposture and
deception were at first preferred against him, but dis
belief of his divine mission gradually subsided, until,
at the time of his death, the whole unchristianized
portion of the Iroquois had become firm believers in

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the new religion, which, to the present day, has
continued to be the prevailing faith. (GG)

The singular personage who was destined to obtain
such a spiritual sway over the descendants of the an
cient Iroquois, was Ga-ne-o-di-yo^ or " Handsome
Lake," a Seneca sachem of the highest class. He
was born at the Indian village of Ga-no-wau-ges3 near
Avon, about the year 17.35, an<^ died at Onondaga in
1815, where he happened to be on one of his pastoral
visits. By birth he was a Seneca, of the Turtle tribe,
and a half-brother of the celebrated Cornplanter,
through a common father. The best part of his life
was spent in idleness and dissipation, during which,
although a sachem and ruler among the Senecas for
many years, and through the most perilous period of
their history, he acquired no particular reputation.
Reforming late in life, in his future career he showed
himself to be possessed of superior talents, and to be
animated by a sincere and ardent desire for the welfare
of his race. He appears to have adopted the idea of
a revelation from Heaven, to give authority and sanc
tion to his projected reformation. At this period,
and for a century preceding, the prevailing intem
perance of the Iroquois had been the fruitful source
of those domestic disorders which, in connection with
their political disasters, seemed then to threaten the
speedy extinction of the race. A temperance refor
mation, universal and radical, was the principal and
the ultimate object of the mission which he assumed,
and the one upon which he chiefly employed his influ
ence and his eloquence, through the residue of his
life. Knowing that argument and persuasion were

218

GA-NE-O-Dl'-TO, THE INSTRUCTOR

feeble weapons in a contest with this mighty foe,
Handsome Lake had the sagacity to address himself
to the religious sentiments and the superstitious fears
of the people. To secure a more ready reception of
his admonitions, he clothed them with the divine sanc
tion ; to strengthen their moral principles, he enforced
anew the precepts of the ancient faith ; and to insure
obedience to his teachings, he held over the wicked
the terrors of eternal punishment. Travelling from
village to village, among the several nations of the
League, with the exception of the christianized Onei-
das, and continuing his visits from year to year, this
self-appointed apostle to the Indians preached the new
doctrine with remarkable effect. Numbers, it is said,
abandoned their dissolute habits, and became sober
and moral men ; discord and contention gave place to
harmony and order, and vagrancy and sloth to am
bition and industry. What peculiar motives induced
him, when past the meridian of life, to change the
whole tenor of his past career, and embark in this
philanthropic enterprise for the social and moral im
provement of the Iroquois, it may be difficult to ascer
tain. The origination of this project has, at times,
been ascribed to Cornplanter, as a means to increase
his own influence ; but this is not only improbable,
but is expressly denied. The motives by which
Handsome Lake claimed to be actuated were entirely
of a religious and benevolent character, and in pursu
ance of the injunctions of his spiritual guides.

At the time of his supernatural visitation, about the
year 1800, Handsome Lake resided at De-o-no-sa-
dd-ga, the village of Cornplanter, on the Allegany

219

LEAGUE OF THE

river, in the State of Pennsylvania. As he explained
the matter to his brethren, having lain ill for a long
period, he had surrendered all hope of recovery, and
resigned himself to death. When in the hourly ex
pectation of departure, three spiritual beings, in the
forms of men, sent by the Great Spirit, appeared be
fore him. Each bore in his hand a shrub, bearing
different kinds of berries, which, having given him to
eat, he was, by their miraculous power, immediately
restored to health. After revealing to him the will
of the Great Spirit, upon a great variety of subjects,
and particularly in relation to the prevailing intemper
ance, and having commissioned him to promulgate
these doctrines among the Iroquois, they permitted
him to visit, under their guidance, the realm of the
Evil-minded, and to behold with his mortal eyes the
punishments inflicted upon the wicked, that he might
warn his brethren of their impending destiny. Like
Ulysses and ^neas, he was also favored with a glance
at Elysium, and the felicities of the heavenly residence
of the virtuous. With his mind thus stored with di
vine precepts, and with his zeal enkindled by the dig
nity of his mission, Ga-ne-o-di-yo at once commenced
his labors.1

After his death, Sose-ha-wd (Johnson) of Tona-

1 The Iroquois are under the impression that Handsome Lake received
a license from Washington to preach. There is no doubt that he applied
to the government during the presidency of Jefferson for some recognition
of his mission ; but the paper which they still call the license, now in the
possession of Blacksmith, at Tonawanda, is simply a letter from General
Dearborn, dated in 1802, commending his teachings. (6") Sose-ha'-^wd
(Johnson) fixes the period of this revelation in June, 1800. This vener
able man has preached the doctrine upwards of thirty years.

220

SQSE-HA'-WA

wanda was appointed his successor, the first and only
person ever " raised up " by the Iroquois, and in
vested with the office of supreme Religious Instructor.
A sincere believer in the verity of Gd-ne-o-di'-yo s mis
sion, and an eminently pure and virtuous man, Sose-
ha-wd has devoted himself with zeal and fidelity to
the duties of his office, as the spiritual guide and
teacher of the Iroquois. He is a grandson of Hand
some Lake, and a nephew of Red Jacket, and was
born at the Indian village of Gd-no-wau'-ges, near
Avon, about the year 1774, and still resides at Tona-
wanda in the county of Genesee.(32)

At the Mourning and Religious councils of the
League, which are still held, at intervals of a few
years, among the scattered descendants of the children
of the Long House, it has long been customary to set
apart portions of two or three days to listen to a dis
course from Sose-hd-wa upon the new religion. On
these occasions, he explains minutely the circumstances
attending the supernatural visitation of Handsome
Lake, and delivers the instructions, word for word,
which he had been accustomed to give during his own
ministration. Handsome Lake professed to repeat
the messages which were given to him from time to
time by his celestial visitants, with whom he pretended
to be in frequent communication, and whom he ad
dressed as his spiritual guardians, thus enforcing his
precepts as the direct commands of the Great Spirit.

It is singular that the credulity, not only of the
people, but of their most intelligent chiefs should have
been sufficiently great to give credence to these super
natural pretensions ; but yet it is in itself no greater

221

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

than that indicated by their belief in witchcraft, or in
the omens of dreams. The influence of the new re
ligion has been extremely salutary and preservative,
without the restraints of which, the fears of Ga-ne-o-
di-yo might have been realized ere this, in the rapid
decline, if not extinction of the race. Their down
ward tendencies were arrested, and their constant di
minution of numbers was changed to a gradual
increase. Its beneficent effects upon the people
doubtless contributed more to its final establishment
than any other cause.

At their councils and religious festivals, it was cus
tomary for the chiefs and keepers of the faith to
express their confidence in the new religion, and
to exhort others to strengthen their belief. The
late Abraham La Fort, De-dt-ga-dose^} an educated
Onondaga sachem, thus expressed himself upon this
subject at a Mourning council of the Iroquois, held
at Tonawanda as late as October, 1 847 : —

" Let us observe the operations of nature. The
year is divided into seasons, and every season has its
fruits. The birds of the air, though clothed in the
same dress of feathers, are divided into many classes ;
and one class is never seen to associate or intermingle
with any but its own kind. So with the beasts of the
field and woods ; each and every class and species have
their own separate rules by which they seem to be
governed, and by which their actions are regulated.
These distinctions of classes and colors the Great
Spirit has seen fit to make. But the rule does not
stop here ; it is universal. It embraces man also.
The human race was created and divided into different

222

SPEECH OF D E-A T'-G A-D O S E

classes, which were placed separate from each other,
having different customs, manners, laws, and religions.
To the Indian, it seems that no more religion had origi
nally been given than was to be found in the operations
of nature., which taught him that there was a Supreme
Being, all powerful and all wise ; and on this account,
as well as on account of his great goodness, they
learned to love and reverence him. But in these latter
times, when the restless and ambitious spirit of the
white-skinned race had crossed the boundary line, and
made inroads upon the manners, customs and primitive
religion of the Indian, the Great Spirit determined to,
and through his servant Gd-ne-o-di-yo did reveal his
will to the Indian. The substance of that will was no
more than to confirm their ancient belief that they
were entitled to a different religion, a religion adapted
to their customs, manners, and ways of thinking."

As the discourse delivered by Sose-hd-wa^ from
time to time, contains a very full exposition of their
ancient beliefs, and mode of worship, together with the
recent views introduced by Handsome Lake, mingled
up in one collection, presenting, probably, a better
idea of their ethical and religious system than could
be conveyed in any other manner, it is given entire,
and will explain itself.2

1 Furnished to the author by Ha-sa-no-an'-dd (Ely S. Parker), from
notes taken at the time.

2 The subjoined translation was prepared by Ha-sa-no-an'-da (Ely S.
Parker), from copious notes taken by him at the time of its last delivery
in October, 1848, at a general Mourning council of the Iroquois, held at
Tonawanda. It is proper to add, that he has listened to its delivery on
several occasions, and is perfectly familiar with the subject. With some
slight alterations, the language is his own. This discourse, as it is given,
was made on the forenoons of the 4th, 5th, and 6th days of October, 1 848.

223

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UO1S

>sj

" The Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Senecas, and
our children (the Oneidas, Cayugas and Tuscaroras)
have assembled here to-day to listen to the repetition
of the will of the Great Spirit, as communicated to us
from heaven through his servant, Ga-ne-o-di-yo.

" Chiefs, warriors, women and children: — - We give
you a cordial welcome. The sun has advanced far in
his path, and I am warned that my time to instruct
you is limited to the meridian sun. I must therefore
hasten to perform my duty. Turn your minds to the
Great Spirit, and listen with strict attention. Think
seriously upon what I am about to speak. Reflect
upon it well, that it may benefit you and your children.
I thank the Great Spirit that he has spared the lives
of so many of you to be present on this occasion. I
return thanks to him that my life is yet spared. The
Great Spirit looked down from heaven upon the suffer
ings and the wanderings of his red children. He saw
that they had greatly decreased and degenerated. He
saw the ravages of the fire-water among them. He
therefore raised up for them a sacred instructor, who
having lived and travelled among them for sixteen
years, was called from his labors to enjoy eternal feli
city with the Great Spirit in heaven. Be patient
while I speak. I cannot at all times arrange and pre
pare my thoughts with the same precision. But I
will relate what my memory bears.

" It was in the month of O-nike'-ya (June), that
Handsome Lake was yet sick. He had been ill four
years. He was accustomed to tell us that he had
resigned himself to the will of the Great Spirit. ' I
nightly returned my thanks to the Great Spirit/ said

224

SPEECH OF SOSE-HA'-WA

he, c as my eyes were gladdened at evening by the
sight of the stars of heaven. I viewed the ornamented
heavens at evening, through the opening in the roof
of my lodge,(124) with grateful feelings to my Creator.
I had no assurance that I should at the next evening
contemplate his works. For this reason my acknowl
edgments to him were more fervent and sincere.
When night was gone, and the sun again shed his
light upon the earth, I saw, and acknowledged in the
return of day his continued goodness to me, and to all
mankind. At length I began to have an inward con
viction that my end was near. I resolved once more
to exchange friendly words with my people, and I
sent my daughter to summon my brothers Gy-ant-
w<2-&z (Cornplanter), and Ta-wan-ne-ars (Blacksnake).'
She hastened to do his bidding, but before she re
turned, he had fallen into insensibility and -apparent
death. Ta-wan-ne-ars, upon returning to the lodge,
hastened to his brother's couch, and discovered that
portions of his body were yet warm. This happened
at early day, before the morning dew had dried.
When the sun had advanced half-way to the meridian,
his heart began to beat, and he opened his eyes. Ta-
wan-ne-ars asked him if he was in his right mind ; but
he answered not. At meridian he again opened his
eyes, and the same question was repeated. He then
answered and said, ' A man spoke from without, and
asked that some one might come forth. I looked,
and saw some men standing without. I arose, and as
I attempted to step over the threshold of my door, I
stumbled, and should have fallen had they not caught
me. They were three holy men who looked alike,

VOL. I.— 15 225

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

and were dressed alike. The paint they wore seemed
but one day old. Each held in his hand a shrub
bearing different kinds of fruit. One of them address
ing me said, " We have come to comfort and relieve
you. Take of these berries and eat ; they will restore
you to health. We have been witnesses of your
lengthened illness. We have seen with what resigna
tion you have given yourself up to the Great Spirit.
We have heard your daily return of thanks. He has
heard them all. His ear has ever been open to hear.
You were thankful for the return of night, when you
could contemplate the beauties of heaven. You were
accustomed to look upon the moon, as she coursed in
her nightly paths. When there were no hopes to you
that you would again behold these things, you will
ingly resigned yourself to the mind of the Great Spirit.
This was right. Since the Great Spirit made the
earth and put man upon it, we have been his constant
servants to guard and protect his works. There are
four of us. Some other time you will be permitted to
see the other. The Great Spirit is pleased to know
your patient resignation to his will. As a reward for
your devotion, he has cured your sickness. Tell your
people to assemble to-morrow, and at noon go in and
speak to them." After they had further revealed their
intentions concerning him they departed.

" At the time appointed Handsome Lake appeared
at the council, and thus addressed the people upon
the revelations which had been made to him : ' I have
a message to deliver to you. The servants of the
Great Spirit have told me that I should yet live upon
the earth to become an instructor to my people.

226

THE NEW RELIGION

Since the creation of man, the Great Spirit has often
raised up men to teach his children what they should
do to please him ; but they have been unfaithful to
their trust. I hope I shall profit by their example.
Your Creator has seen that you have transgressed
greatly against his laws. He made man pure and
good. He did not intend that he should sin. You
commit a great sin in taking the fire-water. The
Great Spirit says that you must abandon this enticing
habit. Your ancestors have brought great misery and
suffering upon you. They first took the fire-water of
the white man, and entailed upon you its consequences.
None of them have gone to heaven. The fire-water
does not belong to you. It was made for the white
man beyond the great waters. For the white man it
is a medicine ; but they too have violated the will of
their Maker. The Great Spirit says that drunkenness
is a great crime, and he forbids you to indulge in this
evil habit. His command is to the old and young.
The abandonment of its use will relieve much of your
sufferings, and greatly increase the comfort and happi
ness of your children. The Great Spirit is grieved
that so much crime and wickedness should defile the
earth. There are many evils which he never intended
should exist among his red children. The Great
Spirit has, for many wise reasons, withheld from man
the number of his days ; but he has not left him with
out a guide, for he has pointed out to him the path in
which he may safely tread the journey of life.

" c When the Great Spirit made man, he also
made woman. He instituted marriage, and enjoined
upon them to love each other, and be faithful. It is

227

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

pleasing,to him to see men and women obey his will.
Your Creator abhors a deceiver and a hypocrite.
By obeying his commands you will die an easy and a
happy death. When the Great Spirit instituted mar
riage, he ordained to bless those who were faithful
with children. Some women are unfruitful, and
others become so by misfortune. Such have great
opportunities to do much good. There are many
orphans, and many poor children whom they can
adopt as their own. If you tie up the clothes of an
orphan child, the Great Spirit will notice it, and reward
you for it. Should an orphan ever cross your path
be kind to him, and treat him with tenderness, for
this is right. Parents must constantly teach their
children morality, and a reverence for their Creator.
Parents must also guard their children against improper
marriages. They, having much experience, should se
lect a suitable match for their child. When the parents
of both parties have agreed, then bring the young pair
together, and let them know what good their parents
have designed for them. If at any time they so far
disagree that they cannot possibly live contented and
happy with each other, they may separate in mu
tual good feeling ; and in this there is no wrong.(100)
When a child is born to a husband and wife, they
must give great thanks to the Great Spirit, for it is
his gift, and an evidence of his kindness. Let par
ents instruct their children in their duty to the
Great Spirit, to their parents, and to their fellow-men.
Children should obey their parents and guardians,
and submit to them in all things. Disobedient chil
dren occasion great pain and misery. They wound

228

THE NEW RELIGION

their parents' feelings, and often drive them to desper
ation, causing them great distress, and final admission
into the place of Evil Spirits. The marriage obliga
tions should generate good to all who have assumed
them. Let the married be faithful to each other, that
when they die it may be in peace. Children should
never permit their parents to suffer in their old age.
Be kind to them, and support them. The Great
Spirit requires all children to love, revere and obey
their parents. To do this is highly pleasing to
him. The happiness of parents is greatly increased
by the affection and the attentions of their children.
To abandon a wife or children is a great wrong, and
produces many evils. It is wrong for a father or
mother-in-law to vex a son or daughter-in-law ; but
they should use them as if they were their own
children. It often happens that parents hold angry
disputes over their infant child. This is also a great
sin. The infant hears and comprehends the angry
words of its parents. It feels bad and lonely. It
can see for itself no happiness in prospect. It con
cludes to return to its Maker. It wants a happy
home, and dies. The parents then weep because
their child has left them. You must put this evil
practice from among you, if you would live happy.

" { The Great Spirit, when he made the earth, never
intended that it should be made merchandise; but he
willed that all his creatures should enjoy it equally.
Your chiefs have violated and betrayed your trust
by selling lands. Nothing is now left of our once
large possessions, save a few small reservations.
Chiefs and aged men — you, as men, have no lands

229

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

to sell. You occupy and possess a tract in trust for
your children. You should hold that trust sacred,
lest your children are driven from their homes by
your unsafe conduct. Whoever sells lands offends
the Great Spirit, and must expect a great punishment
after death.' "

Sose-hd-wa here suspended the narration of the
discourse of Handsome Lake, and thus addressed the
council : —

" Chiefs, keepers of the faith, warriors, women
and children: — You all know that our religion
teaches, that the early day is dedicated to the Great
Spirit, and that the late day is granted to the spirits
of the dead. It is now meridian, and I must close.
Preserve in your minds that which has been said.
Accept my thanks for your kind and patient atten
tion. It is meet that I should also return my thanks
to the Great Spirit, that he has assisted me thus far,
in my feeble frame, to instruct you. We ask you all
to come up again to-morrow, at early day, to hear
what further may be said. I have done."

The next morning, after the council had been
opened in the usual manner, Sose-hd-wa thus con
tinued : —

" Relatives, uncover now your heads and listen : —
The day has thus far advanced, and again we are
gathered around the council-fire. I see around me
the several nations of the Long House ; this gives me
great joy. I see also seated around me my counsel
lors (keepers of the faith), who have been regularly
appointed, as is the custom of our religion. Greet
ings have been exchanged with each other. Thanks

230

THE NEW RELIGION

have been returned to Ga-ni-o-di-yo. Thanks also
have been returned to our Creator, by the council
now assembled. At this moment the Great Spirit
is looking upon this assembly. He hears our words,
he knows our thoughts, and is always pleased to see
us gathered together for good. The sun is now high,
and soon it will reach the middle heavens. I must
therefore make haste. Listen attentively, and consider
well what you shall hear. 1 return thanks to our
Creator, that he has spared your lives through the
dangers of darkness. I salute and return my thanks
to the four Celestial beings, who have communicated
what I am about to say to you. I return thanks to
my grandfather (Handsome Lake), from whom you
first heard what I am about to speak. We all feel
his loss. We miss him at our councils. I now
occupy his place before you ; but I am conscious that
I have not the power which he possessed.

" Counsellors, warriors, mothers and children : —
Listen to good instruction. Consider it well. Lay
it up in your minds, and forget it not. Our Creator,
when he made us, designed that we should live by
hunting. It sometimes happens that a man goes
out for the hunt, leaving his wife with her friends.
After a long absence he returns, and finds that his
wife has taken another husband. The Great Spirit
says that this is a great sin, and must be put from
among us.

"The four Messengers further said, that it was
wrong for a mother to punish a child with a rod.
It is not right to punish much, and our Creator
never intended that children should be punished

231

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

with a whip, or be used with any violence. In
punishing a refractory child, water only is necessary,
and it is sufficient/120* Plunge them under. This
is not wrong. Whenever a child promises to do
better, the punishment must cease. It is wrong to
continue it after promises of amendment are made.
Thus they said.

"It is right and proper always to look upon the
dead. Let your face be brought, near to theirs, and
then address them. Let the dead know that their
absence is regretted by their friends, and that they
grieve for their death. Let the dead know, too,
how their surviving friends intend to live. Let
them know whether they will so conduct themselves,
that they will meet them again in the future world.
The dead will hear and remember. Thus they
said.

" Continue to listen while I proceed to relate what
further they said: — Our Creator made the earth.
Upon it he placed man, and gave him certain rules
of conduct. It pleased him also to give them many
kinds of amusements. He also ordered that the
earth should produce all that is good for man. So
long as the earth remains, it will not cease to yield.
Upon the surface of the ground berries of various
kinds are produced. It is the will of the -Great
Spirit, that when they ripen, we should return our
thanks to him, and have a public rejoicing for the
continuance of these blessings. He made every
thing which we live upon, and requires us to be
thankful at all times for the continuance of his
favors. When Our Life (corn, &c.) has again ap-

THE NEW RELIGION

peared, it is the will of the Great Ruler that we as
semble for a general thanksgiving. It is his will
also that the children be brought and made to par
ticipate in the Feather dance. Your feast must con
sist of the new production. It is proper at these
times, should any present not have their names pub
lished, or if any changes have been made, to announce
them then. The festival must continue, four days.
Thus they said. Upon the first day must be per
formed the Feather dance. This ceremony must
take place in the early day, and cease at the middle
day. In the same manner, upon the second day, is
to be performed the Thanksgiving dance. On the
third, the Thanksgiving concert, Ah-do-weh^ is to
be introduced. The fourth day is set apart for
the Peach-stone game.(98 All these ceremonies, in
stituted by our Creator, must be commenced at the
early day, and cease at the middle day. At all these
times, we are required to return thanks to our Grand
father He -no and his assistants. To them is assigned
the duty of watching over the earth, and all it
produces for our good. The great Feather and
Thanksgiving dances are the appropriate ceremonies
of thanksgiving to the Ruler and Maker of all things.
The Thanksgiving concert belongs appropriately to
our Grandfathers. In it, we return thanks to them.
During the performance of this ceremony, we are
required also to give them the smoke of tobacco.
Again, we must at this time return thanks to our
mother the earth, for she is our relative. We must
also return thanks to Our Life and its Sisters. All
these things are required to be done by the light of

233

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

the sun. It must not be protracted until the sun has
hid his face, and darkness surrounds all things.

" Continue to listen : — We have a change of sea
sons. We have a season of cold. This is the hunting
season. It is also one in which the people can amuse
themselves. Upon the fifth day of the new moon
Nis-go-wuk'-na (about Feb. ist),(95) we are required to
commence the annual jubilee of thanksgiving to our
Creator. At this festival all can give evidence of their
devotion to the will of the Great Spirit, by participat
ing in all its ceremonies.

" Continue to listen : — The four Messengers of the
Great Spirit have always watched over us, and have
ever seen what was transpiring among men. At one
time, Handsome Lake was translated by them to the
regions above. He looked down upon the earth and
saw a great assembly. Out of it came a man. His
garments were torn, tattered and filthy. His whole
appearance indicated great misery and poverty. They
asked him how this spectacle appeared to him. He
replied that it was hard to look upon. They then
told him that the man he saw was a drunkard. That
he had taken the fire-water, and it had reduced him
to poverty."53' Again he looked, and saw a woman
seated upon the ground. She was constantly engaged
in gathering up and secreting about her person her
worldly effects. They said, the woman you see is in
hospitable. She is too selfish to spare anything, and
will never leave her worldly goods. She can never
pass from earth to heaven. Tell this to your people.
Again he looked, and saw a man carrying in each hand
large pieces of meat. He went about the assembly

234

THE NEW RELIGION

giving to each a piece. This man, they said, is blessed,
for he is hospitable and kind. He looked again, and
saw streams of blood. They said, Thus will the earth
be, if the fire-water is not put from among you.
Brother will kill brother, and friend friend. Again
they told him to look towards the east. He obeyed,
and as far as his vision reached, he saw the increasing
smoke of numberless distilleries arising, and shutting
out the light of the sun. It was a horrible spectacle to
witness. They told him that here was manufactured
the fire-water. Again he looked, and saw a costly
house, made and furnished by the pale-faces. It was
a house of confinement, where were fetters, ropes and
whips. They said that those who persisted in the use
of the fire-water would fall into this. Our Creator
commands us to put this destructive vice far from us.
Again he looked, and saw various assemblages. Some
of them were unwilling to listen to instruction. They
were riotous, and took great pride in drinking the
strong waters. He observed another group who were
half inclined to hear, but the temptations to vice which
surrounded them allured them back, and they also
revelled in the fumes of the fire-water. He saw an
other assemblage which had met to hear instructions.
This they said was pleasing to the Great Spirit. He
loves those who will listen and obey. It has grieved
him that his children are now divided by separate in
terests, and are pursuing so many paths. It pleases
him to see his people live together in harmony and
quiet. The fire-water creates many dissensions and
divisions among us. They said that the use of it
would cause many to die unnatural deaths ; many wilJ

235

LEAGUE O'F THE IRO^UOIS

be exposed to cold, and freeze ; many will be burned,
and others will be drowned while under the influence
of the fire-water.

"Friends and Relatives: — All these things have
often happened. How many of our people have been
frozen to death ; how many have been burned to
death ; how many have been drowned while under the
influence of the strong waters. The punishments of
those who use the fire-water commence while they are
yet on the earth. Many are now thrown into houses
of confinement by the pale faces. I repeat to you, the
Ruler of us all requires us to unite and put this evil
from among us. Some say that the use of the fire
water is not wrong, and that it is food. Let those who
do not believe it wrong, make this experiment.(64)
Let all who use the fire-water assemble and organize
into a council ; and those who do not, into another
near them. A great difference will then be discovered.
The council of drunkards will end in a riot and tumult,
while the other will have harmony and quiet. It is
hard to think of the great prevalence of this evil among
us. Reform, and put it from among you. Many re
solve to use the fire-water until near death, when they
will repent. If they do this, nothing can save them
from destruction, for them medicine can have no power.
Thus they said.

" All men were made equal by the Great Spirit ; but
he has given to them a variety of gifts. To some a
pretty face, to others an ugly one ; to some a comely
form, to others a deformed figure. Some are fortunate
in collecting around them worldly goods. But you are
all entitled to the same privileges, and therefore must

THE NEW RELIGION

put pride from among you. You are not your own
makers, nor the builders of your own fortunes. All
things are the gift of the Great Spirit, and to him must
be returned thanks for their bestowal. He alone must
be acknowledged as the giver. It has pleased him to
make differences among men ; but it is wrong for one
man to exalt himself above another. Love each other,
for you are all brothers and sisters of the same great
family. The Great Spirit enjoins upon all, to observe
hospitality and kindness, especially to the needy and
the helpless ; for this is pleasing to him. If a stranger
wanders about your abode, speak to him with kind
words ; be hospitable towards him, welcome him to
your home, and forget not always to mention the Great
Spirit. In the morning, give thanks to the Great
Spirit for the return of day, and the light of the sun ;
at night renew your thanks to him, that his ruling
power has preserved you from harm during the day,
and that night has again come, in which you may rest
your wearied bodies.

"The four Messengers said further to Handsome
Lake : --Tell your people, and particularly the keepers
of the faith, to be strong-minded, and adhere to the
true faith. We fear the Evil-minded will go among
them with temptations. He may introduce the fiddle.
He may bring cards, and leave them among you.(97)
The use of these are great sins. Let the people be
on their guard, and the keepers of the faith be watch
ful and vigilant, that none of these evils may find their
way among the people. Let the keepers of the faith
preserve the law of moral conduct in all its purity.
When meetings are to be held for instruction, and the

237

LEAGUE OF THE IRQ QUO IS

people are preparing to go, the Evil-minded is then
busy. He goes from one to another, whispering many
temptations, by which to keep them away. He will
even follow persons into the door of the council, and
induce some, at that time, to bend their steps away.
Many resist until they have entered, and then leave it.
This habit, once indulged, obtains a fast hold, and the
evil propensity increases with age. This is a great sin,
and should be at once abandoned. Thus they said.

" Speak evil of no one. If you can say no good
of a person, then be silent. Let not your tongues
betray you into evil. Let all be mindful of this ; for
these are the words of our Creator. Let all strive to
cultivate friendship with those who surround them.
This is pleasing to the Great Spirit.

"Counsellors, warriors, women and children: — I
shall now rest. I thank you all for your kind and
patient attention. I thank the Great Spirit, that he
has spared the lives of so many of us to witness this
day. I request you all to come up again to-morrow at
early day. Let us all hope, that, until we meet again,
the Creator and Ruler of us all may be kind to us,
and preserve our lives. Na-ho' ."

The council, on the following day, was opened with
a few short speeches, from some of the chiefs or
keepers of the faith, returning thanks for the privileges
of the occasion, as usual at councils ; after which Sose-
ka'-wa, resuming his discourse, spoke as follows : —

" Friends and Relatives, uncover now your heads : —
Continue to listen to my rehearsal of the sayings com
municated to Handsome Lake by the four Messengers
of the Great Spirit. We have met again around the

238

THE NEW RELIGION

council-fire. We have followed the ancient custom,
and greeted each other. This is right, and highly
pleasing to our Maker. He now looks down upon
this assembly. He sees us all. He is informed of the
cause of our gathering, and it is pleasing to him. Life
is uncertain. While we live let us love each other.
Let us sympathize always with the suffering and needy.
Let us also always rejoice with those who are glad.
This is now the third day, and my time for speaking
to you is drawing to a close. It will be a long time
before we meet again. Many moons and seasons will
have passed, before the sacred council-brand shall be
again uncovered. Be watchful, therefore, and remem
ber faithfully what you may now hear.

" In discoursing yesterday upon the duties of the
keepers of the faith, I omitted some things important.
The Great Spirit created this office. He designed that
its duties should never end. There are some who are
selected and set apart by our Maker, to perform the
duties of this office. It is therefore their duty to be
faithful, and to be always watching. These duties they
must ever perform during their lives. The faithful,
when they leave this earth, will have a pleasant path
to travel in. The same office exists in heaven, the
home of our Creator. They will take the same place
when they arrive there. There are dreadful penalties
awaiting those keepers of the faith who resign their
office without a cause. Thus they said.

" It was the original intention of our Maker, that
all our feasts of thanksgiving should be seasoned with
the flesh of wild animals. But we are surrounded by
the pale-faces, and in a short time the woods will be

239

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

all removed. Then there will be no more game for
the Indian to use in his feasts. The four Messengers
said, in consequence of this, that we might use the
flesh of domestic animals. This will not be wrong.
The pale-faces are pressing you upon every side. You
must therefore live as they do. How far you can do
so without sin, I will now tell you. You may grow
cattle, and build yourselves warm and comfortable
dwelling-houses. This is not sin; and it is all that
you can safely adopt of the customs of the pale-faces.
You cannot live as they do. Thus they said.

" Continue to listen: — It has pleased our Creator
to set apart as our Life, the Three Sisters. For this
special favor, let us ever be thankful. When you have
gathered in your harvest, let the people assemble, and
hold a general thanksgiving for so great a good. In
this way you will show your obedience to the will and
pleasure of your Creator. Thus they said.

" Many of you may be ignorant of the Spirit of
Medicine. It watches over all constantly, and assists
the needy whenever necessity requires. The Great
Spirit designed that some men should possess the gift
of skill in medicine. But he is pained to see a medi
cine man making exorbitant charges for attending the
sick. Our Creator made for us tobacco. This plant
must always be used in administering medicines.
When a sick person recovers his health, he must
return his thanks to the Great Spirit by means of
tobacco ; for it is by his goodness that he is made well.
He blesses the medicine ; and the medicine man must
receive as his reward whatever the gratitude of the re
stored may tender. This is right and proper. There

240

THE NEW RELIGION

are many who are unfortunate, and cannot pay for
attendance. It is sufficient for such to return thanks
to the medicine man upon recovery. The remem
brance that he has saved the life of a relative, will be
a sufficient reward/11

" Listen further to what the Great Spirit has been
pleased to communicate to us: — He has made us, as
a race, separate and distinct from the pale-face. It is
a great sin to intermarry, and intermingle the blood of
the two races. Let none be guilty of this transgres-

sion.<">

At one time the four Messengers said to Handsome
Lake, Lest the people should disbelieve you, and not
repent and forsake their evil ways, we will now disclose
to you the House of Torment, the dwelling-place of
the Evil-minded. Handsome Lake was particular in
describing to us all that he witnessed ; and the course
which departed spirits were accustomed to take on
leaving the earth. There was a road which led up
wards. At a certain point it branched ; one branch
led straight forward to the Home of the Great Spirit,
and the other turned aside to the House of Torment.
At the place where the roads separated were stationed
two keepers, one representing the Good, and the other
the Evil Spirit. When a person reached the fork, if
wicked, by a motion from the Evil keeper, he turned
instinctively upon the road which led to the abode of
the Evil-minded. But if virtuous and good, the other
keeper directed him upon the straight road. The
latter was not much travelled ; while the former was
so frequently trodden, that no grass could grow in the
pathway. It sometimes happened that the keepers
VOL. i. — 16 241

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

had great difficulty in deciding which path the person
should take, when the good and bad actions of the
individual were nearly balanced. Those sent to the
House of Torment sometimes remain one day (which
is there one of our years). Some for a longer period.
After they have atoned for their sins, they pass to
heaven. But when they have committed either of the
great sins (witchcraft, murder, and infanticide), they
never pass to heaven, but are tormented forever.
Having conducted Handsome Lake to this place, he
saw a large and dark-colored mansion covered with
soot, and beside it stood a lesser one. One of the
four then held out his rod, and the top of the house
moved up, until they could look down upon all that
was within. He saw many rooms. The first object (G3)
which met his eye, was a haggard-looking man ; his
sunken eyes cast upon the ground, and his form
half consumed by the torments he had undergone.
This man was a drunkard. The Evil-minded then
appeared, and called him by name. As the man
obeyed his call, he dipped from a caldron a quantity
of red-hot liquid, and commanded him to drink it, as
it was an article he loved. The man did as he was
directed, and immediately from his mouth issued a
stream of blaze. He cried in vain for help. The
Tormentor then requested him to sing and make him
self merry, as was his wont while on earth, after drink
ing the fire-water. Let drunkards take warning from
this. Others were then summoned. There came
before him two persons, who appeared to be husband
and wife. He told them to exercise the privilege they
were so fond of while on the earth. They immediately

242

THE NEW RELIGION

commenced a quarrel of words. They raged at each
other with such violence, that their tongues and eyes
ran out so far they could neither see nor speak. This,
said they, is the punishment of quarrelsome and dis
puting husbands and wives. Let such also take warn
ing, and live together in peace and harmony. Next
he called up a woman who had been a witch. First
he plunged her into a caldron of boiling liquid. In
her cries of distress, she begged the Evil-minded to
give her some cooler place. He then immersed
her in one containing liquid at the point of freezing.
Her cries then were, that she was too cold. This
woman, said the four Messengers, shall always be tor
mented in this manner. He proceeded to mention
the punishment which awaits all those who cruelly ill-
treat their wives. The Evil-minded next called up a
man who had been accustomed to beat his wife.
Having led him up to a red-hot statue of a female, he
directed him to do that which he was fond of while he
was upon the earth. He obeyed, and struck the
figure. The sparks flew in every direction, and by
the contact his arm was consumed. Such is the pun
ishment, they said, awaiting those who ill-treat their
wives. From this take seasonable warning. He
looked again and saw a woman, whose arms and hands
were nothing but bones. She had sold fire-water to
the Indians, and the flesh was eaten from her hands
and arms. This, they said, would be the fate of rum-
sellers. Again he looked, and in one apartment
he saw and recognized Ho-ne-ya-wus (Farmer's
Brother), his former friend. He was engaged in re
moving a heap of sand, grain by grain; and although

243

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

he labored continually, yet the heap of sand was not
diminished. This, they said, was the punishment of
those who sold land. Adjacent to the house of tor
ment was afield of corn filled with weeds. He saw
women in the act of cutting them down; but as fast
as this was done, they grew up again. This, they said,
was the punishment of lazy women. It would be
proper and right, had we time, to tell more of this
place of torment. But my time is limited, and I must
pass to other things.

cc The Creator made men dependent upon each
other. He made them sociable beings ; therefore,
when your neighbor visits you, set food before him.
If it be your next door neighbor, you must give him
to eat. He will partake and thank you.

Again they said : - - You must not steal. Should
you want for anything necessary, you have only to tell
your wants, and they will be supplied. This is right.
Let none ever steal anything. Children are often
tempted to take things home which do not belong
to them. Let parents instruct their children in this
rule.

Many of our people live to a very old age.(121)
Your Creator says that your deportment towards them
must be that of reverence and affection. They have
seen and felt much of the misery and pain of earth.
Be always kind to them when old and helpless. Wash
their hands and face, and nurse them with care.
This is the will of the Great Spirit.

" It has been the custom among us to mourn for
the dead one year. This custom is wrong. As it
causes the death of many children, it must be aban-

244

THE NEW RELIGION

doned. Ten days mourn for the dead, and not lon-
ger.(102) When one dies, it is right and proper to
make an address over the body, telling how much you
loved the deceased. Great respect for the dead must
be observed among us.

"At another time the four Messengers said to
Handsome Lake, they would now show him the
' Destroyer of Villages' (Washington1), of whom you
have so frequently heard. Upon the road leading
to heaven he could see a light, far away in the dis
tance, moving to and fro. Its brightness far exceeded
the brilliancy of the noonday sun. They told him
the journey was as follows : First, they came to a
cold spring, which was a resting-place. From this
point they proceeded into pleasant fairy grounds,
which spread away in every direction. Soon they
reached heaven. The light was dazzling. Berries
of every description grew in vast abundance. Their
size and quality were such that a single berry was
more than sufficient to appease the appetite. A sweet
fragrance perfumed the air. Fruits of every kind met
the eye. The inmates of this celestial abode spent
their time in amusement and repose. No evil could
enter there. None in heaven ever transgress again.
Families were reunited, and dwelt together in harmony.
They possessed a bodily form, the senses, and the re
membrances of the earthly life. But no white man ever
entered heaven. Thus they said. He looked, and

1 Washington was named by the Iroquois Ha-no-da-ga'-ne-ars, which
signifies the Destroyer of Villages. The Presidents have ever since been
called by this name. They named the Governors of all the provinces with
which they had intercourse, and afterwards continued the names to their
successors. (69)

245

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

saw an inclosure upon a plain, just without the en
trance of heaven. Within it was a fort. Here he
saw the 'Destroyer of Villages/ walking to and fro
within the inclosure. His countenance indicated a
great and a good man. They said to Handsome
Lake : The man you see is the only pale-face who ever
left the earth. He was kind to you, when on the
settlement of the great difficulty between the Amer
icans and the Great Crown (Go-wek'-go-wa), you were
abandoned to the mercy of your enemies. The Crown
told the great American, that as for his allies, the
Indians, he might kill them if he liked. The great
American judged that this would be cruel and unjust.
He believed they were made by the Great Spirit, and
were entitled to the enjoyment of life. He was kind
to you, and extended over you his protection. For
this reason, he has been allowed to leave the earth.
But he is never permitted to go into the presence of
the Great Spirit. Although alone, he is perfectly
happy. All faithful Indians pass by him as they go
to heaven. They see him, and recognize him, but
pass on in silence. No word ever passes his lips.

" Friends and Relatives : -- It was by the influence
of this great man, that we were spared as a people, and
yet live. Had he not granted us his protection, where
would we have been ? Perished, all perished.

" The four Messengers further said to Handsome
Lake, they were fearful that, unless the people re
pented and obeyed his commands, the patience and
forbearance of their Creator would be exhausted ;
that he w7ould grow angry with them, and cause their
increase to cease.

246

THE NEW RELIGION

" Our Creator made light and darkness. He made
the sun to heat, and shine over the world. He made
the moon, also, to shine by night, and to cool the
world, if the sun made it too hot by day. The keeper
of the clouds, by direction of the Great Spirit, will
then cease to act. The keeper of the springs and
running brooks will cease to rule them for the good
of man. The sun will cease to fulfil its office. Total
darkness will then cover the earth. A great smoke
will rise, and spread over the face of the earth. Then
will come out of it all monsters, and poisonous ani
mals created by the Evil-minded ; and they, with the
wicked upon the earth, will perish together.

" But before this dreadful time shall come, the
Great Spirit will take home to himself all the good
and faithful. They will lay themselves down to sleep,
and from this sleep of death, they will rise, and go
home to their Creator. Thus they said.

" I have now done. I close thus, that you may
remember and understand the fate which awaits the
earth, and the unfaithful and unbelieving. Our Crea
tor looks down upon us. The four Beings from
above see us. They witness with pleasure this assem
blage, and rejoice at the object for which it is gathered.
It is now forty-eight years since we first began to
listen to the renewed will of our Creator. I have been
unable, during the time allotted to me, to rehearse all
the sayings of Gd-ne-o-di-yo. I regret very much that
you cannot hear them all.

" Counsellors, Warriors, Women and Children : -
I have done, I thank you all for your attendance,
and for your kind and patient attention. May the

247

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

Great Spirit, who rules all things, watch over and
protect you from every harm and danger, while you
travel the journey of life. May the Great Spirit bless
you all, and bestow upon you life, health, peace and
prosperity ; and may you, in turn, appreciate his great
goodness. Na-ho'"

Chapter IV

National Dances — Influence of the Dance — Costume — War
Dance— Speeches in the War Dance — Great Feather Dance —
Trotting Dance — Fish Dance — Dance for the Dead — Concerts

SUFFICIENT has been said in the preceding
pages to convey an impression of the uses of
the Dance among the Iroquois. It remains
to notice the several dances themselves, to point out
some of the characteristics of each, and also to exhibit
more fully the spirit of this amusement, and its power
over the minds of the people.

With the Iroquois, as with the red race at large,
dancing was not only regarded as a thanksgiving
ceremonial, in itself acceptable to the Great Spirit,
but they were taught to consider it a divine art, de
signed by Ha-wen-ne'-yu for their pleasure, as well
as for his worship. It was cherished as one of the
most suitable modes of social intercourse between
the sexes, but more especially as the great instru
mentality for arousing patriotic excitement, and for
keeping alive the spirit of the nation. The popular
enthusiasm broke forth in this form, and was nour
ished and stimulated by this powerful agency. These
dances sprang, as it were, a living reflection from the
Indian mind. With their wild music of songs and
rattles, their diversities of step and attitude, their
graces of motion, and their spirit-stirring associations,

249

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

they contain within themselves both a picture and
a realization of Indian life. The first stir of feeling
of which the Indian youth was conscious was en
kindled by the dance ; the first impulse of patriotism,
the earliest dreams of ambition were awakened by
their inspiring influences. In their patriotic, religious
and social dances, into which classes they are properly
divisible, resided the soul of Indian life. It was more
in the nature of a spell upon the people than of a
rational guiding spirit. It bound them down to
trivial things, but it bound them together ; it stimu
lated them to deeds of frenzy, but it fed the flame
of patriotism.

The Iroquois had thirty-two distinct dances, out
of which number twenty-six were claimed to be
wholly of their own invention. Twenty-one of
these are still in use among the present Iroquois.
To each a separate history and object attached, as
well as a different degree of popular favor. Some
were costume dances, and were performed by a small
and select band ; some were designed exclusively for
females, others for warriors alone ; but the greater
part of them were open to all of both sexes who
desired to participate. Many of these dances, with
out doubt, have been handed down among the Iro
quois for centuries, transmitted from generation to
generation, until their origin is lost even to tradition.
Others spread throughout the whole Indian family,
and were known and used from Maine to Oregon.
Indian amusements, as well as arts, were eminently
diffusive, as Indian life was much the same from
ocean to ocean. They are better described by their

250

INFLUENCE OF THE DANCE

effects than by a minute examination of the mode,
manner and circumstances of each in detail. It is
to their influence, as a means of action, that they
owe their chief importance. And it is to the zeal
and enthusiasm with which they were cherished and
performed, that attention should principally be di
rected. Their overpowering influence in arousing the
Indian spirit, and in excluding all thoughts of a dif
ferent life, and their resulting effect upon the formation
of Indian character cannot be too highly estimated.

The tenacity with which the Iroquois have always
adhered to these dances furnishes the highest evi
dence of their hold upon the affections of the people.
From the earliest days of the Jesuit missions, the
most unremitted efforts of the missionaries have been
put forth for their suppression. Christian parties
were organized at an early day in each nation, of
such as were willing to abandon the dance and their
religious festivals, and lead a different life. These
parties, down to the present time, have always been
largely in the minority, except among the unexpa-
triated Oneidas, who are now entirely denationalized,
and, perhaps, the Tuscaroras, who are partially so ;
but the body of the Senecas, Onondagas and Cayugas,
upon their several reservations, still cling to their
ancient customs, and glory in the dance as ardently
as did their forefathers. When it loses its attractions,
they will cease to be Indians.1

1 A Mourning council of the Iroquois was held at Tonawanda, in
October, 1846, to raise up sachems. There were about six hundred Iro
quois in attendance, representing all of the Six Nations. On the second
day the Great Feather Dance was performed by a select band of Onon-
daga and Seneca dancers. The author then first had occasion to realize

25 <

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

The Feather dance and the War dance were the
two great performances of the Iroquois. One had
a religious, and the other a patriotic character. Both
were costume dances. They were performed by a
select band, ranging from fifteen to twenty-five, who
were distinguished for their powers of endurance,
activity and spirit. Besides these, there were four
other costume dances. In the residue, the performers,
who were the people at large, appeared in their
ordinary apparel, and sometimes participated to the
number of two or three hundred at one time. The
Iroquois costume may be called strictly an apparel
for the dance. This was the chief occasion on which
the warrior was desirous to appear in his best attire.
Before describing these dances, it will be proper to
notice the va'rious articles of apparel which made up
the full-dress costume of the Iroquois.

One of the most prominent articles of apparel was
the Kilt, Ga-ka-ah (see plate, I. 184), which was se
cured around the waist by a belt, and descended to
the knee. In ancient times this was made of deer
skin. It was fringed and embroidered with porcu
pine quill-work. Some of these kilts would excite
admiration by the exactness of their finish and ad
justment, and the neatness of the material. In mod
ern times various fabrics have been substituted for
the deer-skin, although the latter is still used.

the magical influence which these dances have upon the Indian. It was
impossible even for the spectator to resist the general enthusiasm. It was
remarked to Da-at'-ga-dose (Abraham La Fort), an educated Onondaga
sachem, that they would be Indians forever, if they held to these dances.
He replied, that he knew it, and for that reason he would be the last to
give them up.

252

COSTUME

The porcupine (Ga-hd-da) is covered with a species
of quill perfectly round, without down or feather, and
terminating in a sharp point. The small quills are
from one to four inches in length, and are white with
the exception of the tip ends or about one-fifth of the
quills, which are of a dark brown color, and give to
the animal its dark appearance. After being picked
and seasoned they are colored red, blue and yellow
by artificial dyes, and then used in connection with
the white ones. For heavy border work the quills
are moistened and flattened down, and in that form
are used, as will be seen in the plate (I. 44) ; but for
vine or figure work, a thread is stitched through the
deer-skin and around the quill, and drawn down so as
to compress it. This process is repeated at intervals,
the quill being bent between the stitches. No pat
terns are used to work from, the eye and the taste
being the principal guides. In combining colors
much taste is displayed.

Upon the head-dress, Gus-td-weh (see plate, I.
254), the most conspicuous part of the costume, much
attention was bestowed. The frame consisted of a
band of splint, adjusted around the head, with in
some instances a cross-band arching over the top,
from side to side. A cap of net-work, or other
construction, was then made to enclose the frame.
Around the splint, in later times, a silver band was
fastened, which completed the lower part. From the
top a cluster of white feathers depended. Besides
this, a single feather of the largest size was set in the
crown of the head-dress, inclining backwards from the
head. It was secured in a small tube, which was

253

LEAGUE OF THE

I RO 9 UOIS

fastened to the cross-splint, and in such a manner as
to allow the feather to revolve in the tube. This
feather, which was usually the plume of the eagle, is
the characteristic of the Iroquois head-dress.

Gus-to'-weh, or Head Dress.

Next was the Leggin, Gise'-ba (see plate, I. 256),
which was fastened above the knee, and descended upon
the moccason. It was also made originally of deer-skin,
and ornamented with quill-work upon the bottom and
side, the embroidered edge being worn in front. In
later times, red broadcloth, embroidered with bead-work,
as represented in the plate, has been substituted for
deer-skin in most cases. Much ingenuity and taste
were displayed in the designs, and in the execution of
the work upon this article of apparel. The warrior

might well be proud of this part of his costume.

254

GOS-TO-WEH OR HEAD DRESS

GA-DE-US-HA OR NECK LACE

COSTUME

The Moccason, Ah-ta-qu'd-d -weh (see plate, I. 35),
was also made of deer-skin. In the modern moc-
cason, represented in the plate, the front part is worked
with porcupine quills after the ancient fashion, while
the part which falls down upon the sides is embroidered
with bead-work according to the present taste.

Not the least important article was the belt, Ga-
geti-ta (see plate, I. 101), which was prized as
highly as any part of the costume. The one repre
sented in the plate is of Indian manufacture. These
belts were braided by hand, the beads being inter
woven in the process of braiding/11 Belts of deer
skin were also worn. These belts were worn over
the left shoulder and around the waist.

Arm Bands, Knee Bands, and Wrist Bands, made
of various articles and ornamented in divers ways,

Knee Rattle of Deers1 Hoofs.

were likewise a part of the costume. Sometimes they
were made of deer-skin, sometimes of white dog-skin,
and in later times of red and blue velvet, embroidered
with bead-work, as represented in the plate (1. 216).

In addition to the knee-bands, Knee Rattles of
deers' hoofs, as shown in the figure, and in modern

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

times, of strips of metal, or of bells, made a neces
sary part of the costume. Personal ornaments of
various kinds, together with the war-club, the toma
hawk, and the scalping-knife, completed the attire.

The war-club used in the dance, was usually a light
article, of which the following is a representation : —

, or War- Club.

The various articles of apparel which now make up
the costume of the Iroquois, are precisely the same
that they were at the epoch of the discovery. No
change has been made in the articles themselves, al
though there have been changes in the materials of
which they were made. The deer-skin, in later days,
has been laid aside for the broadcloth, and the porcu
pine quill for the bead. By making a resubstitution
of material, the original costume would be recovered
in full.(114)

In preparing for the dance, all the articles above
described were not necessarily used by each individual.
Those strictly needful were the head-dress, the belt
and kilt, to which each wearer added such ornaments
and rattles as he was disposed. Usually they were
nude down to the waist, and also below the knees, to
give greater freedom to their limbs. A great diversity
could be seen in their costumes when brought together
in the dance, in consequence of the different fabrics of

256

GISE-HA OR MALE LEGGIN,

COSTUME

which they were composed, and the variety in their
personal ornaments, notwithstanding every article of
apparel was of the same pattern. Specimens of full
Iroquois costumes, both male and female, are given
in the engravings which are introduced as frontis
pieces/1^ These, and the several plates which are
given to illustrate the male costume in detail, will sav«
the necessity of any further description.

Ga-no-jo'-Oy or Indian Drum.

I foot.

The two dances mentioned before this digression
were the highest in the popular favor. One was of
original invention, the other imported; one was of
a strictly religious character, and the other of a patri
otic ; but both were equally effective to arouse the
enthusiasm of the people. All things considered,
however, the last of the two, the War dance, Wa-
sa-seh, was the favorite. It was the mode of en
listment for a perilous expedition, the dance which
preceded the departure of the band, and with which

VOL. i.— 17 257

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

they celebrated their return. It was the dance at
the ceremony of raising up sachems, at the adoption
of a captive, at the entertainment of a guest, the
first dance taught to the young. It was not of Iro-
quois origin, but was adopted from the Sioux, as its
name imports, reaching back through them to a re
mote antiquity.1 The characteristic feature of this
dance is to be found in the speeches which were
made by those surrounding the band of dancers be
tween each tune, or at each break in the dance.
From this source the people derived as much enter
tainment as they did excitement from the perform
ance itself. It was the only dance in which speeches
and replies were appropriate, or ever introduced ;
and in this particular it was a novelty, leading
oftentimes to the highest amusement. By these
speeches, which both relieved the performers and
diverted the people, the dance was lengthened out
to two and even three hours, before the spirits of
the company were expended.

The War dance was usually performed in the evening.
It was only brought out on prominent occasions, or at
domestic councils of unusual interest. Fifteen made
a full company, but oftentimes twenty-five and even
thirty participated. After the business of the day was
disposed of, and the dusk of evening had crept in,

1 The name of the Sioux in the Seneca dialect is Wa-sa'-seh-o-no. By
contraction and usage, the word Wa-sa'-seh is now used for the Sioux
dance, the name by which the \Var dance has always been known among
the Iroquois. This dance has been ascribed by some to the Shawnees,
and called Sa-iva-no'-o-no, or the Shawnee dance, this being the Seneca
name of the Shawnees. One of the Iroquois names of this dance is
Ne-jaf ,• but Wa-sa'-seh is the customary name.

258 '

WAR DANCE

preparations began for the dance. The people gathered
within the council-house, usually in increased numbers,
because of this expected entertainment, and arranging
themselves in favorable positions, they quietly awaited
the approach of the dancers. The arrangements were
made, including the selection of the number, the ap
pointment of the leader, and of the singers of the
war-songs, by the keepers of the faith. In an adjacent
lodge, the band assembled to array themselves in their
costumes, and to paint and decorate their persons for
the occasion. The war-whoop ever and anon broke
in upon the stillness of the evening, indicating to the
listening and expectant throng within the council-house,
that their preparations were progressing to a com
pletion. A keeper of the faith, in the mean time,
occupied the attention of the people with a brief speech
upon the nature and objects of this dance. Presently,
a nearer war-whoop ringing through the air, announced
that the band were approaching. Preceded by their
leader, and marching in file to the beat of the drum,
they drew near to the council-house. As they came
up, the crowd gave way, the leader crossed the thresh
old, followed quickly by his feathered band, and
immediately opened the dance. In an instant they
grouped themselves within a circular area, standing
thick together, the singers commenced the war-song,
the drums beat time, and the dancers made the floor
resound with their stirring feet. After a moment the
song ceased, and with it the dance ; the band walking
around a common centre to the beat of the drum at
half time. Another song soon commenced, the drums
quickened their time, and the dance was resumed. In

259

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the middle of the song there was a change in the music,
accompanied with a slight cessation of the dance, after
which it became more animated than before, until the
song ended, and the band again walked to the beat of
the drum. Each tune or war-song lasted about two
minutes, and the interval between them was about as
long. These songs were usually recited by four singers,
using two drums of the kind represented in the figure,
to mark time, and as an accompaniment. The drums
beat time about twice in a second, the voices of the
singers keeping pace, thus making a rapid and strongly
accented species of music.1

It would be difficult, if not impossible, to describe
the step, except generally. With the whites, the
dancing is entirely upon the toe of the foot, with rapid
changes of position, and but slight changes of attitude.
But with the Iroquois, it was chiefly upon the heel,
with slow changes of position, and rapid changes of
attitude. The heel is raised and brought down with
great quickness and force, by muscular strength, to
keep time with the beat of the drum, to make a re
sounding noise by the concussion, and at the same
time to shake the knee-rattles, which contributed
materially to the "pomp and circumstance" of the
dance. In the War dance, the attitudes were those of

1 These war songs are in a dead language, or, at all events, the Iroquois
are unable to interpret them. They are in regular verses, or measured sen
tences, and were learned by them with the dance originally. Charlevoix has
furnished a translation of some of these songs as follows : "I am brave
and intrepid. I do not fear death, nor any kind of torture. Those who
fear them are cowards. They are less than women. Life is nothing to
those who have courage. May my enemies be confounded with despair
and rage.'" These songs were sung by captives at the torture ; and
doubtless those used in the War dance are of the same general character.

260

WAR DANCE

the violent passions, and consequently were not grace
ful. At the same instant of time, in a group of dancers,
one might be seen in the attitude of attack, another
of defence; one in the act of drawing the bow, another
of striking with the war-club ; some in the act of
throwing the tomahawk, some of listening, or of watch
ing an opportunity, and others of striking the foe.
These violent motions of the body, while they, perhaps,
increased the spirit and animation of the dance, led to
disagreeable distortions of the countenance, as well as
to uncouth attitudes. But, at the same time, the
striking costumes of the dancers, their erect forms at
certain stages of the figure, their suppleness and ac
tivity, the wild music, the rattle of the dance, together
with the excitable and excited throng around them,
made up a scene of no common interest.

In this dance, the war-whoop and the response always
preceded each song. It was given by the leader, and
answered by the band. A description of this terrific
outbreak of human voices is scarcely possible. It was
a prolonged sound upon a high note, with a decadence
near the end, followed by an abrupt and explosive
conclusion, in which the voice was raised again to the
original pitch. The whole band responded in a united
scream upon the same key with which the leader con
cluded, and at the same instant.1

An attempt is here made to rep
resent this wild cry. It is given
by the Indian with wide-open
mouth. His voice slides down the
descending notes, when he pauses
an instant to take a new inspiration,

all which is to be expended in the sudden and far-reaching yell with which

261

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

In this celebrated dance, therefore, which has doubt
less been used for centuries, and been performed
throughout the whole area of the American republic,
we find this simple succession of acts : the war-whoop
and responses, the simultaneous commencement of the
war-song and the dance, the slight cessation at the
middle of the tune, with a change in the music, the re
newal of the dance with redoubled animation, and the
final conclusion of the war-song in perhaps less than
two minutes from its commencement ; and lastly, the
walk at the beat of the drum around a central point
for about two minutes, until the war-whoop again
sounded, and another war-song was introduced. This
round was continued until the spirit of the dancers
began to flag, and the desires of the people had been
reasonably gratified. Without any speeches between
the tunes to relieve the band, it usually lasted about
an hour; but with speeches, it often continued for
three hours with unabated animation.

Any one present was at liberty to make a speech
at any stage of the dance. His desire was manifested
by a rap. At the sound the dance ceased, or, if
finished, and the band were walking, they were re
quired to stop, and all present, as well as the music,
to be silent. The only condition affixed to the right
of making a speech, was that of bestowing a present
at its close upon the dancers, or upon the one to
whom it was addressed. After the speech was con
cluded, and the present delivered, the war-whoop and
responses were again sounded, the drums beat, the

the piece concludes. On this last note the whole band join in chorus, using
the syllables " ah um,11 connected in one, or something like it.

262

SPEECHES

song and the dance commenced, and were ended
as before. Then followed another speech, and still
others, alternating with the songs, or suspending
the dance at the moment of its highest animation,
at the pleasure of the speaker. In this manner the
War dance was continued until the spirit of enjoyment
began to subside, when the final war-whoop put an end
to the dance, and the band retired.

These speeches were often pleasantries between
individuals, or strictures upon each other's foibles,
or earnest exhortations, or perchance patriotic ebul
litions of feeling, according to the fancy of the
person and of the moment. Some of them were
received with rounds of applause, some with jeers,
and others with seriousness and deference. They
usually lasted but two or three minutes. The Indian
has a keen appreciation of wit, and is fond of both
jest and. repartee, as well as of ridicule.

To convey a fuller impression of the character of
these speeches, and of the nature of the dance itself,
a few specimens will be introduced. These speeches
are short and rather unmeaning, when separated
from the occasion, and the connection in which they
were called forth. Those most interesting would
require an explanation of collateral circumstances to
be understood, and they are therefore excluded.
Those to be given are not particularly interesting ;
but they explain themselves, and will answer the pur
pose for which they are introduced as fully as if they
sparkled with wit.

After the band came in and opened the War dance,
several songs were performed before any one was

263

LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS

disposed to interrupt them. All eyes were turned
upon the several costumes of the band, upon the
spirit and activity of individuals in the dance, and
the animation and enthusiasm of the party. Round
after round followed, until the spirit of the company
was fully aroused, when it began to expend itself in
speeches and witticisms. The first rap was made
by ^o-no-ai-o a humorous old chief. Silence being
restored, he spoke as follows : " Friends and Rela
tives — I am occasionally fond of a drink of the
strong waters. I do not know how it is with Ta-ya-
d'd-o-wuti-kuh, (the guest to whom the War dance was
given),(9) but presume it is something the same with
him, and therefore I send him a sixpence to buy a
drink with on his way home." Gives the money.
Again the drum sounded, the war-whoop and re
sponses were given, and the music and the dance
were resumed. At the end of the tune another rap
restored silence. Ha-sque-sa-o, another chief, and one
somewhat noted for his fondness for the fire-water,
spoke as follows : " Friends and Relatives — I am
much pleased with the dance, and hope it will con
tinue to be well sustained. I return my thanks to
the war-dancers for the spirit with which they per
form their duty. I wish them all prosperity and
long life. If any one should look at me, they will
find that I keep my eye fixed upon the dancers, and
furthermore, that I have a good eye, so much so,
that one would think I wore glasses. I take from
my pocket a shilling for the dancers." Gives the
money. The dance was then resumed. At the end
of the song, the speech of Ha-sque-sa-o called out

264

SPEECHES

a reply from Sa-de-wa-na, as follows : " Friends
and Relatives --We have just heard some one on
the other side of the house announce, that he had an
eye so bright that one would think he wore specta
cles. But as he has a pair of red eyes, we must, I
suppose, conclude that he uses red spectacles." Gives
tobacco to the dancers. This hit at Ha-sque r-sa-o 's
infirmity was received with applause. Again the
dance goes on as usual. Among the dancers were
men of all sizes, figures and heights. There was one
warrior, especially, of such herculean proportions that
he might be called a giant. He furnished a theme
for the next speech, which was made by Ha-sa-no-
ari-da^ the dance having ceased, as follows : " Friends
and Relatives — I admire the ease and grace with
which Ha-ho-yas manages his wonderful proportions.
He has every reason to be proud of his size and dig
nity. I propose to give him a present of two plugs
of tobacco, supposing that it will be sufficient for one
quid.1' Gives the tobacco. Ha-ho-yas received the
tobacco with seeming pleasure, and the people the jest
with considerable merriment. At the conclusion of
the next song, he thus replied : " Friends and Rela
tives - - I return my thanks to Ha-sa-no-ari-da for
his present. I assure him that my intellectual ca
pacities correspond very justly with my physical
dimensions. I hope my brother will publish my
fame from the rising to the setting sun." Again the
war-whoop sounded, the music opened, and the dance
was renewed.

Other speeches were made from time to time, some
of which called forth applause, and in due time a reply

265

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

adapted to the case. After a number had thus spoken,
Sa-de-wa-na rapped again. When the music and the
dancers were still, he thus said : " Friends and Rela
tives — I have made another strike. I desire to make
a present to the women who have assisted in preparing
the feast. But as I cannot give presents to all, I wish
to see the one who has to-day eaten the most beef, and
is considered the most greedy. I request her to come
forward and receive the present." One of them, Gi-
an-ok, advanced and received the money, good-
naturedly, which the people applauded. After a few
more courses of the dance, a speech was made by
O-no'-sa, of a more serious cast, as follows: "Friends
and Relatives — We have reason to glory in the
achievements of our ancestors. I behold with sadness
the present declining state of our noble race. Once
the warlike yell and the painted band were the terror
of the white man. Then our fathers were strong, and
their power was felt and acknowledged far and wide
over the American continent. But we have been re
duced and broken by the cunning and rapacity of the
white-skinned race. We are now compelled to crave,
as a blessing, that we may be allowed to live upon our
own lands, to cultivate our own fields, to drink from
our own springs, and to mingle our bones with those
of our fathers. Many winters ago, our wise ancestors
predicted that a great monster, with white eyes, would
come from the east, and, as he advanced, would con
sume the land. This monster is the white race, and
the prediction is near its fulfilment. They advised
their children, when they became weak, to plant a tree
with four roots, branching to the north, the south, the

266

SPEECHES

east, and the west ; and then collecting under its shade,
to dwell together in unity and harmony. This tree,
I propose, shall be this very spot. Here we will
gather, here live, and here die." Gives tobacco, to the
dancers. The dance was then resumed as before, and
continued until a rap announced another speech from
To-no-ai'-o, the first speaker, who, after silence was re
stored, addressed the dancers : "In my view of the
dance you do not do it as well as it can be done ;
although you doubtless have done as well as you
know how. When I was a young man, I was the
greatest dancer of my time. I did not know any one
who could surpass me in the War dance. Further
more, I was considered the best singer of the war-
songs. I hope, however, you will continue to do the
best you can, even though you fail to perform this
dance as well as it can be done. I have another piece
of the leaf which I will turn over to the singers. I
wish them to swallow the juice, as it will make their
voices clear, and help their singing." Gives the
tobacco. Again the dance was resumed. After the
next tune, this speech called out a reply from Ja-ese\
as follows : " Friends and Relatives — We have just
heard a speaker, on the other side of the house, boast
ing of what he had done in his younger days. I do
not like to hear such high speaking of one's self. I
should like to see ^o-no-ai-o come out and show the
people what he can do, or what he used to do in his
younger days." Gives money to the dancers. Again
the war-whoop sounded, the responses followed, and
the music and the dance made the house resound. In
this manner was this famous dance conducted by our

267

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

primitive inhabitants around their domestic council-
fires.

These illustrations will suffice to exhibit the general
character of these speeches, as well as of the dance
itself. In the numerous addresses and witticisms
which the War dance called forth, the Iroquois took
the highest delight. They served the double purpose
of relieving the dancers themselves, who would soon
have been exhausted by continuous exertion, and of
entertaining the people in the interval. This was the
secret of its great popularity as a dance, and of its uni
versal adoption. To this day, a well-conducted War
dance is the highest entertainment known among the
Iroquois.

Gus-da'-zva-sa, or Rattle.

Second in the public estimation, but first intrinsi
cally, stood the great Feather dance, 0-sto-weti-go-wd,
sometimes called the Religious dance, because it was
specially consecrated to the worship of the Great
Spirit. The invention, or at least the introduction of
this dance, is ascribed to the first To-do-da -ho, at the
period of the formation of the League. In its Iro
quois origin, they all concur. It was performed by a
select band, ranging from fifteen to thirty, in full cos
tume, and was chiefly used at their religious festivals,
although it was one of the prominent dances on all

268

GREAT FEATHER DANCE

great occasions in Indian life. This dance was the
most splendid, graceful and remarkable in the whole
collection, requiring greater powers of endurance, sup
pleness and flexibility of person, and gracefulness of
deportment, than either of the others. The saltandi
ars, or dancing art, found in the Feather dance its
highest achievement, at least in the Indian family ;
and it may be questioned whether a corresponding
figure can be found among those which are used in
refined communities, which will compare with it in
those particulars which make up a spirited and grace
ful dance.

The music was furnished by two singers, seated in
the centre of the room, each having a turtle-shell
rattle of the kind represented in the figure.1 It con
sisted of a series of songs or measured verses, which
required about two minutes each for their recitation.
They were all religious songs, some of them in praise
of the Great Spirit, some in praise of various objects
in nature which ministered to their wants, others in
the nature of thanksgivings to Ha-wen-ne'-yu, or sup
plications of his continued protection. The rattles
were used to mark time, and as an accompaniment to
the songs. In using them, they were struck upon the
seat as often as twice or thrice in a second, the song
and the step of the dancers keeping time, notwith
standing the rapidity of the beat.

The band arrayed themselves in their costumes in

1 To make this rattle they remove the animal from the shell, and af
ter drying it, they place within it a handful of flint-corn, and then sew
up the skin which is left attached to the shell. The neck of the turtle is
then stretched over a wooden handle.

269

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

an adjacent lodge, came into the council-house, and
opened in all respects as in the case last described.
Instead of grouping, however, within the area of a
circle, they ranged themselves in file, and danced
slowly around the council-house in an elliptical line.
When the music ceased, the dance also was suspended,
and the party walked in column to the beat of the
rattles. After an interval of about two minutes, the
rattles quickened their time, the singers commenced
another song, and the warriors, at the same instant,
the dance. The leader, standing at the head of the
column, opened, followed by those behind. As they
advanced slowly around the room, in the dance, they
gestured with their arms, and placed their bodies in a
great variety of positions, but, unlike the practice in
the War dance, always keeping their forms erect.
None of the attitudes in this dance were those of the
violent passions, but rather of the mild and gentle
feelings. Consequently, there were no distortions
either of the countenance or the body ; but all their
movements and positions were extremely graceful,
dignified and imposing. The step has the same
general peculiarities as that in the dance last described,
but yet is quite distinct from it. Each foot in succes
sion is raised from two to eight inches from the floor,
and the heel is then brought down with great force as
frequently as the beat of the rattles. Frequently one
heel is brought down twice or three times before it
alternates with the other. This will convey an im
pression of the surprising activity of this dance, in
which every muscle of the body appears to be strung
to its highest degree of tension. The concussion of

270

GREAT FEATHER DANCE

the foot upon the floor served the double purpose of
shaking the rattles and bells, which form a part of the
costume, and of adding to the noise and animation of
the dance.

The dancers were usually nude down to the waist,
with the exception of ornaments upon their arms and
necks, as represented in the engraving, thus exposing
their well-formed chests, finely rounded arms, and
their smooth, evenly colored skins, of a clear and
brilliant copper color. This exposure of the person,
not in any sense displeasing, contributed materially to
the beauty of the costume, and gave a striking expres
sion to the figure of the dancer. Such was the physi
cal exertion put forth in this dance, that before it
closed, the vapor of perspiration steamed up, like
smoke, from their uncovered backs. No better evi
dence than this need be given, that it was a dance full
of earnestness and enthusiasm. One of their aims was
to test each other's powers of endurance. It not un-
frequently happened that a part of the original number
yielded from exhaustion before the dance was ended.
Nothing but practice superadded to flexibility of per
son and great muscular strength would enable even an
Indian to perform this dance. When the popular ap
plause was gained by one of the band for spirited or
graceful dancing, he was called out to stand at the head
of the column, and lead the party : in this way several
changes of leaders occurred before the final conclusion
of the figure.

In this dance the women participated, if they were
disposed. They wore, however, their ordinary ap
parel, and entered by themselves at the foot of the

271

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

column. The female step is entirely unlike the one
described. They moved sideways in this figure,
simply raising themselves alternately upon each foot
from heel to toe, and then bringing down the heel
upon the floor, at each beat of the rattle, keeping pace
with the slowly advancing column. With the females
dancing was a quiet and not ungraceful amusement.

As a scene, its whole effect was much increased by
the arrangement of the dancers into column. In this
long array of costumes, the peculiar features of each
were brought more distinctly into view, and by keep
ing the elliptical area around which they moved,
entirely free from the pressing throng of Indian specta
tors, a better opportunity was afforded to all to witness
the performance. To one who has never seen this
dance, it would be extremely difficult to convey any
notion of its surprising activity, and its inspiring influ
ence upon the spectators. Requiring an almost con
tinuous exertion, it is truly a marvellous performance.

The Thanksgiving dance, Ga-na-o-uh, was likewise
a costume dance, and given by a select band. It re
sembles the one last described so closely, both in step
and plan, that it is not necessary to describe it.

One of the most simple figures among the Iroquois,
was called the Trotting dance, G'a-d'a-shote. It was
usually the opening dance at councils, and at private
entertainments, when no costume figures were intro
duced. A person appointed to act as leader, followed
by a few others, took the floor and began. Others
joined in as the column passed around the room.

The music was entirely vocal, and furnished by those
who danced. It consisted of about twenty different

272

FISH DANCE

songs, each lasting something less than two minutes.
In this dance the tune was the mere repetition of one
exclamation by those at the head of the column, fol
lowed by a response, in chorus, from the residue.
Three specimens are given in illustration. The leader,
in concert with those nearest him, sang the following
syllables : Ta-ha-we-ya-ha > to which all the others
responded, Ha-ha . This would be repeated and re
sponded to, for about two minutes, the pronunciation
of the syllables being subjected to a musical variation
each time. When the tune ended, the band walked
for about the same length of time. The next song
might consist of the syllables Ga-no'-oh-he-yo, with the
response Wa-ha-ah-he-yo . This would be continued,
and the key varied, in the same manner as the last.
After this was ended, and the dancers had refreshed
themselves by walking, perhaps the next song would
consist of the following syllables : Tu-wa-na-he-yo\
and the response Wa-ha-ah-hd .

As to the step it was very simple, being nearly a
trot, or alternate step on each foot. In dancing, those
engaged stood close to each other, and advanced slowly
around the council-house. The women participated,
but they were by themselves at the foot of the column.
As this dance was extremely simple, it was not uncom
mon to see two and even three hundred engaged in it
at one time, moving around in three or four concentric
lines.

Another figure, in very general use, was called
the Fish dance, Ga-so-wa-o-no.^ It was of foreign
origin. The music consisted of singing, accompanied
with the drum, and the squash-shell rattle ; the two

VOL. i. — 18 273

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

singers seating themselves in the centre of the room
facing each other, and using the drum and rattle to
mark time, and increase the volume of the music.
The step was merely an elevation from heel to toe,
twice repeated upon each foot alternately ; bringing
down the heel each alternate time with considerable
force, to mark time and make the floor resound.

The dance was commenced by the leader, who took
the floor, followed by others, and walked to the beat
of the drum. When the song commenced, each alter
nate dancer faced round, thus bringing the column
into sets of two each, face to face, those who turned
dancing backwards, but the whole band moving around
the room, as in other cases. Each song or tune lasted
about three minutes. At the end of the first minute
there was a break in the music, and the sets turned,
thus reversing their positions ; at the end of the second
there was another change in the music, in the midst
of which the sets turned again, which brought them
back to their original positions. Through the third
and last subdivision o.f the time, the dance was con
tinued with increased animation. At the close of it,
those who had been dancing backwards faced around,
and the whole column walked about two minutes, to
the beat of the drum. Another tune was then com
menced and finished in the same manner.

The peculiarity of this dance was the opportunity
which it afforded the Indian maiden to select whomever
she preferred as a partner. In this particular the cus
tom of refined communities was reversed. The warrior
never solicited the maiden to dance with him ; that
privilege was accorded to her alone. In the midst of

274

GISE-HA OR FEMALE LEGGIN-

DANCE FOR THE DEAD

the dance, the females present themselves in pairs
between any set they may select, thus giving to each a
partner. This rule prevails in all Indian dances ; so
that the Indian maiden at her own convenience
" gracefully presents her personage to the one she de
signs to favor, and thus quietly engages herself in the
dance." In none of the changes of position in this
dance do the partners join hands. This figure usually
continues less than an hour. Sometimes, as a mark
of respect to a guest, or distinguished chief, two wo
men presented themselves before him, as partners in
the dance.

The Passing dance, Ga-no'-ga-yo^ was also in high
favor. It is similar to the last, the column being
divided into sets of two each, the women engaging in
whichever set they please. At a certain stage of the
song, the woman passed her partner, and took the
next, her place being supplied from behind. They
danced around the room, facing each other in pairs,
the men moving backwards. The music and the step
were about the same as in the dance last described.

An occasional and very singular figure was called
the Dance for the Dead. It was known as the O-ke-
wa. It was danced by the women alone. The music
was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being
stationed in the centre of the room. To the songs
for the dead, which they sang, the dancers joined in
chorus. It was plaintive and mournful music. This
dance was usually separate from all councils, and the
only dance of the occasion. It commenced at dusk
or soon after, and continued until towards morning,
when the shades of the dead, who were believed to be

275

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

present and participate in the dance, were supposed to
disappear. This dance was had whenever a family,
which had lost a member, called for it, which was
usually about a year after the event. In the spring
and fall, it was often given for all the dead indiscrimi
nately, who were believed then to revisit the earth
and join in the dance.

One of their performances was called the Buffalo
dance, Da-ge'-ya-go-o-an'-no. It was designed for
males alone. The music consisted of singing, accom-

Gus-da'-wa-sa, or Squash-shell Rattles.

panied with the drum and the rattle. Its principal
feature was the attempt to imitate the actions of the
buffalo. According to tradition, this dance originated
in a warlike expedition of the Iroquois against the
Cherokees. When they had proceeded as far as the
Kentucky salt lick, they heard, for the first time, the
buffaloes, "singing their favorite songs" (bellowing
and grumbling). From this bellowing the music, and
from their actions the plan of the dance, were made.
In connection with the dances of the Iroquois, may
be mentioned their concerts, which occupy a con
spicuous place in their amusements. But one will be

276

CO N CERTS

noticed of the four, which make up the number of
kinds. It was called the Q-ee-dose'. It was given in
the night, in a dark room, and no women were allowed
to be present. Those engaged in the concert were
seated on benches around the room, in a continuous
row, each one holding in his hand a rattle, of the kind
represented in the figure. These rattles were made to
give each one a different note, by means of different-
sized shells, and holes bored in them to emit the
sound. Among twenty of them, rattled together at
such a concert, no two would give the same sound.
Corn was placed inside the shell. When the parties
were ready, one of their number sang a song, to which
they all beat time with their rattles, and at certain in
tervals all joined in the song in chorus. Another then
commenced a song, which was continued and finished
in the same manner. After each one in turn had
sung his song, which, with the accompaniments and
the choruses, made a not unpleasant entertainment,
the concert was ended.1

The other three are the Medicine concert, Ga-no-da-
yo-suh ; the Female concert, O-e-un-do-ta ; and the
Thanksgiving concert, Ah'-do-weh, before described.

1 The Indian appears to have had a good perception of time, and to
have measured it, in his music and dances, with considerable exactness ;
but in tune he was sadly deficient. He knew nothing of the natural in
tervals of tones and semi-tones. There runs always through his music
one predominant and constantly recurring sound, from which the others
vary by all kinds of irregular intervals and fractions of intervals. The
tunes of the Iroquois, if the name may be given to their rude minstrelsy,
were both numerous and varied, and capable, also, of inspiring enthusi
asm or sadness. In their occasional songs, as in the Ah-do'-iveh, the
music, as well as the words, was often impromptu. The Indian voice,
especially that of the female, is musical, and highly capable of cultivation.

277

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

It will not be necessary to describe the remaining
dances. Sufficient, at least, has been presented, to give
a general idea of the Dance among the Iroquois. A
few of them have been given in detail, as they seemed
calculated to furnish a glimpse of Indian society.
These amusements of our primitive inhabitants are not,
in themselves, devoid of interest, although they indi
cate a tendency of mind unbefitting rational men. A
hunter by nature and by inclination, averse to cities,
and impatient of labor, the chase, the war-path, and
the council-fire, with the dance, furnished the three
great employments of his life. Who shall tell how
much the hopes, the friendships, the happiness, and
even the virtues of the Indian, were bound up in indis
soluble connection with the Dance ? With it the Iro
quois kindled the flame of patriotism which glowed in
his breast, while vindicating the prowess of his race
upon the hills of New England, on the prairies of the
Mississippi, or in the trackless forests of the South.
With it he celebrated his victories, and in the days of
peace cultivated his social affections. And with it,
also, at stated seasons of the year, he offered up his
praise and homage to the Great Spirit, the ever present
Author of his being.1

1 SCHEDULE OF IROQUOIS DANCES. (123)

Those marked thus *, are of foreign origin 5 thus j, are now obsolete 5
and thus J, are costume dances.

1 O-sto-weh'-go-wa, ;{; Great Feather Dance. For both sexes.

2 Ga-na'-o-uh,;}; Great Thanksgiving Dance. "

3 Da-yun'-da-nes-hunt-ha, Dance with Joined Hands. "

4 Ga-da'-shote,* Trotting Dance. "

5 O-to-wa'-ga-ka,* f North Dance. "

278

SCHEDULE OF DANCES

6 Je-ha'-ya,

7 Ga'-no-jit'-ga-o,

8 Ga-so-wa'-o-no,*"

9 Os-ko-da'-ta,

10 Ga-no'-ga-yo,|

1 1 So-wek-o-an'-no,"*

12 Ja-ko'-wa-o-an'-no,
i 3 Guk-sa'-ga-ne-a,-)-

14 Ga-so'-a,-j-

15 O-ke'-wa,

1 6 O-as-ka-ne'-a,

1 7 Da-swa-da-ne'-a,

1 8 Ga-ne-a'-seh-o, j

19 Un-da-da-o-at'-ha,-]-

20 Un-to-we'-sus,

2 1 Da-yo-da'-sun-da-e'-go,

22 Wa-sa'-seh,^ J

23 Da-ge'-ya-go-o-an'-no,

24 Ne-a'-gwi-o-an'-no,*

25 Wa-a-no'-a,-j-

26 Ne-ho-sa-den'-da,-j-

27 Ga-na-un'-da-do,-}- J

28 Un-de-a-ne-suk'-ta,-j- J

29 Eh-nes'-hen-do,-}-

30 Ga-go'-sa,

31 Ga-je'-sa,

32 Un-da-de-a-dus'-shun-ne

Antique Dance.
Taking the Kettle out.
Fish Dance.
Shaking the Bush.
Rattle Dance.
Duck Dance.
Pigeon Dance.
Grinding Dishes.
Knee Rattle Dance.
Dance for the Dead.
Shuffle Dance.
Tumbling Dance.
Turtle Dance.
Initiation Dance for Girls.
Shuffle Dance.
Dark Dance.
Sioux, or War Dance.
Buffalo Dance.
Bear Dance.
Striking the Stick.
Squat Dance.
Scalp Dance.
Track Finding Dance.
Arm Shaking Dance.
False Face Dance.
«« «« «

-at'-ha,-j- Preparation Dance.

For both sexes.

«
((
«
«
«
< (

For Females.
c<
II
tt
(I
ft
((
For Males.

279

Chapter V

National Games — Betting — Ball Game — Game of Javelins — Game
of Deer Buttons — Snow Snake Game — Snow Boat Game — Arch-
. ery — Peach-Stone Game — Enthusiasm for Games

IN their national games is to be found another
fruitful source of amusement in Indian life.
These games were not only played at their re
ligious festivals, at which they often formed a con
spicuous part of the entertainment, but special days
were frequently set apart for their celebration. They
entered into these diversions with the highest zeal and
emulation, and took unwearied pains to perfect them
selves in the art of playing each successfully. There
were but six principal games among the Iroquois, and
these are divisible into athletic games, and games of
chance.

Challenges were often sent from one village to
another, and were even exchanged between nations,
to a contest of some of these games. In such cases
the chosen players of each community or nation were
called out to contend for the prize of victory. An
intense degree of excitement was aroused, when the
champions were the most skilful players of rival
villages, or adjacent nations.1 The people enlisted

1 Tradition relates that the war which ended in the expulsion of the
Eries, about the year 1654, from the western part of New York, origi
nated in a breach of faith or treachery on the part of the Eries, in a Ball
game to which they had challenged the Senecas.

280

BETTING

upon their respective sides, with a degree of enthusi
asm, which would have done credit, both to the spec
tators and the contestants, at the far-famed Elian
games. For miles, and even hundreds of miles, they
flocked together at the time appointed to witness the
contest.

Unlike-the prizes of the Olympic games, no chap-
lets awaited the victors. They were strifes between
nation and nation, village and village, or tribes and
tribes ; in a word parties against parties, and not
champion against champion. The prize contended
for was that of victory ; and it belonged, not to the
triumphant players, but to the party which sent them
forth to the contest.

When these games were not played by one com
munity against another, upon a formal challenge, the
people arranged themselves on two sides, according
to their tribal divisions. By an organic provision of
the Iroquois, as elsewhere stated, the Wolf, Bear,
Beaver and Turtle tribes were brothers to each other,
as tribes, and cousins to the other four. In playing
their games they always went together, and formed
one party or side. In the same manner the Deer,
Snipe, Heron and Hawk tribes were brothers to each
other, as tribes, and cousins to the four first .named.
These formed a second, or opposite party. Thus in
all Indian games, with the exceptions first mentioned,
the people divided themselves into two sections, four
of the tribes always contending against the other
four.(57) Father and son, husband and wife, were thus
arrayed in opposite ranks.

Betting upon the result was common among the

281

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

Iroquois. As this practice was never reprobated by
their religious teachers, but, on the contrary, rather
encouraged, it frequently led to the most reckless in
dulgence. It often happened that the Indian gambled
away every valuable article which he possessed ; his
tomahawk, his medal, his ornaments, and even his
blanket.(98) The excitement and eagerness with which
he watched the shifting tide of the game, was more
uncontrollable than the delirious agitation of the
pale-face at the race-course, or even at the gaming
table. Their excitable temperament and emulous
spirits peculiarly adapted them for the enjoyment of
their national games.

These bets were made in a systematic manner, and
the articles then deposited with the managers of the
game. A bet offered by a person upon one side, in
the nature of some valuable article, was matched by a
similar article, or one of equal value, by some one
upon the other. Personal ornaments made the usual
gaming currency. Other bets were offered and taken
in the same manner, until hundreds of articles were
sometimes collected. These were laid aside by the
managers, until the game was decided, when each
article lost by the event was handed over to the
winning individual, together with his own, which he
had risked against it.

With the Iroquois, the Ball game, O-ta-da-jisti-qua-
age, was the favorite among their amusements of this
description. This game reaches back to a remote
antiquity, was universal among the red races, and was
played with a degree of zeal and enthusiasm which
would scarcely be credited. It was played with a

282

BALL GAME

small deer-skin ball, by a select band, usually from six
to eight on a side, each set representing its own party.
The game was divided into several contests, in which
each set of players strove to carry the ball through
their own gate. They went out into an open plain or
field, and erected gates, about eighty rods apart, on its

Ga-ne-a, or Ball Bat.

5 feet.

opposite sides. Each gate was simply two poles, some
ten feet high, set in the ground about three rods
asunder. One of these gates belonged to each party ;
and the contest between the players was, which set
would first carry the ball through its own a given
number of times. Either five or seven made the
game, as the parties agreed. If five, for example, was
the number, the party which first carried, or drove the
ball through its own gate this number of times, won
the victory. Thus, after eight separate contests, the

283

LEAGUE OF THE IKO^UOIS

parties might stand equal, each having won four ; in
which case the party which succeeded on the ninth
contest would carry the game. The players com
menced in the centre of the field, midway between the
gates. If one of them became fatigued or disabled
during the progress of the game, he was allowed to
leave the ranks, and his party could supply his place
with a fresh player, but the original numbers were not
at any time allowed to be increased. Regular man
agers were appointed on each side to see that the
rules of the game were strictly and fairly observed.
One rule forbade the players to touch the ball with
the hand or foot.

In preparing for this game, the players denuded
themselves entirely, with the exception of the waist-
cloth l (see plate, I. 51). They also underwent,
frequently, a course of diet and training, as in a
preparation for a foot-race.

When the day designated had arrived, the people
gathered from the whole surrounding country, to
witness the contest. About meridian they assem
bled at the appointed place, and having separated
themselves into two companies, one might be seen
upon each side of the line, between the gates, arranged
in scattered groups, awaiting the commencement of
the game. The players, when ready, stationed them
selves in two parallel rows, facing each other, midway
on this line/ each one holding a ball bat, of the kind

1 The Ga'-ka, or waist-cloth, was a strip of deer-skin or broadcloth,
about a quarter wide and two yards long, ornamented at the ends with
bead or quill work. It was passed between the limbs, and secured by a
deer-skin belt, passing around the waist, the embroidered ends falling over
the belt, before and behind, in the fashion of an apron.

284

BALL GAME

represented in the figure, and with which alone the
ball was to be driven. As soon as all the prelimi
naries were adjusted, the ball was dropped between
the two files of players, and taken between the bats
of the two who stood in the middle of each file,
opposite to each other. After a brief struggle be
tween them, in which each player endeavored, with
his bat, to get possession of the ball, and give it the
first impulse towards his own gate, it was thrown out,
and then commenced the pursuit. The flying ball,
when overtaken, was immediately surrounded by a
group of players, each one striving to extricate it,
and, at the same time, direct it towards his party
gate. In this way. the ball was frequently imprisoned
in different parts of the field, and an animated
controversy maintained for its possession. When
freed, it was knocked upon the ground, or through
the air ; but the moment a chance presented, it was
taken up upon the deer-skin network of the ball bat,
by a player in full career, and carried in a race towards
the gate. To guard against this contingency, by
which one contest of the game might be determined

D O

in a moment, some of the players detached them
selves from the group contending around the ball,
and took a position from which to intercept a runner
upon a diagonal line, if it should chance that one of
the adverse party got possession of the ball. These
races often formed the most exciting part of the
game, both from the fleetness of the runners, and
the consequences which depended upon the result.
When the line of the runner was crossed, by an ad
versary coming in before him upon a diagonal line,

285

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

and he found it impossible, by artifice or stratagem,
to elude him, he turned about, and threw the ball
over the heads of both of them, towards his gate ;
or, perchance, towards a player of his own party, if
there were adverse players between him and the gate.
When the flight of the ball was arrested in any part
of the field, a spirited and even fierce contest was
maintained around it; the players handled their bats
with such dexterity, and managed their persons
with such art and adroitness, that frequently several
minutes elapsed before the ball flew out. Occasion
ally in the heat of the controversy, but entirely by
accident, a player was struck with such violence that
the blood trickled down his limbs. 'In such a case,
if disabled, he dropped his bat and left the field,
while a fresh player from his own party supplied
his place. In this manner was the game contested :
oftentimes with so much ardor and skill that the
ball was recovered by one party at the very edge
of the adverse gate ; and finally, after many shifts
in the tide of success, carried in triumph through
its own. When one contest in the game was thus
decided, the prevailing party sent up a united shout
of rejoicing.

After a short respite for the refreshment of the
players, the second trial was commenced, and con
tinued like the first. Sometimes it was decided in
a few moments, but more frequently it lasted an
hour, and sometimes much longer, to such a system
had the playing of this game been reduced by skill
and practice. If every trial was ardently contested,
and the parties continued nearly equal in the number

286

GAME OF JAVELINS

decided, it often lengthened out the game, until the
approaching twilight made it necessary to take another
day for its conclusion.

On the final decision of the game, the exclama
tions of triumph, as would be expected, knew no
bounds. Caps, tomahawks and blankets were thrown
up into the air, and for a few moments the notes of
victory resounded from every side. It was doubtless
a considerate provision, that the prevailing party were
upon a side of the field opposite to, and at a distance
from, the vanquished, otherwise such a din of ex
ultation might have proved too exciting for Indian
patience.

In ancient times they used a solid ball of knot.
The ball bat, also, was made without network, hav
ing a solid and curving head. At a subsequent day,
they substituted the deer-skin ball and the network
ball bat in present use. These substitutions were
made so many years ago that they have lost the date.

Ga-geb'-da, or Javelin.

The game of Javelins, Ga-na'-ga-o, was very simple,
depending upon the dexterity with which the javelin
was thrown at a ring, as it rolled upon the ground.
They frequently made it a considerable game, by en
listing skilful players to prepare for the contest, and
by betting upon the result. The people divided by

287

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

tribes, the four brothers playing against their four
cousin tribes, as in the last case, unless the game
was played on a challenge between neighboring
communities.

The javelin was five or six feet in length, by
three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and was usually-
made of hickory or maple. It was finished with
care, sharpened at one end, and striped as shown in
the figure. The ring was about eight inches in di
ameter, made either into a hoop or solid like a
wheel, by winding with splints. Sometimes the jave
lin was thrown horizontally, by placing the forefinger
against its foot, and supporting it with the thumb
and second finger ; in other cases it was held in the
centre, and thrown with the hand raised above the
shoulder.

On either side, from fifteen to thirty players were
arranged, each having from three to six javelins,
the number of both depending upon the interest in
the game, and the time they wished to devote to the
contest. The javelins themselves were the forfeit, and
the game was gained by the party which won them.

Among the preliminaries to be settled by the
managers, was the line on which the ring was to be
rolled, the distance of the two bands of players
from each other, and the space between each and
the line itself. When these points were adjusted,
and the parties stationed, the ring was rolled by one
party on the line, in front of the other. As it
passed the javelins were thrown. If the ring was
struck by one of them, the players of the adverse
party were required, each in turn, to stand in the

288

GAME OF JAVELINS

place of the person who struck it, and throw their
javelins in succession at the ring, which was set up
as a target, on the spot where it was hit. Those of
the javelins which hit the target when thus thrown
were saved ; if any missed they were passed to the
other party, and by them were again thrown at the
ring from the same point. Those which hit were
won, finally, and laid out of the play, while the
residue were restored to their original owners. After
this first contest was decided, the ring was rolled
back, and the other party, in turn, threw their
javelins. If it was struck, the party which rolled it
was required, in the same manner, to hazard their
javelins, by throwing them at the target. Such as
missed were delivered to the other party, and those
which hit the target when thrown by them, were won
also, and laid out of the play. In this manner the
game was continued, until one of the parties had
lost their javelins, which, of itself, determined the
contest/122)

There was another game of javelins, Ga-ga-da-yan-
duk, played by shooting them through the air. In
this game, the. javelin used was made of sumac, be
cause of its lightness, and was of the same length
and size as in the former. This game was divided
into contests, as the Ball game, and was won by the
party which first made the number agreed upon.
The game was usually from fifteen to twenty, and
the number of players on a side ranged from five to
ten. When the parties were ready, the one which
had the first throw selected the object upon which
the javelin was to be thrown, to give it an upward
VOL. i. — 19 289

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

^VJ

flight, and also its distance from the standing point.
If, for example, it was a log, at the distance of a
rod, the player placed his forefinger against the foot
of the javelin, and, supporting it with his thumb and
second finger, he threw it in such a manner, that it
would strike the upper side of the log, and thus be
thrown up into the air, and forward, until its force
was spent. In this manner all the players, in turn,
threw their javelins. The one which was thrown the
greatest distance won a point. If another, upon the
same side, was in advance of all upon the opposite
side, it counted another, and so on for every one
which led all those upon the opposite side. In the
next contest, the second party chose the object over
which to throw the javelin, and the distance.' The
game was thus continued, until the number of points
were gained which were agreed upon for the game.

Gus-ga-e-sa'-ta, or Deer-buttons S^

This was strictly a fireside game, although it was
sometimes introduced as an amusement at the sea
son of religious councils, the people dividing into

290

GAME OF DEER BUTTONS

tribes, as usual, and betting upon the result. Eight
buttons, about an inch in diameter, were made of
elk-horn, and having been rounded and polished,
were slightly burned upon one side to blacken them.
When it was made a public game, it was played by
two at a time, with a change of players, as elsewhere
described in the Peach-stone game. At the fireside,
it was played by two or more, and all the players
continued in their seats until it was determined. A
certain number of beans, fifty perhaps, were made the
capital, and the game continued until one of the
players had won them all. Two persons spread a
blanket, and seated themselves upon it. One of
them shook the deer-buttons in his hands, and then
threw them down. If six turned up of the same
color, it counted two, if seven, it counted four, and if
all, it counted twenty, the winner taking as many
beans from the general stock as he made points by
the throw. He also continued to throw as long as
he continued to win. When less than six came up,
either black or white, it counted nothing, and the
throw was passed to the other player. In this man
ner the game was continued until the beans were
taken up between the two players. After that the
one paid to the other out of his own winnings, the
game ending as soon as the capital in the hands of
either player was exhausted. If four played, each
had a partner, or played independently, as they were
disposed ; but when more than two played, each one
was to pay to the winner the amount won. Thus, if
four were playing independently, and after the beans
were distributed among them, in the progress of the

29r

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

game, one of them should turn the buttons up all
black, or all white, the other three would be obliged
to pay him twenty each ; but if the beans were still
in bank, he took up but twenty. The deer-buttons
were of the same size. In the figure they are repre
sented at different angles.

Ga-zuaf-sa, or Snow-Snake.

Among the amusements of the winter season, in
Indian life, was the game with Snow snakes. It was
primarily designed as a diversion for the young; but
it was occasionally made a public game between the
tribes like the other, and aroused a great degree of
spirit, and the usual amount of betting. « The snake
was thrown with the hand by placing the forefinger
against its foot, and supporting it with the thumb and
remaining fingers. It was thus made to run upon the
snow crust with the speed of an arrow, and to a much
greater distance, sometimes running sixty or eighty
rods. The success of the player depended upon his
dexterity and muscular strength.

The snakes were made of hickory, and with the most
perfect precision and finish. They were from five to
seven feet in length, about a fourth of an inch in thick
ness, and gradually diminishing from about an inch in
width at the head, to about half an inch at the foot.
The head was round, turned up slightly, and pointed
with lead to increase the momentum of the snake.

292

SNOW SNAKE GAME

This game, like that of ball, was divided into a
number of separate contests ; and was determined
when either party had gained the number of points
agreed upon, which was generally from seven to ten.
The players were limited and select, usually not more
than six. A station was determined upon, with the
line, or general direction in which the snake was to
be thrown. After they had all been thrown by the
players on both sides, the next question was to deter
mine the count. The snake which ran the greatest
distance was a point for the side to which it belonged.
Other points might be won on the same side, if a sec
ond or third snake was found to be ahead of all the
snakes upon the adverse side. One count was made
for each snake which outstripped all upon the adverse
side. These contests were repeated until one of the
parties had made the requisite number of points to
determine the game.

Top view

Bottom view
Da-ya-no-t'd-yen-d'd-qu'a, or Snow Boat.

With the snow boat was played one of the winter
games of the Iroquois, in which the strife was to dis
cover which boat would run the farthest in an iced

293

LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S

trench or path. The boat was about fifteen inches in
length, and made of beech, or other hard wood, some
thing in the fashion of a canoe. It was solid, with the
exception of an oblong cavity in the centre, over
which arched a hickory bow, designed to suspend
bells or other rattles upon. In the stern of this little
vessel a white feather was inserted for a flag, by which
to follow it in its descent. On the bottom the boat
was rounded, but with a slight wind lengthwise, as
shown in the figure, to give it a true direction.

A side hill with an open plain below was the
kind of place selected to try the speed of the boats.
Trenches in a straight line down the hill, and about a
foot wide, were made by treading down the snow ;
after which water was poured into them that it might
freeze and line the trenches throughout their whole
extent with ice. These trenches to the number of a
dozen, side by side, if as many individuals intended
to play, were finished with the greatest care and exact
ness, not only down the hill side, but to a consider
able distance across the plain below. At the same
time the boats themselves were dipped in water that
they might also be coated with ice.

The people divided by tribes in playing this, as in
all other Iroquois games ; the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
and Turtle tribes playing against the Deer, Snipe,
Heron, and Hawk.(55) At the time appointed the
people assembled at the base of the hill and divided
off by tribes, and then commenced betting upon the
result, a custom universally practised on such occa
sions. The game was played by select players who
were stationed at the top of the hill, each with two or

294

SNOW BOAT GAME

three boats, and standing at the head of his own
trench. When all was in readiness the boats were
started off together at the appointed moment, and
their rapid descent was watched with eager interest by
the people below. It is not necessary to describe the
scene. If the game was twenty it would be continued
until one side had made that number of points. A
count of one was made for every boat which led all
upon the adverse side, so that if there were six players
on a side it was possible for that number to be made
at one trial. On the contrary, if all the boats but one
upon one side were in advance of all on the adverse
side but one, and the latter was in advance of all, this
head boat would win and count one. The principles
of the game are precisely the same as in the Snow
Snake game. All of these Indian games were played
with great zeal and enthusiasm. To us they appear
to be puerile -amusements for men in the prime of
manhood ; but yet they were adapted to the ways and
habits of a people living without arts, and without the
intellectual employments which pertain to civilized
life. Such games mark the infancy of the human
mind, but they often beget a generous emulation and
a ready skill which lead to future improvement and
elevation.

In archery the Indian has scarcely been excelled.
With a quick eye and a powerful muscle, he could
send the arrow as unerringly as the archers of Robin
Hood. It cannot be called, in strictness, a game,
but trials of skill were common in ancient times ;
successful archery raising the individual into high
repute.

295

LEAGUE OF THE I R O

O I S

The Indian bow was usually from three and a
half to four feet in length, with such a difficult spring
that an inexperienced person could scarcely bend
it sufficiently to set the string. To draw the string
back, when set, an arm's length, could only be done
by practice, superadded to the most powerful mus
cular strength. An arrow thus sent would strike
its object with fearful velocity. The arrow was about
three feet in length, and feathered at the small end

Wa-d '-no, or Bow.

Go.' -no, or Arrow. ,(74)

with a twist to make it revolve in its flight. It gave
to its motion horizontality and precision, doubtless
suggesting, at a later day, the idea of the twist in the
rifle barrel, by which the ball is made to revolve in
the same manner. The English and Scottish archers
feathered their arrows, but without this peculiarity.
Three feathers were also used by them, which were
set parallel with the arrow and with each other. But
they were set upon one side of the arrow at its three
quarters, and in such a way that the three parallel feath
ers formed obtuse angles with each other. The Indian

296

ARCHERY

used but two feathers, which passed around the oppo
site sides of the arrow in a twist, as shown in the
figure. For this purpose the feather was stripped off
from the quill and tied to the arrow with sinew.
Originally, the Indian arrow was pointed with a flint
or chert-head, which would enable it to penetrate
deeply any object at which it was directed. With
such an arrow, it was an easy matter to bring down
the deer, the wild fowl, or the warrior himself. Skele
tons have been disentombed, having the skull pene
trated with an arrow-head of this description, with
the flint-head itself still in the fracture, or entirely
within the skull. In Oregon and on the upper Mis
sissippi, the Indian arrow is still pointed with flint.
Thus it was with the Iroquois, until the bow was
laid aside for the rifle. Arrow-heads of this descrip
tion are still found scattered over the whole surface
of the State. .With Indian youth, the bow and the
arrow is still a favorite source of amusement.

y or Arrow.

3 feet.

In ancient times arrows were pointed with horn or
bone as well as with flint, and made even more dan
gerous missiles in the former cases. The above is a
representation of an arrow of this description, which,
with several others, was purchased of an Oneida on
Grand river. It is about three feet in length and
pointed with deer's horn.

The sheaf is an Indian invention of great an
tiquity, and universal among Indian races. It was

297

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

sometimes made of the skin of a small animal, like
the wolf, which was taken off entire, dressed with the
hair on, and hung upon the back, the arrows being
placed within it. But the choicer articles were made
of dressed unhaired deer-skin, and embroidered with
porcupine quills as represented in the figure. It was
made of two strips of deer-skin about two feet in
length and of unequal width : one of these was narrow
for the back side ; the other about three times its
wjdth so as to make a convex front, thus forming a
species of sac in which the arrows were deposited.
The ordinary sheaf, as used by the Iroquois in ancient
times, would hold from fifteen to twenty-five arrows ;

Ga-das-ba, or Sheaf.
2 feet.

but those used by the western Indians were generally
large enough for forty or fifty. It was worn on the
back inclining from the left shoulder down towards
the belt on the right side of the body, crossing the
back diagonally. There are deer-string fastenings at
each end, the lower ones being attached to the waist-
belt, and the upper ones passing around the neck and
under the left arm. To draw forth an arrow and
place it in the bow, it was necessary to raise the right
hand to the left shoulder when it came at once in
contact with the feathered end, which projected from
the sheaf; so that it was but the work of a second to
set an arrow in its place.

298

FOOT-RACES

Foot-races furnished another pastime for the Iro-
quois. They were often made a part of the enter
tainment with which civil and mourning councils
were concluded. In this athletic game the Indian
excelled. The exigencies, both of war and peace,
rendered it necessary for the Iroquois to have among
them practiced and trained runners. A spirit of emu
lation often sprang up among them, which resulted
in regular contests for the palm of victory. In these
races, the four tribes put forward their best runners
against those of the other four, and left the question
of superiority to be determined by the event of the
contest. Before the time appointed for the races,
they prepared themselves for the occasion by a process
of training. It is not necessary to describe them.
They dressed in the same manner for the race as for
the game of ball. Leaping, wrestling and the other
gymnastic exercises appear to have furnished no part
of the public amusements of our primitive inhabitants.

An ancient and favorite game of the Iroquois,
Gus-ka-ehy was played with a bowl and peach-
stones.(98 It was always a betting game, in which
the people divided by tribes. By established custom,
it was introduced as the concluding exercise on the
last day of the Green Corn and the Harvest festivals,
and also of the New Year's jubilee. Its introduc
tion among them is ascribed to the first To-do-da -ho,
who flourished at the formation of the League. A
popular belief prevailed, that this game would be
enjoyed by them in the future life, in the realm of
the Great Spirit ; which is, perhaps, but an extrava
gant way of expressing their admiration for the game.

299

LEAGUE OF THE I RO^UOIS

A dish, about a foot in diameter at the base, was
carved out of a knot, or made of earthen. Six peach-
stones were then ground, or cut down into an oval
form, reducing them in the process about half in size,
after which the heart of the pit was removed, and the
stones themselves were burned upon one side, to blacken

Gus-ka*-eb, or Peach Stones.

Ga-jlhy or Bowl.

them. The above representation will exhibit both the
bowl and the peach-stones ; the latter being drawn in
different positions to show the degree of their convexity.
It was a very simple game, depending, in part, upon
the dexterity of the player, but more upon his good
fortune. The peach-stones were shaken in the bowl

300

PEACH STONE GAME

by the player, the count depending upon the number
which came up of one color, after they had ceased roll
ing in the dish. It was played in the public council-
house by a succession of players, two at a time, under
the supervision of managers appointed to represent the
two parties, and to conduct the contest. Its length
depended somewhat upon the number of beans which
made the bank, usually one hundred, the victory being
gained by the side which finally won them all.

A platform was erected a few feet from the floor and
spread with blankets. When the betting was ended,
and the articles had been delivered into the custody of
the managers, they seated themselves upon the plat^
form in the midst of the throng of spectators, and two
persons sat down to the game between the two divi
sions into which they arranged themselves. The beans,
in the first instance, were placed together in a bank.
Five of them were given to each player, with which
they commenced. Each player, by the rules of the
game, was allowed to keep his seat until he had lost this
outfit, after which he surrendered it to another player
on his own side selected by the managers of his own
party. And this was the case, notwithstanding any
number he might have won of his adversary. Those
which he won were delivered to his party managers.
The six peach-stones were placed in the bowl and
shaken by the player; if five of them came up of one
color, either white or black, it counted one, and his
adversary paid to him the forfeit, which was one bean ;
the bean simply representing a unit in counting the
game. On the next throw, which the player having
won, retained, if less than five came up of the same

3or

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

>*j

color, it counted nothing, and he passed the bowl to
his adversary. The second player then shook the
bowl ; upon which, if they all came up of one color,
either white or black, it counted five. To pay this for
feit required the whole outfit of the first player, after
which, having nothing to pay with, he vacated his seat,
and was succeeded by another of his own side, who re
ceived from the bank the same number of beans which
the first had. The other player followed his throw as
long as he continued to win ; after which he repassed the
bowl to his adversary. If a player chanced to win five,
and his opponent had but one left, this was all he could
gain. In this manner the game continued, with vary
ing fortune, until the beans were divided between the
two sides in proportion to their success. After this
the game continued in the same manner as before, the
outfit of each new player being advanced by the mana
gers of his own party ; but as the beans or counters
were now out of sight, none but the managers knew
the state of the game with accuracy. In playing it
there were but two winning throws, one of which
counted one and the other five. When one of the par
ties had lost all their beans, the game was done.

There were some other peculiarities and variations
in this game which would be necessary to a full under
standing of it, but sufficient has been given to illus
trate its general character. As they began to play this
game about meridian, it often happened that it was
necessary to take another day for its conclusion. It
was made a long game by its constitution, as it was
carefully guarded against the extreme fickleness of most
games of chance. It so happens that games of this

302

ENTHUSIASM FOR GAMES

description do not depend for their interest upon the
striking combinations involved in their construction.
This is dependent very much upon practice, habit, and
association. Oftentimes the most simple game in its
contrivance is the most attractive and absorbing to the
practiced player. This game, as simple as it may ap
pear, was productive of a great degree of excitement,
and when finally decided, the exultation of the victors
broke forth in vehement rejoicings. Having intently
watched, for hours, the ever-changing tide of the game,
when the long suspense was over, and the tension of
the mind was ended, its rebound, under the impulse of
victory, exhibited itself in extravagant exclamations.

A brief description of the plan of these games will
no more exhibit their hidden sources of entertainment,
than a volume descriptive of chess would reveal the
fascinations of the game itself. These games all depend,
for their interest, upon circumstances. The Olympic,
Pythian and other games of the Greeks, and the Apol-
linarian, Circensian and other games of the Romans,
consisted chiefly, as is well known, of running, leaping,
wrestling, riding, and chariot-racing. Aside from the
last, they were not, intrinsically, much superior to the
games of the Iroquois. But in the hands of the Greeks,
especially, they were made the most extraordinary en
tertainments of the ancient world. Among the Iro
quois, in the celebration of their national games, as far
as they went, is to be found the same species of enthu
siasm and emulation which characterized the celebra
tion of the games of antiquity. Although the national
games, like the popular songs of one people, may be
incapable of exciting the enthusiasm or awakening the

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

patriotic spirit of another ; yet they are not, for this
reason, devoid of interest. If it be asked what inter
est for us can attach to these games of the Iroquois,
one answer at least may be given; — they show that
the American wilderness, which we have been taught
to pronounce a savage solitude until the white man
entered its borders, had long been vocal in its deepest
seclusions, with the gladness of happy human hearts.

3°4

Chapter VI

Indian Society — Ancient Villages Stockaded — Bark House — Mar
riage—Passion of Love Unknown — Divorce — Rights of Property _
Hospitality — Criminal Code — Faith of Treaties— Use of Wampum
— Usages of War — Captives not Exchanged — Adoption — The
Hunt — Indian Life

NOTWITHSTANDING the simplicity of
Indian life, and its barrenness of those higher
social enjoyments which pertain to refined
communities, Indian society was bound together by
permanent institutions, governed by fixed laws, and
impelled and guided by well-established usages and cus
toms. The diversified powers, motives, and restraints
embraced within them, exercised an important influence
upon their social life, and therefore they present fruit
ful and interesting subjects of investigation. To form
a judgment of the Indian character, which is founded
upon a knowledge of his motives and principles of
action, he must be seen in his social relations. But it is
not deemed advisable to consider these topics minutely.
The Iroquois resided in permanent villages. Not
knowing the use of wells, they fixed their residences
upon the banks of rivers and lakes, or in the vicinity of
copious springs. About the period of the formation of
the League, when they were exposed to the inroads
of hostile nations, and the warfare of migratory bands,
their villages were compact and stockaded. Having
run a trench several feet deep, around five or ten acres

VOL. I.— 20

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

of land, and thrown up the ground upon the inside,
they set a continuous row of stakes or palisades in
this bank of earth, fixing them at such an angle that
they inclined over the trench. Sometimes a village
was surrounded by a double, or even triple row of
palisades. Within this enclosure they constructed
their bark-houses, and secured their stores. Around
it was the village field,(89) consisting, oftentimes, of
several hundred acres of cultivated land, which was
subdivided into planting lots ; those belonging to
different families being bounded by uncultivated ridges.
Nun-da-wa'-o, at the head of Canandaigua lake, the
oldest village of the. Senecas, was stockaded ; so also
were Ska-has e'-ga-o on the site of Lima,(43) and two or
three other of their oldest towns.

But at the commencement of the seventeenth cen
tury, which may be called the middle period of the
history of the Iroquois, when their power had become
consolidated, and most of the adjacent nations had been
brought under subjection, the necessity of stockading
their villages in a measure ceased, and with it the prac
tice. At the period of the discovery of the inland
Iroquois, about the year 1640,* few, if any, of the
villages of the Senecas, Cayugas, or Onondagas were sur
rounded with palisades ; but the Oneidas and Mohawks
continued to stockade their villages for many years
afterwards, in consequence of the inroads of the French.
At this period, also, their villages were compactly built.

The modern village was a cluster of houses, planted

1 The Franciscan Le Caron passed through the country of the Iroquois
in 1616. (Bancroft's Hist. U. S., iii. 120.) But little, however, was
known of them prior to 1640.

306

BARK HOUSE

like the trees of the forest, at irregular intervals, and
over a large area. No attempt was made at a street,
or at an arrangement of their houses in a row ; two
houses seldom fronting the same line. They were
merely grouped together sufficiently near for a neigh
borhood.

As their villages, at an early day, were reckoned by
the number of houses, it is important to remark the
difference between the Ga-no-sote, or Bark-house of
the middle and the modern period, to arrive at an
estimate of the number of inhabitants. When the
village was scattered over a large area, the houses were
single, and usually designed for one family; but when
compact, as in ancient times, they were very long, and
subdivided, so as to accommodate a number of families.
The long house was generally from fifty to a hundred
and thirty feet in length, by about sixteen in width,x
with partitions at intervals of about ten or twelve feet,
or two lengths of the body. Each apartment was, in
fact, a separate house, having a fire' in the centre, and
accommodating two families, one upon, each side of
the fire. Thus a house one hundred and twenty feet
long would contain ten fires and twenty families. (124)
A Mr. Greenhalgh, in 1677, visited the Seneca village
of Da-yo-de-hok'-to, signifying " a bended creek," situ
ated upon a bend of the Honeoye outlet, west of
Mendon, in the county of Monroe. Under the name
of " Tiotohatton," he thus speaks of it : — " Tioto-
hatton lies on the brink or edge of a hill ; has not
much cleared ground; is near the river Tiotohatton,
which signifies bending. It lies to the westward of
Canagorah," probably Nun-da-wa'-o, "about thirty

307 •

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

miles, containing about one hundred and twenty houses,
being the largest of all the houses we saw, (the ordinary
being from fifty to sixty feet long), with from twelve
to thirteen fires in one house. They have good store
of corn, growing about a mile to the northward of the
town."1 The Marquis De Nonville, in 1687, captured
this, with three other villages of the Senecas, at the time
of his invasion of the Seneca territory. In the Acte^
executed at this village, by which the French took
formal possession of the territories of the Seneca-Iro-
quois, on behalf of France, it is written " Totiakton,"
and is called " the largest of the Seneca villages." 2
It is not improbable that the largest villages of the
Iroquois contained three thousand inhabitants.(GO)

The Ga-nd-sote, or Bark-house (see plate, I. 3),(124)
was a simple structure. When single, it was about
twenty feet by fifteen upon the ground, and from
fifteen to twenty feet high. The frame consisted
of upright poles firmly set in the ground, usually
five upon the sides, and four at the ends, includ
ing those at the corners. Upon the forks of these
poles, about ten feet from the ground, cross-poles

1 Documentary Hist. New York, i. 13. He further states that Cana-
gorah contained one hundred and fifty houses } Onondaga, one hundred
and forty 5 Oneida village, one hundred ; ib. 12-13.

2 Doc. Hist. N. Y., i. 242. The three other villages taken by De Non
ville were Gannagaro, as it is called in the acte, or Ga-o-sa-g'a-o,
signifying " in the Basswood country,11 situated a short distance south
east of Victor in the county of Ontario, Gannondata and Gannongarae,
one of which was doubtless Ga-nun-da'-gwa, (f place selected for a set
tlement," upon the site of the present village of Canandaigua. De Non
ville estimated the population of the four villages at fifteen thousand,
and the Indian corn destroyed by his troops at four hundred thousand
minots. (Doc. Hist., i. 239.) Doubtless, both of these estimates were
exaggerations.

308

BARK HOUSE

were secured horizontally, to which the rafters, also
poles, but more numerous and slender, were adjusted.
The rafters were strengthened with transverse poles,
and the whole were usually so arranged as to form
an arching roof. After the frame was thus com
pleted, it was sided up, and shingled with red elrn
or ash bark, the rough side out. The bark was
flattened and dried, and then cut in the form of
boards. To hold these bark boards firmly in their
places, another set of poles, corresponding with those
in the frame, were placed on the outside ; and by
means of splints and bark rope fastenings, the boards
were secured horizontally between them. It usually
required four lengths of boards, and four courses from
the ground to the rafters to cover a side, as they were
lapped at the ends, as well as clapboarded ; and also in
the same proportion for the ends. In like manner,
the roof was covered with bark boards, smaller in size,
with the rough side out, and the grain running up and
down ; the boards being stitched through and through
with fastenings, and thus held between the frames of
poles, as on the sides. In the centre of the roof was
an opening for the smoke, the fire being upon the
ground in the centre of the house, and the smoke
ascending without the guidance of a chimney. At the
two ends of the house were doors, either of bark hung
upon hinges of wood, or of deer or bear skins sus
pended before the opening; and however long the
house, or whatever the number of fires, these were the
only entrances. Over one of these doors was cut the
tribal device of the head of the family. Within, upon
the two sides, were arranged wide seats, also of bark

309

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

boards, about two feet from the ground, well sup
ported underneath, and reaching the entire length of
the house. Upon these they spread their mats of
skins, and also their blankets, using them as seats
by day and couches at night. Similar berths were
constructed on each side, about five feet above these,
and secured to the frame of the house, thus furnishing
accommodations for the family. Upon cross-poles, near
the roof, was hung, in bunches, braided together by the
husks, their winter supply of corn. Charred and dried
corn, and beans were generally stored in bark barrels,
and laid away in corners. Their implements for the
chase, domestic utensils, weapons, articles of apparel,
and miscellaneous notions,1 were stowed away, and
hung up, whenever an unoccupied place was discovered.
A house of this description would accommodate a fam
ily of eight, with the limited wants of the Indian, and
afford shelter for their necessary stores, making a not
uncomfortable residence. After they had learned the
use of the axe, they began to substitute houses of hewn
logs, but they constructed them after the ancient
model. Many of the houses of their modern villages
in the valley of the Genesee were of this description.

There was another species of house occasionally
constructed, either for temporary use or for a small
family. It was triangular at the base, the frame con
sisting of three poles on a side, gathered at the top,
but with space sufficient between them for a chimney
opening. They were sided up in the same manner as
the rectangular Gd-no'-sote. During the hunt, bark-

1 For some account of their fabrics, implements and utensils, see
Book iii. ch. i.

310

MARRIAGE

houses of this description were often erected as a
shelter.

The Iroquois were accustomed to bury their sur
plus corn, and also their charred green corn, in
caches, in which the former would preserve uninjured
through the year, and the latter for a much longer pe
riod. They excavated a pit, made a bark bottom
and sides, and having deposited their corn within it,
a bark roof, water tight, was constructed over it,
and the whole covered up with earth. Pits of charred
corn are still found near their ancient settlements.
Cured venison and other meats were buried in the
same manner, except that the bark repository was
lined with deer-skins.

In this connection, the marriage customs of the
Iroquois naturally suggest themselves. They exhibit
novel, if not distinctive features. Marriage was not
founded upon the affections, which constitute the
only legitimate basis of this relation in civilized soci
ety, but was regulated exclusively as a matter of
physical necessity. It was not even a contract between
the parties to be married, but substantially between
their mothers, acting oftentimes under the sugges
tions of the matrons and wise-men of the tribes to
which the parties respectively belonged. In a gen
eral sense, therefore, the subject of marriage was un
der the supervision of the older members of each tribe ;
but practically, it was under maternal control. With
the improvement and elevation of the race, changes
were gradually introduced in relation to the marriage
able age, and the disparity of age between the sexes.
In ancient times, the young warrior was always

LEAGUE OF THE I R 0 ^U O I S

united to a woman several years his senior, on the
supposition that he needed a companion experienced
in the affairs of life. The period was also deferred on
his part until twenty-five, that he might first become
inured to the hardships of the war-path and of the chase,
before his freedom was curtailed and his responsibilities
were increased by the cares of a family, light as these
cares seem to have been under their social system.
Thus, it often happened that the young warrior at
twenty-five was married to a woman of forty, and often
times a widow ; while the widower at sixty was joined
to the maiden at twenty. But these were their primi
tive customs ; the ages of the parties afterwards drew
nearer to an equality, and the marriageable age was,
in time reduced to twenty, and even below it.

When the mother considered her son of a suitable
age for marriage, she looked about her for a maiden,
who, from report or acquaintance, she judged would
accord with him in disposition and temperament. A
negotiation between the mothers ensued, and a conclu
sion was speedily reached. Sometimes the near rela
tives and the elderly persons of the tribes to which each
belonged were consulted ; but their opinions were of
no avail, independently of the wishes of the mothers
themselves. Not the least singular feature of the
transaction was the entire ignorance in which the
parties remained of the pending negotiation ; the first
intimation they received being the announcement of
their marriage, without, perhaps, ever having known
or seen each other. Remonstrance or objection on
their part was never attempted ; they received each
other as the gift of their parents. As obedience to

3*2

PASSION OF LOVE UNKNOWN

them in all their requirements was inculcated as a para
mount duty, and disobedience was followed by disown-
ment, the operative force of custom, in addition to
these motives, was sufficient to secure acquiescence.
The Indian father never troubled himself concern
ing the marriage of his children. To interfere would
have been an invasion of female immunities ; and these,
whatever they were, were as sacredly regarded by him,
as he was inflexible in enforcing respect for his own.

When the fact of marriage had been communicated
to the parties, a simple ceremonial completed the trans
action. On the day following the announcement, the
maiden was conducted by her mother, accompanied by
a few female friends, to the home of her intended
husband. She carried in her hand a few cakes of un
leavened corn bread, which she presented on entering
the house, to her mother-in-law, as an earnest of her
usefulness and of her skill in the domestic arts.
After receiving it, the mother of the young warrior
returned a present of venison, or other fruit of the
chase, to the mother of the bride, as an earnest of his
ability to provide for his household. This exchange
of presents ratified and concluded the contract, which
bound the new pair together in the marriage relation.
Thus simple was the formation of the nuptial bond
among our primitive inhabitants. (99)

From the very nature of the marriage institution
among the Iroquois, it follows that the passion of love
was entirely unknown among them. Affection after
marriage would naturally spring up between the parties
from association, from habit, and from mutual depen
dence ; but of that marvellous passion which origi-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

nates in a higher development of the powers of the
human heart, and is founded upon a cultivation of the
affections between the sexes, they were entirely ignor
ant. In their temperaments, they were below this
passion in its simplest forms. Attachments between
individuals, or the cultivation of each other's affections
before marriage, was entirely unknown ; so also were
promises of marriage. The fact that individuals were
united in this relation, without their knowledge or con
sent, and perhaps without even a previous acquaint
ance, illustrates and confirms this position. This
invasion of the romances of the novelist, and of the
conceits of the poet, upon the attachments which sprang
up in the bosom of Indian society, may, perhaps,
divest the mind of some pleasing impressions ; but
these are entirely inconsistent with the marriage in
stitution as it existed among them, and with the facts
of their social history.

Intercourse between the sexes was restrained by cir
cumstances and by inclination. Indian habits and
modes of life divided the people socially into two great
classes, male and female. The male sought the con
versation and society of the male, and they went forth
together for amusement, or for the severer duties of
life. In the same manner the female sought the com
panionship of her own sex. Between the sexes there
was but little sociality, as this term is understood in
polished society. Such a thing as formal visiting was
entirely unknown. When the unmarried of opposite
sexes were casually brought together, there was little
or no conversation between them. No attempts by
the unmarried to please or gratify each other by acts

DIVORCE

of personal attention, were ever made. At the season
of councils and religious festivals, there was more of
actual intercourse and sociality, than at any other time ;
but this was confined to the dance, and was, in itself,
limited. A solution of this singular problem is, in
part, to be found in the absence of equality in the
sexes. The Indian regarded woman as the inferior,
the dependent, and the servant of man, and from nur
ture and habit, she actually considered herself to be so.
This absence of equality in position, in addition to the
force of custom, furnishes a satisfactory explanation of
many of the peculiarities characteristic of Indian society.
In the cultivation of the affections between the sexes,
and in the development of kindred sentiments, is to
be found the origin of the amenities and the mitigation
of the asperities of life.

In intimate connection with the subject of marriage,
is that of divorce. Polygamy was forbidden among
the Iroquois, and never became a practice ; (9( but
the right to put away the wife, or of voluntary separa
tion, was allowed to all.(10( The mothers of the
married pair were responsible for their concord and
harmony. If differences arose between them, it be
came their duty to effect a reconciliation, and by advice
and counsel, to guard against a repetition of the diffi
culty. But if disturbances continued to follow recon
ciliations, and their dispositions were found to be too
incongruous for domestic peace, a separation followed,
either by mutual consent or the absolute refusal of one
of the parties longer to recognize the marriage relation.
As such a rupture in ancient times was regarded as
discreditable to the parties, and brought them under

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

the pressure of public censure, they were then unfre-
quent. In later days, however, the inviolability of
the nuptial contract was less sacredly regarded, and
the most frivolous reasons, or the caprice of the mo
ment, were sufficient for breaking the marriage tie.

The husband and wife were never of the same tribe,
as has been elsewhere more fully explained ; and the
children were of the tribe of their mother. No right
in the father to the custody of their persons, or to
their nurture, was recognized. As, after separation,
he gave himself no farther trouble concerning them,
nor interested himself in their future welfare, they be
came estranged as well as separated. Parental affection
was much weaker, as is usually the fact, on the part of
the father than on that of the mother. The Indian
father seldom caressed his children, or by any outward
acts manifested the least solicitude for their welfare ;
but when his sons grew up to maturity, he became
more attached to them, making them his companions
in the hunt and upon the war-path. The care of their
infancy and childhood was intrusted to the watchful
affection of the mother alone.

By the laws of the Iroquois, the nationality as well
as the tribe of the individual was never lost, or merged
in another. If a Cayuga woman married a Seneca, her
children were Cayugas, and her descendants in the
female line, to the latest posterity, continued to be
Cayugas, although they resided with the Senecas, and
by intermarriage with them had lost nearly every par
ticle of Cayuga blood. In the same manner, if a Mo
hawk married a Delaware woman, her children were
not only Delawares, but aliens, unless they were regu-

316

RIGHTS OF PROPERTT

larly adopted and christened as Mohawks, and the fact
of adoption was announced in open council.

Property, both in amount and variety, was exceed
ingly limited ; as would naturally be expected among
a people living a hunter and semi-agricultural life, and
making a mere subsistence the limit of their wants and
of their ambition. But inconsiderable as it was in the
aggregate, it was held, and subject to distribution, under
fixed laws. Having neither currency nor trade, nor
the love of gain, their property consisted merely of
planting lots, orchards, houses, implements of the chase,
weapons, articles of apparel, domestic utensils, per
sonal ornaments, stores of grain, skins of animals, and
those miscellaneous fabrics which the necessities of life
led them to invent. The rights of property, of both
husband and wife, were continued distinct during the
existence of the marriage relation ; the wife holding,
and controlling her own, the same as her husband, and
in case of separation, taking it with her. No individ
ual could obtain the absolute title to land, as that was
vested by the laws of the Iroquois in all the people ;
but he could reduce unoccupied lands to cultivation,
to any extent he pleased; and so long as he continued
to use them, his right to their enjoyment was protected
and secured. He could also sell his improvements, or
bequeath them to his wife or children. If the wife,
either before or after marriage, inherited orchards, or
planting lots, or reduced land to cultivation, she could
dispose of them at her pleasure, and in case of her
death they were inherited, together with her other effects,
by her children. The rule of descent, on the death
of the father, was different. His children, not being

LEAG U E OF THE I R O Q U O I S

of his tribe, were out of the line of inheritance ; for by
their laws, property could not, by descent, pass out of
the tribe. If he gave his planting lots, or any articles
of property to his wife or children, in the presence of
a witness, they were allowed to hold them. But if he
made no disposition of his effects, they were handed
over upon his decease, to the near relatives in his own
tribe, who usually assigned to the family the house,
and such other articles as they deemed advisable, and
distributed the residue among themselves, as personal
mementos of the deceased. (101)

One of the most attractive features of Indian society
was the spirit of hospitality by which it was pervaded.
Perhaps no people ever carried this principle to the
same degree of universality, as did the Iroquois.
Their houses were not only open to each other, at all
hours of the day and of the night, but also to the
wayfarer and the stranger. Such entertainment as
their means afforded was freely spread before him,
with words of kindness and of welcome. Not un-
frequently one of these houses contained from ten to
twenty families, all bound together by the nearer ties
of relationship, and constituting in effect one family.
They carried the principle of "living in common " to
its full extent. Whatever was taken in the chase, or
raised in the fields, or gathered in its natural state by
any member of the united families, enured to the
benefit of all, for their stores of every description
were common. They had regular hours for cooking
through the whole establishment, and whatever was
prepared was free to all. The Indian had no regular
meal after the morning repast, but he allayed his

318

HOSPITALITY

appetite whenever the occasion offered. As they used
no tables in ancient times, they took their food sep
arately, and whenever it could be done with the least
trouble, the males first, and the females afterwards.
The care of the appetite was left entirely with the
women, as the Indian never asked for food. When
ever the husband returned, at any hour of the day, it
was the duty and the custom of the wife to set food
before him. If a neighbor or a stranger entered her
dwelling, a dish of hommony, or whatever else she
had prepared, was immediately placed before him,
with an invitation to partake. It made no difference
at what hour of the day, or how numerous the calls,
this courtesy was extended to every comer, and was
the first act of attention bestowed. This custom was
universal, in fact one of the laws of their social system;
and a neglect on the part of the wife to observe it, was
regarded both as a breach of hospitality, and as a
personal affront. A neighbor, or a stranger, calling
from house to house, through an Indian village, would
be thus entertained at every dwelling he entered. If
the appetite of the guest had thus been fully satisfied,
he was yet bound in courtesy to taste of the dish pre
sented, and to return the customary acknowledgment,
Hi-ne-a-weh)" I thank you ;" an omission to do either
being esteemed a violation of the usages of life. A
stranger would be thus entertained without charge, as
long as he was pleased to remain ; and a relation was
entitled to a home among any of his kindred, while he
was disposed to claim it. Under the operation of such
a simple and universal law of hospitality, hunger and
destitution were entirely unknown among them. This

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

method of dealing with the human appetite strikes the
mind as novel ; but it was founded upon a principle
of brotherhood, and of social intercourse, not much
unlike the common table of the Spartans. The
abounding supplies of corn yielded, with light culti
vation, by their fruitful fields, and the simple fare of
the Indian, rendered the prevailing hospitality an in
considerable burden. It rested chiefly upon the in
dustry, and therefore upon the natural kindness of
the Indian woman ; who, by the cultivation of the
maize, and their other plants, and the gathering of
the wild fruits, provided the principal part of their
subsistence,(85) for the warrior despised the toil of
husbandry, and held all labor beneath him.(8G) But
it was in exact accordance with the unparalleled gen
erosity of the 'Indian character. He would surrender
his dinner to feed the hungry, vacate his bed to re
fresh the weary, and give up his apparel to clothe the
naked. No test of friendship was too severe, no
sacrifice to repay a favor too great, no fidelity to an
engagement too inflexible for the Indian character.
With an innate knowledge of the freedom and the
dignity of man, he has exhibited the noblest virtues
of the heart, and the kindest deeds of humanity in
those sylvan retreats, which we are wont to look
back upon as vacant and frightful solitudes.1

1 Canassatego, a distinguished Onondaga chief, who flourished about
the middle of the last century, thus cuttingly contrasted the hospitality of
the Iroquois with that of the whites, in a conversation with Conraft
Weiser, an Indian interpreter. " You know our practice. If a white
man, in travelling through our country, enters one of our cabins, we all
treat him as I do you. We dry him if he is wet, we warm him if he is
cold, and give him meat and drink that he may allay his hunger and thirst;

320

CRIMINAL CODE

In their subsistence there was but a limited variety
from the necessity of the case. Their principal arti
cles of food were cracked corn, and skinned corn
hommony, two or three varieties of corn bread, veni
son and other game, soups, succotash, charred and
dried green corn prepared in different ways, wild
fruit, ground nuts (apios tuber osa), resembling wild
potatoes, beans and squashes. These were the staples
of their consumption, furnishing a considerable diver
sity of dishes, but a limited range to the appetite.
They had also several kinds of tea. A favorite
beverage was made from the tips of hemlock boughs
boiled in water, and seasoned with maple sugar.(90)
Maple tea was prepared by boiling sap, and season
ing it with sassafras root ; and spice tea, by steeping
a species of wild spice.

Crimes and offences were so unfrequent under their
social system, that the Iroquois can scarcely be said
to have had a criminal code. Yet there were certain
misdemeanors which fell under the judicial cognizance
of the sachems, and were punished by them in pro
portion to their magnitude. Witchcraft was punish
able with death. Any person could take the life
of a witch when discovered in the act. If this was
not done, a council was called, and the witch arraigned
before it, in the presence of the accuser. A full
confession, with a promise of amendment, secured a
discharge. But if the accusation was denied, witnesses

and we spread soft furs for him to rest and sleep on. We demand
nothing in return. But if I go into a white man's house at Albany, and
ask for victuals arid drink, they say, ' Where is your money ? ' And if I
have none, they say, ' Get out, you Indian dog.'' '

VOL. I. — 21 321

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

were called and examined concerning the circumstances
of the case ; and if they established the charge to the
satisfaction of the council, which they rarely failed to
do, condemnation followed, with a sentence of death.
The witch was then delivered over to such execu
tioners as volunteered for the purpose, and by them
was led away to punishment. After the decision of
the council, the relatives of the witch gave him up to
his doom without a murmur.

Adultery was punished by whipping ; but the pun
ishment was inflicted upon the woman alone, who
was supposed to be the only offender. A council
passed upon the question, and if the charge was
sustained, they ordered her to be publicly whipped
by persons appointed for the purpose. This was
the ancient custom, when such transgressions were
exceedingly rare.

The greatest of all human crimes, murder, was
punished with death ; but the act was open to con
donation. Unless the family were appeased, the
murderer, as with the ancient Greeks, was gfven up
to their private vengeance. They could take his
life whenever they found him, even after the lapse
of years, without being held accountable. A present
of white wampum, sent on the part of the murderer
to the family of his victim, when accepted, forever
obliterated and wiped out the memory of the trans
action.00^ Immediately on the commission of a
murder, the affair was taken up by the tribes to which
the parties belonged, and strenuous efforts were made
to effect a reconciliation, lest private retaliation should
lead to disastrous consequences. If the criminal be-

322

CRIMINAL CODE

longed to one of the first four tribes, and the deceased
to one of the second four, these tribes assembled
in separate councils,(57) to inquire into all the facts
of the case. The question of the guilt or innocence
of the accused was generally an easy matter to de
termine, when the consequences of guilt were open
to condonation. The first council then ascertained
whether the offender was willing to confess his crime,
and to make atonement. If he was, the council im
mediately sent a belt of white wampum, in his name,
to the other council, which contained a message to
that effect. The latter then endeavored to pacify the
family of the deceased, to quiet their excitement, and
to induce them to accept the wampum in condonation.
If this was not sent in due time, or the family resisted
all persuasions to receive it, then their revenge was
allowed to take its course. Had it chanced that both
parties belonged to one of the four brother tribes, a
council of this division alone would convene, to at
tempt an adjustment among themselves. If, how
ever, the family continued implacable, the further
interference of mutual friends was given over, leaving
the question to be settled between the murderer and
the kindred of his victim, according to the ancient
usage. If the belt of wampum was received before
the avenger had been appointed, and had left the
lodge on his mission, it was usually accepted as a
condonation, but if he had gone forth, the time for
reparation had passed. The family then either took
upon themselves jointly the obligation of taking what
they deemed a just retribution, or appointed an
avenger, who resolved never to rest until life had

323

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

answered for life. In such cases, the murderer
usually fled. As all quarrels were generally recon
ciled by the relatives of the parties, long-cherished
animosities, and consequently homicides, were unfre-
quent in ancient times. The present of white wam
pum was not in the nature of a compensation for the
life of the deceased, but of a regretful confession of
the crime, with a petition for forgiveness. It was a
peace-offering, the acceptance of which was pressed
by mutual friends, and under such influences that a
reconciliation was usually effected, except, perhaps,
in aggravated cases of premeditated murder.

Theft, the most despicable of human crimes, was
scarcely known among them. In the days of their
primitive simplicity, a mercenary thought had not
entered the Indian mind. After the commencement
of their intercourse with the whites, the distribution
of presents and of ardent spirits among them, and
the creation of new kinds of property by the pur
suits of trade, so far corrupted the habits of the
Indian, that in some instances the vagrant and in
temperate were led to the commission of this offence.
But in justice to them it must be acknowledged,
that no people ever possessed a higher sense of honor
and self-respect in this particular, or looked down
with greater disdain upon this shameful practice,
than did the Iroquois. To this day, among their
descendants, this offence is almost unknown. No
locks, or bolts, or private repositories were ever neces
sary for the protection of property among them
selves. The lash of public indignation, the severest
punishment known to the red man, was the only

324

THE " FIRE-HEATER'

penalty attached to this dereliction from the path
of integrity.

These were the four principal crimes against so
ciety among our primitive inhabitants. The intro
duction of ardent spirits among them, in modern
times, has changed the face of Indian society, and
proved the fruitful source of all their calamities ;
aggravating those disorders which were incident to
their social system, and introducing new ones entirely
unknown in the days of their sylvan independence.
Against this infamous traffic, their wise and good
men, from the earliest period of their intercourse
with us, have put forth incessant but unavailing pro
testations. The power of self-control, in this partic
ular, was much weaker with the red man than the
white ; and the consequences of indulgence more
lamentable and destructive. The " fire-water," as
they have fitly termed it, has been a more invincible
and devouring enemy than civilization itself, to both
of which causes, about in equal degrees, they owe
their displacement. It filled their villages with va
grancy, violence and bloodshed : it invaded the peace
of the domestic fireside, stimulated the fiercest pas
sions, introduced disease, contention and strife ; thus
wasting them away by violence, poverty and sickness,
and by the casualties of hunger and cold. If there is
any one act in our past intercourse with the Iroquois,
for which we are more reprehensible than another, it
was the permission, short of the penalty of hanging,
of this most nefarious and inhuman traffic. A Mohawk
chief, in 1754, thus addressed the governor of the
province of New York upon this subject : " There is

325

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

an affair about which our hearts tremble ; this is the
selling of rum in our castles. It destroys many both
of the old and young people. We request of all the
governors here present, that it may be forbidden to
carry it among any of the Five Nations." About
the same time a representation was made to the Brit
ish government, as follows : " Thev are supplied with
rum by the traders, in vast and almost incredible
quantities, the laws of the colonies now in force being
insufficient to restrain the supply ; and the Indians
of every nation are frequently drunk, and abused
in their trade, and their affections thereby alienated
from the English. They often wound and murder
each other in their liquor, and to avoid revenge flee
to the French ; and perhaps more have been lost by
these means than by the French artifices."2

The love of truth was another marked trait of
the Indian character. This inborn sentiment flour
ished in the period of their highest prosperity, in
all the freshness of its primeval purity. On all oc
casions, and at whatever peril, the Iroquois spoke
the truth without fear and without hesitation. Dis
simulation was not an Indian habit. In fact, the
language of the Iroquois does not admit of double
speaking, or of the perversion of the words of the
speaker. It is simple and direct; not admitting of
those shades of meaning and those nice discriminations
which pertain to polished languages. Subsequent to
their discovery, in their intercourse with the whites,
their native truthfulness was sometimes corrupted by
traffic and intemperance, but, as a people, they have

1 Doc. Hist. N. Y., ii. 591. 2 Ib., ii. 610.

326

FAITH OF TREATIES

preserved to this day the same elevation of sentiment
in this particular which characterized their ancestors.

To the faith of treaties the Iroquois adhered with
unwavering fidelity. Having endured the severest
trials of political disaster, this faith furnishes one of
the proudest monuments of their national integrity.
They held fast to the " covenant chain " with the
British until they were themselves deserted, and their
entire country became the forfeit of their fidelity. In
their numerous transactions with the several provinces
formed out of their ancient territories, no serious cause
of complaint was found against them for the non-
fulfilment of treaty stipulations, although they were
shorn of their possessions by treaty after treaty, and
oftentimes made the victims of deception and fraud.
In their intercourse with Indian nations, they fre
quently entered into treaties, sometimes of amity and
alliance, sometimes of protection only, and in some
instances for special purposes. All of these national
compacts were " talked into " strings of wampum, to
use the Indian expression, after which these were
delivered into the custody of Ho-no-we-na-to, the
Onondaga sachem, who was made hereditary keeper
of the Wampum, at the institution of the League ;
and from him and his successors, was to be sought
their interpretation from generation to generation. (83)
Hence the expression — " This belt preserves my
words," so frequently met with at the close of Indian
speeches, on the presentation of a belt. Indian na
tions, after treating, always exchanged belts, which
were not only the ratification, but the memorandum
of the compact.(82)

327

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

There was an ancient treaty between the Senecas and
the Ga-qua-ga-o-nOy or Eries, who resided upon the
southern shore of Lake Erie, to the effect that the
Genesee river should be the boundary between them,
and that when a hostile band of either nation re-crossed
this river into its own territories, it should be safe from
further pursuit. An infraction of this treaty was one
of the reasons of the long-cherished animosity of the
Iroquois against them. A similar compact was once
made with the O-ya-da-go-o-no? or Cherokees, by which
the Tennessee river was the limit of pursuit. If a
war-party of the latter had returned and re-crossed the
Tennessee before they were overtaken by the pursuing
Iroquois, they were as safe from their attack, as if in
trenched behind an impregnable rampart. The Iro
quois band could still invade, if disposed, the territory
of the enemy, but they passed the camp of the retreat
ing war-party without offering the slightest molestation.

The Iroquois prided themselves upon their sacred
regard for the public faith, and punished the want of it
with severity when an occasion presented. An example
is to be found in the case of the Sag-a-na'-ga, or Dela-

1 This was the Iroquois name of the Erie nation, who were expelled
by them about the year 1655. They were an offshoot of the Iroquois stock,
and spoke a dialect of their language. Charlevoix calls them the "Cat
Nation.11 Vol. ii. p. 62. It is a singular fact that the Neuter Nation,
who dwelt on the banks of the Niagara river, and who were expelled by
the Iroquois about the year 1643, was known among them as the Je-go'-
sa-sa, or Cat Nation. The word signifies a wild-cat ; and from being the
name of a woman of great influence among them,n4) it came to be the
name of the nation. Charlevoix also speaks of the Neuter Nation. Vol. i.
p. 377. It is quite probable that he transposed or confounded their
aboriginal names.

2 O-ya-da'-go-o-no, the Iroquois name of the Cherokees, signifies "The
people who dwell in caves."

328

FAITH OF TREATIES

wares. After they had been subdued, and had ac
knowledged their dependence by sending the tributary
wampum, they made an inroad upon a western nation
under the protection of the Iroquois, notwithstanding
their knowledge of the treaty, and a prohibition against
its infringement. A deputation of Iroquois chiefs went
immediately into the country of the Delawares, and
having assembled the people in council, they degraded
them from the rank of even a tributary nation. Hav
ing reproved them for their want of faith, they forbade
them from ever after going out to war, divested them
of all civil powers, and declared that they should hence
forth be as women. This degradation they signified
in the figurative way of putting upon them the Ga-
ka-a/i, or skirt of the female, and placing in their
hands a corn-pounder, thus showing that their busi
ness ever after should be that of women. The Dela
wares never emancipated themselves, after this act of
denationalization.1

1 The Delawares, about the year 1742, having sold some of their lands
upon the Delaware river to Pennsylvania, without the knowledge or con
sent of the Iroquois, Canassetego, the Onondaga chief before mentioned,
reproved them in a speech, from which some extracts are subjoined in fur
ther illustration of the lordly manner in which the Iroquois conducted
themselves towards subjugated nations. "Let this belt of wampum serve
to chastise you.* * How came you to take upon you to sell land at all ?
We conquered you ; we made women of you; you know you are women,
and can no more sell land than women; nor is it fit that you should have
the power of selling lands, since you would abuse it. * * We therefore
assign you two places to go, either to Wyoming or Shamokin. You may
go to either of these places, and then we shall have you more under our
eye, and shall see how you behave. Don't deliberate, but remove, and
take this belt of wampum.11 * Then taking another belt he continued:
" After our just reproof, and absolute order to depart from the land, you
are now to take notice of what we have further to say to you. This

329

LEAGUE' OF THE I R O U O I S

After war had been declared against any nation,
either by the congress of sachems at Onondaga, or by
an individual nation against a neighboring enemy, the
existence of the war was indicated by a tomahawk
painted red, ornamented with red feathers, and with
black wampum, struck in the war-post in each village
of the League. Any person was then at liberty to or
ganize a band, and make an invasion. This was
effected in a summary manner. Dressed in full cos
tume, the war-chief who proposed to solicit volunteers
and conduct the expedition, went through the village
sounding the war-whoop to announce his intentions;
after which he went to the war-post, Ga-on-dote\ and
having struck into it his red tomahawk, he commenced
the war-dance. A group gathered around him, and as
their martial ardor was aroused by the dance, they en
listed, one after the other, by joining in its perform
ance. In this manner a company was soon formed ;
the matrons of the village prepared their subsistence
while the dance was performing ;, and at its close, while
they were yet fired with enthusiasm for the enterprise,
they immediately left the village, and turned their
footsteps towards the country of the enemy. If the
movement was simultaneous in several villages, these
parties joined each other on their march, but each band
continued under the direction of its own war-chief.
Their subsistence was usually charred corn, parched a

string of wampum serves to forbid you, your children and your grandchil
dren to the latest posterity forever, meddling in land affairs ; neither you,
nor any who shall descend from you, are ever hereafter to presume to sell
any land. For which purpose you are to preserve this string, in memory
of what your uncles have this day given you in charge.11 Colde^s Hist.
Five Nations, Lond. Ed. 1750, pp. 80-8 1.

330

CAPTIVES NOT EXCHANGED

second time, pounded into fine flour, and mixed with
maple-sugar, thus reducing it in bulk and lightness to
such a degree that the warrior could carry without
inconvenience in his bear-skin pocket a sufficient sup
ply for a long and perilous expedition. The band
took the war-path in single file, and moved with such
rapidity that it was but five days' journey to the
country of the Cherokees, upon the southern banks of
the Tennessee. At their night encampments they cut
upon the trees certain devices to indicate their num
bers and destination, On their return, they did the
same, showing also the number of captives, and the
number slain. When the returning war-party reached
the outskirts of their village, they sounded the war-
whoop to announce their approach, and to summon
the people to assemble for their reception. Then
leading their captives, they entered the village in a
dancing procession, as they had shortly before gone
out. After they had reached the war-post in the
centre of the place, a wise-man addressed them in a
speech of welcome and congratulation; in reply to
which, a speech was made by one of the band, descrip
tive of their adventures, after which the war-dance was
again enjoyed.

The Iroquois never exchanged prisoners with In
dian nations, nor ever sought to reclaim their own
people from captivity among them/10 Adoption or
the torture were the alternative chances of the cap
tive. A distinguished war-chief would sometimes be
released by them from admiration of his military
achievements, and be restored to his people, with
presents and other marks of favor. No pledges

331

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

were exacted in these occasional instances of mag
nanimity, but the person thus discharged esteemed
himself bound in honor never again to take the
war-path against his generous enemy. If adopted, the
allegiance and the affections of the captive were trans
ferred to his adopted nation. When the Indian went
forth to war, he emphatically took his life in his hand,
knowing that if he should be taken it was forfeited by
the laws of war; and if saved by adoption, his country,
at least, was lost forever. From the foundation of
the Confederacy, the custom of adoption has prevailed
among the Iroquois, who carried this principle farther
than other Indian nations. It was not confined to
captives alone, but was extended to fragments of dis
membered tribes, and even to the admission of in
dependent nations into the League. (126) It was a
leading feature of their policy to subdue adjacent
nations by conquest, and having absorbed them by
naturalization, to mould them into one common
family with themselves. Some fragments of tribes
were adopted and distributed among the nations at
large ; some were received into the League as inde
pendent members, as the Tuscaroras, while others
were taken under its shelter, like the Mohekunnucks,
and assigned a territory within their own. The fruit
of this system of policy was their gradual elevation
to a universal supremacy ; a supremacy which was
spreading so rapidly at the epoch of their discovery,
as to threaten the subjugation of all the nations east
of the Mississippi.

A regular ceremony of adoption was performed
in each case, to complete the naturalization/5'9' 104)

332

ADOPTION

With captives, this ceremony was the gantlet, after
which new names were assigned to them ; and at the
next religious festival, their names, together with the
tribe and family into which they were respectively
adopted, were publicly announced. Upon the re
turn of a war-party with captives, if they had lost
-any of their own number in the expedition, the
families to which these belonged were first allowed
an opportunity to supply from the captives the
places made vacant in their households. Any family
could then adopt out of the residue any who chanced
to attract their favorable notice, or whom they wished
to save. At the time appointed, which was usually
three or four days after the return of the band, the
women and children of the village arranged them
selves in two parallel rows just without the place,
each one having a whip with which to lash the cap
tives as they passed between the lines. The male
captives, who alone were required to undergo this
test of their powers of endurance, were brought out,
and each one was shown in turn the house in which
he was to take refuge, and which was to be his future
home, if he passed successfully through the ordeal.
They were then taken to the head of this long avenue
of whips, and were compelled, one after another, to
run through it for their lives, and for the entertain
ment of the surrounding throng, exposed at every
step, undefended, and with naked backs, to the merci
less inflictions of the whip. Those who fell from
exhaustion were immediately despatched as unworthy
to be saved ; but those who emerged in safety from
this test of their physical energies, were from that

333

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

moment treated with the utmost affection and kind
ness. The effects of this contrast in behavior upon
the mind of the captive must have been singular
enough. During the slow progress of these arrange
ments, how many captives have listened to every sound,
and watched every motion with the most intense soli
citude. Carried into the heart of the country of the
enemy, far away from all hope of succor, the ques
tion was about to be decided whether the clemency
of their captors would bestow upon them the rights
of citizenship, or their warlike frenzy lead them away
to the torture. Its decision depended upon the most
fickle impulses. Who shall relate our sylvan history !
To the red man compassion has seldom been ascribed,
but yet these scenes in the forest oftentimes revealed
the most generous traits of character. Admiration
for the chivalric bearing of a captive, the recollection
of a past favor, or a sudden impulse of compassion,
were sufficient to decide the question of adoption.
When the perils of the gantlet, which was an enviable
lot compared with the fate of the rejected, were over,
he ceased to be an enemy, and became an Iroquois.
Not only so, but he was received into the family by
which he was adopted with all the cordiality of affec
tion, and into all the relations of the one whose place
he was henceforth to fill. By these means all recol
lections of his distant kindred were gradually effaced,
bound as he was by gratitude to those who had re
stored a life which was forfeited by the usages of war.
If a captive, after adoption, became discontented,
which is said to have been seldom the case, he was
sometimes restored, with presents, to his nation, that

334

THE HUNT

they might know he had lost nothing by his cap
tivity among them.(104)

The rejected captives were then led away to the
torture, and to death. It is not necessary to de
scribe this horrible practice of our primitive inhab
itants. It is sufficient to say that it was a test of
courage. When the Indian went out upon the war
path, he prepared his mind for this very contingency,
resolving to show the enemy, if captured, that hir
courage was equal to any trial, and above the power
of death itself. The exhibitions of heroism and forti
tude by the red man under the sufferings of martyr
dom, almost surpass belief. They considered the
character of their nation in their keeping, and the
glory of the race as involved and illustrated in the
manner of their death.

A slight notice of a few of their customs in relation
to the hunt, will close this desultory chapter. The
deer, the elk, the moose, the bear, and several species
of wild fowl, furnished their principal game. At certain
seasons of the year, the female of all animals was spared,
by the provisions of their game-laws, lest there should
be a diminution of the supply. Not having a species
of dog adapted to the chase, they were obliged to resort
to the still hunt, and seize the opportunity whenever it
presented ; thus rendering it necessary to success that
the hunter should become well versed in the habits of
animals. Sometimes they trapped both deer and bear,
and spread nets for quails and other small fowl. One
species of deer-trap was attached to a young tree bent
over, and so adjusted that the springing of the trap
fastened a loop around the hind legs of the deer, and

335

LEAGUE OF THE I R O <U O I S

at the same time released the tree, which drew him up,
and held him suspended in the air. They practiced
another method of taking deer, in herds. A large
party of hunters was formed, and a brush fence was
built in the shape of the letter V, two or three miles in
length on each side. The woods were then fired in
the rear at some miles' distance, so as to drive the deer
towards the opening, into which they were guided by
parties stationed upon either side. They followed the
fence down to the angle, where the arrows of the un
seen hunters soon brought them down one after the
other. Sometimes a hundred were thus taken at one
time. In the bear-hunt it was customary to tire out
the animal by a long chase, as when fresh and vigorous
he was too formidable to attack with the bow and
arrow, or the hunting tomahawk ; but when wearied
out it was an easy matter to overcome him. The
hunter selected the choice pieces of venison, and hav
ing removed the bone, and dried and cured the flesh
before a fire, he packed it in small bark barrels, and
thus carried it home upon his back. It was so much
reduced in weight and bulk by the process of curing,
that a hunter could thus transport, with ease, the sub
stance of a dozen deer. Their skins were also dried and
packed, and carried home in the same manner. When
deer or bear were taken in winter, within a day's journey
of their villages, bark sledges were prepared, on which
they were drawn home, undressed, upon the snow crust.
Hunting was a passion with the red man. He pur
sued it for the excitement and employment it afforded,
as well as for subsistence, frequently making long and
toilsome expeditions. The Senecas, for example, in

336

INDIAN LIFE

the season of the fall hunt, would leave their villages
in small parties; some turning south, would encamp
upon the Chemung river, and traverse the whole ad
jacent country ; others, descending the Allegany, pen
etrated the inland regions of Ohio, which was a favorite
hunting-ground, not only of the Senecas, but also of
the other nations of the League; while still others en
camped within the Niagara peninsula, which was for
merly a place of great resort for the beaver-hunt. The
Cayugas turned to the Susquehanna, which furnished
them an inexhaustible store. They also ranged Penn
sylvania ; and with parties from the other nations, they
not unfrequently roamed as far as the Potomac, which
was within their ancient domain. Parties of the Onon-
dagas descended the Chenango to the Susquehanna,
or turning northward, perchance, crossed over into
Canada. The Oneidas, for the fall hunt, descended
the Unadilla, and also went northward, into the
regions watered by the Black river. Lastly, the Mo
hawks, leaving their valley, found well-stocked hunt
ing-grounds upon the head-waters of the Delaware and
Susquehanna, and also in the wild and rugged regions
of the north, and around lake Champlain.

About midwinter these widely scattered parties be
gan to find their way back to their villages for the
celebration of their annual jubilee ; after which they sur
rendered themselves for a season to idleness, or to the
amusements of the winter life. With the spring came
the fishing season, in which for a time they found em
ployment. The summer again was a season of repose,
except when enlivened by councils, by their religious
festivals, or by the adventures of the war-path.

VOL. I. -22

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

In this round of occupations the Iroquois glided
through the year. The progress of the seasons sug
gested their appropriate employments, if not marked
in the exuberance of unsubdued nature, by the same
attractive changes which pursue each other in regions
beautified by cultivation. While with the fullest ap
preciation he enjoyed the grandeur of nature in her
wild attire, and surrendered himself to her deepest in
spirations, he yet knew nothing of her inexhaustible
fruitfulness, or of those more delicate features of beauty
which are revealed only by the hand of art. Aspiring
to a freedom as boundless as the forest, satisfied with
the martial pursuits, the amusements, the friendships
and the social privileges of Indian life, and proud of
their military achievements and of the fame of the
League among Indian nations, the Iroquois measured
out their days with all the happiness which these con
siderations could secure, and with all the contentment
which could result from knowing no higher destiny.

338

VOLUME II

BOOK THIRD
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE

BOOK III
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE

Chapter I

Fabrics of the Iroquois — Their Artisan Intellect — Indian Pottery —
Earthen Vessels — Moccason — War Club — Tomahawk — Rope
Making —Finger Weaving — Bark Vessels — Bark Canoe— Corn
Mortar — Maize — Tobacco — Snow Shoe — Indian Saddle — Mis
cellaneous Inventions — Basket Making — Costumes — Wampum —
Baby Frame — Diffusion of Indian Arts — Improvement of the
Iroquois

THE fabrics of a people unlock their social
history. They speak a language which is
silent, but yet more eloquent than the written
page. As memorials of former times, they commune
directly with the beholder, opening the unwritten
history of the period they represent, and clothing it
with perpetual freshness. However rude the age, or
uncultivated the people from whose hands they come,
the products of human ingenuity are ever invested
with a peculiar and even solemn interest. It is greatly
to be regretted that so few remains of the skill and
industry of the Iroquois have come down to the
present age, to illustrate the era of Indian occupation.
Although their fabrics are indicative of a low state of
the useful arts, the artificial contrivances by which

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

they were surrounded are yet the indices of their so
cial condition, and for this reason are not devoid
of instruction. Further than this, it is but just to
them to save from oblivion the fruits of their inven
tive intellect, however unpretending they may seem,
that, in the general judgment pronounced upon their
memory, they may not be defrauded of even their
humblest inventions.(105)

Since the commencement of European intercourse,
and especially within the last century, great changes
have been wrought among the Iroquois. Their prim
itive fabrics have mostly passed away, and with them,
many of their original inventions.(10G) The intro
duction of articles of more skilful manufacture has
led to the gradual disuse of many of their simple
arts. At the present moment, therefore, much of the
fruit of their inventive capacity is entirely lost. Frag
ments, it is true, are frequently disentombed from
the resting-places to which they had been consigned
by their burial rites, but they are mere vestiges of the
past, and afford but a slight indication of their social
condition, or of the range of their artisan intellect.
It would now be • extremely difficult to furnish a
full description of their implements, domestic utensils,
and miscellaneous fabrics. Many of the inventions
of the earlier Iroquois are still preserved among their
descendants now residing within our limits and in

Canada ; but that portion of them which would espe
cially serve to illustrate the condition of the hunter
life have passed beyond our reach.

The remains of Indian art which are found scattered
over the soil of New York are of two distinct kinds,

THEIR ARTISAN INTELLECT

and to be ascribed to widely different periods. The
first class belong to the ante-Columbian period, or
the era of the " Mound Builders," (36) whose defensive
works, mounds, and sacred enclosures are scattered so
profusely throughout the west.1 With the second
period may be connected the name of the Iroquois. It
will also include the remains of the fugitive races, who,
since the extermination of the " Mound Builders," have
displaced each other in succession, until the period of
the Iroquois commenced.

In the fabrics of the Iroquois a wide range is observ
able. It reaches from the rudest specimens of pottery
of the ancient, to the most delicate needlework of the
modern Iroquois. Since the era of the discovery, and
the commencement of their intercourse with Euro
peans, a gradual revolution has been effected. Their
social condition has changed greatly, and is changing
from day to day. With equal pace their simple arts
have been dropping from their hands, one after the
other, as they have taken up agricultural pursuits, until
at the present epoch the fabrics of the Iroquois con
trast very strangely with those of their ancestors. In
their present advanced condition, a large proportion of
their articles are of a mixed character. They rather
exhibit the application of Indian ingenuity to fabrics

1 The remains of this period indicate a semi-civilization of the most
imposing character, including a considerable development of the art of
agriculture. Exclusive of the mounds and enclosures, they have left im
plements of copper and chert, of stone, porphyry and earthen, some of
which are elaborately and ingeniously wrought. The fugitive specimens
belonging to this period, which are occasionally found within the limits
of our State, are much superior to any of the productions of the earlier
Iroquois.

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

of foreign manufacture, as shown in their reduction
into use, than originality of invention. But this class
of articles are not without a peculiar interest. They
furnish no slight indication of artisan capacity, and will
serve as a species of substitute for those articles which
they have displaced, and those inventions which they
have hurried into forgetfulness.

One of the most ancient Indian arts was that of pot
tery. It was carried to considerable perfection by the
Iroquois at an early day, as is shown by the specimens
which are still occasionally disentombed from the
burial-places, where they were deposited beside the
dead ; but the art itself has been so long disused that
it is now entirely lost. Pipes, and earthen pots of
various designs and sizes, are the principal articles thus
found. Some of these specimens of black pottery,
which is the best variety, are of so fine a texture as to
admit of a tolerable polish, and so firm as to have the
appearance of stone. Their common pottery is of a
clay color, and is a compound of common clay and
pulverized quartz. (108)

This pipe is of black pottery, well finished, and
nearly as hard as marble, and is also represented at its
actual size. In some specimens the bowl is fronted
with a human face, or with a wolf's or dog's head.
Frequently these imitations are delicately, even ex
quisitely made. Another species of pipe, in use among
the Iroquois in later times, was cut out of soap-
stone, which yields readily to metallic instruments. A
representation of one of these pipes of Seneca manu
facture, will be found in the plate (I. 105). It is fronted
with a human face, and designed to be used with a

PIPES

stem-piece of reed. The other, in the same plate, is
also a modern Iroquois pipe, made of Catlinite, or the

Ab-sc-qua' -tay or Iroquois Pipe, Lima, Liv. Co., N. Y.

red Missouri pipe-stone. Pipes of this description are
used chiefly among the Sioux, by whom they were in-

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

troduced into use, and other western Indians; and were
rather accidental than common among the Iroquois.

Pipe of the Mound Builders, Valley of the Genesee.

This pipe is anomalous. It is of black marble,
highly polished, with the bowl and stem bored with
great precision. Doubtless it is a relic of the
" Mound Builders," which, having found its way into
the hands of a Seneca, was finally buried by his side
in the valley of the Genesee, to be again brought to

OUT WIS -TA-NL-UN- DA-QUA OR SILVER BEADS

EARTHEN VESSELS

light upon the excavation of the Valley canal. Like
the pipes of that era, it has the bowl in the central
part of the stone. In material, also, and in finish, it
is unlike, and superior to the pipes of the Iroquois.

Ga -jib' , or E art ben Vessel.

Earthen pots of this description are frequently
found beside the remains of the Iroquois/10 They
are usually of sufficient capacity to contain from
two to six quarts. On exposure to the air, after dis-
interment, they are apt to crumble, being usually, if
not always, of the light-colored common pottery,
which is less firm and coherent than the black. In
these earthen vessels it was customary to deposit food
for the departed, while journeying to the realm of the
Great Spirit. These earthen dishes are still found in
Indian burial-places, where, perhaps, they had lain for
centuries ; and the fragments of those which have
been broken by the plough, are also mingled with the
soil.

Metallic implements were unknown among them,
as they had not the use of metals. Rude knives of
chert were used for skinning deer, and similar pur
poses. For cutting trees and excavating canoes, and
corn mortars, in a word, for those necessary purposes

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

for which the axe would seem to be indispensable, the
Iroquois used the stone chisel, Uh'-ga-o-gwdt'-ha. In
cutting trees, fire was applied at the foot, and the
chisel used to clear away the coal. By a repetition of
the process, trees were felled and cut to pieces.
Wooden vessels were hollowed out by the same means.
Fire and the chisel were the substitutes for the axe.
The chisel was usually about six inches long, three
wide, and two thick ; the lower end being fashioned
like the edge of an axe. Stone gouges in the form of
a convex chisel, were also used when a more regular
concavity of the vessel was desired. Stone mortars
for pounding corn, grinding mineral paint, and for
pulverizing roots and barks for medicines, were also
among their utensils. (109)

Arrow-heads of chert, or flint, were so common
that it is scarcely necessary to refer to them. Occa
sionally they are found with a twist to make the
arrow revolve in its flight. It is well known that the
Indian always feathered his arrow for the same pur
pose. It is not uncommon to find the places where
these arrow-heads were manufactured, which is indi
cated by the fragments of chert which had been made
by cleavage. In the western mounds rows of similar
chert heads have been found lying side by side, like
teeth, the row being about two feet long. This has
suggested the idea that they were set in a frame and
fastened with thongs, thus making a species of sword.
Their discovery in those mounds also establishes the
great antiquity of the art.

In ancient times the Iroquois used the stone toma
hawk. It was fashioned something like an axe, but

MOCCASON

in place of an eye for the helve, a deep groove was
cut around the outside, by means of which the handle
was firmly attached with a withe or thong.(110) Oval
stones, with grooves around their greatest circum
ference, were also secured in the head of war-clubs,
and thus made dangerous weapons/11 Other im
plements and utensils of stone, some of which were
very ingeniously worked, were in use among the Iro-
quois ; and also personal ornaments of the same mate
rial, but a sufficient number have been brought under
notice.

O-sque'-sont, or Stone Tomahawk.

The moccason (see plates I. 35, 44, 79) is preemi
nently an Indian invention, and one of the highest
antiquity. It is true to nature in its adjustment to
the foot, beautiful in its materials and finish, and dur
able as an article of apparel. It will compare favor
ably with the best single article for the protection and
adornment of the foot ever invented, either in ancient
or modern times. With the sanction of fashion, it
would supersede among us a long list of similar inven
tions. Other nations have fallen behind the Indian,
in this one particular at least. The masses of the
Romans wore the calceus ligneus, or wooden shoe ;
the masses of Germany and Ireland, and of many of
the European nations, formerly wore the same.
With the cothurnus and sandal of the ancients, and

r i

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

the boot of the moderns, the moccason admits of no
unfavorable comparison. It deserves to be classed
among the highest articles of apparel ever invented,
both in usefulness, durability, and beauty.

The moccason is made of one piece of deer-skin.
It is seamed up at the heel, and also in front, above
the foot, leaving the bottom of the moccason without
a seam. In front the deer-skin is gathered, in place
of being crimped ; over this part porcupine quills or
beads are worked, in various patterns. The plain
moccason rises several inches above the ankle, like the
Roman cothurnus, and is fastened with deer strings ;
but usually this part is turned down, so as to expose
a part of the instep, and is ornamented with bead-
work, as represented in the plates. A small bone near
the ankle joint of the deer, has furnished the moc
cason needle (111) from time immemorial ; and the
sinews of the animal the thread. These bone needles
are found in the mounds of the West, and beside the
skeletons of the Iroquois, where they were deposited
with religious care. This isolated fact would seem to
indicate an affinity, in one art at least, between the
Iroquois and the Mound Builders, whose name, and
era of occupation and destiny are entirely lost.(3G)

In ancient times the Iroquois used another shoe,
made of the skin of the elk. They cut the skin
above and below the gambrel joint, and then took it
off entire. As the hind leg of the elk inclines at this
joint, nearly at a right angle, it was naturally adapted
to the foot. The lower end was sewed firmly with
sinew, and the upper part secured above the ankle
with deer strings.

SKIN-DRESSING

In connection with this subject is the art of tanning
deer-skins ; as they still tan them after the ancient
method. It is done with the brain of the deer, the
tanning properties of which, according to a tradition,
were discovered by accident. The brain is mingled
with moss, to make it adhere sufficiently to be formed
into a cake, which is afterwards hung by the fire to
dry. It is thus preserved for years. When the deer
skin is fresh, the hair, and also the grain of the skin
are taken off, over a cylindrical beam, with a wooden
blade or stone scraper. A solution is then made by
boiling a cake of the brain in water, and the moss,
which is of no use, being removed, the skin is soaked
in it for a few hours. It is then wrung out and
stretched, until it becomes dry and pliable. Should
it be a thick one, it would be necessary to repeat the
process until it becomes thoroughly penetrated by the
solution. The skin is still porous and easily torn.
To correct both, a smoke is made, and the skin placed
over it in such a manner as to enclose it entirely.
Each side is smoked in this way until the pores are
closed, and the skin has become thoroughly tough
ened, with its color changed from white to a kind of
brown. It is then ready for use.

They also use the brain of other animals, and some
times the back-bone of the eel, which, pounded up
and boiled, possesses nearly the same properties for
tanning. Bear-skins were never tanned. They were
scraped and softened, after which they were dried, and
used without removing the hair, either as an article of
apparel, or as a mattress to sleep upon.

Before the tomahawk came into use among the

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

Iroquois, their principal weapons were the bow, the
stone tomahawk, and the war-club. The Ga'-je'-wa
was a heavy weapon, usually made of ironwood, with

Ga-je'-wa, or War -club.

a large ball of knot at the head. It was usually about
two feet in length, and the ball five or six inches in
diameter. In close combat it would prove a formida
ble weapon. They wore it in the belt, in front.

Ga-ne-uf-ga-o-dus-ba, or Deer-horn War-club.

This species of war-club was also much used. It
was made of hard wood, elaborately carved, painted
and ornamented with feathers at the ends. In the
lower edge, a sharp-pointed deer's horn, about four
inches in length, was inserted. It was thus rendered
a dangerous weapon in close combat, and would inflict
a deeper wound than the former. They wore it in
the girdle. At a later period they used the same
species of club, substituting a steel or iron blade

WAR-CLUE

resembling a spearhead, in the place of the horn.
War-clubs of this description are still to be found
among the Iroquois, preserved as relics of past
exploits. It is not probable, however, that these two
varieties were peculiar to them ; they were doubtless
common over the continent.

The tomahawk succeeded the war-club, as the rifle
did the bow. With the invention of this terrible
implement of warfare the red man had nothing to do,
except in having it so fashioned as to be adapted to
his taste and usage. The tomahawk is known as
widely as the Indian, and the two names have become

O-sque'-sont, or Tomahawk.

apparently inseparable. They are made of steel,
brass, or iron. The choicer articles are surmounted
by a pipe-bowl, and have a perforated handle, that
they may answer the double purpose of ornament and
use. In such the handle, and often the blade itself,
are richly inlaid with silver. It is worn in the girdle,
and behind the back, except when in actual battle.
They used it in close combat with terrible effect, and
also threw it with unerring certainty at distant objects,
making it revolve in the air in its flight. With the

LEAGUE OF THE IROQJJOIS

Indian, the tomahawk is the emblem of war itself.
To bury it, is peace ; to raise it, is to declare the most
deadly warfare. (112)

Rope-making, from filaments of bark, is also an In
dian art. The deer string answers a multitude of pur-

Ose-ga", or Skein of Slippery Elm Filaments.

poses in their domestic economy ; but it could not
supply them all. Bark-rope (Ga-a -sken-da) has been
fabricated among them from time immemorial. In its
manufacture, they use the bark of the slippery-elm, the
red-elm, and the bass-wood. Having removed the outer
surface of the bark, they divide it into narrow strips,

Gus-ba'-ah, or Burden Strap.

t
and then boil it in ashes and water. After it is dried

it is easily separated into small filaments, the strings
running with the grain several feet without breaking.
These filaments are then put up in skeins and laid aside
for use. Slippery-elm makes the most pliable rope ;
it is soft to the touch, can be closely braided, and is
very durable. The burden strap is worn around the

BURDEN STRAP

forehead, and lashed to a litter, which is borne by In
dian women on their back. It is usually about fifteen
feet in length, and braided into a belt in the centre,
three or four inches wide. Some of them are entirely
covered upon one side with porcupine-quills-work, after
various devices, and are in themselves remarkable
products of skilful industry. The braiding (113) or
knitting of the bark threads is effected with a single
needle of hickory. In other specimens, the quill-work
is sprinkled over the belt for ornament, the quills in
all cases being of divers colors. Of all their fabrics,
there is no one, perhaps, which surpasses the porcu
pine-quill burden strap, in skill of manufacture, rich
ness of material, or beauty of workmanship. In this
species of work, the Iroquois female excelled. They
also made a common bark rope for ordinary uses,
which consisted of three strands, hard twisted ; a single
rope being frequently forty or fifty feet in length. The
art of rope-making, like many others, has mostly fallen
into disuse among the present Iroquois. But few In
dian families now provide themselves with skeins of
bark thread, or make any ropes of this description.
In the manufacture of the several species of burden
strap, more skill, ingenuity, and patient industry are
exhibited, perhaps, than in any other single article
fabricated by the Iroquois. The strap consists of a
belt in the centre about two feet in length by two
and a half inches in width, with ropes at each end
about seven feet each ; thus making its entire length
from fifteen to twenty feet. It is used attached to
the litter or burden frame, to the baby frame, and to
the basket, when these burdens are to be borne on the

VOL. II. — 2 I

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

back ; in which cases the belt is passed around the
forehead. Fifteen or twenty small cords are first
made, about three feet in length, by twisting the
filaments of bark by hand. These cords, which
make the warp, or substance of the belt, are then
placed parallel with each other, and side by side ;
after which finer threads of the same material, usually
colored, are prepared for the filling, to be passed
across the cords over and under each alternately from
side to side and back again. The fine thread, or
filling, is twisted in the first instance, and also again
as it is braided or woven in with the warp while
being passed across from side to side. As the work
is all done by hand, it is a slow and laborious process,
but the specimen will show how successfully it is
accomplished. After the filling has thus been braided
in with the warp, each of the main cords, although
covered on both sides, literally wound with the finer
threads in crossing and returning, is still distinctly visi
ble, giving to the belt the appearance of being ribbed.
The whole process is exactly the same as the modern
process of weaving, the main difference consisting
in this, that in the latter the warp and filling are
nearly equal in the size of the threads, while in the
Indian art the warp is several times larger than the
filling.

Towards the ends the belt is narrowed gradually
by joining two of the cords in one, until its width
is diminished about one-third. The cords are then
lengthened out by adding new filaments, and braided
into an open-work band or bark rope about an inch wide,
and flat ; the band consisting of as many strands as

BURDEN STRAP

there were cords at the end of the belt. The surface
of these belts is generally smooth and even, and the
belt itself so closely braided as to leave no inter
stices through which the eye could penetrate. When
threads of different colors were used, the belt was
variegated simply, or small figures were woven in it
for ornament.

Another species of burden strap, of more expedi
tious manufacture, was made by placing the warp
cords side by side, and stitching them through and
through with bark thread, in which case the cords
themselves were made larger than in the ordinary
burden strap. For stitching, a hickory or bone
needle, without an eye, was used in ancient times.
As the cords consisted of two strong threads twisted
into one, the stitching thread was passed through
each cord, between its two parts, from one side to
the other and back again. Ropes were then attached
to the ends of the belt, and the work was completed.

O-A-TA-OSE-KA, OR MOOSE HAIR BURDEN STRAP
GUS-HA-AH, OR DEER HAIR BURDEN STRAP

See PLATE facing page 20

Near the rump of the moose (Ten-da-ne), and near
the neck between the shoulders, there are small tufts
of white hair, about four inches in length, each yield
ing a small handful. These hairs were carefully pre
served, dyed red, blue and yellow, and used in the
manufacture of the finest varieties of burden straps.
Similar tufts of hair, but inferior in quality, are found
upon the elk (Jo-ra-da), and in the tail of the deer
(Na-o-geh}. The moose hair burden strap is made

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

in all respects as above described, except that the
thread, which serves as the filling, is wound with
this hair upon one side of the belt, in such a way
as either to cover the whole face of the belt, or to
sprinkle it through with small figures at the pleasure
of the maker. The one represented in the plate is
a very perfect and beautiful piece of work, nearly
the whole upper surface of the belt being covered
with moose hair, white, yellow, red and blue, which
is woven into the belt in a regular figure. It was
made by an Onondaga woman on Grand river in
Upper Canada, where it was purchased in October
last. Although it has been used many years, and
the colors have lost some portion of their original
brilliancy, it is yet wholly unimpaired, and a remark
able specimen of finger weaving, as well as of artisan
skill. It is not only woven compactly, but with such
evenness of thread as to present a smooth surface and
uniform texture. It is difficult to believe, upon an
examination of the under side of the belt, that it is
manufactured with bark threads ; and perhaps still
more incredible, that in the mechanism of this belt
can be found the primary elements of the art of
weaving.

GA-NE-KO-WA-AH, BURDEN FRAME, OR LITTER

This is an ancient contrivance to assist in carrying
burdens. Game, cooking utensils, wood, bark, in fact,
everything which could be transported by hand could
be borne upon this frame. They were a necessary
appendage to every house, to the traveller, and to
the hunter. Sometimes thev were elaborately carved

0-A-TA-OSE-KA OR MOOSE HAIR BURDEN STRAP.

BURDEN FRAME OR LITTER

and finished, but more frequently were of a plain
piece of hickory, like the one represented in the
figure, and made with the quickest despatch. The
frame consists of two bows of hickory, brought to-

Ga-ne-ko-wa-abt Burden Frame, or Litter.

gether at right angles, and fastened to each other
by means of an eye and head. The upright part of
the frame is the same as the horizontal in all particu
lars, except its greater length. Strips from the inner
rind of basswood bark were then passed between the
bows both length and crosswise, and fastened to the
rim pieces. A burden strap was then attached to the
frame at the point where the strip of bark passed
across the upright bow from side to side ; and from

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

thence it passed diagonally across to the horizontal
part of the frame, to the point where the lower strip
of bark crossed that part of the frame. There were
several feet of rope at each end, reserved to lash
around whatever burden was placed upon the frame ;
but when the frame was empty, as it is shown
above, these ropes were passed up to the top of the
frame and there secured. After being loaded the
frame was placed upon the back, and the burden
strap passed over the head and placed across the
chest. If the burden was very heavy it was cus
tomary to use two straps, one across the chest, and
the other against the forehead. At the present day
the burden frame is still in use.

Bark vessels and dishes of various kinds were in com
mon use among them. The bark barrel, Ga-no'-qua,
was of the number.(124) It was made of the inner
rind of red-elm bark, or of black-ash bark, the grain
running around the barrel. Up the side it was stitched
firmly, and had a bottom and a lid secured in the same
manner. Such barrels were used to store charred
corn, beans, dried fruit, seeds, and a great variety of
articles.

When corn was buried in pits or caches, it was
usually put in bark barrels of this description. Dur
ing the war of 1812, when the British forces were
expected over the frontier, the Senecas at Tonawanda,
who had enlisted in the American army, buried their
corn in bark barrels, after the ancient custom. These
barrels were made of all sizes, from those of sufficient
capacity to hold three bushels, to those large enough for
a peck. Such barrels were found in every family in

BARK VESSELS

ancient times, and among other purposes to which
they were devoted, they were made repositories for
articles of apparel and personal ornaments. They

G'a-sna Ga-ose-ba, or Bark Barrel.

were very durable, and when properly taken care of
would last a hundred years.

GA-O-WO', OR BARK TRAY

Trays of this description are found in every Indian
family. They serve a variety of purposes, but are
chiefly used for kneading, or rather preparing corn
bread. A strip of elm-bark, of the requisite dimen
sions, was rounded and gathered up at the ends, so as

LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S

to form a shallow concavity. Around the rim, both
outside and in, splints of hickory were adjusted, and
stitched through and through with the bark. These
trays were of all sizes, from those of sufficient capacity
to contain one, to those large enough for ten pecks.
The rough bark was removed from the outside, and
the vessel within became smooth with usage. They

Ga-o-zuo' , or Bark Tray.

made durable and convenient articles for holding corn
meal, for preparing corn bread, and for many other
purposes.

Trapping game of all kinds, from the bear and deer
to the quail and snipe, was a common practice. For
deer, a young tree was bent over and held in this
position by the mechanism of the trap. When sprung
a noose was fastened around the hind leg of; the deer,
and he was drawn up in the air by the unsprung tree.
Bear traps were constructed in such a way as to let
down a heavy timber upon the back of the animal,
when sprung, and thus pin him to the earth. Nets of
bark twine were also spread for pigeons and quails.
A simple bird trap for small birds consists of a
rounding strip of elm bark about eight inches long by

BARK CANOE

four wide, with an eye cut in one end and a piece of
bark twine with a noose at the end of it, attached to
the other. After the bark is secured upon the ground,
a few kernels of corn are dropped through the eye
upon the ground, and a noose adjusted around it.
When a bird attempts to pick up the corn the ruffled
plumage of the neck takes up the string, and brings

Bird Trap.

the noose around the neck, which is tightened the
moment the bird attempts to fly, and either strangles
or holds it in captivity. The trap is said to be very
successful.

GA-SNA' GA-O-WO', OR BARK CANOE

In the construction of the bark canoe, the Iroquois
exercised considerable taste and skill. The art appears
to have been common to all the Indian races within
the limits of the republic, and the mode of construc
tion much the same. Birch bark was the best mate
rial ; but as the canoe birch did not grow within the
home territories of the Iroquois, they generally used
the red-elm, and bitternut-hickory. The canoe figured
in the plate (II. 3), is made of the bark of the
red-elm, and consists of but one piece. Having taken

c*lvACu?

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

off a bark of the requisite length and width, and re
moved the rough outside, it was shaped in the canoe
form. Rim pieces of white-ash, or other elastic wood,
of the width of the hand, were then run around the
edge, outside and in, and stitched through and through
with the bark itself. In stitching, they used bark
thread or twine, and splints. The ribs consisted of
narrow strips of ash, which were set about a foot apart
along the bottom of the canoe, and having been turned
up the sides, were secured under the rim. Each end of
the canoe was fashioned alike, the two side pieces in
clining towards each other until they united, and formed
a sharp and vertical prow. In size, these canoes varied
from twelve feet, with sufficient capacity to carry two
men, to forty feet with sufficient capacity for thirty.
The one figured in the plate is about twenty-five feet
in length, and its tonnage estimated at two tons, about
half that of the ordinary bateau. Birch bark retained
its place without warping, but the elm and hickory
bark canoes were exposed to this objection. After
being used, they were drawn out of the water to dry.
One of the chief advantages of these canoes, especially
the birch bark, was their extreme lightness, which often
became a matter of some moment from the flood wood
and water-falls, which obstructed the navigation of the
inland rivers. Two men could easily transport these
light vessels around these obstacles, and even from one
river to another when the portage was not long.

For short excursions one person usually paddled the
canoe, standing up in the stern ; if more than two, and
on a long expedition, they were seated at equal distances
upon each side alternately. In the fur trade these

SAP-TUB

canoes were extensively used. They coasted lakes
Erie and Ontario, and turning up the Oswego river
into the Oneida lake, they went from thence over the
carrying place into the Mohawk, which they descended
to Schenectady. They would usually carry about
twelve hundred pounds of fur. At the period of the
invasions of the Iroquois territories by the French,
large fleets of these canoes were formed for the con
veyance of troops and provisions. With careful usage
they would last several years.

Ga-o-ivo'y or Bark Sap-tub.

Our Indian population have been long in the habit
of manufacturing sugar from the maple. Whether they
learned the art from us, or we received it from them,
is uncertain. (87) One evidence, at least, of its antiquity
among them, is to be found in one of their ancient re
ligious festivals, instituted to the maple, and called the
Maple dance. The sap-tub is a very neat contrivance,
and surpasses all other articles of this description.
Our farmers may safely borrow, in this one particular,
and with profit substitute this Indian invention for the
rough and wasteful one of their own contrivance.

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

A strip of bark about three feet in length by two in
width, makes the tub. The rough bark is left upon
the bottom and sides. At the point where the bark is
to be turned up to form the ends, the outer bark is re
moved ; the inner rind is then turned up, gathered to
gether in small folds at the top, and tied around with
a splint. It is then ready for use, and will last several
seasons. Aside from the natural fact that the sap
would be quite at home in the bark tub, and its flavor
preserved untainted, it is more durable and capacious
than the wooden one, and more readily made.

The Senecas use three varieties of corn : the White
(O-na-d-ga-ant), the Red (Tic-ne\ and the White Flint
(Ha-gd-wa).(m) Corn is, and always has been, their
staple article of food. When ready to be harvested,
they pick the ears, strip down the husks, and braid
them together in bunches, with about twenty ears in
each. They are then hung up ready for use. The
white flint ripens first, and is the favorite corn for hom-
mony ; the red next, and is used principally for char
ring and drying; the white last, and is the corn most
esteemed by the Indians. It is used for bread, and
supplies the same place with them that wheat does with
us. They shell their corn by hand, and pound it into
flour in wooden mortars. In two hours from the time
the corn is taken from the ear it is ready to eat, in the
form of unleavened bread.(8) It is hulled in the first
instance, by boiling in ashes and water; after the skin
is thus removed from each kernel, it is thoroughly
washed, and pounded into flour or meal in a mortar,
of which a representation will be found above. Hav
ing been passed through a sieve basket, to remove the

CORN MORTAR

Ga-ne'-ga-ta, or Corn Mortar.

Mortar, 2 feet in diameter. Pounder, 4 feet: in length.
29

LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS

^^>

chit and coarser grains, it is made into loaves or cakes
about an inch in thickness, and six inches in diameter ;
which are cooked by boiling them in water. The

Ta-~a-go-gen-ta-quat or Bread Turner.
3^ feet.

bread turner is used, as its name indicates, to handle
these loaves while under the process of cooking. Upon
bread of this description, and upon the fruits of the
chase, the Indian has principally subsisted from time
immemorial. (84)

The practice of charring corn is of great antiquity
among the red races. In this condition it is preserved
for years without injury. Caches or pits of charred
corn have been found in various parts of the country.
The Iroquois were in the habit of charring corn to
preserve it for domestic use. The Senecas still do the
same. For this use the red corn is preferred. When
green the corn is picked, and roasted in the field before
a long fire, the ears being set up on end in a row. It
is not charred or blackened entirely, but roasted suffi
ciently to dry up the moisture in each 'kernel. It is
then shelled and dried in the sun. The splint sieve
represented in the figure was used to sift out the fine
ashes which might adhere to the kernel. In this state
the corn is chiefly used by hunting parties, and for sub-

3°

YA-WA-ODA-QUA OR NEEDLE BOOK

POP-CORN SIEVE

sistence on distant excursions. Its bulk and weight
having been diminished about half by the two pro
cesses, its transportation became less burdensome. The

Yun-des-ho-yon-da-gwat-ba, or Pop-corn Sieve.

red races seldom formed magazines of grain to guard
against distant wants. It is probable, therefore, that
these pits of charred corn owe their origin to the sudden
flight of the inhabitants, who buried their dried corn
because they could not remove it, rather than to a desire
to provide against a failure of the harvest.

There was another method of curing corn in its
green state, quite as prevalent as the former. The
corn was shaved off into small particles, and having
been baked over the fire in pans or earthen dishes, it
was then dried in the sun. In this condition it was
preserved for winter use.

A favorite article of subsistence was prepared from
the charred corn. It was parched a second time, after
which, having been mixed with about a third part of
maple sugar, it was pounded into a fine flour. This
was carried in the bear-skin pocket of the hunter, and
upon it alone he subsisted for days together.

This noble grain, one of the gifts of the Indian to

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

the world, is destined, eventually, to become one of
the staple articles of human consumption. More than
half of our republic lies within the embrace of the trib
utaries of the Mississippi. Upon their banks are the
corn-growing districts of the country ; and there, also,
at no distant day, will be seated the millions of our
race. Experience demonstrates that no people can
rely wholly upon exchanges for the substance of their
bread-stuffs, but that they must look chiefly to the
soil they cultivate. This law of production and con
sumption is destined to introduce the gradual use of
corn flour, as a partial substitute at least, for its superior
rival, in those districts where it is the natural product
of the soil. In the southern portions of our country
this principle is already attested, by the fact that corn
bread enters as largely into human consumption as
wheaten. Next to wheat, this grain, perhaps, con
tains the largest amount of nutriment. It is the
cheapest and surest of all the grains to cultivate; and
is, also, the cheapest article of subsistence known
among men. Although wheat can be cultivated in
nearly all the sections of the country ; although its
production can be increased to an unlimited degree by
a higher agriculture ; we have yet great reason to be
thankful for this secondary grain, whose reproductive
energy is so unmeasured as to secure our entire race,
through all coming time, against the dangers of
scarcity, or the pressure of want/85

O-YEH'-GWA-A-WEH, OR INDIAN TOBACCO

Tobacco is another gift of the Indian to the world;
but a gift, it must be admitted, of questionable utility.

TOBACCO

We call both corn and tobacco the legacy of the red
man ; as these indigenous plants, but for his nurture
and culture through so many ages, might have per
ished, like other varieties of the fruits of the earth.
Many of our choicest fruits owe their origin to vege
table combinations entirely fortuitous. They spring
up spontaneously, flourish for a season, and become
extinct, but for the watchful care of man. Nature
literally pours forth her vegetable wealth, and buries
beneath her advancing exuberance the products
of the past. But few of the fruits and plants and
flowers of the ancient world have come down to us
unchanged; and still other plants, perhaps, have per
ished, unknown, in the openings of the forest, which
contained within their shrivelled and stinted foliage
the germ of some fruit, or grain, or plant, which might
have nourished or clothed the whole human family.
We may therefore, perchance, owe a debt to the
Indian, in these particulars, beyond our utmost ac
knowledgments/03'

The Senecas still cultivate tobacco. Its name sig
nifies " The only Tobacco" because they considered this
variety superior to all others. It is raised from the
seed, which is sown or planted in the spring, and re
quires but little cultivation. The leaves are picked
early in the fall, when their color first changes with
the frost, and when dried are ready for use. After
the first year it grows spontaneously, from the seed
shed by the plant when fully ripened. If the plants
become too thick, which is frequently the case, from
their vigorous growth, it becomes necessary to thin

them out, as the leaves diminish in size with their in-
VOL. n. -3 33

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

crease in number. This tobacco is used exclusively
for smoking. The custom of chewing the article ap
pears to have been derived from us. Although this
tobacco is exceedingly mild, they mingle with it the
leaves of the sumac, to diminish its stimulating prop
erties/9'^ The sumac has been used by the Indian
to temper tobacco from time immemorial.

Several varieties of the bean and of the squash (91)
were also cultivated by the Iroquois, and were indige
nous in the American soil. They regarded the corn,
the bean, and the squash as the special gift of the
Great Spirit, and associated them together under
the name of the Three Sisters. They also used the
ground-nut (apios tuberosa\ as a species of potato,
gathering it in its wild state.

The snow-shoe is an Indian invention. Upon the
deep snows which accumulate in the forest, it would
be nearly impossible to travel without them. They
were used in the hunt, and in warlike expeditions
undertaken in the season of winter.

GA-WEH'-GA, OR SNOW-SHOE

The snow-shoe is nearly three feet in length, by
about sixteen inches in width. A rim of hickory,
bent round with an arching front, and brought to a
point at the heel, constituted the frame, with the
addition of cross pieces to determine its spread.
Within the area, with the exception of an opening for
the toe, was woven a net-work of deer strings, with
interstices about an inch square. The ball of the foot
was lashed at the edge of this opening with thongs,

SNOW-SHOE

which passed around the heel for the support of the
foot. The heel was left free to work up and down,
and the opening was designed to allow the toe of the
foot to descend below the surface of the shoe, as the
heel is raised in the act of walking. It is a very
simple invention, but exactly adapted for its uses. A
person familiar with the snow-shoe can walk as rapidly

Ga-weh'-ga, or Snow-shoe.
2 feet 10 inches.

upon the snow as without it upon the ground. The
Senecas affirm that they can walk fifty miles per day
upon the snow-shoe, and with much greater rapidity
than without it, in consequence of the length and uni
formity of the step. In the bear-hunt, especially, it
is of the greatest service, as the hunter can speedily
overtake the bear, who, breaking through the crust, is
enabled to move but slowly. (115)

AH-DA-DA'-QUA, OR INDIAN SADDLE

This is an Indian invention, but came originally
from the west. It closely resembles the saddle of the

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U 0 1 S

native Mexicans in its general plan, but its pommel
is not as high, and its side-pieces are longer. It is

still used among the Indian tribes of the west. The
frame is made of four pieces of wood, firmly set to
gether, over which is a covering of raw hide. The
side-pieces are about eighteen inches in length, six in
width, and about an inch in thickness, at the centre,
but terminating in a sharp edge above and below.
In front the pommel rises about five inches above the
side-pieces. It is made of a stick having a natural

AIR-GUN

fork, which is so adjusted as to embrace the side-
pieces, and determine the spread of the saddle. An
other piece, in the same manner, embraced the
side-pieces at the opposite end, rising several inches
above, and descending nearly to their lower edges.
These side-pieces at the top are about three inches
apart, leaving a space for the back-bone of the horse.
The fastenings of the saddle, including those of the
stirrup, were originally of ropes, made of buffalo's
hair. Triangular stirrups of wood completed the trap
pings of the saddle. As the Iroquois seldom made
use of the Indian horse, the saddle with them was
rather an accidental, than a usual article. The speci
men above represented is of Seneca manufacture.

Ga-ga-an-da, or Air-gun ,• and Ga-no't or Arrow.

Air-gun, 6 feet. Arrow, 2 feet.

The air-gun is claimed as an Indian invention.(116)
It is a simple tube or barrel, about six feet in length,
and an inch in diameter, and having a half-inch bore.
It is made of alder, and also of other wood, which
is bored by some artificial contrivance. A very slen
der arrow, about two feet in length, with a sharp
point, is the missile. Upon the foot of the arrow,
the down or floss of the thistle is fastened on entire,
with sinew. This down is soft and yielding, and
when the arrow is placed in the barrel, fills it air
tight. The arrow is then discharged by blowing. It
is used for bird-shooting.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

Ta-o' -d'd-was-ta, or Indian Flute.

\y2 feet.

This instrument is unlike any known among us,
but it clearly resembles the clarionet. Its name signi
fies " a blow pipe." It is usually made of red cedar,
is about eighteen inches in length, and above an inch
in diameter. The finger holes, six in number, are
equidistant. Between them and the mouth-piece,
which is at the end, is the whistle, contrived much
upon the same principle as the common whistle. It
makes six consecutive notes, from the lowest, on a
rising scale* The seventh note is wanting, but the
three or four next above are regularly made. This is
the whole compass of the instrument. As played by
the Indians it affords a species of wild and plaintive
music. It is claimed as an Indian invention.

Yun-ga-sa, or Tobacco Pouch.

The tobacco pouch is made of the skin of some
small animal, which is taken off entire. It was
anciently an indispensable article, and was worn in the
girdle. They were usually made of white weasel,
mink, squirrel, and fisher skin.

Bags or pockets of this description, made of the

FIRE DRILL

skins of animals, were in constant use among the Iro-
quois in ancient times. They were hung to the girdle
ot the warrior and the hunter, and would contain

Gu-taf-he-o Ga-ya-ah, or Fawn Skin Bag.

within their narrow folds sufficient subsistence for a
long expedition, thus answering very perfectly the
purposes of the knapsack. At home they were
used as repositories for the safe keeping of choice
articles.

The Da-ya-ya-da-ga-nea-td is an Indian invention,
of great antiquity. Its rudeness may excite a smile, in
this day of lucifer matches, but yet the step backward to
the steel and flint is about the same, as from the latter
to the contrivance in question. (117) Not knowing the

LEAGUE OF THE JROQUOIS

use of metals or of chemicals, it was the only method
of creating fire known to the red man. It consisted
of an upright shaft, about four feet in length, and an

Da-ya-ya-da-ga'-nea-ta.

inch in diameter, with a small wheel set upon the
lower part, to give it momentum. In a notch at the
top of the shaft was set a string, attached to a bow
about three feet in length. The lower point rested
upon a block of dry wood, near which are placed
small pieces of punk. When ready to use, the string
is first coiled around the shaft, by turning it with the
hand. The bow is then pulled downwards, thus un
coiling the string, and revolving the shaft towards the

INVENTIONS

left. By the momentum given to the wheel, the
string is again coiled up in a reverse manner, and the
bow again drawn up. The bow is again pulled down
wards, and the revolution of the shaft reversed,
uncoiling the string, and recoiling it as before. This
alternate revolution of the shaft is continued, until
sparks are emitted from the point where it rests upon
the piece of dry wood below. Sparks are produced
in a few moments by the intensity of the friction, and
ignite the punk, which speedily furnishes a fire.

O-no-nea Gos-ha' -da, or Corn-busk Salt Bottle.

In the art of basket-work, in all its varieties, the
Indian women also excel. Their baskets are made
with a neatness, ingenuity, and simplicity which de
serve the highest praise. Splint is the chief material,
but they likewise use a species of flag, and also corn-
husks. Among these various patterns, which are as
diversified as convenience or ingenuity could suggest,
the most perfectly finished is the sieve basket. It is
designed for sifting corn meal to remove the chit, and

41'

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

coarser particles, after the corn has been pounded into
flour. The bottom of the basket is wove in such fine
checks as to answer very perfectly all the ends of the
wire sieve. Another variety of open basket was made
of corn-husks and flags, very closely and ingeniously
braided. In their- domestic economy, the basket an
swered a multitude of purposes. Bottles for salt were
made of corn-husks in the forms represented in the
figures.

Tont-ka-do-qua, or Basket Fish Net.
3 feet.

The basket net was made of splint in a conical
form, about three feet in length, fifteen inches in
diameter at the mouth, and six at the small end.
In using it, the fisherman stood in the rapids of the
creek or river, where the water rippled over the stony
bottom, and with a stick or rod managed to direct
the fish into the partly submerged basket, as they
attempted to shoot down the rapid. When one was
heard to flutter in the basket, it was at once raised
from the water, and the fish was found secure within

' 42

BASKET-MAKING

it. In those forest days, when fish abounded in every
stream, it was an easy matter thus to capture them
in large numbers.

Black-ash furnishes the only splint used by the
Iroquois, and perhaps the same may be said of all
other Indians. They choose a tree about a foot in
diameter and free from limbs, after which they cut
off a stick about six feet in length. After removing
the bark they pound the stick with some heavy
implement to start the splints, which can thus be
made to run off with the utmost regularity and uni
formity of thickness. This process is continued
until the log is stripped down to the heart. These
splints, which are about three inches wide and an
eighth of an inch thick, are afterwards subdivided
both ways until reduced to the required width and
thickness. When resplit into thinner strips the
splints have a white and smooth surface. If the
baskets are to be variegated, the splints are dyed
upon one side before they are woven, and are also
moistened to make them pliable before they are used.
The patient industry of the Indian female while en
gaged in this manual labor, and her skill and taste are
alike exemplified in this interesting manufacture.

Their wooden implements were often elaborately
carved. Those upon which the most labor was ex
pended were the ladles, Ah-do-qua-sa, of various sizes,
used for eating hommony and soup. They were their
substitute for the spoon, and hence every Indian
family was supplied with a number. The end of the
handle was usually surmounted with the figure of an
animal, as a squirrel, a hawk, or a beaver, some of them

LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S

with a human figure in a sitting posture, others with
a group of such figures in various attitudes, as those
of wrestling or embracing. These figures are carved
with considerable skill and correctness of proportion.

Ab-do-qua-sa, or Ladle.

Upon the hommony-stirrer, Got -go-ne-os-ha , an article
used in every Indian household for making hommony,
succotash or soup and for many other purposes,
similar ornaments were bestowed. It is usually from
three to four feet in length, and made of hard maple,

WOODEN UTENSILS

or other tough wood, in the general form of the one
represented in the figure. This hommony blade is
made out of one piece of wood, although the end
piece is attached to the blade by a link. In the end
piece are two wooden balls, also cut out of the solid

Got'-go-ne-os-ba', or Hommony Blade.
4 feet.

wood within the frame in which they are confined.
For a wooden utensil it is beautifully made. Bowls,
pitchers and other vessels of knot are common in In
dian families, and are worked out with great labor and
care. In ancient times the aged and infirm were
wont to assist themselves in walking with a simple
staff, but in later times the cane, Ah-da-dis-ha, has
been substituted. Like their other utensils of wood,
the modern cane is elaborately carved.

The original ladle was of bark and a very simple
contrivance, as will appear from the representation.
It was made of red elm bark, and would hold but
little more than the common spoon. In ancient
times ladles of this description only were used ; but
they were laid aside when the possession of metallic im-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

plements enabled them to substitute the present one of
wood. The ladle is, without doubt, an original Indian

Bark Ladle.

utensil, and in all probability the origin of the common
wooden ladle still in general use among our own people.

GA-KA'-AH, OR SKIRT
See PLATE, I. 122

The modern female costume of the Iroquois is both
striking and graceful. Some of them would excite
admiration by the exactness of their adjustment and
the delicacy, even brilliancy of their bead-work em-

COSTUMES

broidery. They use, to this day, the same articles of
apparel in form and fashion, as in ancient times, but
they have substituted materials of foreign manufac
ture/11^ The porcupine quill has given place to the
bead, and the skins of animals to the cotton fabric and
the broadcloth. Much taste is exhibited in the bead-
work, which is so conspicuous in the female costume.
The colors are blended harmoniously, and the pat
terns are ingeniously devised and skilfully executed.
It is sufficiently evident, from the specimens of their
handiwork, that the Indian female can be taught to
excel with the needle. The Ga-ka-ah, or Skirt, of one
of which the plate (I. 12*2) is an accurate copy, is usu
ally of blue broadcloth, and elaborately embroidered
with bead-work. It requires two yards of cloth, which
is worn with the selvedge at the top and bottom ; the
skirt being secured about the waist, and descending
nearly to the moccason. Around the lower edge, and
part way up the centre in front, it is tastefully and
beautifully embroidered. In one of the angles a
figure is worked representing a tree or flower. The
cloth skirt is universally worn among the present Iro-
quois, but they are not usually as richly embroidered,
or of as fine material as the one represented in the
plate. This is of Seneca workmanship, and is a rare
specimen of Indian needlework.

The skirt shown in this plate (II. 47) is without
question the finest specimen of Indian bead-work ever
exhibited. Next to the article itself the plate will fur
nish the best description. It was made by Miss
Caroline G. Parker (Ga-h'd'-nd), a Seneca Indian girl,
now being educated in the State Normal School, to

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

whose finished taste and patient industry the State
is indebted for most of the many beautiful speci
mens of bead-work embroidery now in the Indian
collection.(14)

In doing this work, the eye and the taste are the chief
reliances, as they use no patterns except as they may
have seen them in the works of others. In combin
ing colors certain general rules, the result of experience
and observation are followed, but beyond them each
one pursues her own fancy. They never seek for
strong contrasts, but break the force of them by inter
posing white, that the colors may blend harmoniously.
Thus light blue and pink beads, with white beads
between them, is a favorable combination ; dark blue
and yellow, with white between, is another ; red and
light blue, with white between, is another ; and light
purple and dark purple, with white between, is a
fourth. Others might be added were it necessary.
If this bead-work is critically examined it will be
found that these general rules are strictly observed ;
and in so far bead-work embroidery may be called
a systematic art. The art of flowering, as they
term it, is the most difficult part of bead-work, as it
requires an accurate knowledge of the appearance of
the flower, and the structure and condition of the
plant at the stage in which it is represented. These
imitations are frequently made with great delicacy,
of which a very favorable exhibition may be seen in
the plate, in the flower introduced at the angle of
the skirt.

GA-KA-AH OR SKIRT,

COSTUMES

GISE'-HA, OR PANTALETTE

See PLATE, I. 274

This article of female apparel is also universally
worn. It is usually made of red broadcloth, and or
namented with a border of bead-work around the
lower edge, and also part way up the side at the point
which becomes the front of the pantalette. It is
secured above the knee, and falls down upon the
moccason. In ancient times the Gisef-ha was made of
deer-skin and embroidered with porcupine-quill work.
As the moccason is elsewhere described, nothing fur
ther need be said in relation to it as a part of the
female costume.

AH-DE-A'-DA-WE-SA, OR OVER-DRESS

See PLATES, I. 190, 191

The over-dress is usually of muslin or calico of the
highest colors. It is loosely adjusted to the person,
gathered slightly at the waist, and falls part way down
the skirt. Around the lower edge is a narrow border
of bead-work. In front it is generally buttoned with
silver broaches, arranged as represented in the plate.
They are usually larger in size, and arranged in paral
lel rows, as represented in the female costume in the
frontispiece. The Indian female delights in a profu
sion of silver ornaments, consisting of silver broaches
of various patterns and sizes, from those which are six
inches in diameter, and worth as many dollars, down to
those of the smallest size, valued at a sixpence.
Silver ear-rings and finger-rings of various designs,
silver beads, hat bands and crosses, are also found in

VOL. ir. — 4 49

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

their paraphernalia. These crosses, relics of Jesuit
influence, are frequently eight inches in length, of
solid silver, and very valuable, but they are looked
upon by them simply in the light of ornaments.

Finger and ear rings of the same material, specimens
of which may be seen in the plate (II. 50), were also
very common. The most of these silver ornaments in
later years have been made by Indian silversmiths, one
of whom may be found in nearly every Indian village.
They are either made of brass, of silver, or from silver
coins pounded out, and then cut into patterns with
metallic instruments. The ear rings figured in the
plate were made out of bar silver, by an Onondaga
silversmith on Grand river, under the direction of the
writer.

E'-YOSE, OR BLANKET

This indispensable and graceful garment is of blue
or green broadcloth, of which it requires two yards.
It falls from the head or neck in natural folds the
width of the cloth, as the selvedges are at the top
and bottom, and it is gathered round the person like
a shawl. It is worn very gracefully by the Indian
female, and makes a becoming article of apparel.

By some singular impulse of fancy, the fur hat has
been appropriated by the women as a part of the
female costume, until among the modern Iroquois it
is more common to see this part of the white man's
apparel upon the head of the Indian female than upon
that of the warrior. Hat bands of silver, or of broaches
strung together, or of long silver beads, are indispen
sable ornaments on public occasions. Sometimes, but
rarely, clusters of feathers are attached to the hat.
• 5°

i.AH-WAS-HA OR SILVER EAR RING
fc.AH-NE-A-HUS-HA SILVER FINGER RINGS
S.AN-NE-AS-GA OR SILVER BROACH

COSTUMES

GA'-TE-AS-HA', OR NECKLACE

See PLATE, I. 254

The necklace is made of silver and wampum beads,
and has a silver cross suspended. The beads usually
worn by Indian women are of common glass. In
ancient times it was customary to wear necklaces of
the teeth of animals, but such barbarous ornaments
were long since repudiated by the Iroquois. A species
of shoulder ornament in the nature of a necklace made
of a fragrant marsh grass, called by the Senecas
Ga-a-o'-ta-ges, is very generally worn. Several strands
or cords are braided from this grass, of the requisite
length, and tied into one string. At intervals of three
or four inches, small round discs, made of the same
material, sometimes covered upon the upper face with
bead-work, are attached. It thus makes a conspicuous
ornament, and emits an agreeable odor, furnishing a
substitute for perfumery.

GA-SWEH-TA OTE-KO-A, OR BELT OF WAMPUM

OTE-KO-A, OR STRING OF WAMPUM

See PLATE, II. 52, FIGURES I and 2

The use of wampum reaches back to a remote
period upon this continent. It was an original
Indian notion which prevailed among the Iroquois
as early, at least, as the formation of the League.
The primitive wampum of the Iroquois consisted
of strings of a small fresh water spiral shell, called
in the Seneca dialect Ote-ko-a,the name of which has
been bestowed upon the modern wampum. When

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

Da-g'd-no-wJ-d'dy the founder of the League, had per
fected its organic provisions, he produced several
strings of this ancient wampum of his own arrang
ing, and taught them its use in recording the pro
visions of the compact by which the several nations
were united into one people. At a subsequent day
the wampum in present use was introduced among
them by the Dutch, who in the manufactured shell
bead offered an acceptable substitute for the less
convenient one of the spiral shell. These beads, as
shown in the plate, are purple and white, about a
quarter of an inch in length, an eighth in diameter,
and perforated lengthwise so as to be strung on sinew
or bark thread. The white bead was manufactured
from the great conch sea shell, and the purple from
the muscle shell. They are woven into belts, or
used in strings simply, in both of which conditions
they are employed to record treaty stipulations, to
convey messages, and to subserve many religious -and
social purposes. The word wampum is not of
Iroquois origin. Baylie, in his History of New Ply
mouth, informs us that it was first known in New:
England as Wampumpeag^ from which its Algonquin
derivation is to be inferred ; and Hutchinson says that
the art of making it was obtained from the Dutch
about the year i627.(80)

Wampum beads are rarely worn, as they are scarce
and held at high rates. These beads are used
chiefly for religious purposes, and to preserve laws and
treaties. They are made of the conch shell, which
yields both a white and a purple bead, the former of
which is used for religious, and the latter for politi-

I, GA-SWEH-TA OTE-KO-A OR BELT OF WAMPUM,
2. OTE-KO-A OR STRING OF WAMPUM,

W AMP U M

cal purposes. A full string of wampum is usually
three feet long, and contains a dozen or more strands.
White wampum was the Iroquois emblem of purity
and of faith. It was hung around the neck of the
White Dog before it was burned ; it was used before
the periodical religious festivals for the confession of
sins, no confession being regarded as sincere unless
recorded with white wampum ; . further than this, it
was the customary offering in condonation of murder,
although the purple was sometimes employed. In
ancient times, six of these strands was the value of a
life, the amount paid in condonation for a murder.
Wampum has frequently been called the money of the
Indian ; but there is no sufficient reason for supposing
that they ever made it an exclusive currency, or a cur
rency in any sense, more than silver or other orna
ments. All personal ornaments, and most other articles
of personal property passed from hand to hand at a
fixed value ; but they appear to have had no common
standard of value until they found it in our currency.
If wampum had been their currency it would have had
a settled value to which all other articles would have
been referred. There is no doubt that it came nearei
to a currency than any other species of property among
them, because its uses were so general, and its transit
from hand to hand so easy, that every one could be
said to need it. When sold, the strings were counted
and reckoned at half a cent a bead. Wampum
belts were made by covering one side of a deer-skin
belt with these beads, arranged after various devices,
and with most laborious skill. As a belt four or
five feet long by four inches wide would require

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

several thousands of these beads, they were estimated
at a great price. In making a belt no particular pattern
was followed : sometimes they are of the width of
three fingers and three feet long, in other instances as
wide as the hand, and over three feet in length ;
sometimes they are all of one color, in others varie
gated, and in still others woven with the figures
of men to symbolize, by their attitudes, the objects
or events they were designed to commemorate. The
most common width was three fingers, or the width
of seven beads, the length ranging from two to six
feet. In belt making,, which is a simple process,
eight strands or cords of bark thread are first twisted,
from filaments of slippery elm, of the requisite length
and size ; after which they are passed through a strip
of deer-skin to separate them at equal distances from
each other in parallel lines. A piece of splint is then
sprung in the form of a bow, to which each end of
the several strings is secured, and by which all of
them are held in tension, like warp threads in a weav
ing machine. Seven beads, these making the intended
width of the belt, are then run upon a thread by
means of a needle, and are passed under the cords
at right angles, so as to bring one bead lengthwise
between each cord, and the one next in position.
The thread is then passed back again along the
upper side of the cords and again through each of
the beads ; so that each bead is held firmly in its
place by means of two threads, one passing under
and one above the cords. This process is continued
until the belt reaches its intended length, when the
ends of the cords are tied, the end of the belt cov-

MEDALS

ered, and afterwards trimmed with ribbons. In ancient
times both the cords and the thread were of sinew.

The belt possesses an additional interest from the
fact that the beads of which it is composed, formerly

Qnt-wisi-da-ga-dust-ba! t or Silver Medal.

belonged to the celebrated Mohawk Chief, Joseph
Brant, Ta-yen-dd-na'-ga. They were purchased, by the
writer, of his youngest daughter Catharine in October
last, at the reservation on Grand river in Upper
Canada before referred to ; and were afterwards taken
to Tonawanda in this State and made into the present
belt. In this form it will be most convenient to pre
serve them as a relic of the distinguished war captain
of the Mohawks.

The government has long been in the habit of pre
senting silver medals to the chiefs of the various
Indian tribes at the formation of treaties, and on the

LEA GUP: OF THE IROQUOIS

occasion of their visit to the seat of government.
These medals are held in the highest estimation. Red
Jacket, Corn Planter, Farmer's Brother, and several
other distinguished Seneca chiefs have received medals
of this description. Washington presented a medal to
Red Jacket in 1792. It is an elliptical plate of silver,
surrounded by a rim, as represented in the figure, and
is about six inches in its greatest diameter. On each
side it is engraved with various devices. The medal is
now worn by Sose-hd-wa (Johnson), a Seneca chief.

Ga-nuh9-sa, or Sea- she II Medal.

Medals of sea-shell, inlaid with silver, as represented
in the figure, were also worn suspended from the neck
as personal ornaments. They were made of the conch-
shell, and were highly valued.

A few plates further to illustrate the handiwork of
the Indian female in bead-work are introduced in
this volume. The figures themselves will dispense
with the necessity of any description, although they
should be colored to give a full impression of their
character. The patient industry of the Indian female
is quite remarkable, when seen in contrast with the

BABY-FRAME

impatience of labor in the warrior himself. In the
work of their reclamation and gradual induction into
industrial pursuits, this fact furnishes no small degree
of encouragement.

GA-OSE-HA', OR BABY-FRAME
See PLATE, II. 58

This is likewise an Indian invention. It appears
to have been designed rather as a convenience to the
Indian mother for the transportation of her infant,
than, as has generally been supposed, to secure an
erect figure. The frame is about two feet in length,
by about fourteen inches in width, with a carved foot
board at the small end, and a hoop or bow at the
head, arching' over at right angles. After being en
closed in a blanket, the infant is lashed upon the
frame with belts of bead-work, which firmly secure
and cover its person, with the exception of the face.
A separate article for covering the face is then drawn
over the bow, and the child is wholly protected. (118)
When carried, the burden-strap attached to the frame
is placed around the forehead of the mother, and the
Ga-ose'-lici upon her back. This frame is often elab
orately carved, and its ornaments are of the choicest
description.

The figure is introduced to show the frame divested
of the belts and drapery by which, when in actual use,
it is entirely concealed. It consists of but three
principal pieces of wood, the bow, bottom board and
foot board, upon the first and last of which the most
labor was bestowed. They are always carved, and
frequently inlaid with silver, or with wood of dif-

LEAGUE OF THE I R O

O I S

ferent colors and in various figures. The bow, which
arches over, is held to the bottom board by means of
a cross piece, passing under it, into which the ends
of the bow are inserted. It is further secured in its
perpendicular position by means of side pieces in
which the bow is embedded. The foot board at the
small end of the frame is also carved, and often inlaid,

Ga-ose-ba, or Baby-frame.

it being the only part of it which is exposed when the
infant is lashed upon the frame. Deer strings are run
along the outer edges of the bottom board under which
the belts are passed from side to side, passing over the
body of the child. As a whole the Ga-ose'-ha, with its
embroidered belts, and other decorations, is one of the
most conspicuous articles pertaining to their social life.
When cultivating the maize, or engaged in any out
door occupation, the Ga-ose'-ha is hung upon a limb of
the nearest tree, and left to swing in the breeze. The

GA-ON-SEH OR BABY FRAME,

DIFFUSION OF INDIAN ARTS

patience and quiet of the Indian child in this close
confinement are quite remarkable. It will hang thus
suspended for hours, without uttering a complaint.

Many other articles might be introduced further. to
illustrate the social life of the Iroquois, did space per
mit, but sufficient has been given, to exhibit the general
character of their fabrics, implements and utensils. A
portion of them, which appeared particularly calculated
to exhibit their artisan intellect, have been noticed
minutely, for it is in this view that they are chiefly
interesting.

Such is the diffusion of Indian arts and Indian/
inventions among the red races, that it is impossible
to ascertain with what nation or tribe they in fact
originated. Many of them were common to all, from
Maine to Oregon, and from the St. Lawrence to the
peninsula of Florida. To this day Indian life is about
the same over the whole republic. If we wished to
discover the inventions of the Iroquois, we might
expect to find them as well among the Sioux of the
upper Mississippi as among the descendants of the
Iroquois themselves. It is for this reason that in
describing the fabrics which illustrate the era of Indian
occupation, we should take in the whole range of
Indian life, from the wild tribes dwelling in the
seclusions of Oregon, to the present semi-agricultural
Iroquois who reside among ourselves. They have
passed through all the intermediate stages, from ex
treme rudeness to comparative civilization. If we
wish to connect the fabrics of the former with those
of our own primitive inhabitants, we may find that con
nection in the fact that similar implements and similar

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

fabrics, at no remote period, were in the hands, and
of the manufacture of the Iroquois themselves. Many
of the relics disentombed from the soil of New York
relate back to the period of the Mound Builders of
the west, and belong to a race of men and an age
which have passed beyond the ken of Indian tradition.
Our first Indian epoch is thus connected with that of
the Mound Builders.(3G) In the same manner, the
fabrics of the Iroquois are intimately connected with
those of all the tribes now resident within the republic.
One system of trails belted the whole face of the
territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; and the
intercourse between the multitude of nations who
dwelt within these boundless domains was constant,
and much more extensive than has ever been supposed.
If any one, therefore, desires a picture of Iroquois life
before Hendrick Hudson sailed up the river upon
whose banks rested the eastern end of their " Long
House," he should look for it in Catlin's Scenes at the
skirts of the Rocky Mountains. There are diversities,
it is true, but Indian life is essentially the same.(127)

In the fabrics of the modern Iroquois, there is
much to inspire confidence in their teachableness in
the useful arts. When their minds are unfolded by
education, and their attention is attracted by habit to
agricultural pursuits, as has already become the case,
to some extent, there is great promise that a portion,
at least, of this gifted race will be reclaimed, and raised,
eventually, to a citizenship among ourselves. It would
be a grateful spectacle, yet to behold the children of
our primeval forests cultivating the fields over which
their fathers roamed in sylvan independence. (128)

Chapter II

Language of the Iroquois — Alphabet — The Noun — Adjective —
Comparison — Article — Adverb — Preposition — Species of De-<
clension — The Verb — Fulness of Conjugation — Formation of
Sentences— The Lord's Prayer

THE language of the Iroquois, like all un
written languages, is imperfect in its construc
tion, and scarcely admits of comparison,
except on general principles, with those which have
been systematized and perfected. It would doubtless
be characterized by the schoolman as a barbarous jar
gon, although entitled to some portion of the indul
gence which is due to all primitive or uncompounded
languages, in the early stages of their formation/79^
To us, however, there is an interest incident to these
dialects, which rises above mere literary curiosity.
Through all generations, their language will continue
to be spoken in our geographical terms : " their names
are on our waters, we may not wash them out." (73)
The face of nature, indeed, changes its appearance,
mutat terra vices, but its landmarks remain essentially
the same. Within our borders, the Iroquois have
written them over with such a permanent imprint, that
to the most distant ages will our hills and vales and
ever-flowing rivers speak

"Their dialect of yore."

The Ho-de'-no-sau-nee were eminently fortunate in
engrafting their names upon the features of nature, if

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

they were desirous of a living remembrance. No one
can turn to the lake, or river, or streamlet, to which
they have bequeathed an appellation, without con
fessing that the Indian has perpetuated himself by a
monument more eloquent and imperishable than could
be fabricated by human hands.

From considerations of this description, there arises
a sufficient interest in the language of our predeces
sors, to invite an inquiry into its principal fea
tures/7^

Of the six dialects in which it is now spoken, the
Mohawk and Oneida have a close resemblance to
each other; the Cayuga and Seneca the same; while
the Onondaga and Tuscarora are not only unlike each
other, but are also distinguished from the other four
by strong dialectical differences. In the estimation of
the Iroquois, the Onondaga dialect is the most fin
ished and majestic, and the Oneida the least vigorous
in its expressions ; but to the American ear, the former
is harsh and pointed, and the latter is liquid, harmoni
ous, and musical. The Tuscarora is admitted to be a
dialect of the Iroquois language, but it has not such a
close affinity to either of the remaining five, as the
latter have to each other. In conversation they are
all able to understand each other with readiness, unless
words intervene which have been naturalized into one
of their dialects from foreign languages. A compar
ison of these dialects will be found in the table.

The alphabet common to the six dialects consists
of nineteen letters : A, C, D, E, G, H, I, J, K, N,
O, Q, R, S, T, U, W, X, and Y.(75) In addition to
several elementary sounds which require a combina-

LANGUAGE OF THE IROQUQIS

tion of letters, the Senecas occasionally employ the
sound of Z; but it is so closely allied with the sound
of S, as not to be distinguishable, except by careful
observation. The Mohawks and Oneidas use the
liquid L, and the Tuscaroras occasionally employ the
sound of F ; (75) but these letters are not common to
all the dialects. It has been customary to exclude the
liquid R from the Iroquois alphabet, as not common
to the several dialects, but this is clearly erroneous.
Although it is principally found in the Mohawk, Sen
eca, and Cayuga, it is yet occasionally discovered in
each of the others. Some of the ancient writers
affirmed that this letter was not to be found in the
Oneida tongue, and that the word Rebecca, for ex
ample, would be pronounced, by an Oneida, Lequecca.
It is possible that the presence of the consonant by
which is unknown in their language, may have ren
dered the substitution of L necessary to effect the
whole pronunciation ; but it is certain that in some of
their words the R is found, as, for example, in the
name of Schoharie creek, O-sko'-harl. This letter is
found in the Onondaga dialect, in the same geograph
ical name, which, in the latter, is Sko-har. In the
Tuscarora, this letter is frequently found, as, for in
stance, in the name of Buffalo, Ne-o-thro'-ra, and of
Niagara, O-ne-a-cars.

The number of their elementary sounds, as at
present ascertained, is below that of the English
language, but twenty-three having been determined
in the Seneca tongue, while in the former it is well
known that there are thirty-eight. A more critical
analysis would doubtless discover additional sounds,

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

as in the guttural and nasal tones they take a wider
range than the English voice.

In illustrating the parts of speech by a cursory
examination, and in elucidating the declensions and
conjugations, the words introduced as specimens
will be taken from the Seneca language.

It is supposed by those who have inquired philo
sophically into the formation of language, that the
noun substantive would be the first part of speech
in the order of origination, inasmuch as the objects
in nature must be named, and perhaps classed, before
relations between them are suggested, or actions con
cerning them are expressed. Much of the beauty
of a language depends upon this part of speech.
Nouns of one syllable are rarely, if ever, found in
either of the dialects ; those of two syllables are not
very numerous ; those of three and four syllables
embrace the great mass of words which belong to this
part of speech. As specimens of the language, the
following examples are given : —

NOUNS OF TWO SYLLABLES.

An-da', Day. Ga-ee', Tree.

So-a', Night. Ha-ace', Panther.

Ga-o', Wind. Je-yeh', Dog.

Gus-no', Bark. Gen-joh', Fish.

NOUNS OF THREE SYLLABLES.

Ah-wa'-o, Rose. O-o'-za, Bass-wood.

O-gis'-ta, Fire. O-ane'-da, Shrub.

O-we'-za, Ice. O-na'-ta, Leaf.

O-dus'-hote, A spring. Ga-ha'-neh, Summer.

Ga-ha-'da, Forest. O-gaY-ah, Evening.

O-eke'-ta, Thistle. Ga-o'-wo, Canoe.

THE NO UN

NOUNS OF FOUR SYLLABLES.

O-na-ga'-nose, Water. Ong-wa-o'-weh, Indian.

Ga-a-nun'-da, Mountain. Ga-ga-neas'-heh, Knife.

Ga-gwe-dake'-neh, Spring. O-gwen-nis'-ha, Copper.

Sa-da'-che'-ah, Morning. Ah-ta-gwen'-da, Flint.

Ga-a-o'-da, Gun.

NOUNS OF FIVE SYLLABLES.

Sa-da'-wa-sun-teh, Midnight. So-a'-ka-ga-gwa, Moon.

O-wis'-ta-no-o, Silver. Ga-ne-o'-us-heh, Iron.

An-da'-ka-ga-gwa, Sun. O-da'-wa-an-do, Otter.

In most, if not all languages, the idea of singular
and plural is conveyed by an inflection of the word
itself, or by some addition. To illustrate from the
language under consideration, which forms the plural
in several ways by inflection, the subjoined examples
are introduced.

Singular. Plural.

O-on'-dote, A tree. O-on-do'-do, Trees.

Ga-no'-sote, A house. Ga-no-so'-do, Houses.

Ga-ne-o'-wa-o, A brook. Ga-ne-o-wa-o'-neo, Brooks.

Je-da'-o, A bird. Je-da-o'-suh-uh, Birds.

O-an'-nuh, A pole. O-an'-nuh-suh, Poles.

Ga-hun'-da, A creek. Ga-hun-da'-neo, Creeks.

There are several other terminations by which the
plural is indicated.

It is said that the dual number originated in the
difficulty of inventing the numerals, one, two, three,
&c., which are in themselves extremely abstract con
ceptions. The ideas of one, two and more, which
correspond with singular, dual and plural, would be
far more easily formed in the mind, than the idea of
number in general ; and the most simple mode of
expressing them would be by a variation of the word
VOL. it. — 5 65

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

itself. Hence in the Hebrew and Greek, which are
original or un com pounded languages, in the general
sense, the dual is found to exist, while in the Latin,
and in modern languages, which are compounds, and
were formed subsequent to the invention of numerals,
the dual number is discarded. The Iroquois, so far
as we know, is an original and uncompounded lan
guage, and it has the dual number, both in its verbs
and nouns. (79)

Gender was very happily indicated in the Latin
and Greek by final letters or terminations. In the
English, by giving up the ancient declensions, this
mode of designating gender was also laid aside, and
two or three modes substituted ; thus, that of vary
ing the word itself, as tiger, tigress, of giving the
same animal names entirely different, as buck and
doe, and more frequently still that of prefixing words
which signify male and female. The Iroquois nouns
have three genders, which are indicated in the manner
last mentioned. Unlike the provisions of other lan
guages, all inanimate objects, without distinction, were
placed in the neuter gender.

In some respects the adjective would be a simple
part of speech to invent, as quality is an object of
external sense, and is always in concrete with the
subject. But to discover and adopt a classification,
founded upon the similitudes of objects, would be
more difficult, since both generalisation and abstrac
tion would be required. The dialects of the Ho-de-
no-sau-nee appear to be amply furnished with this part
of speech, on which so much of the beauty of a lan
guage is known to depend, to express nearly every

ADJECTIVE

shade of quality in objects. Comparison, of which
they have the three degrees, is effected by adding
another word, and not by an inflection of the word
itself, in the following manner:

Positive. Comparative. Superlative.

Great, Go-wii-na', Ah-gwus'-go-wa-na, Ha-yo-go-sote'-go-wa-na.

Good, We-yo', Ah-gwus'-we-yo, Ha-yo-go-sote'-we-yo.

Sweet, O-ga-uh', Ah-gwus'-o-ga-uh, Ha-yo-go-sote'-o-ga-uh.

Small, Ne-wa-ah', Ah-gwus'-ne-wa-ah, Ha-yo-go-sote'-ne-wa-ah.

But in connecting the adjective with the noun, the
two words usually enter into combination, and lose
one or more syllables. This principle, or species of
contraction, is carried throughout the language, and
to some extent prevents prolixity. The language has
but few primitive words, or ultimate roots ; and when
these are mastered, their presence is readily detected
and understood, through all the elaborate and intricate
combinations in which they are used. To illustrate
the manner of compounding the adjective with the
substantive, the following examples may be taken :
O-ya, fruit ; O-ga-uh', sweet ; O-ya-ga-uh, sweet fruit ;
O, the first syllable of sweet, being dropped. Again,
E'-yose, a blanket ; Ga-geh-ant, white ; Tose-a-geh'-ant,
white blanket ; Ga-no'-sote, a house ; We-yo , good ;
Ga-no'-se-yo, a good house ; literally fruit sweet, blan
ket white, and house good, illustrative of that natural
impulse in man which leads him to place the object
before the quality. In other instances the adjective
is divided, and one part prefixed and the other suf
fixed to the noun thus : Ga-nun-da-yeh, a village ;
Ne-wa-ah, small ; Ne-g'd-nun-da'-ah, a small village ;
Ah-ta'-qu'd-o-weh, a moccason ; Ne-wa'-ta-qua-ah, a small

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

moccason. The adjective is also frequently used un-
compounded with the noun, as Ga-na'-dike-ho E'-yose, a
green blanket.

The indefinite article, a or an, is entirely unknown
in the language of the Iroquois. There are numerous
particles, as in the Greek, which, without significance
in themselves separately, are employed for euphony,
and to connect other words. These particles qualify
and sometimes limit the signification of words ; but
yet if they should be submitted to a critical examina
tion, none of them would answer the idea of the article
a, or an. The existence in completeness of this refined
part of speech would indicate a greater maturity and
finish than the dialects of the Iroquois possessed.
But the definite article na, the, is found in the lan
guage. It is not as distinctly defined, and perfectly
used, as in more polished languages, but it is usually
prefixed to substantives, as with us, to indicate the
thing intended.

Of the adverb nothing need be introduced, except
to remark that the language is furnished with the
usual variety. A few specimens may be added,
Nake-ho, here ; O-na\ now ; Fa-da, yesterday ; Ska-
no', well.

The preposition is allowed to be so abstract and
metaphysical in its nature, that it would be one of
the last and most difficult parts of speech to invent.
It expresses relation " considered in concrete with
the correlative object ; " and is of necessity very ab
struse. The prepositions, of, to, and for, are regarded
as the most abstract, from the character .of the relations
which they indicate. Declension, it is supposed, was

PREPOSITIONS

resorted to by the Greeks, and adopted by the
Latins, to evade the necessity of inventing these
prepositions ; as it would be much easier to express
the idea by the variation of the noun, than to ascer
tain some word which would convey such an abstract
relation as that indicated by of or to. By the ancient
cases, this difficulty was surmounted, and the preposi
tion was blended with the correlative object, as in
Sermonis, of a speech ; Sermoni, to a speech. Modern
languages have laid aside the ancient cases, for the
reason, it is said, that the invention of prepositions
rendered them unnecessary. In the Iroquois lan
guage, the prepositions above mentioned are not to
be found ; neither have its nouns a declension, like
the Greek and Latin. Some traces of a declension
are discoverable ; but the cases are too imperfect to
be compared with those of the ancient languages, or
to answer fully the ends of the prepositions. This
part of speech is the most imperfectly developed of
any in the language ; and the contrivances resorted to,
to express such of these relations as were of absolute
necessity, are too complex to be easily understood.

The language, however, contains the simple prep
ositions, as Da-ga'-o, across ; No'-ga, after ; Na'-ho, at ;
O'-an-dd) before ; Dose-gd'-o, near, &c. It must be
inferred that the framers of the language had no
distinct idea of the relations conveyed by the defi
cient prepositions, otherwise they would be found
in the language. From the number of particles
employed in the language, and the complexity of
their combinations, it would be impossible to analyze
the word, or phrase, for example, in which on oc-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

curs, and take out the specific fragment which has
the force of the preposition.

In the imperfect declensions through which the
Iroquois substantives are passed, pronouns, as well as
prepositions, are interwoven by inflection. These
declensions are not reduceable to regular forms, but
admit of great diversities, thus rendering the language
itself, like all simple and original languages, exceed
ingly intricate in its inflections. The following
examples will exhibit the ordinary variations of the
noun.

Ga-no'-sote,
Ho-no'-sote,
Ha-to-no'-sote,
Ho-no'-sa-go,'

A-so'-gwa-ta,
Ho-so'-gwa-ta,
Na-no-so'-gwa-ta,
Ho-so'-gwa-ta-go,

O-on-dote',
Ho-on-da',
Ha'-to-de-on-dote,

0-ya',

Ho-ya',

Ho-da-ya',

Wa-nis'-hehnda,
Dwen-nis'-heh-dake,
Dwen-nis'-heh-deh,
Sa-wen-nis'-hat,

Wa-sun'-da-da,
Dwa-sun'-da-dake,
Dwa-sun'-da-da,
Sa-wa-sun'-dart,

A house.

His house.

Of, to, from, or at his house.

In his house.

A pipe.
His pipe.
Of his pipe.
In his pipe.

A tree.

His tree.

Of, to, from, or at his tree.

Fruit.

His fruit.

Of, to, from, or at his fruit.

Day.

At a day past.
At a day future.
With the day.

Night.

At a night past.
At a night future.
With the night.
70

PRONOUNS

Of the pronouns but little need be added, except
that they are very defective : thus E signifies I, we,
me, and us ; Ese, thou, ye or you, and thee. He
and they are wanting, except as expressed in the
verb by its inflection. The personal pronouns make
the possessive case very regularly, thus : Ah-ga-weh'y
mine ; Sa-weti, thine ; Ho-weH ', his ; Go-weh\ hers ;
Ung-gwa-weH ', ours ; Swa-weh ', yours ; Ho-nau-weh',
theirs. Similar variations can be made on some of
the relative pronouns.

Interjections are extremely numerous in this lan
guage, and appear to be adapted to all the passions.
It has also the ordinary conjunctions.

Next and last the verb presents itself. This part
of speech, in the nature of things, must have been
one of the first invented, as without its aid, there
could be no affirmation, no expression of action or
passion. Among primitive languages, the conjuga
tion of the verb is extremely complex. Grammarians
assign as a reason, that the tenses and moods of the
verb would be more easily indicated by its inflection,
than by contriving or inventing the substantive verb,
I am; the possessive verb, I have; and the auxilia
ries, do, will, would, shall, can, and may ; all of which
are necessary in the conjugation of an English verb.
It will be remembered that the English verb admits
of but three variations in itself, as press, pressed^
pressing; and its conjugation is completed by the
auxiliary verbs above-mentioned ; while the Greek,
Latin, and Iroquois verbs are conjugated, except some
part of the passive voice in Latin, by the variations
throughout of the verb itself; thus, Legeram, I had

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

read; Che-w'a-ge-ya-go, I had shot; Legero, I shall
have read; A-wa-ge'-yd-go, I shall have shot. In this
manner, the conjugation not only dispensed with the
pronouns I, thou, and he, with their plurals, but also
with the auxiliary verbs, which have introduced such
prolixity into modern languages. The Iroquois verbs
are conjugated with great regularity and precision,
making the active and passive voices, all the moods,
except the infinitive, and all the tenses, numbers, and
persons, common to the English verb. Some part
of the optative mood can also be made.

But the participles are wanting. It is difficult to
determine upon what principle the absence of this
part of speech, which in a written language would
be a serious blemish, shall be accounted for ; and
much more difficult to ascertain the nature of the
substitute in a verbal language. A substitute for the
infinitive mood is found in the present tense of
the subjunctive mood, together with a pronoun, as in
the following passage : " Direct that He-no may come
and give us rain " (see the invocation entire, Vol. I.
p. 1 89) ; instead of saying, " Direct He-no to come,
and give us rain." In correctly translated Indian
speeches this form of expression will frequently appear,
from the influence which this idiomatic peculiarity of
all Indian languages will exercise upon the translator.

The origin of the dual number has been adverted
to. In the active voice of Iroquois verbs, the dual
number is well distinguished ; but in the passive
voice, the dual and the plural are the same. The
presence of this number is indicative of the intricate

nature of their conjugations.

THE VERB

To convey a distinct notion of the mutations
through which an Iroquois verb passes in its con
jugation, and to furnish those who are curious, as
linguists, with a specimen for comparison with the
conjugations of other languages, one of their verbs,
with its inflections, is subjoined in Appendix A, No. 2.
Its great regularity, even harmony of inflection, con
veys a favorable impression of the structure of the
language ; but it does not, nor would it be expected
to possess the elegance and beautv of the Greek,
or the brevity and solidity of the Latin conjuga
tions. The principal parts of a few verbs are given
as specimens.

ACTIVE VOICE.

Pres. Indie. Future Indie. Perfect Indie.

Ge'-yase,
O-gee'-a,

Ga-geh',
Ga-go'-ace,

Eh-ge'-yake,
Eh-ge'-a,
Eh-gii-geh',
Eh-ga-go'-ake,

Ah-ge'-ya-go, •
Ah-ge'-a-go,
Ah'-ga-geh,
Ah-ga'-go-a-go,

To shoot.
To die.
To see.
To strike,

Ah-got'-hun-da, Eh-ga'-ouk, Ah-ga'-o-geh, To hear.

Kna-ga-ha', Enk-na'-ga-a, Kna-ga'-huk, To drink.

It has been laid down as a maxim, that " the
more simple any language is in its composition, the
more complex it must be in its declensions and con
jugations, and on the contrary, the more simple it
is in its declensions and conjugations, the more com
plex it must be in its composition." The position
is thus illustrated : when two people, by uniting or
otherwise, blend their languages, the union always
simplifies the structure of the resulting language,
while it introduces a greater complexity into its ma
terials. The Greek, which is uncompounded, and

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

is said to have but three hundred primitives, is ex
tremely intricate in. its conjugations. On the other
hand, the Latin, which is a compound language,(79)
laid aside the middle voice and the optative mood,
which are peculiar to the Greek, and also the dual
number. This simplified its conjugations. In its
declensions, the Latin, although it has an additional
case in the ablative, is yet much more simple than
the Greek, as it has no contract nouns. The Eng
lish, which is a mixture of several languages, is more
simple than either in its declensions, which are made
by the aid of prepositions alone ; and in its conjuga
tions, which are made by other verbs. With this
principle in mind, the regularity, fulness, and intricacy
of the Iroquois conjugations are not particularly re
markable. Its primitive words, as before remarked,
are few, and the language has been formed out of them
by a complex and elaborate system of combinations.

The language of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee has the sub
stantive or neuter verb, E-neti-gay I am, although im
perfect in some of its tenses. This verb is regarded
by philologists as extremely difficult of invention, as
it simply expresses being. Impersonal verbs are also
very numerous in the language, as O-geori-de-o, it
snows ; O-rid'-yose'-don-de-o, it hails ; Gd-wa'-no-das, it
thunders. It is supposed by those who have in
quired into the formation of language, that most of
the verbs in primitive tongues originally took the
impersonal form, for the reason that such a verb
expresses in itself an entire event, while the division
of the event into subject and attribute, involves some
nice metaphysical distinctions.

ARTICULATION

Before closing upon this subject it will be proper
to notice a few of the peculiarities of the language.
In the first place it has no labials, consequently the
Iroquois, in speaking, never touch their lips together.
This fact may be employed as a test in the pronuncia
tion of their words and names. (75) Their language
possesses the numerals firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c.,
also the numbers one, two, three, ascending, by vari
ous contrivances, to about one hundred. For sums
above this, their mode of enumeration was defective,
as mathematical computation ceased, and some de
scriptive term was substituted in its place.

The voices of the Ho-de'-no-sau-nee are powerful,
and capable of reaching a high shrill key. In con
versation its natural pitch is above the English voice,
especially with the female, whose voice, by a natural
transition, frequently rises in conversation an octave
above its ordinary pitch, and sounds upon a tone
to which the English voice could not be elevated
and retain a distinct articulation. It also passes up
and down, at intervals, from octave to octave, the
voice retaining upon the elevated key a clear and
musical intonation.

In verbal languages the words appear to be literally
strung together in a chain, if the one under inspection
may be taken as a specimen. Substantives are mingled
by declension with pronouns, and sometimes with the
substantive verb, or compounded with the adjective,
thus forming a new word. Particles . are then con
joined, varying or adding to the signification of the
compound, until the word, by the addition of the verb,
becomes so far extended as to embrace a perfect sen-

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

tence. The principles upon which these combinations
are effected are too much involved to be systematized
or generalized. The most which can be said is, that
the general result is accomplished by conjugations and
declensions, which, although regular in general, are
diversified and intricate. To illustrate the manner
in which words are made up, the following example
may be given. Nun-da-wa-oy the radix of the name
of the Senecas, signifies " a great hill ; " by suffix
ing o-no, which conveys the idea of " people at,"
Nun-da-wa-o-m, results literally, " the people at
the great hill." Next, by adding the particle ga,
itself without significance, but when conjoined, con
veying the idea of " place " or " territory," it gives
the compound A Tun-da-wa '-o-no-ga ', "the territory of
the people at the great hill." A more perfect speci
men of the language, as a whole, may be found in
the following version of the Lord's Prayer in the
Seneca dialect.

Gwa-nee' ga-o-ya'-geh che-de-oh' ; sa-sa-no-do'--geh-
teek ; ga-o' ne-dwa na' sa-nunk-ta ; na-huk' ne-ya-weh'
na yo-an'-ja-geh ha'ne-sa-ne-go'-da ha ne-de-o'-da na'
ga-o-ya'-geh. Dun-da-gwa-e'-wa-sa-gwus na' ong-wi-
wa-na-ark-seh' na' da-ya'-ke-wa-sa-gwa'-seh na' onk-
ke-wa-na'-a-ge. Da-ge-o'-na-geh'-wen-nis'-heh-da na'
ong-wa-qua'. Sa-nuk' na-huh' heh'-squa-a ha' ga-yeh
na' wa-ate-keh' na-gwa' na' da-gwa-ya-duh'-nuh-onk
ha' ga-yeh na' wa-ate-keh'; na' seh-eh' na ese' sa-wa
na' o-nuk-ta' kuh' na' ga-hus-ta-seh' kuk' na' da-ga-a-
sa-uh'. Na-huh'-ne-ya-weh.1

1 If an attempt should be made to give a literal translation of
each word, or phrase, it would render transposition necessary, and

NAMES OF PLACES AND PERSONS

Names of places as well as of persons, form an in
tegral part of their language, and hence are all signifi
cant. It furnishes a singular test of their migrations,
for accurate descriptions of localities become in this
manner incorporated into their dialects. The Tus-
caroras still adduce proof from this source to establish
a common origin with the Iroquois, and pretend to
trace their route from Montreal, Do-te-a-co, to the
Mississippi, O-nau-we-yo'-kdy and from thence to North
Carolina, out of which they were driven in 1712.
The era of their separation from the parent stock, and
of this migration, they have entirely lost ; but they
consider the names of places on this extended route,
now incorporated in their language, a not less certain
indication of a common origin than the similarity of
their languages. Indian languages are exceedingly
tenacious of traditionary facts intrusted to their pres
ervation.

change the formation of the words in some respects, as the following will
exhibit.

Gwa-nee', che-de-oh' ga-o'-ya-geh, ga-sa-nuh', ese' sa-nuk-ta' ga-oh'

Our Father, which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name, thy kingdom come,

ese' sne'-go-eh ne-ya-weh' yo an-ja'-geh ha' ne-de-o'-deh ga-o'-ya-geh.

thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven.

Dun-da-gwa-e'-wa-sa-gwus ong-wa-yeh'-his-heh' da-ya-ke'-a wa-

Forgive us our debts as we forgive

sa-gwus-seh' ho-yeh'-his. Da-ge-oh' ne' na-geh' wen-nis'-heh-deh e' na-ha-

our debtors. Give us this day our

da-wen-nis'-heh-geh o-a'-qwa. Ha-squa'-ah e' sa-no' ha' wa-ate-keh',

daily bread. Lead us not into temptation,

na-gwa' da-gwa-ya-dan'-nake ne' wa-ate-keh', na-seh'-eh nees' o-nuk'-ta
but deliver from us evil, for thine is the kingdom,

na-kuh' na ga-hus'-tes-heh, na-kuh' da-ga-a-sa-oh'.
and the power, and the glory.

Na-huh'-se-ya-weh.

Chapter III

Indian Geography — Method of Bestowing Names — Central Trail —
Its Course — Ko-la-ne'-ka — Highway of the Continent — Deriva
tion of Niagara — Ontario Trail — Genesee Trail — Conhocton
Trail — Susquehanna Trail — Indian Runners — Iroquois Map

OUR Indian geography is a subject of inquiry
peculiar in its interest and in its character.
Many of the names bestowed by our pre
decessors having become incorporated into our lan
guage, will be transmitted to distant generations, and
be familiar after their race, and perhaps ours, have
passed away. There is still attainable a large amount
of geographical information pertaining to the period
of Indian occupation, which, estimated at its true
value, would amply remunerate for its collection ; and
which, if neglected, must fade, ere many years, from
remembrance. The features of nature were first
christened by the red man. These baptismal names,
the legacy of the Indian, it were prodigality to cast
away. To the future scholar this subject will com
mend itself, when, perchance, the dusky mantle of
obscurity has enshrouded it, and research itself can
not penetrate the covering.

In an antiquarian aspect, it may be considered
fortunate, that as the villages and settlements of the
Ho-de'-no-sau-nee disappeared, and the cities and vil
lages of the succeeding race were reared upon their
sites, all of these ancient names were transferred to

METHOD OF BESTOWING NAMES

these substituted habitations. Yielding step by step,
and contracting their possessions from year to year,
the Iroquois yet continued in the constant use of
their original names, although the localities them
selves had been surrendered. If a Seneca, for ex
ample, were to refer to Geneva, he would still say
Ga-nuri-da-sa'-ga ; and the Oneida in like manner
would call Utica, Nun-da-da' -sis. All of these locali
ties, as well as our rivers, lakes and streams, still
dwell in the memory of the Iroquois by their ancient
names, while such places as have sprung up on nameless
sites, since they surrendered their domain, have been
christened as they appeared. These names, likewise,
are significant, and are either descriptive of features
of the country, the record of some historical event,
or interwoven with some tradition. From these causes
their geography has been preserved among them with
remarkable accuracy.

The Iroquois method of bestowing names was
peculiar. It frequently happened that the same lake
or river was recognized by them under several differ
ent names. This . was eminently the case with the
larger lakes. It was customary to give to them
the name of some village or locality upon their bor
ders. The Seneca word Te-car-ne-o-di'^ means some
thing more than " lake." It includes the idea of
nearness, literally, "the lake at." Hence, if a Seneca
were asked the name of lake Ontario, he would an
swer, Ne-ati-ga Te-car-ne-o-di', the lake at Ne-aK-ga"
This was a Seneca village at the mouth of the Niagara
river. If an Onondaga were asked the same question,
he would prefix Swa-geti to the word lake, literally,

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

" the lake of Oswego." l The same multiplicity of
names frequently arose in relation to the principal
rivers, where they passed through the territories of
more than one nation.(7G) It was not, however, the
case with villages and other localities.

The principal villages of the Iroquois, in the days
of aboriginal dominion, were connected by well-beaten
trails.(41j These villages were so situated that the
central trail, which started from the Hudson at the
site of Albany, passed through those of the Mohawks
and Oneidas ; and, crossing the Onondaga valley and
the Cayuga country, a few miles north of the chief
settlements of these nations, it passed through the
most prominent villages of the Senecas, in its route
to the valley of the Genesee. After crossing this
celebrated valley, it proceeded westward to lake Erie,
coming out upon it at the mouth of Buffalo creek, on
the present site of Buffalo.

Since this Indian highway passed through the
centre of the Long House,(12G) as well as through the
fairest portions of New York, it is desirable to com
mence with this trail on the Hudson, and trace it
through the State. It will furnish the most conven
ient method of noticing such stopping-places as were
marked with appropriate names in the dialects of the
Iroquois, and also the Indian villages which dotted
this extended route.

Albany, at which point the trail started from the

1 Lake Ontario -was known at an early day among the English as lake
Cataraque. The root of this word, Ga-dai '-o-que in Onondaga, Ga-da'-
loque in Oneida, and Ga-da-o'-ka in Seneca, signifies " A fort in the
water."

CENTRAL TRAIL

Hudson, owes its Iroquois name to the openings
which lay between that river and the Mohawk at
Schenectady. Long anterior to the foundation of
the city, this site was well known to our predecessors
under the name of Skd-neJi-td-de. The name is given
in the Seneca dialect, and signifies " beyond the open
ings." l Out of this name originated that of the
Hudson, Ska-neti-ta-de Ga-hun-da^ " the river beyond
the openings."

Leaving the Hudson at the site of Albany, the
trail took the direction of the old turnpike north of
the capitol, and proceeded, mostly on the line of this
road, to a spring which issued from a ravine about six
miles west. From thence it continued towards Sche
nectady, and descending the ravine through which the
railway passes, it came upon the Mohawk at the site
of this city, and crossed the river at the fording-place,
where the toll-bridge has since been erected. Sche
nectady has not only appropriated the Indian name
of Albany, but has, by inheritance, one of the most
euphonious names in the dialects of the Iroquois, as
given by the Oneidas. It was christened O-no-af-i-
gone^ which signifies " in the head," a somewhat fanciful
geographical name.

From this fording-place, two trails passed up the
Mohawk, one upon each side. That upon the south
was most travelled, as the three Mohawk castles, as
they were termed, or principal villages, were upon

1 In the Seneca dialect this word is compounded of Ga-neh'-ta-yeh,
" openings/1 and Se'-gwa, " beyond." In the same manner Skai'-da-de,
"beyond the swamp," is a compound of Gai'-td-yeh, "a swamp," and
Se'-gwd, "beyond."
VOL. ir.— 6

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

that side. Following the valley, and pursuing the
windings of the river, the trail crossed the Schoharie
creek, Ose-ho-kar'-la, and entered Te-hon-da-lo-ga^ the
lower castle of the Mohawks, situated upon the west
side of this creek, at its junction with the river. At a
subsequent day Fort Hunter was located near the site
of this Indian village. From thence the trail, continu
ing up the valley nearly on the line subsequently pur
sued by the canal, crossed the Canajoharie creek near
its junction with the river, and led up to Canajoharie,
Ga-rid-jo-ha-e? *or the middle Mohawk castle. This
favorite and populous village occupied a little eminence
upon the east bank of the Ot-squa-go creek, and over
looking the present site of Fort Plain. From Canajo
harie, the trail followed up the river to Ga-ne-ga-ha'-ga,
the upper Mohawk castle, which was situated in the
town of Danube, Herkimer county, nearly opposite
the mouth of the East Canada creek. Leaving this
Indian village, the last in the territory of the Mohawks,
the trail pursued the bank of the river without passing
any other stopping-place, until it reached the site of
Utica, in the country of the Oneidas.

Near this city, on the east side, the trail passed
around the base of a hill, in such a manner as to be
noticeable for its singularity. Hence, Nun-da-da '-sis •,
signifying " around the hill," was bestowed upon this
locality, as a name descriptive of the course of the
trail. When Utica at a subsequent day sprang up

i Tliis word signifies " washing the basin." In the bed of the Cana
joharie creek there is said to be a basin, several feet in diameter, with a
symmetrical concavity, washed out in the rock. Hence the name Ca-na-
jo'-hti-e. One would naturally have expected to have found the Indian
village upon this creek, instead of the Ot-squa'-go.(77)

YA-WA-ODA-QUAoR PINCUSHION

COURSE OF THE CENTRAL TRAIL

near this spot, the name was transferred, according to
the custom of the Iroquois, to the city itself.

From Utica, the trail proceeded up the river, and
crossing the Whitesboro creek, at Whitesboro, Che-
ga-queh) and the Oriskany creek, Ole-his'-ka, at Oris-
kany, it continued up the bank of the Mohawk to
Rome, where this river turns to the north.

The site of Rome was an important stopping-place
with the Iroquois, both as the terminus of the trails
upon the Mohawk, and as a carrying-place for canoes.
A narrow ridge at this point forms a division between
those waters which flow through the Mohawk and the
Hudson, and those which flow through lake Ontario,
and the St. Lawrence. The portage from the Mohawk
to Wood creek, was about a mile. In the days of
aboriginal sovereignty, the amount of navigation, in
bark canoes, upon the large lakes, as well as upon the
smaller lakes and rivers, was much greater than we
would be apt to suspect. Birch-bark canoes would
find their way from Detroit, and even beyond to
Rome and Schenectady. Others from Kingston,
would make their way into the Cayuga1 and Seneca
lakes, and on to the old trading-post at the mouth of
the Niagara river. Such was the facility of transpor
tation, owing to the lightness of the vessel, that the
portage made but a slight obstruction. In an hour

1 In 1793, a canoe laded with twelve hundred pounds of fur started
from Kingston in Canada 5 and having coasted the lake to the Great
Sodus bay, Seo-dose', and been transported from thence over the portage
to Clyde river, it made its way into the Cayuga lake and up to Aurora,
De-a-iven' -dote ; where the furs were transhipped in a bateau for Albany.
The canoe was owned for some years afterwards by Col. Payne, one of
the first settlers of Aurora.

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

after drawing out the canoe from Wood creek, it was
floating again upon the Mohawk ; and the cargo
having also been carried over, the frail vessel was
soon re-laded, and under weigh upon the descending
stream.1 The aboriginal name of this locality, Da-ya-
hoo-wa-quat) which signifies a " place for carrying
boats," has been bestowed upon Rome.

The trail upon the north bank of the Mohawk
ascended the river from Schenectady nearly upon the
line since pursued by the turnpike. At Tribes Hill,
nearly opposite the lower Mohawk castle, a branch
trail crossed the country to Johnstown, Ko-la-ne'-kay
a few miles north from the river. (42) This was the
name bestowed upon the residence of Sir William
Johnson, the Indian superintendent. From the
period of the settlement of this distinguished person
age in the country of the Mohawks, and more espe
cially after the battle of lake George in 1755, he acquired
and maintained, until his death in 1774, a greater
personal influence over the Iroquois than was ever
possessed by any other individual, or even by any
government. A careful scrutiny of his intercourse
with the Iroquois shows that he exercised a watchful
care over their welfare, and that his conduct was gov-

1 For many years after the commencement (about 1790) of the settle
ment of Western New York, the greater part of the supplies of merchandise
from the east, as well as the immigrants who flocked thitherward, with
their household goods and farming implements, ascended the Mohawk
in bateaus or small river boats as far as Rome. Having drawn out their
vessels at this portage and unladed them, they carried them over the
ridge and launched them into Wood creek. Descending to the Oswego
river, which is formed by the outlets of the principal inland lakes of the
State, the whole lake country was open before them. Like the Iroquois,
they made use of the natural highways of the country.

KO-LA-NE'-KA

erned by the most enlightened principles of rectitude
and benevolence. To this fact he owed his personal
popularity, and the affectionate respect with which the
Iroquois ever regarded him. His house at Ko-ld-ne-
ka was a favorite place of Indian resort; and the Mo
hawk and the Seneca, the Oneida and the Cayuga felt
as much at ease under the roof of the baronet as beneath
the wide-spread shelter of their own forests/27' 31)

Leaving Johnstown, the trail came down again upon
the Mohawk at the small Indian village of Go-no -
wau-ga, near the site of Fonda, where it intersected the
river trail. Continuing up the Mohawk, and crossing
the East Canada creek, Date-car'-hu-har'-lo^ and over the
site of Little Falls, Ta-ld-que-ga, it came next upon the
West Canada creek, Te-uge-ga, and from thence led
up to the portage at the site of Rome.

As with lake Ontario, the Mohawk river was known
under a multiplicity of names. It is difficult now to
determine whether it had any general name running
through the several dialects by which it was known to
all the nations of the League. Among the Senecas,
the West Canada creek was considered the true head
of the river, and this stream, together with the Mo
hawk from Herkimer to the Hudson, was known as
one river under the name of Te-uge-ga, while the
Mohawk from the junction of the West Canada creek
to its source was regarded as a branch under the name
of Da-yd-hoo-wd'-quat. With the Oneidas and Onon-
dagas it was known under the last name, or the word
which, in their respective dialects, signifies the same
thing/76)

From Rome, the main trail, taking a south-west

LEAGUE OF THE I R O <U O I S

direction, passed through Verona, Te-o-na-f'd/e , and
finally came out at Oneida castle. This was the prin
cipal village of the Oneidas, called in their dialect Gd-
no-'d-lo '-hale ', which is rendered " a head on a pole." In
this beautifully situated Indian village, burned the
council-fire of one of the nations of the League. The
Oneidas were fortunate in the location of their territo
ries, embracing as they did not only some of the finest
agricultural districts of the State, but the most attrac
tive localities in its central parts.

Fording the Oneida creek at the Indian village, the
trail, continuing west, passed near the site of Canestota,
Kd-ne-to'-td, crossed the Canaseraga creek, K'd-rid-so-
w'd'-ga, near the site of the village of the same name,
the Chittenango creek, Cbu-de-ridng, at the site of
Chittenango, and from thence led up to the Deep
Spring near Manlius, on the boundary line between
the territories of the Oneidas and Onondagas. This
spring was known under the name of De-o-sd-dd-ya-ah,
signifying " the spring in the deep basin," and was a
favorite stopping-place of the Iroquois in their jour
neys upon the great thoroughfare.

Leaving this locality, and continuing west, the trail
forded the Limestone creek, De-a-o-no'-he, at the site
of Manlius, and proceeding mostly on the line since
pursued by the turnpike, it crossed the Jamesville
creek, Gd-sun'-foy at the site of Jamesville, and from
thence descending into the Onondaga valley, it crossed
the Onondaga river, O -nun-da -ga, and entered the In
dian village of Gis-twe-ati-na, which occupied the site
of the present village of Onondaga Hollow.

The Onondagas made this picturesque and fertile

COURSE OF THE CENTRAL TRAIL

valley their chief place of residence. Here was the
Council-Brand of the confederacy, which rendered it
the sylvan seat of government of the League. In the
estimation of the Iroquois, it was a consecrated vale.
Their eloquence, their legendary lore, and their civil
history, were all interwoven, by association, with this
favorite valley. Here their sachems gathered together
in the days of aboriginal supremacy, to legislate for
the welfare of the race. Here they strengthened and
renewed the bonds of friendship and patriotism, in
dulged in exultation over their advancing prosperity,
and counselled together to arrest impending dangers,
or repair the mischances of the past. As it was upon
the northern bank of the Onondaga lake that the
League was formed, the united nations habitually
turned to the Onondaga valley as the place to brighten
the chain of brotherhood.

Upon the Onondaga river, O-nun-da-gay were the
principal villages of the Onondagas. There were but
three of any note ; one of them has been mentioned
as on the line of the great trail. The chief village was
Onondaga castle, Ka-rid-ta-go'-way situated upon both
sides of the river, about four miles above Gis-twe-ati-
na. It was quite a populous village in the days of
their highest prosperity. Around the council-brand
which burned in this secluded place, the sachems of
the League were wont to meet. About three miles far
ther up the river, and upon the west side, the Indian
village of Nan-ta-sa-sis was situated near the skirts of
the hill. There was another considerable village on
the uplands about four miles east of Onondaga castle,
called Tu-e-a-das'-so. Throughout the whole length

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

of the beautiful valley of the Onondaga, the bark
houses of the people were sprinkled.

After crossing the valley, the trail passed up a small
ravine to the top of the hill, where it took a north-west
direction, and crossing the Nine-mile creek, Us'-fe-ka,
at the site of Camillus, O-ya-han, it went up to a stop
ping-place where Carpenter's tavern was subsequently
erected, near the site of Elbridge, Ka-no-wa-ya. From
thence fording the Jordan creek, Ha-nan-to^ and pass
ing through the town of Sennet, the trail came upon
the Owasco outlet, Was'-co^ at the site of Auburn ; and
forded this stream a short distance above the prison,
at the point where the " Red Store " was subsequently
erected. This locality was in the territory of the
Cayugas, and its name signifies "a floating bridge."

The Cayugas had but a few small villages, as the peo
ple were scattered around the lake. Their principal
village, Ga-ya-ga-an'-ha, was situated upon the bank
of a creek three miles south of Union Springs, and
about a mile and a half back from the lake. Here
was the council-house of the nation. There was
another village consisting of a few houses, situated
upon the site of Union Springs, which was called
Ge-wau'-ga. Steeltrap, Hise'-ta-jee^ a celebrated Cay-
uga chief, was buried here. On the opposite side
of the lake was the village of Ga-no'-geh, occupying
the site of the present Cannoga. Near this village
was the birthplace of Red Jacket. Along the eastern
margin of the lake, the former residences of the Cayu
gas were indicated by the apple and peach orchards
which they left behind them. Back from the lake,
upon the ridge, similar but more numerous evidences

COURSE OF THE CENTRAL TRAIL

of Indian occupation were to be found. In 1779, the
villages of the Cayugas were destroyed by General
Sullivan.

Leaving the site of Auburn, the trail proceeded
nearly on the line of the turnpike, half-way to the
lake, where it turned out upon the south side and
came down upon the lake about half a mile above Cay-
uga bridge, Was-gwase' . At the precise point where
the trail reached the shore, the original Cayuga ferry
was established. The trail, turning down the lake, and
following its bank about four miles to the old fording-
place near the lower bridge, there crossed the foot of
the lake, and came out upon the north bank of the
Seneca river, Swa'-geb.1 Following up the north
bank of the river, it passed over the site of Waterloo,
Skoi-yase', and pursued the stream up to its outlet
from the Seneca lake. A shorter route from the east
bank of the Cayuga was taken by crossing the lake in
canoes at the ferry, and proceeding due west to the
river, which the trail came upon at the rapids a little
above Seneca Falls. Ascending the river upon the
south bank, the trail passed through South Waterloo,
Skoi-yase', and continued up the river to the lake,
where, crossing the outlet, it intersected the other trail.
Having run along the foot of the lake upon the beach

1 There is a geographical novelty in the method adopted by the Iro-
quois to designate the several outlets of the lakes which, united, form the
Oswego river. Descending from the Seneca lake to Oswego, the river was
called Swa'-geh through its whole length. But ascending from Oswego,
it was called the Onondaga river, O-non-dd'-ga, until you passed the out
let of the Onondaga lake. Then it was called the Cayuga river, G<wa-u -
giveh, until you passed the Cayuga outlet. After that it was called the
Seneca river, Ga-nun-da-sa'-ga, up to the Seneca lake.(7G)

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

to the present site of Geneva, Ga-nun-dd-sd -ga^ it
turned up the Geneva creek, which it ascended about
one and a half miles north-west, to the Indian village
of Ga-nun-da-sa'-ga, the first in the territory of the
Senecas.

This name, which signifies " a new settlement vil
lage," was bestowed upon the lake, the creek, and also
upon the outlet. At a subsequent day it was trans
ferred to Geneva. During the destructive inroad of
General Sullivan, in September, 1779, the Indian
village was entirely destroyed. No efforts were ever
made subsequently to rebuild it. Many of the old
trees in the Indian orchard are still standing and yield
fruit, although partially girdled at the time. The
artificial burial mound1 about one hundred paces in

1 There is an interesting tradition connected with this mound. The
Senecas say that they once had a protector, a mighty giant, taller than
the tallest trees, who split the largest hickory for his bow, and used pine-
trees for his arrows. He once wandered west to the Mississippi, and
from thence east again to the sea. Returning homeward over the moun
tains along the Hudson, he saw a great bird on the water, flapping its wings
as if it wished to get out, so he waded in and lifted it on land. He then
saw on it a number of men, who appeared dreadfully frightened, and made
signs to him to put them back again. He did so, and they gave him a
sword and a musket, with powder and balls, and showed him how to use
them, after which the bird swam off and he saw it no more. Having re
turned to the Senecas at Ga-nun-dd-sa'-ga, he exhibited to them the won
derful implements of destruction, and fired the gun before them. They
were exceedingly terrified at the report, and reproached him for bringing
such terrible things among them, and told him to take them away again,
for they would be the destruction of the Indians, and he was an enemy
to their nation who had brought them there. Much grieved at their re
proaches, he left the council, taking the dreaded weapons with him, and
lay down in a field. The next morning he was found, from some myste
rious cause, dead, and this mound was raised over his body where it lay.
It is averred by the Onondagas, that if the mound should be opened a
skeleton of supernatural size would be found underneath.

COURSE OF THE CENTRAL TRAIL

circuit, still remains undisturbed, and also the trenches
of a picket enclosure, seventy by forty feet on the
ground plan, concerning the erection and uses of
which but little can be ascertained.

From Gd-nun-da-sd-ga the trail proceeded through
the towns of Seneca and Hopewell, nearly on the line
of the turnpike, to the Indian village of Ga -nun-da -
gwa, situated at the foot of the lake of the same name.
It signifies " a place selected for a settlement." Ca-
nandaigua, the fairest of all the villages which have
sprung into life upon the central trail of the Iroquois,
not only occupies the site of the Indian village, but
has accepted and preserved its name with unusual
accuracy ; the only legacy which the retiring Seneca
could bestow, save the beautiful natural scenery by
which it is surrounded, and which induced him " to
select it for a settlement."

Leaving Canandaigua were two trails. One turn
ing south-west, passed through the town of Bristol,
and led to the foot of the Honeoye lake, Ha-ne-a-ya .
After crossing the outlet, it continued west through
the town of Richmond, going over the hill in sight of
the Hemlock lake, O-neb'-da, and coming out upon
the Connesus, Ga-ne-a'-sos, near the north end. Fol
lowing the shore to the foot of the lake, and fording
the outlet, it proceeded west, passing over the site of
Geneseo, 0-ha-di, and crossing the valley and the
river Genesee, Gen-nis-he-yo, it led into Little Beards
town, De-o-nun'-da-ga-a, the most populous village of
the Senecas. It is worthy of remark that the root of
the word Genesee was the name of the valley and not
of the river, the latter deriving its name from the

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

former. Gen-nis'-he-yo signifies " the beautiful valley,"
a name most fitly bestowed.

The other trail, which was the main highway, leav
ing Canandaigua, passed along the north road, over
the site of West Bloomfield, G'd-nun '-d'd-ok^ and the
Honeoye outlet, and proceeded to the Indian village
of Ska-base -ga-o, on the site of Lima. From thence,
proceeding westward nearly on the line since pursued
by the State road, it passed over the site of Avon,
Ga-no-wau-geSy and, descending into the valley of the
Genesee, crossed the river a few rods above the Avon
bridge, and followed along its bank up to the Indian
village of Ga-no-wau-ges, about a mile above the ford.
This word signifies " fetid waters," and was bestowed
by the Senecas upon the sulphur springs at Avon, and
upon the whole adjacent country.

Departing from the valley of the Genesee, the trail,
taking a north-west direction, led to the Caledonia
cold spring, De-o'-na-ga-no, a well-known stopping-
place on the central trail through the territories of
the Iroquois. Proceeding westward from thence, it
came upon Allen's creek, O-at'-kay at the dam near
the rapids, in the village of Le Roy. This fording-
place was known under the name 'Te-car-no-wan-ne-
da-ne-O) rendered " many falls," which is accurately
descriptive of the locality. This name has been con
ferred upon Le Roy. After turning up the stream
about a mile to avoid a marsh near the rapids, the
trail again proceeded west, and crossing Black creek,
Ja-go'-o-ga, near Stafford, it continued in a westerly
direction, and finally came out upon the Tonawanda
creek, Ta-na-wun-da, about a mile above Batavia, to

COURSE OF THE CENTRAL TRAIL

which it led. The ancient name of Batavia, or rather
of the locality itself, was De-o'-on-go-way which signi
fies " the grand hearing-place." Here the rapids in
the Tonawanda creek first began to be heard, and
some assert that the distant roar of Niagara could be
heard by the practiced ear of the Indian, at this point,
in certain states of the atmosphere.

Descending the creek, the trail passed over the site
of Batavia. At the point where the arsenal now
stands, it turned north-west through the oak-openings
to Caryville, and came again upon the creek at
" Washington's fording-place," where it crossed, and
led to the Indian village of Ta-na-wun-day one of the
present villages of the Senecas, situated upon the bor
ders of the great swamp which stretches for many
miles along the Tonawanda creek. On leaving the
Indian village the trail branched. One taking a
north-west direction, recrossed the creek at a short
distance below the village, and passing through the
swamp, out of which it emerged near Royalton, it
proceeded direct to De-o'-na-ga-no, or the Cold
Spring, about two miles north-east of Lockport, Ta-
ga-ote. From thence continuing north-west, it came
out upon the ridge-road, where it intersected the On
tario, or ridge trail, and followed this ridge westward to
Ga-a-no'-ga, the Tuscarora Indian village on Lewiston
Heights. Here was the termination of one branch
of the main trail upon the bank of the Niagara river.
This was the route to Canada.(44'42)

The other trail, leaving the village of Tonawanda,
took a south-west direction, and having forded
Murder creek, De-o-oon-go'-at, at Akron, and the

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

Eighteen-mile creek, Ta-nun-no-ga-o, at Clarence
Hollow, it continued west, crossing Kllicott creek,
Ga-da-o-y'a-deh) at Williamsville, Ga-sko-sa-da -ne-o ^
and leading direct to the Cold Spring, it finally came
upon the site of Buffalo at the head of Main street,
and descended to the mouth of the creek, within the
limits of the city. Here was the western terminus of
the central trail ; and like its eastern terminus on the
Hudson, it has become a point of great commercial
importance, and the site of a flourishing city. It is
not a little remarkable, that these two geographical
points should have been as clearly indicated, as places
of departure, by the migrations of the red race, as
they have been at a subsequent day, by the migrations
of our own.'

We have thus followed the great Indian trail,
Wa-a-gwen'-ne-yU) through the State, from the Hud
son to lake Erie ; noticing, as far as ascertained, the
principal stopping-places on the route. To convey
an adequate impression of the forest scenery, which
then overspread the land, is beyond the power of
description. This trail was traced through the over
hanging forest for almost its entire length. In the
trail itself, there was nothing particularly remarkable.
It was usually from twelve to eighteen inches wide,
and deeply worn in the ground ; varying in this
respect from three to six, and even twelve inches,
depending upon the firmness of the soil. The large
trees on each side were frequently marked with the
hatchet.(41) This well-beaten footpath,(41) which no run
ner, nor band of warriors could mistake, had doubt
less been trodden by successive generations from

HIGHWAY OF THE CONTINENT

century to century. It had, without question, been
handed down from race to race, as the natural line
of travel, geographically considered, between the Hud
son and lake Erie. While it is scarcely possible to
ascertain a more direct route than the one pursued by
this trail, the accuracy with which it was traced from
point to point, to save distance, is extremely surpris
ing. It proved, on the survey of the country, to
have been so judiciously selected that the turnpike
was laid out mainly on the line of this trail, from one
extremity of the State to the other. In addition to
this, all the larger cities and villages west of the Hud
son, with one or two exceptions, have been located
upon it. As an independent cause, this forest high
way of the Iroquois doubtless determined the estab
lishment of a number of settlements, which have since
grown up into cities and villages.

There are many interesting considerations con
nected with the routes of travel pursued by the abo
rigines ; and if carefully considered, they will be
found to indicate the natural lines of migration sug
gested by the topography of the country. The
central trail of the Iroquois, which we have been
tracing, after leaving the Mohawk valley, one of
nature's highways, became essentially an artificial road
across the drainage of the country, fording rivers,
crossing valleys, and traversing marshes and dense
forests, pursuing its course over hill and plain,
through stream and thicket, as if in defiance of nature,
without an aim and without a reason. Yet the estab
lishment of this trail between two such points as
Albany and Buffalo, exhibits not only the extent

LEAGUE OF THE I RO^UOI S

and accuracy of the geographical knowledge of our
predecessors,(G) but also indicates the active intercourse
which must have been maintained between the various
races east of the Mississippi. The tide of population
which has poured upon the west, in our generation,
mostly along the line of this old trail of the Ho-de'-no-
sau-nee^ and the extraordinary channel of trade and
intercourse which it has become, between the north
western States and the Atlantic, sufficiently and forci
bly illustrate the fact that it was and is, and ever must
be, one of the great natural highways of the continent.

Having traced the main trail from the Hudson to
lake Erie, it remains to notice briefly the lake and
river trails, and to locate such Indian villages as were
situated upon them. In pursuing this inquiry, the
Ontario trail first arrests our attention. Bordering
lake Ontario, from Oswego to Lewiston, there is a
ridge running, for the entire distance, from three to
six miles inland from the shore, and mostly a continu
ous level. From the shore-marks everywhere con
spicuous, it is generally admitted that this ridge was
anciently the shore of the lake, the basin of which has
been depressed some three hundred feet, or the sur
rounding country elevated by subterraneous agencies.
A natural road is formed by this ancient beach from
Oswego to Lewiston. From the valley of Genesee to
Niagara, it was extensively travelled by the Iroquois,
as one of the routes to Canada.

Oswego, Swa'-gehy was a point of considerable im
portance to our predecessors, both as the terminus
of the trails which descended the river from the
Onondaga and Oneida country, and as the inlet of

NIAGARA

intercourse by water from lake Ontario. Com
mencing at the site of this place, the trail followed
the ridge to the westward, until it came upon the
Irondequoit bay, Nu-da-on'-da-quat, when it turned
up the bay to its head. From the head of the bay,
the trail turned back from the ridge, and proceeded
direct to the Genesee ford, at Rochester, Ga-sko'-sa-go,
which crossed the river at the point where the aque
duct has since been constructed. Turning down the
river to the lower falls, it came again upon the ridge-
road, which it followed westward to Ga-o-no'-geh, the
Tuscarora village near Lewiston. Here was the prin
cipal crossing-place into Canada.

Having now reached the banks of the Niagara, and
the vicinity of the great cataract, the derivation of the
word Niagara suggests itself as a subject for inquiry.
Colden wrote it O-ni-ag-a-ra, in 1741,* and he must
have received it from the Mohawks or Oneidas. It
was the name of a Seneca village at the mouth of the
Niagara river, located as early as 1650, near the site
of Youngstown. It was also the place where the
Marquis De Nonville constructed a fort in 1687, the
building of which brought this locality under the par
ticular notice of the English. The name of this
Indian village in the dialect of the Senecas was
Ne-ah-gd^ in Tuscarora O-ne-a'-kars, in Onondaga O-ne-
ah'-gdy in Oneida O-ne-ah'-gdle, and in Mohawk O-ne-
a'-gd-ra. These names are but the same word under
dialectical changes. It is clear that Niagara was de
rived from some one of them, and thus came direct
from the Iroquois language. The signification of the

1 Colden's History of the Five Nations, ed. of 1741, p. 79-
VOL. ii. — 7 97

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

word is lost, unless it be derived, as some of the
present Iroquois suppose, from the word which signi
fies " neck," in Seneca O-ne-a/i'-a, in Onondaga O-ne-
ya-a, and in Oneida O-ne'-ar/e.1

The name of this Indian village was bestowed by
the Iroquois upon Youngstown ; upon the river Ni
agara, from the falls to the lake ; and upon lake
Ontario, as has been elsewhere stated.

In bestowing names upon water-falls, the Iroquois
custom agrees with the English. The name of the
river is connected with the word "fall." In the case
of Niagara Falls, however, an adjective is incorporated
with the word " fall," as the idea of its grandeur and
sublimity appears to have been identified with the
fall itself. Thus, in Onondaga it is called Date-car -sko-
sis, in Seneca Date-car -sko-sase^ the word Ne-ah'-ga
being understood. It signifies " the highest falls."

In the broad valley of the Genesee, the Senecas
established most of their villages. Of great extent,
boundless fertility, and easy cultivation, it became
their favorite residence, and fully deserved the appella
tion of " the beautiful valley," which they bestowed
upon it. Its situation in the centre of their territories,
and the easily forded river which flowed through it,
alike invited to its settlement. At the period of their
highest prosperity, it became the most thickly peopled
district in the country of the Iroquois.

From Rochester there were two trails up the Gene-
see, one upon each side. That upon the west side,
following the bank of the river, first entered the small

1 Bancroft is in error in deriving this word from the language of the
Neuter Nation.

GENESEE TRAIL

Indian village of 0-at'-kay upon the site of Scottsville ;
and continuing up the valley upon the flat, it next
passed into the Indian village of Ga-no-wau'-ges, before
mentioned.1 From thence the trail pursued the wind
ing of the river up to O-ha-gi, a Tuscarora village on
the flat, between two and three miles below Cuyler-
ville. Proceeding up the river, it next led up to
the Seneca village of Ga-un-do-wa-neh, or " big tree,"
which was situated upon the hill about one mile north
of Cuylerville. Here at a subsequent day was marked
off to the Senecas the " Big Tree Reservation," in
the same manner as they had reserved a tract around
the favorite village of Ga-no-wau'-ges. Leaving this
village, the trail turned a bend in the river, and entered
De-o-nuri-da-ga-a, or Little Beard's town, also before
mentioned. It was situated upon the flat immediately
in front of Cuylerville, and on the opposite side of the
valley from Geneseo. Adjacent to this village, upon
the sloping bank, was a small settlement called Ga-neh'-
da-on-twd. There was also an Indian village upon the
site of Moscow, Ga-nun'-da-sa. The trail, following
up the river, next turned out of this valley, and led
up to Da-yo-ii-ga-o, or Squakie Hill, opposite Mount
Morris. This word signifies " where the river issues
from the hills," and it is beautifully descriptive of the
emergence of the river from between its rocky barriers
into the broad valley of the Genesee.

It is a singular feature of the country, geologically
considered, that the valley follows the river from near
Rochester to Mount Morris only. At the latter place
the river is suddenly confined in a narrow channel cut

1 Mr. NewbolcTs farm embraces the site of this ancient village.

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

through the rock, while the valley, which at this place
is about three miles wide, follows the Caneseraga creek,
Ga-nose'-ga-go, up to Dansville, situated at its head.
From Mount Morris south, up the Genesee, the
valley is narrow and irregular, until at Portage the
whole scenery is changed into rugged declivities and
picturesque water-falls. On the Caneseraga creek,
however, from Dansville down to Mount Morris, the
scenery and the valley are quite the same as upon the
Genesee from the latter. place to Rochester. This
" beautiful valley " of the Senecas, varying from one
half mile to three miles in breadth, for the distance of
forty miles, vies with, if it does not surpass, the more
celebrated valley of Wyoming.

Leaving Squakie Hill, the trail continued up the
river, crossing the outlet of the Silver lake, Ga-na-yaf,
and entering the Indian village of Ga-da-d , situated in
the town of Castile, Genesee county. Here, at a sub
sequent day, was the Gardow Reservation. From
thence the trail continued up the river, and over the
site of Portage, to the Indian village of O-wa-is'-ki,
near the confluence of the creek of the same name
with the Genesee. Having crossed this stream, the
trail led up the river to Ga-o-ya-de '-o ', or Caneadea, the
last Seneca village upon the Genesee. It was situated
in the town of Hume, in the county of Allegany. The
name is rendered, " the heavens leaning against the
earth." It appears that there was an extensive open
ing at this locality, on looking through which the
heavens and earth appeared to meet, or the sky seemed
to rest upon the earth. Subsequently, there was a
large reserve retained by the Senecas around this

TOO

GISE-HAofl DEER SKIN LE66IN

GENESEE TRAIL

village, which is still marked upon old maps as the
" Caneadea Reservation." In this manner may be
discovered the favorite residences of the Senecas upon
the river. The Genesee trail, which we have been
tracing, was one of the routes to the Allegany river,
O-hee-yo, for those who sought to descend that stream
towards the south-west.

O-hee-yo, the radix of the word Ohio, signifies " the
beautiful river;" and the Iroquois, by conferring it
upon the Allegany, or head branch of the Ohio, have
not only fixed a name from their language upon one
of the great rivers of the continent, but indirectly upon
one of the noblest States of our Confederacy.

The trail upon the east side of the Genesee, started
from the ford, near the aqueduct, at Rochester, and
turning a little back from the river, crossed Mount
Hope. To commemorate the fact, one of the princi
pal carriage-ways through the cemetery, which was laid
upon the line of the trail, has been named " Indian
Trail Avenue." Ascending the Genesee, it followed
the windings of the river up to Mount Morris,
So-no'-jo-wau-ga, where there was a small Indian village,
the only one upon the east bank of the river. So-no-
jo-wau-ga, or Big Kettle, a Seneca orator, scarcely in
ferior to Red Jacket in the estimation of the nation,
erected his sylvan house upon the site of Mount
Morris ; and the Senecas bestowed his name upon the
cluster of houses which sprung up around him, and at
a subsequent day upon Mount Morris itself, one of
the most attractive villages in the region of the
Genesee.

From thence there were two trails up the Caneseraga

ior

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

creek, Ga-nose'-ga-go, one upon each side. They led
up to the small Indian village of Ga-nose-ga-go,
situate upon the site of Dansville, at the head of
the valley.

Leaving the Genesee country, we come next to a
system of trails which point to the southward. The
Susquehanna and its branches penetrated the coun
try of the Mohawks, Oneidas and Onondagas on
the east and north, while the Chemung and its
branches flowed through the territory of the Sene-
cas, from near the Genesee, upon the north-west.
These rivers, by their junction at Tioga, form as it
were a triangle, having Tioga point as its apex, and
the central trail through the State, from east to west,
as its base. Following the course of these numerous
streams from the north-east and north-west, these
several trails converged upon Tioga, and descending
the Susquehanna, formed the Great Southern trail,
or highway of travel and migration into the south.
The trails upon the Iroquois lakes, which lay north
and south, in a measure connected the Central with
the Susquehanna trail. Within this triangle were
seated the Mohawk, Oneida, Tuscarora, Onondaga,
Cayuga, and a part of the Seneca Nations.

These trails running upon the banks of the rivers,
which are the highways fashioned by the hand of
nature, need not be minutely traced, as they followed
the windings of the streams. A trail descended the
Conhocton river, Ga-ha-to, to Tioga, Ta-ya-o-ga.
The convergence of so many trails upon this point,
preparatory to a descent upon the south, through
Pennsylvania, and into Virginia on the west side of

102

CONHOCTON TRAIL

the Blue Ridge, rendered it an important and well-
known locality among the Iroquois.

From Tioga there were two trails up the Susque
hanna, Ga-wa-no-wa-na. That upon the north bank
ascending the river, passed over the site of Owego,
Ah-wa-ga^ forded the Chenango, O-che-ridng^ near
its mouth, and passing over the site of Binghampton,
Q-che-ridng ^ continued up the nver to the junction of
the Unadilla, De-u-na-dil'-lo, where it intersected the
trail coming down from the Oneida country. Con
tinuing up the Susquehanna to the junction of the
Charlotte river, the trail branched. One ascended
to the junction of the Cherry Valley creek, and fol
lowing up this creek, finally passed over to Canajoharie.
The other trail, having ascended the Charlotte river
to its head, crossed over to the Cobuskill, As-ca-le-ge^
and descended that stream to the Schoharie creek,
where it intersected the Schoharie trail, from the lower
castle of the Mohawks. From Schoharie, Ose-ko-
har'-l'dy a branch trail turned up Foxes creek, and
crossing the Helderberg hills, descended to Albany.
Another branch leaving the Schoharie, crossed the
town of Middleburgh to the Caatskill river, and de-

O '

scended that river to the Hudson.

Many of the early settlers of middle Pennsylvania,
and nearly all of our people who located themselves
on the fertile tracts spread out upon the Susquehanna,
entered the country upon these trails, which were the
only roads opened through the forest. They trusted
entirely for their route to the well-beaten, well-selected
trails of the Iroquois. The same observation applies
to the central trail, which before the opening of

103

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

regular roads, was traversed by the early pioneers
of western New York, with their horses, cattle, and
implements of husbandry. For many years this
trail was the only route of travel. It guided the
early immigrants into the heart of the country, and
not a little were they indebted to the Iroquois for thus
making their country accessible.

There were also regular beaten trails along -the
banks of our inland lakes, which were used for
hunting purposes, for mutual intercourse, and as
routes of communication between the central thor
oughfare, and the river trails which converged upon
Tioga.

We have thus followed the devious footsteps of
the Iroquois, for many "hundred miles through their
territories, and restored some of the names in use
during the era of Indian occupation. Facts of this
character may not possess a general interest; but
they will find an appropriate place among our abo
riginal remains. The trails of our Indian predeces
sors, indeed, have been obliterated, and the face of
nature has been transformed ; but all recollection of
the days of Indian supremacy cannot as easily pass
away. They will ever have " a share in our history."

"The Empire State, as you love to call it," said a
Cayuga chief on a recent occasion, <f was once laced
by our trails from Albany to Buffalo, — trails that we
had trod for centuries, — trails worn so deep by the
feet of the Iroquois, that they became your roads of
travel, as your possessions gradually eat into those of
my people. Your roads still traverse those same
lines of communication, which bound one part of the

104

YUNT KATO DA TA OR DLER SKIN SHOULDER BELT

INDIAN RUNNERS

Long House to the other. Have we, the first hold
ers of this prosperous region, no longer a share in
your history ? Glad were your fathers to sit down
upon the threshold of the Long House. Had our
forefathers spurned you from it, when the French
were thundering at the opposite side to get a pas
sage through, and drive you into the sea, whatever
has been the fate of other Indians, the Iroquois
might still have been a nation, and I, instead of
pleading here for the privilege of living within your
borders, I --might have had a country." l

A brief reference to Indian runners will not be in
appropriate in this connection. To convey intelli
gence from nation to nation, and to spread information
throughout the Confederacy, as in summoning coun
cils upon public exigencies, trained runners were em
ployed. But three days were necessary, it is said, to
convey intelligence from Buffalo to Albany. Swiftness
of foot was an acquirement, among the Iroquois, which
brought the individual into high repute. A trained
runner would traverse a hundred miles per day. With

1 "The eloquent speech, of which the above is an extract, was an
unpremeditated effort of Dr. Peter Wilson (Wa-o-wo-wa-no-onk), an
educated chief, and was delivered at the May, i 847, meeting of the New
York Historical Sociery, at which he chanced to be present. The sub
stance of the present chapter and of Chapter II. of Book I. of this work
being a paper entitled « On the Territorial Limits, Geographical Names,
and Trails of the Iroquois,' had just been read before the society, when
under the impulse of the moment this chief accepted an invitation to
address the meeting. He spoke with such pathos and earnestness upon
his people and race — their ancient prowess and generosity — their present
weakness and dependence — and especially upon the hard fate of a small
band of Senecas and Cayugas, which had recently been hurried into the
western wilderness to perish, that all present were deeply moved by his
eloquence. He produced a strong sensation."

105

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

relays, which were sometimes resorted to, the length
of the day's journey could be considerably increased.
It is said that the runners of Montezuma conveyed in
telligence to him of the movements of Cortes, at the
rate of two hundred miles per day ; but this must be
regarded as extravagant. During the last war, a run
ner left Tonawanda at daylight in the summer season,
for Avon, a distance of forty miles upon the trail. He
delivered his message, and reached Tonawanda again
about noon. In the night their runners were guided
by the stars, from which they learned to keep their
direction, and regain it, if perchance they lost their
way. During the fall and winter, they determined their
course by the Pleiades, or Seven Stars. This group in
the neck of Taurus, they called Got-gwar'-dar. In the
spring and summer they ran by another group, which
they named Gwe-o-ga-ah, or the Loon, four stars at the
angles of a rhombus. In preparing to carry messages
they denuded themselves entirely, with the exception
of the Ga-ka-ah) or breech cloth, and a belt. They were
usually sent out in pairs, and took their way through
the forest, one behind the other, in perfect silence.

Upon the map accompanying the first volume of
this work, the trails which have been traced will be
found. (42) Also the names in the several dialects of the
Iroquois, of the lakes, rivers, and creeks ; of the Indian
villages, and ancient localities, known to our immediate
predecessors ; and the names of our own cities and
villages, which have been christened as they appeared.1

i In Appendix A, I, will be found a schedule containing all the
names upon the Map, with the signification of each, arranged under their
respective counties.

1 06

SUPERIORITT OF THE IROQUOIS

This map is newly designed, to exhibit the Home
Country of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee.

The Iroquois were the master spirits of the north.
Fortunate in their geographical position, and powerful
from the concentration of their strength through the
League, the lesser tribes scattered over these vast ter
ritories could offer but slight obstruction to their com
bined attack. Large masses, like the Sioux of the
west, or the Cherokees of the south, were alone able
to withstand their valor, or resist their invasions. In
comparison with other Indian nations, the Iroquois
might well exult in the superiority of their institutions ;
and felicitate themselves upon the high destiny which
seemed to await the full development of their civil
institutions.(40)

107

Chapter IV

Future Destiny of the Indian — His Reclamation — Schools of the
Missionaries — The Christian Party — Schools of the State —
Future Citizenship — Their Indebtedness to Missionaries — Rights
of Property — Injustice of Neglect — System of Superintendence
— Duty of the American People — The Indian Department

THE future destiny of the Indian upon this con
tinent, is a subject of no ordinary interest.
If the fact, that he cannot be saved in his
native state, needed any proof beyond the experience of
the past, it could be demonstrated from the nature of
things. Our primitive inhabitants are environed with
civilized life, the baleful and disastrous influence of
which, when brought in contact with Indian life, is
wholly irresistible. Civilization is aggressive, as well
as progressive — a positive state of society, attacking
every obstacle, overwhelming every lesser agency, and
searching out and filling up every crevice, both in the
moral and physical world; while Indian life is an un
armed condition, a negative state, without inherent
vitality, and without powers of resistance. The insti
tutions of the red man fix him to the soil with a fragile
and precarious tenure ; while those of civilized man, in
his highest estate, enable him to seize it with a grasp
which defies displacement. To uproot a race at the
meridian of its intellectual power, is next to impossible ;
but the expulsion of a contiguous one, in a state of

108

FUTURE DESTINT OF THE INDIAN

primitive rudeness, is comparatively easy, if not an ab
solute necessity.

The manifest destiny of the Indian, if left to him
self, calls up the question of his reclamation, certainly,
in itself, a more interesting and far more important
subject than any which have before been considered.
All the Indian races now dwelling within the Republic
have fallen under its jurisdiction ; thus casting upon
the government a vast responsibility, as the adminis
trator of their affairs, and a solemn trust, as the guar
dian of their future welfare. Should the system of
tutelage and supervision, adopted by the national
government, find its highest aim and ultimate object
in the adjustment of their present difficulties from day
to day ; or should it look beyond and above these
temporary considerations, towards their final elevation
to the rights and privileges of American citizens ?
This is certainly a grave question, and if the latter
enterprise itself be feasible, it should be prosecuted
with a zeal and energy as earnest and untiring as
its importance demands. During the period within
which this question will be solved, the American
people cannot remain indifferent and passive specta
tors, and avoid responsibility ; for while the govern
ment is chiefly accountable for the administration of
their civil affairs, those of a moral and religious char
acter, which, at least, are not less important, appeal
to the enlightened benevolence of the public at large.

Whether a portion of the Indian family may yet
be reclaimed and civilized, and thus saved eventually
from the fate which has already befallen so many of
our aboriginal races, will furnish the theme of a few

109

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

^X*j

concluding reflections. What is true of the Iroquois,
in a general sense, can be predicated of any other por
tion of our primitive inhabitants. For this reason the
facts relied upon to establish the hypothesis that the
Indian can be permanently reclaimed and civilized,
will be drawn exclusively from the social history of
the former.

There are now about four thousand Iroquois living
in the state of New York. Having for many years
been surrounded by civilization, and shut in from all
intercourse with the ruder tribes of the wilderness,
they have not only lost their native fierceness, but
have become quite tractable and humane. In addition
to this, the agricultural pursuits into which they have
gradually become initiated, have introduced new
modes of life, and awakened new aspirations, until a
change, in itself scarcely perceptible to the casual ob
server, but in reality very great, has already been
accomplished. At the present moment their decline
has not only been arrested, but they are actually in
creasing in numbers,(59) and improving in their social
condition. The proximate cause of this universal
spectacle is to be found in their feeble attempts at
agriculture ; but the remote and the true one is to be
discovered in the schools of the missionaries.

To these establishments among the Iroquois, from
the days of the Jesuit fathers down to the present
time, they are principally indebted for all the progress
they have made, and for whatever prospect of ultimate
reclamation their condition is beginning to inspire.
By the missionaries they were taught our language,
and many of the arts of husbandry and of domestic

GA'YA-AH OR WORK BAG

SCHOOLS OF THE MISSIONARIES

life ;. from them they received the Bible and the pre
cepts of Christianity. After the lapse of so many
years, the fruits of their toil and devotion are becom
ing constantly more apparent : as, through years of
slow and almost imperceptible progress, they have
gradually emancipated themselves from much of the
rudeness of Indian life. The Jroquois of the present
day is, in his social condition, elevated far above the
Iroquois of the seventeenth century. This fact is
sufficient to prove, that philanthropy and Christianity
are not wasted upon the Indian ; and further than
this, that the Iroquois, if eventually reclaimed, must
ascribe their preservation to the persevering and de
voted efforts of those missionaries, who labored for
their welfare when they were injured and defrauded
by the unscrupulous, neglected by the civil authorities,
and oppressed by the multitude of misfortunes which
accelerated their decline.

There are but two means of rescuing the Indian
from his impending destiny ; and these are education
and Christianity. If he will receive into his mind the
light of knowledge and the spirit of civilization, he
will possess, not only the means of self-defence, but
the power with which to emancipate himself from the
thraldom in which he is held. The frequent attempts
which have been made to educate the Indian, and the
numerous failures in which these attempts have even
tuated, have, to some extent, created a belief in the
public mind, that his education and reclamation are
both impossible. This enterprise may still, perhaps,
be considered an experiment, and of uncertain issue ;
but experience has not yet shown that it is hopeless.

LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S

There is now, in each Indian community in the
State, a large and respectable class who have become
habitual cultivators of the soil ; many of whom have
adopted our mode of life, have become members of
the missionary churches, speak our language, and are
in every respect discreet and sensible men. In this
particular class there is a strong desire for the adop
tion of the customs of civilized life, and more especially
for the education of their children, upon which subject
they often express the strongest solicitude. Among
the youth who are brought up under such influences,
there exists the same desire for knowledge, and the
same readiness to improve educational advantages.
Out of this class Indian youth may be selected for a
higher education, with every prospect of success,
since to a better preparation for superior advantages,
there is superadded a stronger security against a
relapse into Indian life. In the attempted education
of their young men, the prime difficulty has been to
render their attainments permanent, and useful to
themselves. To draw an untutored Indian from his
forest home, and, when carefully educated, to dismiss
him again to the wilderness, a solitary scholar, would
be an idle experiment ; because his attainments
would not only be unappreciated by his former asso
ciates, but he would incur the hazard of being de
spised because of them. The education of the Indian
youth should be general, and chiefly in schools at
home.

A new order of things has recently become appar
ent among the Iroquois, which is favorable to a more
general education at home and to a higher cultivation

112

THE CHRISTIAN PARTY

in particular instances. The schools of the mission
aries, established as they have been, and are, in the
heart of our Indian communities, have reached the
people directly, and laid the only true and solid
foundation of their permanent improvement. They
have created a new society in the midst of them,
founded upon Christianity ; thereby awakening new
desires, creating new habits, and arousing new aspira
tions. In fact they have gathered together the better
elements of Indian society, and quickened them with
the light of religion and of knowledge. A class has
thus been gradually formed, which if encouraged and
strengthened, will eventually draw over to itself that
portion of our Indian population which is susceptible
of improvement and elevation, and willing to make
the attempt. Under the fostering care of the govern
ment, both state and national, and under the still
more efficient tutelage of religious societies, great
hopes may be justly entertained of the ultimate and

permanent civilization of this portion of the Iroquoia*

It is, indeed, a great undertaking to work off the
Indian temper of mind, and infuse that of another
race. It is necessary, to its accomplishment, to com
mence in infancy, and at the missionary school, where
our language is substituted for the Indian language,
our religion for the Indian mythology, and our amuse
ments and mode of life for theirs. When this has
been effected, and upon a mind thus prepared has
been shed the light of a higher knowledge, there is
not even then a firm assurance that the Indian nature
is forever subdued and submerged in that superior one
which civilization creates. In the depths of Indian

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

society there is a spirit and a sentiment to which their
minds are attuned by nature ; and great must be the
power, and constant the influence which can overcome
the one, or eradicate the other.

In the education of the Iroquois, New York has
recently made a commencement. Prior to 1846 our
Indian youth were excluded from the benefits of the
common school fund; their want of preparation for
such schools, furnishing, to some extent, a sufficient
reason. At that time schools were first opened among
them under appropriations from the public fund.
These schools have not met with encouraging suc
cess ; but their efficiency would have been much
greater if they had been organized upon the boarding-
school or missionary plan, instead of that of the com
mon school. The former is the more practicable and
successful system of Indian education; and it is
greatly to be hoped that it will soon be adopted. To
meet the growing demand for a higher education, the
State Normal School, within the past year, has not
only been opened to a limited number of Indian
youth, but a sufficient appropriation made for their
maintenance while improving its advantages. These
two important events form an interesting era with the
modern Iroquois. It remains only to give them per
manent boarding-schools at home for the instruction
of the mass of their youth, with access to the Normal
School for their advanced scholars, and in a few years
they will rise in the scale of intelligence, as far above
their present level, as their fathers raised themselves,
in the days of aboriginal sovereignty, above the level
of cotemporary nations.

114

^^^^i^^M^^M

COT-CWEN-DA OR POCKETBOOK

SCHOOLS OF THE STATE

In addition to the special claim which the residue
of the Iroquois have upon the people of the State,
every principle of philanthropy pleads for the en
couragement of their young men in their efforts to
obtain a higher course of instruction than the lim
ited earnings of Indian husbandry can afford. The
time has come, in their social progress, when they
are capable of a thorough intellectual training, and
are able to achieve as high and accurate a scholar
ship as many of their white competitors. The time
has also arrived when academical attainments will
prove a blessing to themselves and to their fami
lies. By the diffusion of knowledge among them
the way will be facilitated for the introduction of
the mechanic arts, and for their improvement in ag
ricultural pursuits. A small band of educated young
men in each Indian community would find sufficient
employment for their acquired capacities, in the va
rious stations of teacher, physician, mechanic, and far
mer ; in each and all of which they would greatly
promote the general welfare. If the desire for im
provement, which now prevails among them, is met
and encouraged, it will require but a few years to
initiate them into the arts of civilized life, and to pre
pare them eventually for exercising those rights of
property, and rights of citizenship, which are common
to ourselves. How much more noble for the State
to reclaim and save this interesting and peculiar
portion of her people, than to accelerate their ex
tinction by injustice ; or to abandon them to their
fate, when they are struggling to emancipate them
selves by taking into their hands the implements of

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

agriculture, and opening their minds to the light of
knowledge.

There is no want of sympathy for their welfare
among the people of New York ; on the contrary,
there is a wide-spread and deep-seated interest in their
future reclamation. Whatever can be done to ame
liorate their condition, and encourage that portion who
have commenced the work of their own improvement,
would receive the warmest commendation. If the
Indian puts forth his hand for knowledge, he asks
for the only blessing which we can give him in ex
change for his birthright, which is worthy of his
acceptance.

The education and christianization of the Iroquois
is a subject of too much importance, in a civil aspect,
to be left exclusively to the limited and fluctuating
means of religious societies. The schools established
and sustained among them by private benevolence,
are, to the Indian, almost the same as common
schools to our own people ; and without them the
Indian would, in times past, have been denied all
means of instruction. These schools bring together
the youth for elementary tuition, as a necessary prep
aration for moral and religious training. While
there, they adopt, in all respects, the habits of civil
ized life, are taught our language, and the more
simple elementary studies. In so far, it would be
but a just act of public beneficence to allow those
pupils to draw the same share of public money which
falls to the other children of the State. A system of
public Indian education, upon such a plan as their
circumstances demand, should either be adopted by

Tl6

THEIR INDEBTEDNESS TO MISSIONARIES

the State ; or a portion of the public money, bearing
some proportion to the number of Indian pupils,
should be placed at the disposal of the local mission
ary, to be expended with an equal portion contrib
uted by private benevolence, or by the Indians
themselves. It is time that our Indian youth were
regarded, in all respects, as a part of the children
of the State, and brought under such a system of
tutelage as that relation would impose.

The vast extent of the religious enterprises of the
present day has tended to draw the attention of the
Christian world away from the Indian, into fields
more distant, and perhaps more attractive. During
the past sixty years, the Iroquois have received but
a small share of the Christian watchfulness to which
their wants entitled them. Faithful and zealous
missionaries, it is true, have labored among them,
producing results far greater than is generally be
lieved ; but the inadequate scale upon which these
missions were organized, and the fluctuations, in their
efficiency, which were inseparable from their irregu
lar and limited supplies, have prevented them from
carrying forward their work to its full completion.
But whatever has been done, is chiefly to be ascribed
to them, and to the denominations which they
represent.

Too much cannot be said of the teachableness of
the Indian, and of his aptitude to learn, when sub
jected to systematic discipline. If the same means
and the same influences which are employed to edu
cate and elevate the mass of our own people, and
without the constant application of which, they them-

LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS

selves would soon fall into ignorance, were brought
to bear upon our Indian population, they would rise
under it with a rapidity which would excite both sur
prise and admiration. Instances are not wanting,
among the present Iroquois, of attainments in scholar
ship which would do credit to any student. To give
employment to those Indian youth whose acquired
capacities would enable them to nil stations of trust
and profit among ourselves, is another species of en
couragement which commends itself to the generous
mind. Both in our civil and social relations with
the red men, we regard them as a distinct and sepa
rate class ; when in each of these relations they should
not only be regarded as our fellow-men, but as a part
of our own people. Born upon the soil, the descend
ants of its ancient proprietors, there is no principle
which should make them aliens in the land of their
nativity, or exclude them from any of those advan
tages which are reserved to ourselves. So far as they
are able to appreciate and enjoy the same privileges
which pertain to the mass of the people, the claim
for participation which their situation silently puts
forth should not be disregarded.

The lands of the Iroquois are still held in common,
the title being vested in the people. Their progress
towards a higher agricultural life has rendered this
ancient tenure a source of inconvenience ; although
they are not as yet prepared for their division among
the people. Each individual can improve and enclose
any portion of their common domain, and sell or re
tain such improvements, in the same manner as with
personal property ; but they have no power to transfer

118

GA-SWA-HOS-HA OR BABY FRAME BELT,

RIGHTS OF PROPERTY

the title to the land to each other, or to strangers. (101)
As early as the reign of James the Second, the right
of purchasing Indian lands was made a government
right exclusively, by royal proclamation, and it proved
such a necessary shield against the rapacity of specu
lators, that this humane provision is still retained as
a law in all the States of the Union, and by the
national government. When the Iroquois reach such
a stable position, as agriculturists, as to make it safe
to divide their lands among the several families of
each nation, with the power of alienation, it will give
to them that stimulus and ambition which separate
rights of property are so well calculated to produce.
The present system has at least the merit of saving
all the people from poverty and vagrancy, if it does
not enable a portion of them to become thrifty and
substantial agriculturists. The first step towards the
amelioration of their condition in this particular,
would be a division among themselves, with the
power of alienation to each other, under such re
strictions as would be adapted to the case. This
would serve to prepare the way for other changes,
.until finally they could be restored, with safety to
themselves, not only to the full possession of those
rights of property which are common to ourselves,
but also to the rights and privileges of citizens of
the State. When this time arrives, they will cease
to be Indians, except in name/12

The progressive elevation of our Indian popula
tion, here indicated, if carried to a successful result,
would save but a portion of the Indian family ; but
that portion would become, in every respect, as use-

119

LEAGUE OF THE IKO^UOIS

ful and respectable as any other portion of our people.
They would neither be wanting in ability, nor morality,
nor public spirit ; and perhaps it is not too much to
conjecture, that specimens of the highest genius, and
of the most conspicuous talent, hereafter destined
to figure in the civil history of our Republic, may
spring from the ranks of the Indian citizens. (r>0>

On the other hand, if they are left, unencouraged
and unassisted, to struggle against their adverse
destiny — or, more fatal still, if they are subjected to
a false and unjust system of superintendence, the
whole Indian family will ere long fade away, and
finally become enshrouded in the same regretful
sepulchre in which the races of New England lie
entombed.

The present system of national supervision is evi
dently temporary in its plans and purposes, and
designed for the administration of our Indian affairs
with the least possible inconvenience, rather than for
their ultimate reclamation, to be followed by the be-
stowment of citizenship. It carries, upon all its
features, the impression, that the presence of the
Indian upon this continent is temporary ; and that,
he must inevitably surrender the remainder of his
possessions, when he shall have become surrounded
by the white man, and the summons be sent in for
the customary capitulation. The sentiment which
this system proclaims is not as emphatic as that
emblazoned upon the Roman policy towards the
Carthaginians — Carthago est delenda^ — " Carthage
must be destroyed : " but it reads in not less signifi
cant characters — The destiny of the Indian is exter-

120

STSTEM OF SUPERINTENDENCE

mination. This sentiment, which is so wide-spread
as to have become a general theme for school-boy
declamation, is not only founded upon erroneous
views, but it has been prejudicial to the Indian
himself. If, then, public opinion and the national
policy are both wrong upon these great questions,
or if there are even strong grounds for suspecting
them to be so, it becomes an act of justice, as well as
of duty, to correct the one, and change the other.
Our Indian relations, from the foundation of the
Republic to the present moment, have been adminis
tered with reference to the ultimate advantage of
the government itself; while the reclamation of the
Indian has been a secondary object, if it ever entered
into the calculation in the slightest degeee. Millions
of money, it is true, have been expended, and some
show of justice preserved in their complicated affairs;
but in all prominent negotiations the profit has been
on the side of the government, and the loss on that of
the Indian. In addition to this, instances of sharp-
sighted diplomacy, of ungenerous coercion, and of
grievous injustice, are to be found in the journal of
our Indian transactions — a perpetual stigma upon
the escutcheon of our Republic. If references are
demanded to the paragraphs, the reader may turn to
that upon the Seminoles, or to the Georgia Cherokee
treaty, executed by the government, or to the more
recent treaties with the Iroquois themselves, in which
the government bartered away its integrity, to min
ister to the rapacious demands of the Ogden Land
Company.14' ^

Jefferson made the civilization of the Indian a

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

subject of profound consideration, and a favorite ele
ment of the national policy during his administration.
Washington, at a still earlier period, regarded the
future welfare of the Indian with deep solicitude. In
founding the first system of intercourse and superin
tendence, he was guided by the most enlightened
principles of justice and benevolence; and to such a
degree were the Iroquois, in particular, impressed with
the goodness and beneficence of his character, that
they not only bestowed upon him, in common with
other Indian nations, the appellation of father, but
to this day he is known among them as " the Great
American." The aggressive spirit of the people, how
ever, in connection with the slight estimation in which
Indian rights were held, has ever been found too
powerful an element to be stayed. It has had free
course during the last sixty years, until the whole
territory east of the Mississippi, with inconsiderable
exceptions, has been swept from the Indian. This fact
renders any argument superfluous, to show that within
this period the reclamation and preservation of the
red man has formed no part of the public policy.

But with the same period the moral elements of
society have been developed and strengthened to such
a degree as to work a change in public sentiment. A
kindlier feeling towards the Indian is everywhere ap
parent, joined with an unwillingness to allow him to be
urged into further extremities. He has been suffi
ciently the victim of adverse fortune, to be entitled to
a double portion of the interest and assistance of the
philanthropist ; and a new day, it is to be hoped, has
already dawned upon his prospects.

122

DUTT OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE

It cannot be forgotten, that in after years our
Republic must render an account, to the civilized
world, for the disposal which it makes of the Indian.
It is not sufficient, before this tribunal, to plead inevit
able destiny ; but it must be shown affirmatively, that
no principles of justice were violated, no efforts were
left untried to rescue them from their perilous position.
After all has been accomplished which the utmost
efforts of philanthropy, and the fullest dictates of
wisdom can suggest, there will still be sufficient to
lament, in the unpropitious fate of the larger portion
of the Indian family. It is the great office of the
American people, first, to shield them against future
aggression, and then to mature such a system of super
vision and tutelage, as will ultimately raise them from
the rudeness of Indian life, and prepare them for the
enjoyment of those rights and privileges which are
common to ourselves.(128)

To the Indian Department of the national govern
ment, the wardship of the whole Indian family is, in a
great measure, committed ; thus placing it in a position
of high responsibility. If any discrimination could be
made between the several departments of the govern
ment, this should be guided by the most enlightened
justice, the most considerate philanthropy. Great is
the trust reposed, for it involves the character of the
white race, and the existence of the red. May it ever
be quickened to duty by a vivid impression of its
responsibilities, and never violate, for any consider
ation, the sacred trust committed to its charge.

The profoundly truthful sentiment of Cicero,
" without the highest justice a republic cannot be

123

LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS

governed," furnishes a text eminently worthy of
being studied in this connection. It would form an
apt inscription, to be written over the doorway of
the Indian Department —

" Sine summa justitia Rempublicam regi non posse.'1

124

Appendix A

SCHEDULE EXPLANATORY OF THE INDIAN

MAP1

VOWEL MARKS.

a sounded as in far. 6 sounded as in met.

a sounded as in at. i sounded as in pine.

a sounded as in fall. 5 sounded as in tone.

HO'-DE'-NO-SAU-NEE'-GA,

TERRITORIES OF THE PEOPLE OF THE LONG HOUSE.

Ga-nea-ga-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Mohawks.

O-na'-yote-ka-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Oneidas.

O-nun'da-ga-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Onondagas.

Gwe-u'-gweh-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Cayugas.

Nun-da'- wa-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Senecas.

Dus-ga'-o-weh-o-no'-ga, Territory of the Tuscaroras.

NUN-DA'-WA-O-NO'-GA,

OR THE TERRITORY OF THE SENECAS.

Seneca Dialect.
CHAUTAUQUA COUNTY.

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN NAME. SIGNIFICATION.

TA i • i ( Running through the hem-

Dunkirk, Ga-na'-da-wa-o,

locks.

Fetid banks.

Silver Creek, Ga-a-nun-da'-ta, G. A mountain levelled down.

1 Where the Map and this Schedule are at variance, the latter must govern.

a Ga-hun'-da and Te-car-ne-o-di' are common nouns, signifying, the former, "a
river" or "creek," and the latter, "a lake." They are always affixed by the Iro-
quois, in speaking, to the name itself.

127

APPENDIX A

INDIAN NAME.

ENGLISH NAME.

Chautauqua Creek, Ga'-no-wun-go, G.

Conewango River, Ga'-no-wun-go, G.

Canadawa Creek, Ga-na'-da-wa-o, G.

SIGNIFICATION.

In the rapids.
In the rapids.

Running through the hem
locks.

Cassadaga Creek,

Gus-da'-go, G.

Under the rocks.

Cassadaga Lake,

C Gus-da'-go, Te-car-
\ ne-o-di',*

> Under the rocks.

Chautauqua Lake,

Cha-da'-queh, T.

Place where one was lost.

Cattaraugus,

Ga'-da-ges'-ga-o,

Fetid banks.

CATTARAUGUS COUNTY.

Allegany River,

O-hee'-yo, G.

The beautiful river.

Great Valley Creek

, O-da'-squa'-dos-sa, G.

Around the stone.

Little Valley Creek, O-da'-squa'-wa-teh', G.

( Small stone beside a large
( one.

Oil Creek,

Te-car'-nohs, G.

Dropping oil.

Ischuna Creek,

He'-soh, G.

Floating nettles.

Oswaya Creek,

O-so'-a-yeh, G.

Pine forest.

Burton Creek,

Je'-ga-sa-nek, G.

Name of an Indian.

Lime Lake,

Te-car'-no-wun-do, T.

Lime Lake.

Ellicottville,

De-as'-hen-da-qua,

Place for holding courts.

Burton,

Je'-ga-sa-neh,

Name of an Indian.

Olean,

He'-soh,

Same as Ischuna Creek.

Hasket Creek.

O-so'-a-went-ha, G.

By the pines.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

Allegany Village,

De-o'-na-ga-no,

Cold spring.

Allegany Village,

Jo'-ne-a-dih,

Beyond the great bend.

Oil Spring Village,

Te-car'-nohs,

Dropping oil.

Bend Village,

Da'-u-de-hok-to,

At the bend.

Trail of the Eries,

( Ga-qua'-ga-o-no,
( Wa-a'-gwen-ne-yuh.

ERIE COUNTY.

Two Sisters Creek,

Te-car'-na-ga-ge, G.

Black waters.

Caugwaga Creek,

Ga'-gwa-ga, G.

Creek of the Cat Nation.

Smokes Creek,

Da-de-o'-da-na-suk'-to,G. Bend in the shore.

Cazenovia Creek,

Ga-a'-nun-deh-ta, G.

A mountain flattened down.

Buffalo Creek,

Do'-sho-weh, G.

Splitting the fork.

Cayuga Creek,

Ga-da'-geh, G.

Through the oak openings.

1 See note 2, p. 127.

128

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME.

Ellicott Creek,
Grand Island,
Eighteen Mile, Creek,
Murder Creek,
Lake Erie,
Buffalo,
Black Rock,
Williamsville,
Clarence Hollow,

Akron,
Lancaster,

INDIAN NAME.

Ga-da'-o-ya-deh, G.
Ga-weh'-no-geh,(45)
Ta-nun'-no-ga-o, G.
De'-on-gote, G.
Do'-sho-weh, T.
Do'-sho-weh,
De-o'-steh-ga-a,
Ga-sko'-sa-da-ne-o,
Ta-nun'-no-ga-o,

De'-on-gote,
Ga-squen'-da-geh,

SIGNIFICATION.

Level heavens.

On the island.

Full of hickory bark.

Place of hearing.

Same as Buffalo Creek.

SamjB as Buffalo Creek.

A rocky shore.

Many falls.

Full of hickory bark.
( Place of hearing ( neuter
\ gender).

Place of the lizard.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

Red Jacket Village, Te-kise'-da-ne-yout,
Falls Village, Ga-sko'-sa-da,

Cattaraugus Village, Ga-da'-ges-ga-o,
Carrying Place Vil- ) Gwa>_u_gweh,
lage, i

GENESEE AND WYOMING
Tonawanda Creek, Ta'-na-wun-da, G.
Aliens Creek, O'-at-ka, G.

Black Creek,

Stafford,

Batavia,

Oakfield,

Alabama,

Caryville,

Pine Hill,

Attica,

Alexander,
Wyoming,
Pembroke,

LeRoy, j

Darien,

Silver Lake,

Silver Lake Outlets,

Caneadea Creek,

Warsaw,

VOL. II. —9

Ja'-go-o-geh, G.

Ya'-go-o-geh,

Deo-on'-go-wa,

Te-car'-da-na-duk,

Ga'-swa-dak,

Gau'-dak,

Te-ca'-so-a-a,

Gweh'-ta-a-ne-te-car'-

nun-do-deh,
Da-o'-sa-no-geh,
Te-car'-ese-ta-ne-ont ,
O-a'-geh,
Te-car'-no-wun-na-d'a'

ne-o,

O-so'-ont-geh,
Ga-na'-yat, T.
Ga-na'-yat, G.
Ga-o'-ya-de-o, G.
Chi'-nose-heh-geh,
129

Place of the bell.
The falls.

Same as Cattaraugus Creek.
Place of taking our boats,
or portage.

COUNTIES.

Swift water.

The opening.

Place of hearing. (This is

feminine.}
Place of hearing.
The great hearing place.
Place of many trenches.
By the cedar swamp.
By the plains.
Pine lying up.

I The red village.

Place without a name.
Place with a sign-post.
On the road.

[ Many rapids.

Place of turkeys.
Signification lost.
Signification lost.
Same as Caneadea.
On the side of the valley

APPENDIX A

ENGLISH NAME.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION.

Tonawanda Village, Ta'-na-wun-da, Swift water.

Gardow, Ga-da'-o, Bank in front.

ALLEGANY COUNTY.

Genesee River,

Gen-nis'-he-yo, G.

The beautiful valley.

Wiskoy Creek,

O-wa-is'-ki, G.

Under the banks.

Black Creek,

Ja-go'-yo-geh, G.

Hearing place.

Angelica,

Ga-ne-o'-weh-ga-yat,

Head of the stream.

Caneadea,

•3 Ga-o'-ya-de-o,

( Where the heavens lean
(. against the earth.

Caneadea,

•j Ga-o'-ya-de-o, G.

f Where the heavens rest
( upon the earth.

Nunda,

Nun-da'-o,

Hilly.

Wiskoy,

O-wa-is'-ki,

Under the banks.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

O-wa-is-ki,

O-wa-is'-ki,

Under the banks.

Caneadea,

Ga-o'-ya-de-o,

^ Where the heavens lean
( against the earth.

LIVINGSTON COUNTY.

Caneseraga Creek,

Ga-nus', ga-go, G.

Among the milkweed.

Conesus Lake,

Ga-ne-a'-sos, T.

Place of nanny-berries.

Conesus Outlet,

Ga-ne-a'-sos,. G.

Place of nanny-berries.

Hemlock Lake,

O-neh'-da, T.

The hemlock.

Hemlock Outlet,

O-neh'-da, G.

The hemlock.

Geneseo,

O-ha'-di,

Trees burned.

Mount Morris,

So-no'-jo-wau-ga,

( Big kettle. (Residence of
(. a Seneca Chief.)

Dansville,

Ga-nus'-ga-go,

Among the milkweed.

Livonia,

De-o'-de-sote,

The spring.

Lima,

Ska-hase'-ga-o,

Once a long creek.

Avon,

Ga-no'-wau-ges,

Fetid waters.

Caledonia,

De-o'-na-gi-no,

Cold water.

Moscow,

Ga-nah'-da-on-tweh,

( Where hemlock was

| spilled.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

Squakie Hill,

Da-yo'-it-ga-o,

<" Where the river issues from
] , i u *n

( the hills.

Site of Moscow,

Ga-neh'-da-on-tweh,

^ Where hemlock was

( spilled.

13°

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME. INDIAN NAME.

Little Beard's Town, De-o-nun'-da-ga-a,

Big Tree Village, Gii-un-do'-wa-na,

Tuscarora Village, O-ha'-gi,

Ganowauges, Ga-no'-wau-ges,

Site of Dansville, Ga-nus'-ga-go,

Near Livonia, De-o'-de-sote,

Site of Mt. Morris, So-no'-jo-wau-ga,

SIGNIFICATION.

Where the hill is near.
A big tree.
Crowding the bank.
Fetid waters.
Among the milkweed.
The Spring.
Big kettle.

MONROE COUNTY.

Irondequoit Bay,
Salmon Creek,
Sandy Creek,
Honeoye Outlet,
Rochester,

Brockport,
Scottsville,
Honeoye Falls,

Ontario Trail,

Indian Village at
the Bend,

N e-o'-da-on-da-n u at ,
Ga'-doke-na, G.
O-neh'-chi-geh, G.
Ha'-ne-a-yeh, G.
Ga'-sko-sa-go,
Gweh'-ta-a-ne-te-car-
nun-do'-teh,

O'-at-ka,

Sko'-sa-is-to,

Ne-a'-ga Wa-a-gwen-
ne-y-u,

A bay.

Place of minnows.
Long ago.
Finger lying.
At the falls.

| Red Village.

( The opening. (Same as
\ Allen's Creek.)
Falls rebounding from an
obstruction.

> Da-yo'-de-hok-to,

LEANS AND NIAG
Oak Orchard Creek, Da-ge-a'-no-gai-unt, G. j

Ontario foot path.
A bended creek.

ORLEANS AND NIAGARA COUNTIES.

Two sticks

Johnson's Creek,
1 8 mile Creek,

Tuscarora Creek,
East Branch,

Tuscarora Creek,
West Branch,

Albion,

A-jo'-yok-ta, G.
$ Date-ge-a'-de-ha-na-
i geh, G.

>• Te-car'-na-ga-ge, G.

coming to-
Fishing Creek.
Two creeks near together.

Black Creek.

| De-yo'-wuh-yeh, G. Among the reeds.

C Place where boats were
De-o'-wun-dake-no,

Medina,

Date-geh'-ho-seh,

Middleport,

Te-ka'-on-do-duk,

Lockport,

De-o'-do-sote,

One stream crossing anoth-
(Aqueduct on the

f ne strea
< er. (
(. canal.)

Place with a sign-post.
( The Spring (referring to
j the Cold Spring).

APPENDIX A

ENGLISH NAME.

Royalton Centre,
Lewiston,

Youngstown,

Golden Creek,

Niagara River,
Lake Ontario,

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION.

O-ge-a'-wa-te-ka'-e,
Ga'-a-no-geh,

Ne-ah'-ga,

Hate-keh'-neet-ga-on-
da, G.

Ne-ah'-ga, G.(«)
Ne-ah'-ga, T.

The word Ontario, Ska-no'-da-ri-o, T.

Niagara Falls, Date-car'-sko-sase,

Niagara Village, Date-car'-sko-sase,

Tuscarora Indian )

Village, ^Ga-a-no-geh,

Seneca Indian Village, Ga-u'-gweh,

Place of the butternut.

On the mountains,
f Supposed from O-ne-ah, a
( neck.

(. Signification lost.

Same as Youngtown.

Same as Youngtown.
/ The "beautiful lake."
\ (This is a Mohawk word
\ and Ontario is a deriva-
(. tive.)

The highest falls.

On the mountains.

( Taking canoe out. (Car-
-< rying place at the mouth
( of Tonawanda Creek.)

Mud Creek,
Flint Creek,

WAYNE AND ONTARIO COUNTIES.

Same as Palmyra.

Ga'-na-gweh, G.
Ah-ta'-gweh-da-ga, G.

Canandaigua, Ga'-nun-da-gwa,

Canandaigua Outlet, Ga'-nun-da-gwa, G.

Canandaigua Lake, Ga'-nun-da-gwa, T.

Hemlock Outlet, O-neh'-da, G.
Honeoye Lake,
Skaneatice Lake,

Ha'-ne-a-yeh, T.
Ska'-ne-a-dice, T.

Sodus Bay,
Little Sodus Bay,

Palmyra,

Geneva,
Seneca Lake,
West Bloomfield,
Victor,

Naples,

Seo-dose'. (Seneca.)
Date-ke-a'-o-shote,

Ga'-na-gweh,

Ga-nun'-da-sa-ga,
Ga-nun'-da-sa-ga, T.
Ga-nun'-da-ok,
Ga-o'-sa-ga-o,
Nun'-da-wa-o,

132

A place selected for a set
tlement.

Hemlock.

Finger lying.

Long Lake.

Ah-slo-dose, (Oneida.) Sig
nification lost.

Two baby frames. (From
Ga-ose'-ha, a baby frame.)

A village suddenly sprung
up.

New settlement village.

Village on the top of a hill.

In the basswood country.

Great hill.

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME.

Near Geneva,
Canandaigua,

Victor,

Near Naples,

INDIAN VILLAGES.

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION.

Ga-nun'-da-sa-ga,(45/
Ga'-nun-da-gwa,

Ga-o'-sa-ga-o,
Nun'-da-wa-o,

New settlement village.
Place selected for a settle
ment.

In the basswood country.
Great hill.

Crooked Lake,

YATES, STEUBEN, AND CHEMUNG COUNTIES.

C Promontory projecting into

O-go'-ya-ga, T.

Crooked Lake Outlet, O-go'-ya-ga, G,

Conhocton River, Ga-ha'-to, G.

Chemung River,

Canisteo River,

Bath,

Painted Post,

Elmira,

Ga-ha'-to, G.(«)
Te-car'-nase-te-o, G.
Do-na'-ta-gwen-da,
Te-car'-nase-te-o-ah,
Skwe'-do-wa,(45)

) the lake.

( Promontory projecting into

I the lake.

A log in the water.

Board on the water.

Opening in an opening.

A board sign.

Great plain.

GWE-U'-GWEH-O-NO'-GA,

OR THE TERRITORY OF THE CAYUGAS.

(PARTLY CAYUGA AND PARTLY SENECA.)

Tioga Point,
Ithaca,

Ta-yo'-ga,
Ne-o-dak'-he-at,

Cayuga Lake,

Gwe-u'-gweh, T.

Aurora,
Canoga,
Cayuga Bridge,
Montezuma,
Rowland's Island,
Waterloo,

De-a-wen'-dote,
Ga-no'-geh,
\Vas'-gwas,
Te-car'-jik-ha'-do,
Ga-weh'-no-wa-na,
Skoi'-yase,

Seneca River,

Swa'-geh, G.

Clyde River,

Auburn,
Otter Lake,
Muskrat Creek,
Owasco Outlet,

Ga-na'-gweh, G.

Was'-co,
Squa-yen'-na, T.
Squa-yen'-na, G.
De-a-go'-gii-ya, G.

133

At the forks.

At the head of the lake.
^ The lake at the mucky
t land.

Constant dawn.

Oil floating on the water.

A long bridge.

Place of salt.

Great island.

Place of whortleberries.
j Flowing out. (Some doubt
I about the signification.)
( River at a village suddenly
(. sprung up.

Floating bridge.

A great way up.

Place where men were killed-

APPENDIX A

ENGLISH NAME.

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION

Owasco Lake, Dwas'-co, T. Lake at the floating bridge.

North Sterling Creek, Dats-ka'-he, G. Hard talking.

Sodus Bay Creek, Te-ga-hone'-sa-o'-ta, G. A child in a baby frame.

INDIAN VILLAGES.
Ga-no'-geh, Oil on the water.

Promontory running out.

Above Lockwoods ) ^ „ . . .. , ,

y Ga-ya'-ga-an -ha, Inclined downwards.

Cove, )

Site of Ithaca, Ne-o'-dak-he'-at, At the end of the lake.

Site of Canoga,

Site of Union Springs, Ge-wa'-ga,

O-NUN'-DA-GA-O-NO'-GA,

OR THE TERRITORY OF THE ONONDAGAS.

(ONONDAGA DIALECT.)

c t r>- C Ga'-wa-no-wa'-na-neh,

Susquehanna River, J

< 0*°) G.

Owego,
Owego Creek,
Cortland,

Homer,
Owasco Inlet,

Ah-wa'-ga,

Ah-wa'-ga, G.

O-nan'-no-gi-is'ka,
( Te-wis'-ta-no-ont-sa'-
( ne-a-ha,

Ka'-na-ka'-ge, G.

Where the valley widens.
Where the valley widens.
Shagbark hickory.

Place of the silver smith.
Black water.

Tionghinoga River, O-nan'-no-gi-is'-ka, G. Shagbark hickory.

Tully Lake,
Tully,
Apulia,

Skaneateles Lake,
Skaneateles,

Otisco Lake,

Otisco,

Otisco Outlet,

Lafayette,

Pompey Hill,

Pompey,

Oil Creek,

Onondaga Creek,

ONONDAGA COUNTY.

Te-ka'-ne-a-da'-he, T.
Te-ka'-ne-a-da'-he,
O-nun'-o-gese,
Skan-e-a'-dice, T.
Skan-e-a'-dice,

Ga-ah'-na, T.

Ga-ah'-na,
Ga-ah'-na, G.
Te-ka'-wis-to'-ta,
De-o'-wy-un'-do,
De-is'- wa-ga'-ha,
De-o'-nake-har-e, G.
O-nun-da'-ga, G.

A lake on a hill.

Long hickory.

Long lake.

f Rising to the surface, and
•I again sinking. Legend
( of a drowning man.
do.
do.

Tinned dome.

Windmill.

Place of many ribs.

Oily water.

On the hills.

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME.

Onondaga West Hill,

Onondaga Hollow,

Marcellus,

Nine Mile Creek,

Camillus,

Elbridge,

Jordan Creek,
Jordan,
Cross Lake,

INDIAN NAME.

Te-ga-che'-qua-ne-on'-

Te-o-ha'-ha-hen'-wha,

Us-te'-ka,

Us-te'-ka, G.

O-ya'-han,

Ka-no-wa'-ya,

Ha-nan'-to, G.
Ha-nan'-to,
U-neen'-do, T.

Fort Brewerton, Ga-do'-quat,

Oneida Outlet,
Liverpool,
Liverpool Creek,
Onondaga Lake,
Salina,

She-u'-ka, G.
Ga-na-wa'-ya,
Tun-da-da'-qua, G.
Ga-nun-ta'-ah, T.
Te-ga-j ik-ha'-do,

Syracuse,

Na-ta'-dunk,

Jamesville Creek,
Jamesville,

Ga-sun'-to, G.
Ga-sun'-to,

Limestone Creek,

De-a-o'-no-he, G.

Manlius,

Fayetteville,
Deep Spring,
South Onondaga,
Christian Hollow,

De-a-o'-no-he,

Ga-che'-a-yo,
De-o'-sa-da-ya'-ah,
Swe-no'-ga,
De-o'-nake-hus'-sink,

limbs on
lying on
Signifi-

SIGNIFICATION.

ta,A hammer hanging.

Turnpike crossingthe valley

Bitternut hickory.

Apples split open.

Skull lying on a shelf.
( Small hemlock limbs on
( water.
C Small hemlock
| water.
C Hemlock tops
( water.
( (Oneida Dialect.
( cation lost.)

(Lost.)

A great swamp.

Thrown out.

Material for council fire.

Place of salt.

Pine tree broken with top
hanging down.

Bark in the water.

Bark in the water.
( Where the creek suddenly
( rises.

Where the creek suddenly
rises.

Lobster.

Deep Basin Spring.

A hollow.

Never clean.

INDIAN VILLAGES.

Onondaga Castle, Ka-na-ta-go'-wa,
4 Miles East of Castle, Tu-e-a-das'-so,

Site of Onondaga ) „,.

V Gis-twe-ah'-na,
Hollow, S

i Miles South of On- ) xl

C Nan-ta-sa -sis,
ondaga Castle, >

Signification lost.
Hemlock knot in the water.

A little man.

Going partly round a hill.

OSWEGO AND JEFFERSON COUNTIES.

Oswego, Swa'-geh, Flowing out.

New Haven Creek, Ka-dis-ko'-na, 'G. Long marsh.

APPENDIX A

ENGLISH NAME.

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION.

Little Salmon Creek, Ga-nun-ta-sko'-na, G. Large bark.

Grindstone Creek,
Big Salmon Creek,
Pulaski,
Sandy Creek,

Grand Island,
Sackets Harbor,

He-ah-ha'-whe, G. Apples in crotch of tree.

Ga-hen-wa'-ga, G. A creek.

Ga-hen-wa'-ga, A creek.

Te-ka'-da-o-ga'-he, G. Sloping banks.

De-a'-wone-(

da,

( Ga-hu'-a-go-je-twa-da- ) Fort at the mouth of Great
} a'-lote. i River.

da-ga-han'- 7 „. ... ,

> Signification lost.

> 6

O-NA'-YOTE-KA-O-NO'-GA,
OR ONEIDA TERRITORY.

(ONEIDA DIALECT.)

St. Lawrence River,

Ga-na-wa'-ga, G.

Black Lake,

Che'-gwa-ga, T.

Oswegatchie River,

O'-swa-gatch, G.

Ogdensburgh,

O'-swa-gatch,

Black River,

Ka-hu-ah'-go, G.

Watertown,

Ka-hu-ah'-go,-

Beaver River,

Ne-ha-sa'-ne, G.

Deer Creek,

Ga-ne'-ga-to'-do,

Moose River,

Te-ka'-hun-di-an'

Otter Creek,

D'a-ween'-net, G.

Indian River,

O-je'-quack, G.

The rapid river.

In the hip.

Signification lost.

Great, or Wide River.

Great, or Wide River.
j Crossing on a stick of tim-
I ber.

G. Corn-pounder.
do,*G. Clearing an opening.

The Otter.

Nut River.

Mohawk River
above Herkimer,
Rome,
Fish Creek,
Wood Creek,
Oneida Lake,
Scribas Creek,
Bay Creek,
West Canada Creek
and Mohawk River,
Trenton Village,
Trenton Falls,
Utica,

ONEIDA COUNTY.
Da-ya'-hoo-wa'-quat, G. Carrying place.

Da-ya'-hoo-wa'-quat,
Ta-ga'-soke, G.
Ka-ne-go'-dick, G.
Ga-no'-a-lo'-hale, T.
Ga-sote'-na, G.

Carrying place.
Forked like a spear.
Signification lost.
A head on a pole.
High grass.

Te-gua'-no-ta-go'-wa, G. Big morass.

j Te-ah-o'-ge, G.

Ose'-te-a'-daque,

Date-wa'-sunt-ha'-go,

Nun-da-da'-sis,

136

At the forks.

In the bone.
Great Falls.
Around the hill.

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME.

Whitestown Creek,

Whitestown,

Oriskany Creek,

Oriskany,

Paris Hill,

Clinton,

Sangerfield,

Vernon,

Vernon Centre,

Oneida Creek,

Verona,

Nine Mile Creek,

Camden,

Oneida Depot,

New Hartford,

INDIAN NAME.

Che-ga-quat'-ka, G.

Che-ga-quat'-ka,

Ole'-hisk, G.

Ole'-hisk,

Ga-nun-do'-glee,

Ka-da'-wis'-dag,

Ska'-na-wis,

Ska-nu'-sunk,

Skun-an-do'-wa,

Ga-no-a-lo'-hale, G.

Te-o-na'-tale,

Te-ya-nun'-soke, G.

He-sta-yun'-twa,

De-ose-la-ta'-gaat,

Che-ga-quat'-ka,

SIGNIFICATION.

Kidneys.

Nettles.

Hills shrunk together.

White field.

A long swamp.

Place of the fox.

Great hemlock.

Head on a pole.

Pine forest.

A beech tree standing up.

Meaning lost.

Where the cars go fast.

Kidneys.

Oneida Castle,
Site of Camden,
On Fish Creek,

INDIAN VILLAGES.
Ga-no-a-lo'-hale, Head on a pole.

Ho-sta-yun'-twa,
Ta-ga'-soke, G.

Near Oneida Castle, Ga-na'-doque,

Meaning lost.
Forked like a spear.
Empty village.

MADISON AND CHENANGO COUNTIES.

Canestota,

Ka-ne-to'-ta,

Lenox,

Ska-wais'-la,

Caneseraga Creek,

Ka-na'-so-wa'-ga, G.

Chittenango Creek,

Chu-de-naang', G.

Chittenango,

Chu-de-naang', G.

Cazenovia Lake,

Ah-wa'-gee, T.

Cazenovia,

Ah-wa'-gee,

Hamilton,

Da-ude'-no-sa-gwa-nose,

Unadilla River,

De-u-na'-di-lo, G.

Chenango River,

O-che-nang, G.

Sherburn,

Ga-na'-da-dele,

Norwich,

Ga-na'-so-wa'-di,

Oxford,

So-de-ah'-lo-wa'-nake,

Binghampton,

O-che-nang',

Stockbridge Indian i
Village,

> Ah-gote'-sa-ga-nage,

Pine tree standing alone.
A point made by bushes.
Several strings of beads with

a string lying across.
Where the sun shines out.
Where the sun shines out.
Perch lake.
Perch lake.
Round house.
Place of meeting.
Bull thistles.
Steep hill.
Signification lost.
Thick-necked giant.
Bull thistles.

Meaning lost.

137

APPENDIX A

GA-NE-A'-GA-O-NO'-GA,

OR MOHAWK TERRITORY.

(MOHAWK DIALECT

•)

ENGLISH NAME.

INDIAN NAME.

SIGNIFICATION.

West Canada Creek,

Te-uge'-ga, G.

At the forks.

Mohawk River,

Te-uge'-ga, G.

At the forks.

Herkimer,

Te-uge'-ga,

At the forks.

Little Falls,

Ta-la-que'-ga,

Small bushes.

Fort Plain,

Twa-da-a-la-ha'-la,

Fort on a hill.

Canajoharie Creek,

Ga-na-jo-hi'-e, G.

Washing the basin.

Canajoharie,

Ga-na-jo-hi'-e,

Washing the basin.

Johnstown,

Ko-la-ne'-ka,

Indian superintendent.

Fonda,

Ga-na-wa'-da,

On the rapids.

Fort Hunter,

Te-on-da-lo'-ga,

Two streams coming to
gether.

Schoharie Creek,

Sko-har'-le, G.

Flood-wood.

Schoharie,

Sko-har'-le,

Flood-wood.

East Canada Creek,

Te-car'-hu-har-lo'-da, G.

Visible over the creek.

Otsquago Creek,

O-squa'-go, G.

Under the bridge.

Amsterdam Creek,

Ju-ta-la'-ga, G.

Signification lost.

Garoga Creek,

Ga-ro'-ga, G.

Signification lost.

Schenectady,

O-no-a-la-gone'-na,

In the head.

Albany,

Ska'-neh-ta'-de,

Beyond the openings.

Hudson River,

Ska'-neh-ta'-de, G.

River beyond the openings.

Cohoes Falls,

Ga'-ha-oose,

Shipwrecked canoe.

Lake Champlain,

O-ne-a-da'-lote, T.

Signification lost. (Oneida
dialect.)

Ticonderoga,

Je-hone-ta-lo'-ga,

Noisy.

Saratoga,

S'har-la-to'-ga,

Signification lost.

Lake St. Francis,

Gii-na-sa-da'-ga, T.

Side hill. (Oneida dialect.)

Salmon River,

Gau-je'-ah-go-na'-ne, G.

Sturgeon River.

St. Regis River,

Ah-qua-sos'-ne, G.

Partridges drumming.

St. Regis,

Ah-qua-sos'-ne,

Partridges drumming.

Racket River,

Ta'-na-wa'-deh, G.

Swift water.

COUNTIES SOUTH OF THE

MOHAWK.

Otsego (45) Lake,

Ote-sa'-ga, T.

Signification lost.

Cooperstown,

Ote-sa'-ga,

Signification lost.

Delaware River,

Ska-hun-do'-wa, G.

In the plains.

Cobus Hill,

As-ca-le'-ge,

Meaning lost.

New York,

Ga-no'-no,

Meaning lost.

138

SCHEDULE OF MAP

ENGLISH NAME.

INDIAN NAMK.

SIGNIFICATION.

( A long island. (Oneida
Long Island, Ga-wa-nase-geh, j dialect.)

Atlantic Ocean, O-jik'-ha-da-ge'-ga, Salt water.

INDIAN VILLAGES.
Upper Mohawk Castle, Ga-ne'-ga-ha'-ga, Possessor of the flint.

Middle Mohawk ) Gs_na_jo_hi,

Castle, > <

-' Washing the basin.

Lower Mohawk ? Xe-ah'-ton-ta-1-' -~ ^ Two streams coming to-

Castle,

Quebec,
Montreal,
Kingston,
Welland River,
Grand River,

Burlington Bay,

Queenstown,

Hamilton,

Toronto,

Brock's Monument.
Chippeway,

i-lo'-ga, |

gether.

CANADA.

Ke-a-done-da-a'-ga,
Do-te-av-ga,(45)
Ga-dai-o'-que,
Jo-no'-dok, G.
Swa'-geh, G.

De-o-na'-sa-de'-o, (45)

Do-che'-ha-o',

De-o-na'-sa-de'-o,

De'-on-do,

Gus-ta'-ote,
Jo-no'-dak,

Two forts contiguous.

Almost broken.

Fort in the water.

Signification lost.

Flowing out.

( Where the sand forms a
I bar.

C Where the mountain dies
( in the river.

See above.

( Log floating upon the
( water.

Signification lost.

PENNSYLVANIA.

Erie, Gus-ha'-wa-ga, On the body.

Cornplanter's Village, De-o-no'-sa-da-ga, Burned houses.

139

APPENDIX A

Table exhibiting, in the Seneca dialect, the conjugation of the
Verb, Ge'-yase, "I shoot."

ACTIVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. — Shoot, or am shooting.

Singular.

Dual.

Plural.

2.
3-

Ge'yase,
Sne'-yase,
Hii'-yase,

i .

•

Och-ne'-yase,
Sne'-yase,
Ne'-yase,

Ah-gwa'-yase.
Swa'-yase.
H'a-ne'-yase.

Imperfect.

— Did shoot, or

*was shooting.

j .

Ge'-yase-qua
Se'-yase-qua,
Ha'-yase-qua

, I-

i 3-

Ne'-yase-qua,
Sne'-yase-qua,
Ne'-yase-qua,

Dwa'-yase-qua.

Swa-yase-qua.
Ha-ne'-yase-qua.

Perfect. — Shot, have shot

, or did

shoot.

Ah-ge'-ya-go, i.
Sa-ya'-go, 2.
Ho-ya'-go, 3.

Unc-ne'-ya-go,
Sne'-ya-go,
Ho-ne'-ya-go,

Ung-gwa'-ya-go.
Swa-ya'-go.
Ho-ne'-ya-go.

Pluperfect. — Had shot.

1. Che-wa'-ge-ya-go, i. Che-unlc'-ne-ya-go, i. Che-yung'-gwa-ya-go.

2. Che-sa'-ya-go, 2. Che-sne'-ya-go, 2. Che-swa-ya-go.

3. Che-o'-ya-go, 3. Che-o'-ne-ya-go, 3. Che-o'-ne-ya-go.

Future. — Shall, or will shoot.

1. Eh-ge'-yake, i. Och-nex-yake-heh, i Eh-ya'-gwa-yake.

2. Se-yake'-heh, 2. Eh-sne'-yake, 2. Eh-swa'-yake.

3. Ha'-yake-heh, 3. Eh-ne'-yiike, 3. Eh-ne'-yake.

140

SENECA VERE

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. — May, or can shoot.
Singular. Dual. Plural.

1. Eh-ge'-yake-ge'-seh, i. Eh-ne'-yake-ge'-seh, i. Eh-dwa'-yake-ge'-seh.

2. Eh-se'-yake-ge'-seh, 2. Eh-sne'-yake-ge'-seh, 2. Eh-swa'-yake-ge'-seh.

3. Ha-o'-yuke-ge'-seh, 3. Eh-ne'-yake-ge'-seh, 3. Eh-ne'-yake-ge'-seh.

Imperfect. — Might, could, or would shoot.

1. Ah-ge'-yake, i. I-ne'-yake, i. I-dwa-yake.

2. Ah-se'-yike, 2. l-sne'-yake, 2. I-swa'-yake.

3. Ah-ah'-yake, 3. Ah-ne'-yake, 3. Ah-an-ne'-ya'ke.

Perfect. — May have shot.

1. Ah-wa'-ge'-ya-go-ge'- i . Ah-yunk-ne'-yii-go- I. Ah-yung-gwav-ya-go-

seh, ge'-seh, ge'-seh.

2. I-sav-ya-go-ge-seh, 2. I-sne'-ya-go-ge'-seh, 2. I-swa-ya-go-ge'-seh.

3. Ah-o'-ya-go-ge'-seh, 3. Ah-o'-ne-ya-go-ge'- 3. Ah-o'-ne-yai-go-ge'-

seh, seh.

Pluperfect wanting.
Future. — Shall have shot.

1. Ah-wa-ge'-ya-go, i. Ah-yunk'-ne-ya-go, i. Ah-yung-guav-ya-go.

2. I-sav-ya-go, 2. I-sne'-ya-go, 2. I-swa'-ya-go.

3. Ah-o'-ya-go, 3. Ah-o'-ne-ya-go, 3. Ah-o'-ne-ya-go.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

2. Je'-yake, Shoot thou. 2. Sne'-yakejS/roo/^/^o. 2. Swa'-yake, Shoot ye.

3. Ha'-yake, Let him 3. Ne'-yake, Let them 3. Hii-ne'-yake, Let them

shoot. t<wo shoot. shoot.

INFINITIVE MOOD WANTING.
PARTICIPLES WANTING.

PASSIVE VOICE.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. — Am shot.
Singular. Plural.

1. Ung-ge'-y'a-go, i. Unc-ke'-ya-go.

2. A-sa'-ya-go, 2. A-che'-ya-go.

3. Ho-wa-ya-go, 3. Ho-wen-ne'-ya-go.

141

APPENDIX A

Dual. — Same as Plural.

Imperfect. — Was shot.
Singular. Plural.

1. Ung-ge'-ya-go'-no, i. Unc-ke'-ya-go'-no.

2. Sa-ya'-go-no, 2. A-che'-ya-go'-no.

3. Ho-wuh'-ya-go'-no, 3. O-wen'-ne-ya'-go-no.

Perfect. — Have been shot. — Same as Imperfect.

Pluperfect wanting.

Future. — Shall, or vjill be shot.

1. Eh-yung'-ge-yake, i. Eh-yunk'-ke-yake.

2. Eh-ya'-sa-yake, 2. Eh-ya'-che-yake.

3. A-on'-wuh-yake, 3. A-on'-wen-ne-yake.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

Present Tense. — May be shot.

1. Eh-yung'-ge-yake-ge'-seh, i. Eh-yunk'-ke-yake-ge'-seh.

2. Eh-ya'-sa-yake-ge'-seh, 2. Eh-ya'-che-yake-ge'-seh.

3. A-o-wuh'-yake-ge'-seh, 3. A-o-wen-ne'-yake-ge'-seh.

Imperfect wanting.

Perfect. — May have been shot.

1 . Ah-yun-ge'-ya-gon-no-ge'-seh, i . Ah-yunk-ke'-ya-gon-no-ge'-seru

2. Ah-ya-sa-ya-gon-no-ge'-seh, 2. Ah-ya-che'-ya-gon-no-ge'-seh.

3. Ah-o-wuh'-ya-gon-no-ge'-seh, 3. Ah-o-wen-ne'-ya-go-no-ge'-seh.

Pluperfect. — Might, could, would ? or should have been shot.

1. Ah-yung-ge'-ya-go'-no-na-geh, i. Ah-yunk-ke'-ya-go-no-na-geh.

2. Ah-ya-sa-ya'-go-no-na-geh, 2. Ah-ya-che'-ya-go-no-na-geh.

3. Ah-o-wuh-ya-go-no-na-geh, 3. Ah-o-wen-ne'-ya-no-na-geh.

Future. — Shall have been shot.

1. Ah-yung-ge'-ya-go-no, i. Ah-yunk-ke'-ya-go-no.

2. Ah-ya-sa'-ya-go-no, 2. Ah-yii-che'-ya-go-no.

3. Ah-o-wuh'-ya-go-no, 3. Ah-o-wen-ne'-ya-go-no.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

2. Ah-sa'-yake, Be thou shot. 2. A-che'-yake, Be ye shot.

}. Ho-wuh'-yake, Let him be shot. 3. Ho-wen-ne'-yake, Let them be shot.

INFINITIVE MOOD WANTING.

PARTICIPLES WANTING.

142

Appendix B

INTRODUCTION

IT is not a century since almost all of our present
national domain was in the possession of the red
men. Four centuries ago, when white men first
came to these shores, the red race occupied both con
tinents of the Western Hemisphere throughout their
entire extent. Nowhere else has a single race been
found in possession of so vast and so independent
a domain. Unto what form and degree of civilization
these men would have attained if permitted to work
out their own destinies can only be conjectured, for
within a very short time after the discovery, as the
history of races is counted, their culture was entirely
submerged by the influx of European arts and institu
tions. When our ancestors found them, however,
the Indians, lacking domestic animals and the knowl
edge of iron, were in a lower stage of culture than
their contemporaries of Europe. It is not necessary
to suppose that this tardiness in progress was due to
mental inferiority. It was quite as probably due to
an environment less favorable than that in which the
nations of Europe had been developed. Through
this same lower stage, however, the peoples of Europe
had lately passed. Lubbock has pointed out that
between different peoples in the same stage of devel
opment stronger resemblances are to be found than

VOL. II. — 10 145

APPENDIX B

exist in a single people at different stages of its prog-
resSo The study of Indian arts, institutions, and so
ciety has for us, therefore, something of the same
interest that we feel in visiting the hill country of
New England or the meadows of Holland, where our
own youth or that of our fathers was spent.

Both in avowed romance and in more serious
works, the Indian has often been presented to us as a
being evolved from the inner consciousness and the
preconceptions of the writer, and the individual thus
created has been submitted to the judgment of Euro
pean standards. Morgan, in his thorough and candid
way, sought to know and to describe the Indian as he
was. To discover the conditions of the red man's
life, and the laws of his civil and domestic institutions,
and to judge the law by its adaptation to the condi
tions, and the man by his obedience to the law, was
the task which Morgan set himself. In this work he
laid the foundation of a new science. The study of
primitive man, which in the year 1851, when this
book was written, was hardly more than a collecting
of curious and isolated facts, became in his hands a
key with which to unlock dim and forgotten secrets
of the history of mankind.

In the half-century that has since passed, the stand
point from which we view the universe and man has
been entirely changed. We are now aware that the
structure of our civilization rests on foundations sunk
deep into the soil of barbarism and the subsoil of
savagery, and that our history has been borne forward
on the deeds of the red men of the new world as well
as those of the white men of the old world. Darwin

146

INTRODUCTION

and his successors have taught us that if we would
know the life that is in us we must follow it from its
beginnings in the cell and the embryo. Morgan and
others have shown that we understand our law and
our social institutions only when we know the early
society in which they were shaped. They have also
demonstrated that the culture of our remote fore
fathers is reproduced and preserved for us among the
barbarians of North America. Parkman has made to
live before us the story of the contest for the dominion
of the continent in which these barbarians took so
active a part. It is difficult, but necessary, for us to
understand that mankind does not consist entirely
of Anglo-Saxons.

Among all the North American peoples, there is
none more worthy of study, by reason of their intel
lectual ability, the character of their institutions, and
the part they have played in history, than the Iroquois
of the League. And, as it happens, this is the people
which has longest been known to ourselves, which has
been most closely observed by our writers and states
men, and whose influence has been most strongly
felt in our political constitution and in our history as
colonies and nation. The noble territory which they
yet occupy with us, that fertile valley of central New
York, which is the natural highway from the ocean to
the interior of the continent, was the seat of their em
pire, whence their arms, as our commerce, moved upon
and dominated the slopes of the Atlantic coast and the
great basins of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi.

Through their early and constant friendship this
imperial territory was opened to our Dutch and

APPENDIX B

English forefathers. By the Iroquois and their
Algonquin neighbors were made known the riches of
American agriculture, including that most productive
and wonderful grain which the red men had tamed
from the wilderness, and which we still call the Indian
corn. In their ancient League the Iroquois presented
to us the type of a Federal Republic under whose
roof and around whose council-fires all peoples might
dwelt in peace and freedom. And in the irrepressible
conflict between French autocracy and Teutonic liberty
for the dominion of North America, the Iroquois were
our firm allies, the constant protectors of our infant
colonies, and most efficient co-workers in the final vic
tory. Our nation gathers its people from many
peoples of the old world, its language and its free
institutions it inherits from England, its civilization and
art from Greece and Rome, its religion from Judea, —
and even these red men of the forest have wrought
some of the chief stones in our national temple.

That we now perceive the interest and importance
of Iroquois institutions and history we owe chiefly to
the writings of two men. In the year 1851 were pub
lished The Conspiracy of Pontiac^ by Francis Parkman,
and the League of the Iroquois ^ by Lewis H. Morgan,
each book beginning a career which brought to its
author fame, and knowledge to mankind From The
Conspiracy of Pontiac was developed that finest monu
ment in American literature, The History of France and
England in North America^ while the League of the
Iroquois was the beginning of the modern science of
ethnology. Parkman's histories have gained and hold
the wide appreciation that they deserve, but the writings

148

INTRODUCTION

of Morgan, less inviting to the general reader, are to
the present generation comparatively unknown, and
indeed are almost inaccessible. The present work, in
especial, deserves to be more widely known, not only
for the great interest and value of its contents, but
also because of its position in the history of science,
because of its relation to the labor and development
of the remarkable mind from which it emanated, and
finally because of its place as one of the masterpieces
of its time in American literature, which had then
hardly progressed beyond a sturdy youth.

In preparing the present edition, I have been im
pressed with the truth suggested in Dr. Shea's intro
duction to his Charlevoix, that familiarity with the
subject does not lighten the work of an editor. It
has been especially difficult, not to find material, but
to pass by material of the greatest value. The text
here presented is Morgan's own. For every vari
ance from the first edition there is either the authority
of a correction verbatim by Morgan's own hand in
his own copy of the work, or satisfactory evidence of
a mechanical error in transcribing or in printing.

In the First and Fifth Chapters of Book II. and
the First Chapter of Book III. there have also been
incorporated some text and a few cuts (chiefly from
the Fifth Regent's Report) which were prepared by
Morgan at the time of printing the first edition, and
omitted, as I am persuaded, for mechanical reasons only.
Every word of text is thus Morgan's own.

The notes, when not otherwise indicated, are by
myself. In these notes it has been attempted not to
prepare a new treatise, but rather to illustrate the text

149

APPENDIX B

by comparisons, to explain allusions, and to correct a
few obvious errors. As an observer, Morgan was
singularly clear-sighted, but when he relied upon
others he was sometimes misled through insufficient
or erroneous information. It is especially to be re
gretted that of the French writers he knew only the
not always reliable Charlevoix and the always unreli
able La Hontan.

It has been sought in particular to present in these
notes Morgan's matured views as found in his later
works. Regard for the integrity of the text has pre
vented their incorporation in the body of the work.
Some further editing of the text and especially the
omission of some obsolete dissertations would indeed
be defensible if the book were considered merely as a
scientific treatise, but its connection with the begin
nings of our scientific literature demands that every
word be retained. It is Morgan's own work, as much
as any man's, that has made of the fine philosophy of
the Sixth Chapter of Book I., concerning the origin
and development of governments, as much of an
antique curiosity as a crossbow or a horse-car. The
change of view is well illustrated by comparing Mor
gan's statement (I. 122) "that there is a regular pro
gression of political institutions, from the monarchical,
which are the earliest in time, on to the democratical,
which are the last, the noblest, and the most intellect
ual," with these noble words of Powell, his friend and
disciple, "The survey of governments in their totality
presents one fact of profound interest to statesmen.
Government by the people is the normal condition of
mankind, as a broad review of human history abun-

'5°

INTRODUCTION

dantly maintains. Monarchies are temporary phases
of government in the evolution of mankind from bar
barism to civilization ; and these monarchies with
their attendant hierarchies, feudalisms, and slavery,
appear only as pathologic conditions of the body
politic — diseases which must be destroyed or they
will destroy — and hence disappearing by virtue of
the survival of the fittest. Hope for the future of
society is the best-beloved daughter of Evolution."
(Popular Science Monthly, November, 1880, p. 121.)

But these errors in philosophy were those of his
time. Morgan's singular merit is that from the be
ginning he clearly saw the nature and significance of
the social organization and governmental structure of
the Indian community. In this we have advanced
but little beyond the League of the Iroquois.

My thanks are due to the many friends of Mr.
Morgan and students of the Indian who have given
me valuable assistance and suggestions, only a few of
whom it is possible to name.

This reprint was first suggested by Mr. Francis W.
Halsey, Editor of the New York Times Saturday Re
view of Books and Art, in the number of that journal
for December 2, 1899. Mr. Charles T. Porter, the
only survivor of the three co-laborers in the original
book, has not only contributed the Reminiscences
signed by him but has been constant in kind and
helpful suggestions. To General John S. Clark I am
especially indebted for almost all of Mr. Morgan's
emendations appearing in the text, as well as for other
information ; not intending by this acknowledgment
to forget the indebtedness of all students to General

APPENDIX B

Clark for his investigations of Iroquois history. The
Supplemental Map was prepared by Rev. Wm. M.
Beauchamp, S. T. D., for Bulletin No. 32 of the State
Museum, and is published with his kind permission
and that of the Museum. Mrs. Harriet Maxwell
Converse has not only aided me herself, but has al
lowed me to examine General Parker's manuscripts in
her possession. And if I mention last one other
name, it is because there is an especial word to say.
Mr. John Fiske wrote me, under date of March 20,
1900: "Morgan's League of the Iroquois is of
course a book of the highest value. It is, indeed,
a classic in that branch of literature, and such an edi
tion of it as you propose, with its errors corrected and
such annotations added as the text may here and there
suggest, is exactly the sort of book that we want, and I
doubt not that you are the man to do it. If I could
help the enterprise in any way by writing a preface or
an introductory sketch of Morgan and his work, I
should be glad to do so." The Inexorable has taken
the pen from the hand that wrote these words, and the
hope is frustrate of a brilliant essay like that which
introduces the Champlain edition of Parkman. Yet it
seemed that a few words should be written to introduce
to the readers of to-day this book of half a century ago.
"And," like the scribe of old, " if I have done well
and as is fitting the story, it is that which I desired;
but if slenderly and meanly, it is that which I could
attain unto."

HERBERT M. LLOYD.

PISECO, N. Y., October i, 1901.

PERSONAL REMINISCENCES

j As one of the few now living who have a personal
I. xi, knowledge of the incidents to be described, I have

xn been asked to prepare a sketch of the events by
which Mr. Morgan was led into his remarkable career of
Ethnological research.

Mr. Morgan was one of those rare men of restless mental
activity and immense and tireless energy who literally create
their own environment ; turning whatever circumstances they
may encounter to advantage in their congenial field of
achievement.

He was born in 1818, in Aurora, New York, a lovely
village on the eastern shore of Cayuga Lake, the first spot
settled by white men in western New York, a place always
noted for culture and refinement, now the seat of Wells
College. He graduated from Union College in 1840, and
returned home to pursue the study of law.

Cayuga Academy, located at Aurora, was then crowded
with young men from various parts of the neighboring coun
try. Mr. Morgan, finding congenial spirits among the teachers
and elder pupils in the Academy, joined with them in the
formation of a secret society, under the name of "The Gor-
dian Knot," which had no objects beyond the cultivation of
good fellowship and the enjoyment of the moment.

P'ree Masonry had flourished in Aurora at an earlier day,
and the Masonic Lodge was a prominent building in the village.
But Masonry had suffered an eclipse in western New York,
and the Lodge in Aurora had been disused for several years.
The new secret society turned it to account. Effecting a
surreptitious entrance, its members attired themselves in the

T53

APPENDIX B

white robes of the Masons and the splendid regalia of their
officers, and held there their initiations and their harmless
revels.

The members of the society were full of youthful en
thusiasm, and many projects for its practical usefulness were
discussed, before its earlier members became scattered through
western New York, all with a mission to establish branches
of the society at their own homes.

2 Immediately after his admission to the bar, Mr. Morgan

I- xi settled in Rochester. There he soon gathered about
him a number of young men, and formed them into a branch
of the new secret society. Among these was Ely S. Parker,
a full-blooded young Seneca Indian, who had come from the
Tonawanda reservation to Rochester to get an education.

Parker was a phenomenal Indian. He was fully informed
respecting the institutions of his own people, spoke English
perfectly, and was one of the very few Indians of the Six
Nations that I ever heard of who would take an education if
it were offered to him. He improved his educational oppor
tunities to the utmost, and made himself a much respected
and very useful man.

More than twenty years afterwards we find him on General
Grant's staff, a Brigadier-General, and made by Grant his
private secretary, on account of his high intelligence and
superior penmanship. The articles of Lee's capitulation are
in his handwriting.

When Grant became President, he appointed Parker Com
missioner of Indian Affairs. Fora number of years preceding
his death he was employed in the Architectural Bureau of the
New York City government.

Parker was an invaluable find for Mr. Morgan. All his
communication with the Indians of the Six Nations was
conducted through him as interpreter.

Directly after Parker's initiation into the new society the
scheme was formed for its reorganization, on the basis of
the League of the Iroquois, and for devoting it to the study

154

REMINISCENCES OF MORGAN

and perpetuation of Indian lore, and the education of the
Indians in the State of New York, and their encouragement
under the new conditions of their existence.

The plan met with an enthusiastic reception, and the next
summer saw a convention at Aurora, attended by about a
hundred and fifty delegates from the various branches of the
society, at which an organization was effected, a constitution
adopted, and Sachems were elected and raised up. The
3 opening sentence of the Preface to the League of the

I- ix Iroquois was the first sentence of the preamble to this
constitution, written by Mr. Morgan.

The society was known to the public as u The Grand
Order of the Iroquois;" but for its members, both the so
ciety and its branches were baptized with Indian names.
The general name of the society was We-yo-ha-yo-de-Ka-de,-
Na-ho-de'-no-sau-nee, — "They who live in the home of the
dwellers in the long house."

In pronouncing this name the accented syllable " de "
must be pronounced " deck," with only an incipient " k,"
and be followed by a pause.

The new society established branches through western New
York, and so far east as Utica. Its enthusiasm kept it alive
for a few years, and its annual conventions held in the old
Masonic Lodge in Aurora, with addresses and poems by such
men as H. R. Schoolcraft and Alfred B. Street, and initia
tions in the woods at midnight, were well worthy to be
remembered.

But efforts in behalf of the Indians met with no encourag
ing response on their part. As Mr. Morgan afterwards
expressed it, the attempt was idle to transplant them across
two or three ethnic periods. As for their remains, beyond
the beautiful names they had given to our lakes and streams,
there were none. The Indian is an evanescent being, and
leaves behind him no more trace of his existence than a
summer cloud.

When the active existence of the society had ended,

155

APPENDIX B

it was found that its final outcome, and one well worthy to
be its single fruitage, was Morgan's League of the Iroquois.

But to this there had afterwards to be added his remarkable
series of original ethnological investigations, the grasp of
which comprehended all ancient society, and which he pur
sued with an enduring enthusiasm through his life. These
all had their genesis in the old Masonic Hall in Aurora,
which the ethnological pilgrim may still find in good preserva
tion, not far from the house in which Lewis H. Morgan first
saw the light.

4 The society seemed, however, to have been raised
II. 121 up to do one other useful work. The Ogden Land
Company, who held the pernicious pre-emptive right to pur
chase the Indian reservations in New York, whenever the
Indians should be willing to sell, had, by the methods which
have been fitly characterized by Mr. Morgan, got from the
Tonawanda band a treaty for the sale of their reservation ;
and this treaty was before the United States Senate for ratifi
cation. The new society made it its business to secure
the rejection of this treaty. For this purpose it circulated
petitions throughout western New York, and sent Mr.
Morgan to Washington to make a personal presentation of
the evidences of the fraud. He found the Senators astonished
at the flood of petitions that had poured in upon them, and
quite ready to listen to his presentation of the case. The
result was the rejection of the treaty by a decisive vote, and
the security of the Indians on all their reservations ever since.

This was indeed an invaluable service. For the promi
nent part that he took in it, Mr. Morgan became widely
known as the friend of the Indians, — a distinction which he
found most valuable in his subsequent investigations. Every
thing was communicated to him with a cordial frankness and
fulness that prevented him from falling into errors, which
are inevitable when information Is given with reserve or
perhaps with intentional inaccuracy. He found no trouble
in getting to the very heart of things. For example, he alone

VISIT TO THE SENEGAS

has given us the true and simple philosophy of the annual
sacrifice of the white dog. This advantage has helped very
much, in addition to his habitual thoroughness, to make his
statements authoritative.

Not long after the rejection of the treaty, probably in 1847,
Mr. Morgan was invited to visit the Indians on the Tona-
wanda reservation, for the purpose of being adopted into the
Seneca Nation. I had the honor, together with Mr. Thomas
Darling, of Auburn, New York, to accompany him. No
date was fixed for this visit. The Indians were always at
home. We went in a pleasant season, and when we knew
we should find Ely Parker there.

Our entry into the reservation was not especially dignified.
We had a walk of some three or four miles, if I remember
correctly, across the country from the railway station; when
we came to a stream, which was the boundary of the reserva
tion on that side. The stream was about fifteen yards wide,
and only from a foot to eighteen inches deep. There was
no bridge. Indians have no use for bridges. A dug-out
canoe was hauled up on the bank. The water was clear
and the bottom quite distinct. Seeing how shallow it was,
I concluded to wade across. Morgan and Darling agreed
to utilize the canoe. This having been partially launched,
Darling wrapped himself in his cloak, and took his seat
on the bottom of the canoe at the forward end. Morgan
gave it its final shove, and jumped in. In doing this he
tipped the canoe over. He saved himself from a worse duck
ing by leaping nimbly into the water, but poor Darling in
his helpless position was rolled out. After righting and
securing the canoe, they had to wade across after all.

Our visit lasted ten days. The forenoons were devoted
by Mr. Morgan to filling his note-book; the afternoons to
witnessing games and dances got up in our honor, and the
evenings mostly to hearing Indian traditions, in which I re
member feeling deeply interested at the time, but of which
I do not now remember a word.

157

APPENDIX B

The ceremony of adoption was a very simple one.

I. xi, In fact, all of it I can now recall was a long address

332 by old Jimmy Johnson, the religious teacher of the

Indians ; and that each of us received a name, and was made

a member of a particular tribe, a different one in each case,

and learned who were our brothers, and who were only our

cousins, — all long ago forgotten.

(Mr. Morgan has left an account of this adoption in a
foot-note on page 81 of Ancient Society, by which it appears
that he at least was taken into the Hawk clan. The cere
mony took place at the council-house. The address men
tioned by Mr. Porter included an account of Messrs.
Morgan, Darling and Porter, the reasons for adopting
them, the clans and persons adopting them, and the
names they were to receive. Then each neophyte was es
corted by two chiefs up and down the council-house. The
chiefs held their new brother by the arms and chanted the
song of adoption as they marched, the people responding
in musical chorus at the end of each verse. At the end
of the third lap, the song and the march ceased together.
-H. M. L.)

5 The morning sessions with the oldest Indians, held
II. 96 with them individually in their own houses, were
very interesting. A number of these were devoted by Mr.
Morgan to obtaining geographical names, Parker, as always,
acting as interpreter. I was full of admiration of these old
men, who in their youth had hunted over all western New
York, and who showed such a wonderful acquaintance with
the location and course of every river and stream. In fact,
the whole map appeared to exist in their minds. They
seemed to have developed another sense, which we, who
depend upon books and maps, and do not live in life-long
familiarity with nature, do not possess. They were men of
the woods, who, with nothing to depend on but their powers
of observation and memory, in trackless forests could never
lose their way.

.153

DANCE AND FEAST

7 Our initiation was followed by a dance in the council-
I- 273 house, in which we were allowed to participate, and
were provided with partners. This was the only dance we
witnessed in which the women took part. Then for the first
time my ears were regaled with Indian music. Two young
men were seated, on opposite sides of a drum, which looked
to me very much like a nail-keg. On this they pounded
violently with sticks, as an accompaniment to the most dis
cordant howling. The Indian has no conception of musical
intervals. The performance had therefore the attraction of
complete novelty. But they kept good time, and the dancing
was animated.

This was followed by a curious feast. A bullock had been
killed and cut up in the Indian fashion ; that is, all the flesh
had been cut into small pieces, and made into a stew. The
large kettles in which this had been boiled were taken into the
council-house, and set in a row in the middle of the floor, and
the dancing was in a procession around them. The dancers
were in pairs, facing each other, about six feet apart, one
moving forward and the other backward, with a shuffling step.
Every minute or two, on a signal from the leader, all changed
places. I remember that my partner, by a sudden exclamation,
saved me from dancing backwards into a kettle of hot stew.
Every family had brought a pail, and at the conclusion of the
dance these pails were filled, and the stew was carried home
to be eaten.

I was much impressed, on another afternoon, by a grand
thanksgiving dance, performed by thirty or forty young men,
attired in Indian full dress, that is, in head feathers and the
breech cloth. This dance was really inspiring. It was a
slowly advancing processional dance, in single file. Each
dancer seemed to follow his own inspiration, and all appeared
to vie with each other in the vigor of their steps and the
stateliness of their postures. This exhibition of animated
statuary, with the varied and majestic character of their move
ments, had a" grandeur which to my mind was most suggestive

APPENDIX B

of the sentiment of worship which it was intended to express.
Just in this manner, doubtless, King David " danced before
the Lord with all his might."

We were entertained in several houses, different families
taking us in turn, and all apparently proud to do so. The
entertainment, however, was everywhere the same. We
enjoyed most the hospitality of Parker's father, who was
a rather progressive Indian, belonging to the Christian party,
and who spoke a little English. His daughter Caroline,
whom the society was having educated in the State Normal
School at Albany, was then at home, and helped much to
make it pleasant for us. She seemed quite as exceptional as
her brother Ely.

8 We were naturally interested in what we should
II. 30 get to eat. The reader may be amused by a de
scription of our breakfast. Corn was kept on the cob. The
inner husks were turned back and braided together ; the
ears being arranged like a bunch of Chinese crackers. The
first thing every morning some of these were unbraided, and
the corn was shelled by rubbing two ears together. The corn
was then boiled for a few minutes in a kettle with ashes. This
completely removed the skin and cortex from every kernel.
The former floated, and were poured off with the water. The
latter, softened sufficiently to be pounded into meal, were
washed in clean water and placed in the mortar, which was a
tree stump hollowed out. Two women, standing on opposite
sides of the mortar, with their pounders soon made the corn
fine enough. We were awakened every morning by the sound
of the pounders all over the reservation. I have often won
dered why a process somewhat similar to boiling in ashes was
not employed by millers who grind Indian corn for human
food, for the same purpose which that accomplished so
effectually.

The meal was then mixed with black beans, and made into
cakes about an inch thick and six or eight inches in diameter,
without salt or leaven. These cakes were set on edge in a

160

RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT

pot of water, and boiled for perhaps half an hour, when break
fast was ready. Our beverage was hemlock tea, without milk
or sugar. Dinner was the same, except that the corn and
beans were made into succotash, instead of cakes, and some
times we had beef stew.

When we left, a brother of Ely Parker, a lad about twelve
years old, drove us over to the village where we were to take
the train, and we invited him to dine with us. At dinner he
stared at us with distending eyeballs, and at last exclaimed,
" How you eat ! You make me think of the appetite I had
once, after I had been a week with the white folks and could
hardly eat anything."

A mission was maintained on the reservation, in charge of
a Baptist clergyman, whom we did not meet. We learned
afterwards with regret that this good man was much distressed
by our visit, the tendency of which was to lead the Indians
back to their games and dances, from which, the latter espe
cially, he was doing his best to wean them to civilized ways
and Christianity. But the Indians were not idolaters ; and who
ever heard of any Christians who were more grateful to the
Giver of all for so little ?

I have often thought that, of all men I have personally
known, Lewis H. Morgan was most singularly entitled to
have inscribed over his life-work this line from his favorite
Horace, —

" Exegi monumentum tere perennius"

CHARLES TALBOT PORTER.

MONTCLAIR, N. J., 6th February, 1901.

VOL. II. — II l6l

LEWIS H. MORGAN

IN the first Assembly of Connecticut Colony sat James
Morgan and John Steele, the paternal and maternal immigrant
ancestors of Lewis H. Morgan. In 1636, James Morgan,
with his younger brother Miles, had emigrated to New
England. From these two brothers all the Morgans promi
nent in the annals of New York and New England are
believed to be descended. Among the descendants of James
Morgan was the Hon. Jedediah Morgan, who, at the time
of his death in 1826, represented his Senatorial District in
the New York Legislature. He married Harriet Steele, a
descendant of John Steele above named, who emigrated from
England before 1632, is said to have lived for a while near
Cambridge, and was one of the founders of Hartford. In
the venerable homestead which still stands on Washington
Street in that city, Harriet Steele was born. Her great-grand
father, Samuel Steele, a grandson of John, had married, in
1680, Mercy Bradford, granddaughter of Governor William
Bradford of Plymouth Colony. Through her Mr. Morgan's
ancestry is traced back to the " Mayflower."

The son of Jedediah Morgan and Harriet Steele, his wife,
Lewis Henry Morgan was born at Aurora, New York, No
vember 21, 1818. After receiving a good education at
Cayuga Academy in his native town and at Union College,
from which he was graduated in 1840, he was admitted to the
bar in Rochester, where he formed a partnership with George
F. Danforth, afterwards a judge of the Court of Appeals. In
1855 Morgan became interested in a railroad from Marquette,
Michigan, to the Lake Superior Iron region. This investment
proved profitable, and soon required so much attention as to

162

SKETCH OF MORGAN

withdraw him from his law practice, which he never actively
resumed.

It is interesting to note that many of those who have taken
an interest in early American history and in the study of the
Aborigines have been active in political life, and Morgan
served twice in the New York Legislature, — in 1861 in the
Assembly, and in 1868 in the Senate. It is hardly necessary
to mention that in public as in private life his sincerity and
energy were notable. He travelled extensively in the United
States, visiting many Indian tribes in their homes, was a
member of many scientific societies both at home and abroad,
became in 1868 a fellow of the American Academy of Arts
and Sciences, and in 1880 was President of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. The degree
of LL.D. came to him from Union College. December 17,
1881, he died. In 1851 Mr. Morgan was married to his
cousin Miss Mary A. Steele, daughter of Lemuel Steele, of
Albany ; of their children only one, Mr. Lemuel Morgan, of
Rochester, survived his father. Under Morgan's will his es
tate, which was considerable, will ultimately pass to Rochester
University for the establishment of a college for women.

Mr. Porter has told us the interesting story of the beginning
of Mr. Morgan's interest in the Iroquois. It must not be
forgotten that the opportunity for the intimate knowledge of
Indian institutions which bore such valuable fruit came to
him as the voluntary champion of the Senecas against injus
tice. The righteous and generous enthusiasm of this young
man gained a new field for science, and for himself undying
fame.

Securing the full confidence and gratitude of the

I. xi, Senecas, he was, on October 31, 1847, adopted into
264, 332 tne Hawk clan u as the son of Jimmy Johnson," Sose-
ha'wa, receiving the name of Ta-ya-da-o-wuk'-kuh " one lying
across," that is, a bridge or bond of union between the Indians
and the white men.

At the " Councils of the New Confederacy of the Iro-

163

APPENDIX B

quois," the society described by Mr. Porter, Mr. Morgan
read during the years 1844-46 various papers containing the
results of his researches among the Senecas, and these were
in 1847 amplified and arranged under the title of Letters on
the Iroquois, by Skenandoah, addressed to Albert Gallatin, LL.D.,
President New York Historical Society, and were published
during that year in the numbers of The American Review ;
a IVhig Journal of Politics, Literature, Art and Science, for
the months of February, March, A/lay, November, and De
cember. These sixteen letters were, in fact, a first printing
of the material contained in the present volume. The ad
vertisement to the Letters is worth reprinting : —

« ADVERTISEMENT.

u It is proper to observe, that many parts of the following
letters were read on several occasions in the years 1844, 5, & 6,
before the Councils of the New Confederacy of the Iroquois ;
and to the establishment of that historical institution, the re
search by which the facts were accumulated, is chiefly to be
attributed. The Institution referred to is founded upon the
ancient Confederacy of the Five Nations ; and its symbolic
council-fires are kindled upon the ancient territories of the
Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and
the Senecas. In the design from which it originated — to
gather the fragments of the history, the institutions, and the
government of our Indian predecessors, and to encourage
a kinder feeling towards the Red Man — literary and moral
objects are presented, in themselves as attractive to the scholar
and the moralist as they are dignified and just. If, in pur
suing this design, the new Confederacy shall eventually trace
out the footsteps of the Iroquois beside our rivers, hills, and
lakes — preserving thus the vestiges of their existence; and
shall extend to the small residue of their descendants, still
within our limits, the hand of kindness and protection, it will
have achieved a work not unworthy of after praise.*'

Morgan had in 1846 read before the New York Historical

164

PARKMAN'S REVIEW

Society an essay on the Constitutional Government of the
Six Nations of Indians, which though not printed under that
name may no doubt substantially be found in the Letters,
and it is probable that the substance of all the letters was read
before the society.

The first eleven letters were in 1848 reprinted in The
Olden Time, an Antiquarian Magazine, then published in Pitts
burgh. In 1849 and 1850 m New York and Canada Mr.
Morgan collected for the State Museum at Albany a number
of articles of Iroquois manufacture, and in the second, third,
and fifth reports of the Board of Regents on the Museum are
pictures, prepared under his supervision, of many of these arti
cles, with descriptive text from his pen. In 1851 he brought
together and revised the Letters on the Iroquois, and some of the
descriptions in the Museum reports, and published them with
some new matter in a single volume, the League of the Iro
quois. This book, says a high authority, " was the first scien
tific account of an Indian tribe ever given to the world," and
it entitles Mr. Morgan to the name of father of American An
thropology. Its value was at once appreciated, and it has ever
since been recognized as a classic of literature and as the first
authority in all matters relating to the Iroquois.

If we eliminate from this book the historical errors into
which Mr. Morgan was led by relying on other writers, and the
recitals of the false theories of the origins of government and
society which then prevailed, and which he was soon himself
to destroy, we have a work which has stood and will stand
the test of time, both as science and as literature.

The book had the good fortune to be reviewed by Francis
Parkman (Christian Examiner, May, 1851), who said:- —

u And here a new sun has arisen, revealing the scene before
us in all its breadth and depth. Mr. Morgan's work on the abo
riginal tribes of New York is a production of singular merit."

IO u To find fault with a book of so much merit is not a

I- 54 pleasing task, but in truth Mr. Morgan has been led
into some degree of error by the very zeal and devotion with

•65

APPENDIX B

which he has labored. He ascribes to the Iroquois legis
lators a wisdom of forecast and a refining spirit beyond what
is, as we conceive, justly their due. In his pages their
peculiar institutions assume an appearance of too much studied
adjustment and careful elaboration."

u We cordially commend the work of Mr. Morgan to the
study of all to whom the character and customs of those who
preceded us on this soil are objects of interest."

In 1880 (Pop. Set. Monthly, November) Major J. W.
Powell, Chief of the Bureau of Ethnology, wrote : —

IX "The work is not entirely free from the nomencla-

I- 74 ture of sociology previously, and to some extent since,
used by writers on our North American Indians, in which
tribes are described as nations and the institutions of tribal
or barbaric life defined in terms used in national or civilized
life. But the series of organic units was discovered among
the Iroquois and was correctly defined, though the confederacy
was called a league, the tribe a nation, and the gens a tribe.
In like manner kinship as the bond of union was fully
recognized."

Mr. Morgan's second book was the result of observations
made on fishing excursions in northern Michigan, taken in the
intervals of his railroad work in that country. This book,
The American Beaver and his Works, published in 1868, would
in itself support no small reputation. The same sympathy
and insight which made aboriginal institutions an open book
to him extended even to the lower animals. An intimate
friend says : " He did not fully agree with the commonly
received doctrine, that they were simply for the uses of man,
but inclined to the opinion that they were created for their
own happiness and welfare, and should be treated accordingly.
He did not like to hear them called brutes. I well remember
that on a certain occasion when I had applied this word to
the animals, he said, ' You ought not to use that word ; it
has a bad sense ; you should call them the mutes.' ' ( The Life
and Works of Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D., an address at his

166

MORGAN'S DISCOVERIES

funeral by Rev. J. H. Mcllvaine, D.D.) The word mute is,
in fact, used throughout The Beaver in the sense of animal
other than man.

In his studies of the beaver, Morgan made in the country
south of Lake Superior a fine collection of specimens of
beaver-gnawed wood, which in 1866 he gave to the New
York State Museum.

I2 In the fourth chapter of the League of the Iroquois

I. 8 1 Morgan had mentioned the peculiar system of relation
ship which he had found among the Senecas. Its significance
he did not then appreciate, but reflection convinced him that
some great fact in the history of society lay behind this appar
ent eccentricity. Dr. Mcllvaine says, in the address already
quoted : "His intimacy with this aboriginal people made him
acquainted with a striking feature of their system of kinship —
their mode of characterizing their relationships and affinities
with each other. He found that they called, in systematic
manner, those their brothers and sisters, uncles and aunts,
fathers and mothers, who were not such in reality. This
apparent confusion of relationships had been often noticed
before, but no one had ever seen in it anything but confusion,
and the reign of utter unreason. Not a glimpse of any signifi
cance in it had ever been discerned. To illustrate this I will
mention that when one of the papers describing this strange
system of relationships was read before our Rochester Club, of
which our friend was one of the original founders, the beloved
and lamented Dr. Chester Dewey being the other, one of
the most distinguished members of the Club remarked that he
1 could see nothing in it but the total depravity and perversity
of the Indian mind — that it could ever have thought of such
utterly absurd ways of characterizing relationships and affini
ties.' After our friend had mastered the peculiarities of this
Iroquois system, his next stage was the discovery, to his great
surprise, that it was substantially identical with that of the
Dakota tribes in the far West. This led him to his first great
generalization ; for the power of generalization was one of the

APPENDIX B

most distinguished traits of his mind. Now, then, it occurred
to him that this Iroquois and Dakota system of relationships
might be common to ail the aborigines of both North and
South America. This was followed by ten years of study,
travel among the Indian tribes, and investigation, in every
direction on the continent, to discover whether his gener
alization could, or could not, be verified. The result was
such as to leave no room for doubt — this peculiar way of
designating their relationships and affinities was universal
among all the Indian tribes of America. Thus he reached
one of the strongest arguments that have ever been given for
the unity of the whole Indian race — that it is of one and the
same blood or stock — a result which all preceding and sub
sequent investigation has tended to confirm and establish.

" When he had attained to this stage in his inquiries a
second and wider generalization occurred to him, namely,
that possibly the system might be found among the Turanian
Tribes of the old continents, including the ante-Brahmanical
population of India — among those portions of the human
race which were in conditions most similar to that of the
aborigines of this country, and from which these might have
been derived. This led him into another ten years of study
and investigation, extending over a very large portion of the
human race, during which, through the co-operation of the
Smithsonian Institution, which had by this time become deeply
interested in his studies, he was sending out his schedules of
questions to the missionaries and consuls wherever they were
stationed, and getting his returns. During this period he
lived and worked often in a state of great mental excitement,
and the answers he received, as they came in, sometimes
nearly overpowered him. I well remember one occasion
when he came into my study, saying, ' I shall find it, I shall
find it among the Tamil people and Dravidian tribes of
Southern India.' At this time I had no expectation of any
such result ; and I said to him, c My friend, you have enough
to do in working out your discovery in connection with the

168

MORGAN'S DISCOVERIES

tribes of the American continent — let the peoples of the old
world go.' He replied, CI cannot do it — I cannot do it —
I must go on, for I am sure I shall find it all there.' Some
months afterward, he came in again, his face all aglow with
excitement, the Tamil schedule in his hands, the answers to
his questions just what he had predicted, and, throwing it on
my table, he exclaimed, ' There ! what did I tell you ? ' I
was indeed amazed and confounded ; and still more as his
predicted results poured in upon him from a great multitude
of independent sources. And this his second generalization
was triumphantly verified. The system was found to prevail
in all its essential features throughout the Turanian and Poly
nesian families of mankind.

" Having satisfied himself on this point, and reasoning from
analogy, he now conjectured that this same system of relation
ship and affinities might have prevailed also in prehistoric
times among the Semitic and Aryan nations and races, as he
had already found it in the Turanian and Polynesian groups
— in a word, that it might once have been absolutely uni
versal. When he broached this final generalization to me, I
was appalled, not having the least expectation that it could
ever be verified. But, with his accustomed enthusiasm and
energy, almost superhuman, he immediately addressed himself
to another vast series of investigations, with a similar result in
the end. He found overwhelming evidence that the system
had once prevailed in all the Arabic or Semitic peoples, in
cluding the Hebrews, in all the Sanscritic or Aryan branches,
the Brahmans, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Gothic, Celtic and
Sclavonic nations — among our own ancestors — in a word,
throughout the human race, over three-fourths of which his
investigations extended. This last generalization stands per
haps unequalled for its vastness and grandeur, and for its fruit-
fulness in results, by anything in the history of science known
to me, except that of the Newtonian theory of gravitation.

" These results, with a partial discussion of their signifi
cance, were published in 1871 by the Smithsonian Institution

169

APPENDIX B

in a large quarto volume, entitled Systems of Consanguinity
and Affinity of the Human Family. But until that work
was nearly ready for the press, our friend had not perceived
any material significance or explanation of the immense body
of entirely new facts which he had discovered and collected.
He could not at all account for them. In fact, he regarded
this system, or these slightly varying forms of one system, as
invented and wholly artificial, so different was it from that
which now prevails in civilized society, and which evidently
follows the flow of the blood. During all these years, he had
not the least conception of any process of thought in which it
could have originated, or of anything which could have caused
it so universally to prevail. He treated it as something which
must throw great light upon prehistoric man, but what light
he had not discovered. Before the work was finished, how
ever, he obtained and adopted an hypothesis which, rigor
ously applied to its peculiarities, he found would account for,
explain, and render them all intelligible. This hypothesis
was, that it followed the flow of the blood at the time it
originated, as that which now prevails follows the flow of the
blood ; and consequently, that the actual relationships of
human beings to each other were then very different from
what they are now. In other words, the reason why people
called those their fathers who would not be their fathers now,
was because they either were their fathers or were undistin-
guishable from their fathers, by reason of a common cohabita
tion with their mothers. The reason why they called those
their mothers who would not be their mothers now, was that
these mothers were the wives in common of their fathers,
just as we call mothers-in-law and step-mothers our mothers.
The reason why they called them their brothers and sisters
who woujd not be such now, was, either because they actu
ally were such, or were undistinguishable from them by
reason of the common cohabitation of their parents with
each other. And so of all the other relationships of the
system.

170

MORGAN'S DISCOVERIES

" The adoption of this explanation of the vast body of
facts which he had gathered, worked a complete revolution
in the mind of our friend, and enabled him to pour a great
flood of light upon the primitive condition of mankind, with
respect to marriage and relationship, and all other things
therewith connected, beyond all that had ever been known.
With this instrument in his hand, he now proceeded precisely
as Newton did with his hypothesis of gravitation, which gave
him his grand principle of ratiocination. He reasoned : If
this hypothesis be correct, then such and such facts will be
found in the physical and stellar worlds. Then he would
raise his telescope and look, and there invariably the facts
predicted by the hypothesis would be found. Thus he
marched through the physical universe, making discoveries
in every direction, like a mighty conqueror subduing and
overrunning and taking possession of a hostile country. Pre
cisely in the same way our friend now reasoned from his
grand generalization and hypothesis. He said : If it be
correct, then such a fact or facts I shall find ; and he also
would raise his mental telescope and look for them in the
past experience of mankind, where they were sure to be
found. Thus he discovered literally thousands of new facts,
and was enabled to render intelligible thousands previously
known, but which hitherto had been inexplicable. Thus he
was enabled to evolve the conditions of human society, of '
man's relations to man, where the darkness of prehistoric
ages had hidden almost everything from view, and to carry
the light of science thousands of years farther back than it
had ever been carried by any other. In fact, the origin of
human society was thus more nearly disclosed than it had
ever been — the origin of marriage, of kin, of social organ
ization, of social and political institutions, of morality, of
industry, and of civilization itself. The germs of all these
discoveries are found in his great work published by the
Smithsonian on Consanguinity and Affinity, in which it is
shown that the human race universally have come up by slow /

171

APPENDIX B

progressive steps through many thousands of years from a
state in which they lived in such communal relations that
parents and children, brothers and sisters, and other kinships,
were practically undistinguishable, except in a general way,
and in some particular cases, where it was impossible that
they should be confounded ; in a state in which marriage
between one man and one woman was unknown ; in a depth
of degradation which is absolutely inconceivable to us. But
his final results are given us in his later work on Ancient
Society, which placed him in the front rank of Science in
Archaeology, Ethnology, Sociology, Anthropology, and Politi
cal Philosophy. I venture to affirm that hereafter there can
be no adequate science in these departments of knowledge
which does not include the results of our friend's labors.

" For in this work he has shown us how all the blessings
of morality, liberty, society, industry, and civilization, and
even all our free institutions, which are our pride, have grown
up and been developed through regular stages from a few
germs originally planted in the soil of the human mind far
back in the prehistoric ages. He has proved that, with occa
sional retrocessions, there has been a constant growth in these
respects, so that it is no longer an insoluble problem, as it
formerly was, how a people can pass out of savagery and bar
barism into civilization. For it -is not long since an eminent
French savant placed on record the statement, ' Never yet has
it been discovered that any tribe or people have, by their own
energy, attained to a civilized state.' That problem has been
finally solved by our friend's labors, and can never come back
again to perplex the human mind.

" He has established also many other great and permanent
results, which can never again be called in question. Among
these is the unity of the human race : that it is properly one
race, one species, and, no doubt, derived from one stock. For
at the time he commenced his labors, scientists were discuss
ing this subject, and some of them favored a diversity of origin
for mankind. Even the lamented Professor Agassiz was

172

VALUE OF MORGAN'S WORK

inclined to the opinion that they had originated at different
centres, in swarms like bees. But our friend's investigations
go farther back than those of any other inquirer, and he has
established this truth, that, under similar conditions, at the /
same stages of development, the human mind invariably pro
ceeds by similar methods, and reaches similar results, in indus
try and morality, in social and political institutions, and in all
the great fields of investigation and research. Thus I think
he has contributed more to the establishment of a unity of
species in the race than any other who has ever touched the
subject.

" Another grand result of his labors is a demonstration that
progress is a fundamental law of human society, and one
which has always prevailed, — progress in thought and knowl
edge, in industry, in morality, in social organization, in insti
tutions, and in all other things tending to, or advancing,
civilization and general well-being. He recognized that
occasional and partial retardations and backward movements
have taken place ; that peculiar circumstances have sometimes,
in some portions of the race, frustrated for a time this pro
gressive tendency ; but he has shown that the combined and
co-operative energies of mankind have always resulted in sub
stantial progress, such as renders it certain that this law will
always continue to operate in the future, and that in a geo
metrical ratio. In fact, he was accustomed to say that the
progress which had been achieved during the long ages of
savagery and barbarism seemed to him to be greater in absolute
amount than that which has taken place during the compara
tively brief period of civilization ; and he anticipated an
immeasurable development in the future, beyond all concep
tions that we are now able to form."

In more formal manner these studies may now be traced.
As early as 1856 Morgan had read, at the Albany Meeting
of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,
a paper on The Laws of Descent of the Iroquois. This
paper received such attention that he was encouraged to per-

APPENDIX B

severe in this line of investigation. Being at Marquette in
1858, he discovered in conversation with an Ojibwa that the
Ojibwa social organization was founded on the same clan sys
tem that he had found among the Iroquois, and this although
the language and stock were entirely different. Now for the
first time it occurred to Morgan that the known instances of
this system might not be the invention of a single people, but
examples of a widespread and fundamental form of society.

To this end he began to send out schedules of inquiry, in
which he soon gained the co-operation of the Smithsonian
Institution.

In 1871 the work first referred to by Dr. Mcllvaine was
published by the Smithsonian Institution as Volume XVII. in
its series of Contributions to Knowledge, the book being en
titled Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human
Family, 600 - pages quarto. While this book is essentially
a volume of facts, and only a brief and rather unsatisfactory
discussion of the facts was undertaken (Powell), the mere
compilation of such a volume marks a turning-point in the
sciences which treat of man as a social being. The meaning
of these facts came to Morgan gradually, and his growing
understanding of them and of important correlated facts of
Ethnology can be traced in a series of articles in the North
American Review : The Seven Cities of Cibola, April, 1869;
Indian Migrations, October, 1869, and January, 1870; Mon-
tezuma's Dinner, April, 1876; The Houses of the Mound
Builders, July, 1876.

It may be said with certainty that a finer statement of the
principles and canons of American Ethnology than the third-
named article might be written, and with almost equal cer
tainty that it never has been. In Montezuma's Dinner
the romances concerning aboriginal America which had long
passed as veritable history are dissected by the keen knife of
a delicious satire. The living Indian is placed before us, and
one by one are deftly removed the European garments with
which early writers sought to cover his nakedness, while the

MORGAN'S WRITINGS

gewgaws which modern historians and romancers have pinned
upon this apparel fall away also, and we see for the first time
the barbarian as he is. As literature, this essay is enjoyable ;
as science, it is indispensable.

Morgan had now reached the height of his powers, and had
solved the problem to which his labors had so long been
devoted. The principles sketched in Montezuma's Dinner
were elaborately stated in Ancient Society, published in 1877,
which is not only Morgan's most important work, but also
the only one of his books still in print.

His last book, in which many of the achievements of his
earlier works were restated in final form, was Houses and
House Life of the American Aborigines, issued in 1881 by the
United States Geological Survey as Vol. IV. of Contributions
to North American Ethnology.

Morgan's work in the domain of Ethnology is quite com
parable to that of Darwin in another field. By much the
same methods and by a touch of the same genius these great
intellects achieved results for which mankind is their debtor
and which must be accepted as the foundations of the sciences
to which they gave their lives. The parallel holds good at
the beginning of their careers. The Voyage of the Beagle, a
book of observations, of suggestion, of beginnings, valuable
in itself and invaluable in its promise of the great discoveries
to come, finds in these respects its complete counterpart, and
in literary merit and present interest its superior, in the
League of the Iroquois.

WRITINGS OF LEWIS H. MORGAN
i 846. An Essay on the Constitutional Government of the Six Nations

of Indians. Read before the New York Historical Society.

Not printed.
1847. Letters on the Iroquois by Skenandoah. The American

(Whig) Review, New York, February, March, May,

November and December, 1847, fourteen letters in all.

The first eleven letters were reprinted in The Olden Time,

an Antiquarian Magazine, Pittsburgh, 1848.
175

APPENDIX B

1848. Communications (on Indian Art), with ground plans of
Trench Enclosures or Fort Hills in Western New York.
In zd Annual Report of the Board of Regents of. the Uni
versity of the State of New York on the State Cabinet, etc.

1851. Report upon the articles furnished to the Indian Collection.

In 3rd do.

Schedule of Iroquois Articles in the Catalogue of the Cabinet
of Natural History of the State of New York. In same.

1852. Report on the Fabrics, Inventions, Implements and Utensils

of the Iroquois. In 5th do.

1850. The Fabrics of the Iroquois (same material as Regents Re

ports much abbreviated). Stryker's American Register and
Magazine, Vol. IV. July, 1850. Trenton, N. J.

1851. League of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee or Iroquois. Sage and

Brother, Rochester. Reprinted 1901 and 1904, Dodd,
Mead and Co., New York.

1853. List of Articles Manufactured by the Indians of Western New

York and Canada West. In Catalogue of Cabinet of
Natural History of the State of New York, Albany.
1856. The Laws of Descent of the Iroquois. Proceedings of
American Association for the Advancement of Science,
Vol. XI.

1859. The Indian Method of Bestowing and Changing Names.

Proceedings of American Association for the Advancement
of Science, Vol. XIII.

1860. Circular in Reference to the Degrees of Relationship among

Different Nations. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
Vol. II. No. 138.

I 86 1. Suggestions for an Ethnological Map of North America. In
Smithsonian Report for 1861. (The map, closely follow
ing the lines suggested, was prepared by Powell and published
to accompany Bur. Eth., 1885-86.)

1868, The American Beaver and his Works. Philadelphia.

1868. A Conjectural Solution of the Origin of the Classificatory
System of Relationship. In Proceedings Am. Acad. Arts
& Science, February, 1868, Vol. VII.

1868. The Stone and Bone Implements of the Arickarees. In zist

Annual Report, etc., on State Cabinet, Albany.

1869. The Seven Cities of Cibola. In North American Review for

April, 1869.

176

MORGAN'S WRITINGS

1869-70. Indian Migrations. In North American Review for
October, 1869, and January, 1870. Reprinted in The
Indian Miscellany, edited by W. W. Beach, Albany, 1877.

1871. Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family.

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. XVII.

1872. Australian Kinship. Proceedings Am. Acad. Arts and Sci

ences, March, 1872, Vol. VIII.

1875. Ethnical Periods. Proc. Am. Ass'n, for Advancement of

Science, Vol. XXIV.

Arts of Subsistence. Do.

Articles in Johnson's Cyclopedia : Architecture of the
American Aborigines, Migrations of the American Abo
rigines, Tribe.

1876. Montezuma's Dinner. In North American Review, April,

1876.

1876. Houses of the Mound Builders. In North American Review,

July, 1876.

1877. Ancient Society. Henry Holt & Co., New York.

1880. On the Ruins of a Stone Pueblo on the Animas River in New

Mexico, with a ground plan. In 12th Ann. Rept. Pea-

body Museum of Am. Archaeol. & Ethnol., Cambridge.
Objects of an Expedition to New Mexico and Central America.

Statement presented to the Archaeological Institute of

America. March, 1880. Boston.
A Study of the Houses of the American Aborigines, with a

scheme of exploration of the Ruins in New Mexico and

elsewhere. In ist Ann. Rept. Archaeol. Inst. of America,

1880.

1 88 1. Houses and House-life of the American Aborigines, being

Vol. IV. of U. S. Geological Survey, Contributions to
North American Ethnology, Washington.

Letter in The Nation. The Hue and Cry against the Indian,

in No. 577.
Book Reviews in The Nation. Chadbourne on Instinct, in

No. 357, and supplemental note in No. 371. Figuier's

Human Race, in No. 387. Lyell's Geological Evidences

of the Antiquity of Man, in No. 430.

VOL. II.— 12 i

APPENDIX B

Powell states, in his sketch of Morgan (Pop. Set. Monthly,
December, 1880) that between 1840 and 1844 Morgan wrote
occasional articles for the Knickerbocker Magazine and other
periodicals. None of these have been identified.

In 1854 Mr. Morgan with others founded "The Club"
of Rochester (mentioned by Dr. Mcllvaine on page 167,
supra), an association small and informal, for the reading and
discussion of original papers. The motto of the Club was
" Si quid veri inveneris, profer" Its limited membership in
cluded some very capable minds, and to its members were
presented and explained Morgan's discoveries and theories as
they developed in the mind of their author. By the courtesy
of a member of the Club the following complete list of papers
read before it by Morgan is presented. Many of the dates
are significant.

July 19, 1854. The Andes.

Nov. 13, 1854. English Slavery.

Apr. 7, 1857. Animal Psychology.

Feb. 23, 1858. The Laws of Descent of the Iroquois.

Apr. 25, 1858. Res Ratione Regenda.

Oct. 5, 1858. The Origin and Results of the Club.

May 1 6, 1859. Agassiz's Theory of the Origin of the Human
Race.

Jan. 17, 1860. The Indo-European System of Consanguinity and
Relationship.

Mar. 27, 1860. Plan for an Academy of Science.

Oct. 1 6, 1860. Beaver Dams and Lodges.

Jan. 21, 1862. The Migrations of the Indian Family.

Feb. 3, 1862. The Migrations of the Indian Family.

Mar. 31, 1863. i. The System of Consanguinity and Affinity of

the Semitic Nations.

2. The Growth of Nomenclature and Relation
ship.

Jan. 4, i 864. Iroquois System of Consanguinity and Affinity.

Jan. 12, 1865. Comparison of the System of Relationship of the
Several Families of Mankind.
178

MORGAN'S WRITINGS

Jan. 24, 1865. Do.

Jan. 23, 1866. Architecture of the Several Stocks of the American

Aborigines.

May 7, 1867. Mode of Relieving Rochester from Future Floods.
Sept. 29, 1868. A Conjectural Solution of the Origin of the Classi-

ficatory System of Relationship.
June i, 1869. The Seven Cities of Cibola.
Jan. 11, 1870. Indian Migrations.
Nov. 7, 1871. Heidelberg Castle.
Mar. 4, 1873. The Totemic System.
Apr. i, 1873. Roman Gentile System.
Oct. 7, 1873. Indian Architecture.
Feb. 10, 1874. Human Progress as shown by the Development of

Arts and Sciences.

Nov. 9, 1875. Aztec Architecture.

Oct. 31, 1876. The Institution of Grecian Political Society.
Feb. 5, 1878. Classical Hypotheses of Human Development.
Mar. 25, 1879. A Pueblo House in New Mexico.
May i i, 1880. A Study of the Houses of the Indian Tribes, with
suggestions for the Explorations of the ruins in
New Mexico, Arizona, and the San Juan region,
Mexico and Central America, under the auspices
of the Archaeological Institute.

The number of copies of the League of the Iroquois
originally printed and the number of editions cannot now be
determined.

The ordinary copies are bound in black, cloth, and the map
and plates are uncolored. A few copies, probably less than
twenty, were made on special paper, the map and plates being
colored by hand. These had full gilt edges, and were bound
in red morocco. Only one copy is known of a third variety,
bound in boards with morocco corners and back, gilt top,
other edges marble; in this copy only the map and the two
full-length figures are colored.

The copy used in preparing these notes is a handsome
specimen of the second variety. It was presented by Mr.
Morgan to his sister Mrs. Charles T. Porter, and is now the
property of her grandson, Charles Talbot Porter, Jr.

179

APPENDIX E

The recognized authority and value of this book are due to
the work of Parker, as well as to that of Morgan. As a
sachem Parker had full knowledge of the institutions of his
people, and as a man of education and culture he had both the
interest and the ability necessary to make those institutions
known to civilized man as no ordinary interpreter could have
done. Parker was not merely Morgan's instrument, but his
efficient co-worker, and the fortunate conjunction of these
minds wrought much more than either could possibly have
accomplished alone.

The friendship of the two men was severed only by death.
In a personal letter in the possession of the writer, Parker
says, under date of December 22, 1881 : "I knew the
Hon. L. H. Morgan well, and was as much grieved as any one
at his taking off. In his death the scientific world has lost an
able and painstaking coadjutor, and the Indians of the country
a good friend and faithful historian."

j . The Seneca girl shown in the frontispiece to Vol. II.
I. 257 is Miss Caroline G. Parker, General Parker's sister
IL *7 (her name, Ga-ha-no, means " Hanging flower "), and
the young man shown in the frontispiece to Vol. I. is Nichol
son Parker, a younger brother. Both died before the General.
Miss Parker married John Mountpleasant, a Tuscarora, and
as his widow was still living on the Tonawanda reservation
when the Indian Bulletin of the Eleventh Census was com
pleted. Her name was then Ge-keah-saw-sa, " Wild-cat,"
the reference being to her succession to the chief woman
of the Neutrals (see text, I. 328, note i). Her portrait at that
date in civilized costume is shown opposite page 464 of that
Bulletin.

She is there called " Queen of the Senecas," whatever that
means.

182

CHARLES T. PORTER

jij CHARLES TALBOT PORTER was born January 18,
I. x» 1826, at Auburn, New York. Like his friend
Lewis Morgan, he came of old New England stock, and
among his ancestors were Jonathan Edwards and Gover
nors Saltonstall and Winthrop. Receiving a liberal educa
tion, he graduated at Hamilton College in 1845, and was
admitted to the bar in 1847, practising for a time in Rochester
and later in the City of New York. But he soon deserted the
law for engineering. His fitness for his new vocation was
promptly shown, and in July, 1859, ne patented his first form
of steam-engine governor, largely eliminating the disturbing
effect of friction. Two years later he patented a novel iso
chronous marine-engine governor, the principles of which
are now in general use, and at the same time devised a high
speed stationary engine. The importance of this device may
be appreciated when it is stated that usual speeds of engines
of the class which he improved were then fifty to seventy-
five revolutions per minute, and that they could not safely be
driven beyond that rate. The Porter governor and the Allen
valve-motion were the characteristics of the Porter-Allen
engine, which became a standard, and at the International
Exhibition in London in 1862 astonished every one by its
power, speed, smooth operation, and excellent steam distribu
tion. This invention lies at the basis of modern steam
engineering and especially of its use for the generation of
electricity. The persistent and unconquerable spirit of Mr.
Porter is evidenced in the history of this long and ultimately
successful contest with prejudice, adverse interests, and in
herent difficulties of design, construction, and operation. He

183

APPENDIX B

spent several years, 1862-68, abroad, largely to introduce his
new engine. Later he established it in this country and ex
hibited a new form of water-tube boiler to meet the demand
for safe utilization of high-pressure steam.

In 1874 Mr. Porter published a treatise on the steam-
engine indicator which is ct among the most admirable and
useful of engineering classics."

In 1885 he published a very notable philosophical work,
Mechanics and Faith ; a Study of Spiritual Truth in Nature,
a work in which the author's clear-sightedness, spiritual and
intellectual integrity and earnestness, as well as acuteness, are
admirably illustrated.

Mr. Porter is an Honorary Member of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, of which he was one of
the founders.

In 1848 he married Miss Harriette Morgan, sister of his
intimate friend Lewis H. Morgan. Mr. and Mrs. Porter
are residents of Montclair, New Jersey.

ROBERT H. THURSTON.

184

NOTES

HISTORY

j6 THE peoples of the Iroquoian stock, so named from
I- 5 its best known representatives, were found by Euro
peans in three .separate regions of North America (Bur. Eth.,
1885-86, Map). In the mountain district now included in
East Tennessee, northern Georgia, and western North Caro
lina were the great Cherokee nation. Near the coasts of
southern Virginia and northern North Carolina dwelt the
Tuscaroras and the Nottoways. All the other Iroquoian
peoples were found together, as it were in a great island
of Iroquoian speech, entirely surrounded by Algonquians.
The centre of this island was at Niagara in the country of the
Neutrals, who extended from western New York along
the north shore of Lake Erie. North of the Neutrals the
Tionnontates (Tobacco Nation) and the Hurons occupied
the country between Lake Ontario and Lake Huron. To
the southeast in the Susquehanna valley were the Conestogas,
also called Andastes and Susquehannocks. The Eries held
the south shore of the lake now called by their name.
Finally, through central New York, bounded west by the
Eries and Neutrals, south by the Conestogas, and southeast,
east, and north by Algonquian tribes, stretched the five nations
of the Iroquois.

Thus dwelt the Iroquoians at the opening of the seven
teenth century. Seventy years earlier some of their tribes
not certainly identified had held both banks of the St. Law
rence from Ontario to the ocean, as well as both shores of
Lake Champlain. So much and little more is certain.

187

APPENDIX B

For the origin and early home of the Iroquoians and for
their history prior to the seventeenth century we have no
records and must depend upon tradition and conjecture.
No general agreement has been reached, but the weight
of evidence supports the story contained in the following
paragraphs.

The valleys drained by the Columbia and the rivers of
Puget Sound were the early home of many of the Indian
stocks, and from this country the Iroquoians took their way
east not less than ten centuries ago. They were then a fish-
eating people, nomadic and ignorant of agriculture. Some
where in the Mississippi valley they acquired this art, and
changing their basis of subsistence learned to build permanent
villages. Here the Cherokees separated from the main stem,
the others continuing together for a long time. This first
sedentary home of the Iroquoians has been variously located
on the St. Lawrence, on Lake Superior, on Lake Ontario,
and in the Tuscarora country above . mentioned. It may
be said that the northern and southern locations are alike
improbable, and that — unless we place them in New York
itself — the upper Ohio valley, the region of the Allegany,
Monongahela, and Kanawha, is the most likely locality. Here
too was perhaps the early home of the Siouan stock (Mooney,
Siouan Tribes of the East*), whose close connection with the
Iroquois Mr. Morgan always maintained. In this home
their numbers grew, and the tribes swarmed into their historic
sites in Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, and Canada.

Now turning more particularly to the five tribes of the
League, it appears that the Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mo
hawks, in association with the Hurons, moved eastward
through the country north of Lakes Erie and Ontario,
while the Cayugas and Senecas, with their near kin the Eries,
17 were occupying the southern shores of these lakes.

1.5,11 Of the northern division the Onondagas were the
first to enter New York, turning southerly at the east end of
Lake Ontario. The Mohawks were then becoming a great

1 88

EARLY HISTORY

people. They had begun their tribal existence as a Huron
phratry upon a fishing expedition, pressing on in advance of
their kin to the lower St. Lawrence. Quebec was for some
time their chief town. Probably they were the people whom
Jacques Cartier found there. Their Huron kindred built
Hochelaga on the island of Montreal. Between these related
tribes arose jealousy and finally war. The Mohawks drove
the Hurons from Hochelaga and built their capital there.
This was the height of Mohawk power. Apparently they
held the country from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to
the headwaters of the Mohawk. From their capital at Mon
treal they controlled the great river down to Gaspe. Vermont
and the Adirondacks were their hunting-grounds, and their
outlying dependency the Oneidas had for some time had a
permanent town in New York. Thus the Onondagas had
come in touch with the Oneidas on the east, and with the
Cayugas on the west, both of them tribes of their own race,
language, and institutions, and both few and feeble compared
with Onondaga. It was to the interest of all to maintain
peace, and with the Oneidas Onondaga had probably been in
alliance before either tribe reached its historic seat. Numerous
councils gradually drew the bonds tighter until at length a
formal alliance grew up, to which the Senecas, as fathers of the
Cayugas, soon became a party. This League of the four nations
may have existed as early as 1450 (see I. 1 14 and note 89).

18 Beginning in a hunter's quarrel, a war broke out in
I- 5 the North in 1550 or a little later. The widely
extended Mohawk people was suddenly and violently attacked
by the whole line of Algonquian tribes as well as by the
Hurons. The fact that the Mohawks were an agricultural
people extended far along the St. Lawrence made them as
vulnerable as they found the French a century later. If at
the same time a succession of crop failures fell upon them, as
Lafitau relates of their Quebec settlement, and as happened
later on the St. Lawrence, they had good reason to retreat.
Some of their towns — perhaps Oneida itself — were nearly de-

189

APPENDIX B

stroyed ; others, including several of the St. Lawrence settle
ments, may have been entirely wiped out, and many of their
people slain or incorporated with the Hurons or Algonquians.
The remnant of the Mohawks proper fell back upon their
Oneida kindred in New York, and were soon received into the
League, which now acquired a more formal constitution and
more definite obligations. The date of this comple
tion of the League was not far from 1570. There is
little doubt that the Mohawks did not enter New York till about
that time, nor that the League of Five Nations was formed
after all the tribes had entered the State. It should neverthe
less be stated that Mr. Morgan and Mr. Horatio Hale, two
most eminent authorities, were firm in the belief that the
League as it existed in historic times was constituted not later
than 1459. The views expressed in the text, however, that
the League was established by a single act of conscious legis
lation were at once combated by Mr. Francis Parkman (Chris
tian Examiner, May, 1851), who said : "The divided Iroquois,
harassed by the attacks of enemies or threatened with a general

* o

inroad, might have been led to see the advantages of a league,
and to effect that end the most simple and obvious course
would have been that the sachems of all the nations should
unite in a com-mon council. When this had been done, when
a few functionaries had been appointed and certain necessary
regulations established, the league would have found itself,
without any very elaborate legislation, in the condition in
which it stood at the time of its highest prosperity." To
these views Morgan assents in his last word upon the subject
(Houses, 27).

19 It is, to say the least, improbable that the Iroquois
I- 5 ever lived as one small nation at or near Montreal.
The Mohawks held that territory, and the Oneidas and Onon-
dagas may have tarried on the St. Lawrence for a time, but
they were there as separate tribes, not as one, and the Senecas
and Cayugas probably never dwelt on the river at all. Be
this as it may, the Iroquois were not taught agriculture there,
nor by the Adirondacks. The Adirondacks did not possess

190

EARLY HISTORY

this art, but were mere hunters and fishers of the wilderness.
Their very name means " tree-eaters," and was given to them
by the Iroquois in contempt for their famine diet of buds and
bark, to which, having no stores of corn, they were in winter
.sometimes reduced. (Lafitau, III. 84). Nor was the St.
Lawrence valley, where the corn crop often failed,

L I53 the place where a people would shift from fish to corn

as a means of subsistence. Mr. Morgan's own point of view is

different on page 191 of Vol. L, where he says that

L I?I the Iroquois had cultivated corn and other plants from
a remote period. While many of the Algonquian tribes and
most of the Siouan were non-agricultural, all the Iroquoians
tilled the soil. Probably they acquired this art before their
separation. The tradition that they learned husbandry from
an Algonquian tribe is very likely correct, and the teachers
may have been the Illinois, the Powhatans, or even those
Otawas known as the " Cheveux-Releves."

It would seem that the northern Iroquoians since reaching
the agricultural basis have not lived in a materially milder or
colder climate than that of their historic home. All their
usages were adapted to a land of warm summers and severe
winters. Their corn itself was of a harder artd earlier ripen
ing variety than that of their Delaware neighbors. (Loskiel,
84.) Yet even this often failed to ripen on the St. Lawrence.

20 When the Iroquois entered New York, they seem to
I- 6 have found an unoccupied land, nor has much evi
dence been discovered of previous occupation. (Beauchamp,
Aboriginal Occupation of N. T.)

21 It is now agreed upon that Jacques Cartier found Iro-
I. 9 quoians at Quebec and even at Gaspe, and most

writers think that the people of Hochelaga, the palisaded town
which he found on the site of Montreal, were Mohawks,
though it is quite possible, as above suggested, that Hochelaga
was a Huron town, and that the Quebec people were Mo
hawks. Ramusio's picture of Hochelaga, showing its houses,
its defences, and its cornfields is reproduced on page 32 of

191

APPENDIX B

Winsor's Cartier to Frontenac, and, whether Mohawk or Huron,
is certainly Iroquoian, and may be compared with Champlain's
picture of the Onondaga fort attacked by him in 1615, which
picture is reproduced by Winsor on page 119 of the same
work.

While the Adirondacks did not themselves raise corn, they
pointed out to the French, in 1636, the abandoned cornfields
of the Mohawks along the St. Lawrence.

22 Champlain's fight was not on Lake George, nor did
I. 10 he reach Lake George. That honor was reserved

for Isaac Jogues, first of white men. Cham plain progressed
as far as the rapids in the Lake George outlet, and the battle
was just north of this and close to Ticonderoga. He locates
the spot himself: "The place where this battle was fought is
43 degrees some minutes latitude, and I named it Lake Cham-
plain " (Doc. Hist. N. T., III. 9). Morgan was misled by
careless reading of Charlevoix.

Not satisfied with irritating the Mohawks, Champlain
joined, in 1615,3 Huron expedition against another Iroquois
tribe, but the attack on their fortified town was repulsed,
Champlain himself being wounded. The locality of this
battle has also been established. Champlain's itinerary and
his sketch of the town have been studied many times, but in
1877 General John S. Clark, by as fine an example of archae
ological work as has been recorded, demonstrated that the
fortified town attacked by Champlain stood on the banks of
Nichols Pond, a small and shallow body of water in the
town of Fenner. This demonstration is accepted by Morgan
(Houses, 124), Parkman (Pioneers, 403) and Winsor (Cartier,
117), and must be regarded as final. Dr. Beauchamp (Abo
riginal Occupation, 88) says this site was in Oneida territory,
not in Onondaga as had usually been supposed. This would
indicate that the Mohawks and Oneidas rather than the
Upper Iroquois were still the object of Huron enmity.

23 The debt of the Dutch and English of New York to
I- 12 the Iroquois has been recognized, but the debt of the

192

FRIENDS TO NEW ENGLAND

English of New England is usually overlooked. Not only did
the Mohawks stand between New England and Canada like a
wall of fire against French and Indian attacks, but time and
again they helped the settlers to overcome their own Indian
neighbors. A few quotations may be given : —

" This Sassacouse (ye Pequents cheefe sachem) being fled
(1637) to ye Mowhakes, they cutt of his head, with some
other of ye cheefe of them, whether to satisfie ye English
... or for their owne advantage, I well know not ; but thus
this warr tooke end." (Bradford's History of Plimoth Planta
tion, 430.)

" In November and December [1675] Phillip and other
Indyans, about a thousand in two party's armed went up into
the country and came within about forty miles of Albany. —

" The Governor — the River opening unexpected the be
ginning of ffebruary — tooke ye first opportunity to goe up
with an additionall force & six sloops to Albany, and found att
his arrivall aboutt three hundred Maquaas [Mohawks] Souldiers
in towne, returned ye evening afore from ye pursuite of Philip
and a party of five hundred with him, whome they had beaten,
having some prisoners & the crowns, or hayre and skinne of
the head, of others that they had killed." (N. T. Col. Docs.,

HI. 255.)

" When you had Wars some time ago with the Indians, you
desired us to help you ; we did it readily ; and to the Purpose ;
for we pursued them closely, by which we prevented the
Effusion of much of your Blood. This was a certain Sign
that we loved truly and sincerely and from our Hearts."
(Tahajadoris, a Mohawk Sachem, to the Agents of the New
England Colonies, September 24, 1689. Colden, I. 108.)

u In the year 1677, September 19, between Sun-set and
dark, the Indians came upon us — I yielded myself — and was
ied away. — Here were the Indians quite out of all fear of the
English ; but in great fear of the Mohawks." (Quintin Stock-
well, Story of his Captivity after the attack on Hatfield, Hart,
American History told by Contemporaries, I. 501.)

VOL. ii. — 13 193

APPENDIX B

24 The name of Garangula looks like an Iroquois word,
I- 17 but Parkman amusingly explains its origin: "He

was a famous Onondaga orator named Otreouati, and called
also Big Mouth, whether by reason of the dimensions of
that feature or the greatness of the wisdom that issued
from it. [Perhaps he was the sachem Ho-sa-ha-ho.] His
contemporary, Baron La Hontan, thinking perhaps that his
French name of La Grande Gueule was wanting in dignity,
Latinized it into Grangula ; and the Scotchman, Golden,
afterwards improved it into Garangula, under which high-
sounding appellation Big Mouth has descended to posterity.
He was an astute old savage, well trained in the arts of the
Iroquois rhetoric, and gifted with the power of strong and
caustic sarcasm, which has marked more than one of the chief
orators of the Confederacy." (Frontenac, 95.)

25 Fronfenac had 1,700 French and 500 Indians when
I- 20 he marched against the Onondagas (Lamberville,

Affairs of Canada in 1696, 65 J. R., 24). Their town of
Onondaga had stood for fourteen years when Frontenac found
it (Letter of Lamberville, 62 J. R., 54), and as it was full time
to remove to another site, it was not worth defending. The
Onondagas therefore burnt the town themselves (Doc. Hist.
N. K, I. 332) and the French found only the smoking ruins.
All that the Onondagas really lost was their standing crops,
and these would have been sacrificed if the town had been
defended. For its location see Dr. Beauchamp's note, 51
J. R., 294.

26 After the year 1700 the four western tribes took
I- 20 little part in the wars between France and England,

the Senecas in fact inclining at times to the French side. The
Mohawks alone continued active in the English alliance, and
were engaged in most of the fighting on the New York bor
der, particularly in the battle of Lake George, September,
1755, where their chief, " King Hendrick," was among the
killed. Also at Niagara in July, 1759, Sir William Johnson
had Iroquois aid.

194

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

27 In Pontiac's war strong efforts were made to induce
II- 85 the Iroquois to join the alliance of Indian against
Englishman, and " had not the Six Nations been kept tranquil
by the exertions of Sir William Johnson, the most disastrous
results must have ensued. The Senecas and a few of the
Cayugas were the only members of the Confederacy who
took part in the War." (Parkman, Pontiac, II. 29.)

2g When the American Revolution began, the League
I. 26, was at first ready to remain neutral, and, in fact,

108 neutrality was urged upon the Iroquois by Sir John
Johnson the Tory, as well as by Philip Schuyler on the part
of the patriots. The responsibility for the introduction of
the tomahawk and the scalping-knife into the conflict rests
directly upon the British ministry. When the Iroquois were
forced from their neutral position, the King's cause was the
natural one. The alliances, nearly two centuries old, had
been made in his name, and in his name the presents had
been given and redress for wrongs administered. The injuries
which had come to the Indians, on the other hand, were never
done in the royal name, but were the work of individuals,
most of whom took the American side. Finally, the British
had the great influence of the family and official successors
of Sir William Johnson. Three men, Skenandoah, Thomas
Spencer, and Samuel Kirkland the missionary, held the
Oneidas in the American interest ; otherwise the united war
riors of the League would have fallen upon the Americans.

At Onondaga in January, 1777, the ancient council-fire of
the Six Nations was extinguished, seemingly not without
bloodshed. The Senecas and Cayugas openly and unitedly
espoused the cause of the King ; the Mohawks and Onondagas
were divided, some for the King, some neutral. The Oneidas
and Tuscaroras endeavored to remain neutral, but many of
them were soon actively engaged on the American side.
These allies gave much aid to the patriots in the border wars
of the Revolution and suffered greatly inconsequence. Their
faithful friendship and assistance were formally and gratefully

'95

APPENDIX B

recognized by the United States by Treaty proclaimed Jan
uary 21, 1795. If the League had been unanimous under its
ancient laws in making war upon the Americans, it is quite
likely that Burgoyne's campaign would have been a British
triumph and that the war would have ended in the success
of the royal arms.

I. 27 °n the °ther hand' if the League had espoused the
American cause or had remained neutral, it would
have been both difficult and unjust to take from them an inch
of their territory at the end of the war, and the settlement of
the West, the opening of the Erie Canal, and all the develop
ment of the Empire State and its chief city would have been
long postponed, even if commerce and empire had not been
diverted into other channels. Any attempt at the settlement
of the country while still under Indian rule would have pro
duced an unendurable state of affairs, much worse than any
Transvaal problem.

29 Being abandoned by the British government, the

I- 172 Iroquois had at the end of the Revolution no defence

except the generosity and prudence of the American people.

Fortunately the just and sagacious counsel of Washington

prevailed : —

" My ideas, therefore, of the line of conduct proper to be
observed, not only towards the Indians but for the government
of the citizens of America, in their settlement of the western
country, which is intimately connected therewith, are simply
these.

"First, and as a preliminary, that all prisoners, of whatever
age or sex, among the Indians, shall be delivered up.

u That the Indians should be informed that, after a contest
of eight years for the sovereignty of this country, Great
Britain has ceded all the lands to the United States within
the limits described by the article of the provisional treaty.

"That as they (the Indians) maugre all the advice and
admonition that could be given them at the commencement
and during the prosecution of the war, could not be restrained

196

WASHINGTON'S POLICY

from acts of hostility, but were determined to join their arms
to those of Great Britain and to share their fortunes, so
consequently, with a less generous people than Americans,
they would be made to share the same fate, and be compelled
to retire along with them beyond the Lakes. But:, as we
prefer peace to a state of warfare ; as we consider them as a
deluded people ; as we persuade ourselves that they are con
vinced, from experience, of their error in taking up the hatchet
against us, and that their true interest and safety must now
depend upon our friendship; as the country is large enough to
contain us all ; and as we are disposed to be kind to them and
to partake of their trade, we will, from these considerations
and from motives of compassion, draw a veil over what is
past, and establish a boundary line between them and us,
beyond which we will endeavor to restrain our people from
hunting or settling, and within which they shall not come but
for the purposes of trading, treating, or other business
unexceptionable in its nature.

" In establishing this line, in the first instance, care should
be taken neither to yield nor to grasp at too much ; but to
endeavor to impress the Indians with an idea of the generosity
of our disposition to accommodate them, and of the necessity
we are under, of providing for our warriors, our young people
who are growing up, and strangers who are coming from
other countries to live among us; and if they should make a
point of it, or appear dissatisfied with the line we may find it
necessary to establish, compensation should be made to them
for their claims within it.

" It is needless for me to express more explicitly, because the
tendency of my observations evinces it is my opinion, that, if
the legislature of the State of New York should insist upon
expelling the Six Nations from all the country they inhabited
previous to the war, within their territory, as General Schuyler
seems to be apprehensive, it will end in another Indian war.
I have every reason to believe from my inquiries, and the
information I have received, that they will not suffer their

197

APPENDIX B

country (if it were our policy to take it before we could settle
it) to be wrested from them without another struggle. That
they would compromise for a part of it, I have very little
doubt ; and that it would be the cheapest way of coming at it,
I have *no doubt at all. The same observations, I am per
suaded, will hold good with respect to Virginia, or any other
State, which has powerful tribes of Indians on its frontiers;
and the reason of my mentioning New York is because Gen
eral Schuyler has expressed his opinion of the temper of its
legislature, and because I have been more in the way of learn
ing the sentiments of the Six Nations on the subject, than of
any other tribes of Indians.

" The limits being sufficiently extensive, in the new country,
to comply with all the engagements of government, and to
admit such emigrations as may be supposed to happen within
a given time, not only from the several States of the Union
but from foreign countries, and, moreover, of such magnitude
as to form a distinct and proper government ; a proclamation,
in my opinion, should issue, making it felony (if there is power
for the purpose, if not, imposing some very heavy restraint)
for any person to survey or settle beyond the line ; and the
officers commanding the frontier garrisons should have pointed
and peremptory orders to see that the proclamation is carried
into effect.

"Measures of this sort would not only obtain peace from the
Indians, but would, in my opinion, be the surest means of
preserving it ; and would dispose of the land to the best
advantage, people the country progressively and check land
jobbing and monopolizing, which are now going forward with
great avidity, while the door would be open and the terms
known for every one to obtain what is proper and reasonable
for himself, upon legal and constitutional ground.

"Every advantage, that could be expected or even wished
for, would result from such a mode of procedure. Our
settlements would be compact, government well established
and our barrier formidable, not only for ourselves but against

198

OGDEN LAND COMPANY

our neighbors ; and the Indians, as has been observed in
General Schuyler's letter, will ever retreat as our settlements
advance upon them, and they will be as ready to sell as we
are to buy. That it is the cheapest, as well as the least dis
tressing way of dealing with them, none, who is acquainted
with the nature of Indian warfare, and has ever been at the
trouble of estimating the expense of one, and comparing it
with the cost of purchasing their lands, will hesitate to
acknowledge." (Washington to Duane, 7 September, 1783.)

In pursuit of this enlightened policy a treaty was made at
Fort Stanwix October 22, 1784, by which the United States
gave peace to the Senecas, Mohawks, Onondagas, and Cayu-
gas (the Oneidas and Tuscaroras not having made war), and
the Six Nations yielded all their lands west of New York
State. Their lands within the State were yielded by succes
sive treaties until at Big Tree (now Genesee), September 15,
1797, nearly all western New York passed to white control.

There were no further hostilities between the United States
and the Iroquois within its borders. On the contrary, the
Senecas in 1812 fought under the American flag against the
British soldiers and even against the Canada Mohawks allied
with the British. Again in the Civil War the New York
Iroquois furnished their full quota and more to the Union
Army.

The case of the Senecas against the Ogden Land
II. 121 Company, in which Morgan took so warm an interest,

*• 3I rests on a complicated series of facts. Under the
grant from James I. to Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts
claimed a large part of western New York. This claim
was adjusted between the two States at Hartford, Connecticut,
December 16, 1786. By this compact Massachusetts ceded
to New York the right of u government, sovereignty, and juris
diction " over the whole territory in dispute, and New York
ceded to Massachusetts " the right of pre-emption of the soil
of the native Indians" and all other estate, except of sover
eignty and jurisdiction, in a tract of about six million acres,

199

APPENDIX B

which included all of the State of New York lying west of
Seneca Lake, and is now divided into fourteen counties.
The rights of Massachusetts to a large part of these lands
were subsequently acquired by the Ogden Land Company, an
unincorporated association, which secured by somewhat ques
tionable means grants in the form of treaties from the Senecas
in 1826 and 1838, that of the last-named year purporting to
give up all the lands of the Senecas in New York. This
treaty was not assented to by the Seneca chiefs in council, al
though a number of them signed as individuals. As to these
signatures President Van Buren said, in a message to the Sen
ate, " That improper means have been employed to obtain
the assent of the Seneca chiefs, there is every reason to
believe," yet the Senate ratified the treaty. The Indians and
their friends still endeavored to have it set aside, and finally a
compromise was reached by which the Allegany and Catta-
raugus reservations were restored, still subject to the pre-emp
tion right, but the Tonawanda band of Senecas were left
homeless.

Morgan wrote at the time: "The Senate of the
United States, by a resolution passed June n, 1838,
committed a great act of injustice upon the Seneca Indians, un
intentionally, no doubt ; and prepared the way for their total
extirpation. This resolution abrogated their unanimity prin
ciple, by authorizing a majority of their chiefs to make a
treaty with the Ogden Land Company, for the sale of their
lands in western New York. In December of that year
this vigilant company forced a treaty upon the Senecas, under
very questionable circumstances. It was well known that
fifteen-sixteenths of the people, almost the entire nation, were
unwilling to sell ; yet the company, having a resolution of the
Senate under which to shelter themselves, procured by their
own efforts, now resorted to the quick and only expedient
of purchasing the votes of a majority of the chiefs. The
proceedings by which this end was finally accomplished were
utterly objectionable, as is abundantly proved by printed docu-

200

OGDEN LAND COMPANY

ments, now before the Senate. There were eighty-one chiefs,
placing the three classes of chiefs upon a level ; and but forty-
one needed to the treaty. It is represented that $200,000
were set apart as the means of negotiation ; that to ten chiefs
they paid $30,000 in bribes ; that others were plied with
rum until intoxicated, and then made to sign ; that still others
were made chiefs by a sham election, and their signatures then
taken ; while yet others signed the treaty as chiefs who were
not so in fact. Several days were consumed in perfecting
the work, and the desired majority was obtained. After a
long and angry controversy, in which the red-men struggled
in vain for justice, the Senate finally ratified it by the casting
vote of the Vice-President. The Indians refused to own the
treaty, and the government were unwilling to execute it.
A compromise, in 1842, was effected, by which two reserva
tions were released from the operation of the treaty, on condi
tions that the Indians would sacrifice the other two. The
Tonawanda and Buffalo reserves were thus sold a second time.
The Tonawanda Band, never having signed either treaty,
still refused to deliver possession ; and it is a question yet to
be decided, whether the Tonawanda Senecas shall be deprived
of their homes, without their consent, or without an equivalent
paid. The land is worth on an average $16 per acre, and
the treaty allows them $1.67." (Skenandoah, Letters on the
Iroquois, p. 247 note.) The citizens of western New York
espoused the cause of the Indians, and at a general convention
of the people of Genesee County held at Batavia, March 21,
1846, Lewis H. Morgan was deputed to carry to Washington
the memorial which the convention had adopted. By his
influence and that of his associates a settlement was finally
arrived at by which the Tonawandas bought back 7,547
acres, being their present reservation. The pre-emption claim
of the Ogden Land Company to the Allegany and Cattaraugus
reservations still exists. A legislative committee recommended
in 1889 that this pre-emption right be extinguished. Its
extinction would seem to be necessary before the lands can be

201

APPENDIX B

allotted to the Indians in several ownership. For the history
of the claim see the opinion of the Court of Appeals in Seneca
Nation vs. Christie, 126 N. T. 122, Indian Problem, and The
Claim of the Ogden Land Company, a pamphlet prepared some
years ago by Mr. W. H. Samson, of Rochester, at the request
of the Senecas, for use in Congress to defeat a project to
compel the Indians to buy the Company's claim.

3! For the life and achievements of William Johnson

II- 85 See Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe, Halsey, The Old

New York Frontier, and Life of Sir William ^Johnson by Stone.

32 It is stated that Johnson, the religious teacher, died
I. 221 in 1850.

33 Governor Blacksnake died September 9, 1859, at the
I- 70 reported age of 117 years.

34 It is still true that there is no connected history de-
I-'4 voted entirely to the League, but its history down to

the Revolution is to be found in the pages of Parkman, while
Stone's Lives of Johnson and Brant bring down the detailed
narrative to the fall of the League as a political and military
power. Halsey's The Old New York Frontier gives, of course
in briefer form, the whole story of the rise, progress, and
decline of the Iroquois state.

35 While neither the Dutch of New Netherland nor the
I. 22 English of New York showed the glowing zeal for

the conversion of the Indians that animated the breasts of
Eliot in New England and the Jesuits in New France, the
Iroquois were by no means " entirely neglected." The names
of Megapolensis the Albany Dominie, Kirkland the Mission
ary to the Oneidas, and Zeisberger.the Moravian are perhaps
the most conspicuous, but many others might be named.

36 Squier's Antiquities of New York and the West was
II. 5, 12 published in 1851, the same year as the League. At

one time Squier had supposed the western New York re
mains to be the work of the so-called Mound-Builders, but
in this work (p. 140) he expressed a different opinion: "In
full view of the facts before presented, I am driven to a con-

202

JOSEPH BRANT

elusion little anticipated when I started upon my exploration
of the monuments of the State, that the earthworks of Western
New York were erected by the Iroquois or their western neigh
bors, and do not possess an antiquity going very far back of
the discovery."

Beauchamp's Aboriginal Occupation expresses the same
views, which are generally accepted. No distinction of race
between the so-called Mound-Builders and the other aboriginal
Americans is now recognized.

Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea), a Canajoharie Mo-
I. 70, hawk chief, of the Wolf clan, was born in what is
98 now Ohio in 1742, and died in Canada in 1807. His
life was one of incessant and varied activity. From his youth
he was a protege of Sir William Johnson, who secured him an
English education. His sister, the celebrated Molly Brant,
was Johnson's housekeeper and bore him several children.
At the opening of the Revolution Brant had become a power
among the Mohawks, and with the Johnsons took the
King's side. In the border warfare that followed he was the
most prominent figure. The poet Campbell in Gertrude of
Wyoming says that Brant was the moving spirit in the Wyo
ming massacre and also that he was a monster. But both
these statements are now believed to be inaccurate. Brant
was at Cherry Valley, but on that day, as throughout the war,
he showed himself an honorable warrior, not a murderer.
Happy the captive settler or settler's wife who fell into the
hands of Brant and his Mohawks. More cruel were the-
Senecas, and the Tories were " more savage than the savages
themselves." After the war Brant secured for his ruined
people a home in Canada, and was active in all the negotia
tions of the British and American governments with the
Indian tribes. Twice in his life he visited England, where he
was at home in the best society of the time. Brant translated
the Prayer-book and portions of the Scriptures into the
Mohawk tongue. W. L. Stone's Life of Brant is an im
portant work.

203

APPENDIX B

38 " It is worthy of remembrance that the Iroquois

I- 58 commended to our forefathers a union of the colo
nies similar to their own as early as 1755. They saw in the
common interests and common speech of the several colonies
the elements for a confederation, which was as far as their
vision was able to penetrate." (Houses, p. 32.)

On the other hand Franklin's plan of union, which was
the beginning of our own federal republic, was directly in
spired by the wisdom, durability, and inherent strength which
he had observed in the Iroquois constitution. Under the
Articles of Confederation we managed our affairs for a dozen
years very much on the Iroquois plan, and it must be con
fessed were not quite as apt in execution and in administrative
wisdom as our barbarian predecessors.

When the colonies became the United States, the Iroquois
recognized the similarity of the League to their own, and gave
to the new nation the name of The Thirteen Fires.

gg Morgan modified this in Houses, p. 34, to " they
I- 78 never fell into anarchy nor ruptured the organiza
tion." There was at times much dissension and jealousy
between the tribes, and more than once actual hostilities were
narrowly averted.

40 " The career of the Iroquois was simply terrific.
II. 107 " Taking the part of the English in the wars against
the French, they shook all Canada with the fear of their arms.

" They were the scourge of God upon the aborigines of the
continent, and were themselves used up stock, lash and snap
per, in the tremendous flagellation which was administered
through them to almost every branch, in turn, of the great
Algonquin family. It will not do to say that but for the
Iroquois the settlement of the country by the whites would
not have taken place ; yet assuredly the settlement would
have been longer delayed and have been finally accomplished
with far greater expense of blood and treasure, had not the
Six Nations, not knowing what they did, gone before in
savage blindness and fury destroying or driving out tribe

204

INDIAN TRAILS

after tribe which with them might for more than a gen
eration at least have stayed the western course of European
invasion." (Francis A. Walker, North Amer. Rev.) April,

GEOGRAPHY

4! THAT magnificent tract known as the Adirondack
I. 44 Wilderness yet remains in practically the same con
dition as when the Iroquois trod its sombre depths. Here
are still found the trails which the Iroquois used. The
engineer who ran them may well have been the red man,
but in many cases the deer and the bear trod them before
even he. These pathways, hammered deep into the soil by
many centuries of hurrying feet passing in what we still call
Indian file, to-day thread the eternal forest marked only by
the beaten track and the fading blazes on the tree-trunks.
As an alternative to this blazing with the hatchet, the
Indian in many places marked the road by twigs
broken by the traveller's hand. This could be done without
falling out of step.

II. 80, Morgan's appellation of " well-beaten footpath" was
94- merited at least by the main trail which ran by town
and town from the Hudson to Lake Erie, for the Jesuit writers
more than two centuries ago called it "The Beaten Road,"
and over these roads the Indian travellers made regularly thirty
or forty miles a day. The domestic peace which prevailed
through the Iroquois territories made them a region of travel
on the highways. (See Judges, V. 6.) Both in peace
and war the Iroquois were a travelling people, and
whether trading, hunting, fishing, OP going on hostile expedi
tions, or simply as travellers for pleasure or visitors to their
kindred, they were constantly in motion on the roads which
traversed the territories of the Five Confederate Tribes. They
have the same characteristic to-day. Of all these journeyings

205

APPENDIX B

Onondaga, the centre and capital of the Confederacy, was
naturally the most visited point. Says a Jesuit Father in
1656 : "Our situation in the centre of these nations is most
advantageous for the conversion of the savages, not only
because the missions can easily be sent thence into the neigh
boring provinces, but also because of the great concourse of
travellers who keep the place full of people all the time."
(Relation of 1656-57, 44 J. ^.,46.)

Not every trail was open to all the world. It required, as
it requires to-day, experience to follow the windings and fork-
ings of a forest path, and for purposes of war and trade many
routes were intentionally concealed. Of all the Indian peoples
the Iroquois were among the earliest to recognize the impor
tance of good roads ; and from treaty speeches it would ap
pear that the trails were at times cleared and repaired, the
swamps corduroyed and the streams bridged, or at least that
the idea of such improvements was not inconceivable by
their minds.

The following notes on the Peculiarities of Footpaths are not
irrelevant. The work cited is Drummond's Tropical Africa.

" Footpaths are what roads are not, natural productions,
just as the paths made by hares, deer, and elephants are. No
one really makes a footpath ; that is, no one improves it.
What is true of Central Africa is true of England. 'The
native paths,' wrote Prof. Drummond, c are the same in char
acter all over Africa, ' (he has previously mentioned that you
are almost never c off' one of these paths.) l They are veri
table footpaths, trodden as hard as adamant, and rutted beneath
the level of the forest by centuries of native traffic. As a
rule, these footpaths are marvellously direct. Like the roads
of the old Romans, they run straight on through everything,
— ridge and mountain and valley, — never shying at obstacles
nor anywhere turning aside to breathe. Yet within this gen
eral straightforwardness there is a singular eccentricity and
indirectness in detail. Although the African footpath is, on
the whole, a bee line, no fifty yards of it are ever straight.

206

INDIAN TRAILS

And the reason is not far to seek. If a stone is encountered
no native will ever think of removing it. Why should he ?
It is easier to walk round it. The next man who comes by
will do the same. He knows that a hundred men are fol
lowing him ; he looks at the stone ; a moment, and it might
be unearthed and tossed aside ; but no, he holds on his way.
It would no more occur to him that that stone is a displace-
able object than that felspar belongs to the orthoclase variety.
Generations and generations of men have passed that stone,
and it still waits for a man with an altruistic idea.' This is,
perhaps, the locus classicus on the true inwardness of foot
paths." (The [London] Spectator, August 3, 1901.)

42 The map used by Mr. Morgan as a basis for his de
ll. 106 lineation of the Iroquois trails contains, unfortunately,
many geographical errors. Thus Lake George is shown as
emptying into the Hudson, and the upper Sacandaga, being
connected with the Cayadutta, becomes a tributary of the
Mohawk. In fact, the whole Adirondack region is almost
II. 84 unrecognizable. Some of the trails shown are prob-

L 44 ably of more recent date than that given of 1720.
Thus the trail diverging to Johnstown, shown on Mr.
Morgan's map and mentioned in the text, was hardly more
ancient than Sir William Johnson's residence there (1763).

Dr. Beauchamp says, in letters to the editor : " I do not
think it possible accurately to lay down the trails, for every
fresh removal and settlement made a difference. Morgan
omitted many, and wisely put down those of which he was
certain ; but the Moravian Journals make it evident that some
of these were not those of one hundred and fifty years ago.
His map and description, however, should appear as he left
them.

"In 1650 and earlier, as well as later, the trail left the
Mohawk near Canajoharie, and struck over the hills to the
vicinity of Munnsville, Madison County, and thence to
the town of Pompey. In 1750 the trail from Onondaga
to Cayuga touched the foot of Skeneateles and Owasco lakes.
It was usual to cross Cayuga Lake south of Union Springs,
but Morgan had no means of knowing all this." " It is

207

APPENDIX B

demonstrable that in 1750, excepting one on the Susque-
hanna, all the Tuscarora villages were on or near the Hne of
the New York Central Railroad. This appears from the
Moravian Journals which have not been published." " Indian
Castle, Danube, was a very modern village, a long way west
of the early towns."

Romer's map, dated 1700, shows the first Mohawk Castle
on the north bank of the river, but the trail on the south
bank is the only one shown. West of the third Castle this
trail turns to the southwest, and crosses the Susquehanna
some twenty miles south of the Mohawk, and then passing
just north of Otsego Lake, goes straight west to Oneida.
From Oneida (Utica) another trail is shown leading north to
the site of Rome, while the main trail goes forty miles west to
Onondaga. From Onondaga there is a trail fifteen miles
west and north to Cananda (perhaps Onondaga) Lake, and
one twenty miles northeast to Sachnawarage.

There is presented herewith, by permission of the State
Museum, a copy of the map prepared by Dr. Beauchamp for
the Museum Bulletin No. 32, on the Aboriginal Occupation
of New York. On pages 14 and 15 of this Bulletin Dr.
Beauchamp quotes the text, and says : " Those familiar with
Mr. L. H. Morgan's map of Ho-de-no-sau-nee-ga, or the
territory of the people of the Long House after their con
quests, will observe that the boundaries on the small map
showing national distribution differ somewhat from his, partly
from showing an earlier condition, but for other reasons as
well."

u Mr. Morgan, however, forgot that irregular ridges
instead of streams, sometimes become boundaries,
though straight lines might be carried along or over these.
Another matter was overlooked, that national boundaries
changed from time to time by mutual agreement. Aside from
conquest there can be no doubt of this. In 1654 and later, the
foot of Oneida Lake was certainly in the territory of the
Onondagas, their village there being well known for fifty years.
Yet at a later day the Oneidas not only held the lake, but
reserved a fishing place on its outlet, three miles below.

208

ROADS TO CANADA

Deep Spring was certainly on the line between the Oneidas
and Onondagas after the Revolution, but it is almost as evi
dent that the Onondagas at one time owned Cazenovia Lake
and its outlet. Mr. Morgan himself divided Cross Lake by
the eastern line of the Cayugas, while the Onondagas had
clearings west of it. He also placed Sodus Bay, well known
as the Bay of the Cayugas, in the Seneca territory. The
Cayugas themselves at one time had villages north of Lake
Ontario, and on the Susquehanna at a later day."

The western Iroquois went to Canada usually by
Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence. The Mohawks
and Oneidas kept further east, and appear to have had at least
five roads to Montreal. The favorite one, because it involved
only two or three days' land travel, was by way of Lake
George (which was reached by various routes ; sometimes
via the Sacandaga, sometimes via Schenectady and the Hudson)
and Lake Champlain ; but when the season was stormy or
they wished to avoid observation, they took a route west of
the Adirondacks, which after eight or ten days of tramping
brought them to the Oswegatchie and so to the St. Lawrence.
Another road to the St. Lawrence was by the Fulton chain of
lakes, Racquette and Long Lakes and the Racquette River.

Having reached the Racquette, they could either continue
down the river to the St. Lawrence or pass to the Saranacs
and Lake Champlain by what is still called the Indian carry.
There is evidence of another route to Long Lake and the
country beyond via Lake Pleasant, Whittaker Lake, and the
Indian Lake, but whether Lake Pleasant was usually reached
from the south or from the west does not appear.

4- (Ska-hase-ga-o.) u This word is rendered Place of a

I. 306 long creek now dry. Anciently there was a large and

n> 92 populous Seneca village in this vicinity, situated on

the Honeoye creek, a short distance west from Mendon, on a

bend in the stream. It is well remembered among the

Senecas under the name of Ga-o-sai-ga-o, which is translated

In a bass-wood country. [Beauchamp, says in Victor, not Mendon]

VOL. u. — 14 209

APPENDIX B

"In 1792 vestiges of at least seventy houses, or Ga-no-
so-do, were to be seen at the place designated. Although
it had been deserted for a long period, rows of corn hills still
indicated the places which had been subjected to cultivation.
There was an opening of about two thousand acres upon the
creek, in the midst of which the village was situated. Exten
sive burial grounds in the vicinity, from which gun barrels,
tomahawks, beads, crosses, and other articles have been dis
interred, tend to show a modern occupation, while the sitting
posture in which some of the skeletons are found indicates a
very ancient occupation." (Skenandoah, p. 488.)

44 Table exhibiting the principal points on the trail of

I. 45 the Iroquois from Albany to Niagara which were

n- 93 known to the immigrants who flocked into western

New York between 1790 and 1800. At most of these

places taverns were erected, which, it will be observed, were

chiefly upon the ancient trail, then the only road opened

through the forest. The distances from point to point are

also given.

Miles
Foster's ...<,... 5

Morehouse's 6

Keeler's or Danforth's . . 5
Carpenter's ...... 15

Buck's 3

Goodrich' s g

Huggins'

Cayuga Bridge

Seneca

Geneva

Amsden's

Wells'

Sandburn's (Canandaigua)
Sear's and Peck's ,

Miles

Albany

McKown's Tavern ... 5

Imax's 7

Schenectady 4

Groat's 12

John Fonda's 12

Conally's

Roseboom's Ferry (Canajo-

harie)

Hudson's (Indian Castle)
Aldridge's (Germ. Flats)

Bray ton's

Utica (Fort Schuyler)
Whitestown ....
Laird's Tavern
Oneida Castle ....

Wemp's

John Denna's ....

... 13

Genesee River 14

Tonawanda (Ind. village) . 40

Niagara j}5

Total Distance 310

(Skenandoah, p. 489.)

210

SACHEMSHIPS

GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

THE following spellings and significations are commu
nicated by Mrs. Harriet Maxwell Converse on the
authority of her father, Thomas Maxwell, (who was the son
of Guy Maxwell, the adopted brother of Red Jacket,) and
of General Parker.

n I2 Ga-web-no-geh. Cawenisque. At the Big Island.
132, ' Ne-ah-ga. Pronounced by Red Jacket O-ne-au-ga-ra.
133 Skwe-do-wa. Ski-an-do-wa. The Great (Corn) fields.
Ga-nun-da-gwa. Canandaqua. Chosen town. Ga-nun-da-
a-ga. At the new town.

Ga-ka-to. The Delaware name of the Chemung was Ka-
nungwa, Horn in the water.

II. 134, Ga-wa-no-wa-na-neh. Susquesaha'na. Crooked river.
136 Cbe-gwa-ga. The stream or waterfall at Havana
(now Montour Falls), Schuyler County, was called She-
gwaw-ga, Trembling waters.
II. 138, Ot-se-go. Clear water.
J39 Do-tea-ga. Breaking.
De-o-na-sa-de-o. Heaping sando

SACHEMSHIPS

46 IN the following list the Seneca names with their
I- 59 meanings are Morgan's, corrected by himself, the
clans being supplied from other sources in cases where Morgan
did not state them. The Mohawk names and significations
are from a manuscript of E. S. Parker evidently founded on
Hale. In the column of remarks are given variant statements
by Chadwick, Hale, and Parker.

The following table shows distribution of the sachem-
ships by tribes and clans, Morgan's account being
accepted : —

211

APPENDIX B

Mohawk Oneida Onondaga Cayuga

Bear

Wolf

Turtle

Beaver

Deer

Snipe

Heron

Hawk

Eel

Ball

Seneca

i
I

2
O

o
3

Total

4
6

2
I
O
O

5°

Assuming the Seneca division of phratries as original, the
Sachems are divided, 37 to the First Phratry, and only 13 to
the Second ; but as the Mohawks and Oneidas had no repre
sentatives of the Second Phratry only the three Western
tribes should be compared, giving 19 to the First and 13 to
the Second.

MOHAWK SACHEMS

I. TURTLE

2. TURTLE

3. TURTLE

WOLF

5. WOLF

6. WOLF

7. BEAR

BEAR

9. BEAR

SENECA NAMES
Da-ga-e-o-ga

(Neutral)

Ha-yo-went-ha

(Man who combs)
Da-ga-no-we-da

(Inexhaustible)
So-a-e-wa-ah

(Small speech)
Da-yo-ho-go

(At the forks)
O-a-a-go-wa

(At the great river)
Da-an-no-ga-e-neh

(Dragging his horns)
Sa-da-ga-e-wa-deh

( Even-tempered)

Has-da-weh-se-ont-ha
(Hanging up rattles)

MOHAWK NAMES
Tehkarihhoken

(Between two state
ments)
Hayenwatha

(Seeks the wampum)
Shadekarihwade

(Two things equal)
Sharenhhowane

(Great tree top)
Tehyonheghkwen

(Double life)
Owenheghkohna

(Wide branches)
Tehhennaghkarihne

(Going with two horns)
Shaghskoharcwane All

(Great wood drift)

REMARKS
(Double speech)
C.

(Loftiest tree) C.

(i. e. Tenacious

of life. )
(High hill) C.

Aghstawenseronttha
(Puts on the rattles)

but Morgan
make this the 9th
sachemship.
All but Morgan
make this the
8th sachemship.
(Holding the rat
tles) C.

212

LIST OF SACHEMS

ONEIDA SACHEMS

10. WOLF

Ho-das-ha-teh

Odatseghdeh

(Bearing a burden)

(Bearing a quiver)

II. WOLF

Ga-no-gweh-yo-do

Kahnonkwenyah

(Covered with cat-tail

(Setting up ears of See II. 30.

down)

• corn in a row)

12. WOLF

Da-yo-ha-gwen-da

Tehyohhakwendeh

(Opening through the

(Open voice)

woods)

13. TURTLE

So-no-sase

Shononghseseh

(A long string)

(His long house)

14. TURTLE

To-no-a-ga-o

Thonaeghkenah

(Man with a head

(Two branches)

ache)

15. TURTLE

Ha-de-a-dun-nent-ha

Hahtyadonnentha

(Swallowing himself)

(He slides himself down)

16. BEAR

Da-wa-da-o-da-yo

Tehwahtahontenyonk

(Place of the echo)

(Two hanging ears)

17. BEAR

Ga-ne-a -dus-ha-yeh

Kahnyadaghshayen

(War club on the

(Easy throat)

ground)

1 8. BEAR

Ho-wus-ha-da-o

Honwatshadonneh TURTLE C.

(Steaming himself)

(He is buried)

ONONDAGA

SACHEMS

19. BEAR

To-do-da-ho

Wathadotarho DEER C.

(Tangled)

(Entangled)

20. BEAVER

To-nes-sa-ah

Onehseaghhen

(Best soil uppermost)

21. BEAR

Da-at-ga-dose

Tehhatkahdons BEAVER C. & H.

(On the watch)

(On the watch) (Two-sighted, i. e.

vigilant) C.

22. SNIPE

Ga-nea-da-je-wake

Skaniadajiwak

(Bitter body)

(Bitter throat)

23. TURTLE

Ah-wa-ga-yat

Aweakenyat BALL C.

(The end of its

journey)

24. TURTLE

Da-a-yat-gwa-e

Tehayatkwayen (Red wings) C.

(On his body)

25. WOLF

Ho-no-we-na-to

Hononwirehdonh

(He sunk out of sight)

26. DEER

Ga-wa-na-san-do

Kawenenseaghtonh

(Voice suspended)

27. DEEK

Ha-e-ho

Hahhihhonh (Spilled) C.

(Scattered)

213

APPENDIX B

i8.

TURTLE

Ho-yo-ne-a-ne

Hohyunhnyennih

EEL H. HAWK

29.

BEAR

Sa-da-kwa-seh

Shotehgwaseh

EEL C. & H.

(He is bruised)

30.

DEER

Sa-go-ga-ha

Shahkohkenneh

TURTLE C., EEL

(Having a glimpse)

(He saw them, now

others)

31-

TURTLE

Ho-sa-ha-ho

Sahhahih

(Large mouth)

( Wearing a hatchet

in his belt)

32-

TURTLE

Ska-no-wun-de

Skahnahwahtih

(Over the creek)

CAYUGA

SACHEMS

33-

DI:ER

Da-ga-a-yo

Tahkahenhyunh

BEAR C.

(Man frightened)

(Looks both ways)

34-

HERON

Da-je-no-da-weh-o

Jihnontahwehhen

DEER H., BALL

(Coming on its knees)

35-

BEAR

Ga-da-gwa-sa

Kahtahgwahjih

(It was bruised)

36.

BEAR

So-yo-wase

Shonyunhwesh

( Has a long wampum

belt)

37-

TURTLE

Ha-de-as-yo-no

Hahtyahsenhneh

(He puts one on

another)

38.

WOLF

Da-yo-o-yo-go

Tehyuhenhyunhkoh

(It touches the sky)

39-

TURTLE

Jote-ho-weh-ko

Tehyuhtohwehgwih

WOLF C. & H.

(Very cold)

(Doubly cold)

40.

HERON

De-a-wate-ho

Tyawenhhehthonh

WOLF H., SNIPE

(Mossy place)

41.

SNIPK

To-da-e-ho

Hahtonhtahhehhah

(Crowding himself in)

42.

SNIPE

Des-ga-heh

Teshkahhea

BEAR C.

(Resting on it)

SENECA SACHEMS

43. TURTLE Ga-ne-o-di-yo Skahnyahteihyuh WOLF H.

(Handsome lake) (Beautiful lake)

44. SNIPE Sa-da-ga-o-yase Shahtehkahenhhyesh

(Level heavens) (Skies of equal length)

45. TURTLE Gan-no-gi-e Kahnohkaih 4?th Sachem H.

(Threatened) & C.

46. HAWK Sa-geh-jo-wa Shakenjohnah

(Great forehead) (Large forehead)

214

ASSISTANT SACHEMS

47. BEAR Sa-de-a-no-wus . Sahtyehnahwaht 45th Sachem H.

(Assistant) (Withheld) &C. SNIPE C.

48. SNIPK Nis-ha-ne-a-nent Nishahyehnenhah BEAR H.

(Falling day) (The day fell down)

49. SNIPE Ga-no-go-e-da-we Kanonhkehihtawih BEAR H.

(Hair burned off) (One who burns the

hair)

50. WOLF Do-ne-ho-ga-weh Tyuhninhohkawenh

(Open door) (Open door)

47 Actually there were but forty-eight sachems, as Hayo-
I. 59, 106 wentha and Daganoweda had no successors. As a
mark of respect their places remained vacant. (But see
Hale, p. 31.) The division of the sachems of each tribe into
classes probably represents the original division of the tribe
into villages.

" Each sachem had an assistant sachem, who was
elected by the gens (clan) of his principal from among
its members, and who was installed with the same forms and
ceremonies. He was styled an 'aid.' It was his duty to
stand behind his superior on all occasions of ceremony, to act
as his messenger, and in general to be subject to his directions.
It gave to the aid the office of chief, and rendered probable
his election as the successor of his principal after the decease
of the latter. In their figurative language these aids of the
sachems were styled ' Braces in the Long House,' which
symbolized the confederacy." (Houses, 31.)

The war-chiefs Tawannears and Sonosowa were as-

I. 70

sistant sachems.

4Q Other officials, for example the Keepers of the Faith,
I. 80 took and held office in the same way as the Sachems.

Each clan had certain offices to which permanent names
were attached and to which the clan had the power of
nomination. The nominee must however be confirmed
and raised up by the tribe. The officer was known by
his official name as long as he held office, but when he re
signed or was deposed he, of course, lost the name as well
as the office.

215

APPENDIX B

And in general each clan had a series of names denoting
rank and duty, which it bestowed upon its members as vacan
cies occurred. While hereditary only in a general sense, they
passed down much like titles of nobility, the holder for the
time being known only by the name to which he was thus
appointed, while his former name might be bestowed upon
some other. A difference between the elective name of an
Iroquois and the hereditary name of an English duke is, how
ever, to be noted. The name did not descend ipso facto by
death, but died with its holder and must be expressly raised
up. (In the same way the eldest son of the King of England
is Duke of Cornwall by right of birth, but not Prince of Wales
until especially appointed.) It was moreover considered inde
cent to do this until a considerable period had elapsed after
the death. The names owned by a clan usually indicated
some character of its totem animal. See Powell, Wyandot
Government, Bur. Eth., I. 60. Very few of the significations
given for the names of the sachemships accord with this rule,
which supplies another reason for doubting their accuracy.

No doubt, if the trouble had been taken in time, we might
have a complete list of the members of a tribe with the names
and rank of each individual (see note 68).

cO The division of the tribes at the close of the Ameri-

!• 6z can Revolution caused much confusion in the appoint
ments of sachems. Some sachemships have become extinct
in one country or the other. Others again were transferred
to a new clan, and in some cases a sachem was appointed by
each fragment of the tribe, so that there are two lines.

Something like this may have happened in the prehistoric
separations of the Iroquoians. There are some striking resem
blances between the sachem titles in different tribes : Da-yo-
ho-go is a Mohawk Wolf and Da-yo-o-yo-go a Cayuga wolf;
but either these resemblances are fortuitous or false etymology
has altered the names.

The present names of most, if not all, of the sachemships
probably antedate the formation of the League. Several are

216

HOUSEHOLDS

mentioned by writers of the seventeenth century by their
present names.

cr As noted above, not merely the war sachems, but
I- 65 every sachem in the list had an assistant sachem.
Chadwick gives particulars of these so far as now existing in
Canada.

e2 Da-at-go-dose. The name of this sachem illustrates
I. 222 the variances that are found in the titles attached to
the sachemships. Morgan in his first edition gives the Seneca
name as (p. 64) Da-at-ga-dose and (p. 231) De-at-ga-doos.
Hale, following the sachem's own dialect, Onondaga, calls
him Dehatkahthos. In Mohawk he is Tehhatkahdons ac
cording to Hale, but Dehhatkatons in Chadwick. Another
modern authority (Appeal Papers) says Dehatkatons.

eg The word u sachem " is of Algonquin origin and was
I. 62 not used by the Iroquois.

SOCIETY

,.4 IROQUOIS society differed fundamentally from ours,
1- 74 and Morgan's distinction is that he not only dis
covered the differences, as many intelligent observers had done
before him, but sought out the reasons of them and first re
duced our knowledge of aboriginal society to a science.

The unit of Iroquois society was not an individual, nor yet
a family, in our sense of the word, but a household including
all the dwellers in one of the communal houses elsewhere
described. These households by a process of increase and
swarming gave rise to clans and phratries, held together by the
natural bond of kin. Politically they were united in tribes
and confederacies held together by the artificial bond of al
liance, but cemented also by the bond of kin.

Thus the social organization of the Iroquois was developed
through the separation of near kin, and the political organiza
tion through the union of remote kin.

A brief recital of the history of these social and political

217

APPENDIX B

bodies among the Iroquois as nearly as it can now be recovered
will illustrate these statements.

j , The tradition that originally there were but two clans,
the Bear and the Deer, means that in the early com
munity from which the Five Nations and the Hurons de
scended, there were two long houses, one having the bear for
its totem and the other the deer. These totems may have
been adopted because of the devotion of the household to the
chase of that particular animal ; but the more probable theory
is that, owing to some event or some dream, it had been ac
cepted as an object of veneration by the household. Each of
these households consisted of women, children, and unmarried
men, claiming their descent from a common female ancestor,
or group of female ancestors, and of men married to the
women of the household. These men would be, of course,
of the other house, for the fundamental rule of society in the
gentile or clan stage is that marriage must be out of the clan,
though normally within the tribe. Every child in the Deer
household would be born of a Deer mother and a Bear father
and would itself be a Deer. When such a boy came to dis
tinguish persons, he would see a number of women in the
house, one of whom would be his actual mother, and he would

call her " mother " (No-yeh, to use the Seneca term).

All the other women of his mother's generation he
would also call No-yeh, they being his mother's " sisters," that
is, women of her generation and house. His actual grandmother
would be called by him " grandmother," as would all the other
women of her generation. All the children in the house
would be children of one or another of his " mothers," and so
his "brothers" or "-sisters." The men in the house would
be of three different classes : first, the men born in the house
hold and not yet removed from it by marriage ; of these, those
of his mother's generation would be his "uncles," being all
"brothers" to his mother. Secondly, his actual father and
grandfather whom he would call by those names; and third,
the husbands of his other " mothers," whom he would call by a

218

RELATIONSHIPS

word which Morgan translates as " stepfathers." As the
family name descended in the female line, that of all the
females and unmarried males in the house would be Deer,
and, in the case supposed, that of all the married men would
be Bear.

In the other house this boy would find his father's relations,
his father's "brothers" who would be his "fathers," his father's
" sisters " his " aunts," and his father's sisters' children his
" cousins." Here also would dwell some of his uncles mar
ried to Bear women. The legends of the Amazons and of
other separate communities of one sex or the other probably
arose from the traditional accounts of such primitive com
munities as the one described.

This system of counting relationships will be less
difficult to understand if it is borne in mind that, for ex
ample, the word Ha-nih, which we translate "father," did not
convey to the Iroquois the precise meaning that the word
u father " does to us. It was simply, in the community supposed,
"Man who may lawfully be my father," that is, a man of the
house or group into which my mother is married. From the
lack of the institutions of marriage and of the family as we
have them, the Iroquois did not recognize nor name relation
ships as we do. As Morgan has pointed out in /Indent Society
(p. 442), these names had their origin in an early condition of
group marriage, all the men of the group being husbands to all
the women. While this condition had been much altered in
the days of which the text treats, the names would, of course,
never be in advance of the institutions, but would still indicate
the former state of affairs and would not be changed or differ
entiated until a definite need of more precise terms was felt.
They had become titles rather than descriptions.

The household thus organized was governed by its perma
nent members, the women ; certain elderly and prudent women
being set apart more or less formally as rulers of the house.
These would select from among the men of the house, that is,
those born therein, a sachem to represent the household in

219

APPENDIX B

treating with the other house or with foreigners, and in the
performance of the various religious or political rites and cere
monies. These sachems, one or more from each house, some
times with the chief women as coadjutors, would meet in the
council of the village, which was thus the beginning of a state,
uniting the two houses for war and other matters of foreign
politics and preserving the peace between them.

Within its own walls each household was supreme. It
controlled the lives and property of its members, claimed re
dress for the injury which it suffered when these were taken,
and appointed and deposed its officers, in entire independence
of outside control.

From this original village of two houses it is not many steps
to the Iroquois Confederacy of a dozen or twenty villages
divided among five tribes, each including in successive order
phratries, clans, and households.

The original Bear household would in time grow too large
for a single dwelling, other houses would be built beside the
first, the totem and the sense of relationship being still re
tained. Thus arose the clan, a group of households recogniz
ing a common totem and a common kinship.

No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the rights of
the household as against the clan. In fact it doubtless varied
in different clans and at different times.

The allegiance of each household to the clan was, however,
less strong than its allegiance to itself. Property rights would
tend to be limited to the house so far as they related to keep
ing what they had, although when a wrong was done to one
household all of the same totem would feel the injury and the
aid of all would be welcome in securing redress. And while
a sachemship would usually remain in the house of its origin,
the sachem would act for all the clan. As the clan and its
constituent houses grew larger, the jurisdiction of the house
hold would gradually encroach on that of the clan, and the
community of interest or closeness of kin of some houses
might in time produce a clan within a clan.

220

THE PHRATRY

55 The growth and subdivision of the clan produced
*• 75 the phratry, which is a group of clans, just as the
clan is a group of households. Some house or group of houses
would adopt a new totem, and thus a new clan would be born.
The sense of kinship would still remain and with it the pro
hibition against marrying kin and the united demand for
retribution in case of injuries.

In games both of chance and of skill phratry played
I- 294 against phratry.- The clans of a phratry were brother
clans to each other and cousin clans to those of the other
phratry. As time went on, the sense of kin within the
phratry became weaker and marriage was allowed with any
clan but that of the individual.

There are other ways in which phratries may have been
formed. " From the differences in the composition of the phra
tries in the several tribes it seems probable that the phratries
are modified in their gentes (clans) at intervals of time to meet
changes of condition. Some gentes prosper and increase in
numbers, while others, through calamities, decline, and others
become extinct ; so that transfers of gentes from one phratry
to another were found necessary to preserve some degree
of equality." (^Houses, II.)

There is an historic instance of the division of a clan which
may indicate yet another way in which a phratry might be
formed. "We have in the village (Caughnawaga Mission)
three families (clans), that of the Bear, that of the Wolf, and
that of the Turtle. All new-comers become members of one
of these three families. The family of the Turtle is so nu
merous that they have been obliged to divide it into the Great
Turtle ancj the Little Turtle." (Nau to Bonin, 1 735, 68 J. R.^
268.) These two Turtle clans would for a time at least pre
serve so strong a sense of kinship that they would not inter
marry and would act together in public matters. In other
words they would compose a phratry. This would react upon
the Bear and the Wolf, who would marry each other less and
Turtles more. Also in games the Bear and Wolf would be

221

APPENDIX B

on one side and the two Turtles on the other; finally, in any
dispute between the Turtle phratry and one of the outside
clans, the other clan would naturally use its good offices for
the weaker party, and thus a phratric bond would grow up,
giving an instance of a phratry formed spontaneously by union
of separate clans, not by division of any original clan. It
happens, accordingly, that in no two of the Six Tribes of the
League (except in the case of the Mohawks and Oneidas,
each of which had lost a phratry) do the phratries quite
coincide.

c6 A tribe is a political union of kindred clans or parts

I- 39 of clans possessing a common territory and a common
dialect.

As the household and the clan became segmented through
growth in numbers, so the original community became seg
mented by migration. The original two-house community
was a tribe, and it still remained a tribe when it included two
phratries, of three or four clans each.

An Iroquois was bound to his household, clan, and phratry
by a single tie, that of kin. To his tribe he was bound not
only by the tie of kin, but by those of one land, one speech,
and one council-fire.

When by migration or dissension a community was divided,
the original tie of blood would remain, but the ties of

O '

territory and government and after a while of speech would
be readjusted. It usually happened upon the division of a
community that a portion of each clan was found in each
division, and the tie of kin served to strengthen alliances that
might be formed between tribes of the same stock, but when
the choice came Wolf did go forth to war against Wolf, strik
ing for his own fireside and tribe against those who were of
his own clan but of another tribe. Both sides of this picture
appear in the speech of the Oneidas to the Hurons at the end
of a war that may have lasted a century. " Thou knowest,
thou Huron, that formerly we constituted but one cabin and
one country. By some chance, we separated. It is time to

THE CONFEDERACY

unite again." (^Journal des Jesuites, November 3, 1656,
42 7 £., 252.)

A Mohawk born of a Turtle father and a Bear mother
would be himself a Bear, but closely allied to the Turtle and
conscious of the blood tie. If he married into the Wolf clan,
he would dwell in a Wolf house and would be fat or hungry
with the Wolves, and his own children would be Wolves.
Thus each of the three Mohawk clans would have a claim upon
his regard and upon his tomahawk. Whoever might attack, he
would fight for his father, his mother, and his children.

A political union of tribes constituted a confederacy, united
by one stock language, contiguity of territory, and a federal
council. The dual political allegiance to the tribe and the
confederacy is not difficult to be apprehended by us who are
citizens of sovereign states and of a federal republic, but the
social allegiance to household, clan, and phratry must be also
continually borne in mind as not the rival but the support of the
political allegiance. The League of the Iroquois was, from
one point of view, a union of five tribes, from another a
union of eight clans, and the closeness of the weave was due
to the intimate union of the warp and the woof.

Quite enough of difficulty is unavoidable in present
ing accurately institutions so different from our own,
but further complication has been added by the varying terms
used by different writers and the looseness with which these
terms are still employed.

Thus the clan is called in the text and by other writers a
tribe, in some of the early writers a family, and in Mr. Mor
gan's Ancient Society a gens.

The household is recognized in the text but obscurely, under
the name of family. Lafitau and other early French writers
call it the " cabane."

The phratry Morgan recognized but did not name (see
text, I. 76, 77, 202, 281, 323).

The tribe he called in the text a nation, and the confederacy
a League.

223

APPENDIX B

The terms used in this note are, except that " clan " is pre
ferred to " gens," those used by Morgan in Ancient Society.

It would add much to clearness of statement if a distinc
tion in name were made between an entire clan and the por
tion of a clan found in a single tribe.

I. 77j It is of course an error to state, as is twice done
87 in the text, that the clan system was a conscious
invention.

Morgan had not then got beyond the philosophy of that
day, in which everything was created and nothing grew.
" Mr. Morgan is of opinion that these institutions were the
result of ' a protracted effort of legislation.' An examination
of the customs prevailing among other Indian tribes makes it
probable that the elements of the Iroquois polity existed
among them from an indefinite antiquity ; and the legislation
of which Mr. -Morgan speaks could only involve the arrange
ment and adjustment of already existing materials." (Park-
man, Pontiac, I. 12.)

I. 80, Such phrases as " disinheritance of the son " show how

J3° Morgan was then influenced by the theory of con
scious legislation. He was one of the leaders in upsetting it.

In the League of the Iroquois the gentile (clan) organization
of society was perceived and presented, though neither the
original extent of the system nor its origin and history were
comprehended. For purposes of comparison the attempt has
been made to state in this note the principles finally estab
lished by Morgan. For an adequate statement the reader is
referred to Morgan's Ancient Society and to Powell's " Wyandot
Government " (Bur. Etk., 1. 59), while a clear and interest
ing account appears in Fiske's Discovery of America, I. 52;
but even the present simple outline may be of interest in view
of the great part which the clan has played in human history.

But we will let Morgan speak for himself : —

u The gentile organization opens to us one of the
oldest and most widely prevalent institutions of man
kind. It furnished the nearly universal plan of government

224

CLANS AND PHRATRIES

of ancient society, Asiatic, European, African, American, and
Australian. It was the instrumentality by means of which
society was organized and held together. Commencing in
savagery, and continuing through the three sub-periods of bar
barism, it remained until the establishment of political society,
which did not occur until after civilization had commenced.
As far as our knowledge extends, this organization runs
through the entire ancient world upon all the continents, and
it was brought down to the historical period by such tribes as
attained to civilization." (Houses, p. I.) " No other institu
tion of mankind has held such an ancient and remarkable
relation to the course of human progress." (Ancient Society,
P- 379-)

CLANS

58 The clans and phratries of the Five Nations, Tus-
I- 76> 77 caroras, and Hurons are given below : —

FIRST PHRATRY SECOND PHRATRY

TUSCARORA Bear, Eel, Great Turtle, Beaver Deer, Wolf, Little Turtle, Snipe

HURON Bear, Wolf, Turtle, Beaver Deer, Snake, Porcupine, Hawk

SENECA Bear, Wolf, Turtle, Beaver Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk

CAYUGA Bear, Wolf, Turtle, Snipe, Eel Deer, Beaver, Hawk

ONONDAGA Wolf, Turtle, Snipe, Beaver, Ball Deer, Eel (=Hawk), Bear

ONEIDA Bear, Wolf, Turtle Wanting

MOHAWK Bear, Wolf, Turtle Wanting

Among the Tuscaroras the Deer is now extinct, and the
Wolf is subdivided into Gray Wolf and Yellow Wolf.
The phratric division of the Hurons is conjectural.

It will be observed that the tradition of two original
clans, the Bear and the Deer, is well borne out by
this list. The probabilities are that the Seneca clans and
phratries were the same that existed among the Iroquoians
before their separation. The Hurons had eight clans as early
as 1653. (Bressani's Relation, 1653, 3^ 7- £•••> 2^3-)

The absence of the second phratry and of the Beaver
clan of the first phratry from the Mohawk and

VOL. II.— 15 225

APPENDIX B

Oneida tribes must date back to the period when these two
constituted one tribe. The probable explanation is suggested
by the fact that when first discovered the Mohawks had three
villages, each tenanted by a single clan. They were then
recent fugitives from Canada, and had been almost destroyed
in wars with the Algonquins and Hurons. If the clans dwelt
in separate villages at the beginning of this period of war and
migration, it might easily be that only three emigrated to New
York, the others being destroyed or joining the Hurons. Men
of these lost clans who dwelt with their wives' families would
leave no trace, for their children would take the clan name
of their mother, and in one generation all the clans represented
only by males would become extinct. Or the clans might have
been lost in another way. It was quite usual for an entire
clan or village to migrate to a hunting or fishing country at
certain seasons _ of the year, and it sometimes happened that
through war or other circumstances, they failed to reunite
with their kindred. It is therefore possible that the Mohawks
and Oneidas never had more than three clans after their sepa
ration from the parent stock.

The only other Iroquoian people of whose clans we have a
distinct record, the Cherokees, had ten clans, of which the
Wolf and Deer are the only ones occurring among the Iro-
quois. This divergence may be expected, since only three of
the ten clans bear the names of animals. The Cherokees had
evidently taken up a new line of nomenclature, and the old
clan names were gradually being dropped.

Some of the Huron and Seneca clans may have numbered
nearly two thousand persons.

NUMBERS

59 IT is improbable that at any time from the estab-

25 lishment of the League to its disruption by the

Revolutionary War the Iroquois numbered more than

15,000 or 16,000 souls. This was apparently the total

226

NUMBERS

when they first march into history, and it is very close
to the total to-day. This uniformity in numbers, however,
is little more than an interesting coincidence. The original
Iroquois blood has been much diluted by admixture of other
Iroquoians, of Algonquins, and of whites.

The only contemporary testimony tending to confirm
Morgan's figures is that of the Jesuit Dablon in 1671, who
says that the Senecas alone are 12,000 or 13,000 persons;
but Gamier, who was himself a resident among the Senecas,
says, in 1673, *hat tne Senecas, including adopted Hurons,
are 800 fighting men, and the reading of Dablon's state
ment may very well be a copyist's error in punctuation.
Recent experiences with the Boers have shown the difficulty
of making an accurate estimate of a scattered population.

Parkman considers (Jesuits, p. Ixvi) that trie figure of
25,000 given by Morgan in the text is far too high, and
computes the population at the height of Iroquois power at
10,000 or 12,000. Morgan afterward thought 17,000 was
about right for this period, but this is a little higher than the
testimony warrants.

The earliest attempt at an estimate that we have is
in the Relation of 164.2-4.3, where Vimont states that
there are 700 or 800 Mohawk warriors, and that the
Upper Iroquois are probably a little more numerous than
the Hurons. This figure for the Mohawks is confirmed
by Jogues (24 y. R., 294). If Vimont is right there were at
least 16,000 Iroquois altogether, perhaps considerably more,
but his figure for the Upper Iroquois can hardly be more than a
guess. Most of the early writers give merely the number ol
warriors. The warriors were usually about a quarter of an
Indian population (Relation of 1657—58) ; but owing to special
circumstances, may not have been more than a fifth of the
Iroquois, and the latter proportion is accordingly accepted.

Taking the total at 16,000 in 1642, the tribes counted
about as follows : Mohawks 3,000, Oneidas 1,000, Ononda-
gas 3,000, Cayugas 2,000, and Senecas 7,000.

. 227

APPENDIX B

Of the 2,2OO warriors mentioned in the Relation of 1660,
it is said that only 1,200 were native Iroquois, the rest being
adopted captives. In 1668 we are told that two-thirds of the
Mohawks and Oneidas were Huron and Algonquin captives.

The figures in the following table are usually obtained by
multiplying a stated number of warriors by five. After the
seventeenth century the figures include the Tuscaroras.

1642
1 660
1665
1668
1681
1684
1687
1689
1698
1720
1736
1763

1773
1877
1890

Jesuit Relations

Bruyas
DeChesneau
De La Barre
French Memoir

Unnamed authority (Quoted U. S. Census 1890)
a «( « « «

Lafitau

Unnamed authority (Quoted U. S. Census 1890)

Sir Wm. Johnson

Unnamed authority (Quoted U. S. Census 1890)

U. S. Census (In U. S. and Canada)

16,000
1 1,000

11,500

10,000
10,000

i 3,000

10,000

12,850

6,150

I 5,000

7,35°
11,650
12,500
13,668
15,870

The United States Census of 1900 enumerates the Indians
only by States, not by tribes, but the best obtainable informa
tion indicates not less than 8,000 Iroquois in the United
States and 10,000 in Canada.

In the State of New York there were, in 1890, 5,239
Iroquois, to which should be added 98 on the adjacent Corn-
planter Reservation in Pennsylvania. There were 2,050
elsewhere in the United States.

While Morgan's figures for the sixteenth century are
too high, his estimate of 7,000, in 1850, is too low.
There were then in the United States and Canada nearly
10,000 Iroquois.

The foregoing figures show how swiftly, by the shock

of collision with a superior race and by war and

pestilence, an Indian population may be reduced, and how

228

POPULATION OF TOWNS

by peaceful arts and adjustment to the changed conditions it
may again be restored. The Iroquois are now slowly increasing.

As an instance of their losses by war and pestilence, Father
Jogues says (1642) that there were 700 Mohawk warriors, and
a later French captive (1660) finds only 200. The latter fig
ure is probably below the facts, for in the same year a Mohawk
war-party of 200 is reported.

60 The Iroquoians were gregarious, and apparently the size

• 3° of their towns was limited only by the difficulty of rais
ing corn and cutting firewood for a large population within a
reasonable distance. Partly for protection and still more from
their own fondness for society, nearly all were found in closely
built villages varying in size from 300 to 3,000 inhabitants.

In the Relation of 1656—57, it is said that fourteen Iroquois
villages are known, which with due allowance for hamlets and
single cabins would make the average village contain perhaps 800
people. The Huron villages averaged six persons to a fire, and
less than 400 persons to a village. (Relation of 164.0.) In ten
Neutral villages there were 3,000 persons. (Relation of 164.1.)
A Tobacco village of 600 families is mentioned in the Relation
of 1649-50. Father Peron writes (15 J. R., 152) of a Huron
village of 800 families. Le Jeune (Relation of i6jo) says there
were 300 fires (at least 2,000 people) in Ossosane.

Payne, in his America, tells us that the Illinois village of
Kaskaskia had 10,000 inhabitants, an allegation which rests
on better foundation than his statement that the Iroquois could
put 15,000 warriors in the field.

The location of the Iroquois and their intimate connection
with our history have caused their numbers to be known and
recorded. Of most of the tribes and of the total Indian
population of our country in early times no such accurate
information exists, and the estimates which have been made
exhibit a wide variance. One author has computed the total
population of North America at the discovery to be sixteen
millions, of whom perhaps one-half were within the continen
tal territories of the United States. A very slight acquaint-

229

APPENDIX B

ance with the conditions of Indian life will suffice to show
the absurdity of these figures (see Bur. Etb., 1885— 86, p. 33).
In the reaction from such high estimates there has been
developed a tendency to assume that the benefits and injuries
which civilization has brought very nearly balance each other,
and that there are now as many Indians as there ever were.
Roosevelt forcibly answers : u This last is a theory that can
only be upheld on the supposition that the whole does not
consist of the sum of the parts, for whereas we can check off
on our fingers the tribes that have slightly increased, we can
enumerate scores that have died out almost before our eyes."
(Winning of the West, I. 18.) Where are the Algonquins of
New England, Long Island, and New Jersey ? Where are
the Powhattans, the Natchez, the multitudinous stocks of Cal
ifornia ? In the communities which show an increase it is
often, as noted, in the case of the Iroquois, accompanied by
the absorption of fragments of other Indian stocks and a con
siderable infusion of white blood. The Indian population of
our territory in 1890 was 248,253, in 1900, 237,196, the
apparent decrease being safely attributable to amalgamation
with the whites. In the sixteenth century our territory prob
ably held 600,000 Indians. In all these computations Alaska
and Porto Rico are excluded.

The destiny of the Indian is not extermination but
amalgamation with the white race. Not only is there
much white blood in the veins of nominal Indians, but a con
siderable number of nominal whites count Indians among their
ancestors. Hence, to state with precision how fast Indian
blood is increasing, if at all, would be an impossible task.
The process of assimilation is of course a very gradual one,
but the case of the Indian is very different from that of the
negro. "There seems to be a chance that in one part of our
country, the Indian Territory, the Indians, who are continually
advancing in civilization, will remain as the ground element
of the population, like the Creoles in Louisiana, or the Mex
icans in New Mexico.'* (Roosevelt, ibid.)

230

PROCESSION OF SACHEMS

COUNCILS

61 "A CIVIL council, which might be called by either
I. 104 nation, was usually summoned and opened in the
following manner : If, for example, the Onondagas made
the call, they would send heralds to the Oneidas on the east,
and the Cayugas on the west of them, with belts contain
ing an invitation to meet at the Onondaga council-grove on
such a day of such a moon, for purposes which were also
named. It would then become the duty of the Cayugas to
send the same notification to the Senecas, and of the Oneidas
to notify the Mohawks. If the council was to meet for peace
ful purposes, then each sachem was to bring with him a bundle
of fagots of white cedar, typical of peace ; if for warlike objects,
then the fagots were to be of red cedar, emblematical of war.
" At the day appointed the sachems of the several nations,
with their followers, who usually arrived a day or two before
and remained encamped at a distance, were received in a
formal manner by the Onondaga sachems at the rising of the
sun. They marched in separate procession from their camps
to the council-grove, each bearing his skin robe and bundle of
fagots, where the Onondaga sachems awaited them with a
concourse of people. The sachems then formed themselves
into a circle, an Onondaga sachem, who by appointment
acted as master of the ceremonies, occupying the side toward
the rising sun. At a signal they marched round the circle,
moving by the north. It may be here observed that the rim
of the circle toward the north is called the c cold side ' (o-to'-
wa-ga) ; that on the west c the side toward the setting sun '
(ha-ga-kwas'-gwa) ; that on the south ' the side of the high
sun' (en-de-ih'-kwa) ; and that on the east 'the side of the
rising sun ' (t'-ka-gwit-kaV-gwa). After marching three
times around on the circle single file, the head and foot of
the column being joined, the leader stopped on the rising sun
side, and deposited before him his bundle of fagots. In this
he was followed by the others, one at a time, following by the

231

APPENDIX B

north, thus forming an inner circle of fagots. After this each
sachem spread his skin robe in the same order, and sat down
upon it, cross-legged, behind his bundle of fagots, with his
assistant sachem standing behind him. The master of the
ceremonies, after a moment's pause, arose, drew from his
pouch two pieces of dry wood and a piece of punk with which
he proceeded to strike fire by friction. When fire was thus
obtained, he stepped within the circle and set fire to his own
bundle, and then to each of the others in the order in which
they were laid. When they were well ignited, and at a signal
from the master of the ceremonies, the sachems arose and
marched three times around the Burning Circle, going as before
by the north. Each turned from time to time as he walked, so
as to expose all sides of his person to the warming influence of
the fires. This typified that they warmed their affections for
each other in order that they might transact the business of
the council in friendship and unity. They then reseated
themselves each upon his own robe. After this the master
of the ceremonies, again rising to his feet, filled and lighted
the pipe of peace from his own fire. Drawing three whiffs,
one after the other, he blew the first toward the zenith, the
second toward the ground, and the third toward the sun. By
the first act he returned thanks to the Great Spirit for the
preservation of his life during the past year, and for being
permitted to be present at this council. By the second, he
returned thanks to his Mother, the Earth, for her various pro
ductions which had ministered to his sustenance. And by
the third, he returned thanks to the Sun for his never-failing
light, ever shining upon all. These words were not re
peated, but such is the purport of the acts themselves. He
then passed the pipe to the first upon his right toward the
north, who repeated the same ceremonies, and then passed it to
the next, and so on around the burning circle. The ceremony
of smoking the calumet also signified that they pledged to each
other their faith, their friendship, and their honor.

" These ceremonies completed the opening of the council,

232

LIMITED PANTHEISM

which was then declared to be ready for the business upon
which it had been convened." (Ancient Society, 137 note.)

RELIGION

52 THE beautiful and elevating conception of the Great
I. 143, Spirit watching over his red children from the heavens,
174 and pleased with their good deeds, their prayers, and
their sacrifices, has been known to the Indians only since the
Gospel of Christ was preached to them. The primitive In
dians, says W. P. Clark, in his valuable book, Ths Indian Sign
Language, " were limited pantheists — they did not believe
that the universe taken as a whole was God ; but that every
thing in the world had its spiritual essence made manifest in
the forces and laws of nature." Hence the regard of the
Indian for the totem of his clan held much more of reverence
than the feeling of a present-day Briton or American for the
lion or the eagle. Not only was the clan totem reverenced,
but each individual had his personal totem — (in Algonquin
manitou, in Iroquois oki). In youth after certain exercises
and fastings he waited for a dream, and whatever he dreamed
of became his manitou on which his fortune depended, — the
Master of his Life, the Jesuits translated it. With one it
might be a muskrat, with another a knife ; and whatever the
totemic object, it accompanied the Indian on his journeys and
especially on the war-path. If the manitou were an animal,
the skin, or the plumage of a bird, was taken as containing
the spirit of the animal. It would seem that when the Sen-
ecas attacked Herkimer at Oriskany they left in their camp
their baggage containing many of these totemic objects. The
capture of this baggage by Gansevoort was an even greater
calamity than their defeat by Herkimer, and after that day
they had no heart in the campaign. In all religions
we have accounts of divine revelations in dreams and
visions, but to the Indian every dream was a divine message, and
to the Senecas especially none was too absurd to be obeyed.

233

APPENDIX B

In addition to this limited pantheism the Iroquois recog
nized several personal deities. Ataentsic was the oldest of
their deities, and dwelt with her grandson Jouskeha in a bark
cabin in the land of souls. She has been connected with the
Moon and he with the Sun. Areskoui, the God of War, is
more evidently a Sun God. Most of the worship now given
to the Great Spirit belongs historically to Areskoui. Taren-
yawagon was much reverenced, for he was the sender of
dreams, and Hiawatha was an actual hero raised after his
death to a place in the Iroquois Pantheon. The Iroquois
religion was in a state of transition from pantheism to poly
theism, and would soon have developed into a system like that
of Rome where the nature worship was merged in that of the
personal deities.

Very far was all this from the pure theism which has been
poetically ascribed, in the alleged belief in the Great Spirit.

There was however one deity worshipped throughout
North America, the all-seeing one, the dweller in Heaven,
the giver of many blessings, the Sun. To him were paid
prayer and sacrifice and thanks for such good gifts as food,
sunshine, and victory over the enemy. When the missionaries
told of the God of the white man and his attributes, the ac
count seemed credible to the Indian, who accepted much of it
as further history of his Sun God ; and the sacrifices, thanks
givings, and offerings were still offered to the Great Spirit as in
earlier days to the Sun. Though the preaching of Christianity
made but slight direct impression upon the observances and ac
tions of most of the Red Men, it did greatly affect their myths
and beliefs, thus preparing the way for an ethical religion.

In the early days the various divinities were simply powers
to be propitiated, but of influence on conduct and morals there
was not much more in the Indian beliefs and observances than
in a gambler's charms for luck. With the belief in the
beneficent Great Spirit there came to be more of a desire to
do that which was pleasing in his sight. Finally, what may
be called the third period of Iroquois religion was inaugurated

234

THE NEW RELIGION

by the reforms of Handsome Lake, who, preserving the old
forms, associated them with the worship of a single supreme
God and the doing of righteousness.

. In common parlance the modern Iroquois are divided into
Christians and Pagans, but the latter refuse the term Pagan,
saying that they also worship God.

6 These visions have a striking resemblance to those
I. 234, in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, and were perhaps sug-
242 gested by that work, or some other teaching of the
missionaries ; others suggest the classical eschatology.

If confession had been an ancient Iroquois practice, Lafitau
would certainly have mentioned it, for he describes a similar
custom in Peru.

64 The recent experiments made by Professor Atwater
I- 236 wjth the object of determining whether alcohol is a

food seem to have been anticipated by those of Jimmy John
son, which, within their own field, are quite as conclusive.

65 The sachems as well as the chiefs were ex
L '77 officio members of the order of Keepers of the

Faith. (Ancient Society, 82.)

55 The following statement of " The New Religion "
I. 218 Was given by a Seneca in 1888, Indian Proble?n, II.
1104 : uThe general belief is, one great spirit controls every
thing; God, he is called in English, he is a supreme power on
earth, everything ; and then they believe in temperance, that
is the most part of their religion^ is temperance ; and they
believe in thanking, mostly, to the Great Spirit, that is the
most important thing ; most everything they see they thank
him ; and it is their doctrine to be kind to one another, to be
good, honest people ; and they believe a man is to have only
one woman to live with ; and they are strict ; their doctrine
is against marry more than one woman ; it commenced about
eighty-eight year ago that way ; before that we was wild ;
they would murder one another, and drinking just about that
time; there was a good deal of whisky brought for the
Indians ; and they had terrible times ; and then they got up

235

APPENDIX B

this Indian doctrine ; and Handsome Lake he preached to
the Indians ; he was taken sick, they claimed, and some good
things he showed to the people, and everybody adopted right
away ; after that doctrine everybody was good ; everybody WAS
good ; and all shaking hands and all feeling good ; and that is
the starting of this. Indian religion ; and along about that time
a party of Indians went to Washington, went to the President,
and they showed their doctrine, and, in reply, he made — I
was looking over some old papers, some old Indian things -
it was all coming to pieces, and I just took a sketch of it, to
tell us about the reply from the President through the Secre
tary of War ; I took a sketch of it, and here is the sketch ;
it states the date right there."

The following is a copy of the paper referred to by

witness :

I. 220 To Conyodareyab (or Handsome Lake), with bis brethren
and associates of the Seneca and Onondaga nations of Indians, now present
at the seat of government of the United States.

BROTHERS. Your father and good friend, the President of the
United States, has taken into consideration all that you communicated
to him, when you took him by the hand three days ago, and he has
authorized me to give you the following answer :

BROTHERS. The President is pleased with seeing you all in good
health after so long a journey, and he rejoices in his heart to find that
one of your own people has been employed to make you sober, good
and happy, and that he is so well disposed to give you good counsel,
and to act before you such useful examples.

BROTHERS. If you and all the red people follow the advice of your
friend and teacher, the Handsome Lake, and in future be sober,
honest, industrious and good, there can be no doubt but the Great
Spirit will take care of you and make you happy.

BROTHERS. The great council of the sixteen fires, and the Presi
dent of the United States, all wish to live with the red people like
brothers, to have no more war or disputes, but to pursue such meas
ures as shall contribute to their lasting comfort. For the purpose, the
great council of the sixteen fires are now considering the propriety of
prohibiting the use of spirituous liquor among all their red brethren

236

"THE LICENSE"

within the United States. This measure, if carried into effect, will
be pleasing in the sight of the Great Spirit, who delights in the happi
ness of his common family.

BROTHERS. Your Father, the President, will at all times be your
friend, and he will protect you and all his red children from bad
people who could do you or them any injury, and he will give you
writing on paper to assure you that what land you hold can not be
taken from you by any person excepting by your own consent and
agreement.

BROTHER. The Handsome Lake has told us that your angels have
desired him to select two sober, good young men to take care of your
business, and that he has chosen Charles Obeal and Strong for that
purpose. The President is willing that his red children should choose
their own agents for transacting their business, and if Charles Obeal
and Strong are the men who your people can best confide in, he has
no objection to their being appointed, but it would be improper for
the President to interfere in your national appointments.

Given under the hand and seal of the war office of the United
States, this ijth day of March, 1802.

H. DEARBORN.

NAMES

58 " THE Indian has no family name. His name is
I- 85 single, and like the praenomen of the Roman or our
Christian name, is purely an individual designation. The
family, in our sense, is wanting; so that the names of several
brothers and sisters would not suggest the fact of any con
nection among them."

(Their significance would, however, in many cases show
the common totem. Powell, Wyandot Government, Bur.
Eth., I. 60, Text I. 85, and see infra.)

" In bestowing and changing names their customs are original
and novel. They have names adapted to different periods and
pursuits of life ; one class for infancy and childhood ; another
for manhood ; another for their religious advisers, called by the
Iroquois, c Keepers of the Faith,' and another for chief and
sachem. These names are not taken up and conferred at

237

APPENDIX B

random, but under fixed regulations. Each clan has its own
clan names, which are kept distinct and which no other clan
is allowed to use. They are family names ; for the clan is
but a great family of which the chief is the head. It is said
by some of the Indian nations that the names have such clan
characteristics that the clan of an individual may be known
from his name alone."

" Upon the birth of a child, the mother, or some relative in
her behalf, applies to the chief of her clan for a list of clan
names which are not then in use and of the class for children.
Out of those named over to her she selects such a name as
pleases her fancy, which is then agreed upon as the future
name. At the next council the birth and name of the
child, and the name of its father and mother are publicly an
nounced ; and this was the simple form of an Indian christ
ening. Their names are significant, as all names originally
were, but with the Indian their signification is still preserved.
O-wi-go, a c floating canoe,' and Ga-ha-no, ' hanging flower,'
are specimens of their childhood names.

"At fourteen or sixteen years of age, the name became un
suitable, the person having reached maturity. A new name
was then selected ; and the taking away of the old name and
the bestowal of the new was made in some of the nations an
important event; with this change he ceased to be a boy, and
became a man. He could then go upon the war-path and
speak in council.

"The power to make this change was lodged primarily
with the chief of the clan. But it might be made either by
the mother or by a brother or sister, but never by the father,
and it was usually done without the consent or even knowl
edge of the person whose name was changed. If these near
relatives neglect to make the change at the proper time, it then
becomes the duty of the chief to do it. At the next public
council the change and the new name are formally announced,
and it takes effect only from the time of this announcement.

" When a private person is raised to the dignity of chief or

238

NAMES AND TITLES

sachem, his former name is taken away, and a new name of
the higher class is conferred in its place. This name can
never afterwards be changed unless the sachem is deposed ; for
the name itself is a title, and with it would pass away the title
62 or office itself. Neither can that class of persons
who are called c Keepers of the Faith,' among the Iro-
quois, change their names without giving up the office, as these
names and the office they confer are inseparable. Any other
person of mature years may change his own name, by his own
motion, provided he can induce a chief of some other clan
than his own to announce the change in council."

u A clan may lend one of their names to a person in an
other clan, which is often done ; but when this person dies or
his name is changed, the name so borrowed returns again to
the clan."

"New names are not now invented by the Indian any more
than they are by ourselves ; but old names are handed down in
the clan as our names come down to us, but not shorn, as in
our case, of their better part, their primary signification."
(Lewis H. Morgan, Amer. Ass'n Advct. Science, 1859, Vol.
XIII.)

(In the foregoing extract the words "tribe" and "tribal"
of the original are altered to "clan.")

" It is so arranged that if possible no name is ever lost, so
that when one of the family is dead all the relatives assemble
and deliberate together which of them shall bear the name of
the deceased, giving his own to some other relative. He who
takes a new name, takes up also the duties appertaining to it, and
thus he becomes a captain if the deceased was one. This done,
they check their tears and cease to weep for the dead, having
placed him in this manner among the living, saying that he is
resuscitated and has come to life in the person of him who has
received his name and has rendered it immortal. Hence a
Captain never has a different name from his predecessor, as
formerly in Egypt all the kings bore the name of Ptolemy."
(Rel. 1642, 23 J. £., 164.)

239

APPENDIX B

gg In the same way each successive Governor of Canada

I. 245 Was called by the Iroquois Onontio (Great Mountain,
being a translation of the name of Montmagnv), each Governor
of Pennsylvania was Onas (a pen), Presidents of the United
States bore the name given first to Washington. The prin
ciple was, of course, the familiar one that the king never dies.

70 The Iroquois language was, like our own, a living
*• 49 one, and words and phrases became from time to time

obsolete. Many of our proper names preserve words obsolete
in general speech, and the same was the case with the Iroquois.
They had no written language to conserve forms, but yet they
expected proper names to be significant, while most of our
proper names are meaningless to the uninitiated. Many of
their names have therefore been twisted to accord with a false
etymology, and the significance of many others has been for
gotten, but is now too readily guessed at. A conspicuous in
stance is the list of Sachems given above. It is evident that
but few of these significations are reliable. It is the Indian
nature to desire to please, and for all these reasons their ety
mologies should be looked upon with suspicion. For a good
example see Thoreau, The Maine IVoods, p. 193.

Not only was the name of a deceased chieftain re-

7 1

vived for his successor, but a living person might part

with his name as a token of friendship. (Golden, I. 11, and
see the story of Cornplanter, text, I. 205.)

72 An Iroquois must not be addressed by his name. You
I.8z must say " my brother " or u my uncle." Lafitau,!. 70.

73 Everywhere in the world rivers and lakes usually, and

II. 61 towns occasionally, preserve the names of earlier
dwellers in the land.

" In a list of 1885 lakes of the United States, published for
the Fish Commission, 285 have Indian names, but a larger
proportion is shown in rivers and streams. In a list of
principal rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico and the
Atlantic, but excluding those of the St. Lawrence basin, 724
have Indian names. By adding those of this valley, the

240

ARCHERY

Pacific coast, and a multitude of small streams, the list might
be doubled." (Beauchamp, Indian Names in New Tork^)

Half of the States and Territories of the Union and a third
of the counties of New York bear Indian names.

In New York, about a hundred Iroquois geographical names,
besides many of Algonquin origin, are still in general use. If
names of unimportant streams and alternative names of only
local use are added, the total of Iroquois derivation would
probably be doubled.

It should also be noted that many of our geographical names
are simply translations of the Indian names ; Aurora (Iroquois
Deawendote, Constant Dawn) and Lake Pleasant (Algonquin
Congamuc, Pleasant Lake) are examples.

y* For Indian archery and its implements see " North
I. 296 American Bows, Arrows, and Quivers," S. R., 1893,
p. 631. From Gano, "arrow," and Waano, "bow," Morgan
compounded the word Ganowanian, which he applied to the
Indians as a generic term. Thus the Ganowanian family
would be the people of the bow and arrow. The name
Amerind has lately been proposed for the same race.

LANGUAGE

-- IN all the tongues of the Iroquoian stock the labial
II. 62, consonants are absent, so that, as Lafitau says, they
75 can talk with their pipe in their teeth. This remark
able peculiarity separates them not only from their Algonquin
neighbors, but from such peoples as the Sioux, of whom
Morgan and others have considered the Iroquoians an offshoot.
This characteristic of these languages is respectfully com
mended to the attention of writers of fiction, who usually
assume that to procure a characteristic Iroquoian name, it is
necessary only to stir a few labials and a few vowels together.
Thus, in The Romance of Dollar d, Mrs. Catherwood introduces
a Huron girl of high breeding, one Massawippa ; Miss
Johnston in Prisoners of Hope utilizes a Conestoga who brags
VOL. ir. — 16 241

APPENDIX B

that he is an Iroquois, and calls himself Monakatocka ; Mrs.
Mary P. Wells Smith associates with her Young and Old
Puritans of Hatfield a beneficent but discourteous Mohawk
called Pepoonuck, and likewise Cooper devised the appellation
Musquerusque for an unpleasant Huron who scalps and
tortures certain characters in Satanstoe.

According to Hale and Parker f occurs sporadically
in Mohawk.

-g Most Indian names of lakes and rivers are, so to
II. 80, speak, relative rather than absolute, The Lake at
85> 89 Oswego, The River that leads to Onondaga, so
that the main stream and all the branches of a river may
be called by a certain name by people going down stream, and
may have several names, according to the several destinations,
in the mouths of people bound up stream. So among our
selves the same stretch of highway is called the Boston Road,
the Hartford Road, or the Main Street according to the point
of view of the speaker. The Indian point of view is made
clear by Mr. Silas B. Smith, a Clatsop Indian, in a letter
printed in Wonderland, 1900, published by the Northern
Pacific Railway. Mr. Smith says :

" I wish to state this proposition, which cannot be over
thrown, that the Indians in the Northwest country, extending
as far back as the Rocky Mountains, never name a river as
a river; they name localities. That locality may be of a
greater or less extent, and they may say this water leads to
such a place, or it will carry you to such and such a place,
but never name a stream.

" I know of some very good people who are hunting for the

Indian names of the Columbia and its tributaries, and some

who have even told me that they had found the name of the

Columbia ; but it is a mistake, an entire mistake, for it is not

in the book, and they are simply chasing a 'will o' the wisp.' "

• jj Nor is it always easy to comprehend or state with

II. 82 precision the shade of meaning implied in the Indian

word. Mr. A. G. Richmond told me that Canajoharie

242

NO ABSTRACT TERMS

means " Pot that washes itself," the reference being to the
whirling of the water in a large pot-hole in the bed of
the Canajoharie Creek. Morgan's note says, " Washing the
basin." Beauchamp, Indian Names, gives also "Kettle shaped
hole in the rocks." Obviously here is no difference of opinion
as to the origin of the name, but a divergent effort at trans
lating it. Probably Morgan is nearest to the idea in the mind
of the Indian.

The village of Canajoharie, though several times moved and
to points remote from the creek, always retained the name.
Here we have a suggestion of our place names which are
usually meaningless or at least meaning-lost. Newport may
be inland, and Belmont a swamp.

Of the sign language, so important on the prairies,
^ hardly a trace is noted by writers on the Iroquois. In
Northeastern America there were but two tongues, Iroquoian
and Algonquian, and little need for a volapiik. Nor was
there in the forest the opportunity for signalling at a distance
that is given on the prairie.

Europeans have never found the Iroquois tongue easy
^ to learn, but because of differences in the mental
processes which the language expresses rather than from in
herent difficulties of articulation and inflection.

Many writers have noticed the abundance of concrete
terms, and the lack of abstract words. Thus for the varieties,
sexes, and ages of a single animal they would have a multitude
of terms, but no general word for animal. Or they would
have words for good man, good woman, good dog, but no
word for goodness. " It is a peculiarity of the languages of
our Indian nations that, while they are barren of terms to
express metaphysical or abstract conceptions, they are opulent
in terms for the designation of natural objects, and for ex
pressing relative differences in the same object. In the Ojibwa,
for example, there are different names for the beaver according
to his age, and compound terms to indicate sex, as follows,"
etc. (Beaver, 190.)

243

APPENDIX B

Again, as Lejeune says (Re I. i6j6), "It is remarkable that
all their nouns are universally conjugated." Lafitau puts this
more tersely (IV. 192), "Their language is all verb."

For valuable essays on the Huron and Iroquois languages
see Lejeune, Relation 1636 (10 J. R., 116) and Hale, Iraq.
Book of Rites, p. 99.

Max Miiller, after studying Mohawk, wrote to Hale : " To
my mind the structure of such a language as the Mohawk
is quite sufficient evidence that those who worked out such
a work of art were powerful reasoners and accurate classifiers."
II. 61, It is hardly necessary to remark that when Morgan
66, 74 says that " Latin is," in contrast to Greek, " a com
pound language," he is using, as often in this chapter and
elsewhere, the jargon of the science of day before yesterday,
but the fact is worth noting as showing how quickly and
completely a scientific thesis can disappear.

WAMPUM

80 DR- BEAUCHAMP, as well as Mr. Morgan, thought
n- 52 that the Iroquois had no bead wampum until they

obtained it from the Dutch. There is however considerable
evidence to the contrary, and Lafitau considers it as of ancient
use. In historic times the Iroquois obtained wampum chiefly
by traffic with the Dutch, but the Algonquins of the coast had
probably preceded the Dutch in this trade. In 1666 the
Mohawks and Oneidas had a war with some tribe called the
" Wampum Makers " who may have been their original
purveyors of this article.

81 The statement that when one tribe called a council
L I04 it sent the belt to the next, which then took up

the duty of sending the belt on, just as the fiery cross was
sped in The Lady of the Late, may be correct as to later times,
but the earlier precedents are to the contrary. Several refer
ences in the French writers indicate that it was irregular and
discourteous to send wampum by a third party. The sender

244

WAMPUM BELT'S

of a belt should deliver it. A direct ruling on this point is
found in Stone's Sir William Johnson, II. 90, 91. The Onon-
dagas had called a general council inviting the Mohawks, as
well as Sir William Johnson, to Onondaga. The belt was
delivered to Johnson by the Oneidas. Doubting the propriety
of such delivery, he referred the matter to the Mohawks,
who advised him that by their laws some of the Onondagas
should have come down with the belt. On this decision the
belt and the invitation were rejected. Moreover, if any but
the Mohawks or the Senecas called a council the simple
method mentioned in the text would not have availed. It
would have been necessary to send at least two belts.

82 The giving and acceptance of wampum had much the
I- 327 same effect in Iroquois transactions that the signing
and sealing of a contract or treaty has among ourselves.

" For having no writing or letters, they supply the defi
ciency by the words which they talk into these belts,
each of which records some particular affair or detail, and to
avoid confusion the belts are varied and the white and purple
beads arranged in different order. The Sachems read them
often together, so that in this way they do not forget any
thing." (Lafitau, II. 203.)

In this mnemonic use the wampum has often been compared
to the quipus of Peru. For more informal records the
Iroquois used wooden tallies.

WAMPUM KEEPER

g^ AFTER the Revolution the Onondagas divided,

I. 6 1, those that followed the fortunes of the king going

1 15.327 wjth the Mohawks to the Grand River in Canada,

the others remaining in New York. Each division kept up

its tribal organization, and at the separation an amicable

division of the Wampums was made. It is probable that

more important Wampums remained in New York, being at

first kept among the Onondagas on the Buffalo Creek reser-

245

APPENDIX B

vation, and later in the present reservation in the ancient
country of the Onondagas. In Canada the Hoyowenato
Sachemship is continued. Chadwick calls it Hononweyehde,
and says, u This chief was hereditary keeper of the wampum
and as such was called Hotchustanona " (Chadwick, 91). In
New York, however, the care of the wampum passed to other
sachems and chiefs.

Probably the last regular wampum keeper in New
York was Harry Webster. After his death, about
twenty years ago, his son Thomas Webster was appointed.
This succession of the son to the father shows an increasing
laxity in appointment as it necessarily involved a change from
one clan to another, and so from one sachemship to another.
Honowenato was a Wolf (text, I. 6 1 ), but Thomas Webster was
called Ha-yah-du-gih-wah, or "Bitter body" (in Seneca Gane-
adajewake, text, I. 61) and was a Snipe. Thomas Webster
seems however to have exercised all the functions of a wam
pum keeper. • He had the custody of the treaties as well as of
the wampum, and seems to have regarded the latter as the
more sacred, for in 1888 he produced the treaties before the
legislative committee, but declined to produce the wampum
"because the property didn't belong to him alone." He
testified that he was the wampum keeper of the Onondaga
nation, not of the Six Nations, and the four treaties which he
produced are all treaties with the Onondagas alone. General
Henry B. Carrington testified, in the suit of Onondaga
Nation vs. Thacher (infra), that he was told that Webster
"really seemed to have second sight and seemed to see things
through those wampums that others did not see. Seemed to
see historical significance. Webster's looking upon these
wampums was not considered merely a curious inspection,
but that there was a history of a people involved in them,
and he seemed to get grotesque things out of them." (On
ondaga Nation vs. Thacher, Papers on Appeal, 78), and from
Webster's testimony (Ind. Prob., I. 497) it would seem that
the supposition of second sight was justified. " It is nothing

246

WAMPUM KEEPER

for a white man, it is all for the Indians ; there is a tree set
in the ground, and it touches the heavens, and under that
tree sets this wampum ; it sets on a log, and the fire, coals
of fire, placed by the side of it, and this fire is unquench
able, and the Six Nations are all to this council fire, held by
this tribe." Hale says that a pine tree was the em
blem of the Confederacy. David Cusick says, in his
Ancient History of the Six Nations, speaking of the formation
of the League : u At Onondaga a tree of peace was planted
reached the clouds of Heaven ; under the shade of this tree
the Senators are invited to set and deliberate : . . . the
Onondaga was considered a heart of the country; numerous
belts and strings of wampam were left with the famous chief
as record of alliance." Nevertheless Webster being in want
of a horse and wagon sold four belts to General Carrington
for $75, the purchase being intended to be for account of
the United States. The Government, however, declined to
confirm the purchase, and General Carrington sold them for
his own account. Finally, they were offered to the Board of
Commissioners representing New York at the Columbian
Exposition held at Chicago in 1893; tnere being no appro
priation available, the belts were bought by one of the Com
missioners, the Hon. John Boyd Thacher, and as his property
were exhibited during the Exposition.

In 1897 a su't was brought against Mr. Thacher in the
names of the Onondaga Nation, certain individual Indian
plaintiffs and the University of the State of New York, the
complaint alleging that Webster, being only the custodian
and not the owner of the wampums, could not sell them, that
the University at a council had been raised up as wampum
keeper, and that it was entitled to the possession of them.
The appointment of the University was further confirmed by
chapter 153 of the Laws of 1899. The Court at Special
Term was of opinion that at the date of Webster's sale to
General Carrington in 1891 the League of the Six Nations
had no active or actual existence nor any such officer as a

247

APPENDIX B

wampum keeper, and found for the defendant (29 Misc. 428).
This decision was affirmed by the Appellate Division (53 App.
Dlv. 561), and the Court of Appeals (169 N. Y. 584)

The four belts in question are pictured in Bur. Eth.^
II. 246 and following, and in the Indian Volume of Census
of 1890, p. 473. The most important of these belts is thus
described in Clark's Onondaga : u The several nations are
distinguished by particular squares, and these are joined to
gether by a line of white wampum, and united to a heart in
the centre, implying the union of hand and heart as one."
(See quotation from Cusick above.) Another belt is read
as recording the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1784, and shows
the Long House and fifteen figures with joined hands, thirteen
of them representing the thirteen United States, the two
others representing Washington and Todadaho. In the
Census Volume it is stated that the house shown is the new
Capitol, but this is more -than doubtful.

u Their belts are mostly black wampum, painted red when
they denote war. They describe castles sometimes upon
them as square figures of white wampum, and in alliance,
human figures holding a chain of friendship, each figure
representing a nation." (Sir Wm. Johnson to Arthur Lee,
28 February, 1771.) The Canada Iroquois still keep some
wampum, and belts have been given and received by them
within recent years. (Chadwick, 77.)

Since the foregoing note was prepared, there has been
published Bulletin No. 41 of the New York State Museum,
Wampum and Shell Articles Used by the New York Indians.
This is the most complete work on the subject and is well
illustrated.

AGRICULTURE

g " THE extent to which corn was grown among
1. 191, these tribes will justify the use of much stronger
**• 3° language than Mr. Morgan employs when he de
clares that l it cannot be affirmed with correctness that the

248

VALUE OF AGRICULTURE

Indian subsisted principally by the chase '" (Carr, Mounds
of Mississippi Valley, S. R.^ 1891. See also text, I. 320.)
In fact their diet was more closely limited to agricultural
products than is that of ourselves, their successors. Their
staple food was corn in one of its many preparations, the
most usual being sagamite, a thin hominy mush. Eaten
without salt this was very insipid, and was therefore flavored
with dried fish, meat, oil, or anything else that could be
obtained. The Hurons in particular tasted very little meat,
and all the Iroquoians, as already mentioned, were agricultur
ists. The word sagamite is of Algonquin origin, and being
used by the Iroquoians in speaking the lingua franca of
Canada was pronounced by them sagawlte. The Iroquois
word was onnontara. A large proportion of the Indian
words taken into the English language are the names for
corn preparations which the early settlers learned from their
Algonquin neighbors ; such are hominy, samp, suppawn,
succotash.

The most important step in Iroquois- development
^ was taken when they shifted to the agricultural basis
of subsistence. A race of mere hunters can never increase
greatly in numbers within its territory, still less gather into
towns and establish states. Better dwellings, the accumula
tion of property, monogamy, opportunities for industrial and
mental development, all came in the train of the assured food
supply. To the Iroquois agriculture brought more
marked advantages, for beyond a little help from the
men in clearing the ground and at harvest time, the women,
who before had been of less importance in the food quest,
took the entire burden, leaving the men free for hunting, for
councils, and for war. The effect upon the military power
of the tribes need not be elaborated.

" Nothing worthy the name of civilization has ever been
founded on any other agricultural basis than the cereals.
This appears to be largely due to the fact that the seeds of
the cereal grasses are, as compared with fruits and roots,

249

APPENDIX B

extremely rich in albumen and albuminoids, the great noui-
ishers of the muscular and nervous systems. Regarded as
stimulants to human activity, fruits and roots have a low
comparative value. Corn in this regard is nearly equal to the
flesh of animals. But the most important reason for the
superiority of cereal agriculture as a basis of social advance
ment only becomes apparent when the nature of its methods
is considered. Cereal agriculture, alone among the forms of
food-production, taxes, recompenses, and stimulates labour and
ingenuity in an equal degree. Populations which depend on
arboriculture never learn even the rudiments of the labour-
lesson which is the beginning of the education of humanity.
Root-cultivating populations learn only the bare rudiments ;
for roots demand far less labour than is necessary to keep
man in anything approaching to continuous employment. It
is the peculiar quality of cereal agriculture that by occupying
man regularly during a considerable portion of the year it
directly tends to render the unit of human labour a constant
quantity and to give it new forms of employment. The
labour which in the simplest form the culture of cereals in
volves is in. itself of a varied character, and it naturally sug
gests further transformation of labour, the effect of which is
to further develop not only the capacities of the soil, but the
industry and ingenuity of the cultivator. When the unit of
labour has once been rendered a constant quantity, the mate
rial of civilization has been provided."

<c . . . Thus did nature to some extent compensate

America for the want of the great domestic animals

by endowing it with a unique cereal, the largest and most

productive known, and capable of being profitably cultivated

without them." (Payne, I. 353, 356.)

86 The Indians, like ourselves, cultivated several varieties
II ^28 °^ corni adapted to different climates and different
uses.

Among the Algonquins, and to a less extent among the
Hurons, the warriors worked in the corn fields from time to

250

FOOD QUEST

time, but the Iroquois left the actual planting and cultivation
entirely to the women, who had of course some help from the
children and the slaves. While corn was the staple, the
Iroquois cultivated also melons, water-melons, squashes,
pumpkins, beans, tobacco, sunflowers, and perhaps peas and
(Indian) hemp. So far as its raw materials went, the Amer
ican bill of fare five centuries ago would have been more satis
factory to ourselves than the European diet of the same age.

g_ Maple sap fresh drawn was a favorite beverage. It is
I. 1 86, practically certain that Indians made both syrup and
II- 27 SUgar long before they knew any white men. (Lafi-
tau, III. 140.) The Iroquois earthenware answered ex
cellently for the necessary evaporation. The maple festival
is now discontinued by the communities which have no sugar
trees.

88 Sullivan's expedition in 1779 destroyed 160,000
I- I9I bushels of corn tc with a vast quantity of vegetables
of every kind," and cut down innumerable apple-trees, 1,500
in one orchard.

8q The fields were sometimes in clearings in the woods
I- 3°6 at a considerable distance from the town.
I. T67 In ten or a dozen years the bark houses of an Iro-
37 quois village would be rotten and infested with ver
min, the accessible firewood exhausted, and the soil, constantly
robbed but never enriched, less generous in yield. A new
site would then be selected, a clearing made in the forest, and
the town moved, all the inhabitants proceeding to the new
location, and taking with them the bones of their dead. This
necessity of moving and re-establishing their towns and fields
imposed by lack of domestic animals upon a people without
metal tools, added enormously to the labor of the food quest,
and so restricted population and prevented the increase of
wealth.

Morgan apparently did not know much of this usage when
he wrote the League. As above mentioned (Note 42), it
caused frequent changes in the trails and affected in many

APPENDIX B

ways the life of the people. It has been attempted to estab
lish the length of residence of a tribe in a given district in a
simple but ingenious manner. If the tribe had normally three
contemporaneous villages and thirty sites are found, the occu
pation cannot have much exceeded a century. The character
of the relics found also indicates the number of sites aban
doned before contact with Europeans. This method of com
putation must not be relied on too implicitly, for temporary
absences may have intervened, villages may have been united
or divided, and sites may have been reoccupied, but it fur
nishes an excellent working hypothesis. Applied to specific
cases, it indicates that neither the Hurons nor the Iroquois,
(except perhaps the Senecas) were in full force in their
historic territories before 1500 or 1550.

go This hemlock tea is perhaps the beverage which the
I- 3*i Iroquois at Quebec prescribed for Carrier's scurvy-
stricken men in 1536. They called the tree Anneda (Park-
man, Pioneers, 214). Hemlock is O-no-da in Mohawk,
O-neb-da in Seneca.

g! Squash is an Algonquin word which we took along
H- 34 with the article from the aborigines of New England.

g2 The Rev. J. Daste, S. J., in a letter printed in
H- 34 Wonderland, 1900, gives this account of the first
meeting of the Flatheads with Lewis and Clark, which he
obtained from the Indians:

u Then the two leaders, observing that the Indians were
using, for smoking, the leaves of some plant, a plant very
much alike to our tobacco plant, asked for some and filled
their pipes ; but as soon as they tried to smoke, they pro
nounced the Indian Tobacco no good. Cutting some of their
tobacco they gave it to the Indians, telling them to fill their
pipes with it. But it was too much for them who had never
tried the American weed, and all began to cough, with great
delight to the party. Then the two leaders asked the Indians
for some Kinnikinnick, mixed it with the tobacco, and gave
again to the Indians the prepared weed to smoke. This time

252

OUR DEBT TO THE INDIAN

the Indians found it excellent, and in their way thanked the
men whom they now believed a friendly party."

The indebtedness of civilization to the American
I. 134 Indian has been generally overlooked. Not only
H- 33 Was he the explorer and pathfinder of the continent,
but he had pretty thoroughly exploited its natural resources.
Rather because of the physical characteristics of the country
and its lack of domesticable animals than from any lack of
intelligent enterprise on their own part, the men of the New
World were behind those of the Old World in culture. But
hardly anything that they were able to discover had been neg
lected. They knew and used almost every metal found native,
they domesticated the dog and the llama, the only animals
capable of domestication, and they had thoroughly appropriated
the vegetable riches of the continent. In the four centuries
of European dominion in America hardly a single valuable
conquest from nature has been added to those gained by the
Indian ; the extracting from the ore of iron and other non-
native metals being of course excepted.

MYTHS AND LEGENDS

g^ THE Indian's world was a very different one from
I. 1 60 ours. Events which we consider the effect of natural
forces regulated by laws certain though not fully understood,
were to him the works of living beings. Thus, if the corn
harvest failed, it was the work of demons. Earthquakes were
caused by the souls of the dead struggling to get back through
the ground, and by making a loud noise these souls might be,
and as the event proved were, frightened back and the earth
quakes stopped. When the Moon's face was hidden in an
eclipse, she was sick or angry and must be helped or appeased.
The thunder was a noise made by a great bird, and the lightnings
were fiery serpents. The Milky Way was the road of souls,
and the Pleiades a party of dancers.

Thus their eyes, like other eyes, saw what they expected to

253

APPENDIX B

see. When it thundered, Hiawatha heard the great bird and
Horace heard Jupiter's chariot wheels, but neither is therefore
to be considered a foolish or untrustworthy witness. The
history contained in many Indian legends can therefore be
understood, if we are able to translate the language in which
it is recounted.

As a simple illustration of this there is the Iroquois story
of the Great Buffalo, and the Algonquin story of the Great
Moose with a fifth leg between his shoulders which he used
to prepare his bed. Would a twentieth-century man who
had never seen or heard of an ammal of the elephant species
be able to give a much better account of a mammoth the first
time he saw it ?

Other stories are simple folklore and have their resemblances
to those of other peoples. Here is one, much abbreviated :

An Indian, who deeply mourned his lost sister, travelled
fasting twelve days towards the setting sun (where the village
of souls is), then his sister appearing to him at night and
returning each evening gives him a dish of sagamite. For
three months he travels, thus sustained, and reaches the village
of souls. The souls were having a dance in a cabin to heal
Ataentsic, who was sick. Finding his sister's soul, he shuts
her in a pumpkin which an old man gives him and takes her
home. Making a feast, he prepares to restore his sister's soul
to her body, but a curious spectator lifts his eyes contrary to
orders and the soul escapes.

Here we have the story of Eurydice, and a suggestion of
Peter Pumpkin Eater as well.

The foregoing is the Huron version given by Le Jeune
(Relation 1656, 10 J. R., 148), and in a note 10 J, R., 324,
is said to be of Algonquin origin. But Lafitau, II. 109, gives
an almost identical story as an Iroquois legend.

Referring again to the Great Buffalo mentioned in the text,
the story may not be very ancient, even if we assume that it
referred to the mammoth, for it is not impossible that the
mammoth existed in Alaska at a recent date. As for the

254

NEW TEAR'S FESTIVAL

pygmies, there may he some alive yet, for Thomas La Fort
and his companions saw one in 1870. Die Qnondaga-
Indianer des Staates New York, Ch. L. Henning, Globus,
LXXVI. 199.

The Iroquois legends were recounted on many solemn
occasions. After a funeral the evening was given to the re
cital of legends (Rel. 1656-7, 43 J. R., 287), and when a
sachem was raised up they were also in order. In fact, at any
meeting or council the myths and tales of the origin of the
world and of the League were to be expected as an introduction
to the business, and this may have furnished the suggestion
for the opening chapters of Mr. Knickerbocker's History of
New York.

A number of the Iroquois myths are recounted in a valuable
article by Erminnie A. Smith, 2 Bur. Eth., 51 ; see also David
Cusick's History of the Six Nations, reprinted in Dr. Beau-
champ's Iroquois Trail.

The reason the legends were not related in summer
I. 162

was that at that time the spirits of nature were awake
and listening ; in winter they hibernated like so many bears.

NEW YEAR'S

gcj WITH Mr. Morgan's sympathetic, not to say ideal-
!• J99 ized, account of the New Year's festival it is inter
esting to compare the reports of observers who took a
somewhat Philistine view of the ceremonies. In the Relation
of 1655—6 (42 y. R., 154) is an account of what Fathers
Dablon and Chaumonot saw at Onondaga :

"They not only believe in their dreams, but they have
a special festival for the Demon of Dreams. This festival
might be called the Festival of Fools, or the Carnival of
Wicked Christians ; for in it the Devil does as it were the
same things that are done in the carnival and at the same
season. They name this festival Honnonouaroia. The eld
ers go to proclaim it through the streets of the town. We

255

APPENDIX B

witnessed the ceremony on the 22nd of February of this year
1656. As soon as this festival was announced by these
public cries, nothing was to be seen but men, women and
children running like madmen through the streets and through
the cabins, but in quite a different fashion from European
masqueraders. Most of them are nearly naked and seem not
to feel the cold, which is almost unbearable to those who are
the best covered. It is true that some give no other sign
of their madness than to run half naked through all the
cabins ; but others are mischievous ; some carry water or
something worse and throw it upon those they meet ; others
take firebrands, coals and ashes and scatter them about
without caring on whom they fall. Others break the kettles
and dishes and all the houseware that they find in their course.
Some go armed with swords, bayonets, knives, hatchets or
cudgels, and pretend to strike with those every one they meet,
and all this continues until their dream is guessed and fulfilled ;
as to which there are two things quite remarkable.

" The first is that it sometimes happens that one is not
clever enough to divine their thoughts, for they do not state
them clearly, but by enigmas, by phrases of hidden meaning,
by signs and sometimes by gestures alone ; so that good
Oedipuses are not always found. Nevertheless they will not
leave the spot until their thought is divined, and if one delays
too long, if one does not wish to divine it, or if one cannot,
they threaten to burn up everything ; which comes to pass
only too often as we came near experiencing to our cost.
One of these idiots darted into our cabin and insisted that we
should guess his dream and fulfil it. Now we had declared
at the outset that we would not obey these imaginings, yet he
persisted for a long time to shout and storm and rave, but in
our absence, for we withdrew to a cabin outside the village
to avoid these disturbances. One of our hosts, tired of these
shouts, came to him to learn what he wanted. The maniac
answered, c I kill a Frenchman, that is my dream which
must be fulfilled at any cost.' Our host threw him a French

THE DREAM FEAST

coat, as if it had been taken from a dead man, and at the
same time began himself to rage, saying that he wished to
avenge the death of the Frenchman, that his destruction
should be followed by that of the whole village, which he
was going to reduce to ashes, beginning with his own cabin.
Thereupon he drove out his relatives and friends and house-
people and all the crowd which had gathered to see the issue
of this disturbance. Thus left alone, he shut the doors and
set the whole place on fire. At the moment when every
body expected to see the whole house in flames Father Chau-
monot came up, returning from an errand of charity. He
saw an awful smoke pouring from his bark house and being
told what it was he burst in the door, threw himself into
the midst of the fire and smoke, threw out the firebrands,
put out the fire, and gently prevailed upon his host to leave,
contrary to the expectation of all the populace, who never
resist the fury of the Demon of Dreams. The man con
tinued in his fury. He ran through the streets and cabins,
shouting loudly that he was going to set everything on fire
to avenge the death of the Frenchman. They brought him
a dog to be the victim of his wrath and of the Demon of
his passion. ' That is not enough,' he said, c to wipe out
the shame and the affront which has been done to me in
wishing to kill a Frenchman lodging in my house/ A
second dog was brought to him, and he was appeased at once
and returned home as quietly as if nothing had happened.

"Please observe, in this connection, that as in their wars
one who has taken a prisoner often takes only his plunder and
not his life, in the same way he who has dreamed of killing
some one often contents himself with his clothes without
attacking his person. That is the reason that the French
man's coat was given to the dreamer.

" Let us continue.

"• Our host wished to play his part as well as the others.
He dressed himself like a Satyr, covering himself with corn
husks from head to foot. He made two women array them-

VOL. II. — 17 257

APPENDIX B

selves like real Megaras, their hair flying, their faces black as
coal, their bodies covered with two wolf skins, each woman
carrying a club or a great stake. The Satyr seeing them well
equipped marched through our cabin singing and howling
at the top of his voice. Then climbing on the roof, he per
formed a thousand antics, shouting as if everything had gone
to destruction, which done, he descended, marched gravely
all around the town, the two Megaras leading on and smash
ing everything they met with their stakes. If it is true that
every man has a grain of folly — since Stultorum infinitus est
numerus — it must be confessed that these people have more
than half an ounce apiece. But there is more to come.

u Scarce had our Satyr and our Megaras disappeared from
view when a woman rushed into our cabin. She was armed
with an arquebus which she had obtained by her dream.
She shouted, howled, sang, saying that she was going off
to the war with the Eries, that she would fight them and
bring back prisoners, with a thousand imprecations and a
thousand maledictions if the thing did not come to pass as
she had dreamed. A warrior followed this amazon. He
carried his bow and arrows in his hand and a dagger. He
dances, he sings, he shouts, he threatens : then suddenly
he rushes at a woman who had come in to see this comedy ;
he levels the dagger at her throat, takes her by the hair,
contents himself with cutting off a few locks, and then with
draws to give place to a Diviner who had dreamed that he
could find everything that was hidden. He was ridiculously
dressed and held in his hand a sort of caduceus which he
used to point out the place where a thing was hidden.
Nevertheless his companion who carried a pot filled with
some liquor or other had to fill his mouth with it and blow
it over the head and over the face, over the hands and over
the caduceus of the Diviner, who then never failed to find
the article in question. That is all I can tell.

" A woman came next with a mat which she spread
out and arranged as if she wished to catch some fish.

258

THE DREAM FEAST

This meant that we must give her some because she had
dreamed it.

" Another simply laid a mattock on the ground. They
divined that she wanted a field or a piece of ground. That
was just what she had in mind, and she was satisfied with
five furrows for planting Indian corn.

"After that they put before us a little grotesque puppet.
We declined it and it was placed before other persons, and
after they had mumbled some words they carried it off with
out further ceremony.

"One of the chiefs of the town appeared in wretched at
tire. He was all covered with ashes, and because no one
guessed his dream, which called for two human hearts, he
caused the ceremony to be prolonged by a day, and continued
his mad actions during all the time. He entered our cabin,
where there are several fireplaces, stopped at the first, threw
ashes and coals into the air, and at the second and third fires
did the same, but did nothing at ours, out of respect.

" Some came fully armed and as if they were in combat
with the enemy, posturing, shouting and scuffling like two
armies in battle.

" Others march in bands, and perform dances with contor
tions of the body like men possessed. In short, one would
never be done if he undertook to relate everything they do
during the three days and three nights that this madness lasts,
with such a racket that one cannot find a moment of quiet.
Yet this did not prevent us from conducting the regular
prayers in our chapel, nor God from making evident his love
for these poor people by some miraculous cures granted by
virtue of holy baptism, of which we will not speak here.
Let us finish the account we have begun of the obedience
which they give to their imaginings.

" It would be a cruelty and a sort of murder not to give a
man what his dream called for, for the refusal might cause his
death. Therefore they may see themselves stripped of their
all without any hope of recompense, For whatever they give

259

APPENDIX B

is never returned to them, unless they dream it themselves, or
pretend to dream it. In general they are too scrupulous to
make such a pretence, which would, as they suppose, cause
all sorts of misfortunes. Yet those are found who disregard
their scruples and enrich themselves by a clever fiction.

"The Satyr, of whom we have spoken, seeing that a great
deal was taken from his cabin on our account because great
and small dreamed of the French and we would not listen to
them, while he because he liked us satisfied them, yet at length
wishing to repay himself, put on the attire we have described,
and counterfeited not only the Satyr, but also the phantom
which he pretended had appeared to him by night and had
commanded him to get together forty beaver skins. This he
did in this way. He set himself to shout through the streets
that he was no more a man but had become a brute beast.
Thereupon the elders held a council for the restoration of one
of their chiefs to his natural form. This was accomplished
as soon as he had received what he desired and pretended to
have dreamed of.

"A poor woman was not so fortunate in her dream. She
ran about day and night and got only an illness. They tried
to cure her with the ordinary remedies of the country, which
are emetics of certain roots steeped in water, but they made
her drink so much that she died immediately, her stomach
bursting to give passage to two kettles of water which they
had made her take.

" A young man of our cabin got off with being well
powdered. He dreamed that he was buried in ashes. When
he woke he wished his dream to come true, so he invited ten
of his friends to a feast to fulfil his dream. They acquitted
themselves excellently of this commission, covering him with
ashes from head to foot and stuffing them into his nose and
into his ears and everywhere. We were disgusted with such
a ridiculous ceremony, but every one else regarded it in silent
admiration as a grand mystery. Do not these poor people
deserve compassion ? "

260

THE WHITE DOG

Several incomplete accounts of recent ceremonies are found
in the testimony annexed to Report on Indian Problem, I. 419,
425, 448 :

u There was a great deal of dancing and marching about
and eating of all sorts of meat ; the white dog burning I had
supposed was a sort of relic of their idea of sacrifice, but I
think it is a relic of the way they did things, God only knows
when and where, and they keep it up and it don't amount to
anything, only they will keep burning the dog, because some
body don't like it. They use a white dog, and take a great
deal of pains in having a puppy ; and if there are any black
hairs in it, they pluck the hairs out ; and they are somewhat
humane for a people so barbarous, they kill him before they
burn him; they strangle him. They wear the breech clout;
I think they do not eat the dog."

u I think last winter they did n't burn the white dog ; they
marched from the council-house to the adjoining house and
fixed up something with ribbons and tobacco and burned that
instead of the white dog."

" The people gather at the council-house in the morning ;
two men are delegated to strangle the white dog, as near
white as they can get it ; and the people gather in the mean
time ; and they come to the council-house with this dog across
the shoulders of one of the men ; sometimes the dog is dead
and sometimes he is still alive ; he comes in without saying
anything at all, the dog across his shoulder, and waits for his
instructions as to what further he shall do ; he is finally told
where he is to go, and there he is to prepare the dog for burn
ing. The dog is striped up with different colored paints, and
in different colored ribbons, and brought back to the council-
house ; another Indian will carry the basket with tobacco and
beans and one thing and another; in the centre of the council-
house they build up a platform with wood, lay a board on that,
and the dog is laid down on the board ; the baskets of tobacco,
beads, and so on set beside him ; all the while this is going on
— there are two divisions of that tribe, one is called the Wolf

261

APPENDIX B

Tribe and the other the Bear Tribe — and they have two
council-houses; they separate, one gathering at the small
council-house and holding services there, and the other at the
large council-house at the same time ; every little while a
message will be sent from one council-house to the other, and
they will go on with the services ; these services are going on
continually while the white dog is being prepared for burning ;
after everything is all ready, they have one man who is ap
pointed master of ceremonies, and he comes in and begins to
walk around the platform where the dog is lying; the chief
will sit on a bench close by ; he comes around and stops ; and
one man steps up and whispers to him ; he walks around with
a sort of a chant, and comes around again and another one
speaks to him ; as I understand that they are sending through
this man their wishes or confessing their sins to him, and he
puts them into the dog and they are burned with the dog;
after that had gone for some time, then he shoulders the dog
and marches out of the council-house and around it, I think
it is three times, then over to the other council-house, and
there go through the same performance, march around that,
out of it and to the place of burning; that is about the sum
and substance of the burning of the white dog; they have
ceremonies, I don't know what they say. The body of the
dog is burned. I never heard of it being eaten. There is no
obscenity in connection with the burning. Anybody that
wishes to is admitted to the ceremony. The women all
attend the burning of the dog. Their dances following the
burning of the white dog are very obscene."

Other testimony was given (p. 506) which might indicate that
this festival was in honor of the returning sun and to celebrate
the reproductive powers of nature. While we take at Easter
the egg and the rabbit as symbols of life and fecundity, the Iro-
quois symbolism passes from the pictorial stage to the dramatic.
For details the reader is referred to the testimony itself.

I. I99 The date of the New Year's feast was approximately
-34 determined by the moon, but the exact date was fixed

262

DOG SACRIFICES

by each village for itself. According to the best information
received, it must not be earlier than the second new moon
after the winter solstice. At this time in the Iroquois coun
try the days of greatest cold are to be expected, and the feast
no doubt assists the return of the sun. While Father Dablon
describes the Onondaga New Year's feast in 1656, and Mr.
Morgan the Seneca feast of two centuries later, the descrip
tions are almost interchangeable. In each we have the ap
pointment of the feast, the corn-husk and bear-skin dresses,
the clubs carried by the keepers of the faith, the

I. 200 t .

stirring of the fire (perhaps a relic or symbol of a cus
tom to make new fire for the New Year), and the dream feast.

96 Whether the white dog was anciently sacrificed is

Ip 201 not so clear. Dablon mentions the killing of the two
dogs, and as he was outside of the village he may not have
seen all the circumstances of their execution.

Dr. Beauchamp says (Iraq. Trail, 85) : " In its essential
feature of sacrifice the white dog feast seems quite modern,
but in point of time it corresponds with the old Dream Feast,
taking its place and retaining some of its features."

Nevertheless there is much evidence that the dog sacrifice
was anciently celebrated among the Iroquois, though probably
not as a part of the New Year's celebration.

In the Relation of 164.2 (23 J. R., 52) is an account of
the Huron New Year's festival called Ononhouaroia. It is
said to be in honor of all the Demons, and the resemblance to
our Halloween pranks is suggested. The Dream Feast is
described, but no dogs are mentioned. Lafitau also describes
the Dream Feast without mention of dog sacrifice. A few
instances of dog sacrifices among the Hurons and the Iro
quois may be cited.

Le Jeune, Relation of 1636 (13 J. R., 30) tells of a dog burnt
alive for the cure of a sick woman. The burning alive is of
interest, as showing that there was no bloodshed.
j i In the Relation of 1642 (23 J. R., 158) we are told
that the Hurons burned bears, deer, and dogs in honor
263

APPENDIX B

of the devil. This is the same personage that other writers
have called the Great Spirit.

In the Relation of 164.2 (23 J. R., 172) we have a detailed
description quite like the one above quoted from Report on
Indian Problem. As this was a Huron sacrifice, not an Iro-
quois, the resemblance is very interesting. A warrior had
dreamed that he had been made captive and burned by the
Iroquois, and a semblance of captivity and torture was there
fore performed upon him. u Finally they opened a way
out in order that he might escape from captivity. As he
went out he seized a dog which was held there all prepared
for him, put it at once upon his shoulders, and carried it
among the cabins as a consecrated victim of which he made
a public offering to the Demon of War, praying him to accept
this semblance in place of the reality of his dream. And that
the sacrifice might be fully consummated the dog was killed
with a club, and then was scorched and roasted in the flames,
and after all this was eaten at a public feast in the same manner
as they are accustomed to eat their captives."

Le Jeune, Relation of 1638 (Hurons) : "Many of these
feasts are like real sacrifices, especially one where a dog is killed
and eaten, particularly on certain occasions, with such rites
and ceremonies that one can hardly come to any other
conclusion."

Re/. 1672-3 (57 J. R., 146): "To Agriskoue they
commonly sacrifice dogs, of which they make a feast for the
sick."

Rel. 1676-7 (60 y. R., 218): "I was much grieved to
see a great dog hanging at the top of a painted pole as a sacri
fice to the sun." (This was among the Algonquin people of
the Lakes.)

Marest to German (66 J. R., 240) : " There being a pesti
lence [among the Wabash Illinois in 1712 or thereabouts],
they sacrificed as many as forty dogs which they carried on
the tops of poles, themselves singing, dancing, and cutting a
thousand extravagant capers."

264

GAMBLING

In the Journals of Sullivan's army dog sacrifices are several
times mentioned. " In this town a dog was hung up, with a
string of wampum round his neck, on a tree, curiously deco
rated and trimmed. On inquiry I was informed that it was
a custom among the savages before they went to war to offer
this as a sacrifice to Mars, the God of War, and praying that
he might strengthen them. In return for these favours they
promise to present him with the skin for a tobacco pouch."
(Lieut.-Col. Hubley's Journal, September 10, 1779.)

There is in the Jesuit Relations no distinct reference to
white dogs, though it is stated that dogs for feasts and sacri
fices must be of a certain shape and color.

Parkman says directly (Jesuits, Ixxxv) that the white dog
was sacrificed on an upright pole by many tribes.

It is extraordinary that Lafitau refers to the dog sacrifice
only casually as an Algonquin custom.

GAMES OF CHANCE

97 THE Iroquois were great gamblers. This, indeed, as
I- 237 well as the approval which it received from their
religious teachers, is well set forth in the text. It will be
noticed that while Johnson, the prophet of the new religion,
condemned the use of cards as a great sin (I. 237), he com
mended the peach-stone game and enjoined its observance
(I. 233). This was, of course, because it was part of their
religious system and was used for the cure of disease.

It appears by the Relation of 1669-70 that Father Pierron
recognized that the Iroquois gambling games were interwoven
with their religion, and to counterbalance them invented both

O '

religious and secular games of his own.

g The Peach Stone and Deer Button games are ob-

I. 233, viously variants of the same form of gaming. In the

282,290, former, wild plum stones were used before peaches

were known, and these were marked on one side

with a hot stone. (Charlevoix.) A full account of these

265

APPENDIX B

and other variants of the Dice Game is given in the
article on " Chess and Playing Cards " by Mr. Stuart Cullin
(£. R. N. M., 1896, p. 665) with numerous quotations from
early writers. The text is also here quoted at length.

In addition to Mr. Cullin's citations the following may be

r • *

or interest :

Le Jeune says (Relation 1636, 10 J. R.^ 186), describing
the Huron Game :

" The game of dish is also in great credit in affairs of
medicine, particularly if the sick man has had a dream of it.
It is purely a game of chance. They put six plum stones,
white on one side and black on the other, in a dish which
they strike quite violently on the ground so that the stones
bounce and turn up sometimes one side, sometimes the other.
The game is to throw all white or all black; they usually
play village against village. They all gather in a cabin, and
range themselves on poles arranged under the roof on both
sides. They bring in the sick man in his blanket, and he of
the village who is to shake the dish (for only one of each side
is appointed for that purpose) walks after, with his head and face
, enveloped in his robe. They bet heavily and boldly

on both sides. When he of the other side holds the
dish, they cry with all their voice, achinc, achinc, achinc, three,
three, three, or perhaps ioio, ioio, ioio, praying that he may
throw only three white or three black. You might have seen
this winter a goodly troop returning hence to their villages
having lost their moccasins in a season when there was
nearly three feet of snow, but yet as cheerful to all appear
ance as if they had won. The most remarkable thing that
I found in this is the frame of mind in which they come
to it. Some fast several days before playing; the evening
before, they meet in a cabin and hold a feast to discover
what will be the result of the game. He who is chosen to
hold the dish takes the stones and puts them just as they
come into a dish and covers it so that no one may put
his hand into it. That done, they sing ; after the song the

266

DICE GAMES

dish is uncovered and the stones are found either all white
or all black. As to this I asked an Indian if those against
whom they were going to play did not do the same on their
side, and if they might not find the stones in the same state.
1 Oh yes,' he said. 'And yet,' I told him, call cannot win,'
to which he knew not how to answer. He informed me of
two other remarkable things : first, that they choose to shake
the dish some one who had dreamed that he would win or who
had a charm; moreover those who have charms, whatever
they may be, do not conceal them but carry them everywhere.
We have one of them, they say, in our village who rubs the
stones with a certain unguent and hardly ever fails to win.
Secondly, that when they make the test some of the stones
disappear and again are found some time after in the dish with
the others."

The Huron dish, like the Iroquois, was of wood (Relation
1639, 17 "J. R., 200.) The western tribes used woven baskets
for their plum stone game, and sometimes marked designs on
the stones, thus giving more variety to the game.

This favorite entertainment was perhaps the most absorb
ing of the Indians' pursuits. Loskiel (p. 137) tells of an Iro
quois game that lasted a week. It is related (Relation 1639,
16 J. R., 200) that the extravagance of the Hurons in betting
went even to the staking of their fingers to be cut ofF by the
winner, as the Chinese do to this day.

The women gambled as well as the men, and had a special
form of the game wliere no dish was used, but the stones were
thrown in the air with the hand, to fall on a skin stretched on
the ground.

Lafitau's account of the Iroquois game is copied for com
parison with Morgan's :

" The favorite game of chance among the Indians is a game
of fruit stones or of little bones made of the kneepan of the
moose's hind legs, and of other rounded bones of any animal.
They are about twice the size of cherry stones and made uni
formly oval or elliptic. Although six faces can be distinguished,

267

APPENDIX B

there are really but two, larger than the others and slightly
flattened, losing a little of their curve, on which sides the
stone rests more naturally, One of these faces is colored
black and the other of a yellowish white. The number is not
fixed, the players use more or less as they agree. Still they
never take more than eight, and the usual number is six.
They throw these stones into a bell-mouthed wooden dish
smooth and well rounded both outside and in. This dish has
almost the shape of a mess platter such as is used on ships.
They shake the stones a long time in the dish, and after having
thus shaken them they place the dish on the mat, striking the
ground with the dish to make the stones jump. At the same
time they give it an impulse which makes it rotate a long time,
and they still further assist the movement that the stones re
ceive in the dish so shaken, by a little breeze that they make
with the hand to make the stones turn or fall in the way they
wish.

" Although only two sides of the stones are marked, one
white and the other black, there are, nevertheless, a multitude
of possible combinations, thus making the game long and
interesting.

"It is one of the greatest pleasures in the world to see
them play ; they are so eager and animated. Although there
are but two who hold the dish for the opposing sides, it might
be said that all of them are playing at once, for the two but give
the signal and all the others follow their movements as if they
all had a hand in the work. While one of the players is shak
ing the dish, all who bet with him shout with one voice, re
peating incessantly the wish they make for the fall and color
of the stones •, while all those on the other side shout their
demands for the opposite result. They utter their words with
a surprising quickness and volubility and often they merely
clip them off; meanwhile some of them beat their breasts,
giving themselves fearful blows and exercising so actively that,

268

GAME OF STRAWS

although they are half naked, they are at once all in a sweat,
as if they had played a violent game of tennis." (Lafitau, IV.
58.) He says also that half the village usually played against
the other half, (i. e. phratry against phratry).

The superior quality of Lafitau and Morgan as observers,
will be seen by comparing the various descriptions of the game
given in Mr. Cullin's article above cited.

The Iroquois had another gambling game of mingled chance
and skill, called the Game of Straws. (Lafitau, IV. 69.) The
Hurons also had this game. (Relation 1638, 15 J. R.,
78.) The game was difficult, and if any European observer
learned or understood it he has not succeeded in imparting his
knowledge.

MARRIAGE

no In Ancient Society Morgan has traced the evolution of
I- 3J3 marriage through its successive stages. In following
his classifications given below, it will be seen that the process
is one of elimination, the size of the marriage group being con
tinually reduced.

Consanguine Marriage (Latin Term). In this form of
family group, now, happily, extinct, each man of the tribe was
nominally the brother and husband of each woman of his own
generation. This means simply that they might lawfully live
together, and dissolve their union at any time to form another
of the same sort. The only relationships named or recognized
were, therefore, grandparent, parent, brother, sister, child, and
grandchild.

Punaluan Marriage (Hawaiian Term). Now the
group becomes more restricted. Each man is the
husband of each woman of his own group, such a group
usually consisting of several brothers and their wives or of
several sisters and their husbands. The nominal relationships
of the Iroquois were Punaluan as elsewhere explained, but
actually they had passed to the next stage.

269

APPENDIX B

Syndyasmian Marriage (Greek Term). This was the con
dition of the Iroquois and of most of the tribes of North
America at the time of the discovery. It formed a transition
stage between the Punaluan and Monogamian families, and to
the outward observer was a pairing dissoluble at the will of
either party, and even when not dissolved importing no very
rigid conjugal fidelity. If Morgan's views, as to the history
of marriage, are correct, this infidelity was not properly so called,
but was merely a survival of the Punaluan form of marriage.
In the Syndyasmian stage, then, each man had one chief wife
and each woman one chief husband, but each was still espoused
to the entire group. Some early observers report this state of
affairs as simple licentiousness, others as polygamy or polyandry.
The reminiscence of group marriage, no doubt, had its
share in the interest and control of the clan in the marriage
of its members. When a girl took a husband, it was admit
ting a new member to the marriage group.

From Syndyasmian marriage the road branches, the settled
agricultural peoples moving usually towards monogamy, the
wandering tribes towards the patriarchal state and its concomi
tant polygamy. Marriage, to the modern mind, connotes one
of these forms. It was once commonly supposed that polyg
amy was the earlier form, but the researches of Morgan and
others would mark it as simply a late offshoot from the main
stem which ends in Monogamy.

Monogamian Marriage. This state, needing no defi-
' nition, had been more nearly attained by the Iroquois
than by any of their neighbors. Occasionally a self-made chief
like Garakontie or Sir William Johnson, set up a family ap
proaching the patriarchal type, but the general tendency of the
people was towards monogamy. Polygamy never became
lawful.

The injunction of Johnson against intermarriage with
whites has not been effective, and the New York Iro
quois show to the most superficial observer their strong in
fusion of white blood. The case of white women married to

270

STATUTORY DIVORCE

Indians and of their offspring is a particularly hard one, for
after the death of the husband and father the widow and
children have no rights in his property, or even to remain
on the reservation. (See note 103.)

IOO Divorce continues to be unrestrained in practice,
I. 228, though an effort at legal formalities is made. The

315 following papers in divorce actions show precisely the
extent to which legislation in advance of public opinion is
effective. (Report on Indian Problem, II. 1128-29.)

TOWN OF CARROLLTON, CATTARAUGUS COUNTY, N. Y.,
December 14, 1887.

To THE PEACEMAKERS' COURT OF THE SENECA NATION OF NEW YORK

INDIANS UPON THE ALLEGANY RESERVATION :

This is to certify that I have consented and agreed to grant a bill of
divorce to George Gordon, and live separate and apart from each other
during our natural life. And I consent and hereby pray to the said
peacemakers' court to grant a bill of divorcement without delay.

her

LUCY x GORDON.

Witnesses : mark

ALFRED JIMESON,
M. F. TRIPPE.

PEACEMAKERS' COURT.

Held at the residence of David B. Jimeson on the 1 5th day of
December, 1887.

After hearing and reading the petition of Lucy Gordon, the court
ordered to grant a bill of divorce George Gordon.

(Signed) DAVID JIMESON, JR.,

JOHN LAMPSON,

Peacemakers for the Seneca Nation of New York Indians
upon the Allegany Reservation, N. Y.
Separate Certificate.

JlMESONTOWN, CATTARAUGUS COUNTY, N. Y. ,

June i, 1886.

On the first day of June before us personally came David Jimeson,
Jr., husband of Amanda, described in the within conveyance; the
said David Jimeson, being and known to us to be the individual de-

271

APPENDIX B

scribed in and who executed the said conveyance, and he acknowl
edged, on private examination, that Amanda had two childs who were
not belonging to the said David Jimeson, Jr. That he executed the
same freely, without any fear or compulsion of her.

(Signed) DAVID JIMESON, JR.,

his

JOHN x LAMPSON,

mark
Peacemaker* s Court.

PROPERTY

In modern society every foot of ground and every

I. 318 chattel belongs to a person, natural or corporate, or to

II. 119 the state. In an Iroquois tribe there were owners of
a third class, the houses and clans.

The individual owned, to use a convenient measure, only
what he could carry with him ; his clothing and ornaments,
the mat on which he slept, his weapons, his pipe, and his
kettle. These and no more he could take with him when he
emigrated, and they were buried with him when he died. As
a member of the house, clan, or tribe, he had a special prop
erty in other chattels and in land so long as he was in possession
and use thereof as a member of the community. But when
this relation ended his rights ended also.

The tribe had its property also, — its lands, tenements, and
hereditaments. These included (i) the territories which it
occupied, the boundaries being, as elsewhere mentioned, as
definite as those of a modern state ; and by ownership of the
land is meant not merely sovereignty, but that the tribe was
the actual and sole owner of the fee of the soil. An indi
vidual, a house, or a clan could acquire no right to land be
yond the term of actual occupation. (2) Rights of toll from
persons passing through the public domain. (3) Rights of
hunting, fishing, and trading in any new countries discovered
by a citizen. (4) The tribe had also a public treasury, con
taining not only archives, records, and maps, but also personal

272

CLAN PROPERTY

property of all kinds, even including slaves, and usually it
owned a council house.

Expenses of war (but a comparatively small portion of
these), of public gifts, and of the entertainment of ambassadors
were among the charges which fell upon the public treasury.

The League had likewise its treasury and its archives.

Everything else belonged to the clan or to the house, be
tween which, as often, it is not easy to discriminate in all de
tails. The house owned the communal dwelling, the chattels
of general use that it contained, and all that might be brought
into it as trophies of war or the chase or the product of agri
culture. In brief, the product of the labor of a member of
the house belonged to the house ; and as a curious illustration
of this a newly discovered cure for disease was the property of
the house.

The clan owned the lives of its members ; these lives
it might itself take, or if any one else took them the
right to compensation belonged to the clan. As a member of
the clan or household an individual had the right to a place in
the dwelling, to a share in its food supply, and to the exclusive
possession of a field. When he died or emigrated the clan
was his heir, or, more accurately, his administrator. All
property which by law he might not take with him, he might
distribute before his departure ; but if he failed to do so it was
distributed by the clan, usually to his nearest relatives. If an
apartment or a planting lot were abandoned, it reverted to the
general stock, and might with the approval of the clan or house
be occupied by another.

By the use of the pronoun " he" it is by no means intended
to exclude the female. A woman might have her individual
property, her ornaments, or her field, but for obvious reasons
the man, who was a stranger and sojourner in the dwelling
where he abode, would accumulate more separate estate than
the woman who was of it.

The distinction of rich and poor was known among the
Iroquois, as applying both to the individual and to the house.
VOL. ii.— 18 273

APPENDIX B

Even in the same clan one house might be wealthy and the
other poor. Property might be transferred by gift or pur
chase, by gambling, as a hire of labor, but rather as a fee than
a wage, or in payment of damages for a tort.

The common right in food and other chattels tended natu
rally to waste and poverty, for no one had the right to reserve
that which another might wish to use. This, rather than im
providence properly so called, was the reason why in the In
dian household it was commonly either a feast or a famine.

With the increase of trade and other changed conditions of
life which ensued upon the coming of the whites, the desire
for private property and the extent of it increased, as came to
pass at an earlier date among our own ancestors.

In the early Iroquois institutions, however, Mr. George and
Mr. Bellamy would have found much to delight them.

102 The following from Indian Problem, I. 818, being the
L 245 answer of the defendant in an action of trespass, illus
trates the enforcement of the ancient law by modern methods :

IN PEACEMAKER'S COURT, CATTARAUGUS RESERVATION,
May 21, 1888.

I reply to the complaint of Elijah Jimeson and deny the complaint
in full, for the following reasons, to wit : That ten days after the
death of my mother, wife of the complainant, the feast was held at the
house of the said complainant, and proclamation was then and there
declared, that all the property now belonged to my father, Elijah
Jimeson, my brother - - Jimeson, and myself, and under this
proclamation I claim my rights entitled to the premises and not as a
trespasser.

A. SIM LOGAN, JESSE JIMESON.

Attorney.

This extract from the testimony of a Seneca before
the Legislative Committee (Indian Problem, I. 791)

contains an excellent outline of an important transition period

in the history of human society :

" I desire to tell you a little history about the injustice
of our old ancient customs ; you will see by my little
274

INHERITANCE

history that I want to relate to you what injustice there was
in our old ancient customs of our tribal relations ; I shall have
to commence some ways back in order to have you understand
it, then I will show you this law, why they passed this law ; you
will see for yourself the injustice of going by our old ancient
form of government and customs; this custom had been in
existence ever since the formation of the confederacy of the
Five Nations of New York Indians ; that was the Mohawks,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and the Senecas ; that is the
old confederacy when it was first formed, that is about two
hundred and fifty years ago ; well, now it had been in exist
ence ever since; in that confederacy it was established that
there should be eight clans in each nation ; I don't know as I
can really tell you only a few; the Bear clan, the Wolf clan,
Deer clan, Hawk, Snipe clan, and the Beaver clan, the Turtle
clan, and the Eagle clan ; there is the eight clans which ex
isted in the Five Nations, they should all exist ; it was estab
lished that there should be eight clans in each nation ; so
when you go to make a visit among these Seneca Indians, go
to visit with the Onondagas, they will inform him where his
clan lives ; he will go there and visit them, and they will take
him in as their own relation, for all they are of a different
nation ; that was a treaty of peace that was entered into at the
time the confederacy was formed ; well, now, when a Seneca
Indian say I belong to the Wolf clan, well, now, I can not
marry in the same clan because it is my own relation and I
have got to marry a woman of some other clan, Turtle, Deer,
Bear, or some other clan ; well, now we raise children; well,
now, we go by the mother's side of the old custom; the
mother's side carries the day — she rules ; my children are
not related to me ; the children are related to the mother, be
cause it goes on the mother's side ; they are her children, and
the children are of the same clan with the mother ; I am the
Wolf clan and she probably is Bear clan, and the children are
the Bear clan; so, it is not his relation, only h's children;
when I come to die, if I have got some kind of property, if I

275

APPENDIX B

have any property at all, my relations come forward and dis
cusses the question of my property ; my own relation, this
Wolf clan, Wolf tribe, comes forward and settles the question
about my property ; sometimes they will give it among them
selves, divide among themselves what little I had ; they did not
^ i have much in those days, you know, until lately ; not
over forty or fifty years ago that we began to accumulate
property ; in olden times they were poorer than they are now-a-
days ; and sometimes they would not give the children anything,
because they were not my relations ; they would go penniless ;
my children was the Bear clan and I am the Wolf clan, and
my relations comes forward and takes my property and dis
poses of it just as they please ; that was the custom those
days ; when this republican form of government was handed
down to us from the State we saw injustice in that old cus
tom ; we found out it was not right ; a man that had a family
was working for his children and what property he had, why
it is his desire they shall be benefited by it and nobody else ;
so, they have abolished that law and adopted another; now,
you see what my aim is ; you can see the injustice of going
by that old custom ; they abolished that law in the council, by
the authority of the State of New York ; they had a right to
make this law ; they had a right to make all laws not incon
sistent with the Constitution of the State of New York or the
Constitution of the United States and all internal regulations
and their by-laws ; they had a right to make and they made
them; this was in 1854; now, then to-day we are not gov
erned by the mother's side ; that is abolished, this old custom ;
now we are governed by the men's side ; the men now rules
the day.

" This is not a statute of the State of New York ; this is the
Indian law, under the authority of the State ; well, now, as I
was telling you about this history of our old, ancient customs
about the death of an Indian, how they disposed of his prop
erty, and not give it to his children ; this council thought there
was injustice in it, so they went to work and annulled that ;

276

LAST: WILLS

they did n't really annul it, only to make another one to put
in the place of that; and here, it says: Section 19. 'The
last will and testament made by any deceased person, shall be
valid when made under the following circumstances : Pro
vided, the testator, at the time of making his last will and testa
ment was of sound mind ; that he had made provision in the
same for all of his children, if he had any at the time of his
death, except those that may not have been members of the
family at the time of the death of the testator, and that they
had received the value of five dollars at the time of separation
or since ; and, if the testator had no children or issue prior to
his death, or shall have a child born of his wife within nine
months after his cteath, the will shall be null and void, if no
provision is made therein for such child ; the child which is
born shall inherit the whole estate ; if the testator has no issue,
he must always will a sum of not less than one dollar to each
of his parents and brothers and sisters ; but if the testator de
sires to will the whole of his estate to his parent or parents, such
will shall always be valid, notwithstanding he may not have
devised anything to his brothers or sisters.' '

CAPTIVES

IO4 THE statements in the text, while of course not made
I. 331, on personal observation, are, in the main, correct.
335 The reason prisoners were not exchanged was that
after they had been adopted they were Iroquois, and to surren
der them would be to give up an Iroquois to a strange nation.
Individuals who had not been adopted might be and often were
given up, or rescued by their countrymen. An adopted
prisoner was usually taken in place of some member of a
household who had recently died, and might be tortured and
burnt, or saved alive^ at the discretion of the house which
owned him. From this point of view it was better to be
adopted in place of one who had died by disease or accident
than in place of one killed in battle. The adopted citizens

277

APPENDIX B

were for a long time subject to suspicion and in danger of
their lives ; any untoward event, physical disability of the cap
tive, or the mere caprice of their owners being enough to order
them out to be burnt. Most of these were treated as slaves,
but their position, particularly if of Iroquoian stock, would
gradually improve, and in the second generation no difference
would remain between slaves and masters. An interesting and
fortunate case of adoption is that of the Jesuit Milet taken
prisoner by the Onondagas in 1689. He had previously been
among the Oneidas as a missionary, and was given to them,
they being represented in the war party. For some weeks he
remained in the town, well treated but his fate undetermined.
Then a council was held to decide the cases of Milet and
three other Frenchmen. Two of the others were burned, but
Milet was claimed by both the Bear and Tortoise clans, who
finally turned him over to the Wolf clan in which he had
friends. " Through the influence of the chief women," says
Milet, u they showed me the friendliness of giving me in the
place of a sachem who had died long before of disease, rather
than of one killed in the attack on the French." This sachem
was Hodashateh, the first Sachem of the Oneidas, and Milet,
accordingly, succeeded to the Sachemship and was soon in
good standing as a member of the council. (Letter of Milet,
64 7. £., 90, loo.)

It was the policy of the Iroquois to incorporate the nations,
especially those of their own stock, which they conquered ;
and the modern Iroquois are descended from Hurons, Eries,
Neutrals, and Conestogas as well as from the Six Nations. By
this policy their losses in war were in a large measure made
good.

An adopted captive retaken, even in arms, by his original
countrymen would usually be spared, for he was only doing
his duty as a citizen of his new tribe. Those who had volun
tarily expatriated themselves were less likely to receive mercy.

Several instances are related of Hurons who transferred their
allegiance to an extent that seems particularly atrocious.

278

ADOPTED CAPTIVES

These men, desiring to commend themselves to their new
comrades, used their knowledge of the haunts and trails of the
Hurons to compass their destruction. In Captain Church's
exploits at the end of King Philip's war, we have instances
of Indian captives immediately joining the English against
their own kindred. Perhaps a relic of this institution of adop
tion may be found in some of the games of boys of our
own race, where a captive immediately joins his captors in
catching those of his original side.

To us slavery is a relic of barbarism, yet for the Onondagas
it was a step forward when they perceived the wisdom of spar
ing captives that they might have slaves to work their fields.
(Rel. 1676,60 J. R., 184.) This is truly an instance where
time makes ancient good uncouth.

IMPLEMENTS AND FABRICS

IOe As has been well said, Morgan's "record of later
II- 4 Seneca life is. priceless." (Beauchamp, Aboriginal Oc
cupation.} His collections and descriptions of the articles
he found them using and wearing are both reliable and val
uable. It is usually Seneca arts and fabrics, as well as Seneca
rites and customs, that are described in the text ; but, this
specialization being kept in mind, Morgan's work becomes
thereby all the more important and serviceable.

The articles of the stone age he knew only by hearsay, and
therefore errs in speaking of some and omits others altogether.
Fortunately it was the enduring stone, bone, and earthenware
objects that had gone out of fashion, while the perishable wood
and bark utensils and the articles of clothing and ornaments
were still to be seen in daily use.

106 For an account of the obsolete articles see Abbott,

II- 4 Primitive Industry (relating chiefly to the Algonquins

of New Jersey), and the series of Bulletins on New York

articles prepared by Dr. Beauchamp for the N. Y. State

Museum.

279

APPENDIX B

The wooden handles of the stone tools have disappeared
as completely as the arts of making and using the tools, so
that, however numerously stone relics may be found, they
give us but an X-ray picture of the age of which they are
relics.

IOy Of the Indian relics found in collections only a small
1. 168 percentage come from graves. Village and camp sites
furnish most of the finds. Unfortunately it is only in ploughed
fields and on the banks of lakes and rivers that articles are
readily discovered, and in such locations they are usually
scattered or broken. It remains true, therefore, that ex
cepting the very rare cases of cave finds, the graves and
mounds give the best opportunity for finding relics unin
jured and in the positions in which they were placed by the
aborigines.

It should also be suggested that an abundance of flint im
plements does not often indicate a battle, the simple expla
nation which at one period was usually assigned in such cases.

108 The Iroquois women made great quantities of pottery
II. 6, 9 from clay and pounded rock. Some of it crumbled,
as stated in the text, but much is durable. The rim and
adjacent parts were ornamented with lines and dots, the lines
being almost invariably straight. Impressions of finger-nails,
corncobs, etc., were also used for decoration, and in later
times applied human faces and figures. The manufacture
seems to have been continually carried on, and at hunting
and fishing stations as well as at permanent towns. u The
inside is commonly black, and the outside of the proper hue of
baked clay, varying much, according to the material." (Beau-
champ, Earthenware of the N. T. Aborigines.) In thickness
this ware varied from a twelfth to a quarter of an inch. The
vessel shown in the cut on page 9 of Vol. II. has a flat
bottom, but this is probably an error of the artist, as the
rounded bottom was universal. The cut was not prepared
for Morgan, but taken by him from another work. The
rounded vessel could have been set in the ashes, but in

280

POTTERY— GROOVED AXE

ordinary situations would have required support to hold it
upright. In Central America such vessels are still in use
and are set in circular withes twisted of small branches. In
the Swiss Lake dwellings clay rings were employed for the
purpose. These vessels were not washed or cleaned for fear
of wasting the contents (Lafitau, III. 83) and pottery frag
ments are frequently found incrusted with the food of former
centuries. The art of making pottery is an important mile
stone on the road from savagery to civilization. Morgan
adopted it as the boundary between savagery and barbarism.
(Ancient Society, 13. Fiske, Discovery of America, I. 25, 48.)
It implies permanent habitations, agriculture, and progress in
the arts, and assists in improving the food supply, both in
quality and quantity, and in developing the artistic sense.
In North America the line separating the agricultural from
the non-agricultural tribes may approximately serve as the
boundary of pottery manufacture, and this line runs through
linguistic stocks as well as between them. The agricultural
Algonquins made pottery, the other Algonquins did not. In
this art, as in others, the Iroquois surpassed their neighbors.
(Compare the Algonquin specimens figured in Abbott's Prim
itive Industry, with the Iroquois handiwork in Beauchamp's
Earthenware of New York Aborigines^

IO9 The usual corn-mortar was of wood. See II. 29.
IIQ The grooved axe, as the implement figured (II. 11)
II. ii under the name of "stone tomahawk" is commonly
called, is found generally in North America and is abundant
in Algonquin territory. (Bur. Eth., 1891-92, 62.) Dr. C. C.
Abbott tells (Primitive Industry, 33) of a cache of one hun
dred and twenty found at Trenton, N. J. The grooved axe
was an excellent implement for its purpose, and it has been
supposed that it served as the model for that wonderful in
strument the American steel axe, the superiority of which
to the wedge on a pole called an axe in Europe needs no
demonstration. The European axe may very likely be a
descendant of the bronze axe which Europeans used in

281

APPENDIX B

earlier times. So typical an American implement is the
grooved axe that it has been selected as the trademark of
the United States Bureau of Ethnology, as is seen on the
back of the Bureau's Annual Reports. In some specimens
a double groove is found. The groove, whether single or
double, was evidently designed as a means of firmly attaching
the blade to the helve. (S. R., 1879, P- 222.)

The European stone axes are drilled for the handle, but the
grooved type alone is known in America. These articles
were often finely shaped and highly polished. Lafitau de
scribes this as a tedious and difficult process (III. 100), and
there is evidence that these axes were used as soon as they
had been roughed out to the necessary shape and were
gradually perfected according to the owner's industry and
desires. Dr. Abbott says (Primitive Industry, 11) that grooved
axes were seldom, and the larger ones never, found in graves,
which fact would indicate that this was rather a tool than a
weapon.

Mr. Morgan is apparently in error in mentioning this as
an Iroquois weapon or implement. In fact, the absence of
the grooved axe from Iroquois sites is as typical as the absence
of the labials from their language. If they made them at all,
it was very rarely, and the few specimens found in Iroquois
territory may well have been taken or bought from the
Algonquins. The Iroquois used the plain hatchet or celt,
and this was sometimes notched as an aid to fastening it,
but never grooved. I have found numbers of grooved axes
in New Jersey, but have never seen one in the Iroquois
portion of New York. (See also Beauchamp, Polished Stone
Articles of N. T. Aborigines, 82.)

The grooved stone club head in use among some
II. 1 1 ....

Indian tribes is rarely if ever found on Iroquois sites.

in This needle was universally used by all the Eastern
IL I2 Indians. (Kellogg, Good Old Times, 94.) The next
time the reader shoots a deer let him ask his guide for a
toothpick, and a specimen of this needle will be forthcoming.

282

CORNPLANTER'S TOMAHAWK

112 "The tomahawk which is so much talked of, is

H- l6 seldom used but to smoak thro, or to cut wood

with," writes Col. Guy Johnson to Lord Geo. Germain,

March 12, 1778, justifying the employment of Indians

against the Colonists.

I. 206 tl The successor whom Cornplanter selected was

II. 1 6 O-ya-wah-teh (Small Berry) known under the Eng
lish name of Canada. Upon the death of Canada his effects
were distributed according to the Indian custom, and his
widow retained the tomahawk as a family relic. She kept
it until obtained from her by me. At the time I purchased
it, she informed me that the wampum which was sent with
the tomahawk by Cornplanter had all been used for other
purposes, and no part of it could then be had. The toma
hawk, when received from Cornplanter, had in it a different
handle from the present. She described it as being of better
workmanship, with numerous silver ornaments upon each
side. Upon the inside was engraved the name Gy-ant-
wa-ka ; and upon the reverse the name of John Andrus,
who was doubtless the manufacturer.

"Although Cornplanter designated his successor who was
actually installed, and acted as a chief, Cornplanter was
never in fact deposed. He ever had the privilege of sit
ting with the chiefs in council, and had a voice in their
deliberations.

" He continued to live upon his reserve, and died at an
advanced age in 1836. His reservation was known, and it
is yet distinguished bv the name of Deo-no-sa-da-geh, signify
ing the " Burnt House." (E. S. Parker in Fourth Report of
Regents on State Museum.) The present Gyantwaka is
Mr. Joseph Keppler, of New York.

jjo In the textile arts the Iroquois had progressed as far
I. 255 as basket and mat making and finger weaving.

" Finger weaving with warp and woof must rank as
one of the greatest of inventions. The Iroquois manufactured
belts and burden straps with warp and woof of excellent

283

APPENDIX B

quality and finish, using fine twine made of filaments of elm
and basswood bark. The principles of this great invention,
which has since clothed the human family, were perfectly
realized, but they were unable to extend it to the production
of the woven garment." (indent Society, 528.)

Lafitau, also, says that the original design of the

I. 256 garment was retained when European fabrics were
II- 47 substituted for the original material. (See Lafitau,

III. 28.)

TIe For illustrations of the various types of snow-shoes

II. 35 see "Snow Shoes in the National Museum," S. R.
N. M., 1894. The Iroquois and Algonquin types of snow-
shoes are especially well contrived and made, evidently sug
gesting that these stocks or one of them at least had long
existed in a land of deep snows.

In the country in which most of the Iroquoians lived, the
snow-shoe was indispensable for a full third of the year.
Lafitau says that children learning to walk were taught to
toe in, in order that they might walk better on snow-shoes
when the time came.

u6 The air-gun was not known to the primitive North
II- 37 American Indians.

jj« For the use of this pump drill for fire making, see
II- 39 Hough, "Fire Making Apparatus in the U. S. National
Museum," S. R. N. M., 1888. For other uses see McGuire,
"A Study of the Primitive Methods of Drilling," S. R. N. M.,
1894. The simple drill revolved between the hands prob
ably preceded the pump drill as a fire-making implement as
well as for boring purposes. Some Algonquins got fire from
pyrites.

118 In Dr. Beauchamp's list of Onondaga names of
II- 57 plants he gives the following, " Jack in the Pulpit,
Kah-a-hoo-sa, Indian cradle. This is very good, the
Indian cradle board having a bow near the upper end,
over which a covering is drawn to protect the baby's head."
^Indian Names in N. T., 114.)

284

•

HEALERS

MEDICINE

jjg LAFITAU (IV. 79 ff. ) presents an interesting essay
1.241 on Indian medicine. It seems that there were two
classes of practitioners, healing the one by art, and the other
by science. The first class treated ailments by physical
means, lotions, decoctions, steam-baths, etc. Many of their
remedies were surprisingly efficacious, others operated rather
by violence than by any special adaptation to the end. The
herbs which they used were improved by being gathered at
certain times and seasons, etc., and the general method of
treating diseases was not unlike that of remote communities
anywhere. Their surgery was clumsy, being performed only
with flint instruments, and to the surprise of the French they
used bleeding only for local congestions, not as the panacea
it was in Europe. They could set broken bones, and in the
cure of wounds were wonderfully successful. Lafitau de
scribes the treatment, which consisted simply in keeping the
wound clean and sheltering it from the air. The effects of
this therapy seemed marvellous to Europeans.

The other class, who were held in greater honor and were
better paid, taught that disease was due rather to psychical
than to physical causes, and for its cure they practised a
course of treatment which may be most briefly and intelli
gibly described as, parva componere magnis, a sort of Heathen
Science. The patient was sick because of some evil thought,
or other malevolence acting upon his spirit, and could be
cured only by the spiritual efforts of the healer, exerted in
both present and absent treatment, and often accompanied
by much blowing, reciting of rituals, exercises, jugglery, etc.,
etc. Since this class of healer did not recognize the existence
of disease, no knowledge of anatomy was necessary. Occa
sionally they made a slight concession to the widespread
belief that disease has a physical cause and exhibited a stone,
stick, or other object, which they pretended to have extracted

285

APPENDIX B

from the patient, alleging that it had been implanted in his
body by the malevolence of witch, demon, or other enemy.

CHILDREN

I20 "THE severest punishment that they inflict upon
I. 232 small children is to throw water in their faces or
threaten them with it." (Lafitau, II. 289.)

AGED

I2i THE custom of putting to death the aged and help-
!• l65 less is widespread. It was intended as an act of
kindness, not as a cruelty, and thus we get a better under
standing of many of the stories of New England captives.
A prisoner, unable to march, was tomahawked as an act of
mercy, in preference to leaving him to perish by starvation in
the wilderness. The Iroquois had the custom, but when the
reason for it did not exist, it was of course not practised.
Thus a cripple who could not be carried on a journey would
be despatched, as would a young infant whose mother had died,
or an old person belonging to an indigent house. If the house
were wealthy, the old would be preserved alive. So whenever
a town was taken, whether by French or by Americans, there
were found helpless old people, left behind because unable to

depart when the town was abandoned. Since many
I. 244

of the distinguished and active lived far beyond the

century, the imagination falters in the attempt to number the
years of some of these venerable pensioners.

JAVELIN GAME

122 FOR a folk tale of the prairies, in which the motive

L 289 is furnished by this javelin game, see " The Girl who

was the Ring," by Geo. Bird Grinnell, Harper's, February, 1901.

286

THE LONG HOUSE

DANCES

I2o THE following is a literal copy of a manuscript list

I- 278 of dances, written by Nicholson Parker (Da-ah-de-a)

and now in the possession of Mrs. Harriet Maxwell Converse.

1 . Ga-nah-yastate

2. Go-na-o-oh

3. A-da-wah

4. Os-clo-wah-go-wa

5. Ga-ya-dah

6. Oh-gi-wa or

Wa-dek-we-oh
A-to-wi-sus

9. Oh-gi-wa Ga-ya-doh-ge-aah

10, De-yoh-dah-so-dai-goh

i T . Ga-no-dah

12. Jih-dose

13. Jih-dose

14. Jiha-yah

15. Ga-joh-o-a-noh

1 6. Ga-da-s-yot

17. Nya-gwaih O-a-noh

1 8. De-gi-yah-goh O-a-noh

19. Gaah-go-waah O-a-noh

20. Knos-dah-gee-kaah

2 1 . De-yo-da-nas-hon-tah

21. Ga-nes-do-gah-ceh de-ye-nyot

New Years.

Thanksgiving dance. Thanks to the
Great Spirit.

War song.

Feather dance.

Game of chance.

Maple sugar dance. Principally got
up by women and mixed with other
dances, with thanks.

Green corn dance.

Woman dance and woman gives the
pitch of the song and all join in
standing in two rows, and men occa
sionally join by war song.

Woman dead song for all night.

Woman song dance, for Pigmies with
berry wine.

Medicine song.

When patient is let go.

Song and dance.

Charm song.

Fish and mixed.

Trotting dance.

Bear dance.

Buffalo dance.

Peigeon dance.

Nude dance. 2 men and 2 women
face each other when time com
mences over dancers change places.

Circle dance.

-hah.

THE LONG HOUSE

I24 "THE Iroquois Long-houses disappeared before the
I- 3°8 commencement of the present century. Very little is

287

APPENDIX B

now remembered by the Indians themselves of their form and
mechanism, or of the plan of life within them. Some knowl
edge of these houses remains among that class of Indians who
are curious about their ancient customs. It has passed into
the traditionary form and is limited to a few particulars. A
complete understanding of the mode of life in these long-
houses will not, probably, ever be recovered." (Morgan,
Houses , 122.)

Thus it happens that, although the Long House has been
often described, there is much disagreement as to the particu
lars of its construction and use. Rather curiously the variance
is more serious in the dimensions and occupation of these
buildings, which any one might observe, than in the details of
the architecture, to record which more care is necessary. It
will be seen that Morgan's specifications in the League agree
fairly well with those of Lafitau given below.

As this is the nearest approach to a complete technical ac
count of the architecture of these interesting buildings, a trans
lation by an architect rather than by a layman seemed to be
indicated, and Mr. Michel M. LeBrun has kindly prepared
the following translation expressly for this work :

" It is not without reason that the name of Hotinnonsioni
or Builders of Cabins has been given to the Iroquois ; they
are indeed the most comfortably lodged of all America.
Nevertheless, this name is not so exclusively their property
that it cannot be also applied to the Hurons and to some other
of their neighbors, who have adopted from them the same
manner of building.

" These cabins are also in the form of a vault or garden ar
bor; they are five or six fathoms wide, high in proportion,
and vary in length according to the number of fires. Each
fire adds twenty to twenty-five feet to the length of a cabin of
a single fire, which does not exceed thirty or forty feet. Each
of these cabins rests on four posts for each fire which are the
base and support of the entire structure. Around the entire
circumference, that is to say, all the length of the two sides

288

LA FIT AITS SPECIFICATIONS

and the two gable ends, pickets are planted to secure the pieces
of elm bark which form the walls and which are bound to
gether with strips made from the interior coating or inner bark
of white wood. The square frame being raised, the roof
framing is made with poles bent to the form of a bow, which
also are covered with pieces of bark a fathom long and a foot
or fifteen inches wide. These pieces of bark lap one over the
other like slate. They are secured outside with fresh poles
similar to those which form the roof frame underneath, and
are still further strengthened by long pieces of saplings split in
two. These run along the whole length of the cabin, from
end to end, and are fastened to the extremities of the roof, on
the sides, or on the wings, by pieces of wood cut with hooked
ends, which are regularly spaced for this purpose.

" The pieces of bark are prepared a long time before using.
They are removed from the trees, after girdling, when the sap
is rising, because then they are more easily stripped off; and
after the outer surface, which is too knotty, has been removed
from them, they pile them compactly one on the other that
they may not warp, and thus they are left to dry. The poles
and the wood necessary in building the structure are prepared
in the same way, and when the time has come to commence
work, the youth of the village, for whose encouragement a
feast has been provided, are invited, and in a day or two all
the work is set up, more from the multitude of hands working
upon it than by the diligence of the workers.

"After the body of the building is finished, those for whom
it is especially intended work leisurely to embellish the interior
and to make the necessary compartments after their usages and
needs. The middle space is always the place of the fire, from
which the smoke escapes by an opening made directly above it
in the roof, and which serves also to give light. These build
ings being without windows are only lighted from above in
the same manner as the celebrated Rotunda built by
' Agrippa, which may still be seen entire in Rome.
This opening is closed by one or two movable pieces of bark,
VOL. ii. — 19 289

APPENDIX B

which are moved back and forth as desired during the heavy
rains or certain winds which would cause a back draft for the
smoke, and render the cabins very uncomfortable. I speak
here only of the cabins built like those of the Iroquois;
as those which are round, or are built in the manner of
an ice cellar, have not even the opening in the top, so that
they are both darker and the inmates more of a prey to the
smoke.

" Along the fires there extends on each side a platform of
twelve to thirteen feet in length by five or six in width and
nearly as high. These platforms, shut in on all sides except
that towards the fire, serve as beds and as chairs to sit down
upon ; on the bark which forms the floor of the platform they
spread rush mats and furs. On this bed, which is hardly a fit
support for the effeminate or lazy, they stretch themselves with
out ceremony, wrapped in the same clothes that they wear
during the day. They hardly know what it is to use a pillow.
Some of them, however, since they have seen French ways,
make pillows of wood or of mats rolled up. The more lux
urious ones use them made of skin and stuffed with the hair of
the deer or the moose ; but in a little while they are so greasy
and dirty and are so disgusting to look at that it is only such
slovenly people as these savages who could endure them.

" The base of the platform, on which they sleep, is elevated
at most one foot from the ground ; it is given this elevation
to avoid the dampness, and it is not greater, on the other hand,
to avoid the inconvenience of the smoke which is insupport
able in the cabins when standing erect, or even a little raised.

" The bark which covers the platforms above and which

forms the ceiling of the bed, serves them as a closet and larder,

where they place, in the view of every one, their dishes and

all the little utensils of their household. Between the plat-

^^ forms are placed large chests of bark, in the form of

tuns, and five or six feet high, where they put the

corn when shelled,

"The cabins of the Iroquois have two exits. At each end

290

DOORS AND VESTIBULES

there is a kind of separate lobby or small apartment and an
exterior vestibule.

"There are in these lobbies, as well as in the free space be
tween the platforms, small closets on the two sides where they
place the mats of straw or reeds which are for the young
people when the family is numerous, or for their own use in
the seasons when the vicinity of the fire is no longer so neces
sary. These closets are raised three or four feet to insure
them from the importunity of the fleas ; below is placed the
supply of small wood.

"The exterior vestibule is closed in winter with pieces of
bark and serves them as a shed for large wood, but in summer
it is opened to the air on all sides, and some in the warmest
weather place their mats on the roofs of these vestibules,
which are flat, and not raised as high as the cabins. They
sleep thus in the air without minding the evening damp.

" While it is possible to walk back and forth in the cabins
on either side of the fires between the hearths and the mats,
it is nevertheless not a comfortable place for a promenade ;
moreover, the savage, wherever he is, unless he is actually
travelling, is always either seated or lying down, and never
walks. They are even as surprised to see the Europeans
walking back and forth over the same path as were the peo
ple of Spain, of whom Strabo speaks, who seeing some Cen
turions of the Roman army thus walking supposed them to
have lost their wits, and offered to conduct them to their
cabins. For they thought that they should either remain
quietly seated in their tents, or that they should desire to
fight.

" The doors of the cabins are pieces of movable bark, sus
pended outside by the top, without lock or key. In former
days nothing was locked with the savages. When they went
for a long time abroad, they contented themselves with closing
their doors with a bar of wood, to protect them from the dogs
of the village. During all the centuries that have preceded
us, they have lived in perfect security, and without much

291

APPENDIX B

protection from one another ; the most suspicious would leave
their most precious belongings with friends, or would bury
them in holes made expressly under their mats, or in some
secret place in their cabins. Some now have chests, or small
boxes, others fortify their cabins by gables formed of rudely
made boards, and in them put doors of wood with locks which
they buy of the Europeans, whose vicinity has frequently
taught them, at their expense, that what they have closed is
not always in security.

" They double their doors to protect themselves from the
cold and the smoke ; and make what seems like a second door
with blankets of skins or wool. In the common and ordinary
cold weather, their cabins are sufficiently warm, but when
the northwest winds blow and there occurs one of those severe
Canadian spells which last seven and eight days in succession,
and are cold enough to split stones, then the cold having pen
etrated in, I cannot understand how they can endure it, being
as little covered as they are, especially those who sleep far
from the fire.

" During the summer they are cool enough, but full of fleas
and bed-bugs, they are also very unsavory when they dry
their fish in the smoke." (Lafitau, III. 9.)

In Houses, Morgan alters materially the description given in
the League, and if the Jesuits and others who lived in these dwell
ings are to be believed, his amendments are not improvements.
He says : " The c long-house ' of the Iroquois was from fifty
to eighty and sometimes one hundred feet long.

"The interior was comparted at intervals of six or eight
feet, leaving each chamber entirely open like a stall upon the
passage way which passed through the centre of the house,
from end to end.

" At each end was a doorway covered with suspended
skins. Between each four apartments, two on a side, was a
fire pit in the centre of the hall, used in common by their
occupants. Thus a house with five fires would contain
twenty apartments and accommodate twenty families, unless

292

WHAT EARTRAM OBSERVED

some apartments were reserved for storage. They were
warm, roomy, and tidily kept habitations. Raised bunks
were constructed around the walls of each apartment for
beds." (Houses, p. 120.)

It will be observed that Morgan says, in the League, that a
five-fire house would be one hundred and twenty feet long
and contain ten families, which accords exactly with the
statements of the Jesuits and of Champlain, while according
to Houses, such a house would be but eighty feet long, and
yet would contain twenty families.

The description in the League is from Seneca tradition.
Morgan changed it after reading Bartram's Observations, made
on his journey to Onondaga in 1743.

u We alighted at the council houfe, where the chiefs were
already afiembled to receive us, which they did with a grave
chearful complaifance according to their cuftom ; they fhew'd
us where to lay our baggage, and repofe ourfelves during our
ftay with them ; which was in the two end apartments of
this large houfe. The Indians that came with us, were placed
over againft us; this cabin is about 80 feet long, and
17 broad, the common paflage 6 feet wide; and the apart
ments on each fide 5 feet, raifed a foot above the paifage
by a long fapling hewed fquare, and fitted with joifts that
go from it to the back of the houfe ; on thefe joifts they lay
large pieces of bark, and on extraordinary occafions fpread
matts made of rufhes, this favour we had ; on thefe floors
they fet or lye down every one as he will, the apartments
are divided from each other by boards or bai'k, 6 or 7 foot
long, from the lower floor to the upper, on which they put
their lumber, when they have eaten their homony, as they fet
in each apartment before the fire, they can put the bowel over
head, having not above 5 foot to reach ; they fet on the
floor fometimes at each end, but moftly at one : they have a
fhed to put their wood into in the winter, or in the fummer,
to fet to converfe or play, that has a door to the fouth ; all
the fides and roof of the cabin is made of bark, bound faft to

293

APPENDIX B

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AN IROQUOIS DWELLING

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295

APPENDIX B

poles fet in the ground, and bent round on the top, or fet
aflatt, for the roof as we fet our rafters ; over each fire place
they leave a hole to let out the fmoak, which in rainy weather
they cover with a piece of bark, and this they can eafily reach
with a pole to pufh it on one fide or quite over the hole, after
this model are moft of their cabins built, figure annexed."

Bartram's description being unquestionable authority for
what he saw, and his diagram being the only contemporaneous
plan extant, Morgan apparently distrusted the correct informa
tion which the Senecas had given him and sought to plan a
communal dwelling on the Bartram dimensions. Knowing
from the ash-pits found on village sites the distance between
fires, he was obliged to make each fire serve four families and
to place the fires at the partitions, a most inconvenient and
somewhat dangerous location, if the partitions were as long as
his diagram indicates ; but of partitions running further across
than the width of the bed, or of " chambers like stalls," there
is no evidence in the early writers, and some of them ex
pressly say the contrary. Nor could Morgan have con
sidered that the " raised bunks constructed for beds around
the walls " of these diminutive apartments would have been
very comfortable resting-places. In the Bartram house, if
placed around all the walls, two of the bunks would have been
five feet long and the other three feet. Apparently Morgan
felt the difficulty, for his own diagram shows eight-foot com
partments. Mr. Fiske, Discovery of America, . I. 66, copies the
description and diagram from Houses, and has thus given them
a wide circulation. The six-foot compartments, and also
the four families to a fire, were probably both exceptional
arrangements, and should not be accepted as typical. In the
accompanying plans Morgan's and Bartram's diagrams are
reproduced, and a new ground plan is presented, prepared from
Lafitau's description. Morgan had the key to the dimen
sions when he figured them in lengths of the human body,
the unit used to-day in building forest camps. The
Jesuit writers do the same, giving dimensions in fathoms

296

COUNCIL HOUSES

(Brasses), and the Bartram plan uses the same unit. Some of
the apartments shown on the Bartram plan were probably
used for storage, so that the only material difference between
Bartram and Lafitau is that Bartram's beds are one man lone,

to'

and Lafitau's two men. For this a reason may be found in
the special uses of the Bartram building.

Bartram and his party were ambassadors, and so were quar
tered not in an ordinary dwelling but in the council-house, which
was especially arranged for the accommodation of visitors and
for feasts and assemblies. Such use being but temporary, the
apartments were small, like those in a summer hotel, and each
apartment consisted, as Bartram describes it, and as his plan
plainly indicates, of a single bunk, five by seven, in which he
and his two companions could lie comfortably or u set before
the fire," for there was a fire between each pair of opposite
apartments in this house as in others. Over these bunks was
the platform where they placed their goods. It was, more
over, necessary to reduce the span of this platform in a
council-house, because of the great weight which might come
upon it. The short distance between the fires was also a
convenience during councils. Light is thrown on this sub
ject from a curious source. In September, 1637, there was
brought to the Huron village of Tondakhra an Iroquois pris
oner named Saouandanoncoua, who was tortured in the war
council-house. This house must have been about the size of
Bartram's, for it contained eleven fires six feet apart, and up
and down the house through and around these fires Saouan
danoncoua was driven till he dropped, while the old men
watched the entertainment from their places above u upon
a sort of platform which runs on each side the entire length
of the cabins, while the young men were below, but so crowded
that they were, so to speak, on top of each other, until there
was scarcely passage along the fires." (Le Jeune's Rel. 1637,
13 y. R.-) 60). It is possible that an unusual number of fires
may have been lighted for this entertainment, but the prob
abilities are the other way.

297

APPENDIX B

The conclusions reached are, therefore, that the unit of
measurement in the construction of these houses was the
length of the body ; that there were no partitions except the
boxing in of the beds and store-closets ; that in the ordinary
dwelling, when there was no special reason for compression,
each family occupied a division eighteen or twenty feet in
length, consisting of a bunk two beds long and additional
room for storage ; that in the middle alley there was a fire
for each opposite pair of such divisions; and that there were
normally four beds but only two families to a fire.

The statements in the League as to the size of the apart
ments and the usual number of families to a fire may thus be
accepted, though there may have been a reduction in the
number of fires at times because of scarcity of wood or for
other reasons. As to the size of the houses, they seem to
have varied in width from twenty to thirty feet. The Bar-
tram house could be narrower because of its special uses. In
length the extreme recorded is three hundred feet. (Bresani,
Rel. 1653, 38 7 R-> 246.) The height was nearly equal to
the width.

Gen. John S. Clark's studies, and especially his field work,
make him the first authority on this subject, and since this note
is not in accord with Morgan's latest views, General Clark's
opinion was asked. He replies under date of September 2,
1901: " The account given by Bartram, pp. 40, 41, with
the illustration, is the most trustworthy account that I have
seen as to the dimensions of a 'long house' and the size of
the compartments. Van Curler says in 1634-5 they are
1 100 — 90 or 80 paces long and 22 to 23 feet high.' This
appears to be somewhat exaggerated. Cartier's illustration,
found in Ramusio, p. 380, shows an arrangement of four,
rour and five compartments to a fire. These are supposed
to have been Hurons. Champlain's illustration of the Iro-
quois Castle, 1615, gives a general idea of the outer appear
ance of the long house, but gives no details of the internal
arrangements. I conclude that the size of the compartments

298

STANDARD DIMENSIONS

in some cases depended on circumstances. A large village
crowded within the limits of a palisaded enclosure would be
restricted to less space than such as described by Bartram in
1750, where the houses were scattered for some distance up
and down the valley. A large family would require more
room than a small one, and undoubtedly more than one
compartment would be assigned to a family of eight or ten
persons. The descriptions in the Jesuit Relations agree sub
stantially with Bartram's account of an alley six feet wide
and compartments about six feet square with fires in the
centre of the alley for every four compartments. The house
was sometimes one hundred and fifty feet long. The stand
ard Iroquois house was from eighteen to twenty-two feet
wide." For references to the illustrations in Ramusio and
Champlain, see note 21.

The vestibules mentioned by Lafitau and Bartram, but
ignored by Morgan, were important as meeting-places of the
men and for many uses. Here too a captive would be kept
until it was decided whether he was to be taken into the
house as an adopted member of the clan or led away to torture
and death. (Lafitau, III. 246.) The roof of the main house
was usually a round arch, but sometimes made with straight
rafters like our own. In either form it was probably too steep
for a resting-place, but onto the flatter roof of the vestibule
people climbed to see the sights, to harangue their neighbors,
or for any of the purposes for which the burghers of New
Amsterdam and their successors have used their front stoops.

At the Chicago Exposition a reconstruction of the Long
House was to be seen, and at the Pan-American Exposition
at Buffalo a complete stockaded village. In neither of these
was the interior of the house completely finished. A photo
graph of the Chicago structure is reproduced in the Report of
the Managers, of the New York Exhibit^ 500. The roofs
of these buildings, both at Chicago and Buffalo, were rather
flatter than the old accounts and pictures would indicate, and
it would be interesting to see whether they would carry a

299

APPENDIX B

heavy weight of snow, At each exhibition round houses
were also shown as representing Iroquois architecture.

As to tidiness, it was not easy to attain, and in many
houses it was not attained. Perhaps the Hurons were worse
than the Iroquois. " Everything- is in the dust, and if you
enter there you will not reach the end of the cabin without
being covered with soot and filth and dirt." (Le Jeune, Rel.

l639> ll 7- R'i l±')

" The model six feet by four (from which the plate

30 shown in Vol. I. p. 3, is made) shows very perfectly
the mechanism of the bark house throughout ; but it is de
fective in its proportions. It was designed for two fires or
four families, and therefore should be either longer or nar
rower and not as high. With this criticism in mind the
plate gives a faithful impression of the primitive house of the
Iroquois." Morgan, Fifth Regent's Report, 116.

The Long House was typical of the sedentary agri-

I25 cultural tribes rather than of any particular stock.
All the Iroquoians built them, for all were agriculturists.
The southern Algonquins, such as the Illinois and the Pow-
hattans, constructed dwellings of the same type. An Algon
quin Long House built by the Nyacks of Long Island is
described in Dankers' and Sluyter's Journal of a Voyage to
New York, Long Island Historical Society Memoirs, I. 124.
The Carib dwellings of this type are mentioned by Lafitau,
III. 7, and even in the far distant mountains of Chili the
Indians built and dwelt in the same way. Probably they do
so yet.

" The house, having much the form of a boat turned up
side down, presented, at a short distance, the appearance of
a haystack. Its length was about a hundred and forty feet,
and the width some thirty odd. The peak stood near fifteen
feet from the ground, and the sides sloped down without any
eaves. The customary shed of cane and twigs was ranged
on one side, and in front ran the heavy cross-bar, within
which no stranger presumes to enter without an invitation.

300

ARAUCANIAN HOUSE

" The interior reminded me of a ship's between-decks. On
either hand stood a row of cane partitions forming, as it were,
state-rooms for the various members of the family, which was
a large one, as several of the sons were married. Overhead
were the usual provision lofts, and down the middle of the
cabin blazed half a dozen fires, each having an aperture above
it in the ceiling through which the smoke rose and found its
way out through the chimney-holes left open in the centre
and at each end of the roof. Large stones were ranged
around the fires to support the pots used for cooking, and
the ashes were allowed to accumulate as they fell, — a custom
adding nothing to the cleanliness of the ladies who were
squatted round preparing the evening meal. As the cooking
goes on at all hours, these houses are always smoky." (Smith,
The Araucanians^w York, 1855, p. 295, and plate on

Page 303.)

126 The Long House was not only the mark of society
L 48' of the grade to which the Iroquois had raised them-
IL89o7 selves. It was in itself the perfect similitude of
the Iroquois social and political organization. To an
Iroquois the League was not like a Long House. It was a
Long House, extending from the Hudson to the Genesee, in
which around five fires the five tribes gathered. The Mo
hawk Wolf-clan kept the eastern door, the Seneca Wolves
the western. At each fire the sachems like pillars upheld
the roof, the chiefs were the braces that fortified the structure.
It was rather in literal than in metaphorical speech that in
1652 the Mohawks, jealous that the Canada trade should go
direct to Onondaga by way of Lake Ontario instead
of paying toll in their valley, warned the French, with
a threat that the simile employed rather emphasized than hid.

" Is not the door the proper entrance to the house, and not
the chimney or the roof of the cabin, unless the visitor be a
thief and wishes to surprise the people ? We constitute but
one house, we five Iroquois nations, we build but one fire and
we have through all time dwelt under the same roof. Well,

301

APPENDIX B

then, will you not enter the cabin by the door, which is on the
ground floor of the house ? It is with us, the Mohawks, that
you should begin. You would enter by the roof and by the
chimney if you begin with the Onondagas. Have you no
fear lest the smoke may blind you, our fire not being extin
guished ? Do you not fear to fall from the top to the bottom
having nothing solid whereon to plant your feet ? "

When a new fire became necessary the end-work
332 was removed and the building lengthened. This
statement refers to both the actual and the political struc
ture. The name carried in it the possibility of extension,
and the plan of the founders was to take in other peoples and
their fires until all who would had joined the League. As
already suggested, the house was originally of four fires and
the Mohawks were taken in later. If Hale is correct the
name Hodenosaunee may present a record of this, for he
translates it " People of the Extended house."

" The Tuscaroras were a refugee tribe from the

I. 42

94 south, and entered the Long House not by the
regular doorway at the west, but knocked for admis
sion at the sides of the Long House, claiming con
sanguinity as the basis of admission. They were taken in,
but some of the bark of the sides of the Long House had to
be taken off to admit them, and as a penalty for their irregular
entrance into the House they were debarred- the high privilege
of having sachems. They were therefore never accorded the
right of hereditary representation at the high councils of the
League except as spectators, and they could only be heard
through the sachem of some other tribe." (Ely S. Parker,
MS. in the possession of Mrs. Harriet Maxwell Converse.)

UNITY OF INDIAN LIFE

J27 Morgan afterwards visited many western tribes in

II. 60 their homes. He has left records of his personal
observations of the Ojibways, the Arickarees, the Sioux, and

302

"THE OREGON TRAIL"

the Pueblos. In penning this paragraph, he doubtless had
in mind the adventurous journey of Francis Parkman, who
" desiring a picture of Iroquois life before Hendrick Hudson "
had a short time before gone to " look for it at the skirts of
the Rocky Mountains." Parkman had had for a long time in
contemplation the "plan of writing a story of the war that
ended in the conquest of Canada," but as he was setting to
work his eyes failed him. u Doubtless to study with the eyes
of another is practicable, yet the expedient is not an eligible
one, and the writer bethought him of an alternative. It was
essential to his plans to give an inside view of Indian life.
This, then, was the time at once to accomplish the object and
rest his failing vision. Accordingly he went to the Rocky
Mountains," and joining a large band of Ogalala Sioux accom
panied them for some weeks in their hunts and wanderings,
slept in their lodges and lived their life. (Farnham, Life of
Parkman}. "They were thorough savages. Neither their man
ners nor their ideas were in the slightest degree modified by
contact with civilization. Their religion, superstitions, and
prejudices were the same handed down to them from imme
morial time. They fought with the same weapons that their
fathers fought with, and wore the same garments of skins.
They were living representatives of the ' stone age ' ; for
though their lances and arrows were tipped with iron procured
from the traders they still used the rude stone mallet of the
primeval world." (Oregon Trail, 189. See also Fiske, Intro
duction to Champlain edition of Parkman0)

Morgan read The Oregon Trail at the time when he was
beginning his own work, and when he wrote the words of
the text the first fruit of Parkman's studies, The Conspiracy of
Pontiac, was almost ready for the press. Parkman freely attrib
utes to the Iroquois and Hurons who live in his writings the
traits and habits which he had observed among the Sioux.
The similitude may however be forced too far. Both the
village-dwelling Pueblos and the roving tribes of the prairies
differed greatly in manner of life and slightly in manner of

3°3

APPENDIX B

thought from the Iroquois. The Iroquois had their per
manent towns, but retained the habit and instinct of annual
migration. Their wide territories were limited by definite
bounds and were held with a firm hand. They were remark
able for artisan skill, wisdom in statecraft, and eloquence in
oratory. By the study of other tribes the Iroquois as they
were in the days of their triumphs may be understood, but they
cannot be recalled.

PROGRESS AND DESTINY

I2g IN the fifty years elapsed since Morgan wrote, no
II. 60, very marked change has taken place in the condition

IJ9 of the Iroquois. The policy of the State has been
benevolent and vacillating in purpose and negligent in execu
tion. Its not very vigorous though well-intended efforts have
been retarded and defeated by the conservatism of the Indians,
sometimes due to patriotism, sometimes to laziness. Yet
until the State presents a consistent and adequate plan, the
Indians can hardly be expected to welcome a change from the
present conditions, under which they are for the most part
comfortable and fairly prosperous.

The Oneidas alone have divided (in 1842) their lands in
severally, have allowed their tribal organization to lapse, are
citizens and voters, and have become, so far as status, occupa
tion, and manner of life go, inseparable from the people of the
State. This statement applies only to those Oneidas who
remained in their ancient territories. A number of Oneidas
are still found on the reservations of the other tribes. The
citizen Oneidas are not perceptibly better off than the Iroquois
on the reservations.

The Senecas have become two communities. Those dwell
ing on the Allegany and Cattaraugus reservations are practi
cally a municipal corporation and have a written constitution,
accepted by the New York Legislature, under which they
administer their affairs. The Cornplanter Senecas, although

3°4

PROGRESS OF THE INDIAN

dwelling in Pennsylvania, are in most respects a part of this
community.

The Tonawanda Senecas, the Tuscaroras, the Onondagas,
and the St. Regis Mohawks have separate tribal governments,
each subject to certain general and special statutes of the
State.

The Onondagas and the two divisions of the Senecas are
divided between the conservative or "pagan" party and the
progressive or " Christian " party, this being a political as well
as a religious division. Politically, at least, the "pagans"
prevail.

Most of the Tuscaroras are Protestant Christians. The
St. Regis are Catholic Christians, forming one religious com
munity with their brethren across the international boundary.

Farming is the chief occupation with all the tribes. Gen
erally speaking, they are not up to the standard of their white
neighbors, though white communities can be found with
which the Indians need not shirk comparison. There are
found on the reservations, as everywhere else, the thrifty and
the unthrifty, the industrious and the idle.

(See Indian Problem, Eleventh Census, and New York
Statutes.}

As already stated, the Indians will ultimately become
' I23 merged in our citizenship. One who knows them
well wrote in 1889 : " Nowadays we undoubtedly ought to break
up the great Indian reservations, disregard the tribal govern
ments, allot the land in severally (with, however, only a limited
power of alienation), and treat the Indians as we do other citi
zens, with certain exceptions, for their sakes as well as ours."
(Winning of the West, I. 332.) Yet in carrying out this
policy Morgan's remark, already quoted by Mr. Porter, will
serve as a useful monitor. It is idle to attempt to transplant
the Indian across two or three ethnic periods. We cannot
expect him, even with assistance and guidance, to travel in one
generation the distance which it has taken our own not infe
rior race hundreds of generations to accomplish. The benevo-

VOL. II. — 2O 305

APPENDIX B

lent people who talk of full citizenship and full power to
alienate property for all Indians in twenty years are both
unwise and cruel. With wisdom and justice let us give them
the tools with which to work out their salvation, and let us
bear constantly in mind that those tools are sharp-edged.
The agricultural Iroquois, dwelling for a century among our
most orderly communities, are not yet American citizens.
What can be expected, without great wisdom and patience on
our part, of the rovers of the prairies ? The needful, the
indispensable solvents of the Indian problem are time, a great
deal of time, and a very great deal of patience, both on our
own part and on theirs.

TRIBAL NAMES

I2Q The names by which the tribes of the League have

I. 5° been called by French, English, and Dutch writers

and the spellings of these names are legion. The curious may

find a few (about two hundred) specimens in the Index

Volume (XI.) of the New York Colonial Documents.

The names in common use are

ENGLISH Inoguois FRENCH

Five (Six) Nations Hodenosaunee Iroquois

Mohawks Ganeagaono Agnies

Oneidas Onayotekaono Onneiouts

Onondagas Onundagaono Onnontagues

Cayugas Gweugwehono Goyogouens

Senecas Nundawaono Sonnontouans

Tuscaroras Dusgaowehono Tuscarorins

All the French and English titles are derived from the Iro
quois names except the descriptive term Five (or Six) Nations,
Mohawks, the Algonquin name of the tribe, signifying Bears,
and Iroquois, which is of uncertain origin. The French had
difficulty with the Iroquois g. Hence Agnies (from Ganeaga).
So they sometimes called the Cayugas Oioguens, and the
Conestogas became on French lips Gandastogues, Andastogues,,
Andastes.

LIST OF WORKS CITED IN THE
FOREGOING NOTES

ABBOTT, CHARLES C., M.D. — Primitive Industry, or Illus
trations of the Handiwork in Stone, Bone and Clay of
the Native Races of the Northern Atlantic Seaboard of
America. Salem, 1881.

BARTRAM, JOHN. — Observations on the Inhabitants, Climate,
Soil, Rivers, Productions, Animals, and other matters
worthy of Notice made by Mr. John Bartram in his travels
from Pensilvania to Onondago, Oswego and to Lake
Ontario in Canada, etc. London, 1751. Reprint
Rochester, 1895.

BEAUCHAMP, REV. WM. M., S.T.D. — The Iroquois Trail.
Fayetteville, N. Y., 1892.

Indian Names in New York with a selection from other
States and some Onondaga names of Plants, etc. Fayette
ville, N. Y., 1893.

BRADFORD, WILLIAM. — Bradford's History of Plimoth
Plantation (commonly called " The Log of the May
flower "). Boston, 1899.

CHADWICK, EDWARD MARION (" Shagotyohgwisaks," Hon
orary Chief). — The People of the Longhouse. Toronto,
1897.

CHARLEVOIX, PIERRE FRANCOIS-XAVIER DE, S. J. — History
and General Description of New France (Dr. Shea's
translation). 6 vols. New York, 1900.
CLARK, JOSHUA V. H. — Onondaga, or Reminiscences of
Earlier and Later Times, being a series of historical
sketches relative to Onondaga, with notes on the several
towns in the County and Oswego. 2 vols. Syracuse,
1849.

3°7

APPENDIX B

CLARK, W. P., U. S. Army. — The Indian Sign Language.
Philadelphia, 1885.

GOLDEN, CADWALLADER. — The History of the Five Indian
Nations of Canada, Which are dependent on the
Province of New York in America, and Are the
Barrier between the English and French in that Part of
the World. 3d Edition, 2 vols. London, 1755.

CUSICK, DAVID. — Sketches of Ancient History of the Six
Nations (Lewiston, 1826). Reprint in Beauchamp's
Iroquois Trail. Fayetteville, N. Y., 1892.

BANKERS, JASPAR, AND SLUYTER, PETER. — Journal of a
Voyage to New York and a Tour in several of the
American Colonies in 1679-80. Translated and edited
by Henry C. Murphy (Memoirs of the Long Island
Historical Society, Vol. I.). Brooklyn, 1867.

FARNHAM, CHARLES HAIGHT. — A Life of Francis Parkman.
Boston, 1901.

FISKE, JOHN. — The Discovery of America, with some
Account of Ancient America and the Spanish Conquest.
2 vols. Boston, 1893.

GLOBUS. — Vol. 76, p. 199. Article cited II. 259.

HALE, HORATIO. — The Iroquois Book of Rites. (No. 2 of
Brinton's Library of Aboriginal American Literature.)
Philadelphia, 1883.

HALSEY, FRANCIS WHITING. — The Old New York Frontier,
its Wars with Indians and Tories, its Missionary Schools,
Pioneers and Land Titles 1614-1800. New York, 1901.

HARPER'S NEW MONTHLY MAGAZINE. — Vol. 102, p. 425.
The Girl who was the Ring, by Geo. Bird Grinnell.

HART, ALBERT B. — American History told by Contempo
raries. 4 vols. New York, 1897-1901.

JESUIT RELATIONS. — (J. R.) These are uniformly cited from

the most complete and most accessible edition, The

Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents, Travels and

Explorations of the Jesuit Missionaries in New France.

308

WORKS CITED IN NOTES

1610—1791, edited by Reuben Gold Thwaites, 73 vols.

Cleveland, 1896-1901.
KELLOGG, REV. ELIJAH. — Good Old Times, or Grand

father's Struggles for a Homestead. Boston, 1877.
LAFITAU, JOSEPH FRANCOIS (al. Pierre). — Moeurs des Sau-

vages Ameriquains comparees aux Moeurs des premiers

temps. 4 vols. Paris, 1724.
LOSKIEL, GEORG HEINRICH. — Geschichte der Mission der

evangelischen Bruder unter den Indianern in Nord-

amerika. Barby, 1789.
MCILVAINE, REV. J.' H., D.D. The Life and Works of

Lewis H. Morgan, LL.D. An Address at his funeral,

privately printed, n. d.
MOONEY, JAMES. — The Siouan Tribes of the East. Wash

ington, 1894.
MORGAN, LEWIS S. (see vol. II. pp. 162 and 175). — (Sken-

andoah.) Letters on the Iroquois, by Skenandoah.

(League) League of the Iroquois.

(Beaver) The American Beaver and his Works.

Ancient Society, or Researches in the Lines of Human

Progress from Savagery through Barbarism to Civilization.

(Houses) Houses and House-Life of* the American

Aborigines.
NEW YORK STATE. — ( N. Y.) Reports of Cases in the Court

of Appeals of the State of New York. Albany,

(App. Div.) Reports of Cases in the Appellate Division
of the Supreme Court of the State of New York.
Albany, 1896-

(Misc.) Cases Decided in the Courts of Record of the
State of New York other than the Court of Appeals
and the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court.
Albany, 1893-

(Indian Problem) Report of Special Committee to in
vestigate the Indian problem of the State of New York,
3°9

APPENDIX B

appointed by the -Assembly of 1888. 2 vols. Albany,
1889.

(Doc. Hist.) The Documentary History of the State of
New York, arranged under direction of the Hon.
Christopher Morgan, Secretary of State, by E. B.
O'Callaghan, M.D. 4 vols. Albany, 1849-1859.
(Colonial Documents) Documents relative to the Colonial
History of the State of New York. 14 vols. Albany,
1856-1883.

(Regents Reports) Annual Reports of the Regents of the
University on the condition of the State Cabinet of
Natural History and the Historical and Antiquarian Collec
tion annexed thereto. Albany, 1848 and subsequent dates.
Journals of the Military Expedition of Major General
John Sullivan against the Six Nations of Indians in 1779,
with Records of Centennial Celebrations. Auburn, 1887.
Report of the Board of General Managers of the Exhibit
of the State of New York at the World's Columbian
Exhibition. Albany, 1894.

State Museum Bulletins prepared by William M. Beau-
champ, S.T.D.

No. 1 6. Aboriginal Chipped Stone Implements of New
York. Albany, 1897.

No. 18. Polished Stone Articles used by the New York
Aborigines. Albany, 1897.

No. 22. Earthenware of the New York Aborigines.
Albany, 1898.

No. 32. Aboriginal Occupation of New York. Albany,
1900.

No. 41. Wampum and Shell Articles used by the New
York Indians. Albany, 1901.

NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW. — Sundry articles as cited on
pages 174 and 176 of Vol. II.

ONONDAGA NATION vs. THACHER. — (Papers on Appeal.)
In the Court of Appeals of the State of New York. The
310

WORKS CITED IN NOTES

Onondaga Nation, Te-hes-ha, Say-haque, Hos-hay-qua,

Sho-heh-do-nah, Ha-on-go-wenle, and Jarvis Farmer,

Onondaga Indians, Ho-do-oh-go-ah, A Seneca Indian ;

Ha-ja-ah-gwysh, a Cayuga Indian, and the University of

the State of New York. Plaintiffs-Appellants, against

John Boyd Thacher. Defendant-Respondent. Papers

on Appeal. New York, 1901.
PARKMAN, FRANCIS. — Citations are from the familiar small

octavo felicitously styled in a recent auction catalogue

the little brown edition and dated Boston, 1896.

(Pioneers) Pioneers of France in the New World.

(Jesuits) The Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth

Century.

(Frontenac) Count Frontenac and New France under

Louis XIV.

Montcalm and Wolfe. 2 vols.

(Pontiac) The Conspiracy of Pontiac and the Indian War

after the Conquest of Canada. 2 vols.

The Oregon Trail.
PAYNE, EDWARD JOHN. — History of the New World called

America. Vol. I. Oxford, 1892. Vol. II. Oxford.

1899.
POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY. — (Pop. Sci.) Sketch of Lewis

H. Morgan by J. W. Powell in vol. 26, p. 114.
ROOSEVELT, THEODORE. -- The Winning of the West. 4 vols.

New York, 1896.
SAMSON, WILLIAM H.— -The Claim of the Ogden Land

Company. Rochester, n. d.
SMITH, EDMOND R. — The Araucanians, or Notes of a Tour

among the Indian Tribes of Southern Chili. New York,

SPECTATOR, THE (London). -- The Genesis of Roads

Aug. 3, 1901.
SQUIER, E. G. — Antiquities of the State of New York, with a,

supplement on the Antiquities of the West. Buffalo, 1 85 I

APPENDIX B

STONE, WILLIAM L. — Life of Joseph Brant-Thayendanegea,
including the Border Wars of the American Revolution.
2 vols. New York, 1838.

STONE, WILLIAM L. — The Life and Times of Sir William
Johnson, Bart. 2 vols. Albany, 1865. (Begun by
William L. Stone the elder and^ completed by his son
William L. Stone.)

THOREAU, HENRY D. - - The Maine Woods. Boston, 1894.

UNITED STATES. — (Census) Report on Indians Taxed and
Indians not Taxed in the United States (except Alaska)
at the Eleventh Census, 1890. Washington, 1894.
Bureau of Ethnology.

(Bur. Eth.) Annual Reports to the Secretary of the Smith
sonian Institution, first Report dated 1879-80. J. W.
Powell, Director.
Smithsonian- Institution.

(S. R.) Annual Reports of the Board of Regents, first of
series dated 1854.
National Museum.

(S. R. N. M.) Reports of the United States National
Museum under the Direction of the Smithsonian Insti
tution, first of series dated 1886.

WHEELER, OLIN D. — Wonderland, 1900. Published by
the Northern Pacific Railway. St. Paul, 1900.

WINSOR, JUSTIN. — Cartier to Frontenac, Geographical Dis
covery in the interior of North American in its historical
relations, 1534-1700. Boston, 1894.

312

INDEX

WITH A PARTIAL VOCABULARY OF SENECA NAMES

INDEX

[For Geographical names not found in the Index see Appendix A,
Vol. II. p. 127.]

Adirondack Mountains, hunting
grounds of Mohawks, I. 337,
II. 189 ; roads across, II. 209.

Adirondacks, an Algonquin people,
I. 5 ; location of, I. 9 : dwell at
Quebec, I. 8 ; allied with French,

I. 9 ; accompany Champlain, I.
10 ; meaning of name, II. 191 5
teach Ir. agriculture, I. 5 5
contra, II. 190, 192 ; subdue
Ir., I. 5.

Adoption, of individuals, I. 332,

II. 277 5 of tribes, II. 302 5
ceremony, I. 333, II. 158 ;
great number of adopted, II.
228, 278.

Adultery, punishment of, I. 322.
Aged, respected, I. 165 5 killed,
I. 165, II. 286 5 years of,

I. 244, II. 202, 286.

Agriculture, extent, I. 191, II.
30, 248, 251, 253 ; plants cul
tivated, II. 251 5 Ir. learn, II.
j 88 ; from Adirondacks, I.
55 contra, II. 190, 191, 192;
location of field, I. 306, 308,

II. 251 5 change of fields, II.
251 5 yield, I. 3205 labor by
women, I. 320, II. 250 5 by
slaves, II. 279 ; warriors despise,
I. 320, II. 251 5 Indians teach

to Europeans, II. 148 ; long

known to Ir. , I. 191, II. 191 ;

effect on progress, I. 320, II.

249.
Aids, invisible, Ho-no-c he-no' -keh,

inferior spirits, I. 148 5 feebly

personified, I. 154, II. 233 ;

being and functions of, I. 212.
Air-gun, Ga-ga-an'-da (cuts), II.

37, 284.

Alcohol, as food, I. 236, II. 235.
American Revolution, Ir. join

British, I. 26 ; but not as League,

I. 1 08, II. 195 ; deserted by

British, I. 27, 327.
Andastes, see Conestogas.
Animals, domesticated, II. 253 ;

none of burden, II. 145, 250,

251.

Araucanians, houses of, II. 301.
Archery (cuts, I. 296, 297, 298),

I. 295, II. 241 ; Bow, Wa-a'-no,

I. 296 ; Arrow, Gd'-no, I. 296 ;
Sheaf, Ga-das-ha, I. 297 ; flint
arrow-heads, II. 10; feathering
of arrows, II. 10.

Areskoui, War God, II. 234.

Arm-band, see Band.

Arrows, see Archery.

Art, decorative, II. 43, 47, 280.

Arts, importance and history of,

II. 5.

Assistant sachems, see Sachems.

INDEX

Astronomy, knowledge of, II. 106.
Ataentsic, female deity, II. 234 j

sick, II. 254.

Authorities, list of, I. 34, II. 307.
Axes, see Implements.

Baby frame, Ga-ose'-ha (cut, II.
58, plate, II. 58), II. 57, 284 ;
belt, Ga-s*wa-hos-ha (plate, II.
118).

Bag, fawn skin, Gis-tat-he-o Ga-
ya-ah (cut), II. 39.

Ball, see Games.

Bands, arm, Ga-g?h'-ta, Yen-nis-
ha-hos-ta ; knee, Ga-geh'-ta,
Yen-che-no-hos-ta-ta ; and wrist,
Yen-nis-ho-qua-hos-ta (plate, I.
216), I. 255.

Bark, many uses of, vessels, II.
22 ; barrel, Ga-sna' Ga-ose'-ha
(cut, II. 23), II. 22,290; tray,
Ga-o-rivo' (cut), II. 24 5 canoe,
Ga-sna' Ga-o-ivo' (plate, II. 3),
II. 25 ; ladle, Ah-do-qua'-sa,
II. 46 ; rope, G'a-a-sken-da (cut),
II. 16; house, Ga-no'-sote (plate,

I. 3), I. 308, II. 287 ; sap-tub,
Ga-o-^ivo' (cut), II. 27.

Baskets, Gase-ha, skill in making,

II. 41 5 materials, II. 41, 42.
Beads, embroidery of, I. 255, 256,

II. 47, 48 ; silver (long), Ont-

ewis-td-ne-un-da-qua, II. 50 5 see

Wampum.
Bean, O-si-da, indigenous, II. 34 ;

long cultivated, I. -1905 staple

food, I. 321 ; spirit of, I. 152,

II. 34.

Bear-trap, II. 24. 4
Beauchamp, William M., map

prepared by, II. 152, 20.8 ; on

trails, II. 207.

Belt, Ga-geh'-ta (plate, I. 101), I.

255-

Betting, see Games.
Bird-trap (cut, II. 25), II. 24.
Blacksnake, Governor, Ta-wan'-

ne-ars, I. 70 ; great age and

death, II. 202.
Blanket, E'-yose, II. 50.
Bottle, corn husk, Ono-ne-a Gos-

ha'-da, II. 42 (cut, II. 41).
Boundaries, of Ir. territories, I. 38,

41.

Bow, see Archery.
Braiding, see Weaving.
Brant, Joseph, Ta-yen-da-na'-ga

(Mohawk Thayendanegea},l. 70,

98, II. 203; wampum of, II. 55.
Bread, of corn, I. 321 ; how made,

II. 30, 1 60; in marriage cere
mony, I. 313.
Bread turner, Ya-a-go-gLn-ta-qua

(cut), II. 30.

Breast plate, Ga-no-s'a (plate, I. 58).
Breech cloth, Ga-ka (plate, I. 51),

I. 284.

Broaches, silver, An-ne-'as-ga, II.

49-
Buffaloes, first heard, I. 276 ;

dance, I. 276.
Burden frame, Ga-ne-ko-tva-ah

(cut), II. 21.
Burden strap, Gus-ha'-ah (plate,

II. 20, cut, II. 1 6), described,
II. 175 uses of, II. 17, 22 ;
moosehair, II. 19 ; deer hair,
II. 19,- how worn, II. 16 ;
braiding of, II. 17.

Burial, see Death and Burial.

Caches, of corn, I. 311, II. 22, 30.
Canada, early home of Ir., I. 5; dis
covered and occupied by French,

316

INDEX

I. 8, 95 roads from Ir. to, II. 93,
96, 209.

Canarese, attacked by Ir. , 1 . 1 3 .
Cane, Ah-dd'-dis-ha^ carved wood,

II. 45-

Canoe, Ga-sna G'd-o-^wo' (plate, II.
3), material and construction, II.
255 capacity, II. 26, 27; car
ried, II. 26, 84 ; much travel
by, II. 83; long voyages of, II.
83.

Captives, brought into village, I.
331; not exchanged, I. 331, II.
277; released, I. 331; adopted,
I- 332> 334» II. 277, 2785 run
gantlet, I. 3335 tortured, I. 335;
enslaved, II. 279; made Sachem,
II. 278.

Cartier, Jacques, ascends St. Law
rence, I. 8, II. 189, 191.

Cat Nation, Je-go'-sa-sa, name of
Eries or Neutrals, I. 39.

Catawbas, location, I. 9; attacked
by Ir., I. 12.

Cayugas, G-ive-u1 ' -g^weh-o-no1 , origin
of, I. 6, II. 1 88; name and totem,
I. 49, 93, II. 306 j territories
and villages of, I. 37, 40, II. 88;
migrate after Revolution, I. 29.

Cereals, basis of civilization, II.
249.

Chadwick, Edward Marion, Mo
hawk, Shagotyohg-ivisaks, list of
Sachems, II. 211.

Champlain, Lake, discovered, 1. 10;
French grants on, I. 22; Champ-
Iain's fight on, II. 192.

Champlain, Samuel de, fight with
Mohawks, I. 10, II. 192.

Cherokees, O-ya-da'-go-o-no1 , anlro-
quoian people, II. 187; location
of, I. 9, II. 187; attacked by
Ir., I. 12; war with Ir., I. 328;
treaty with, I. 328.

Chiefs, Ha-seh-no-<vua'-neh, not an
original office, I. 58, 66; origin
of, I. 66, 94; power, I. 71, 95;
number, I. 67; titles, I. 85; more
notable as individuals than sa
chems, I. 96; raised up, I. 85;
War, see War-chiefs.

Children, of mother's clan, I. 79,
II. 218 ; and tribe, I. 316 ; may
be sachems, I. 84 ; punishment
of, I. 232, II. 286; affection for,

I. 316; patience of, II. 58; taught
to toe in, II. 284.

Chisel, see Implements.
Clans, defined, I. 86 j called in
text tribes, I. 74; list of, I. 75,

II. 225, 275; originally but two,

I. 76, II. 218; totems, I. 76, 309,

II. 216, 226, 238 ; sachemships
distributed among, I. 76, II.
212; kinship through, I. 77; en
dures through years and war, II.
222, 275; number of, I. 77;
marriage must be out of, I. 77,
II. 218, 226, 275; bond of
League, I. 78, II. 223 ; extent
of system, I. 87, II. 224; origin
of, I. 87, II. 218, 220; officers
of, II. 215 ; importance in hu
man history, II. 224; power of
life and death, II. 273; property
of, II. 273.

Clark, John S., important work of,

II. 151; fixes location of fort

attacked by Champlain, II. 192 ;

on Long House, II. 298.
Classes, see Sachems.
Club, War, Ga-je'-wa (cuts), I.

256, II. 14.
Colonies, Ir. establish, I. u, 14;

Jesuits establish, of converts, I.

24.
Communism, in food, I. 318, II

274.

317

INDEX

Concerts, described, I. 276.

Condolence, see Council, Mourning.

Conestogas (Susquehannocks, An-
dastes), an Iroquoian people, II.
187 j location, I. 9, II. 187.

Confederacy, defined, II. 223. See
League.

Confession of sins, of Jesuit ori
gin, I. 164; at festivals, I. 180,
II. 235 5 white wampum used,

I. 164, II. 53.

Converse, Harriet Maxwell, Ga-ie-
rwa-noh, Gen. Parker's MS. in
possession of, II. 152 ; on sig
nification of Geog. Names, II.
211.

Corn, Ha-go'-^-wa (white flint corn),
festival, see Festivals ; staple
food, I. 190, II. 249 ; cultiva
tion ancient, I. 191 ; extensive, I.
1915 abundant yield, I. 320 5
how prepared and cooked, I.
321, II. 30, 31, 160, 249; va
rieties, II. 28, 191, 250; stor
age, I. 310,11. 28, 2905 harvest,

II. 28 ; value of, II. 32, 250 j
husks braided, II. 42, 160; Spirit
of, I. 153, II. 34.

Cornplanter, Gy-ant'-<wa-ka, dream
of, I. 205 j tomahawk, II. 283 j
reservation, De-o-no-sa-da'-ga, I.
219, II. 228, 283, 304.

Cosmogony, Iroquois, I. 145.

Costume, full dress for dance, I.
252 j ancient fashions preserved,

I. 256, II. 47, 2845 modern
female, II. 46.

Council House, dances in, I. 259,

II. 159.

Councils, first at Onondaga, I. 7,
at opening of Revolution, I. 26 ;
where held, I. 62, annual, I. 62;
to raise up sachems, I. 84; of
League, I. 62 5 of tribe, I. 65,

85* 99 j of Clan, I. 322 $ of
phratry, I. 323 ; origin, II. 220;
powers, I. 62, 99 ; procedure, I.
91, II. 2315 nations seated in
two classes, I. 91, 112; names
of nations in, I. 92, 93 ; how
called, I. 104, II. 231, 244;
popular, I. no; games at, I.
115; many subjects of, I. 102,
II. 260; dance at, I. 1155
social intercourse at, I. 116 ; in
fluence of, I. 119 ; Civil, Ho-
de-os'-seh, how called, I. 103 5
voting, I. 1 06 ; unanimity, I.
106 ; procedure, I. 105.
Mourning, Hen-nun-do-nuh'-seh,

to raise up sachems, I. 109,

II. 239; procedure, I. in;

ritual, I. 113; festivities after,

I. 115-
Religious, Ga-e-^ve'-yo-do Ho-

de-os-hen'-dd-ko, I. 103, 118.
Cradle, see Baby frame.
Crime, infrequent, I. 133, 321 ;
punishment of, I. 321.

Daganoweda, founder of League,
I. 57; sachem, I. 60 ; history,
I. 96 ; no successor, I. 96, II.
215; aims of, I. 165.

Dances, form of worship, I. 183,
233, 249 j at religious councils,
I. 198 ; at New Year's festival,
I. 204 ; influence of, I. 250,
251; number and origin of, I.
250 ; missionaries seek to sup
press, I. 251, II. 161 5 costume,
I. 271; list of, I. 278, II. 287;
Feather, O-sto-<weh'-go-iva, I.
252, 268 ; War, Wd-sd'-seh^ I.
252, 257 ; speeches in, I. 262 ;
Religious, see Feather ; Trotting,

INDEX

G'd-da'-shote, I. 272 ; Fish, Ga-
so-rwa'-o-no, I. 273, II. 159}
Passing, Ga-no'-ga-j>o, I. 275; for
Dead, O-ke'-iva, I. ^75; Buffalo,
Da-ge'-ya-go-o-an'-no, I. 2765
Thanksgiving, Ga-na'-o-u/t, I.
193, 272, II. 159.

Death and burial, mourning, I.
232, 244 ; respect for dead, I.
1 66; mode of burial, I. 166;
food put in grave, II. 9 ; re
moval of dead, II. 251 ; relics
from graves, II. 280,281,!. 168.

Deep Spring, I. 41, II. 86.

Deer-buttons, see Games.

Deer-trap, II. 24

Deities, II. 234; see Aids, Great
Spirit, Evil Spirit, Religion.

Delawares, Sa-ga-na'-ga, location
of, I. 9 ; vanquished, I. 13;
made women, I. 14, 328.

Democracy, progress towards, I.
129.

Deposition, see Sachems.

Descent, counted in female line,

I. 79, II. 218, 271, 275.
Destiny, oflr., I. 55, II. 108, 304;

of Indian, II. 230, 304.

Dialects, see Language.

Disease, caused by evil spirits, I.
155, II. 285.

Divorce, see Marriage.

Dogs, Ir. not adapted to chase, I.
335 ; sacrifice, see White Dog.

Donehogaweh, sachem, I. 61 ; door
keeper, I. 64 ; see Parker, Ely S.

Door-keepers, Senecas as, I. 92.

Dream-feast, see New Year's festi
val.

Dreams, obedience to, I. 205, 206,

II. 233 ; sent by Tarenyawagon,
II. 234 5 origin of totem, II.
218, 233 ; Cornplanter's, I.
205.

Drum, Gd-no-jo'-o (cut, I. 257), I.
257, II. 159.

Dus-ga'-o-nveh-o-no' , name of Tus-
caroras, I. 50, II. 306.

Dutch, discovery by, I. 4 ; trading-
post at Albany, I. 9; relations
and trade with Ir., I. 9; mission
aries, II. 202.

Earthenware, see Pottery.

Education, of Ir., II. no; schools
of missionaries, II. 110, in ;
public schools, II. 114; State
Normal do., II. 114.

Elder and younger brothers, tribes
classed as, I. 91, 112, 224.

Eloquence, regard for, I. 102 ;
specimen of, II. 104.

English, amity and alliance with
Ir. , I. 10, 22 ; assisted by Ir. in
Am. Revolution, I. 26 ; desert
Ir. after do., I. 27, 327 ; develop
ment of their democracy, I. 128.

~E,ries,Ga-qua'-ga-o-no',ar\Iroc[uohn
people, II. 187 ; location of, I.
9, 1 1 ; called Cat Nation, I. 39 ;
nearly exterminated by Ir., I. 1 1 ;
invited to join League, I. 71 j
war declared against, I. 107.

Evil Spirit, Hd-ne-go-ate'-geh, origin
of, I. 147 ; dwelling-place, I.
163 ; tempter, I. 237 ; causes
disease, I. 155.

Exogamy, see Marriage, Society.

Fabrics, importance of, II. 3 ;
changes in material, II. 47, 284;
variety of, II. 5 ; of European
materials, II. 6 ; limitations of
Morgan's account, II. 279 ;
where relics found, II. 280.

319

INDEX

Faith, keepers of the, see Keepers

of the faith.

Falsefaces, Ga-go'-sa (cut, I. 157),
race of demons, I. 157 ; order
of, I. 158; boys disguised as,
I. 204.

Feather dance, see Dance.
Festivals, periodic, I. 175, 232;
antiquity of, I. 214.

Maple, O-ta-de-none -ne-o na

rwa'-ta, I. 1 76, 1 80, II. 251.

Planting, A-yent'-^w'd-tay I.

176, 186.
Strawberry, Ha-nun-da'-yo^ I.

176, 189.

Whortleberry, 1. 176, 190.
Green Corn, Ah-dakef-fiud-o1

I. 176, 190.

Harvest, Da-yo-nun' '-neo-qua na
De-o-ha'-ko, I. 176, 197.

New Year's, Gi'-ye-wa-no-us-
qua-go-iva, I. 176, 199 ;
date, I. 234, II. 262 ; suc
ceeds old Dream Feast, II.
263 ; Jesuit accounts, II.
255, 2635 modern accounts,

II. 261.

Death feast, I. 167, 318, II.
274.

Festivities, after Council, I. 115,
117.

Field, around village, I. 306 ; dis
tant, I. 308, II. 251.

Finger weaving, see Weaving.

Fire, how made, II. 40, 284 ; sym
bol of nation, I. 40.

Firearms, Ir. get from Dutch, I.
10 ; first heard by Ir. in Cham-
plain's fight, I. 105 inaugurate
Ir. conquests, I. 1 1.

Fire drill, Da-ya-ya-da-ga'-nea-ta
(cut), II. 40, 284.

Fish net, basket, Tont-ka-do-qua
(cut), II. 42.

Fiske, John, letter of, II. 152;

account of Ir. society, II. 224.
Five Nations, name of Ir., I. 4,

II. 306 ; become Six Nations,

I. 23.

Flute, Ta-o ' -da-^was-ta (cut), II.

38.
Food, corn, etc., staple, I. 190,

II. 1 60 j hunting not chief sup
ply, I. 191, II. 249, 251;
changes in, I. 240, II. 1885
storage of, I. 310, II. 160;
communism in, I. 318, II. 274;
cookery, I. 320, II. 160 ;
women provide, I. 320 ; dried
meat, I. 336 ; Indian contribu
tion to American, II. 251.

Foot races, I. 298.

Fort Herkimer, treaty at, I. 42.

Fort Schuyler (Stanwix), treaties at,

I. 41, II. 199, 248.
French, discover and occupy

Canada, I. 8, 9 ; at enmity with

Ir., I. 10,

scale turned

against by Ir., I. n ; allied with
Adirondacks and Hurons, I. 10 5
invade New York, I. 16, 308,
II. 194; namesforlr., II. 306.

Gambling, see Games.
Games, at councils, I. 115; im
portance of, I. 280 5 sides taken
by villages or phratries, I. 281,
288, II. 221, 266, 269; bet
ting, I. 282, II. 266, 267.
Peach stone (cut, I. 300)
Gus-ka'-eh, at festivals, I.
196 ; commended, I. 233 ;
described, I. 300 ; in medi
cine and worship, II. 265 ;
Lafitau's account, II. 267 ;
among Hurons, II. 266 \

320

INDEX

materials, I. 299, II. 465,
267.

Snow snake (cut, I. 292),

Ga-iva'-sa, at New Year's,

I. 207 ; described, I. 292.

Snow boat (cut), Da-ya-no-ta-

yen-d'd-qud, I. 293.
Ball (cut, I. 283), O-ta-da-
jish'-qu'd-age, I. 282 5 bat,
Ga'-ne-d, I. 283.
Javelin (cut, I. 287), Ga-na-
g'd-o, I. 287; Gd-ga-dd-
yan'-duk, I. 289, II. 286.
Deer-buttons (cut), Gus-ga-e-

sa'-t'd, I. 290.
Straws, II. 269.

Ga-ne-a' -ga-o-no' , name of Mo
hawks, I. 49, II. 306.
Ganowanian, name proposed by

Morgan for Indians, II. 241.
Ga'-ohy see Winds, spirit of.
Garangula, Onondaga Otreouati,
Onondaga orator, I. 17, II. 194.
Geographical names, I. 46 ; dialec
tic variances, I. 47, II. 61 ;
permanence of, II. 61, 62, 78,
240, 241 ; how bestowed, II.
79 ; rivers and lakes, II. 79,
85, 89, 242 ; falls, II. 98 ;
towns in New York, II. 79 ff. ;
lists of, II. 141 , 127, 211 ; sig
nificant, II. 243 5 number still
in use, II. 240, 241.
Geography, Indian, I. 35, II. 78,
205 ; map explained, I. 465 It.
knowledge of, I. 117, II. 158.
George, Lake, Champlain's fight
on, I. 10 ; contra, II. 192;
French grants on, I. 22.
Gouge, see Implements.
Government, If. a federal republic,

I. 58, 72 ; local, I. 65, II. 219,
224 ; history of human, I. 121,

II. 224; Greek, I. 122.

VOL. II. — 21 321

Grass, braided ornaments, II. 51.

Great Spirit, Ha-wen-ne'-yu, divine
Being worshipped by entire red
race, I. 143, II. 233 ; birth of,

I. 144, 147 } worship of, I. 208,
237, II. 234; Jesuits fail to
recognize, II. 264 ; not omnipo
tent, I. 154.

Green corn festival, see Festivals.
Ground nuts, To-an-jer-go-o O-no-

no-do, eaten, I. 321, II. 34.
Gfwe-u/-gfuue/t-o-no/y name of Cayu-

gas, I. 49, II. 306.

H.
Hale, Horatio, on date of League,

II. 190, list of sachems, II.

21 I.

Handsome Lake, Gd-ne-o-di' -yo ,
sachem, I. 61, 218 5 revela
tion to, I. 219, 224, 234, 241 j
license to preach, I. 220, II.
236.

Harvest festival, see Festivals.

H'd-sa-no-an'-da, see Parker, Ely S.

Hd-yo-<went'-ha, a sachem, I. 60 ;
combs Tododaho** hair, I. 64 ;
history, I. 96 ; no successor, I.
96, II. 215 ; deified, II. 234.

Head-dress, Gus-tof-fweh (cut and
plate, I. 254), I. 253.

Hemlock tea, I. 321, II. 161, 252.

Hendrick, King, killed at Lake
George, II. 194.

Hiawatha, see H'd-yo-<went'-ha.

History, American, influence of
Ir. in, I. 11, II. 147, 148, 192,
196, 204, 253.

History, of Ir., I. 5, II. 787 j see
Iroquois.

Hochelaga, see Montreal.

Ho-de'-no-sau-nee, name of Ir., I.
ii ; significance of, I. 48, II.
288, 302.

INDEX

Hommony, ? On-non-ta-ra, I. 197,
II. 28, 249.

Blade, Gdt-go-ne-as-heh (cut,
II. 45), II. 44-

Ho-no-ive-na'-toy see Wampum
keeper.

Hospitality, universal, I. 318, II.
1 60 } observance of, I. 318.

Household, social unit, II. 217;
independent, II. 220 ; property,
II. 273.

Houses, Ga-no'-sote (plate, I. 3,
plans, II. 294, 295), little certain
knowledge, II. 288 ; Bartram's
account, II. 293 ; General Clark
on, II. 298 ; dimensions and
occupation, I. 307, II. 288, 292,
293, 298, 299 ; construction, I.
308 ; chimney opening, I. 225,
309, II. 289, 302 ; fireplace, II.

289, 291, 301 ; number of
fires, II. 288, 292, 296, 297 ;
internal arrangements, II. 288 ff.,
292, 293, 298 5 discomforts, II.

290, 291, 292, 300, 301 5
closets, II. 291 ; storage, II.
290, 293, 294; beds, II. 290,
293 j doors, II. 291 ; locks,
II. 291 ; vestibules, II. 291 ;
number of inmates, I. 318, II.
229, 292, 293, 298 ; Lafitaifs
specifications, II. 288 ; raising
bee, II. 289 ; extension, II. 302 ;
modern reproductions, II. 299,
300 ; scattered, II. 88 5 of other
Indians, II. 300 ; of Arauca-
nians, II. 300 j hunting lodge,

I. 310.

Hunter state, Ir. in, I. 52 ; bar to
progress, I. 53 ; incompatible
with monarchy, I. 131.

Hunting, not chief support, I. 191,

II. 248 j methods of, I. 335 j
traps, I. 335 } battue, I. 336 ;

close season, I. 335,- netting
birds, I. 335; bear-hunt, I. 336 5
lodge, I. 3105 grounds open to
all, I. 44; location of, I. 337.

Huron language, at Montreal, I.
9 ; Ir. branch of, I. 9.

Hurons, Wane-dote, an Iroquoian
people, II. 187 ; kin to Oneidas,
II. 222 ; location, I. 9, II.
187 ; allied with French, I. 10 j
overthrown, I. 1 1 ; at. Montreal,
II. 189, 191 ; clans of, II. 225 ;
village, II. 229.

Illinois Indians, location of, I.
9 ; attacked by Senecas, I. 12 ;
houses, II. 300.
Immortality, I. 162, 169.
Implements, metal, unknown, II. 9.
Stone axes, O-sque'-sont (cut)

II. 1 1, 281, 282.
Stone chisel, Uh'-ga-o-givat'-

ha, II. 10, 282.
Stone club, II. n, 282.
Stone gouge, II. 10.
Incense, see Tobacco, Wampum.
Indians, sundry tribes, see under

tribal names.

Indians, disunited, I. 145 charac
teristics, capacity, and progress,
!• 5*> 53, i34,n. 112, 145, 155,
305; organizations ephemeral, I.
53, 136 5 unity of race, II. 60,
302; destiny of, II. 60, no,
230, 304; policy of U. S. toward,
II. 119, 121, 305 5 rank of Ir.
among, I. 3, 52, 54, II. 147,
303 ; numbers, II. 229 ; con
tribution to civilization, II. 253 j
to English language, II. 249.
Inferior deities, see Aids, Support
ers, Religion.

322

INDEX

Inheritance, in female line, I. 80,
130, II. 271 ; what heritable, I.
3175 administration by clan, I.
318 ; death feast, I. 318, II.
274, 276. See Property.

Intoxicants, received from whites,
I. 325 5 effects of, I. 325.

Iroquoians, II. 187.

Iroquois, Ho-de'-no-sau-nee, origin
and early abode, I. 5, n, II.
187, 191 ; history and career, I.
3, 136, II. 107, 187, 2045 learn
agriculture, I. 5, II. 188 ; enter
New York, I. 5, II. 188, 190,
191; subdivided in New York, I.
6 $ united in League, I. 7, II.
189, 190; greatest prosperity in
1650, I. 25 5 Indian wars and
conquests, I. 8, 9, n, 13, 37,
52, II. 147, 193 } establish
colonies, I. 12, 14; territories,

I. 37 j adopted tribes, I. 23, 42,
43, II. 302 ; first meeting with
whites, I. 10, 306 ; wars with
French, I. 10, 15 ff. , II. 192,
194; alliance with Dutch and
English, I. 9, 20, 26, II. 105,
147, 192, 194; in Pontiac war,

II. 195 $ in American Revolu
tion, I. 26, II. 195 ; in War
of 1812, II. 199 j in Civil War,
II. 199 5 recent history, I. 27,
II. 304 ; decline, I. 24, II.
228 $ present condition, I. ix,
28> 33> 53> II. no, 270, 304 ;
characteristics, I. 33, 116, 251,
320, 326, 327, II. 118, 154,
155, 205, 291, 3015 culture, I.
52, 117, II. 3; language, I. 9,
II. 241 ; numbers, I. 23, 32, II.
no, 226; rank among Indians,
I. 3, 52, II. 147, 303; destiny,
I. ix, II. 108, 305 5 influence
in history, I. 1 1, 16, 21, II. 147,

192, 204; influence on United
States constitution, II. 148, 204.

J-

Javelin, Ga-geh'-da (cut, I. 287),
see Games.

Jesuits, missions of, I. 22 ; estab
lish Ir. colony on St. Lawrence,

I. 24 j remains of teachings, I.
164, II. 235 j invent games, II.
265.

Jogues, Isaac, discoverer of Lake

George, II. 192.
Johnson, Jimmy, Sose-ha'-nxa, I.

210, 221 5 discourse by, I. 223 ;

"adopts Morgan," II. 163;

death, II. 202.
Johnson, Sir William, Mohawk

Wa-ra-i-ya-gehy II. 84 5 keeps

Ir. tranquil in Pontiac' s war,

II. 195 j on wampum, II. 248.
Jouskeha, Ir. deity, II. 234.

Keepers of the Faith, Ho-nun-de'-
unt, I. 70 ; number, appoint
ment, and functions, I. 177, 239,
II. 215 5 not a priesthood, I.
179 ; in New Year's feast, I. 200,
203, II. 257 ; names, II. 239 ;
sachems are, II. 235.

Keppler, Joseph, Gy-ant'-wa-ka,
II. 283.

Kilt, Ga-ka'-ah (plate, I. 184), I.
252.

Kinship, see Relationship.

Kirkland, Samuel, missionary, II.
202 ; influences Oneidas for
Americans, II. 195.

Knee band, see Band.

Knee rattles, Gus-da'-^wa-sa Ten-
che-no-hos-ta (cut), I. 255.

Knives, of chert, II. 9.

323

INDEX

Lacrosse, see Games, Ball.
Ladles, Ah-do-qua'-say wooden, II.

43, 46 (cut, II. 44); bark (cut),

II. 46.
Lafitau, J. F. , on wampum, II.

245 j on games, II. 267 ; on

houses, II. 288.
Land, see Property.
Language, Iroquois, of Huron

stock, I. 9 j dialectic differences,

I. 47, II. 615 six dialects, II.
62 j their characteristics, II. 62 ;
alphabet, II. 62 5 sounds, II. 63 j
no labials, II. 75, 2415 speci
men words, II. 64 j few abstract
terms, II. 243 ; number, II. 65 ;
numerals, II. 66 ; gender, II.
66 ; adjective, II. 66 ; declen
sion, II. 70; substantive, II. 64 ;
few roots, II. 67 ; compounds
contracted, II. 67 ; article, II.
68 ; adverb, II. 68 ; preposi
tion, II. 68 ; pronoun, II. 71 ;
interjection, II. 71 ; verb, II.
71, 2445 conjugation, II. 73,
140 ; voice, II. 75 ; Lord's
Prayer, in Seneca, II. 76 ; a liv
ing tongue, II. 240.

Language, sign, none in East, II.

243.
League, an oligarchy, I. 130;

gradual development of, I. 132,

II. 190, 224 ; stability, I. 133 ;
a federal republic, I. 58, II. 148;
model for United States, II. 148,
204,- origin, I. 5, 7, 57, II. 189;
an express compact, I. 54, 59 ;
date of, I. 7, II. 190, 2525
peace an object of, I. 72, 875
domestic peace attained, I. 78,
133, II. 204 ; a union of clans,
I. 78 ; double bond of, II. 223 ;
nations equal in, I. 88 5 property

of, II. 272 ; pine-tree emblem,
II. 247 j adjudged extinct, II.
247.

League of the Iroquois, origin of
the work, I. xiii, II. 156, 165 j
review by Parkman, II. 165 ;
appreciation by Fiske, II. 152 ;
original editions, II. 179; ori
gin of this edition, II. 151 ; new
matter, II. 149.

Legends, I. 160; recited, I. 161,
II. 255 ; not told in Summer, I.
162, II. 255 j Seneca, of Giant,
II. 90 ; of Mammoth, II. 2545
of pygmies, I. 160, II. 255 ;
land of souls, II. 254 ; nature
myths, II. 253.

Leggin, Gise'-ha (plates, I. 256,
274, II. 100), I. 254; female,
II. 49-

Liberty, among Ir. , I. 130.

Life, Our, see Supporters.

Lingua franca, of Canada, II. 249.

Litter, see Burden frame.

Logan, a Cayuga Sachem, I. 95.

Long House, literal, see House ; as
symbol of League, I. 48, 90, 97,
133, II. 215, 301.

Longevity, of Ir., I. 244.

Manitou, see Totem, personal.

Map of Iroquois territories, Mor
gan's, I. iii, see I. 46, II. 207,
208 j Beauchamp's, II. iii, see
II. 208 5 Romer's, II. 208.

Maple festival, see Festivals.

Maple sugar, I. 186, 321, II. 27,
31 ; sap, II. 251.

MarriagCj species and evolution,
II. 269, 270 ; out of clan, I. 79,
II. 218, 221, 275 ; how made
and dissolved, I. 228, 311;

INDEX

mothers arrange, I. 312 ; cere
mony, I. 313 ; consanguine, II.
172, 269 ; Punaluan, II. 219,
269 j Syndyasmian, II. 270 ;
monogamian, II. 270 ; polyg
amy, I. 315, II. 270 j divorce,

I. 315, II. 271.
Massachusetts, aided by Mohawks,

II. 193 5 cedes jurisdiction and
lands in New York, II. 199, 200.

Meals, separation at, I. 197, 319,
II. 159-

Medals (cuts, II. 55, 56), Gd-nuh'-
sa (sea-shell medal), II. 55.

Medicine, I. 240, II. 285 { dance,
I. 279, II. 254 5 games, II.
265, 266 5 remedies, violent, II.
260, 285 ; secret, II. 273 ; sur
gery, II. 285 5 asepsis, II. 285 5
physicians, II. 285.

Metals, not used by Ir., II. 9.

Miamis, location, I. 9 5 attacked,
I. 13.

Migrations, see Iroquois, origin of.

Minsis, location, 1.95 conquered,

I. 13-

Mission Indians, I. 25.
Missionaries, I. 22 $ schools of,

II. 110 ; Dutch and English, II.
202 ; see Jesuits.

Moccason, Ah - td - qua - o' - <weh

(plates, I. 35, 44, 79), I. 255 ;

deer-skin, II. 115 elk-skin, II.

12 5 how made, II. 12.
Mohekunnucks, adopted by Ir.,

I. 43-
Mohawks, Gd-ne-a'-ga-o-no', origin,

I. 6, II. 1 8 8, 191 5 at Quebec,

II. 191 ; only three clans and
one phratry, I. 77, II. 225;
feared by New England Indians,
I. 125 defeated by Champlain,
I. 10 5 territories, I. 36, 43 ; re
ceivers of tribute, I. 90 j protect

New England. II. 193 ; assist
English in Seven Years' War,
II. 194; remove to Canada, I.
28 5 present condition, II. 305.

Montreal, Huron ? Hochelaga, early
abode of Ir., I. 5, II. 189 ;
Huron spoken at, I. 9, II.
1 8 8, 191 ; Ramusio's picture
of Hochelaga, II. 191, 298.

Morgan, Lewis S., Ta-yd-dd-o-nvuh1-
kuh (portrait, II. 153), adopted
as Seneca, I. xi, II. 158, 163 ;
Iroquois studies, I. xi, II. 154,
156, 1575 war-dance in his
honor, 1. 264 ; value of work,
II. 147, 148, 150, 156, 161,
224, 2445 biography, II. 153,
1625 champion of Senecas against
injustice, I. xi, II. 156, 163,
201 ; discoveries, II. 166, 167,
217 5 visits to Western tribes,
II. 302 ; state of science in his
time, II. 150, 244.

Mortar, stone, II. 10 ; wooden,
Gd-ne'-gd-td (cut), II. 29, 160,
281.

Mound-builders, remains in N. Y.,
II. 5, 202 5 pipe of, II. 8 ;
needles of, II. 12.

Mound, near Geneva, II. 90.

Maurning, period of, I. 167, 244.

Mourning Councils, see Councils.

Miiller, Max, on Mohawk language,
II. 244.

Murder, punishment of, I. 322 ;
atonement for, I. 323, II. 273.

Music, I. 259, 269, 272, 276, 277,
II. 159-

Myths, see Legends.

Names, geographical, see Geo
graphical names.
Names, personal, II. 237 ; how

325

INDEX

bestowed, I. 85, II. 238 ; char
acteristics of, I. 85, II. 216,
237 j changed, II. 238, 239 }
office and title inseparable, II.
239, 240 j of dead restored, II.
239 $ of living transferred, I.
206, II. 240.

Nanticokes, location, I. 9 ; van
quished, I. 13.

Nations, local governments, I. 65 5
equality of, I. 88. See Tribes.

Necklace, Ga'-de-us-ha' (plate, I.
254)> H. 51.

Needle book, Ta~ewa-o-da-quiat
(plate, II. 30)

Needles, Ga-fwa, of bone, II. 12,
282; found in mounds, II. 12.

Neuter or Neutral Nation, Je-go'-
sa-sa, an Iroquoian people, II.
187 } location of, I. 9, II. 1875
expelled from Niagara peninsula,

I. 1 1 ; called Cat Nation, I. 39 j
invited to join League, I. 71 5
villages, II. 229.

New England Indians, become de
pendent, I. 3 j location, I. 9 ;
driven out by Ir., I. 125 fear
Mohawks, I. 12 ; defeated by
Mohawks, II. 193 5 adopted by
Ir., I. 43.

New England, protected by Ir., II.

193-

New Year's festival, see Festivals.
New York State, Ir. enter, I. 5,6,

II. 1 88 ; early inhabitants, I. 6,
II. 191 5 invaded by French, I.
1 6 ; policy towards Ir., I. 28,
33, II. 112 ff., 304; obligations
to Ir., II. 104, 115, 192.

Niagara, abode of He'-no, I. 150 ;
origin of name, II. 97 ; centre
of Iroquoian population, II. 187.

Nichols Pond, site of fort attacked
by Champlain, II. 192.

Nottoways, an Iroquoian people,
II. 187.

Numbers, of Ir. , I. 23, 24, 25,
32, 33, II. no, 2265 warriors,
II. 227 j decrease and increase,
II. 228 j of Indians in U. S., II.
229.

Nun-da'->-iva-o-no', name of Senecas,
I. 48, II. 306.

Ogden Land Co., claim to Ir. lands,
I. 31, 32, II. 156, 121, 199

201.

Ohio, Ir. in, I. n ; river, II. 101.

Oligarchy, League an, I. 58, 125 5
defined, I. 125.

O-na'-yote-ka-o-no',na.me ofOneidas,
I. 49, II. 306.

Oneidas, O-na'-yote-ka-o-no', origin,
I. 6, II. 1 88 } perhaps attacked
by Champlain, II. 192 ; kin of
Hurons, II. 222 ; only three clans
and one phratry, I. 77, II. 225 5
territories, I. 36, 40, II. 208 ;
refuse to attack Americans, I.
26, 108, II. 195 5 thanked by
United States, II. 196 ; migrate
after Revolution, I. 28 ; present
condition, II. 304.

Onondaga, first council at, I. 7,
57 5 burnt by French, I. 20 j
contra, II. 194 ; place of coun
cils, I. 90, II. 87, 247 ; much
visited, II. 206.

Onondagas, O-nun'-d'd-ga-o-no',
origin, I. 6, II. 188 ; territories,
I. 36, 40 ; originate League, I.
7 ; keep council brand and wam
pum, I. 62, 65, 89 j attacked
by Champlain, II. 192 ; burn
their own town, II. 194 ; present
abode and condition, I. 29, II.
3°5-

326

INDEX

Ontario, Lake, Ir. towns on North

Shore of, I. n.
O-nun'-da-ga-o-no', name of Onon-

dagas, I. 49, II. 306.
Oratory, see Eloquence.
Orchards, Indian, II. 90, 251.
Ornaments, of stone, II. 115 of

silver, II. 49.
Ottawas, location of, I. 9.
Over-dress, Ah-de-a1 -da-<we-sa

(plates, I. 190, 191), II. 49.

Palisades, around village, I. 306.

Pantalette, see Leggin, female.

Parker, Caroline G., Ga-hah'-no,
Je-go'-sa-sa (plate, frontispiece
to Vol. II.), II. 160, 182; bead
work of, II. 47.

Parker, Ely S., Ha-sa-no-an'-da,
Do-ne-ho-ga'-iva, dedication to,
I. vii ; co-laborer with Morgan,
I. xi, II. 154, 1825 in dance;

I. 265; biography, II. 154, 180,
MS. pf, II. 152; list of Sachems,

II. 211.

Parker, Nicholson, Da-ah-de-a
(plate, frontispiece to Vol. I.),
II. 182; his list of dances, II.
287.

Parkman, Francis, value of his
work, II. 147, 148; review of
League, II. 165 ; on origin of
League, II. 190 ; on antiquity
of Ir. society, II. 224; Oregon
Trail, II. 302, 303.

Payne, Edward John, on numbers
of Indians, II. 229; on cereals,
II. 249.

Peace, an object of League, I. 72,
87; domestic, I. 78, 133, II.
204.

Peach stone game, see Games.

Philip, King, defeated by Mo
hawks, II. 193.

Phratry, De-a-non-da'-a-yoh, two in
each nation, I. 755 origin, I. 76,
II. 218, 221; changes, II. 221;
of Ir. and Hurons, II. 225; Mo
hawks and Oneidas have but
one, I. 77, II. 2255 marriage
out of, I. 79, II. 221; in games,

I. 281, 294, II. 221, 269 5 ex
acts reparation, I. 323; sachem-
ships in, II. 212.

Pincushion, Ya-^wd-o-da-qua (plate,

II. 82).

Pine tree, emblem of League, II.
247, I. 114.

Pipes, Ah-so-qua'-ta (plate, I. 105,
cuts, II. 7, 8); of pottery and
stone, II. 6, 7; mound-builders,
II. 8.

Planting festival, see Festivals.

Pocket book, Got-gnuen-dd (plate,
II. 115).

Pontiac, War of, II. 195,

Porcupine, Ga-ha-da, quills of,
see Quills.

Porter, Charles T., co-laborer with
Morgan, I. xii ; reminiscences
by, II. 153 $ biography, II.
183.

Pottery (cut, II. 9), Ir., II. 6;
ancient art, II. 6; mark of cul
ture, II. 28 1 j material, II. 6,
2805 ornament, II. 280; vessel,
Ga-j'ik ', II. 9 ; round-bottomed,
II. 280, 281; not washed, II.
281; in sugar making, II. 251;
from graves, II. 9.

Pouch, Yun-gcf-sa (cuts), of skin,
II. 38.

Powell, John W., on democracy,
II. 150; sketch of Morgan, II.
1665 on personal names, II. zi6j
on society, II. 224.

327

INDEX

Powhattan confederacy, invaded, I.
135 houses, II. 300.

Praying Indians, I. 25.

Pre-emption, of Ir. lands, see Ogden
Land Co.

Priesthood, none, I. 179.

Prisoners of war, see Captives.

Property, neither had nor desired,
I. 131; inheritance of, I. 80, II.
271, 273, 274, 2765 in land, I.
306, 317, II. 1 1 8, 2725 in per
sonalty, I. 317, II. 272; wife's
separate, I. 317, II. 2735 transfer,

I. 317, II. 274; evolution of law
of, II. 274 5 wills, I. 317, II.
277.

Public opinion, power of, I. 66, 71,

100.

Punishment, future, I. 163, 229.

Q-

Quebec, Mohawk? Stadacona, Adi-
rondacks at, I. 8 ; Mohawks at,

II. 191.

Quills, of porcupine, O-ha'-da
(plate, I. 58), I. 253, 256, II.
J7-

Ramusio, picture of Hochelaga,

II. 191, 298.
Rattles, Gus-dd'-cwa-s'd, knee (cut),

I. 255 ; squash (cut), I. 276 5
turtle (cut, I. 268), I. 269.

Red Jacket, O-te-ti-an'-i, Sd-go-ye-
<wdt'-hd, made a chief, I. 855
most gifted of Ir., I. 97; birth
place, II. 88.

Relationships, II. 218; how com
puted, I. 8 1 5 names of, I. 82;
antiquity of, I. 56; universal sys
tem of, II. 169; form of address,

II. 240 ; see Society.
Relics, I. 1 68, II. 280.

Religion, ancient, maintained, I.
33; character of, I. 142, II.
161; limited pantheism, II. 233,
2535 compared with Greek, I.
1435 influence of, I. 174; ethics,
II. 234; doctrines, I. 162; "The
New," I. 217, II. 235; "The
License,1' II. 2365 sermon, I.
224; see Councils; Punishment,
Future; Worship; Deities; Great
Spirit; Evil Spirit; Handsome
Lake; Johnson.

Reservations, I. 28 ff. II. 304.

Revolution, see American Revo
lution.

Ring, in javelin game, see Games.

Ritual, in council, I. 113.

Romer, Col., his map, II. 208.

Roosevelt, Theodore, Hd-no-dd-
ga'-ne-ars, on numbers and des
tiny of Indians, II. 230; on
Indian policy of U. S., II. 305.

Rope, bark, II. 16.

Runners, II. 105.

Sachems, Ho-yar-na-go'-<war, I. 66;
fifty permanent, I. 59, 62; ruling
powers, I. 62; are Keepers of
Faith, II. 235; succession, I.
59, 80, 83, 103, 108, II. 219,
220; title remains in clan, I. 83;
captive becomes, II. 278; equal,
I. 59; title, I. 59, 62, 83; dis
tributed among nations, I. 59,
76; deposed, I. 84; limited to
original five nations, I. 93, II.
302 ; authority throughout
League, I. 59, 91; classes of,

I. 106, II. 215 ; duties, I. 99,

II. 220; list of, I. 60, II. 21 1 ;
assistants, I. 64, II. 215, 217;
meaning of titles, II. 212, 216,
240; variations in titles, II. 217$

323

INDEX

age of titles, II. 216; double

line, II. 2165 origin of word,

II. 217.
Saddle, Ah- da -da- qua (cut, II. 36),

western invention, II. 35.
St. Lawrence, Ir. dwell on, I. 5,

II. 1905 hold both banks, I. 15,

II. 187.
St. Regis, reservation, I. 25, II.

3°5-
Sap tub, bark, Gd-o-<wo' (cut),

II. 27.

Schools, see Education.

Senecas, NuH-da'-wa-o-no1, origin,
I. 6, II. 1885 invade Illinois,
I. 12; controversy with Ogden
Land Co., I. 31 j territories of,
I 37> 39 5 keep door, I. 64,
90 ; have both high war chiefs,
I. 905 in War of 1812, II. 22 ;
present abode and condition, I.
31, II. 304.

Shawnees, Sa--wa-no'-o-no, location,

I. 9; vanquished, I. 135 war-
dance, I. 258.

Shoulder belt, Tunt-ka-to-da-td

(plate), II. 105.
Sieve, Ne-us-tase-ah, of splints (cut),

II. 31; basket, II. 30, 41.
Silver (plates, II. 8, 50, cut, II.

55), working of, II. 50; orna
ments of, II. 49, 50.

Sioux, Wa-sa'-seh-o-no, war-dance
obtained from, I. 258; early
home of, II. 188.

Sisters, Three, see Supporters.

Six Nations, name of Ir., I. 23, II.
306.

Skenandoah, Oneida Chief, friend
of Americans, II. 195; nom de
plume of Morgan, II 164.

Skins, dressing of, II. 13; strings
of, II. 1 6.

Skirt, Ga-ka'-ah (plates, I. 122,

II. 48), II. 46; fine specimen,

II. 47-

Slaves, see Captives.
Sledges, bark, I. 336.
Smith, John, meets Ir. on Chesa

peake, I. 13.
Snow boat, see Games.
Snow shoe, Ga-^weh'-ga (cut, II.

35), construction, II. 34, 284;

how worn, II. 34; value, II. 34,

35, 284.

Snow snake, see Games.
Society, forms of, I. 121; antiquity

of Ir., I. 56, II. 2245 not an

evolution, I. 54; clan organiza

tion of, I. 75, II. 217,- Greek,

I. 122; Morgan's studies of, II.
166, 1675 terms used by Mor
gan, II. 223.

Spencer, Thomas, Oneida patriot,

II. 195-

Spirits, see Great Spirit, Evil Spirit,

Supporters, etc.
Splint, uses of, II. 425 how made,

II. 43; fish net of, II. 42; sieve,

II. 31.

Squash, O-ga-gd-ind (gray squash),
Spirit of, I. 1525 long cultivated,

I. 191; staple food, I. 3215 in
digenous, II. 34 ; Algonquin
word, II. 252.

Squier, E. G., on Mound-builders,

II. 202.

Stockades, around villages, I. 305,

306.
Stone Age, of Ir. , II. 279, 280;

Sioux in, II. 303.
Strawberry, festival, see Festivals;

jelly, I. 190.
Subject nations, many tribes be

come, I. 13, II. 147.
Succotash, I. 196.
Sullivan, Gen. John, invades Ir.

329

INDEX

territory, I. 27, II. 89,

251.

90,

Sun, worship of, I. 194, 234, II.

232, 234, 263, 264.
Supporters, Our, De-o-ha'-ko, Spirits

of corn, beans, and squashes, I.

1915 form of, I. 1535 thanks to,

I. 194, 233, 240.
Susquehannocks, see Conestogas.
Swan, Ah-iveh'-ah-ah, wild in New

York, I. 35.

Tanning, II. 13.

Tarenyawagon, Ir. deity, sender of
dreams, II. 234.

Tawannears, war chief, I. 69 ; see
Blacksnake.

Tayendanaga, see Brant, Joseph.

Territory, of Ir., I. 37.

Thanksgiving, I. 175, 2105 dance,
Ga-na'-o-uh) I. 193 ; concert,
Ah-do'-^weh, I. 195, 213, 233,
277 ; most important part of
religion, II. 235.

Thayendanegea, see Brant, Joseph.

Theft, very rare, I. 324.

Thread, of sinew, II. 12.

Three sisters, see Supporters.

Thunder, spirit of (He' -no} I. 149 ;
dwelt under Niagara, I. 1505
prayer to, for rain, I. 188,- thanks
to, I. 233 ; myth of, II. 253.

Ticonderoga, Champlain's fight
near, II. 192.

Tionnontates, see Tobacco nation.

Tobacco, O-yeh'-gvoa-d'-rweh) as
incense, I. 155, 184, 209, 210,
233, 240, II. 232, 261 ; cultiva
tion of, II. 335 not chewed, II.
34 ; smoked, II. 34, 252 ; mild,
II. 252.

Tobacco nation, Tionnontates, an

330

Iroquoian people, II. 187 ; loca
tion, II. 187 ; villages, II. 229.

Tododaho, a sachem, I. 61 j most
noble of sachems, I. 63, 90 ; in
treaty, II. 248.

Tomahawk, O-sque'-sont (cut, II.
15), stone, II. ii 5 steel, II. 15 j
uses, II. 283 ; Cornplanter's,

I. 206, II. 283.
Tonawanda, band of Senecas, I.

31, II. 200, 304.

Torture, see Captives.
Totems, O-ki, of clans, I. 76 j over
door of house, I. 309 ; in names,

II. 216, 237 5 origin, II. 218 ;
reverence for, II. 233 ; personal,
II. 233 ; lost at Oriskany, II.
233.

Trade, Ir., with Dutch and English
in furs and firearms, I. 10.

Trails, Wd-a-given'-ne-yu, I. 44 j
origin, II. 205, 206 ; well trav
elled, II. 80, 94, 205 ; central,
II. 80, 205 ; through forest, II.
94 ; blazed, II. 94, 205 ; re
paired, II. 206 j antiquity of,
II. 95; permanent, II. 95 ;
Ontario, II. 96 ; Genesee, II.
98 5 Susquehanna, II. 102 ; no
bridges, II. 157.

Traps, deer, I. 335, II. 24; bear,
bird, II. 24.

Travel, frequent, I. 1 1 6 ; rate of,
II. 105.

Treaties, with U. S. at end of
Revolution, I. 27, II. 199, 248 ;
at Fort Schuyler, I. 41 ; at Fort
Herkimer, I. 42 ; with Oneidas,
II. 196 ; Ir. faithful to, I. 327.

Tribe, definition and attributes, II.
222 ; division of, II. 222 ; alle
giance, II. 222, 223 ; property,
II. 272 5 names, II. 306 j see
Clan and Nation.

INDEX

Tuscaroras, Dus-ga'-o-<weh-o-no' ,
admitted to League, I. 23, 42, II.
302 5 formerly in North Carolina,
II. 1875 expelled from North
Carolina, I. 42 ; territory of, I.
42; status in League, I. 93;
origin, II. 77 ; present abode
and condition, II. 305.

Unamis, vanquished, I. 13.
Unanimity, required in Council,

I. 106, II. 200.

University of State of New York,
Ho-no-fwe-na -toy raised up as
wampum keeper, II. 247.

Van Buren, Martin, Ha-no-da-ga '-
ne-ars, message on Seneca treaty,

II. 200.

Vermont, hunting-ground of Mo
hawks, II. 189.

Villages, removal of, I. 37, 167,
II. 194, 251 j permanent, I.
305 ; stockaded, I. 305, II.
299 ; location and plan, I. 305,
307 ; fortified, attacked by Cham-
plain, II. 192.

Virginia Indians, become depend
ent, I. 3.

Waist cloth, see Breech cloth.

Walker, Francis A., onlr. , II. 205.

Wampum, Ote-ko'-a (plate, II. 52),
council called by, I. 104 ; how
sent forward, II. 245 ; as record,

I. 327, 329 j reading, I. 114,

II. 245, 246 ; necessary to
treaty, I. 104, 327 ; in confes
sion, I. 164, 1 80 j in atonement,
I. 322 5 burnt with white dog,

I. 208 ; primitive, of spiral shells,

II. 515 materials and origin, II.
52 5 beads, II. 52 ; colors, II.
52 ; as currency, II. 53 ; antiq
uity, II. 244 j importance, II.
245 j belts described, II. 248 ;
litigation over, II. 247 ; still
used in Canada, II. 248.

Wampum keeper, Ho-no-ive-na'-to,

I. 65, 115, 327, II. 246 ; Onon-
dagas, I. 62, 89 ; decline of
office, II. 246 ; sells wampum,

II. 247 ; extinction, II. 247 ;
University raised up, II. 247.

War, unity in, I. 695 individual
enterprise, I. 68 ; normal condi
tion, I. 68, 72 ; declared, I. 330;
boundaries respected in, I. 328 j
formation of war party, I. 330 ;
commissary, I. 330 5 organiza
tion, I. 330; return, I. 331.
War chiefs, not a distinct class, I.
67 ; two highest are Senecas,
I. 90 j and assistant sachems, II.
215.

War-club, see Club.
War-dance, see Dance.
War-song, I. 2,60.
War-whoop, I. 261, 330.
Washington, George, Ha-no-d'd-ga'-
ne-ars, in Ir. Heaven, I. 171,
245 j justice of, I. 246 5 respect
for, II. 122; his interest in In
dian, II. 122 5 his Indian policy,
II. 196.

Weaving, braiding, I. 255 (cut,
II. 41); burden strap, II. 18
(plate, II. 20, cut, II. 1 6); pri
mary elements attained, II. 20,
283 ; great invention, II. 283.
Wells, unknown, I. 305.
White Dog, burning of, I. 201,
207 j II. 257, 261 ff. ; antiquity,
II. 263.

33*

INDEX

Whortleberry festival, see Festivals.

Wills, I. 317, 318, II. 777.

Winds, Spirit of, Ga'-oh, I. 151.

Witches, I. 156 $ punished, I.
321.

Women, influence of, I. 66 5 Keep
ers of Faith, I. 179 j rulers of
house, II. 219 ; separate prop
erty, II. 273.

Wood-carving, II. 43.

Work-bag, Ga-ya-ah' (plate, II.

1 10).

Worship, I. 175- of Great Spirit,

I. 208, II. 235 ; dance in, I.

249, 269.
Writing and records, picture, I.

331 j wampum, I. 327, II. 245;

tallies, II. 245.
Wrist band, see Band.
Wyoming, massacre, II. 203.

332

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