LEAGUE
OF THE
H O-D E -N O-S A U-N E E
OR
IROQJUOIS
HO-DE -NO-SAU-NEE
OR
PEOPLE OF THE LONG HOUSE
I. Ga-ne-a -ga-o-no , or People Possessors of the Flint
MOHAWK NATION
II. O-nun -da-ga-o-no , or People on the Hills
ONONDAGA NATION
III. Nun-da -wa-o-no , or Great Hill People
SENECA NATION
IV. O-na -yote-ka-o-no , or Granite People
ONEIDA NATION
V. Gwe-u -gweh-o-no , or People at the Mucky Land
CAYUGA NATION
VI. Dus-ga -o-weh-o-no , or Shirt Wearing People
TUSCARORA NATION
^A
LEAGUE
OF THE
HO-DE -NO-SAU-NEE
OR
IROQUOIS
. BY LEWIS H. MORGAN
CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY ; OF
THE AMERICAN ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY, ETC.
NESCIT VOX MISSA REVERTI
HORACE De Art. Poet.^ v.
A NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONAL MATTER. EDITED
AND ANNOTATED BY
HERBERT M. LLOYD
TWO VOLUMES IN ONE
NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1922
COPYRIGHT, 1901 AND 1904
BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
Printed in U. S. A.
UNIVERSITY PRESS JOHN WILSON
AND SON CAMBRIDGE, U.S. A
TO
HA-SA-NO-AN -DA
(ELY S. PARKER)
A SENECA INDIAN,
Cfna SMorfc,
THE MATERIALS OF WHICH ARE THE FRUIT OF
OUR JOINT RESEARCHES,
3I& Jnsmbefc:
IN ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE OBLIGATIONS, AND
IN TESTIMONY OF THE FRIENDSHIP OF
THE AUTHOR
+93347
Preface
TO encourage a kinder feeling towards the In-
dian, (3) founded upon a truer knowledge of
his civil and domestic institutions, and of
his capabilities for future elevation, is the motive in
which this work originated.
The present Iroquois, the descendants of that gifted
race which formerly held under their jurisdiction the
fairest portions of our Republic, now dwell within our
limits as dependent nations, subject to the tutelage and
supervision of the people who displaced their fathers.
Their numbers, the circumstances of their past history
and present condition, and more especially the relation
in which they stand to the people of the State, suggest
many important questions concerning their future
destiny.
Born to an unpropitious fate, the inheritors of many
wrongs, they have been unable, of themselves, to es
cape from the complicated difficulties which accelerate
their decline. To aggravate these adverse influences,
IX
PREFACE
the public estimation of the Indian, resting, as it does,
upon an imperfect knowledge of his character, and
tinctured, as it ever has been, with the coloring of
prejudice, is universally unjust.
The time has come in which it is befitting to cast
away all ancient antipathies, all inherited opinions; and
having taken a nearer view of their social life, condition
and wants, to study anew our duty concerning them.
Notwithstanding the embarrassments which have ob
structed their progress, the obscurity in which they
have lived, and the prevailing indifference to their
welfare, they have gradually overcome many of the
evils inherent in their social system, and raised them
selves to a considerable degree of prosperity. Their
present condition, when considered in connection with
the ordeal through which they have passed, testifies to
the presence of an element in their character which
must eventually lead to important results. It brings
before us the question of their ultimate reclamation,
certainly a more interesting subject, in itself, than any
other connected with the Indian. Can the residue of
the Iroquois be reclaimed, and finally raised to the
position of citizens of the State ? To secure this end,
at once so just and so beneficent, our own people have
an important part to perform.
As this work does not profess to be based upon
authorities, a question may arise in the mind of the
PREFACE
reader, whence its materials were derived, or what
reliance is to be placed upon its statements. The
credibility of a witness is known to depend chiefly upon
his means of knowledge. For this reason, it may not
be inappropriate to state, that circumstances in early
life, not necessary to be related, brought the author
in frequent intercourse with the descendants of the
Iroquois, and led to his adoption as a Seneca. (1> 5> 9)
This gave him favorable opportunities for studying
minutely into their social organization, and the structure
and principles of the ancient League. Copious notes
were made from time to time, when leisure enabled him
to prosecute his researches among them, until these
had accumulated beyond the bounds of the present
volume. As the materials increased in quantity and
variety, the interest awakened in the subject finally
induced the idea of its arrangement for publication.
The work properly commences with the second
chapter. The first, being introductory, has no neces
sary connection with the residue, but was introduced
to give to those unfamiliar with the civil history of the
Iroquois, some preliminary information concerning
the rise and decline of the League.
It remains for the author to acknowledge his obli
gations to Ely S. Parker, Ha-sa-no-an -da, (2 13) an
educated Seneca Indian, to whom this volume is
inscribed. He is indebted to him for invaluable
XI
PREFACE
assistance during the whole progress of the research,
and for a share of the materials. His intelligence,
and accurate knowledge of the institutions of his fore
fathers, have made his friendly services a peculiar
privilege.
To Charles T. Porter, Esq., (15) of New York, who has
made extensive inquiries into the civil and domestic
institutions of the Iroquois, and prosecuted them,
in many instances, in connection with the author, (1)
he is indebted for many valuable suggestions and
for some material.
ROCHESTER, N. Y., January, 1851.
* The numbers in parentheses refer to the notes contained in Appen
dix B at the end of the work.
GENERAL CONTENTS
VOLUME I
BOOK I
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE
BOOK II
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
VOLUME II
BOOK III
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
VOWEL SOUNDS
a as in arm
& as in at
a as in ale
as in met
5 as in tone
Table of Contents
VOLUME I
BOOK I
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE
CHAPTER I
Introductory Outline Origin of the Iroquois Formation of
the League Intercourse with Europeans Wars with
Indian Nations Wars with the French Jesuit Mis
sionaries Number of the Iroquois Fidelity to the
English Dispersion of the Nations Present Condition
Future Prospects 3
CHAPTER II
Indian Geography Home Country of the Iroquois Na
tional Boundaries Trails Indian Map Ho-de -no-
sau-nee National Names 35
CHAPTER III
Interest in our Predecessors The Hunter State Its Institu
tions Transitory Origin of the League Sachemships
Hereditary Titles Council of the League Equal
ity of the Sachems Chiefs Military Chieftains
Popular Influence Unity of the Race 51
xv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
Division into Tribes Family Relationships Descent in the
Female Line Degrees of Consanguinity Succession
of Sachems Names Nature of a Tribe Equality
of the Nations National Epithets Office of Chief
elective Distinguished Men were Chiefs Stability of
the Oligarchy J4
CHAPTER V
Councils of the Iroquois Influence of Public Sentiment
Oratory Civil Councils Unanimity Mourning
Councils Wampum Festivities Religious Councils 99
CHAPTER VI
Species of Government Progress of Governments from
Monarchy to Democracy Illustrated by a View of
Grecian Institutions The League an Oligarchy Liberty /
of the People Stability of the League Prospects at
the Discovery Its Decline I 20
BOOK II
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
CHAPTER I
Faith of the Iroquois Belief in the Great Spirit The Evil-
Minded He -no, the Thunderer Ga -o, Spirit of the
Winds The Three Sisters The Invisible Aids -
Witches False Faces Legendary Literature
Immortality of the Soul - Future Punishments Moral
Sentiments Burial Customs Abode of the Great
Spirit Washington Spirituality of their Faith Its
Influence 141
xvi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER II
Worship of the Iroquois Keepers of the Faith Thanks to
the Maple Planting Festival Berry Festival
Green Corn Festival Harvest Festival New Year s
Jubilee Sacrifice of the White Dog Address to the
Great Spirit Influence of their Worship 175
CHAPTER III
The New Religion Ga-ne-o-di -yo, the Instructor Pre
tended Revelation Sose-ha -wa, his Successor Speech
of Da-at -ga-dose Speech of Sose-ha -wa Doctrines
of the New Religion 217
CHAPTER IV
National Dances Influence of the Dance Costume
War Dance Speeches in the War Dance Great
Feather Dance Trotting Dance Fish Dance Dance
for the Dead Concerts 249
CHAPTER V
National Games Betting Ball Game Game of Javelins
Game of Deer Buttons Snow Snake Game Snow
Boat Game Archery Peach-Stone Game Enthu
siasm for Games 280
CHAPTER VI
Indian Society Ancient Villages Stockaded Bark House
Marriage Passion of Love Unknown Divorce
Rights of Property Hospitality Criminal Code Faith
of Treaties Use of Wampum Usages of War Cap
tives not Exchanged Adoption The Hunt Indian
Life . . . 305
BOOK III
INCIDENT TO THE LEAGUE
CHAPTER I
Fabrics of the Iroquois Their Artisan Intellect Indian
Pottery Earthen Vessels Moccason War Club
Tomahawk Rope Making Finger Weaving Bark
Vessels Bark Canoe Corn Mortar Maize To
bacco Snow Shoe Indian Saddle Miscellaneous
Inventions Basket Making Costumes Wampum
Saby Frame Diffusion of Indian Arts Improvement
of the Iroquois 3
CHAPTER II
Language of the Iroquois Alphabet The Noun Adjec
tive Comparison Article Adverb Preposition
Species of Declension The Verb Fulness of Conju
gation Formation of Sentences The Lord s Prayer 61
CHAPTER III
Indian Geography Method of Bestowing Names Central
Trail Its Course Ko-la-ne -ka Highway of the
Continent Derivation of Niagara Ontario Trail
Genesee Trail Conhocton Trail Susquehanna Trail
Indian Runners Iroquois Map ........ 78
xviii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV
Future Destiny of the Indian His Reclamation Schools of
the Missionaries The Christian Party Schools of the
State Future Citizenship Their Indebtedness to
Missionaries Rights of Property Injustice of Neg
lect System of Superintendence Duty of the Amer
ican People The Indian Department 108
APPENDIX A
No. i
Schedule Explanatory of the Indian Map . I 27
No. 2
Table exhibiting, in the Seneca Dialect, the Conjugation of the
Verb Ge -yase, "I shoot" HO
APPENDIX B
Introduction 145
Personal Reminiscences, by Charles T. Porter 153
Lewis H. Morgan 162
Ely S. Parker i?9
Charles T. Porter, by Robert H. Thurston 182
Notes 187
List of Works Cited 311
Index 319
xix
List of Illustrations
VOLUME I
PAGE
Map of the Territory of the Troquois in 1720 .... Frontispiece
Bark House To face 3
Moccason for Male 35
Deer Skin Moccason " 44
Breech- cloth 51
Porcupine Quills " 58
Conch Shell Breast Plate " 58
Moccason for Female " 79
Belt " 10 1
Pipes " 105
Skirt st 122
False Face ........157
Kilt To face 184
Over-dress, front " 190
Over-dress, back " 191
Knee Band " 216
Wrist Band " 216
Arm Band 216
Head-dress, frame work of 254
Head Dress To face 254
Neck Lace " 254
Knee Rattle of Deer s Hoofs 255
War Club 256
Male Leggin To face 256
xxi
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
Drum 257
Turtle-shell Rattle . ...; 268
Female Leggin To face 274
Squash-shell Rattles 276
Ball Bat (La Crosse) 283
Javelin . , 287
Deer-buttons 290
Snow Snake 292
Snow Boat 293
Bow 296
Arrow 296
Arrow, Horn-pointed 297
Sheaf (Quiver) 298
Peach Stones (Dice) 300
Bowl (Gaming) . . 300
VOLUME II
PAGE
Map of Territorial Divisions of New York Aborigines, 1600 Frontis.
Bark Canoe To face 3
Pipe . . . 7
Silver Beads To face 8
" Mound Builders " Pipe . 8
Earthen Vessel 9
Stone Tomahawk (Grooved Axe) I I
War-club 14
Deer-horn War-club 14
Tomahawk 15
Skein of Slippery-elm Filaments 16
Burden Strap 1 6
Moose-hair Burden Strap To face 20
Burden Frame or Litter 21
xxii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Bark Barrel . . ^
Bark Tray
2 4
Bird Trap
-. 2 )
Bark Sap-tub 27
Corn Mortar 2
Bread Turner . * * 30
Needle Book TQ face ^
Pop-corn Sieve , , j
Snow-shoe
Saddle ........... 36
Air-gun 37
Air-gun Arrow 27
Flute 38
Tobacco Pouch m -g
Fawn Skin Bag ?g
Fire-drill . Q
Corn-husk Salt Bottle . T
Basket Fish-net . 2
Wooden Ladle ..
Hommony Blade .,.
Bark Ladle 4 6
Embroidered Skirt To face 48
Silver Ear Ring j- o
Silver Finger Rings r O
Silver Broach ,- o
Belt of Wampum r 2
String of Wampum r 2
Silver Medal 55
Sea-shell Medal 5 6
Baby-frame (frame work) rg
Baby-frame To face 58
Pin Cushion 82
Deer Skin Leggin Ioo
Deer Skin Shoulder Belt 105
xxiii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Work Bag . ,.
Pocket Book M -
Baby-frame Belt j , g
Portrait of Lewis H. Morgan (in photogravure) ... << 153
Diagram of Long House Bartram 2 94
" " " " -Morgan 2 94
" " " " -Lafitau 295
XXIV
VOLUME I
BOOK FIRST
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE
GA-NO-SOTE
or
Interior View of
League of the Iroquois
BOOK I
STRUCTURE OF THE LEAGUE
Chapter I
Introductory Outline Origin of the Iroquois Formation of the
League Intercourse with Europeans Wars with the Indian Na
tions Wars with the French Jesuit Missionaries Number of
the Iroquois Fidelity to the English Dispersion of the Nations
Present Condition Future Prospects
AMONG the Indian nations whose ancient seats
were within the limits of our republic, the
Iroquois have long continued to occupy the
most conspicuous position. They achieved for them
selves a more remarkable civil organization, and ac
quired a higher degree of influence, than any other
race of Indian lineage, except those of Mexico and
Peru. In the drama of European colonization, they
stood, for nearly two centuries, with an unshaken
front, against the devastations of war, the blighting
influence of foreign intercourse, and the still more fatal
encroachments of a restless and advancing border pop
ulation. Under their federal system, the Iroquois
flourished in independence, and capable of self-protec
tion, long after the New England and Virginia races
had surrendered their jurisdictions, and fallen into the
3
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
condition of dependent nations ; and they now stand
forth in our Indian history, prominent alike for the
wisdom of their civil institutions, their sagacity in the
administration of the League, and their courage in its
defence. When their power and sovereignty finally
passed away, it was through the events of peaceful in
tercourse, gradually progressing to this result, rather
than from conquest or forcible subjugation. They
fell under the giant embrace of civilization, victims of
the successful warfare of intelligent social life upon
the rugged obstacles of nature; and in a struggle
which they were fated to witness as passive and silent
spectators.
As there is no connected history (34) of the rise,
progress, and decline of this Indian League, a brief
general outline seems to be demanded, to refresh the
mind of the reader, and to furnish a proper introduc
tion to the following pages, which are devoted to
an exposition of its structure, principles, and spirit.
The eventful history of this interesting portion of our
indigenous population furnishes ample materials for a
separate work, the execution of which, it is to be
hoped, will ere long be accomplished by capable
hands.
At the era of Dutch discovery (1609), the Iroquois
were found in the possession of the same territories
between the Hudson and the Genesee rivers, upon
which they afterwards continued to reside until near
the close of the eighteenth century. At that time,
the Five Nations, into which they had become sub
divided, were united in a League ; but its formation
was subsequent to their establishment in the terri-
4
ORIGIN OF THE IRO^UOIS
tories out of which the state of New York has since
been erected.
Their remote origin, and their history anterior to
the discovery, are both enshrouded with obscurity. (16)
Tradition interposes its feeble light to extricate, from
the confusion which time has wrought, some of the
leading events which preceded and marked their polit
ical organization. It informs us, that prior to their
occupation of New York, they resided in the vicinity
of Montreal, upon the northern bank of the St.
Lawrence, where they lived in subjection to the Adi-
rondacks, a branch of the Algonkin race, then in
possession of the whole country north of that river.
At that time, the Iroquois were but one nation, and
few in number. From the Adirondacks they learned
the art of husbandry, (19) and while associated with
them, became inured to the hardships of the war-path
and of the chase. After they had multiplied in num
bers and improved by experience, they made an at
tempt to secure the independent possession of the
country they occupied ; but having been, in the
struggle, overpowered and vanquished by the Adiron
dacks, they were compelled to retire from the country,
to escape extermination. (18)
The period of their migration from the north can
not now be ascertained. Tradition informs us, that
having ascended the St. Lawrence to Lake Ontario,
and coasted its eastern shore to the mouth of the
Oswego river, they entered through this channel the
central parts of New York. (17) Their first settle
ments, they believe, were located upon the Seneca
river, where for a time they dwelt together. At a
5
LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O 1 S
subsequent day they divided into bands, and spread
abroad to found new villages. One, crossing over
.to the Mohawk, established itself at G d-ne-ga-ha-gd^
below Utica, and afterwards became the Mohawk
nation. This village, situated upon the south side
of the Mohawk river, in Herkimer county, is sup
posed to have been the oldest settlement of that
nation. For some years the Oneidas and Mohawks
were one nation ; but one part of it having become
established at Gd-no-a-lo-hdle^ east of the Oneida lake,
in time became independent. The Onondagas plant
ing themselves in the Onondaga valley and on the
hills adjacent, became also a separate nation. In like
manner, the Cayugas and Senecas were many years
united, and resided upon the Seneca river ; but one
band of them having located themselves upon the east
bank of the Cayuga lake, grew up in time into a dis
tinct nation ; while the residue, penetrating into the
interior of western New York, finally settled at Nun-da-
wa-Oy at the head of the Canandaigua lake, and there
formed the nucleus of the Seneca nation.
The Onondagas have a legend that they sprang out
of the ground on the banks of the Oswego river ; and
the Senecas have a similar legend, that they sprang
from the ground at Nun-da-w d-o. By these legendary
inventions, they designed to convey an impression of
the remoteness of the period of their first occupation
of New York.
These several bands were, at first, obliged to con
tend with the various tribes whom they found in pos
session of the country . (20) After their expulsion, the
interests and pursuits of the five nations not only
6
FORMATION OF THE LEAGUE
became distinct, but the severance was followed by a
gradual alienation, finally resulting in a state of open
warfare, which continued for an unknown period.
The project of a League originated with the Onon-
dagas, among whom it was first suggested, as a means
to enable them more effectually to resist the pressure
of contiguous nations. The epoch of its establish
ment cannot now be decisively ascertained ; although
the circumstances attending its formation are still
preserved by tradition with great minuteness. These
traditions all refer to the northern shore of the Onon-
daga lake, as the place where the Iroquois chiefs as
sembled in general council, to agree upon the terms
and principles of the compact, by which their future
destinies were to be linked together. It is evident
from their traditionary history, which is entitled to
considerable credit, that they had long occupied the
country before their necessities or increase of numbers
made the League a feasible or desirable consumma
tion. In relation to the period of its origin, there are
some circumstances connected with their first inter
course with Europeans tending to show that it had
subsisted about a century or a century and a half at
the era of Dutch discovery ; on the other hand,
their principal traditions indicate a period far more
remote. (18)
After the formation of the League, the Iroquois
rose rapidly in power and influence. It gave them
additional strength by concentration of effort ; a con
stant increase of numbers by the unity of the race ;
and a firmer establishment, through their more ample
means for self-protection and foreign conquest. One
7
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
of the first results of their federal system was a uni
versal spirit of aggression ; a thirst for military glory
and political aggrandizement, which made the old
forests of America resound with human conflicts from
New England to the Mississippi, and from the north
ern confines of the great lakes to the Tennessee
and the hills of Carolina. Unrecorded, except by
tradition, is the narrative of the warlike achievements
of this gifted and progressive race, who raised them
selves, through the vicissitudes of incessant strife, to a
general and acknowledged supremacy over these bound
less territories. Without considering the terrible and
ferocious characteristics of Indian warfare, it must be
admitted that the empire which they reared over
Indian nations, furnishes no slight evidence of their
hardihood, courage, and sagacity.
With the first consciousness of rising power, they
turned their long-cherished resentment upon the Adi-
rondacks, who had oppressed them in their infancy as
a nation, and had expelled them from their country, in
the first struggle for the ascendency. This war raged
for a long time with unceasing animosity, and was
continued nearly fifty years after the commencement
of French occupation, until the descendants of the
ancient Adirondacks were almost totally extirpated.
At the era of French discovery (1535), the latter
nation appear to have been dispossessed of their
original country, and driven down the St. Lawrence
as far as Quebec. When Jacques Cartier first ascended
this river in 1535, the country about Quebec was in
the possession of a people speaking the Algonkin
language, doubtless the Adirondacks, while the site
8
INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS
of Montreal was occupied by a nation speaking the
Huron tongue, of which the language of the Iroquois
is a branch. (21) After the permanent occupation
of Canada by the French, in 1607, the Adirondacks
became their allies ; but the protection of the former
was insufficient to shield them against the hostile visi
tations of their hereditary enemy.
A new era commenced with the Iroquois upon the
establishment of the Dutch trading-post at Orange,
now Albany, in 1615. The principal Indian nations
upon the north were the Hurons and Adirondacks ;
upon the west, the Eries, Neuter Nation, Miamis,
Ottawas, and Illinois ; upon the south, the Shawnees,
Cherokees, Catawbas, Susquehannocks, Nanticokes,
Delawares, and some lesser tribes ; and upon the east,
the Minsi and New England Indians. Some of these
nations had been subdued and made tributary. At
this time, the Iroquois had grown up into a populous
and powerful confederacy and were rapidly advancing
to a general supremacy in the north-eastern section of
the continent. No Indian race east of the Mississippi
had reached such a position of authority and influence,
or were bound together by such enduring institutions.
Firmly established upon the territory of New York^
and above the danger of displacement from adjacent
nations, they had already entered upon that career of
conquest which they afterwards prosecuted with such
signal success.
Friendly relations were established between the
Iroquois and the Dutch, which continued without
interruption until the latter surrendered their posses
sions upon the Hudson to the English, in 1664.
9
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
During this period, a trade sprang up between them
in furs, which the Iroquois exchanged for European
fabrics, but more especially for firearms, in the use
of which they were afterwards destined to become
so expert. The English, in turn, cultivated the same
relations of friendship which had been commenced
with them by the Dutch. A " covenant chain " was
established between them, which the Iroquois, with
singular fidelity, preserved unbroken, until the inde
pendence of the American states terminated the juris
diction of the English over the country.
It was otherwise, however, with the French. From
the first to the last, they encountered the uncom
promising and inveterate enmity of the League. As
early as 1609, Champlain, having ascended through
the lake which now bears his name into lake George,
accompanied by the Adirondacks, fell in with a war-
party of the Mohawks, numbering about two hundred,
and an engagement ensued between them on the
western shore of the lake. (22) This was the first battle
between the Iroquois and the Europeans, and the
first time the former heard the sound of firearms,
by the marvellous power of which they were then
easily vanquished. The French having allied them
selves with the Adirondacks and Hurons, given them
arms and assistance, and incited them against the Iro
quois, a spirit of hatred was aroused against them,
which never ceased to burn until the final subjugation
of Canada by the English, in 1760. Besides this alli
ance with their ancient enemies, the French were more
inclined to resort to intimidation in their intercourse
with the Iroquois, than to conciliation and forbearance.
IO
INTERCOURSE WITH EUROPEANS
In addition to these errors of policy, was the deep
and abiding interest taken by the latter in the country
about Montreal, which in ancient times had been the
home of their fathers, which had been the theatre
of their first military success, and which they had long
continued to hold by the slender tenure of Indian
conquest. (17) As the rival colonies of France and Eng
land were for many years nearly equally balanced, the
enmity and power of the Hode nosaunee were suffi
cient to turn the scale against the former. To this
Indian League, France must chiefly ascribe the final
overthrow of her magnificent schemes of colonization
in the northern part of America.
With the possession of firearms commenced not
only the rapid elevation, but absolute supremacy of
the Iroquois over other Indian nations. In 164950,
after a number of sanguinary conquests, the Hurons
were overthrown and their power in Canada was
destroyed. In 1651, they expelled the Neuter Nation
from the Niagara peninsula, and established a perma
nent settlement at the mouth of that river. They
nearly exterminated, in 1654, the Eries, who occupied
the south side of lake Erie and from thence east to
the Genesee, and thus possessed themselves of the
whole area of western New York, and the northern
part of Ohio. About the year 1670, after they had
finally completed the dispersion and subjugation of
the Adirondacks, they acquired possession of the whole
country between lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and
of the north bank of the St. Lawrence, to the mouth
of the Otawas river, near Montreal. On the north
shore of lake Ontario they founded several villages, in
ii
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the nature of colonial towns, to maintain possession of
the conquered territory.
They also made constant inroads upon the New
England Indians, who, after their partial subjugation
by the English, were unable to cope with the for
midable Iroquois. (<23) About the year 1670, they com
pelled them to break up many of their settlements,
and flee for safety and protection to the borders of the
English plantations. The name of the Iroquois had
then become a terror among Indian nations. " I have
been told," (says Golden) " by old men in New Eng
land, who remembered the time when the Mohawks
made war on their Indians, that as soon as a single
Mohawk was discovered in their country, their In
dians raised a cry from hill to hill, a Mohawk! a
Mohawk ! upon which they fled like sheep before
wolves, without attempting to make the least resist
ance."
In 1680, the Senecas with six hundred warriors
invaded the country of the Illinois, upon the borders
of the Mississippi river, while La Salle was among
the latter, preparing to descend that river to the sea.
So great was the dread and consternation of the Illinois,
that they were inclined to abandon their villages, and re
tire from the country, to escape the fury of the conquer
ing foe. At various times, both before and after this
period, the Iroquois turned their warfare against the
Cherokees upon the Tennessee, and the Catawbas in
South Carolina, frequently returning from their distant
expeditions with numerous captives, to grace the nar
rative of their invasions. Of these inroads they still
preserve many traditions. All the intermediate coun-
I 2
WARS WITH THE INDIAN NATIONS
try between the Allegany and the Tennessee acknowl
edged their authority, and the latter river became their
southern boundary. War parties of the League also
made irruptions into the country of the Miamis,
others penetrated into the peninsula of Michigan, and
still others were seen upon the distant shores of lake
Superior. No distant solitude or rugged fastness was
too obscure or difficult to escape their visitation ; no
enterprise was too perilous, no fatigue too great for
their courage and endurance. The fame of their
achievements resounded over the continent.
On the south-east, also, they extended their con
quests. As early as 1607, Captain John Smith, the
founder of Virginia, encountered a band of the Iro-
quois, in several canoes, upon the upper part of the
Chesapeake bay, then on their way to the territories
of the Powhattan confederacy. The Shawnees, Nanti-
cokes, Unamis, Delawares, and Minsi were vanquished
one after another, and reduced to the condition of
dependent nations. Even the Canarese Indians, in
their sea-girt home upon Long Island, found no pro
tection against their attacks. In fact, they traversed
the whole country from the St. Lawrence to the Ten
nessee, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi.
For three quarters of a century, from the year
1625 to the year 1700, the Iroquois were involved
in an almost uninterrupted warfare. At the close of
this period, they had subdued and held in nominal
subjection all the principal Indian nations occupying
the territories which are now embraced in the states
of New York, Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, the northern and western parts of Vir-
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
ginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Northern Tennessee, part of
Illinois, Indiana and Michigan, a portion of the New
England states, and the principal part of Upper
Canada. Over many of these nations, the haughty
and imperious Iroquois exercised a constant super
vision. If any of them became involved in domestic
difficulties, a delegation of chiefs went among them
and restored tranquillity, prescribing at the same time
their future conduct. Some of these nations, like the
Delawares, they prohibited from going out to war,
having denationalized them by taking from them all
civil powers. According to the Indian notion, they
were made women, and were henceforth to confine
themselves to pursuits appropriate to the India n
female. Such was the general awe and fear inspired
by their warlike achievements, that they dictated to
Indian nations their own terms of intercourse, and in
sisted upon the fulfilment of their requirements. In
the conquered territories they often established set
tlements or colonies of their own people, to exer
cise a species of superintendence over their acquired
possessions.
The multitude of independent tribes into which the
generic stocks of the continent had become sub
divided, and their want of concert and unity were
extremely favorable to the career of conquest pursued
by the Iroquois. In their disunited condition, they
could but feebly resist the concentrated energies secured
to the latter through the League.
About the year 1700, the Iroquois reached their
culminating point. They had reared a formidable
Indian power, so far as its sway over the aborigines
14
WARS WITH THE FRENCH
was concerned, and in comparison with any Indian
power which had risen north of the Aztec monarchy.
Having established their dominion securely against
all races of Indian lineage, and strengthened the bonds
of union among themselves beyond the power of
civil dissensions, they would seem to have prepared
themselves for a still higher progress, through the
pursuits of peace; but a different and more deadly
enemy than the Indian had already stretched out its
arms to enfold them in its withering embrace.
During the same period, or rather from about the
year 1640 to the year 1700, a constant warfare was
maintained between the Iroquois and the French,
interrupted occasionally by negotiations and brief in
tervals of peace. As the former possessed both banks
of the St. Lawrence, and the circuits of lakes Erie and
Ontario, they intercepted the fur trade, which the
French were anxious to maintain with the western
nations. Upon this trade much of the prosperity of
the new colony depended, for it furnished the chief
article of export, and yielded the most profitable
returns. But the war parties of the League ranged
through these territories so constantly, that it was
impossible for the French to pass in safety through
the lakes, or even up the St. Lawrence above Mon
treal. Their traders were captured, and the rich furs
of the west not only became the spoil of the victors,
but the traders themselves were often led into captiv
ity, and perhaps to the stake. So great was the fear
of these sudden attacks, that both the traders and the
missionaries were obliged to ascend the Otawas river
to near its source, and from thence to cross over to
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the Sauit St. Marie, and the shores of lake Superior.
For these reasons the French were extremely anxious,
either to detach the Iroquois from the English and
gain their alliance, or to reduce them to subjection by
conquest. They tried each successively, and in both
were equally defeated. The untractable and politic
Iroquois were averse to the former, and too powerful
for the latter. On numerous occasions the ambassa
dors of the League were at Montreal and Quebec, to
negotiate with them for the adjustment of difficulties,
and the exchange of prisoners ; in some of which
negotiations, the terms of a peace, or at least of an
armistice, were agreed upon ; but these respites from
warfare were of short duration. The ravages com
mitted upon the settlements of the French were so
frequent and so devastating as to place the colony in
imminent peril. But for the constant supplies from
the mother country, the French power in Canada
would inevitably have been overthrown at several
different periods prior to 1700.
To retaliate for these frequent inroads, and to pre
vent their recurrence, the country of the Iroquois was
often invaded by the French. On several occasions
they drew out the whole force of the colony, to devas
tate the villages of the League ; but after the most
toilsome expeditions into the heart of the wilderness
of New York, they returned without having accom
plished sufficient to reward them for the fatigues and
perils of the enterprise. The Iroquois invariably re
tired into the depths of the forest, leaving nothing but
their deserted tenements and fields of corn to await
the invader. In this manner the unwearied persever-
WARS WITH THE FRENCH
ance and indomitable courage of the French were ren
dered futile against such an evanescent adversary.
In 1665, M. Courcelles, governor of Canada, led a
strong party into the country of the Mohawks; but
the hardships they encountered rendered it necessary
for them to return, without accomplishing their pur
pose. The next year, M. De Tracy, viceroy of New
France, with twelve hundred French and six hundred
Indians, renewed the invasion with better success.
He captured Te-a-ton-ta-ld-ga^ one of the principal
villages of the Mohawks, situated at the mouth of
the Schoharie creek ; but after destroying the town,
and the stores of corn, which they found in caches,
they were obliged to retire without meeting an oppos
ing force. Again, in 1684, M. De La Barre, then
governor of Canada, entered the country of the Onon-
dagas with about eighteen hundred men. Having
reached Hungry bay, on the east shore of lake
Ontario, a conference was had with a delegation of
Iroquois chiefs, headed by Garangula, the celebrated
Onondaga orator. (24) After they had exchanged re
criminations and mutual defiance, a species of armis
tice was finally agreed upon, and thus the expedition
ended.
A more successful enterprise was projected and car
ried into execution, in 1687, by M. De Nonville,
then governor of Canada. Having raised a force of
two thousand French and six hundred Indians, he
embarked them in a fleet of two hundred bateau and
as many birch bark canoes. After coasting lake On
tario from Kingston to Irondequoit bay, in the terri
tory of the Senecas, he landed at the head of this bay,
VOL. I. 2
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
and found himself within a few miles of the principal
villages of the Senecas, which were then in the coun
ties of Ontario and Monroe. The nearest village was
Ga-o-sd-ga -o, near Victor, in the county of Ontario,
and the next Ga-nun-da-gwa, at the foot of the Canan-
daigua lake. Taking the trail which led directly to
these villages, De Nonville marched upon the first.
After repulsing a body of five hundred Senecas, with
whom he had a sharp engagement, he took and de
stroyed the town, which had been deserted by its in
habitants. Meeting with no further opposition, as
the Senecas had retired into the interior, he marched
southward as far as Da-yo-de-hok -to, a village situated
at the bend of the Honeoye outlet, west of Mendon,
in the county of Monroe. This was the largest vil
lage of the Senecas, according to the official statement
of De Nonville, and was the place selected for the ex
ecution of the act e^ by which they took formal posses
sion of the country of the Seneca-Iroquois, in the
name of France. Four villages, with their extensive
fields of corn then growing, were burned and devas
tated, after which the French army retired.
To retaliate for this invasion, a formidable party of
the Iroquois, in the fall of the same year, made a sud
den descent upon fort Chambly, on the Sorel river,
near Montreal. Unable to capture the fort, which
was resolutely defended by the garrison, they ravaged
the settlements adjacent, and returned with a number of
captives. About the same time, a party of eight hun
dred attacked Frontenac, on the site of Kingston, and
destroyed and laid waste the plantations and establish
ments of the French without the fortification. In July
WARS WITH THE FRENCH
of the ensuing year, the French were made to feel still
more sensibly the power of their revenge. A band of
twelve hundred warriors, animated with the fiercest re
sentment, made a descent upon the island of Montreal.
They had covered their plans with such secrecy, and
advanced with such celerity, that the inhabitants had
no admonition of their approach. Their first intima
tion of impending danger was the fearful onset of the
Iroquois. Unprepared, and without the means of
resistance, they were overpowered and slain in every
direction. All that were without the fortifications fell
under the rifle or the relentless tomahawk. Their
houses were burned, their plantations ravaged, and the
whole island covered with desolation. About a thou
sand of the French, according to some writers, perished
in this invasion, or were carried into captivity. When
the work of destruction was completed, the Iroquois
retired, bearing with them the spoils of the island, and
about two hundred prisoners.
Overwhelmed by this sudden disaster, the French
destroyed their forts at Niagara and Frontenac, and
thus yielded the whole country west of Montreal to
the possession of the Iroquois. At this critical period
Count Frontenac again became governor of Canada,
and during the short residue of his life devoted him
self, with untiring energy, to restore its declining pros
perity. War had now commenced between the
English and French, which drew his first attention to
the defence of Quebec against the attack of the Eng
lish ; but after this had been successfully resisted, he
again sought to chastise the fierce enemy who had
so long disputed with the French the possession of
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
Canada. In the winter of 1692-3, he sent a detach
ment of six hundred French and Indians against the
Mohawks ; which, after travelling through the dense
forests upon snow-shoes, and encountering almost
insurmountable obstacles, finally reached in safety the
vicinity of the Mohawk villages. They surprised and
captured three of these, took three hundred prisoners,
and returned with the loss of thirty men. Again, in
1696, Count Frontenac conducted an expedition in
person against the Onondagas and Oneidas, with a
thousand French and as many Indians. (25) Having
ascended the St. Lawrence in bateau and bark canoes,
he coasted the eastern shore of the lake, to the mouth
of the Oswego river. From thence he marched to
the salt springs, near the site of Syracuse, and up
the Onondaga valley to the principal village of the
Onondagas. He found it, as usual, deserted, although
fortified with palisades, and supplied with stores of
corn. The village was then burned, and the growing
corn, which was found in great abundance in the fields
adjacent, was cut down with the sabre. A detachment
was then sent against the Oneidas, under M. De Vau-
dreuil, by whom their fields also were laid waste, after
which the French army returned to Canada.
This was the last French invasion of the territories
of the Iroquois. A general peace soon followed, and
continued without interruption, until the war of 1755,
which finally resulted in the conquest of Canada by
the English, in ij6o. (2G}
From the commencement of English intercourse
with the Iroquois, down to the independence of the
American states, the covenant of friendship between
20
ENGLISH INTERCOURSE
them remained unbroken. The importance of con
ciliating this powerful confederacy was fully appreci
ated by the colonial authorities, especially during the
infancy of the English establishments. Unwearied
pains were taken by them to secure and retain their
favor and confidence. Each successive governor an
nounced his arrival to the Sachems of the League,
and invited them to meet him in council, at an early
day, to renew the " covenant chain." Each new
alliance was cemented by presents, by mutual pro
fessions of kindness, and by assurances of mutual
assistance. An intercourse sprang up between them
in matters of trade, and in public affairs, which con
tinued to increase, until councils with the Iroquois
became nearly as frequent as the sessions of the
provincial legislature. Independent of the profitable
trade in furs, with which they enriched their com
merce, they felt the necessity of interposing the power
of the Indian League, as a barrier to French prog
ress, not only towards their own settlements, but
also towards the west. The French were constantly
striving to open an extensive fur trade with the
western nations, and for its necessary protection, to
extend their possessions up the St. Lawrence, and
upon the northern shores of Lake Ontario. With
the exclusive navigation of this river and lake, they
would have obtained nearly the absolute control of
this important trade ; under the powerful stimulus
of which, the strength and prosperity of the French
colony would have risen with such rapidity as to
threaten the security of the English possessions.
Both the English and the French were fully aware
21
LEAGUE OF THE IROQJJOIS
of the important part the Iroquois were destined to
bear in the drama of colonization ; but the former,
by their superior advantage of position, and from
their greater dependence upon the forbearance of the
League, were induced to pursue a course of policy
which gained their unchangeable friendship. The
French would inevitably, if unopposed by them, have
possessed themselves of the greater part of New York,
and, perhaps, have established their empire so firmly,
that the united forces of the English colonies would
have been unable to effect their displacement. At
one period, the French had pushed their settlements
up Lake Champlain, until both sides of the lake,
as far up as the foot of Lake George, were covered
with French grants.
o
A reference, at least, to the missionary efforts of
the French, while in the occupation of Canada, ought
not to be omitted. While the English entirely neg
lected the spiritual welfare of the Indians, the French
were unremitting in their efforts to spread Christian
ity among them. (35) The privations and hardships
endured by the Jesuit missionaries, and the zeal, the
fidelity and devotion, exhibited by them, in their
efforts for the conversion of the Indian, are unsur
passed in the history of Christianity. They trav
ersed the forests of America alone and unprotected;
they dwelt in the depth of the wilderness, without
shelter, and almost without raiment; they passed the
ordeal of Indian captivity, and the fires of the torture;
they suffered from hunger and violence ; but in the
midst of all, they never forgot the mission with which
they were intrusted. The fruits of these labors of
22
JESUIT MISSIONARIES
Christian devotion are yet visible among the descend
ants of the ancient Iroquois : for the precepts spread
abroad among them by the missionaries are still in
the Indian mind, and many of them have been incor
porated by them into their own religious system.
The intercourse of the French Jesuits with the Iro
quois furnishes, in some respects, the most pleasing
portion of their history.
In 1715, the Tuscaroras, having been expelled
from North Carolina, turned to the north, and sought
a home among the Iroquois, on the ground of a
common origin. That they were originally descended
from the same stock is sufficiently evinced by their
language. They we re admitted into the League as a
constituent member, and a portion of the Oneida terri
tory assigned to them as their future home. After
this event, the Iroquois, who had before been styled
by the English the " Five Nations," were known
by them under the name of the " Six Nations."
With this brief and barren outline of prominent
events, the civil history of the Iroquois, prior to
1760, is dismissed.
It is difficult to form a correct estimate of their
number; the opinions of those having the best oppor
tunities of judging have been so various. La Hontan
placed them at seventy thousand. The estimate
made by Colonel Coursey, at Albany, in 1677, gave
them about fifteen thousand ; but it is known that his
means of judging were very imperfect. Bancroft esti
mates them, including the Tuscaroras, at seventeen
thousand. Calculations made at a later day, after
they had greatly declined in number, allowed them
23
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
ten thousand. This was substantially the estimate
of Sir William Johnson, in 1763. There is a tradi
tion among the Senecas, that at the period of their
highest prosperity and numbers, they took a cen
sus of their nation, by placing a kernel of white
flint corn for each Seneca, in a corn husk basket,
which, from the description of its size, would hold
ten or twelve quarts. Taking the smallest size, and
making the estimate accordingly, it will give us the
number of Senecas alone at 17,760. At the present
time there are about seven thousand Iroquois within
the United States and Canada, who have continued
to preserve their lineage and nationality through all
their vicissitudes. This appears from the reports of
the Indian Department, and from other sources of
information/ 59 )
It is well understood, that the decline of the Iro
quois commenced with their first intercourse with
Europeans. The possession of firearms, and their
use in Indian warfare, the introduction of ardent
spirits among them, with its train of frightful excesses,
and their incessant conflicts with the French, and with
Indian nations, were calculated to waste them away
with great rapidity. In 1750, from these various
causes, they had become diminished about one half.
Another and a prominent cause of the decline of the
Iroquois, was the large numbers induced, at various
times, to emigrate to the banks of the St. Lawrence,
under the influence of the Jesuit missionaries, and
who, by placing themselves under French protection,
became the enemies of their kindred and of the
League. The most successful colony of this descrip-
24
NUMBER OF THE IRO^UOIS
tion was that established by the Abbe Picquet at
Swe-ga-che, on the site of Ogdensburg, in 1749. The
first year, he constructed a fort of palisades, and com
menced with six Iroquois families ; in the second
year, the number of families had increased to eighty-
seven, and in the third, to 396. Such was the influx
from the territories of the League to the new mis
sionary establishment, that, in 1754, the number of
inhabitants in their three villages, at and near Swe-
ga-chey were estimated by the French at three thousand.
This band were afterwards known as the " Praying
Indians," from their conversion to Christianity. Their
descendants now reside upon the St. Regis reservation,
in the county of St. Lawrence.
The period of their greatest prosperity, and of their
highest numbers, was evidently about the year 1650,
shortly after the commencement of their intercourse
with Europeans. At that time, their total population
may be safely placed at twenty-five thousand. A
higher estimate would be better supported by such
data as the case affords, than a lesser one ; although
the impression of later writers seems to be the con
trary. An approximation to the relative strength
of the several nations of the League, upon this basis,
may be made by the following apportionment : To
the Senecas, ten thousand ; to the Cayugas, three
thousand ; to the Onondagas, four thousand ; to the
Oneidas, three thousand ; and to the Mohawks, five
thousand. A century later, their total population was
probably about half this number, the Mohawks having
wasted away the most rapidly. (59)
A few brief observations upon the modern trans-
2 5
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
actions of the Iroquois will close this outline. From
the close of the French war until the commencement
of the American Revolution, was a time of general
peace. The Revolution placed them in a position of
great difficulty, as the Continental congress negotiated
to secure their neutrality, and the English to obtain
their assistance. Their sympathies, as was anticipated,
were strongly enlisted in favor of their ancient ally >
with whom, for upward of a century, they had main
tained an unbroken friendship. They were thor
oughly English in sentiment. Having no motive of
self-interest to engage them on either side, neutrality
was the true policy of the League ; more especially,
as the final success of the American arms might lead
to the forfeiture of their country, if they enlisted
against them. In the end, the appeals and the ap
pliances of the English were found irresistible ; and,
placing their country and the homes of their fathers
in the event of the struggle, the people of the Long
House went out for the last time in battle array, not
to peril their lives for themselves, but to keep the
" covenant chain " with a transatlantic ally. (28)
When the question of declaring for the English
came before the council of sachems and chiefs, the
Oneidas alone resisted the measure, as unwise and
inexpedient. Their opposition defeated the war
measure, as an act of the League, unanimity being
a fundamental law in the legislation of the Iroquois.
But the course of events had, at this time, greatly
impaired and weakened the confederacy. Their power
and numbers had wasted away ; their political exist
ence, as an independent people, was drawing to its
26
DISPERSION OF THE NATIONS
close; and it was found impossible, under the pressure
of circumstances, to adhere to the ancient principles
of the League. It was finally determined, that each
nation might engage in the war upon its own respon
sibility ; so that, ultimately, the Mohawks, Onondagas,
Cayugas and Senecas took up the rifle for the English.
The border wars of the Revolution, in which the Iro-
quois participated, and the devastations which they
committed in the valleys of the Mohawk and Susque-
hanna, and their tributaries, are too familiar to require
a recital. Their irruptions into the border settlements
were so frequent, and the track of their invasions was
marked with such desolation, that the American con
gress were obliged to send against them a powerful
detachment, to lay waste their villages, and to over
awe them with the fear of final extirpation. General
Sullivan, in 1779, led an army of four thousand men
into the Seneca territory, which he penetrated as far
as the Genesee, at that time the centre of their pop
ulation. After destroying their principal towns, their
fruit orchards, and stores of grain, he returned to
Pennsylvania ; having first sent a detachment into the
Cayuga territory to ravage their settlements.
The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the
United States, in 1783, made no provision for the
Iroquois, who were abandoned in adversity by their
ally, and left to make such terms as they could with
the successful republic. (29) A few years afterwards a
general peace was established with the northwestern
Indian nations, including the Iroquois, all of whom
had, more or less, become involved in the general
controversy. With the restoration of peace, the po-
27
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
litical transactions of the League were substantially
closed. This was, in effect, the- termination of their
political existence. The jurisdiction of the United
States was extended over their ancient territories,
and from that time forth they became dependent na-
tions. (28)
During the progress of the Revolution, the Mo
hawks abandoned their country and removed to Can
ada, finally establishing themselves partly upon Grand
river, in the Niagara peninsula, and partly near
Kingston, where they now reside upon two reserva
tions secured to them by the British government.
The Oneidas, notwithstanding their friendly position
during the war, in the end fared little better than their
Mohawk brethren. A rapid influx of population, the
tide of which set to the westward with the restoration
of peace, soon rendered their possessions valueless.
Negotiations were immediately commenced by the
State for the purchase of their lands, which they
yielded from time to time in large grants, until their
original possessions were narrowed down to one small
reservation. In these negotiations, as well with the
other Iroquois nations as with the Oneidas, the policy
of the State of New York was ever just and humane.
Although their country, with the exception of that of
the Oneidas, might have been considered as forfeited
by the event of the Revolution, yet the government
never enforced the rights of conquest, but extinguished
the Indian title to the country by purchase, and treaty
stipulations. A portion of the Oneida nation emi
grated to a reservation on the river Thames, in Can
ada, where about four hundred of them now reside.
28
PRESENT CONDITION
Another and a larger band removed to Green Bay, in
Wisconsin, where they still make their homes to the
number of seven hundred. But a small part of the
nation have remained around the seat of their ancient
council-fire. One hundred and twenty-six, according
to the census of the last year, are now dwelling near
Oneida castle, in the county of Oneida, and have
become fully habituated to an agricultural life.
Perhaps, in the result, the Onondagas have been
the most fortunate nation of the League. They still
retain their beautiful and secluded valley of Onondaga,
with sufficient territory for their comfortable main
tenance, even with the limited production of Indian
husbandry. After the Revolution, they granted their
lands to the State by treaty, with the exception of the
tract they now occupy, the proceeds, as in other cases,
being invested by the government for their benefit.
About a hundred and fifty Onondagas now reside with
the Senecas ; another party are established on Grand
river, in Canada, and a few have removed to the west.
The total number still remaining at Onondaga is about
two hundred and fifty.
Over the fate of the Cayugas a feeling of regret and
sympathy is awakened, as having been even less for
tunate than their unfortunate kindred. This nation
has become literally scattered abroad. Immediately
after the Revolution, the tide of population began to
press upon them, and hem them in on every side, to
such a degree that they were obliged wholly to sur
render their domain. In the brief space of twelve
years after the first house of the white man was erected
in Cayuga county (1789) the whole nation was up-
29
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
rooted and gone. In 1795, they ceded, by treaty, all
their lands to the State, with the exception of one
reservation, which they finally abandoned about the
year 1800. A portion of them removed to Green
Bay, another to Grand river, and still another, and a
much larger band, settled at Sandusky, in Ohio, from
whence they were removed by government, a few
years since, into the Indian Territory, west of the
Mississippi. About one hundred and twenty-five still
reside among the Senecas, in western New York, and
yet retain their name and lineage, and have their sepa
rate chiefs. Those west of the Mississippi, and those
residing with the Senecas, divide between them the
State annuity of $2,300, which was secured to them
upon the sale of their former possessions.
The Tuscaroras, after removing from the Oneida
territory, finally located near the Niagara river, in the
vicinity of Lewiston, on a tract given to them by the
Senecas, where about three hundred of them now
reside.
After the displacement of the Cayugas, the flow of
population, still advancing westward with constantly
augmenting force, next began to press upon the broad
domains of the Senecas. They passed through the
same ordeal to which the other nations had been sub
jected, by means of which they were speedily induced
to grant away their lands, not by townships and coun
ties, but from river to river, reserving here and there
a small oasis, sufficient to rescue a favorite village with
its burial-place. Their wide-spread territories were in
a few years narrowed down, to gratify the demands of
the white man, until the residue of the Senecas are
PRESENT CONDITION
now shut up within three small reservations, the
Tonawanda, the Cattaraugus and the Allegany, which,
united, would not cover the area of one of the lesser
counties of the State. To embitter their sense of
desolation as a nation, the " preemptive right " to these
last remnants of their ancient possessions is now held
by a company of land speculators, the Ogden Land
Company, (30) who, to wrest away these few acres, have
pursued and hunted them for the last fourteen years,
with a degree of wickedness hardly to be paralleled
in the history of human avarice. Not only have
every principle of honesty, every dictate of humanity,
every Christian precept been violated by this company,
in their eager artifices to despoil the Senecas ; but the
darkest frauds, the basest bribery, and the most exe
crable intrigues which soulless avarice could suggest,
have been practiced, in open day, upon this defence
less and much-injured people. The natural feelings
of man, and the sense of public justice are violated
and appalled at the narration of their proceedings. It
is no small crime against humanity to seize the fire
sides and the property of a whole community, without
an equivalent, and against their will ; and then to drive
them, beggared and outraged, into a wild and inhospi
table wilderness. And yet this is the exact scheme of
the Ogden Land Company ; the one in which they
have long been engaged, and the one which they still
continue to prosecute. The Georgia treaty with the
Cherokees, so justly held up to execration, is a white
page, compared with the treaties of 1838 and 1842,
which were forced upon the Senecas. This project has
already, however, in part, been defeated, by the load
31
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
of iniquity which hung upon the skirts of these treaties ;
and it is to be hoped, for the credit of humanity, that
the cause of the Indian will yet triumph, and that the
residue of the Senecas will be permitted to dwell in
peace in the land of their nativity. 1
The census of last year fixes the number of Sen
ecas upon their then reservations, in western New
York, at two thousand seven hundred and twelve,
A small band, after the Revolution, emigrated to
Grand river, where they now have a miniature of the
ancient League, and another removed to Sandusky,
and from thence into the Indian Territory. Those
at present within the State are rapidly improving
in their social and moral condition ; as also, it is
believed, are those residing upon Grand river, in
Canada, where there are now about seven hundred
Mohawks, besides five hundred near Kingston, four
hundred Onondagas, seven hundred Cayugas, three
hundred Tuscaroras, and two hundred Senecas and
Oneidas.
From the sales of the lands of the Iroquois, at vari
ous times, large sums of money have accrued, which
have been invested by the State and national govern
ments for their benefit ; and the interest arising from
the same is now paid over and distributed among
them semi-annually. The Senecas alone have an
1 The Buffalo Reservation, which made the fourth reserved tract, and
was the most valuable, has fallen into the hands of the Ogden Company,
but not so much by virtue of the treaties as by skilful management.
It contains forty-nine thousand acres of land bordering the corporate
limits of the city of Buffalo, and was supposed to be worth over a
million of dollars. For the land, and its farming improvements, the
Company paid the Senecas about one hundred thousand dollars.
3 2
FUTURE PROSPECTS
annual income from these sources, amounting to
$ 1 8, ooo.
There are still residing in the State of New York
about four thousand Iroquois. The several fragments
of the nations yet continue their relationships and
intercourse with each other, and cling to the shadow
of the ancient League. At intervals of one or two
years, they assemble in general council to raise up,
with their primitive forms and ceremonies, sachems
to fill vacancies occasioned by death or deposition.
These councils are summoned and conducted, in all
respects, as they were wont to be in the days of
Indian sovereignty. They still cherish the remem
brance of their fathers, and the institutions which they
transmitted to them, with religious affection. In each
nation, also, with the exception of the Oneidas and
Tuscaroras, the larger portion of the people continue
to adhere to their ancient faith and worship;
celebrating their religious festivals after the original
method, and preserving, in their social intercourse,
the habits and the customs of their ancestors. It is
another singular fact, in connection with their history,
that since their adoption of agricultural pursuits, as
the exclusive source of subsistence, their further de
cline has been arrested, and they are now increasing
in numbers. In many respects they have become an
interesting portion of our population, yielding many
hopes of their future elevation. The policy of the
State towards them has ever been enlightened, hu
mane and just, the government seizing upon every
opportunity to promote their welfare, to protect their
interests, and to extend to them facilities for education.
VOL. i. 3 33
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
It is a pleasing and a proud reflection, that there is
a universal spirit of kindness, sympathy and benev
olence towards the Iroquois, among the people of New
York. They would shield them in their defenceless
condition, stimulate their efforts for social improve
ment, encourage their aspirations for a higher life, and
finally, when they have become sufficiently advanced in
agricultural life, raise them to the condition of citizens
of the State.
The materials for the preceding chapter were drawn from
the following sources : Colden s Hist. Five Nations ; Charle-
voix s Hist. New France ; Smith s Hist. N. Y. ; Macauley s
Hist. N. Y. ; Doc. Hist. N. Y. ; Morse s Hist. Am. Rev.;
Bancroft s Hist. U. S. ; Warburton s Conquest of Canada ;
Marshall s Nar. De Nonville s Exped. ; Schoolcraft s Notes
on the Iroquois ; Doc s of the Indian Department ; MSS.
Treaties with the Iroquois, State Dep. Alby. ; Traditions of
the Onondagas,Tuscaroras, Senecas and Cayugas.
34
AH-TA-QUA-0-WEH OR MOCCASIN FOR MALE,
Chapter II
Indian Geography Home Country of the Iroquois National
Boundaries Trails Indian Map Ho-de -no-sau-nee Na
tional Names
OUR Indian geography, excluding lines of lati
tude, descriptions of soil and climate, and
precise territorial limits, confines itself to the
external features of the country, and to the period
when the hemlock and the maple, the pine and the
oak, interlocked their branches in endless alternation,
spreading out from river to river, and from lake to
lake, in one vast, continuous, interminable forest.
As the aboriginal, or poetic period of our territo
rial history recedes from us, each passing year both
deepens the obscurity upon the Indian s footsteps,
and diminishes the power of the imagination to recall
the stupendous forest scenery by which he was sur
rounded. To obtain a glance at the face of nature
during the era of Indian occupation, the wave of im
provement must be rolled backward, not only displac
ing, in its recession, the city and the village which have
sprung up in the wilderness; but restoring, also, by a
simultaneous effort, the original drapery of nature,
when clothed in her wild attire. 1
1 In those forest days, the graceful swan folded her wings in unmo
lested seclusion upon our inland lakes ; but with the departure of the
Indian, she spread them again, and followed him. They sat upon the
35
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
Surrounded by all the grandeur of this forest scenery,
the Indian constructed his Ga-no -sote, or Bark House,
upon the winding stream, or on the margin of the
lake; and, one of the multitudinous inhabitants of the
forest, he passed his days and years in sylvan pursuits,
unless he went forth upon the war-path in quest of
adventure or renown.
Between the Hudson and lake Erie, our broad
territory was occupied by the Ho-de -no-sau-nee^ or
Iroquois, scattered far and wide, in small encampments,
or in disconnected villages. Their council-fires, em
blematical of civil jurisdiction, burned continuously
from the Hudson to Niagara. At the era of Dutch
discovery (1609), they had pushed their permanent
possession as far west as the Genesee ; and shortly
after, about 1650, they extended it to the Niagara.
They then occupied the entire territory of our State
west of the Hudson, with the exception of certain
tracts upon that river below the junction of the Mo
hawk, in the possession of the River Indians, and the
country of the Delawares, upon the Delaware river.
But both these had been subdued by the conquering
Iroquois, and had become tributary nations.
The villages of the Mohawks were chiefly located
in the valley of the Mohawk, upon the south side of
the river. Around and near the Oneida lake were the
principal villages of the Oneidas. The Onondagas
were established in the valley of the river of that name,
and upon the hills adjacent. On the east shore of the
water in pairs, and not in flocks. It is said they still frequent the small
lakes in the wild regions of northern New York. The American swan
(Cygnus Americanus) was called by the Senecas Ah- f weh -ah-ah.
36
HOME COUNTRT OF THE IROQUOIS
Cayiiga lake, and upon the ridge to the eastward, were
the settlements of the Cayugas. In the counties of
Ontario and Monroe were found the principal villages
of the Senecas, the most populous nation of the
League. These were their chief localities at the era
of their discovery. At a later period, in the progress of
their intercourse and warfare with the whites, many
of their ancient settlements were abandoned, and new
ones established. This was especially the case with
the Senecas, until their villages, at various periods,
have been sprinkled over the whole area of western
New York.< 89 >
This territory, lying between the Hudson and
lake Erie, and embracing the most valuable portions
of our State, constituted the Home Country of the
Iroquois, as distinguished from other territories upon
the north, south, east and west, which they held in
subjection by conquest, and occupied only in the sea
son of the hunt. At the era of their highest military
supremacy, about the year 1660, the Iroquois, in
their warlike expeditions, ranged unresisted from
New England to the Mississippi, and from the St.
Lawrence to the Tennessee. They held under their
dominion the greater part of these vast territories
by the slender tenure of Indian conquest. But New
York was their hereditary country, the centre of
their power, and the seat of their council-fires. Here
were their villages, their fields of maize and tobacco,
their fishing and hunting grounds, and the burial-
places of their fathers. The Long House, to which
they likened their political edifice, opened its eastern
door upon the Hudson, while the western looked out
37
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
upon Niagara. At the epoch of their discovery,
this fair domain was the patrimony of the Iroquois,
the land of their nativity, if not of their remote origin,
and they had defended it against hostile bands with a
patriotism as glowing as such a fair possession could
inspire in the heart of man. They were not insen
sible to the political advantages afforded by their
geographical position. It was their boast that they
occupied the highest part of the continent. Situated
upon the head-waters of the Hudson, the Delaware,
the Susquehanna, the Ohio and the St. Lawrence
flowing in every direction to the sea, they held within
their jurisdiction as it were, the gates of the country,
and could, through them, descend at will upon any
point. At the same time, lake Ontario, and the
mountains upon the north, and the range of the Alle-
ganies upon the south gave to their country itself an
isolation which protected them, in a great measure,
against the external pressure of migratory bands ;
while the lakes and streams, which in so remarkable
a manner intersected every part of the Long House,
and whose head-waters were separated only by short
portages, and its continuous valleys, divided by no
mountain barriers, offered them every facility for the
most rapid intercommunication. They themselves
declared that " their country possessed many advan
tages superior to any other part of America."
A boundary line would seem at first to be a dif
ficult problem in Indian geography. (42) But a pecu
liar custom of our predecessors has divested this
subject of much of its embarrassment, and enabled
us to ascertain with considerable certainty the terri-
38
NATIONAL BOUNDARIES
torial limits of the nations of the League. (5G) The
Iroquois rejected all natural boundaries, and substi
tuted longitudinal lines. This appears to have re
sulted from the custom of establishing themselves
upon both banks of the streams upon which they
resided. Having no knowledge of the use of wells,
they were accustomed to fix their habitations upon
the banks of creeks, and easily forded rivers, or in
the vicinity of copious springs. Inland lakes were
never divided by a boundary line ; but the line itself
was deflected, that the entire circuit of each lake
might be possessed by a single nation. The natural
limits which rivers and lakes might furnish having
thus been disregarded, and straight lines substituted,
the inquiry is freed from some of its difficulties, and
greater certainty is given to their boundaries, when
certain points upon them are decisively ascertained.
After the expulsion of the Neuter Nation (Je-gd-
sa-sa] from the borders of the Niagara river, in I65I, 1
and of the Eries (Ga-qua-ga-o-no) from the country
between the Genesee and lake Erie in 1655^ the
Senecas, who before these periods had resided east
of the Genesee, extended their jurisdiction over the
whole area between the Seneca lake and lake Erie.
On the east, their territory joined that of the Cayugas.
The line of boundary between them, which is well
authenticated, commenced at the head of Sodus bay,
on lake Ontario, and running south, nearly upon the
1 Charlevoix, v. i. p. 377. The Neuter Nation were known to the
Iroquois as the "Cat Nation ;" the word itself (Je-go -sa-sa} signifying
"a wild cat. 1 Charlevoix has assigned this name to the Eries (v. ii.
p. 6z).
2 Ib. v. ii. p. 62.
39
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
longitude of Washington, crossed the Clyde river
near the village of that name, and the Seneca river
about four miles east of its outlet from the Seneca
lake. Continuing south, and inclining a little to the
east, the line ran near the lake at its head, and having
crossed the Chemung river east of Elmira, it passed
into Pennsylvania.
The territory of the Cayugas lay upon both sides
of the Cayuga lake, and extended to the eastward
so as to include the Owasco. As the Senecas were
the hereditary " Door-keepers " of the Long House,
in their figurative way of designating each other, they
were styled the first fire ; and so on to the Mohawks,
who were the fifth. Between the Cayugas and Onon-
dagas, who were the third fire, the limital line is not
as well defined ; as the latter claimed farther to the
westward than the boundary assigned. It commenced
on lake Ontario, near the mouth of the Oswego river,
and on its west side, and passing between the Cross
and Otter lakes, continued south into Pennsylvania,
crossing the Susquehanna west of Owego.
On the boundary line between the Onondagas and
Oneidas, the most prominent point was the Deep
Spring (De-o-song -wa) near Manlius, in the county
of Onondaga. This spring not only marked the
limital line between them, but it was a well known
stopping-place on the great central trail or highway
of the Iroquois, which passed through the heart of
their territories from the Hudson to lake Erie. From
the Deep Spring, the line ran due south into Pennsyl
vania, crossing the Susquehanna near its confluence
with the Chenango. North of this spring the line was
40
NATIONAL BOUNDARIES
deflected to the west, leaving in the Oneida territory
the whole circuit of that lake. Crossing the She-u-ka,
or Oneida outlet, a few miles below the lake, the line
inclined again to the east, until it reached the meridian
of the Deep Spring. From thence it ran due north,
crossing the Black river at the site of Watertown, and
the St. Lawrence to the eastward of the Thousand
Islands.
The testimony of the Iroquois concerning this
boundary line is confirmed by facts contained in exist
ing treaties. At the treaty of Fort Schuyler, the
Oneidas, after ceding " all their lands to the people
of the state of New York forever," reserved, in addi
tion to their principal reservation, " a convenient piece
of land at the fishing-place in the Oneida river, about
three miles from where it issues from the Oneida lake,
and to remain as well for the Oneidas and their pos
terity, as for the inhabitants of the said State to land
and encamp upon." In the same treaty it appears,
that the Deep Spring was upon the west boundary
of the Oneida reservation. 2
1 Vide Treaty of Fort Schuyler, September 22, 1788. MSS. State
Department, Albany.
2 Judge Jones of Utica, in 1846, in a letter in the author s possession,
speaks of this spring as follows : " Near the summit of what was for
merly called the Canaseraga hill, near where now runs the road from
Chittenango to Manlius, is a large, well-known ever-living spring, famil
iarly known as the Big Spring. The excavation, whether made by
Omnipotence, or by human hands, may be fifteen feet in diameter, and
several feet deep, with sloping sides, easy of descent, and in the bottom
is a reservoir ever full. What is quite singular is, that the water runs in
at the lower, and disappears at the upper side of the reservoir. This
spring, while the old woods were its shade, and the wild deer descended
to taste its limpid waters, was long the favorite meeting-place between
the Oneidas and Onondagas. Here for ages had the old men of the two
41
LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S
The Tuscaroras, upon their expulsion from North
Carolina, in 1712, turned to the north, and sought
the protection of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee^ on the ground
of generic origin. They were admitted into the
League as the Sixth nation, and were ever afterwards
regarded as a constituent member of the confed
eracy, although never admitted to a full equality/ m)
A portion of the Oneida territory was assigned to
them, lying upon the Unadilla river on the east,
the Chenango on the west, and the Susquehanna on
the south. Whether they occupied entirely across the
southern skirt of the Oneida territory, as their boun
dary is run upon the accompanying map, is a matter
of doubt, as the Oneidas might thereby have cut off
their southern possessions in Pennsylvania and Vir
ginia. To these southern lands the Tuscaroras had
no title, and it is probable that their territorial rights,
which were never absolute, were restricted between
the Unadilla and the Chenango. The Oneidas, as the
original owners of this tract, were made a party, with
the Tuscaroras, to the treaty of Fort Herkimer, in
1785, by which it was ceded to the State. 1 The
Tuscaroras were partially scattered among the other
nations, although they continued to preserve their
nationality. They had some settlements at a later
day near the Oneida lake, a village at the inlet of the
Cayuga, and one in the valley of the Genesee, below
Avon. At a subsequent period, the Senecas gave
nations met to rehearse their deeds of war ; here the young braves
met in friendly conclave. . . . This was the boundary between the
nations."
1 Vide Treaty of Fort Herkimer, June 28, 1785. MSS. State Dep.
42
NATIONAL BOUNDARIES
them a tract upon the Niagara river, where they after
wards removed ; and their descendants still occupy a
reserved portion of this land, near Lewiston, in the
county of Niagara.
There were two other small bands, or remnants of
tribes, located within the territories of the Oneidas ;
the Mohekunnuks, situated a few miles south of
Oneida castle, and the New England Indians, south
of Clinton. For these lands they also were indebted
to the generosity of the Oneidas, to whom, as refu
gees, they applied for " a place to spread their blan
kets ; " and their possessions were subsequently se
cured to each band by treaty.
Of the several boundaries, that between the Oneidas
and the Mohawks is the most difficult to establish ;
there being a disagreement between the line of boun
dary as given by the Iroquois, and that indicated,
although imperfectly, by existing treaties. According
to their own evidence, and it is the safest authority,
this line came down from the north near the west
boundary of Herkimer county, and, crossing the
Mohawk about five miles below Utica, continued
south into Pennsylvania. On the other hand, it
appears from various treaties with the Oneidas, that
they sold lands to the State on both sides of the
Mohawk, as low down as Herkimer and the German
Flats, and also on the Mohawk branch of the Dela
ware, as far east as Delhi. After the departure of
the Mohawks, the Oneidas might have asserted claims
against the State, which they would not against their
brethren ; so also the State may have preferred to
include these lands, to prevent all future disputation.
43
LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS
The upper castle of the Mohawks, Gd-ne-ga-ha-gd^
was situated in the town of Danube, Herkimer county,
nearly opposite the junction of the West Canada creek
with the Mohawk. From these facts, the boundary
given may be regarded as the most reliable. The
territory of the Mohawks extended to the Hudson
and lake Champlain on the east, with the exceptions
before mentioned, and northward to the St. Lawrence.
Such were the territorial divisions between the sev
eral nations of the League. In their hunting excur
sions they were accustomed to confine themselves to
their own domains : which, to a people who subsisted,
in part, by the chase, was a matter of some moment.
Upon their foreign hunting grounds, which were
numerous and boundless, either nation was at liberty
to encamp. By establishing these territorial limits
between the nations of the League, the political in
dividuality of each was continued in view.
In intimate connection with our Indian geography
are the Trails, or forest highways of the Iroquois. (41)
A central trail passed through the State from east to
west, intersected at numerous points by cross trails,
which passed along the banks of the lakes and
rivers. It commenced at the site of Albany on the
Hudson, and having touched the Mohawk at Sche-
nectady, it followed up this river to the carrying-
place at Rome. From thence, proceeding westward,
it crossed the Onondaga valley, the foot of the
Cayuga and of the Seneca lakes, the Genesee valley
1 This was, doubtless, the oldest village of the Mohawks ; as it is
the one from which the nation takes its name. It is Ga-ne-d -ga in
the Seneca dialect. ( 42 )
44
AH TA QUA WEH OR MOCCASON
Emhroi d ered with porcupine guilts
TRAILS
at Avon, and finally came out upon the Buffalo
creek, at the site of Buffalo. This route of travel
was so judiciously selected, that after the country
was surveyed, the turnpikes were laid out upon the
Indian highway, with slight variations, through the
whole length of the State. (44) This trail not only con
nected the principal villages of the Iroquois, but
established the route of travel into Canada on the
west, and over the Hudson on the east. The pur
suits of trade, and the development of the resources
of the country in modern times have shown this
to be one of the great natural highways of the conti
nent. It appears now to be indicated by the geo
graphical features of the territory ; but as extensive
intercourse was necessary to its discovery, the es
tablishment of this great route of travel furnishes evi
dence of a more general intercourse of the Iroquois
with the east and west, than has ever been ascribed
to them.
Upon the banks of the Susquehanna and its
branches, the sources of which are near the Mohawk,
and upon the banks of the Chemung and its tribu
taries, which have their sources near the Genesee,
were other trails, all of which converged upon Tioga,
at the junction of these two principal rivers. They
became thus gathered into one, which, descending the
Susquehanna, formed the great southern trail into
Pennsylvania and Virginia.
For centuries upon centuries, and by race after
race, these old and deeply worn trails had been trod
by the red man. From the Atlantic to the Missis
sippi, and from the northern lakes to the Mexican
45
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
gulf, the main Indian routes through the country
were as accurately and judiciously traced, and as
familiar as our own. On many of these distant foot
paths the Iroquois had conducted warlike expedi
tions, and had thus become practically versed in the
geography of the country. Within their immediate
territories, they were quite as familiar with the geo
graphical features, the routes of travel, the lakes,
and hills and streams, as we ourselves have since
become.
In the accompanying map, an attempt has been
made to restore the geographical names of the Iro
quois, as they stood at the period of its date (1720).
Many of our own names have their radices in the
dialects of the Iroquois ; and as to such names, this
map is designed to furnish an index of their origin
and signification. Our geography is as yet incom
plete in the christening of some of the features of
nature, while some of the names in actual use might
be profitably exchanged for the aboriginal; in both
of which cases such a map will at least offer a choice.
The date given to it introduces some anachronisms,
which will be obvious to the critical eye ; but these
do not furnish a sufficient reason for an earlier, or
a later date. The descendants of the Iroquois have
preserved, with great fidelity, the names of their
ancient localities ; and have bestowed them upon our
cities and villages as they have successively appeared.
It is but a fit tribute to our Indian predecessors, to
record the baptismal names of our rivers, lakes and
streams, and also of their ancient sites.
An effort has been made to furnish these names
46
INDIAN MAP
in the particular dialect of the nation within whose
territories the places or objects named were situated ;
and, with a few exceptions, this has been accomplished.
The nations spoke different dialects of a common
language; and although they could understand each
other with readiness, the distinctions between them
were very decisive. These dialectical differences are
more strongly marked in their geographical names
than in the body of the several dialects themselves;
furnishing, perhaps, the principal reason why these
names are written so variously. Thus the Iroquois
name of Buffalo, in the Seneca dialect is, Do-sho -weh,
in Cayuga De-o-sho -weh, in Onondaga De-o-sa-weh y in
Oneida De-ose -lole, in Mohawk De-o-hose-lole and
in Tuscarora Ne-o-thro -rd. For the same purpose,
and in the same order, the variations in the name
of Utica may be cited : Nun-da-da-sis, Nun-da-da -ses,
N one-da-da -sis ^ Ya-nun-da-da-sis, Yo-none-da-sis, Ya-
nun-ria-rats. The resemblances in these examples are
nearer than they are usually found. In the transi
tion of these names from the unwritten dialects of
the Iroquois into our language, they lose much of
their euphony, and the force of their accent. It
would therefore be difficult to judge of the language
itself from these specimens. That entire accuracy
has been attained in the spelling of these words is
not expected. Indeed, many of their elementary
sounds, in the manner, and in the combination in
which they use them, it is impossible to express
with our letters. But they are as nearly accurate,
as the frequent repetition of each name by the native
speaker, that the sound of each syllable might be
47
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
obtained, together with a careful revision of the
whole, would enable the author to make them. In
the Appendix A. i, will be found a table, contain
ing a list of all the names upon the map, arranged
by counties, with the signification of each. As the
county lines are dotted on the map, it will be easy
to refer to any locality.
The trails (41) (Wa-a-gwen-ne-yuH)^ or highways of
travel pursued by our predecessors, are also traced
upon the map. (42) Among the number will be found
the great central trail from the site of Albany to
that of Buffalo, which is traced minutely from point to
point, throughout its whole extent.
It remains to notice the origin and signification of
the names of the several nations. After the forma
tion of the League, the Iroquois called themselves the
Ho-de -no-sau-nee^ which signifies " the people of the
long house." It grew out of the circumstance, that
they likened their confederacy to a long house, having
partitions and separate fires, after their ancient method
of building houses, within which the several nations
were sheltered under a common roof. Among them
selves they never had any other name. The vari
ous names given to them at different periods were
entirely accidental, none of them being designations
by which they ever recognized themselves. (12G)
The Senecas called themselves the Nun-da-wa-o-no^
which signifies " the great hill people." Nun-da-
wa-O) the radix of the word, means " a great hill," and
the terminal syllables, o-no, convey the idea of " peo
ple." This was the name of their oldest village, sit
uated upon a hill at the head of the Canandaigua lake,
48
NATIONAL NAMES
near Naples, where, according to the Seneca fable,
they sprang out of the ground.
Gue -u-gweh-o-no, the name of the Cayugas, signifies
" the people at the mucky land ; " the root of the
word literally meaning " the mucky land. * It doubt
less referred to the marsh at the foot of the Cayuga
lake, near which their first settlement was, in all prob
ability, established.
O-nun-da-ga, the origin of the name of the Onon-
dagas, signifies " on the hills ; " hence the name they
gave themselves, 0-nun-da-ga-o-no, is rendered " the
people on the hills." It appears from various
authors, that their principal village, at the era of their
discovery, was on one of the eminences overlooking
the Onondaga valley.
The Oneidas have been so long distinguished as
"the people of the stone," that it is perhaps venture
some to suggest a change. O-na-yote-ka, however, the
radix from which their name is derived, signifies not
only " a stone/ but one of the species known to us
as granite. In the Seneca dialect, it means this par
ticular rock ; hence the propriety of rendering literally
their national name, O-na-yote -ka-o-no, " the granite
people."
There is doubt about the signification of the name
of the Mohawks, Ga-ne-a-ga-o-no, from the fact that
the Oneidas, Onondagas and Senecas have lost its
meaning. (70) But the Mohawks render the root
of the word, " the possessor of the flint," without
being able to give any further explanation. It is to
1 The original Oneida Stone, now in the cemetery at Utica, is said to
be a boulder of granite.
VOL. L 4 49
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
be observed, however, that the word as given by the
latter, Ga-ne-ga-ha-ga, has one syllable more than the
corresponding word in Seneca, which may account for
the loss of its signification. In a report enumerating
our Indian nations, ascribed to M. De Joncaire, is the
following passage bearing upon this subject : " The
Mohawks have for a device of the village a steel and a
flint" 1 The possession of such a novelty may have
been, at an early day, sufficient to change not only
the name of the village, but also of the nation.
The name of the Tuscaroras, Dus-ga-o -weh, is ren
dered " the shirt-wearing people ; " and was a name
adopted before their emigration from Carolina, and
after the commencement of their intercourse with the
whites. All of the preceding names are given in the
Seneca dialect to preserve uniformity ; as not only
the terminations, but the radices themselves are differ
ent in the several dialects. (129)
The geographical names, the courses of the trails,
and the locations of the villages of the Iroquois, will
be more particularly considered in a subsequent
chapter.
1 Doc. Hist. N. Y., v. i. p. 22.
5
GA-KA OR BREECH CLOTH,
Chapter III
Interest in our Predecessors The Hunter State Its Institutions
Transitory Origin of the League Sachemships Hereditary
Titles Council of the League Equality of the Sachems
Chiefs Military Chieftains Popular Influence Unity of the
Race
^
THE social history and political transactions of
the Indian are as easily enveloped in obscur
ity, as his footsteps through the forest are
obliterated by the leaves of autumn. Nation upon
nation, and race after race have sprung up and hast
ened onward to their fall ; and neither the first nor
the last could explain its origin, or number the years
of its duration.
From this general uncertainty of knowledge which
surrounds our Indian races, we turn with some degree
of encouragement to the Iroquois, the last in the order
of succession which exercised dominion over the ter
ritories out of which New York was . erected. We
stand with them in many interesting relations. Hav
ing flourished side by side with our early population,
the events of their decline became interwoven with
our civil affairs ; and having finally yielded up their
sovereignty, from the rulers of the land, they became
dependent nations, dwelling under the protection of
the government which displaced them.
To the Iroquois, by common consent, has been as
signed the highest position among the Indian races of
5 1
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the continent living in the hunter state. In legisla
tion, in eloquence, in fortitude and in military sagacity
they had no equals. " No frightful solitude in the
wilderness, no impenetrable recess in the frozen north "
was proof against their courage and daring. Spice
offered no protection, distance no shelter from their
war parties, which ranged equally the hills of New Eng
land, the declivities of the Alleganies, the prairies of the
Mississippi, and the forests of the Tennessee. In the
establishment of a League for the double purpose of
acquiring strength and securing peace, their capacity for
civil organization, and their wisdom in legislation were
favorably exhibited. During the expansion of the
power of the Iroquois, from the commencement of the
seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth centuries,
there sprang up among them a class of orators and chiefs,
unrivalled among the red men for eloquence in council,
and bravery upon the war-path. In a word, the League
of the Iroquois exhibited the highest development of
the Indian ever reached by him in the hunter state.
Many circumstances thus unite to invest its history
with permanent interest. An analysis of its civil and
domestic institutions will exhibit all the elements of
Indian society, and of Indian life, throughout the re
public. From the higher legislation of the Iroquois,
and the increased weight and diversity of affairs under
the League, there resulted a fuller manifestation of the
Indian character than is to be found in any other race
except the Aztec. Their institutions contain the sum
and substance of those of the whole Indian family.
While, however, their political events have been dili
gently collected and arranged, the government which
5 2
THE HUNTER STATE
they constructed, the social ties by which they were
bound together, and the motives and restraints by
which they were influenced have scarcely been made
subjects of inquiry, and never of extended investiga
tion. The League of the Iroquois, dismembered and
in fragments, still clings together in the twilight of its
existence, by the shreds of that moral faith, which no
political misfortunes could loosen, and no lapse of
years could rend asunder. There are reasons for this
spectacle, which no mere alliance of nations can explain,
and which history has hitherto failed to reach. It is not
the purpose of this work to narrate their political events ;
but to inquire into the structure and spirit of the gov
ernment, and the nature of the institutions, under and
through which these historical results were produced.
In entering upon such a theme of inquiry as an
Indian organization, there are some general considera
tions which press upon the attention, and which are
worthy of previous thought. By the formation of
societies and governments, mankind are brought largely
under the influence of the social relations, and their
progress has been found to be in exact proportion to
the wisdom of the institutions under which their minds
were developed. The passion of the red man for the
hunter life has proved to be a principle too deeply in
wrought, to be controlled by efforts of legislation. His
government, if one was sought to be established, must
have conformed to this irresistible tendency of his
mind, this inborn sentiment ; otherwise it would have
been disregarded. The effect of this powerful prin
ciple has been to enchain the tribes of North America
to their primitive state. Another effect of this prin-
53
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
ciple, and still more fatal to their political prosperity,
is to be found in the repeated subdivisions of the
generic stocks of the continent, by which all large
accumulations of numbers and power, in any race or
nation, have been prevented. Whenever a hunting-
ground became too thickly populated for the easy sub
sistence of its occupants, a band, under some favorite
chief, put forth, like the swarm from the parent hive,
in quest of a new habitation ; and in course of time
became independent. We have here the true reason,
why the red race has never risen, nor can rise above
its present level. The fewness of the generic stocks,
the unlimited number of independent tribes, and their
past history establish the correctness of this position.
It is obvious that the founders of the League were
aware of the enfeebling effects of these repeated sub
divisions, and sought, by the counter principle of
federation, to arrest the evil. They aimed to knit the
whole race together under such a system of relation
ships, that, by its natural expansion, an Indian empire
would be developed, of sufficient magnitude to control
surrounding nations, and thus secure an exemption
from perpetual warfare. We/nust regard it, therefore,
as no ordinary achievement, that the legislators of the
Iroquois united the several tribes into independent
nations, and between these nations established a per
fect and harmonious union. And beyond this, that
by a still higher effort of legislation, they succeeded in
so adjusting the confederacy, that as a political fabric
composed of independent parts, it was adapted to the
hunter state, and yet contained the elements of an
energetic government. (10)
54
ITS INSTITUTIONS TRANSITORT
It is another singular feature, in connection with
Indian organizations, that their decline and fall are
sudden, and usually simultaneous. A rude shock
from without or within but too easily disturbs their
inter-relations ; and when once cast back upon the
predominating sentiment of Indian life, the hunter
inclination, a powerful nation rapidly dissolves into a
multitude of fragments, and is lost and forgotten in
the undistinguished mass of lesser tribes. But the
League of the Iroquois was subjected to a severer test.
It went down before the Saxon, and not the Indian
race. If it had been left to resist the pressure of sur
rounding nations, living, like the Iroquois themselves,
a hunter life, there is reason to believe that it would
have subsisted for ages ; and perhaps, having broken
the hunter spell, would have introduced civilization
by an original and spontaneous movement.
Of the Indian character it is an original peculiarity,
that he has no desire to perpetuate himself in the
remembrance of distant generations, by monumental
inscriptions, or other erections fabricated by the art
and industry of man.- The Iroquois would have
passed away without leaving a vestige or memorial of
their existence behind, if to them had been intrusted
the preservation of their name and deeds. A verbal
language, a people without a city, a government with
out a record, are as fleeting as the deer and the wild
fowl, the Indian s co-tenants of the forest. With the
departure of the individual, every vestige of Indian
sovereignty vanishes. He leaves but the arrow-head
upon the hillside, fit emblem of his pursuits ; and the
rude pipe and ruder vessel entombed beside his
55
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
bones at once the record of his superstition, and the
evidence of his existence. If the red man had any
ambition for immortality, he would intrust his fame to
the unwritten remembrance of his tribe and race,
rather than to inscriptions on columns in his native
land, or other monument more durable than brass,
which neither wasting rain, nor raging wind, nor flight
of time could overthrow. 1
Since this race must ever figure upon the opening
pages of our territorial history, and some judgment be
passed upon them, it becomes our duty to search out
their government and institutions, and to record with
impartiality their political transactions ; lest, in addi
tion to the extinguishment of their Council Fires, we
subject their memory, as a people, to an unjust and
unmerited judgment.
Upon an extended examination of their institutions,
it will become apparent, that the League was estab
lished upon the principles, and was designed to be but
an elaboration, of the Family Relationships. These
relations are older than the notions of society or
government, and are consistent alike with the hunter,
the pastoral and the civilized state. The several
nations of the Iroquois, united, constituted one Family,
dwelling together in one Long House ; and these ties
1 Compare the sentiments of with those of Horace,
Pericles, Exegi monumentum acre perennius, *
, A $ . x , . ~ / Reealique situ pyramidum altius :
Avdpdiv yap etrKpavoiv iraaa 777 ra- r;
\ , . - / . - , , Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impo-
(pos, Kal ou (TTr)\cav \JLOVOV iv TTI oiKtia,
01) fj.aife i ciriypa(f)T). a\\a Kal v ry fify
Trpotr-nKotar, &yp a <pos prfiw irap e K d- Possit diruere aut mnumerabiles
<TT<? r9,s yvws /iaAAoy $ rov tpyov Annorum series, et fuga temporum.
H O R -> Lib - 3> Ode 3
THUCYD., Lib. a, c. 43. * See Vol. II. p. 161.
56
ORIGIN OF THE LEAGUE
of family relationship were carried throughout their
civil and social system, from individuals to tribes,
from tribes to nations, and from the nations to the
League itself, and bound them together in one com
mon, indissoluble brotherhood.
In their own account of the origin of the League,
the Iroquois invariably go back to a remote and un
certain period, when the compact between the Five
Nations was formed, its details and provisions were
settled, and those laws and institutions were established,
under which, without essential change, they afterwards
continued to flourish. If we may trust their testi
mony, the system under which they confederated was
not of gradual construction, under the suggestions of
necessity ; but was the result of one protracted effort
of legislation. (18) The nations were, at the time, separate
and hostile bands, although of generic origin, and were
drawn together in council to deliberate upon the plan
of a League, which a wise man of the Onondaga nation
had projected, and under which, he undertook to
assure them, the united nations could elevate them
selves to a general supremacy. Tradition has pre
served the name of Da-gd-no-we-dd as the founder of
the League, and the first lawgiver of the Ho-de -no-sau-
nee. It likewise points to the northern shore of the
Ga-nuri-ta-ahy or Onondaga lake, as the place where
the first council-fire was kindled, around which the
chiefs and wise men of the several nations were gath
ered, and where, after a debate of many days, its estab
lishment was effected.
Their traditions further inform us, that the con
federacy, as framed by this council, with its laws, rules,
57
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
inter-relationships of the people and mode of administra
tion, has come down through many generations to the
present age, with scarcely a change ; except the addi
tion of an inferior class of rulers, called chiefs, in con
tradistinction to the sachems, and a modification of the
law in relation to marriage. Without entering here
upon any inquiry to show the probable accuracy of their
traditions, it will be sufficient to investigate the struc
ture of the government, as it stood in its full vigor at
the commencement of the last century, and to deduce
the general principles upon which it was founded.
The central government was organized and admin
istered upon the same principles which regulated that
of each nation, in its separate capacity ; the nations
sustaining nearly the same relation to the League, that
the American states bear to the Union. In the
former, several oligarchies were contained within one,
in the same manner as in the latter, several republics
are embraced within one republic. (38) To obtain a
general conception of the character of a government
the ruler, or ruling body, or bodies, as the case may be,
would be the first object of attention ; and when their
powers and tenure of office are discovered, the true
index is obtained to the nature of the government.
In the case of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee, the organization
was externally so obscure as to induce a universal be
lief that the relations between ruler and people were
simply those of chief and follower the earliest and
lowest political relation between man and man ; while,
in point of fact, the Iroquois had emerged from this
primitive state of society, and had organized a sys
tematic government.
58
i.O-HA DAOR PORCUPINE QUILL
ZGA-NOSA OR CONCH SHELL BREAST PLATE
S ACHEMSHIP S
At the institution of the League, fifty (47) per
manent sachemships were created, with appropriate
names ; and in the sachems who held these titles
were vested the supreme powers of the confederacy. (40)
To secure order in the succession, and to determine
the individuals entitled, the sachemships were made
hereditary, under limited and peculiar laws of descent.
The sachems themselves were equal in rank and au
thority, and instead of holding separate territorial
jurisdictions, their powers were joint, and co-extensive
with the League. As a safeguard against contention
and fraud, each sachem was " raised up," and invested
with his title by a council of all the sachems, with suit
able forms and ceremonies. Until this ceremony of
confirmation or investiture, no one could become a
ruler. He received, when raised up, the name of the
sachemship itself, as in the case of titles of nobility,
and so also did his successors, from generation to gen
eration. The sachemships were distributed unequally
between the five nations, but without thereby giving to.
either a preponderance of political power. Nine of
them were assigned to the Mohawk nation, nine to the
Oneida, fourteen to the Onondaga, ten to the Cayuga
and eight to the Sentca. The sachems, united, formed
the Council of the League, the ruling body, in which
resided the executive, legislative and judicial authority.
It thus appears that the government of the Iroquois
was an oligarchy, taking the term, at least, in the
literal sense, " the rule of the few ; " and, while more
system is observable in this than in the oligarchies of
antiquity, it seems, also, better calculated, in its frame
work, to resist political changes.
59
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
This specimen of Indian legislation is so remarkable,
that a table of these sachemships, with their division
into classes, indicating certain inter-relations, hereafter
to be explained, is inserted in the Seneca dialect.
Titles or Sachemships of the Iroquois, founded at the institution of
the League ; which have been borne by their Sachems in succes
sion, from its formation to the present tinted
GA-NE-A -GA-O-NO, OR MOHAWK NATION.
I. I. Da-ga-e -o-ga. 1 2. Ha-yo-went -ha. 2 3. Da-ga-
no-we -da. 3
II. 4. So-a-e-wa -ah. 4 5. Da-yo -ho-go. 5 6. O-a-a -
go-wa. 6
III. 7. Da-an-no-ga -e-neh. 7 8. Sa-da -ga-e-wa-deh. 8
9. Has-da-weh -se-ont-ha. 9
O-NA-YOTE -KAH-O-NO, OR ONEIDA NATION.
I. i. Ho-das -ha-teh. 10 2. Ga-no-gweh -yo-do. 11 3. Da-
yo-ha -gwen-da. 12
II. 4. So-no-sase . 18 5. To-no-a-ga -o. 14 6. Ha-de-a-dun-
nent -ha. 15
III. 7. Da-wa-da -o-da-yo. 16 8. Ga-ne-a-dus -ha-yeh. 17
9. Ho-wus -ha-da-o. 18
1 This name signifies "Neutral," or "the Shield." 2 " Man who
combs." 8 " Inexhaustible." 4 < Small speech." 6 <c At the forks."
6 " At the great river." 7 " Dragging his horns." 8 " Even tempered."
9 " Hanging up rattles." The Sachems of the first class belonged to the
Turtle Tribe, of the second to the Wolf Tribe, and of the third to the
Bear Tribe.
10 " A man bearing a burden." n " A man covered with cat tail
down," 12 Opening through the woods." 13 "A long string."
14 " A man with a headache." 15 " Swallowing himself." 16 " Place
of the echo."/ 17 <{ War club on the ground." 18 " A man steaming
himself." The sachems of the first class in the Oneida nation belonged
to the Wolf Tribe, of the second to the Turtle Tribe, and of the third to
the Bear Tribe.
60
SACHEMSHIPS
O-NUN-DAH -GA-O-NO, OR ONONDAGA NATION.
I. I. To-do-da-ho. 1 2. To-nes -sa-ah. 3. Da-at-ga-
dose. 2
II. 4. Ga-nea-da -je-wake. 3 5. Ah-wa -ga-yat. 4 6. Da-
a-yat -gwa-e.
III. 7. Ho-no-we-na -to. 5
IV. 8. Ga-wa-na -san-do. 6 9. Ha-e -ho. 7 10. Ho-yo-ne-
a -ne. 8 u. Sa-da -qua-seh. 9
V. 12. Sa-go-ga-ha . 10 13. Ho-sa-ha -ho. 11 14. Ska-no -
wun-de. 12
GUE -U-GWEH-O-NO, OR CAYUGA NATION.
I. i. Da-ga -a-yo. 13 2. Da-je-no -da-weh-o. 3. Ga-da -
gwa -sa. 4. So-yo-wase . 5. Ha-de-as -yo-no.
II. 6. Da-yo-o-yo -go. 7. Jote-ho-weh -ko. 14 8. De-a-
w ate -ho.
III. 9. To-da-e-W. 10. Des-ga -heh.
NUN-DA-WAH -O-NO, OR SENECA NATION.
I. I. Ga -ne-o-di -yo. 15 2. Sa-da-ga -o-yase. 16
II. 3. Ga-no-gi -e. 17 4. Sa-geh -jo-wa. 18
III. 5. Sa-de-a-no -wus. 19 6. Nis-ha-ne-a -nent. 20
IV. 7. Ga-no-go-e-da -we. 21 8. Do-ne-ho-ga -weh. 22
1 "Tangled." This was the most dignified title in the list. It
belonged to the Bear Tribe. 2 " On the watch," Bear Tribe. This
sachem and the one before him were hereditary counsellors of To-do-da -ho.
3 This word signifies " Bitter body." The title belonged to the Snipe
Tribe. 4 Turtle Tribe. 6 This sachem was the hereditary keeper of
the Wampum, Wolf Tribe. (83) e Deer Tribe. 7 Deer Tribe. 8 Turtle
Tribe. 9 Bear Tribe. 10 Signifies " Having a glimpse," Deer Tribe.
11 Large mouth," Turtle Tribe. 12 Over the creek," Turtle Trib~.
18 Man frightened." 14 " Very cold." The tribes of the Cayuga
sachems were as follows: i Deer, 2 Heron, 3 and 4 Bear, 5 and 7 Turtle,
8 Heron, 9 and 10 Snipe.
15 "Handsome lake," Turtle Tribe. 10 "Level heavens," Snipe
Tribe. 17 Turtle Tribe. 18 Great forehead," Hawk Tribe. 19 " As
sistant," Bear Tribe. 20 " Falling day," Snipe Tribe. 21 H^tir
burned off," Snipe Tribe. 22 " Open door," Wolf Tribe.
6l
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
These titles or names were hereditary in the several
tribes of which each nation was composed. When an
individual was made a sachem, (53) upon the death
or deposition of one of the fifty, his name was "taken
away," (G8) and the name of the sachemship held by his
predecessor was conferred upon him. Thus, upon the
demise of the Seneca sachem who held the title Gd-
ne-o-di-yO) a successor would be raised up from the
Turtle tribe, in which the sachemship was hereditary,
and after the ceremony of investiture, the person
would be known among the Iroquois only under the
name of Ga-ne-o-di -yo. These fifty titles, excepting
two, have been held by as many sachems, in succes
sion, as generations have passed away since the forma
tion of the League. (50)
The Onondaga nation, being situated in a central
position, were made the keepers both of the Council
Brand, and of the Wampum, in which the structure
and principles of their government, and their laws and
treaties were recorded. At stated periods, usually in
the autumn of each year, the sachems of the League
assembled in council at Onondaga, which was in effect
the seat of government, to legislate for the common
welfare. Exigencies of a public or domestic character
often led to the summoning of this council at extra
ordinary seasons, but the place was not confined to
Onondaga. It could be appointed in the territory of
either of the nations, under established usages. Orig
inally the object of the general council was to raise up
sachems to fill vacancies. In the course of time, as
their intercourse with foreign nations became more
important, it assumed the charge of all matters which
62
COUNCIL OF THE LEAGUE
concerned the League. It declared war and made
peace, sent and received embassies, entered into trea
ties of alliance, regulated the affairs of subjugated
nations, received new members into the League, ex
tended its protection over feeble tribes, in a word,
took all needful measures to promote their prosperity,
and enlarge their dominion.
Notwithstanding the equality of rights, privileges
and powers between the members of this body of
sachems, there were certain discriminations between
them, which rendered some more dignified than others.
The strongest illustration is found in the Onondaga
sachem, To-do-da-ho, who has always been regarded
as the most noble sachem of the League. As an
acknowledgment of his eminence, two of the Onon
daga sachems were assigned to him as hereditary I
counsellors. The great respect and deference paid
by the Iroquois to this title, has led to the vulgar
error, that JTo-do-da-ho was the king or civil head of
the confederacy. He possessed, in fact, no unusual
or executive powers, no authority which was not
equally enjoyed by his compeers ; and when the light
of tradition is introduced, to clear up the apparent
anomaly, it will be seen that the reverence of the
people was rather for the title itself than for the per
son who held it, as it was one of their illustrious
names. At the establishment of the League, an~
Onondaga by the name of T o-do-da-ho had rendered
himself a potent ruler, by the force of his military
achievements. Tradition says that he had conquered
the Cayugas and the Senecas. It represents his head
as covered with tangled serpents, and his look, when
63
\\J t/
N\N
^
LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS
^
angry, as so terrible that whoever looked upon him
fell dead. It relates that when the League was
formed, the snakes were combed out of his hair by a
Mohawk sachem, who was hence named Ha-yo-went -
ha, <c the man who combs." To-do-da-ho was reluctant
to consent to the new order of things, as he would
thereby be shorn of his absolute power, and be placed
among a number of equals. To remove these objec
tions in some measure, and to commemorate his mag
nanimity, the first sachemship was named after him,
and was dignified above the others by special marks
of honor ; but such, however, as were in perfect con
sistency with an equal distribution of powers among
all the sachems as a body. Down to the present day,
among the Iroquois, this name is the personification
of heroism, of forecast, and of dignity of character;
and this title has ever been regarded as more illus
trious than any other in the catalogue of Iroquois
nobility.
To several other of these officers or names, par
ticular duties were affixed at the institution of the
League. For example: the Senecas were made the
door-keepers of the Long House ; and having imposed
upon Do-ne-ho-g d-weh) the eighth sachem, (13) the duty
of watching the door, they gave to him a sub-sachem,
or assistant, to enable him to execute this trust. This
sub-sachem was raised up at the same time with his
superior, with the same forms and ceremonies, and
received the name or title which was created simulta
neously with that of the sachemship. It was his
duty to stand behind the sachem on all public occa
sions, and to act as his runner or attendant, as well as
64
EQUALITY OF THE SACHEMS
in the capacity of a counsellor. (51) Ho-no-we-na-to,
the Onondaga sachem who was made the keeper of
the wampum, had also a sub-sachem, or assistant.
Several other sachems, to whom special responsibilities
were confided, were allowed sub-sachems, to enable
them to fulfil their duties, or perhaps as a mark of
honor. All of these special marks of distinction
were consistent with perfect equality among the
sachems, as members of one ruling body, in the
administration of the affairs of the League. When
their method of legislating is considered, this fact will
appear with greater distinctness.
The several sachems, in whom, when united in
general council, resided the supreme powers of the
League, formed, when apart in their own territories,
the ruling bodies of their respective nations. When
assembled as the Council of the League, the power
of each sachem became co-extensive with the gov
ernment, and direct relations were created between
all the people and each individual ruler; but when
the sachems of a nation were convened in council, all
its internal affairs fell under their immediate cogni
zance. For all purposes of a local and domestic, and
many of a political character, the nations were entirely
independent of each other. The nine Mohawk
sachems administered the affairs of that nation with
joint authority, precisely in the same manner as they
did, in connection with their colleagues, the affairs of
the League at large. With similar powers, the ten
Cayuga sachems regulated the domestic affairs of their
nation.
As the sachems of each nation stood upon a per-
VOL. i. 5 65
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
feet equality, in authority and privileges, the meas
ure of influence was determined entirely by the
talents and address of the individual. In the coun
cils of the nation, which were of frequent occurrence,
all business of national concernment was transacted ;
and, although the questions moved on such occa
sions would be finally settled by the opinions of
the sachems, yet such was the spirit of the Iroquois
system of government, that the influence of the
inferior chiefs, the warriors, and even of the women
would make itself felt, whenever the subject itself
aroused a general public interest.
If we seek their warrant for the exercise of power
in the etymology of the word Ho-yar-na-go-war^ by
which the sachems were known as a class, it will be
found to intimate a check upon, rather than an
enlargement of their authority ; for it signifies, simply,
"counsellor of the people," a beautiful as well as
appropriate designation of a ruler. But within their
sphere of action, their powers were highly arbitrary in
ancient times.
Next to the sachems, in position, stood the Chiefs,
an inferior class of rulers, the very existence of whose
office was an anomaly in the oligarchy of the Iroquois.
Many years after the establishment of the League,
even subsequent to the commencement of their inter
course with the whites, there arose a necessity for
raising up this class. It was an innovation upon the
original framework of the confederacy, but it was
demanded by circumstances which could not be re
sisted. The office of chief, Hd-seh-no-wa-neh, which
is rendered " an elevated name," was made elective,
66
CHIEFS
and the reward of merit ; but without any power of
descent, the title terminating with the individual.
No limit to the number was established. The Sen-
ecas, still residing in New York, number about two
thousand five hundred, and exclusive of the eight
sachems, they have about seventy chiefs. At first
their powers were extremely limited, and confined to
a participation in the local affairs of their own nation,
in the management of which they acted as the coun
sellors and assistants of the sachems, rather than in
the capacity of rulers. But they continued to increase
in influence, with their multiplication in numbers, and
to encroach upon the powers of the sachems, until at
the present time, when the League is mostly dismem
bered, and their internal organization has undergone
some essential changes, they have raised themselves to
an equality, in many respects, with the sachems them
selves. After their election, they were raised up by
a council of the nation ; but a ratification, by the
general council of the sachems, was necessary to com
plete the investiture. The tenure of this office still
continues the same.
The powers and duties of the sachems and chiefs
were entirely of a civil character, and confined, by their
organic laws, to the affairs of peace. No sachem
could go out to war in his official capacity, as a civil
ruler. If disposed to take the war-path, he laid aside
his civil office, for the time being, and became a
common warrior. It becomes an important inquiry,
therefore, to ascertain in whom the military power,
was vested. The Iroquois had no- distinct class of
war-chiefs, raised up and set apart to command in
67
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
time of war; neither do the sachems or chiefs appear
to have possessed the power of appointing such persons
^s they considered suitable to the post of command.
\ All military operations were left entirely to private
enterprise, and to the system of voluntary service,
the sachems seeking rather to repress and restrain,
than to encourage the martial ardor of the people.
vTheir principal war-captains were to be found among
the class called chiefs, many of whom were elected
to this office in reward for their military achievements.
The singular method of warfare among the Iroquois
renders it extremely difficult to obtain a complete and
satisfactory explanation of the manner in which their
warlike operations were conducted. Their whole civil
policy was averse to the concentration of power in
the hands of any single individual, but inclined to
the opposite principle of division among a number
of equals ; and this policy they carried into their
military as well as through their civil organization.
Small bands were, in the first instance, organized by
individual leaders, each of which, if they were after
wards united upon the same enterprise, continued
under its own captain, and the whole force, as well
as the conduct of the expedition, was under their
joint management. They appointed no one of their
number to absolute command, but the general direction
was left open to the strongest will, or the most persua
sive voice.
As they were at war with all nations not in their
actual alliance, it was lawful for any warrior to or
ganize a party, and seek adventures wherever he
pleased to direct his steps. Perhaps some chief, filled
68
MILITARY CHIEFTAINS
with martial ardor, planned an inroad upon the Cher-
okees of the south ; and, having given a war-dance,
and thus enlisted all who wished to share the glory
of the adventure, took the war-path at once, upon
his distant and perilous enterprise. In such ways as
this, many expeditions originated ; and it is believed
that a great part of the warlike transactions of the
Iroquois were nothing more than personal adventures,
or the daring deeds of inconsiderable war-parties.
Under such a state of things, a favorite leader, pos
sessed of< the confidence of the people from his war
like achievements, would be in no want of followers,
in the midst of a general war; nor would the League
be in any danger of losing the services of its most
capable military commanders. To obviate the dan
gerous consequences of disagreement, when the several
nations were prosecuting a common war, and their
forces were united into one body, an expedient was
resorted to for securing unanimity in their plans, in
the establishment of two supreme military chieftain
cies. The two chieftains who held these offices were
designed rather to take the general supervision of the
affairs of war, than the actual command in the field,
although they were not debarred from assuming it,
if they were disposed to do so. These war-chiefships
were made hereditary, like the sachemships, and va
cancies were filled in the same manner. When the
Senecas, at the institution of the League, were made
the door-keepers, these chieftaincies were assigned to
them, for the reason that being at the door, they
would first take the war-path to drive back the in
vader. The first of these was named Ta-wan-ne-
69
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
arSy 1 " needle breaker," and the title made hereditary in
the Wolf tribe ; the second was named So-nd-so-wa,
"great oyster shell," and the office assigned to the
Turtle tribe. To these high chieftains, as the Iroquois
now affirm, was intrusted the supreme command of the
forces of the League, and the general management of
its military affairs. (48)
During the Revolution, Ta-yen-da-na -ga, Joseph
Brant, commanded the war-parties of the Mohawks ;
and, from his conspicuous position and the high con
fidence reposed in him, rather than from any claim
advanced by himself, the title of military chieftain
of the League has been conceded to him by some
writers. But this is entirely a mistake, or rather, a
false assertion, which is expressly contradicted by
all of the Iroquois nations, including the Mohawks
themselves. (37)
It is, perhaps, in itself singular, that no religious
functionaries were recognized in the League. This
is shown by the fact, that none were ever raised up
by the general council of sachems, to fill a sacerdo
tal office. There was, however, a class in each nation,
styled Ho-nun-de -unt) " keepers of the faith," who were
regularly appointed to officiate at their festivals, and
to take the general supervision of their religious
affairs.
To the officers above enumerated, the adminis
tration of the League was intrusted. The congress
of sachems took the charge of all those matters
1 Governor Blacksnake, who now resides upon the Allegany reser
vation, and is upwards of a hundred years of age, now holds this
title. (33)
70
POPULAR INFLUENCE
which pertained to the public welfare. With them
resided the executive, legislative and judicial authority,
so far as they were not possessed by the people ;
although their powers in many things appear to have
been rather advisory than executive. The chiefs,
from counsellors and intermediaries between the
sachems and the people, increased in influence, until
they became rulers with the sachems themselves,
thus widening and liberalizing the oligarchy. In all
matters of war, the power appears to have resided
chiefly with the people, and its prosecution to have
been left to private adventure. If several bands
united, they had as many generals as bands, who
governed their proceedings by a council, in which,
as in civil affairs, unanimity was a fundamental law.
The two high military chieftains had rather the
planning and general management of the campaign,
than the actual conduct of the forces. Running
through their whole system of administration, was
a public sentiment, which gave its own tendency to j
affairs, and illustrated to a remarkable degree, that |
the government rested upon the popular will, and;
not upon the arbitrary sway of chiefs.
From whatever point the general features of the
League are scrutinized, it must be regarded as a
beautiful, as well as a remarkable structure the
triumph of Indian legislation. When the posses
sions of the Iroquois were enlarged by conquest
followed by occupation, it was an expansion, and
not a dismemberment of the confederacy, one of its
leading objects being the absorption of contiguous
nations. To the Eries and to the Neuter nation,
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
according to tradition, the Iroquois offered the alter
native of admission into the League, or extermina
tion; and the strangeness of this proposition will
disappear, when it is remembered that an Indian
nation regards itself as at war with all others not
in actual alliance. Peace itself was one of the ulti
mate objects aimed at by the founders of this Indian
oligarchy, to be secured by the admission, or subju
gation of surrounding nations. In their progressive
course, their empire enlarged, until they had stretched
their chain around the half of our republic, and ren
dered their names a terror from the hills of New
England to the deepest seclusions upon the Missis
sippi ; when the advent of another race arrested their
career, and prepared the way for the gradual extin
guishment of their council-fires, and the desolation
of the Long House.
With a mere confederacy of Indian nations, the
constant tendency would be to a rupture, from
remoteness of position and interest, and from the
inherent weakness of such a compact. In the case
under consideration, something more lasting was
aimed at, than a simple union of the five nations,
in the nature of an alliance. A blending of the
national sovereignties into one government was
sought for and achieved by these forest statesmen.
The League made the Ho-de-no-sau-nee one people,
with one government, one system of institutions, one
executive will. Yet the powers of the government
were not so entirely centralized that the national
independencies disappeared. This was very far from
the fact. The crowning feature of the League, as
72
UN ITT OF THE RACE
a political structure, was the perfect independence
and individuality of the national sovereignties, in the
midst of a central and embracing government, which
presented such a cemented exterior that its subdivi
sions would scarcely have been discovered in the
general transactions of the League.
How these ends were attained we have yet to
examine.
The government sat lightly upon the people, who,
in effect, were governed but little. It secured to each
that individual independence, which the Ho-de -no-
sau-nee knew how to prize as well as the Saxon race ;
and which, amid all their political changes, they have
continued to preserve.
73
Chapter IV
Division into Tribes Family Relationships Descent in the
Female Line Degrees of Consanguinity Succession of Sa
chems Names Nature of a Tribe Equality of the Nations
National Epithets Office of Chief Elective Distinguished
Men were Chiefs Stability of the Oligarchy
THE division of a people into tribes is the
most simple organization of society. (54)
Each tribe being in the nature of a family,
the ties of relationship which bind its individual
members together are indispensable, until they are
rendered unnecessary by the adoption of a form
of government, and the substitution of other ties,
which answer the same ends of protection and
security.
When a people have long remained in the tribal
state, it becomes extremely difficult to remove all
traces of such organic divisions by the substitution
of new institutions. (11) In the tribes of the Jews,
this position is illustrated. Among the Greeks also,
especially the Athenians, the traces of their original
divisions never entirely disappeared. Solon substi
tuted classes for tribes, but subsequently Cleisthenes
restored the tribes, retaining however the classes, and
increased the number ; thus perpetuating this early
social organization of the Athenians among their civil
institutions. The Athenian tribe was a group of
families, with subdivisions ; the Roman tribes, estab-
74
DIVISION INTO TRIBES
lished by Romulus, the same. On the other hand,
the Jewish tribes embraced only the lineal descendants
of a common father; and its individual members
being of consanguinity, the tribe itself was essentially
different from the Grecian. The Iroquois tribe was
unlike them all. It was not a group of families ; -
neither was it made up of the descendants of a
common father, as the father and his child were never
of the same tribe. In the sequel, however, it will
be discovered to be nearest the Jewish ; differing
from it, as from all other similar institutions of the
old world, chiefly in this, that descent followed, in
all cases, the female line.
The founders of the Iroquois Confederacy did not
seek to suspend the tribal divisions of the people, to
introduce a different social organization ; but on the
contrary, they rested the League itself upon the tribes,
and through them, sought to interweave the race into
one political family. A careful exploration of those
tribal relationships which characterize the political sys
tem of the Iroquois, becomes, therefore, of importance.
Without such knowledge as this will afford, their gov
ernment itself is wholly unmeaning and inexplicable.
In each nation there were eight tnf>es, (58) which
were arranged in two divisions/ 55 and named as
follows :
Wolf, Bear, Beaver, Turtle.
Deer, Snipe, Heron, Hawk.
These animals are common to all latitudes between
Louisiana and Montreal, and hence in themselves
are incapable of throwing any light upon the land, or
75
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
locality in which the race originated. 1 These names
had doubtless an emblematical signification, which
reached beyond the object itself. Of the origin of
their tribal divisions but little is known, and to it,
perhaps, but little importance attaches. Tradition
declares that the Bear and the Deer were the original
tribes, and that the residue were subdivisions/ 54 55
57,58. Evidence of the existence of seven of the
tribes at the establishment of the Oligarchy, is fur
nished in the distribution of the Onondaga and Seneca
sachemships. The fourteen assigned to the former
nation were divided between the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
Turtle, Snipe, and Deer tribes ; while the eight be
longing to the latter, were given to the Wolf, Bear,
Turtle, Snipe, and Hawk, to the exclusion of the
others, if they then existed ; and in these several tribes
they were made perpetually hereditary.
1 Table exhibiting the scientific names of the animals adopted by the
Iroquois as the emblems of their respective tribes. It follows the classi
fication employed in the Nat. History of New York. The species have
been determined from careful descriptions obtained of the Senecas.
Seneca Name. Order. Family. Genus. Species.
Wolf. Tor-yoh -ne. Carnivora. Canidap. Lupus. Occidentalis.
Bear. Ne-e-ar -gu-ye. Carnivora. Ursidae. Ursus. Americanus.
Beaver. Non-gar-ne -e-ar-goh. Rodentia. Castorid*. Castor. Fiber.
Turtle. Ga-ne-e-ar-teh-go -wa. Chelonia. Chelonidae. Chelonura. Serpentina.
Deer. Na-o -geh. Ungulata. Ccrvidae. Cervus. Virginianus.
Snipe. Doo-ese-doo-we . Grallae. Scolopacidx. Totanus. Semipalmatus.
Heron. Jo-as -seh. Grail*. Ardeida.-. Ardea. Candidissima.
Hawk. Os-sweh-ga-da-ga -ah. Accipitres. Falconidae. Falco. Columbarius.
NOTE. Some doubt rests upon the Heron .and the Snipe concerning
the species. In the former case the choice lies between the Ardea Can
didissima and the Ardea Leucc. In the latter, the large number of the
species introduces a difficulty. The Semipalmatus corresponds most
nearly with the description of the bird.
7 6
DIVISION INTO TRIBES
The division of the people of each nation into eight
tribes, whether pre-existing, or perfected at the estab
lishment of the Confederacy, did not terminate in its
objects with the nation itself. 1 It became the means
of effecting the most perfect union of separate nations
"ever devised by the wit of man." (57) , In effect,
the Wolf tribe was divided into five parts, and one
fifth of it placed in each of the five nations. The re
maining tribes were subjected to the same division
and distribution. Between those of the same name
or in other words, between the separated parts of each
tribe there existed a tie of brotherhood, which
linked the nations together with indissoluble bonds.
The Mohawk of the Wolf tribe recognized the. Seneca
of the Wolf tribe as his brother, and they were bound
to each other by the ties of consanguinity. In like
manner the Oneida of the Turtle or other tribe re
ceived the Cayuga or Onondaga of the same tribe, as
a brother, and with a fraternal welcome. This rela
tionship was not ideal, but was founded upon actual
consanguinity. In the eyes of an Iroquois, every
member of his own tribe, in whatever nation, was as
much his brother or his sister as it children ot the
same mother. This cross-relationship between the"
1 The Senecas had eight tribes, the Cayugas eight, the Tuscaroras
seven, the Onondagas eight, the Oneidas three, and the Mohawks three.
The descendants of the ancient Oneidas and Mohawks affirm that their
ancestors never had but three tribes, the Wolf, Bear, and Turtle. On
old treaties with these nations now in the State Department, these titles
appear as their only social divisions. But by the original laws of the
League, neither of these tribes could intermarry. Hence there appears
to have been a necessity for the existence originally of the remaining
tribes, or some of them, to admit of the verity of this law in relation to
marriage. (58)
77
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
tribes of the same name, and which was stronger, if
possible, than the chain of brotherhood between the
several tribes of the same nation, is still preserved in
all its original strength. It doubtless furnishes the
chief reason of the tenacity with which the fragments
of the League still cling together. If either of the
five nations had wished to cast off the alliance, it must
also have broken this bond of brotherhood. Had the
nations fallen into collision, it would have turned Hawk
tribe against Hawk tribe, Heron against Heron, brother
against brother. The history of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee
exhibits the wisdom of these organic provisions ; for,
during the long period through which the League sub
sisted, they never fell into anarchy, nor even approx
imated to dissolution from internal disorders. (39)
With the progress of the inquiry, it becomes more
apparent that the Confederacy was in effect a League
of Tribes. With the ties of kindred as its principle
of union, the whole race was interwoven into one
great family, composed of tribes in its first subdivision
(for the nations were counterparts of each other) ; and
the tribes themselves, in their subdivisions, composed
of parts of many households. Without these close
inter-relations, resting, as many of them do, upon
the strong impulses of nature, a mere alliance between
the Iroquois nations would have been feeble and
transitory.
In this manner was constructed the League of the
Ho-de -no-sau-nee^ in itself an extraordinary specimen
of Indian legislation. Simple in its foundation upon
the family relationships, effective in the lasting vigor
inherent in the ties of kindred, and perfect in its suc-
78
AH-TA-QUA-0-WEH OR MOCCASIN FOR FEMALE.
FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS
cess, in achieving a permanent and harmonious union
of the nations, it forms an enduring monument to that
proud and progressive race, who reared under its pro
tection a wide-spread Indian sovereignty.
All the institutions of the Iroquois have regard to ^
the division of the people into tribes/ 54 Originally
with reference to marriage, the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
and Turtle tribes, being brothers to each other, were
not allowed to intermarry. The four opposite tribes,
being also brothers to each other, were likewise pro
hibited from intermarrying. Either of the first four
tribes, however, could intermarry with either of the
last four, the relation between them being that of
cousins. Thus Hawk could intermarry with Bear or
Beaver, Heron with Turtle ; but not Beaver and
Turtle, nor Deer and Deer. Whoever violated these
laws of marriage incurred the deepest detestation and
disgrace. In process of time, however, the rigor of
the system was relaxed, until finally the prohibition
was confined to the tribe of the individual, which,
among the residue of the Iroquois, is still religiously
observed. They can now marry into any tribe but
their own. Under the original as well as modern
regulation, the husband and wife were of different
tribes. The children always followed the tribe of
the mother.
As the whole Iroquois system rested upon the
tribes as an organic division of the people, it was
very natural that the separate rights of each should
be jealously guarded. Not the least remarkable
among their institutions, was that which confined the
transmission of all titles, rights and property in the
79
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS.
female line to the exclusion of the male. It is
strangely unlike the canons of descent adopted by
civilized nations, but it secured several important ob
jects. If the Deer tribe of the Cayugas, for example,
received a sachemship at the original distribution of
these offices, the descent of such title being limited to
the female line, it could never pass out of the tribe.
It thus became instrumental in giving to the tribe
individuality. A still more marked result, and per
haps a leading object of this enactment was the
perpetual disinheritance of the son. (57) Being of the
tribe of his mother formed an impassable barrier
against him ; and he could neither succeed his father
as a sachem, nor inherit from him even his medal,
or his tomahawk. (103) The inheritance, for the pro
tection of tribal rights, was thus directed from the
lineal descendants of the sachem, to his brothers, or
his sisters children, or, under certain circumstances,
to some individual of the tribe at large ; each and all
of whom were in his tribe, while his children, being in
another tribe, as before remarked, were placed out of
the line of succession.
By the operation of this principle, also, the cer
tainty of descent in the tribe, of their principal chiefs,
was secured by a rule infallible ; for the child must be
the son of its mother, although not necessarily of its
mother s husband. If the purity of blood be of any
moment, the lawgivers of the Iroquois established the
only certain rule the case admits of, whereby the as
surance might be enjoyed that the ruling sachem was
of the same family or tribe with the first taker of the
titled
80
DEGREES OF CONSANG UINITT
The Iroquois mode of computing degrees of con
sanguinity was unlike that of the civil or canon law ;
but was yet a clear and definite system. (12) No dis-
tinction was made between the lineal and collateral
lines, either in the ascending or descending series.
To understand this subject, it must be borne in mind,
that of the grandparents one only, the maternal grand
mother, necessarily was, and of the parents only the
mother, and, in the descending line, only the sisters
children could be of the same tribe with the proposi-
tus, or individual from whom the degrees of relation
ship were reckoned. By careful attention to this rule,
the reasons of the following relationships will be read
ily perceived. The maternal grandmother and her
sisters were equally grandmothers ; the mother and
her sisters were equally mothers ; the children of a
mother s sisters were brothers and sisters ; the children
of a sister were nephews and nieces ; and the grand
children of a sister were his grandchildren. These
were the chief relatives within the tribe, though not
fully extended as to number. Out of the tribe, the
paternal grandfather and his brothers were equally .
grandfathers ; the father and his brothers equally
fathers ; the father s sisters were aunts, while, in the
tribe, the mother s brothers were uncles ; the father s
sister s children were cousins as in the civil law ; the
children of these cousins were nephews and nieces, and
the children of these nephews and nieces were his
grandchildren, or the grandchildren of the propositus.
Again : the children of a brother were his children,
and the grandchildren of a brother were his grand
children ; also, the children of a father s brother were
VOL. i. 6 8 1
\^
*v
LEAGUE OF THz IROQUOIS
his brothers and sisters, instead of cousins, as under
the civil law ; and lastly, their children were his grand
children.^
It was the leading object of the Iroquois law of
descent, to merge the collateral in the lineal line, as
sufficiently appears in the above outline. By the
civil law, every departure from the common ancestor
in the descending series, removed the collateral from
the lineal ; while, by the law under consideration, the
two lines were finally brought into one. 1 Under the
civil law mode of computation, the degrees of relation
ship become too remote to be traced among collater
als ; while, by the mode of the Iroquois, none of the
collaterals were lost by remoteness of degree. The
number of those linked together by the nearer family
ties was largely multiplied by preventing, in this man
ner, the subdivision of a family into collateral branches.
These relationships, so novel and original, did not
exist simply in theory, but were actual, and of con
stant recognition, and lay at the foundation of their
political as well as social organization. (72)
The succession of the rulers of the League is one
of the most intricate subjects to be met with in the
political system of the Iroquois. It has been so diffi-
1 The following are the names of the several degrees of relationship
recognized among the Ho-de -no-sau-nee, in the language of the Sene-
cas : (54,r>G)_
Hoc-sote , Grandfather. Hoc-no -seh, Uncle.
Uc-sote , Grandmother. Ah-geh -huc, Aunt.
Ha -nih, Father. Ha-yan-wan-deh , Nephew.
Noh-yeh , Mother. Ka-yan-wan-deh , Niece.
Ho-ah -wuk, Son. Da-ya-gwa -dan-no-da, Brothers and Sisters.
Go-ah -wuk, Daughter. Ah-gare -seh, Cousin.
Ka-ya -da, Grandchildren.
82
SUCCESSION OF SACHEMS
cult to procure a satisfactory exposition of the enact
ments by which the mode of succession was regulated,
that the sachemships have sometimes been considered
elective, at others as hereditary. Many of the ob
stacles which beset the inquiry are removed by the
single fact, that the title of sachem was absolutely
hereditary in the tribe to which it was originally /
assigned, and could never pass out of it but with its
extinction. How far these titles were hereditary in
that part of the family of the sachem who were of the
same tribe with himself, becomes the true question to
consider. The sachem s brothers, and the sons of his
sisters were of his tribe, and, consequently, in the line
of succession. Between a brother and a nephew of
the deceased, there was no law which established a
preference ; neither between several brothers, on the
one hand, and sons of several sisters on the other, was
there any law of primogeniture ; nor, finally, was there
any positive law, that the choice should be confined to
the brothers of the deceased ruler, and the descendants
of his sisters in the female line, until all these should
fail, before a selection could be made from the tribe at
large. Hence, it appears, so far as positive enactments
were concerned, that the office of sachem was heredi
tary in the particular tribe in which it ran ; while it was
elective, as between the male members of the tribe itself. 1
1 Laws of succession somewhat similar existed among the Aztecs.
" The sovereign was selected from the brothers of the deceased prince,
or, in default of them, from his nephews, thus the election was always re
stricted to the same family. * * * The scheme of election, how
ever defective, argues a more refined and calculating policy than was to
have been expected from a barbarous nation. 1 Prescott s Conquest of
Mexico, vol. i. p. 23.
83
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
In the absence of laws, designating with certainty
the individual upon whom the inheritance should fall,
custom would come in and assume the force of law, in
directing the manner of choice, from among a number
equally eligible. Upon the decease of a sachem, a
tribal council assembled to determine upon his suc
cessor. The choice usually fell upon a son of one of
the deceased ruler s sisters, or upon one of his brothers
in the absence of physical and moral objections;
and this preference of one of his near relatives would
be suggested by feelings of respect for his memory.
Infancy was no obstacle, it involving only the necessity
of setting over the infant a guardian, to discharge the
duties of a sachem until he attained a suitable age. It
sometimes occurred that all the relatives of the deceased
were set aside, and a selection was made from the
tribe generally ; but it seldom thus happened, unless
from the great unfitness of the near relatives of the
deceased.
When the individual was finally determined, the
nation summoned a council, in the name of the de
ceased, of all the sachems of the League ; and the new
sachem was raised up by such council, and invested
with his office.
In connection with the power of the tribes to desig
nate the sachems, should be noticed the equal power of
deposition. If, by misconduct, a sachem lost the con
fidence and respect of his tribe, and became unworthy
of authority, a tribal council at once deposed him ; and,
having selected a successor, summoned a council of
the League to perform the ceremony of his investiture.
Still further to illustrate the characteristics of the
84
NAMES
tribes of the Iroquois, some reference to their mode
of bestowing names (G8) would not be inapt. 1 Soon
after the birth of an infant, the near relatives of the
same tribe selected a name. At the first subsequent
council of the nation, the birth and name were publicly
announced, together with the name and tribe of the
father, and the name and tribe of the mother. In
each nation the proper names were so strongly marked
by a tribal peculiarity, that the tribe of the individual
could usually be determined from the name alone.
Making, as they did, a part of their language, they
were all significant. When an individual was raised
up as a sachem, his original name was laid aside, and
that of the sachemship itself assumed. In like man
ner, at the raising up of a chief, the council of the
nation which performed the ceremony, took away the
former name of the incipient chief and assigned him a
new one, perhaps, like Napoleon s titles, commemora
tive of the event which led to its bestowment. Thus,
when the celebrated Red-Jacket was elevated by
election to the dignity of a chief, his original name,
O-te-ti- dri-iy " always ready," was taken from him, and
in its place was bestowed Sa-go-ye-w dt -ha, " keeper
awake," in allusion to the powers of his eloquence.
Each tribe in the nation thus formed a species of
separate community. The members were all of con
sanguinity, and their relationships easily traced. In
like manner those of the same tribe in each of the
1 Like the ancient Saxons, the Iroquois had neither a prenomen, nor a
cognomen ; but contented themselves with a single name. The name of
an individual was often changed at different periods of life, as when the
youth became a warrior ; and again, at the approach of age. ,
85
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
other nations were their consanguinii, and their rela
tionships, near and remote, were also traceable. As
two tribes were necessarily joined in each family, there
was a perfect diffusion of tribes throughout the nation,
and throughout the League. In this manner the race
of the Iroquois, although consisting of different nations,
was blended into one people. The League was in
effect established, and rested for its stability, upon the
natural faith of kindred.
It now remains to define a tribe of the Ho-de -no-
sau-nee. From the preceding considerations it suffi
ciently appears, that it was not, like the Grecian and
Roman, a circle or group of families ; for two tribes
were necessarily represented in every family; neither,
like the Jewish, was it constituted-otlie_lineal descend
ants of a common father; on the contrary, it distinctly
involved the idea of descent from a common mother;
nor has it any resemblance to the Scottish clan, or the
Canton of the Switzer. In the formation of an Iro
quois tribe, a portion was taken from many households,
and bound together by a tribal bond.
The wife, her children, and her descendants in the
female line, would, in perpetuity, be linked with the
destinies of her own tribe ; while the husband, his
brothers and sisters, and the descendants of the
latter, in the female line, would, in like manner, be
united to another teibe, and held by its affinities.
Herein was a bond of union between the several teibes
of the same jmtte~, corresponding, in some degree,
with the cross-relationship founded upon consanguin
ity, which bound together the tribes of the same
emblem in the different nations.
86
NATURE OF A TRIBE
The Iroquois claim to have originated the idea of
a division of the people into tribes, as a means of
creating new relationships by which to bind the people
more firmly together. (57) It is further asserted by
them, that they forced or introduced this social or
ganization among the Cherokees, the Chippeways,
(Massasaugas) and several other Indian nations, with
whom, in ancient times, they were in constant inter
course. The fact that this division of the people of
the same nation into tribes does not prevail generally
among our Indian races, favors the assertion of the
Iroquois. (57) On the other hand, the laws of de
scent, at least of the crown, among the Aztecs, dimly
shadows forth the existence of a similar social organi
zation, which may have been reproduced among the
Iroquois, or preserved through a remote affinity
of blood. At ail events, it was the life and strength
of the League.
Of the comparative value of these institutions, when
contrasted with those of civilized countries, and of
their capability of elevating the race, it is not neces
sary here to inquire. It was the boast of the Iroquois
that the great object of their confederacy was peace -
to break up the spirit of perpetual warfare, which had
wasted the red race from age to age. Such an insight
into the true end of all legitimate government, by
those who constructed this tribal league, excites as
great surprise as admiration. It is the highest and
the noblest aspect in which human institutions can be
viewed; and the thought itself -- universal peace
among Indian races possible of attainment was a
ray of intellect from no ordinary mind. To con-
87
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
summate such a purpose, the Iroquois nations were
to be concentrated into one political fraternity ; and
in a manner effectively to prevent offshoots and seces
sions. By its natural growth, this fraternity would
accumulate sufficient power to absorb adjacent nations,
moulding them, successively, by affiliation, into one
common family. Thus, in its nature, it was designed
to be a progressive confederacy. What means could
have been employed with greater promise of success
than the stupendous system of relationships, which
was fabricated through the division of the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee into tribes ? It was a system sufficiently
ample to enfold the whole Indian race. Unlimited
in their capacity for extension, inflexible in their rela
tionships, the tribes thus interleagued would have
suffered no loss of unity by their enlargement, nor
loss of strength by the increasing distance between
their council-fires. The destiny of this League, if it
had been left to work out its own results among the
red races exclusively, it is impossible to conjecture.
With vast capacities for enlargement, and remark
able durability of structure, it must have attained a
great elevation, and a general supremacy.
It is apparent from the examination of such evi
dences as can be discovered, that the several Iroquois
nations occupied positions of entire equality in the
League, in rights, privileges and obligations. Such
special immunities as were granted to either, must be
put down to the chances of location, and to the
numerical differences at the institution of the Con
federacy ; since they neither indicate an intention to
establish an unequal alliance, nor exhibit the exercise
88
EQUALITY OF THE NATIONS
of privileges by either nation, inconsistent with the
principle of political equality, on which the League
was founded.
The sources of information, from which this con
clusion is drawn, are to be found in the mass of
Iroquois traditions, and in the structure of the Con
federacy itself. Those traditions which reach beyond
the formation of the League, are vague and unreliable,
while all such as refer to its establishment assume a
connected and distinctive form. It follows that confi
dence may be reposed in such inferences as are derived
from these traditions, and corroborated by the internal
structure of the government, and by the institutions
of the League.
There were provisions apparently vesting in certain
nations superior authority, which it is desirable to
introduce and explain. The most prominent was the
unequal distribution of sachemships, indicating an
unequal distribution of power : the Onondagas, for
example, having fourteen sachems, while the Senecas,
by far the most powerful nation in the Confederacy,
were entitled to but eight. It is true, ceteris paribus,
that a larger body of sachems would exercise a greater
influence in general council ; but it will appear, when
the mode of deciding questions is considered, that it
gave no increase of power, for each nation had an
equal voice, and a negative upon the others.
By another organic provision, the custody of the
" Council Brand," and also of the " Wampum," into
which the laws of the League " had been talked," was
given by hereditary grant to the Onondagas. This is
sufficiently explained by their central position, which
89
LEAGUE OF THE
made the council-fire in the Onondaga valley, in effect,
the seat of government of the League. It was equally
a convenience to all, and does not necessarily involve
a preference enforced by superior power.
The To-do-da-bo was likewise among the Onondaga
sachems. Upon this point it has heretofore been
stated that the higher degree of consideration attached
to this title resulted exclusively from the exalted esti
mation in which the original tfo-do-da-ho was held, on
account of his martial prowess and achievements.
An apparent inequality between the nations of
the League is also observable in the award of the
two highest military chieftains to the Senecas. It
will be sufficient, on this difficult feature in the system
of the Iroquois, to note that when they constructed
their political edifice, the Long House, (12G) with its
door opening upon the west, they admitted the sup
position that all hostile onsets were to be expected
from that direction ; and on placing the Senecas as
a perpetual shield before its western portal, these
war-captains were granted, as among the means need
ful for its protection.
The Mohawks were receivers of tribute from sub
jugated nations. This hereditary privilege must be
placed upon the same footing with the preceding.
It may, perhaps, indicate that the nations upon their
borders were in subjection.
Unequal terms in a Confederacy of independent
nations would not be expected. True wisdom would
dictate the principle of equality, as the only certain
foundation on which a durable structure could be
erected. That such was the principle adopted by
99
EQUALITY OF THE NATIONS
the legislators of the Iroquois, is evinced by the
equality of rights and immunities subsisting between
the sachems of the League. Their authority was
not limited to their own nation, but was co-extensive
with the Confederacy. The Cayuga sachem, while
in the midst of the Oneidas, could enforce from
them the same obedience that was due to him from
his own people ; and when in general council with
his compeers, he had an equal voice in the disposal
of all business which came before it. The special
privileges enumerated, and some others which existed,
were of but little moment, when compared with the
fact that the nations were independent, and that each
had an equal participation in the administration of
the government.
At the epoch of the League, the several nations
occupied the territory between the Hudson and the
Genesee, and were separated by much the same in
ternal boundaries, as at the period when they yielded
up their sovereignty. From geographical position,
or from relative importance, or yet, for the mere
purpose of establishing between the nations rela
tionships similar to those existing between the tribes,
certain rules of precedence, and national ties, were
constituted between them. The nations were divided
into two classes, or divisions ; and when assembled
in general council were arranged upon opposite sides
of the " council-fire." On the one side stood the
Mohawks, Onondagas and Senecas, who, as nations,\
were regarded as brothers to each other, but as fathers
to the other nations. Upon the other side were the
Oneidas and Cayugas, and at a subsequent day, the \
91
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
( Tuscaroras, who, in like manner, were brother nations
to each other, but children to the first three. These
divisions were in harmony with their system of rela
tionships, or more properly formed a part of it. They
may have secured for the senior nations increased
respect, but they involved no idea of dependence in
the junior, or inequality in civil rights.
When the nations were enumerated, the Mohawks
were placed first, but for what reason is not precisely
understood. In the councils of the Confederacy
they were styled Da-ga-e-o -ga, which became their
national epithet. It was a term of respect, and signi
fies " neutral," or, as it may be rendered, " the shield."
Its origin is lost in obscurity.
The Onondagas were placed next in the order of
precedence, and were addressed in council by the
appellation Ho-de -san-no-ge-ta. This term signifies
" name-bearer," and was conferred in commemoration
of the circumstance that the Onondagas bestowed
the names upon the fifty original sachems. This was
a privilege of some moment, as these " names " were
to descend from generation to generation, upon the
successive rulers of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee.
Next in order stood the Senecas, justly proud of
their national designation, Ho-nan-ne-hd-ont^ or " the
door-keeper." To them, as elsewhere remarked,
belonged the hereditary guardianship of the door of
the Long House.
The Oneidas occupied the fourth place in the Iro-
quois order of precedence, and originally had no
appellation by which they were distinguished. At
a subsequent and quite modern period, the epithet
92
NATIONAL EPITHETS
Ne-ar-de-on-dar-gd-waT) or " Great Tree," was con
ferred upon them by their confederates. This name
was seized upon from some occurrence at a treaty
with the people of Wastow, or Boston.
Of the five original nations, the Cayugas were
placed last in the enumeration. They were desig
nated in council by the appellation, So-nus-ho-gwa-
to-war, signifying " Great Pipe." Tradition refers
this epithet to the incident that the leading Cayuga
chief in attendance at the council which established
the League smoked a pipe of unusual dimensions
and workmanship.
The admission of the Tuscaroras having been long
subsequent to the formation of the League, they were
never received into an equal alliance with the other
nations. After their disastrous overthrow, and expul
sion from North Carolina, they turned towards the
country of the Iroquois, and were admitted about
the year 1715, as the sixth nation, into the Confed
eracy. But they were never allowed to have a
sachem, who could sit as an equal in the council of
sachems. The five nations were unwilling to enlarge
the number of sachemships founded at the institution
of the League. For purposes of national government,
however, they were organized like the other nations,
with similar tribes, relationships, laws and institutions.
They also enjoyed a nominal equality in the councils
of the League, by the courtesy of the other five, and
their sachems were "raised up" with the same cere
monies. They were not dependent, but were admitted
to as full equality as could be granted them, without
enlarging the framework of the Confederacy. In
93
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
the councils of the League, they had no national
designation. (12
At the establishment of the Confederacy, the office
of chief, Ha-seh-no-wa-nehy " an elevated name," was
entirely unknown among the Iroquois. Their tradi
tions, as elsewhere stated, affirm that this title was
instituted long subsequent to the foundation of the
fifty sachemships, and the full adjustment of the
League. The necessity in which this office had its
origin, and the illustration which it furnishes of a
position elsewhere advanced, that all political institu
tions, as they unfold, progress from monarchy towards
democracy, leads to the presentation of this subject in
this place.
When the power of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee began to
develop, under .the new system of oligarchies within
an oligarchy, there sprang up around the sachems a
class of warriors, distinguished for enterprise upon
the war-path, and eloquence in council, who de
manded some participation in the administration of
public affairs. The serious objections to the enlarge
ment of the number of rulers, involving, as it did,
changes in the framework of the government, for a
long period enabled the sachems to resist the encroach
ment. In the progress of events, this class became
too powerful to be withstood, and the sachems were
compelled to raise them up in the subordinate station
of chiefs. The title was purely elective, and the
reward of merit. Unlike the sachemships, the name
was not hereditary in the tribe or family of the indi
vidual, but terminated with the chief himself; unless
subsequently bestowed by the tribe upon some other
94
DISTINGUISHED MEN WERE CHIEFS
person, to preserve it as one of their illustrious names.
These chiefs were originally invested with very
limited powers, their principal office being that of
advisers and counsellors of the sachems. Having
thus obtained a foothold in the government, this class,
to the number of which there was no limit, gradually
enlarged their influence, and from generation to gen
eration drew nearer to an equality with the sachems
themselves. 1 By this innovation the government was
liberalized, to the sensible diminution of the power of
the sachems, which, at the institution of the League,
was extremely arbitrary.
It is a singular fact, that none of the sachems of
the Iroquois, save Logan, 2 have ever become distin
guished in history ; although each of the fifty titles
or sachemships have been held by as many individ
uals, as generations have passed away since the foun
dation of the Confederacy. If the immortality of
men, "worthy of praise/ is committed to the guar
dianship of the Muse-
" Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori,"
the muse of tradition, if such a conception may
be indulged, has been enabled, out of this long line
of sachems, to record the deeds of none, save the
military achievements of the first To-do-da -ho ^ the
1 At the present time among the dismembered fragments of the Iro
quois nations, the chiefs are found to be nearly, if not in all respects,
upon an equality with the sachems, although the offices are still held by
different tenures.
2 Logan was one of the ten Cayuga sachems, but which of the ten
names or sachemships he held, is not at present ascertained. His father,
Shikellimus or Shikalimo, who is usually mentioned as a Cayuga sachem,
was but a chief.
95
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U I S
wisdom in legislation of the first Da-ga-no-we -dd*
and the sacred mission of Ga-ne-o-di-yo^ who pre
tended to have received a revelation from the Great
Spirit. The residue have left behind them no re
membrances conferring special dignity upon the sa-
chemships entrusted to their keeping.
The celebrated orators, wise men, and military
leaders of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee^ are all to be found
in the class of chiefs. One reason for this may exist
in the organic provision which confined the duties
of the sachems exclusively to the affairs of peace;
and another may be that the office of chief was be
stowed in reward of public services, thus casting it
by necessity upon the men highest in capacity among
them. In the list of those chiefs who have earned
a place upon the historic page, as well as in the " un
written remembrance " of their tribe and race, might
be enumerated many who have left behind them a
reputation which will not soon fade from the minds
of men.
By the institution of this office, the stability of
the government was increased rather than diminished.
1 Da-ga~no- r we f -da J the founder of the confederacy, and Hd-yo-
ivent -hd, his speaker, through whom he laid his plans of government
before the council which framed the League, were both "raised up 1
among the fifty original sachems, and in the Mohawk nation j but after
their decease these two sachemships were left vacant, and have since con
tinued so.
Da-gd-no-cwe -dd was an Onondaga, but was adopted by the Mohawks
and raised up as one of their sachems. Having an impediment in his
speech, he chose Hd-yo-vuent -hd for his speaker. They were both un
willing to accept office, except upon the express condition that their
sachemships should ever remain vacant after their decease. These are
the two most illustrious names among the Iroquois.
STABILITY OF THE OLIGARCHY
In their own figurative enunciation of the idea, the
chiefs served as braces in the Long House an
apt expression of the place they occupied in their
political structure. It furnished a position and a
reward for the ambitious, and the means of allaying
discontent, without changing the ruling body. In
this particular, the oligarchy of the Iroquois ap
pears to have enjoyed some superiority over those
of antiquity . (126)
" In aristocratical governments," says Montesquieu,
" there are two principal sources of disorder : exces
sive inequality between the governors and the gov
erned, and the same inequality between the different
members of the body that governs." The govern
ment of the Ho-de-no-sau-nee was exposed to neither
of these difficulties. Between the people and the
sachems, the chiefs formed a connecting link ; while
the sachems themselves were perfectly equal in political
privileges.
The unchangeable number of the rulers, and the
stability of the tenure by which the office itself is
held, are both sources of security in an oligarchy.
To the former safeguard the Iroquois adhered so
firmly, that upon the admission of the Tuscaroras,
as the sixth nation of the League, they were unwilling
to increase the original number of sachemships ; and
the Tuscaroras have not to this day a sachem who is
admitted to all the privileges of a sachem of the Con
federacy. The latter is established by the career of
Sa-go-ye-wat-h dy the most gifted and intellectual of the
race of the Iroquois, and, perhaps, of the whole
1 Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, lib. v. cap. 8.
VOL. i. 7 97
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
Indian family. With all the influence which he
exercised over the people by the power of his elo
quence, and with all the art and intrigue which his
capacity could suggest, he was never able to elevate
himself higher than to the title of Chief. To attain
even this dignity, it is said that he practiced upon
the superstitious fears of the people. The Senecas
themselves aver, that it would have been unwise
to raise up a man of his intellectual power and
extended influence to the office of sachem ; as it
would have concentrated in his hands too much au
thority. Nearly the same observations apply to the
celebrated Joseph Brant, fa-yen-da-na-ga, whose abil
ities as a military leader secured to him the com-
t mand of the war parties of the Mohawks during the
Revolution. He was also but a chief, and held no
other office or title in the nation, or in the Confeder
acy. (3T) By the force of his character, he acquired
the same influence over the Mohawks which Sa-go-ye-
wat -ha maintained over the Senecas by his eloquence.
The lives of these distinguished chiefs, both equally
ambitious, but who pursued very different pathways
to distinction, sufficiently prove that the office of
sachem was surrounded by impassable barriers against
those who were without the immediate family of
the sachem, and the tribe in which the title was
hereditary.
Chapter V
Councils of the Iroquois Influence of Public Sentiment Oratory
Civil Councils Unanimity Mourning Councils Wam
pum Festivities Religious Councils
IN an oligarchy, where the administrative power
is vested in the members of the Ruling Body
jointly, a Council of the Oligarchs becomes the
instrumentality through which the will of this body
is ascertained and enforced. For this reason the
Councils of the Iroquois are important subjects of
investigation. By them were exercised all the legisla
tive and executive authority incident to the League,
and necessary for its security against outward attack
and internal dissensions. When the sachems were
not assembled around the general council-fire, the
government itself had no visible existence. Upon
no point, therefore, can an examination be better di
rected, to ascertain the degree of power vested in
the Ruling Body, and the manner in which their
domestic administration and political relations were
conducted. When the sachems were scattered, like
the people, over a large territory, they exercised a
local and individual authority in the matters of
every-day life, or in national council jointly adjusted
the afTairs of their respective nations. Those higher
and more important concernments, which involved
the interests of the League, were reserved to the
99
LEAGUE OF THE I RO^UOIS
sachems in general council. In this council resided
the animating principle, by which their political
machinery was moved. It was, in effect, the gov
ernment.
The oligarchical form of government is not without
its advantages, although indicative of a low state of
civilization. A comparison of views, by the agency
of a council, would at any time be favorable to the
development of talent. It was especially the case
among the Iroquois, in consequence of the greater
diversity of interests, and the more extended reach of
affairs incident to several nations in close alliance.
Events of greater magnitude would spring up in the
midst of a flourishing confederacy, than in a nation of
inconsiderable importance ; and it is demonstrated by
the political history of all governments, that men
develop intellect in exact proportion to the magni
tude of the events with which they become identified.
For these reasons, the League was favorable to the
production of men higher in capacity than would arise
among nations whose institutions and systems of
government were inferior.
The extremely liberal character of their oligarchy is
manifested by the modus procedendi of these councils.
It is obvious that the sachems were not set over the
people as arbitrary rulers, to legislate as their own
will might dictate, irrespective of the popular voice ;
on the contrary, there is reason to believe that a
public sentiment sprang up on questions of general
interest, which no council felt at liberty to disregard.
By deferring all action upon such questions until a
council brought together the sachems of the League,
100
GA-GEH-TA OR BELT.
ORATORY
attended by a concourse of inferior chiefs and warriors,
an opportunity was given to the people to judge for
themselves, and to take such measures as were neces
sary to give expression and force to their opinions.
If the band of warriors became interested in the
passing question, they held a council apart, and having
given it a full consideration, appointed an orator to
communicate their views to the sachems, their Patres
Conscripti. In like manner would the chiefs, and even
the women proceed, if they entertained opinions which
they wished to urge upon the consideration of the
council. From the publicity with which the affairs of
the League were conducted, and the indirect participa
tion in their adjustment thus allowed the people, a
favorable indication is afforded of the democratic spirit
of the government.
Oratory, from the constitutional organization of
the council, was necessarily brought into high repute.
Questions involving the safety of the race, and the
preservation of the League, were frequently before it.
In those warlike periods, when the Confederacy was
moving onward amid incessant conflicts with con
tiguous nations, or, perchance, resisting sudden tides
of migratory population, there was no dearth of those
exciting causes, of those emergencies of peril, which
rouse the spirit of the people, and summon into
activity their highest energies. Whenever events con
verged to such a crisis, the council was the first resort ;
and there, under the pressure of dangers, and in the.
glow of patriotism, the eloquence of the Iroquois
flowed as pure and spontaneous as the fountains of
their thousand streamlets.
101
,0
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
The Indian has a quick and enthusiastic appreciation
of eloquence. Highly impulsive in his nature, and
with passions untaught of restraint, he is strongly
susceptible of its influence. By the cultivation and
exercise of this capacity, was opened the pathway to
distinction ; and the chief or warrior gifted with its
magical power could elevate himself as rapidly, as he
who gained renown upon the war-path. With the
Iroquois, as with the Romans, the two professions,
oratory and arms, 1 could establish men in the highest
degree of personal consideration. To the ambitious
Roman in the majestic days of the Republic, and
to the proud Indian in his sylvan house, the two
pursuits equally commended themselves ; and in one
or the other alone, could either expect success.
It is a singular fact, resulting from the structure
of Indian institutions, that nearly every transaction,
whether social or political, originated or terminated in
a council. This universal and favorite mode of doing
business became interwoven with all the affairs of
public and private life. In council, public transactions
of every name and character were planned, scrutinized
and adopted. The succession of their rulers, their
athletic games, dances, and religious festivals, and
their social intercourse, were all alike identified with
councils. It may be said that the life of the Iroquois
was either spent in the chase, on the war-path, or at
the council-fire. They formed the three leading
objects of his existence ; and it would be difficult to
1 Duae sunt artes quae possunt locare homines in amplisshno gradu
dignitatis ; una imperatoris, altera orationis boni : ab hoc cnim pacis or-
namcnta retinentur : ab illo belli pcricula repelluntur. CICERO Pro
Murana. 14.
102
CIVIL COUNCILS
determine for which he possessed the strongest predi
lection. Regarding them in this light, and it is
believed they are not over-estimated, a narrative of
these councils would furnish an accurate and copious
history of the Iroquois, both political and social.
The absence of these records, now irreparable, has
greatly abridged the fulness, and diminished the
accuracy of our aboriginal history.
The councils of the League were of three distinct L
kinds ; and they may be distinguished under the heads
of civil, mourning and religious. Their civil councils,
Ho-de-os -seh) were such as convened to transact busi
ness with foreign nations, and to regulate the internal
administration of the Confederacy. The mourning
councils, Hen-nun-do-nuti-seh) were those summoned
to " raise up " sachems to fill such vacancies as
had been occasioned by death or deposition, and
also to ratify the investiture of such chiefs as the
nations had raised up in reward of public services.
Their religious councils, Gd-e-we-yo-do Ho-de-os-heri-
dd-ko, were, as the name imports, devoted to religious
observances.
No event of any importance ever transpired with
out passing under the cognizance of one or another
of these species of councils; for all affairs seem to
have converged towards them by a natural and in
evitable tendency. An exposition of the mode of
summoning each, of their respective powers and juris
dictions, and of the manner of transacting business,
may serve to unfold the workings of their political
system, their social relations, and the range of their
intellectual capacities.
103
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
The name Ho-de-os-seb, by which the Iroquois
designated a civil council, signifies " advising to
gether." It was bestowed upon any council of
sachems, which convened to take charge of the public
relations of the League, or to provide for its inter
nal administration. Each nation had power, under
established regulations, to convene such a council, and
prescribe the time and place of convocation. (G1)
If the envoy of a foreign people desired to submit
a proposition to the sachems of the League, and
applied to the Senecas for that purpose, the sachems
of that nation would first determine whether the ques
tion was of sufficient importance to authorize a coun
cil. If they arrived at an affirmative conclusion, they
immediately sent out runners to the Cayugas, the
nation nearest -in position, with a belt of wampum.
This belt announced that, on a certain day thereafter,
at such a place, and for such and such purposes, men
tioning them, a council of the League would assemble.
The Cayugas then notified the Onondagas, they the
Oneidas, and these the Mohawks. (81) Each na
tion, within its own confines, spread the information
far and wide ; and thus, in a space of time astonish
ingly brief, intelligence of the council was heralded
from one extremity of their country to the other. It
produced a stir among the people in proportion to
the magnitude and importance of the business to be
transacted. If the subject was calculated to arouse
a deep feeling of interest, one common impulse from
the Hudson to the Niagara, and from the St. Law
rence to the Susquehanna, drew them towards the coun
cil-fire. Sachems, chiefs and warriors, women, and
104
AH -SO-QUA-TA.
Pi PCS
CIVIL COUNCILS
even children, deserted their hunting grounds and
woodland seclusions, and taking the trail, literally
flocked to the place of council. When the day ar
rived, a multitude had gathered together, from the
most remote and toilsome distances, but yet animated
by an unyielding spirit of hardihood and endurance.
Their mode of opening a council, and proceeding
with the business before it, was extremely simple, yet
dilatory, when contrasted with the modes of civilized
life. Questions were usually reduced to single propo
sitions, calling for an affirmative or negative response,
and were thus either adopted or rejected. When the
sachems were assembled in the midst of their people,
and all were in readiness to proceed, the envoy was
introduced before them. One of the sachems, by
previous appointment, then arose, and having thanked
the Great Spirit for his continued beneficence in per
mitting them to meet together, he informed the envoy
that the council was prepared to hear him upon the
business for which it had convened. The council
being thus opened, the representative proceeded to
unfold the objects of his mission. He submitted his
propositions in regular form, and sustained them by
such arguments as the case required. The sachems
listened with earnest and respectful attention to the
end of his address, that they might clearly understand
the questions to be decided and answered. After the
envoy had concluded his speech, he withdrew from
the council, as was customary, to await at a distance
the result of its deliberations. It then became the
duty of the sachems to agree upon an answer ; in
doing which, as would be expected, they passed
105
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
through the ordinary routine of speeches, consulta
tions, and animated discussions. Such was the usual
course of proceeding in the Iroquois council. Varia
tions might be introduced by circumstances.
At this place another peculiar institution of the
Ho-de -no-sau-nee is presented. All the sachems of the
League, in whom originally was vested the entire civil
power, were required to be of " one mind," to give
efficacy to their legislation. Unanimity was a funda
mental law. The idea of majorities and minorities was
entirely unknown to our Indian predecessors. (30)
To hasten their deliberations to a conclusion, and
ascertain the result, they adopted an expedient which
dispensed entirely with -the necessity of casting votes.
The founders of the Confederacy, seeking to obviate
as far as possible altercation in council, and to facili
tate their progress to unanimity, divided the sachems
of each nation into classes, usually of two and three
each, as will be seen by referring to the table of
sachemships. (47) No sachem was permitted to express
an opinion in council, until he had agreed with the
other sachem or sachems of his class, w upon the opinion
to be expressed, and had received an appointment to
act as speaker for the class. Thus the eight Seneca
sachems, being in four classes, could have but four
opinions ; the ten Cayuga sachems but four. In this
manner each class was brought to unanimity within
itself. A cross-consultation was then held between
the four sachems who represented the four classes ;
and when they had agreed, they appointed one of
their number to express their resulting opinion, which
was the answer of their nation. The several nations
1 06
U NAN I MITT
having, by this ingenious method, become of " one
mind " separately, it only remained to compare their
several opinions, to arrive at the final sentiment of
all the sachems of the League. This was effected by
a conference between the individual representatives
of the several nations ; and when they had arrived
at unanimity, the answer of the League was deter
mined.
The sovereignty of the nations, by this mode of
giving assent, was not only preserved, but made sub
servient to the effort itself to secure unanimity. If
any sachem was obdurate or unreasonable, influences
were brought to bear upon him which he could not
well resist ; and it was seldom that inconvenience
resulted from their inflexible adherence to the rule.
When, however, all efforts to produce unanimity failed
of success, the whole matter was laid aside. Farther
action became at once impossible. A result, either
favorable or adverse, having, in this way, been reached,
it was communicated to the envoy by a speaker
selected for the purpose. This orator was always
chosen from the nation with whom the council origi
nated, and it was usual with him to review the whole
subject presented to the council in a formal speech,
and at the same time to announce the conclusions to
which the sachems of the Confederacy had arrived.
This concluding speech terminated the business of
the council, and the Indian diplomatist took his
departure.
The war against the Eries, which resulted in the
extermination or expulsion of that nation from the
western part of this State, about the year 1654, was
107
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
declared by the sachems of the Iroquois in general
council. The French war, also, which they waged
with such indomitable courage and perseverance for
so many years, was resolved upon in the same man
ner. Their traditions record other struggles with
Indian nations, some of which were engaged in by the
League, and others either commenced or assumed by
a nation separately. At the beginning of the Amer
ican Revolution, the Iroquois could not agree in
council to make war as a confederacy upon our con
federacy. A number of the Oneida sachems firmly
resisted the assumption of hostilities, and thus de
feated the measure as an act of the League, for the
want of unanimity. Some of the nations, however,
especially the Mohawks, were so interlinked with the
British, that neutrality was impossible. Under this
pressure of circumstances, it was resolved in council
to suspend the rule, and leave each nation to engage
in the war upon its own responsibility . (28
In the councils of the Iroquois, the dignity and
order ever preserved have become proverbial. The
gravity of Nestor was exemplified by their sages, and
more than the harmony of the Grecian chiefs existed
among their sachems. In their elevation to the high
est degree of political distinction ever reached by any
Indian race, except the Aztec, the clearest evidence is
presented of the wisdom and prudence with which
these councils watched over the public welfare.
The succession of the Ruling Body, whether secured
by election, or by laws of inheritance, is an event of
deep importance to the people, whose personal secur
ity and welfare are to a large extent under the guar-
108
MOURNING COUNCILS
dianship of their rulers. It seems to have been the
aim of the Ho-de -no-sau-nee to avoid the dangers of an
hereditary transmission of power, without fully adopt
ing the opposite principle of a free election, founded
upon merit and capacity. Their system was a modi
fication of the two opposite rules, and claims the
merit of originality, as well as of adaptation to their
social and political condition.
It is in accordance with the principles, and neces
sary to the existence of an oligarchy, that the ruling
body should possess a general, if not an absolute
authority over the admission of its members, and over
the succession to its dignities, where the vacancies are
occasioned by death. In some respects the oligarchy
of the Iroquois was wider than those of antiquity.
The tribes retained the power of designating succes
sors, independent of the oligarchs ; while, for the
security of the latter, the number was limited by the
fundamental law. It was the province of the ruling
body to " raise up " the sachems selected by the
tribes, and to invest them with office. In the ancient
oligarchies, which were less liberal and much less sys
tematic in their construction, the whole power of
making rulers appears to have been appropriated by
the rulers themselves.
To perform the ceremony adverted to, of " raising
up " sachems, and of confirming the investiture of
such chiefs as had been previously raised up by a na
tion, the Mourning council was instituted. Its name,
Hen-nun-do-nuti-seh) signifies, with singular propriety,
" a mourning council ; " as it embraced the two-fold
object of lamenting the deceased with suitable solem-
109
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
nities, and of establishing a successor in the sachem-
ship made vacant by his demise.
Upon the death of a sachem, the nation in which
the loss had occurred had power to summon a council,
and designate the day and place. If the Oneidas, for
example, had lost a ruler, they sent out runners at the
earliest convenient day, with " belts of invitation " to
the sachems of the League, and to the people at large,
to assemble around their national council-fire at G a-
no-a-ld -hale . The invitation was circulated in the
same manner, and with the same celerity as in con
voking a civil council. These belts or the strings of
wampum, sent out on such occasions, conveyed a la
conic message : " the name " of the deceased " calls
for a council." It also announced the place and the
time.
The name and the appeal fell not in vain upon the
ear of the Iroquois. There was a potency in the
name itself which none could resist. It penetrated
every seclusion of the forest ; and reached every ga-no-
sote upon the hillside, on the margin of the lakes, or
in the deep solitudes of the wood. No warrior, wise
man or chief failed to hear, or could withstand the
call. A principle within was addressed, which ever
responded ; respect and veneration for the sachems of
the League.
For these councils, and the festivities with which
they were concluded, the Ho-de-no-sau-nee ever re
tained a passionate fondness. No inclemency of sea
son, nor remoteness of residence, nor frailty of age or
of sex offered impassable obstructions. To that
hardy spirit which led the Iroquois to traverse the
no
MOURNING COUNCILS
war-paths of the distant south and west, and to leave
their hunting trails upon the Potomac and Ohio, the
distance to a council within their immediate territories
would present inconsiderable hindrances. From the
Mohawk to the Genesee, they forsook their hunting-
grounds, and their encampments, and put themselves
upon the trail for the council-fire. Old men with
gray hairs and tottering steps, young men in the vigor
of youth, warriors inured to the hardships of incessant
strife, children looking out, for the first time, upon
life, and women, with their infants encased in the ga-
os -ha, all performed the journey with singular rapidity
and endurance. From every side they bent their
footsteps towards the council ; and when the day ar
rived, a large concourse of warriors, chiefs, wise men
and sachems, from the most remote as well as the sub
jacent parts of their territory, greeted each other be
side the council-fire of the Oneidas.
This council, although entirely of a domestic char
acter, was conducted with many ceremonies. Before
the arrival of the day announced by the belt, the
several nations entered the country of the Oneidas in
separate bands, and encamped at a distance from the
council-house. To advance at once, would have been
a violation of Iroquois usages. Runners were sent on
by the approaching nation to announce its arrival, and
it remained encamped until the Oneidas had signified
their readiness for its reception. On the day appointed,
if the necessary arrangements had been perfected, a
rude reception ceremony opened the proceedings.
The several nations in separate trains, each one pre
ceded by its civil and military dignitaries, drew simul-
iii
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
taneously towards the council-fire, and were received
and welcomed by the Oneidas in a ceremonious man
ner. The latter advanced to meet them at a distance
from the village, where a temporary council-fire was
kindled ; after which the chief personages of the ad
vancing bands walked around the fire, singing the
songs of mourning designed for the occasion. When
the songs were finished, the pipe of peace was circu
lated. Speeches were exchanged between the parties,
and the belts of wampum, with which the council had
been called, were returned. The several bands, upon
the completion of these ceremonies, advanced in file, a
funeral procession, and singing the mourning songs, to
the general council-fire at the Indian village, where the
people arrayed themselves in two divisions. The
Mohawks, Onondagas and Senecas, who, as elsewhere
stated, were brother nations to each other, arid fathers
to the other three, seated themselves upon one side of
the fire. On the other side were arranged the Onei
das, Cayugas and Tuscaroras, who, in like manner,
were brothers to each other, but children to the three
first. By their peculiar customs, if the deceased sachem
belonged to either of the three elder nations, he was
mourned as a father by the three junior ; and it be
came the duty of the latter to perform the ceremony
of lamentation prescribed by their usages for the de
ceased, and afterwards that of raising up his successor.
If, on the contrary, the departed ruler belonged to
either of the junior nations, as in the case supposed,
it cast upon the elder nations the duty of lamenting
his death as a child, in the customary form, and of
installing a successor in the- vacant sachemship.
112
MOURNING COUNCILS
These observances were performed with the accus
tomed gravity and earnestness of the red man ; and
were, in themselves, neither devoid of interest, nor
unadapted to impress the mind. The lament was a
tribute to the virtues, and to the memory of the de
parted sachem, a mourning scene, in which not only
the tribe and nation of the deceased, but the League
itself participated. Surely, a more delicate testimonial
of affection than would have been looked for among
our Indian predecessors. The ceremony of raising up
a successor, which followed, was a succession of musi
cal chants, with choruses, intermingled with speeches
and responses. Upon the whole scene, rendered wild
and picturesque by the variety of eostumes, there rested
a spirit of silence and solemnity which invested it with
singular interest.
A prominent part of the ceremonial consisted in the
repetition of their ancient laws and usages, and an ex
position of the structure and principles of the League,
for the instruction of the newly-inducted rulers. In
the midst of each division, the chief personages of the
elder and junior nations were grouped together.
Between the two groups of sachems, the wise-man
who conducted the observances walked to and fro, re
peating those traditionary lessons, and unfolding those
regulations, which had been handed down from the
foundation of the Confederacy. Some of them were
salutary and instructive, while the most were indicative
of wisdom and forethought. Among the injunctions
left by Da-ga-no-we -da, the founder of the League,
there was one designed to impress upon their minds
the necessity of union and harmony. It was clothed
VOL. i. 8 n
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
in a figurative dress, as is the custom of the red man
when he would produce a vivid impression. He en
joined them to plant a tree with four roots, branching
severally to the north, south, east and west. Beneath
its shade the sachems of the League must sit down
together in perpetual unity, if they would preserve its
stability, or secure the advantages it was calculated to
bestow. If they did so, the power of the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee would be planted as firmly as the oak, and
the blasts of adverse fortune would rage against it in
vain. (83 >
The laws explained at different stages of the cere
monial, were repeated from strings of wampum, into
which they " had been talked " at the time of their
enactment. In the Indian method of expressing the
idea, the string, or the belt can tell, by means of an
interpreter, the exact law or transaction of which it
was made, at the time, the sole evidence. It operates
upon the principle of association, and thus seeks to
give fidelity to the memory. These strings and belts
were the only visible records of the Iroquois ; and were
of no use except by the aid of those special personages
who could draw forth the secret records locked up in
their remembrance. (82)
It is worthy of note, that but little importance was
attached to a promise or assurance of a foreign power,
unless belts or strings were given to preserve it in
recollection. Verbal propositions, or those not con
firmed by wampum, were not considered worthy of
special preservation. 1 As the laws and usages of the
1 " It is obvious to all who are the least acquainted with Indian
affairs, that they regard no message or invitation, be it of what conse-
114
WA MP U M
Confederacy were intrusted to the guardianship of such
strings, one of the Onondaga sachems, Ho-no-we-na-(o,
was constituted " Keeper of the Wampum," and was
required to be versed in its interpretation. (83)
On these occasions, the wise-man who officiated
interpreted strings from time to time, and carried them
from one division of sachems to the other. In reply,
as many others were subsequently returned with sim
ilar forms and explanations. In this manner, with
a multitude of forms and ceremonies, consuming the
greater part of a day in their repetition, were their
sachems raised up. The proceedings were closed with
a presentation of the newly-invested rulers to the
people, under the names of their respective sachem-
ships, which, from that day forth, they were permit
ted to assume.
Up to this stage of the Council, neither gaiety nor
mirthfulness was exhibited by the old or young.
The people were in mourning for the deceased, and
rendering the last acts of public respect. When, how
ever, these offices had been performed, and the places
left vacant among the rulers had been filled, the
reasons for lamentation had disappeared, and with them
disappeared the outward signs. The evening was
given up to feasting, and to their religious and do
mestic dances. It was not uncommon to spend sev
eral days in these festivities ; devoting the days in
succession to athletic games, and the evenings to the
feast, and to the social dance.
quence it will, unless attended or confirmed by strings or belts of wam
pum, which they look upon as we our letters, or rather bonds." Letter
of Sir W. Johnson, 1753. Doc. Hist. N. Y., vol. ii. p. 624.
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
The succession, under these simple regulations, was
rendered entirely free from turmoil and strife; and
became not only an easy transaction, but an impos
ing, and, to them, instructive ceremonial. Upon the
sachems was bestowed sufficient control over the trans
mission of the sachemships for their own protection ;
while the still more important power of naming those
to be raised up, and of deposing the unfaithful, which
was retained by the tribes, secured the people from
oppression and misgovernment.
A wider dissimilarity, than subsists between the
institutions of our Indian predecessors and our own,
cannot be easily conceived. They are as unlike as
the races themselves in their essential characteristics.
If, however, a correct impression is desired of the
state of society, political and social, in which the Iro-
quois have existed, and in which they have developed
whatever of character they possessed, it must be
sought in their customs and institutions ; it must be
furnished by the practical operation of that stupen
dous system of inter-relationships by which they were
bound together, and from which every act in their
social intercourse received a tinge.
The degree of social intercourse between the na
tions of the League was much greater than would
at first be suggested. (41) In the pursuits of the
chase and of conquest, and in attendance upon coun
cils, they traversed the whole territory far and near.
Their trails penetrated the forest in every direction,
and their main thoroughfares were as well beaten as
the highways now passing over the same lines. With
their habits of travelling over the whole area of the
116
FESTIVITIES
State, they were doubtless more familiar than ourselves
with its hills and plains, rivers and lakes, its wild
retreats and forest concealments. Much of their social
intercourse, especially between the nations, was around
their council-fires. The Councils themselves formed
a bond of union, and drew them together instinctively.
They furnished the excitements and the recreations of
Indian life, as well as relieved the monotony of peace.
It was here they recounted their exploits upon the
war-path, or listened to the eloquence of favorite
chiefs. Here they offered tributes of respect to those
deceased sachems who had rendered themselves illus
trious by public services ; or listened to the laws and
regulations of their ancestors, which were explained by
their sages in the ceremonial of raising up successors.
It was here, also, that they celebrated their athletic
games with Olympic zeal ; and joined in those national
dances, some of which were indescribably beautiful and
animated.
Custom required the particular tribe in which
sachems had been raised up, to furnish a daily enter
tainment to the multitude during the continuance of
the council. The pursuits of the day were suspended
as the shades of evening began to fall, and they all sat
down to a common repast, which the matrons of the
tribe had prepared. After the business upon which
the council convened had been consummated, each
day in succession was devoted to the simple but diver
sified amusements of Indian life, the twilight to the
feast, and the evening to the dance. The wild notes
of their various tunes, accompanied by the turtle-shell
rattle and the drum ; the rattles, which entered into the
117
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
costumes of the warriors, and the noise of the moving
throng, all united, sent forth a " sound of revelry "
which fell with strange accents in the hours of night
upon the solemn stillness of the woods. This sound
of pleasure and amusement was continued from day
to day, until " pleasure itself became satiety," and
amusement had lost its power to charm.
When the spirit of festivity had become exhausted,
the fire of the Hen-nun-do-nuk-seh was raked together,
and the several nations bent their way homeward
through the forest. Silence once more resumed her
sway over the deserted scene, as the sounds of merri
ment subsided, and the lingering hum of the dissolving
council died insensibly away. Obscurity next ad
vanced with stealthy mien, and quickly folding the
incidents of this sylvan pageant in her dusky mantle,
she bore them, with their associations, their teachings,
and their remembrances, into the dark realm of
Oblivion ; from which their recall would be as hope
less as would be the last shout which rang along the
valley.
The celebration of their religious festivals was
through the instrumentality of councils, and these
form the third class. But as they are described in
the succeeding pages, no further mention of them
will now be made, except to notice them as one of the
species into which the councils of the Iroquois are
properly divisible. In addition to the religious coun
cils which were held at the period of their festivals,
the mourning council was always made an occasion
for religious and moral instruction. Many of its
exercises were of a strictly religious character, and it
118 "
RELIGIOUS COUNCILS
would be more proper to designate it as a religious
council, than by any other name, but for the circum
stance that its object was to raise up rulers, and its
ceremonies were entirely distinct from those at the
regular festivals.
The influence of the civil, mourning and religious
councils upon the people would, of itself, furnish an
extensive subject of inquiry. Like all the pursuits of
Indian life, they changed but little from age to age,
and were alike in their essential characteristics, in their
mode of transacting business, in their festivities, and
in the spirit by which they were animated. From the
frequency of their occurrence, and the deep interest
with which they were regarded, it is evident that they
exercised a vast influence upon the race. The inter
course and society which they afforded, had, undoubt
edly, a power to humanize and soften down the
asperities of character which their mode of life was
calculated to produce.
119
Chapter VI
Species of Government Progress of Governments from Monarchy
to Democracy Illustrated by a View of Grecian Institutions
The League an Oligarchy Liberty of the People Stability of
the League Prospects at the Discovery Its Decline
THE Ruling Body of the League, with its
powers, and the tenure of office of its mem
bers the division of the people into tribes,
with the cross-relationships between them the laws of
succession with their incidents and the councils of the
Iroquois with their mode of proceeding, spirit and ef
fects, have severally been brought under consideration.
Upon the facts derived from these sources of in
vestigation, the true character of the Iroquois gov
ernment must be settled. If it is referable to any
determined species, the constituent parts and gen
eral features of the League, which have formed the
subjects of the preceding chapters, will determine its
position in the scale of civil organizations established
by political writers.
In their original, well-developed institutions, and
in their government, so systematic in its construc
tion, and so liberal in its administration, there is
much to enforce a tribute of respect to the intelli
gence of our Indian predecessors. Without such
institutions, and without that animating spirit which
they nourished and diffused, it would be difficult to
account for the production of such men as have
120
SPECIES OF GOVERNMENT
sprung up among the Iroquois. The development
of national intellect depends chiefly upon external,
reciprocal influences, and is usually proportionate to
the vitality and motive which the institutions of a
people possess and furnish.
To illustrate, substantially, the nature of their
government, it will be necessary to notice the several
species which have been instituted among men, the
natural order of their origination, the relations in
which they mutually stand to each other, and their
general characteristics. In no other way can a clear
conception be obtained of the character of the Iroquois
government, and the relation which it sustains to other
political fabrics. No apology, therefore, will be nec
essary for the digression.
Aristotle, and other Grecian political writers, rec
ognized but three species of government : the monar
chical, the aristocratical, and the democratical ; the
rule of " one," the " few," and the " many." Every
other variety was regarded as the wreck, or perversion,
of one of the three. If, for example, the first was
corrupted, it became a tyranny ; if the second degen
erated, it was styled an oligarchy ; and if the last
became tumultuous, it was called an ochlocracy. A
polity, or the rule of a large body of select citizens,
was a milder form of oligarchy. This classification
admits of a qualification to the definition of an aristoc
racy and oligarchy, hereafter to be noticed.
Modern political writers also recognize three spe
cies, as laid down by Montesquieu : the despotic, the
monarchical, and the republican. The aristocratic
and democratic forms of the Greeks are included in
121
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
the republican form of modern times : while the
monarchical government of the present day "the
rule of a single person by fixed laws " was entirely
unknown to the ancient Greeks. It is further ob
servable that a despotism, as defined by Montesquieu,
corresponds precisely with the monarchy of Aristotle.
The order of their origination suggests an impor
tant general principle ; that there is a regular pro
gression of political institutions, from the monarchical,
which are the earliest in time, on to the democratical,
which are the last, the noblest, and the most intellec
tual. This position can be established by the rise
and development of the Grecian institutions, and may
be further illustrated by the progressive change in
the spirit and nature of other governments.
An unlimited monarchy, or "the rule of a single
individual according to his own will," is the form
of government natural to a people when in an un
civilized state, or when just emerging from barbarism.
In the progress of time, by the growth and expansion
of civil liberty, the monarchy becomes liberalized
or limited, and a few steps forward introduce universal
democracy. Hence it is noticeable in the rise of all
races, and in the formation of all states, that the idea
of chief and follower, or sovereign and people, is
of spontaneous suggestion. This notion may be
regarded as inherent to society in its primitive state.
It will be remembered that when the Hellenic
tribes came down from Thessaly, and finally settled
themselves upon the shores of the Mediterranean,
their political relations were those of chief and fol
lower. After they had become subdivided into a
122
GA-KA-AH OR SKIRT,
VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS
large number of petty states, and migrations and
intermixtures had subsided, leaving each principality
under its own ruler, and to the formation of its own
institutions, the monarchical form of government
became fully "established. The small territory of
Greece was parcelled out between nearly twenty petty
kingdoms. During the Heroic ages, which are un
derstood to have commenced with this inundation
of the Grecian territory by the Hellenes, and to have
terminated with the Trojan war, a period of about
two hundred years, the kingly government was the
only one among the Greeks.
At the close of the Heroic ages, a new state of
affairs became apparent. Around the reigning fam
ilies in the several kingdoms, there had sprung up
a class of Eupatrids, or nobles, who were in possession
of most of the landed estates. Having elevated them
selves far above the mass of the people, in the social
scale, they gradually absorbed political powers which
had before been vested in the kings. By the silent
but natural growth of this aristocracy, continued
encroachments were made upon the prerogatives of
royalty, until at last the kings were brought down
to a level with their Eupatrids. An aristocracy was
thus substituted for monarchy ; and nearly all the
states of Greece, in their political progress towards
democracy, passed out of the monarchical into the aris-
tocratical form of government.
This form, although indicative of more liberality
than the former, and adapted to the state of civil
society then existing, pressed heavily upon the peo
ple ; and while it existed, was unfavorable to the ele-
123
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
vation of the race. The Demos, or common people,
were free, but were excluded from all political privi
leges ; hence, with the increase of their intelligence,
would be excited jealousies of the incumbent class.
At times, the very existence of the aristocracy de
pended upon the forcible subjection of the Demos ;
for when the great and just sentiment of " political
equality " began to be coupled with that of " personal
liberty," no form of government could rest in per
manent security, which limited the one, or denied the
other. The Grecian mind was eminently progressive.
No power could subdue or enslave that native energy,
which had exemplified itself in the hardy enterprises
of the Heroic ages. Nothing could repress or last
ingly fetter that majestic intellect, out of which, even
then, had sprung a system of mythology destined to
infuse itself into the literature of all generations, and
to quicken the intellects of every clime a system so
remarkable as an exhibition of the unguided devotional
nature of man, and so brilliant as a creation of the
imagination, that it may be characterized as the great
est production of genius and credulity which ever
emanated from the mind of man.
In the progress of events, the aristocracies were suc
cessfully invaded by an uprising of men of wealth, or
of capacity, from among the common people. These
ambitious plebeians demanded a place in the ruling
body, and if refused, they became the champions of
the people, and engaged in measures for the over
throw of the government. Such difficulties were
usually avoided by admitting these new families to a
place among the Eupatrids, and to a participation in
124
VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS
the administration. In this way the aristocracy of
wealth and talent was in a measure placed upon an
equality with that of birth ; and by the act the gov
ernment itself was widened, or liberalized.
These inroads upon the aristocracy, which generally
resulted in the infusion of the popular element, may
be regarded as the introduction or commencement of
the oligarchy. The difference between the two species
is to be sought in the spirit by which each respectively
was actuated, and not in their forms ; for the same
body of aristocrats usually became oligarchs by a
change in the spirit of the government. When an
aristocracy became corrupt and odious to the people,
and sought only to perpetuate its own power, it be
came, in the Grecian sense, a faction, an oligarchy.
It ceased to be the rule of the " best men " (apioToi),
and became the rule of the " few " (oXtyot). This
definition admits of a qualification. When an aristoc
racy became widened or liberalized, by the admission
of men of capacity to an equal position, and the gov
ernment assumed a milder spirit, the aristocracy
would, in effect, be changed, but not into a faction.
It would be as unlike a rigorous aristocracy as an oli
garchical faction, and may be denominated a simple or
liberal oligarchy. The government of the Iroquois
falls under this precise definition. It cannot be called
an aristocracy, because the sachems of the League
possessed no landed estates, which, it is well known,
are the only true foundation of an aristocracy ; neither
were their titles or privileges hereditary, in the strict
sense, which is another important element of an aris
tocracy. Their government, however, was the rule
I2 5
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
of " the few." It was an aristocracy liberalized, until
it stood upon the very verge of democracy. It an
swers to the idea of an oligarchy, which is the last
form of government but one, in the progressive
series.
The governments of the Grecian states appear to
have oscillated for centuries between the rigorous aris
tocracies, oligarchical factions, and milder oligarchies.
These forms were rather transition than permanent
conditions of their civil institutions. During the
period of their prevalence, the people, who, as before
remarked, were personally free, but debarred from
political privileges, were gradually improving their
condition by the accumulation of wealth, and consoli
dating their strength by the uprearing of flourishing
cities. With the increase of their respectability, and
the expansion of their power, the struggle with the in
cumbent class was continued with greater and still
greater success. Principles of government became
better understood, and more enlarged views of the
rights of man continued to quicken the Grecian mind.
Every successive age added to the popular intelli
gence ; and the people gradually, but constantly, con
tinued to repossess themselves of their original
authority. The growth of liberty and free institutions
among the Greeks was slow, but irresistible. The
struggle of the people for emancipation lasted from
generation to generation, from century to century ;
until, having emerged from .the darkness of barbarism,
and worked their way through every species of gov
ernment ever devised by the genius of man, they
achieved at last a triumph ; and their institutions,
126
VIEW OF GRECIAN INSTITUTIONS
which had been planted and nourished during this
march of ages, finally ripened into universal democ
racy.
In the history of the States of Greece, there is
noticeable in the midst of a wide diversity of events,
a great uniformity of progress with a difference in
the period of the development of political changes, a
marked tendency to the same results. Every change
in their institutions, from the era of absolute mon
archy, made them more liberal ; but it required up
ward of seven centuries to liberalize them into a " fin
ished democracy which fully satisfied the Greek notion ;
a state in which every attribute of sovereignty might
be shared, without respect to rank or property, by
every freeman." The Greeks began with monarchy,
and having passed through all the intermediate species
and shades of government in the progressive series,
they finally developed their highest capacities, their
most brilliant genius, under the bounding pulse of an
extreme, even enthusiastic democracy. How truthful
the exclamation of Herodotus : " Liberty is a brave
thing."
1 The Trojan War closed 1184 B. c., and the States of Greece soon
afterwards passed out of the monarchical form of government. At
Athens it was abolished in 1068 B. c. But not until about the year
470 B. C., when Aristides the Just removed the last aristocratical features
from the Athenian institutions, could Athens be called a " finished
democracy. " He broke up the distinctions between the classes which
Solon had established, and opened all the dignities of the State to
every citizen. Between the Trojan war and this last period, the Atheni
ans had passed through Monarchy, Tyranny, Aristocracy, Faction, An
archy, Oligarchy, Polity, and limited Democracy. With the legislation
of Aristides commenced the rapid elevation of the city of Minerva, and
of that noble, unequalled race.
127
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
The same tendency of institutions towards democ
racy, as races elevate themselves in the scale of civiliza
tion, can be observed in the progressive improvement
of British institutions. No people have been sub
jected to such tests, civil and religious ; and issued
from the throes of revolution with more character,
more civilization, more majesty of intellect, for
achievements in legislation, science and learning, than
our parent, Anglo-Saxon race. Their career, with all
its vicissitudes, from the union of the Heptarchies
under Egbert, down to the final settlement of the
government on the expulsion of the second James, is
full of instruction full of great lessons. They have
tested monarchy in all its degrees of strength and
weakness, of popularity and odium, of oppression and
dependence. Their nobles have enjoyed all the priv
ileges, immunities, and powers, which possession of
the landed estates, the vassalage of the people, and
independence of the crown could secure; while in turn
they have been humble and submissive, even servile,
under the arbitrary sway of tyrannous kings. The
people, before the time of Edward the First, were
cyphers in the State. Since then, they have suffered
religious bondage, and the oppression of a feudal aris
tocracy. In the progress of events, however, they
have constantly enlarged the quantity of their liberty,
and strengthened the guarantees of personal security.
But if they finally achieved that personal freedom
which the Grecian citizen never lost, they never
have secured that " equality of privileges " which was
the constant aspiration of the Greek until attained,
which was the watchword in the struggle for American
128
THE LEAGUE AN OLIGARCHT
freedom, and which now lies at the foundation of our
own political edifice.
The British government has been liberalized from
age to age, until it may now be said t stand in
trenched upon the borders of free institutions.
Returning from this digression, which was designed
to illustrate the position, not very recondite, of a pro
gression of institutions, from the monarchical, the
earliest form of political society, on to the democrat-
ical, the last, and most truly enlightened ; we can now
take up the government of the Iroquois, and deter
mine the position which it occupies between the two
extremes of monarchy on the one hand, and democ
racy on the other.
The Iroquois had passed out of the earliest form
of government, that of chief and follower, which is
incident both to the hunter and nomadic states, into
the oligarchical form. It is obvious that the hunter
life is incompatible with monarchy, except in its minia
ture form of chief and follower; and the Ho-de-no-
sau-nee^ in improving upon this last relation, passed
over the monarchical, into the rule of " the few."
Several tribes first united into one nation. The
people mingled by intermarriage, and the power of
the chiefs ceased to be several, and became joint.
This gave to the nation an aristocratical, or oligarch
ical form of government, according to the spirit by
which it was actuated. By a still higher effort of
legislation, several nations were united in a league or
confederacy ; placing the people upon an equality, and
introducing a community of privileges. The national
rulers then became in a united body the rulers of the
VOL. i. 9 129
LEAGUE OF THE IRQ QUO IS
League. In this manner would be constituted oli
garchies within an embracing oligarchy, imperium in
imperio, presenting the precise government of the
Iroquois, and with great probability the exact manner
of its origination, growth and final settlement.
The Grecian oligarchies do not furnish an exact
type of that of our Indian predecessors. In its con
struction the latter was more perfect, systematic and
liberal than those of antiquity. There was in the
Indian fabric more of fixedness, more of dependence
upon the people, more of vigor. It would be difficult
to find a fairer specimen of the government of the few,
than the one under consideration. In the happy con
stitution of its ruling body, and in the effective secur
ity of the people from misgovernment it stands
unrivalled. In assigning to this government its
specific name, it will be sufficient to adopt the etymol
ogy of the word oligarchy, the rule of the few, reject
ing the usual Grecian acceptation of the term, a
degenerated aristocracy. The substitution of the female
line for the male, effecting thereby the disinheritance
of the son, (57) the partially elective character of the
sachemships, the absence of all landed estates, and the
power of deposing lodged with the tribes, are reasons
conclusive for regarding the government of the Iro
quois as an oligarchy rather than an aristocracy.
The spirit which prevailed in the nations and in
the Confederacy was that of freedom. The people
appear to have secured to themselves all the liberty
which the hunter state rendered desirable. They fully
appreciated its value, as is evinced by the liberality of
their institutions. The red man was always free from
130
LIBERTY OF THE PEOPLE
political bondage, and, more worthy still of remem
brance, his " free limbs never wore a shackle." His
spirit could never be bowed in servitude. In the
language of Charlevoix, the Iroquois were "entirely
convinced that man was born free, that no power on
earth had any right to make any attempts against
his liberty, and that nothing could make him amends
for its loss." It would be difficult to describe any
political society, in which there was less of oppression
and discontent, more of individual independence and
boundless freedom. The absence of family distinc
tions, and of all property, together with the irresist
ible inclination for the chase, rendered the social
condition of the people peculiar to itself. It secured
to them an exemption from the evils, as well as
denied to them the refinements, which flow from the
possession of wealth, and the indulgence of the social
relations. (12G)
At this point the singular trait in the character of
the red man suggests itself, that he never felt the
" power of gain." The auri sacra fames of Virgil, the
studium lucri of Horace, never penetrated his nature.
This great passion of civilized man, in its use and
abuse his blessing and his curse, never roused the
Indian mind. (103) It was doubtless the great rea
son of his continuance in the hunter state ; for the
desire of gain is one of the earliest manifestations of
progressive mind, and one of the most powerful pas
sions of which the mind is susceptible. It clears the
forest, rears the city, builds the merchantman in a
word, it has civilized our race.
All things considered, the Iroquois oligarchy excites
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
a belief of its superiority over those of antiquity.
Those of Greece were exceedingly unstable, and
therefore incline us to regard them as transition states
of their institutions ; while that of the Ho-de -no-sau-
nee was guarded in so many ways for the resistance of
political changes, that it would have required a very
energetic popular movement for its overthrow. The
former retained many elements of aristocracy, while
the latter had become so far liberalized as to be almost
entirely free. Without the influence of cities, which
no people construct who live in the hunter state, and
the important consequences which result from the
aggregation of society into large communities, the
government of the Iroquois would doubtless have
retained its oligarchical form through many gener
ations. It would have lasted until the people had
abandoned the hunter state ; until they had given up
the chase for agriculture, the arts of war for those of
industry, the hunting-ground and the fishing encamp
ment for the village and the city.
It will not be necessary to extend the inquiry, to
exhibit more fully the gradual changes in the govern
ment of the Iroquois, by which it was brought upon
the verge of free institutions. The creation of the
class of chiefs furnishes the clearest evidence of the
development of the popular element. The proofs of
its extreme liberality have been sufficiently exhibited
in the structure of the government itself. Reflections
could be multiplied upon its spirit, its influence upon
the people, its operative force in the development of
talent, and its adaptation to produce its historical
results ; but it is not deemed necessary to carry for-
132
STABILITY OF THE LEAGUE
ward reflections of this description. An outline of
the structure of the League has been drawn, and from
its general characteristics its principles can be easily
deduced.
Under this simple but beautiful fabric of Indian
construction arose the power of the Iroquois, reach
ing, at its full meridian, over a large portion of our
republic. In their Long House, which opened its
door upon Niagara, they found shelter in the hour
of attack, resources for conquest in the season of
ambitious projects, and happiness and contentment in^
the days of peace. In adaptation to their mode of
life, their habits and their wants, no scheme of govern
ment could have been devised better calculated for
their security against outward attack, their triumph
upon the war-path, and their internal tranquillity. It
is, perhaps, the only league of nations ever instituted
among men, which can point to three centuries of
uninterrupted domestic unity and peace.
The institutions which would be expected to exist
under such a political system as that of the Iroquois,
would necessarily be simple. Their mode of life and
limited wants, the absence of property in a compar
ative sense, and the infrequency of crime dispensed
with a vast amount of the legislation and machinery
incident to the protection of civilized society. While,
therefore, it would be unreasonable to seek those high
qualities of mind which result from ages of cultivation,
in such a rude state of existence, it would be equally
irrational to regard the Indian character as devoid
of all those higher characteristics which ennoble the
human race. If he has never contributed a page to
LEAGUE OF THE I R O $U O I S
science, nor a discovery to art ; (93) if he loses in the
progress of generations as much as he gains ; still
there are certain qualities of his mind which shine forth
in all the lustre of natural perfection. His simple
f- integrity, his generosity, his unbounded hospitality,
his love of truth, and, above all, his unshaken fidelity
a sentiment inborn, and standing out so conspic
uously in his character, that it has not untruthfully
become its characteristic : all these are adornments of
humanity, which no art of education can instil, nor
refinement of civilization can bestow. If they exist
at all, it is because the gifts of the Deity have never
been perverted.
There was, however, a fatal deficiency in Indian
society, in the non-existence of a progressive spirit.
The same rounds of amusement, of business, of
warfare, of the chase, and of domestic intercourse
continued from generation to generation. There was
neither progress nor invention, nor increase of political
wisdom. Old forms were preserved, old customs
adhered to. Whatever they gained upon one point
they lost upon another, leaving the second generation
but little wiser than the first. The Iroquois, in some
respects, were in advance of their red neighbors.
They had attempted the establishment of their insti
tutions upon a broader basis, and already men of high
capacity had sprung up among them, as their political
system unfolded. If their Indian empire had been
suffered to work out its own results, it is still
problematical whether the vast power they would have
accumulated, and the intellect which would have been
developed by their diversified affairs, would not,
T 34
PROSPECTS AT THE DISCOVERT
together, have been sufficiently potent to draw the
people from the hunter into the agricultural state.
The hunter state is the zero of human society, and
V
while the red man was bound by its spell, there*
was no hope of his elevation.
In a speculative point of view, the institutions of
the Iroquois assume an interesting aspect. Would
they, at maturity, have emancipated the people from
their strange infatuation for a hunter life ; as those of
the Toltecs and Aztecs had before effected the disen-
thralment of those races in the latitudes of Mexico?
It cannot be denied that there are some grounds for
the belief that their institutions would eventually have
ripened into civilization. The Iroquois, at all times,
have manifested sufficient intellect to promise a high
degree of improvement, if it had once become awak
ened and directed to right pursuits. Centuries, how
ever, might have been requisite to effect the change.
But their institutions have a real, a present value,
for what they were, irrespective of what they might
have become. The Iroquois were our predecessors
in the sovereignty. Our country they once called
their country, our rivers and lakes were their rivers
and lakes, our hills and intervales were also theirs.
Before us they enjoyed the beautiful scenery spread
out between the Hudson and Niagara, in its wonder
ful diversity from the pleasing to the sublime. Before
us, were they invigorated by our climate, and were
nourished by the bounties of the earth, the forest and
the stream. The tie by which we are thus connected
carries with it the duty of doing justice to their
memory, by preserving their name and deeds, their
35
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
customs and their institutions, lest they perish from
remembrance. We cannot wish to tread ignorantly
upon those extinguished council-fires, whose light, in
the days of aboriginal dominion, was visible over half
the continent.
The political structures of our primitive inhabitants
have, in general, proved exceedingly unsubstantial. Iso
lated nations, by some superiority of institutions, or
casual advantage of location, sprang up with an ener
getic growth, and for a season spread their dominion
far and wide. After a brief period of prosperity, they
were borne back by adverse fortune into their original
obscurity ; thus rendering these boundless territories
the constant scene of human conflict, and of the rise
and fall of Indian sovereignties. It was reserved for
the Iroquois to rest themselves upon a more durable
foundation, by the establishment of a League. This
alliance between their nations they cemented by the
imperishable bands of tribal relationship. At the
epoch of Saxon occupation, they were rapidly building
up an empire, which threatened the absorption or ex
termination of the whole Indian family east of the
Mississippi. Their power had become sufficient to
set at defiance all hostile invasions from contiguous
nations; and the League itself, while it suffered no loss
of numbers by emigrating bands, was endued with a
capacity for indefinite expansion. At the periods of
their separate discovery, the Aztecs on the south, and
the Iroquois in the north were the only Indian races
upon the continent, whose institutions promised, at
maturity, to ripen into civilization. Such were the
condition and prospects of this Indian League, when
136
ITS DECLINE
Hendrick Hudson, more than two centuries since
(1609), sailed up the river which constituted their east
ern boundary. This silent voyage of the navigator
may be regarded as the opening event in the series,
which resulted in reversing the political prospects of
the Ho-de-no-sau-nee, and in introducing into their Long
House an invader, more relentless in his purposes, and
more invincible in arms, than the red men against
whose assaults it had been erected, w ^ fa* p^f-v
Their council-fires, so far as they are emblematical of
civil jurisdiction, have long since been extinguished,
their empire has terminated, and the shades of evening
are now gathering thickly over the scattered and feeble
remnants of this once powerful League. Race has
yielded to race, the inevitable result of the contact of
the civilized with the hunter life. Who shall relate
with what pangs of regret they yielded up, from river
to river and from lake to lake, this fair broad domain
of their fathers. The Iroquois will soon be lost as a
people, in that night of impenetrable darkness in which
so many Indian races have been enshrouded. Already
their country has been appropriated, their forests
cleared, and their trails obliterated. The residue of
this proud and gifted race, who still linger around their
native seats, are destined to fade away, until they be
come eradicated as an Indian stock. We shall .ere
long look backward to the Iroquois, as a race blotted
from existence ; but tq remember them as a people
whose sachems had no cities, whose religion had no
temples, and whose government had no record.
BOOK SECOND
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
BOOK II
SPIRIT OF THE LEAGUE
Chapter I
Faith of the Iroquois Belief in the Great Spirit The Evil-Minded
He -No, The Thunderer Ga -o, Spirit ot the Winds The
Three Sisters The Invisible Aids Witches False Faces
Legendary Literature Immortality of the Soul Future Pun
ishments Moral Sentiments Burial Customs Abode of
the Great Spirit Washington Spirituality of their Faith Its
Influence
THE mind is, by nature, full of religious ten
dencies. Man, when left to the guidance of
his own inward persuasions, searches after the
Author of his being, and seeks to comprehend the
purposes of his existence, and his final destiny. In
every age and condition of society, the best thoughts
of the most gifted intellects have been expended upon
religious subjects. The conclusions reached by reflec
tive mind, under the inspiration of the works of nature,
are propagated from generation to generation, until they
grow, by natural enlargement, into a system of fixed
Beliefs. Upon them is afterwards engrafted a system of
Worship. The two flourish side by side with perpetual
vigor. They become interwoven with the civil and social
institutions of men, and by nurture and habit acquire
such a firm hold upon the affections, that they form a
part of the living, thinking, acting mind. Without a
141
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
knowledge, therefore, of the religious life of a people,
their institutions, and their political and domestic trans
actions would be wholly inexplicable.
Remarkable features are exhibited in the religious
system of the Iroquois, when contrasted with other
systems of similar origin. Emanating from the mind
of man alone, originating in the simplest form of hu
man society, it would naturally be encumbered by the
vagaries of fancy, and be upheld by affection rather
than logic. But man, shut out from the light of revela
tion, and left to construct his own theology, will discover
some part of the truth, as shadowed forth by the works
of nature. This will illuminate his footsteps, in pro
portion to his appreciation of its excellence, and his
faithful adherence to its divine monitions. The faith
and worship of the Iroquois are entitled to a favorable
consideration, by reason of the principles of belief which
they recognized, and the fundamental truths which
they inculcated. Established upon some of those
luminous principles which lie at the foundation of sound
theology, the blemishes in their spiritual edifice are com
pensated, in some degree, by the purity of its elements.
The Greeks discovered the traces of divinity in
every object in nature ; in the affections and passions,
in the elements of earth and air, in the rivulet, the
mountain and the sea. Ascending from these types
to their several supposed originals, they grasped at
Deity in a multitude of fragments, as proclaimed by
the divided works of creation. Failing, with all the
acumen and inspiration of their marvellous intellect, to
raise their mental vision above Olympus, and to ascend
from united nature up to the indivisible and Eternal
142
FAITH OF THE IRO^UOIS
One, they perfected and beautified that stupendous
production of genius and credulity, the polytheism
of the ancient world.
Between the popular belief of the ancients and that
of the Iroquois there are some coincidences. This
similarity of ideas is observable in a portion of their
legends and fables, but more especially in their notions
of the spiritual world. Like the ancients, they peopled
the invisible world with spiritual existences. In their
inferior spiritualities, they fell infinitely below the
splendid creations of the ancient mythology ; but in
their knowledge of the Supreme Being, they rose, in
many respects, far above the highest conceptions of
the ancient philosophy. It will be at once conceded,
that the Supreme Intelligence announced by Anaxago-
ras, Socrates and Plato, the Numen Pr<stantissim<e
Mentis of the ancient philosophical religionists, was in
itself a more vague and indefinite conception, than
that divine Being worshipped by the entire red race
under the appellation of the Great Spirit. 62 96)
Upon the first great question in theology, the Stoic,
the Epicurean, and the other sects of philosophers
equally reached the same fundamental conclusion, esse
Deos, "the Gods exist." This truth, they affirmed,
was not only revealed by the works of nature, but it
was also innate, and written in the mind of man. 1 But
1 Omnibus enim innatum est et in animo quasi insculptum, esse Deos.
Cicero De Natura Deorum, Lib. ii. cap. iv. Solus enim vidit, (Epicurus,)
primum esse Deos, quod in omnium animis eorum notionem impressisset
ipsa natura. Ib. Lib. i. c. xvi. Quid enim potest esse tarn apertum tamque
perspicuum, quum caslum suspeximus, caelestiaque contemplati sumus,
quam esse aliquod numen prasstantissimse mentis, quo hsec segantur ? Ib.
Lib. ii. c. ii.
143
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
in a multitude of Gods, each clothed with separate and
distinct offices and powers, and all subject to a grada
tion in rank, the popular belief reposed. The idea
of one Supreme Being was a sublime induction of phi
losophy, and far above the level of popular intelligence.
This great truth, therefore, failed tD become even feebly
incorporated with the overshadowing mythology of
antiquity. With the red race, ho vever, the belief not
only prevailed that a Great Spirit existed, but they
made the same induction from the works of nature the
foundation of their religious system.
There is also a coincidence of belief in relation to
the origin of spiritual existences. The ancient mythol
ogy taught, that the Gods were born, natives esse Deos,
and furnished, at the same time, their genealogy, with
all the minuteness of legendary license. The Iroquois,
also, believed that the Great Spirit was born ; and
tradition has handed down the narrative, with embel
lishments of fancy which Hesiod himself would not
have disdained. 1
Whether the Gods ruled the universe, and were in
terested in the affairs of men, was a disputed question
in the ancient schools. The Epicureans taught that
they were unmindful of all human transactions, and
spent their existence in ease and pleasure. 2 But the
Stoics took the opposite view, and not only affirmed
1 The tradition of the birth of the Good Spirit and the Evil Spirit is
much the same among the numerous Indian races within the Republic. It
is not peculiar to the Iroquois.
2 Nihil enim agit : nullis occupationibus est implicatus : nulla opera
molitur : sua sapientia et virtute gaudet : habet exploratum, fore se sem
per turn in maximis, turn in asternis voluptatibus. Hunc Deum rite bea-
tum dixerimus. Cic. De Nat. Deo. Lib. i. cap. xix.
144
BELIEF IN THE GREAT SPIRIT
their constant supervision and intervention in human
affairs, but also their active administration of the works
of nature. 1 This was also the popular belief. The
notions of the Iroquois approached nearest to the
latter. In error in ascribing to the Great Spirit a
finite origin, and with feeble conceptions of his attri
butes, they yet believed him to be their creator, ruler
and preserver ; and that in him was the residuum of
power.
The creation of the world was also a subject which
divided the ancient schools. In a belief in the eternity
of matter, they, in general, concurred. Plato and the
Stoics, however, taught that the visible universe was
fashioned and constructed by the direct agency of
God. This opinion, not of the creation of matter, but
of the formation of the world, encountered the ridicule
of the Epicureans. 2 This is one of those questions
with which human wisdom is unable to cope. In their
religious system, the Iroquois have but little to do
with the creation of the visible universe. According
to the tradition, the earth grew miraculously, a self-
prepared abode for the Great Spirit. Concerning the
universe which existed before the advent of the Great
Spirit, they pretend to no knowledge. To the Great
Spirit, however, the Iroquois ascribed creative power.
1 Sunt autem alii philosophi, et hi quidem magni atque nobilis, qui
Deorum mente atque ratione omnem mundum administrari et regi cen-
seant : neque vero id solum, sed etiam ab iisdem vitae hominum consuli et
provideri. Id. Lib. i. cap. ii.
2 Quibus enim oculis animi intueri potuit vester Plato fabricam illam
tanti operis, qua construi a Deo atque aedificari mundum facit ? Quse
molitio ? quae ferramenta ? qui rectes ? quse machinae ? qui ministri tanti
muneris fuerunt ? Quemadmodurn autem obedire et parere voluntati
architect! aer, ignis, aqua, terra potuerunt. Id. 1. i. c. viii.
VOL. I. 10
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
He created not only the animal and vegetable world,
but also adapted the elements, and the whole visible
universe to the wants of man.
That the Indian, without the aid of revelation,
should have arrived at a fixed belief in the existence of
one Supreme Being, has ever been matter of surprise
and admiration. In the existence of the Great Spirit,
an invisible but ever-present Deity, the universal red
race believed. His personal existence became a first
principle, an intuitive belief, which neither the lapse
of centuries could efface, nor inventions of man could
corrupt. By the diffusion of this great truth, if the
Indian did not escape the spell of superstition, which
resulted from his imperfect knowledge of the Deity,
and his ignorance of natural phenomena; yet he was
saved from the deepest of all barbarisms, an idolatrous
worship. The Iroquois believed in the constant
superintending care of the Great Spirit. He ruled
and administered the world, and the affairs of the red
race. As Moses taught that Jehovah was the God of
Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and of his chosen people,
so the Iroquois regarded the Great Spirit as the God
of the Indian alone. They looked up to him as the
author of their being, the source of their temporal
blessings, and the future dispenser of the felicities of
their heavenly home. To him they rendered constant
thanks and homage for the changes in the seasons, the
fruits of the earth, the preservation of their lives, and
for their social privileges and political prosperity ; and
to him they addressed their prayers for the continuance
of his protecting care. Their knowledge of the attri
butes of the Great Spirit was necessarily limited and
146
BELIEF IN THE GREAT SPIRI r I
imperfect. Of his goodness and beneficence they had
a full impression, and some notions, also, of his jus
tice and perfection. But they could not fully conceive
of the omnipresence of the Great Spirit, except
through the instrumentality of a class of inferior
spiritual existences, by whom he was surrounded.
His power was evidenced by the creation of man.
He was also believed to be self-existent and immor
tal. The ennobling and exalting views of the Deity
which are now held by enlightened and Christian na
tions would not be expected among a people excluded
from the light of revelation. In the simple truths of
natural religion they were thoroughly indoctrinated,
and many of these truths were held in great purity and
simplicity. Such is the power of truth over the hu
man mind, and the harmony of all truth, that the
Indian, without the power of logic, reached some of
the most important conclusions of philosophy, and
drew down from heaven some of the highest truths of
revelation.
While the religious system of the Iroquois taught
the existence of the Great Spirit Ha-wen-ne-yu, it
also recognized the personal existence of an Evil Spirit,
Ha-ne-go-ate-geh, the Evil-minded. According to the
legend of their finite origin, they were brothers, born
at the same birth, and destined to an endless existence.
To the Evil Spirit, in a limited degree, was ascribed
creative power. As the Great Spirit created man, and
all useful animals, and products of the earth, so the
Evil Spirit created all monsters, poisonous reptiles,
1 This is an original uncompounded word, and in the Seneca dialect.
It signifies simply " A Ruler."
147
LEAGUE OF THE I R O % U O I S
and noxious plants. In a word, while the former
made everything that was good and subservient, the
latter formed everything that was bad and pernicious
to man. One delighted in virtue, and in the happiness
of his creatures, to which end he exercised over them
his unceasing protection. The other was committed
to deeds of evil, and was ever watchful to scatter dis
cord among men, and multiply their calamities. Over
the Evil-minded the Great Spirit exercised no positive
authority, although possessed of the power to over
come him, if disposed to its exertion. Each ruled an
independent kingdom, with powers underived. Man s
free agency stood between them, with which, in effect,
he controlled his own destiny. A life of trust and
confidence in the Great Spirit, and of obedience to
his commands, afforded a refuge and a shelter to the
pious Indian against the machinations of the Evil-
minded.
Inferior spiritual beings were also recognized in
the theology of the Iroquois. Though not as ac
curately described and classified as those of the an
cient mythology, they yet exhibit with them some
singular coincidences ; although these coincidences,
real or imaginary, show nothing but the similarity
of human ideas in similar conditions of society.
They were classified into good and evil, the former
being the assistants and subordinates of the Great
Spirit, while the latter were the emissaries and de
pendents of the Evil-minded. To some of them
was assigned a bodily form, a " local habitation, and
a name." To the former class of these spiritual ex
istences, they were wont to render their acknowledg-
148
HE - NO, THE THUNDERER
ments at their annual festivals for imagined favors,
and to supplicate of the Great Spirit the continuance
of their watchful care. In the creation of these sub
ordinate beings, the Iroquois manifested their knowl
edge of the necessity of an Omnipresent Ruler ; and
at the same time they exhibited their limited com
prehension of infinite power. Through these instru
mentalities, they believed the Great Spirit was enabled,
with ease and convenience, to administer the affairs
of nature, and of man.
To He -no he committed the thunderbolt; at once
the voice of admonition and the instrument of ven
geance. He also intrusted to him the formation of
the cloud, and the gift of rain. By He-no was the
earth to be cooled and refreshed, vegetation sus
tained, the harvest ripened, and the fruits of the
earth matured. The terror of the Thunderer was
held over evil-doers, but especially over witches.
With power to inflict the most instantaneous and
fearful punishment, he was regarded as the avenger
of the deeds of evil. He is represented as having
the form of a man, and as wearing the costume of
a warrior. Upon his head he wore a magical feather,
which rendered him invulnerable against the attacks
of the Evil-minded. On his back he carried a bas
ket filled with fragments of chert rock, which he
launched at evil spirits and witches, whenever he
discovered them, as he rode in the clouds. In the
spring-time when the seeds were committed to the
ground, there was always an invocation of He-no,
that he would water them, and nourish their growth.
At the harvest festival they returned thanks to He-no
149
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
for the gift of rain. They also rendered their thanks
to the Great Spirit for the harvest, and supplicated
him to continue to them the watchful care of the
Thunderer. There is a fanciful legend in relation
to He-no,, to the effect that he once made his habita
tion in a cave under Niagara Falls, behind the sheet,
where he dwelt amid the grateful noise and din of
waters. The Great Spirit gave to him three assistants,
who have continued nameless, to enable him to main
tain a more vigilant supervision over the important
interests committed to his guardianship. One of
these, the legend declares, was partly of human, and
partly of celestial origin. 1 To bring He-no nearer to
1 The legend is as follows : A young maiden residing at Ga -u-giua,
a village above Niagara Falls, at the mouth of Cayuga creek, had been
contracted to an old man of ugly manners and disagreeable person. As
the marriage was hateful to her, and, by the customs of the nation there
was no escape, she resolved upon self-destruction. Launching a bark
canoe into the Niagara, she seated herself within it, and composing her
mind for the frightful descent, directed it down the current. The rapid
waters soon swept them over the falls, and the canoe was seen to fall into
the abyss below, but the maiden had disappeared. Before she reached the
waters underneath, she was caught in a blanket by He -no and his two
assistants, and carried without injury to the home of the Thunderer, be
hind the fall. Her beauty attracted one of the dependents of He -no, who
willingly joined them in marriage.
For several years before this event, the people at Gd -u-g^wa had been
troubled with an annual pestilence, and the source of the scourge had
baffled all conjecture. He -no, at the expiration of a year, revealed to her
the cause, and out of compassion to the people, sent her back to them,
to make known the cause, and the remedy. He told her that a monstrous
serpent dwelt under the village, and made his annual repast upon the
bodies of the dead which were buried by its side. That to insure a
bountiful feast, he went forth once a year, and poisoned the waters of the
Niagara, and also of the Cayuga creek, whereby the pestilence was
created. The people were directed to move to the Buffalo creek. He
also gave her careful directions touching the education of the child of
5
GA -OH, THE SPIRIT OF THE WINDS
their affections, the Iroquois always addressed him
under the appellation of Grandfather, and styled
themselves his grandchildren. In every act of his,
however, they recognized the hand of Ha-wen-ne -yu.
Another of the spiritual creations of the Iroquois
is recognized in Ga -oh, the Spirit of the Winds.
He is, also, a mere instrumentality, through whom
which she was to become the mother. With these directions she departed
on her mission.
After the people had removed as directed, the great serpent, disap
pointed of his food, put his head above the ground to discover the rea
son, and found that the village was deserted. Having scented their trail,
and discovered its course, he went forth into the lake, and up the Buffalo
creek, in open search of his prey. While in this narrow channel, He -no
discharged upon the monster a terrific thunderbolt which inflicted a
mortal wound. The Senecas yet point to a place in the creek where
the banks are semicircular on either side, as the spot where the serpent,
after he was struck, turning to escape into the deep waters of the lake,
shoved out the banks on either side. Before he succeeded in reaching the
lake, the repeated attacks of the Thunderer took effect, and the monster
was slain.
The huge body of the serpent floated down the stream, and lodged
upon the verge of the cataract, stretching nearly across the river. A
part of the body arched backwards near the northern shore in a semicircle.
The raging waters thus dammed up by the body broke through the rocks
behind ; and thus the whole verge of the fall upon which the body rested
was precipitated with it into the abyss beneath. In this manner, says the
legend, was formed the Horse-Shoe fall.
Before this event there was a passage behind the sheet from one shore
to the other. This passage-way was not only broken up, but the home
of He -no was also destroyed, in the general crash. Since then his habita
tion has been in the west.
The child of the maiden grew up to boyhood, and was found to possess
the power of darting the lightning at his will. It had been the injunction
of He -no that he should be reared in retirement, and not be allowed to
mingle in the strifes of men. On a certain occasion having been beset by
a playmate with great vehemence, he transfixed him with a thunderbolt.
He -no immediately translated him to the clouds, and made him the third
assistant Thunderer.
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
the Great Spirit moves the elements. Having a
human form, with the face of an old man, Ga-oh is
represented as sitting in solitary confinement, sur
rounded by a tangle of discordant winds, and ever
impatient of restraint. His residence, Da-yo-da-do-
go-wa, the " Great Home of the Winds," is stationary,
in a quarter of the heavens toward the west. Sur
rounded and compressed by the elements, he ever
and anon struggles to free himself from their entan
glement. When perfectly quiescent, the winds are
at rest. A slight motion sends forth the breeze,
which is wafted gently over the face of the earth.
When he struggles with restlessness and impatience,
the strong wind goes forth to move the clouds, ruffle
the waters, and shake the foliage of the forest. But
when his restlessness mounts up to frenzy, he puts
forth his utmost strength to shake off the confining
element. These mighty throes of Ga-oh send forth
the blasts which sweep the plain, lay low the oak
upon the mountain side, and dash the waters against
the sky. Ga-oh is represented, however, as a be
neficent being, ever mindful of the will of the Great
Spirit, and solicitous to fulfil his commands. 1
Perhaps the most beautiful conception in the my
thology of the Iroquois is that in relation to the
Three Sisters, the Spirit of Corn, the Spirit of the
Bean, and the Spirit of the Squash. These plants
were regarded as the special gift of Ha-wen-ne -yu ; and
1 ./Eolus naturally suggests him- " Hie vasto rex /Eolus antro
self to the reader, although the Luctantes ventos, tempestatesque sonoras
analogy is slight. Imperio premit, ac vinclis et carcere
fraenat." v^Eneid, Lib. i. 52.
THE THREE SISTERS
they believed that the care of each was intrusted, for
the welfare of the Indian, to a separate Spirit. They
are supposed to have the forms of beautiful females,
to be very fond of each other, and to delight to dwell
together. This last belief is illustrated by the natural
adaptation of the plants themselves to grow up to
gether in the same field, and perhaps from the same
hill. Their apparel was made of the leaves of their
respective plants ; and in the growing season they
were believed to visit the fields, and dwell among
them. This triad is known under the name of De-o-
ha -ko, which signifies Our Life, or Our Supporters.
They are never mentioned separately, except by de
scription, as they have no individual names. There
is a legend in relation to corn, that it was originally of
easy cultivation, yielded abundantly, and had a grain
exceedingly rich with oil. The Evil-minded, being
envious of this great gift of Ha-wen-ne -yu to man,
went forth into the fields, and spread over it a uni
versal blight. Since then it has been harder to culti
vate, yields less abundantly, and has lost its original
richness. To this day, when the rustling wind waves
the corn leaves with a moaning sound, the pious Indian
fancies that he hears the Spirit of Corn, in her com
passion for the red man, still bemoaning, with unavail
ing regrets, her blighted fruitfulness. (19)
Among the inhabitants of the spiritual world, with
which the Iroquois surrounded themselves, may be
enumerated the Spirits of medicine, of fire, and of
water, the Spirit of each of the different species of
trees, of each of the species of shrubs bearing fruit,
and of the different herbs and plants. Thus there
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
was the Spirit of the oak, of the hemlock, and of
the maple, of the whortleberry and of the raspberry,
and also of the spearmint, and of tobacco. Most of
the objects in nature were thus placed under the
watchful care of some protecting Spirit. Some of
them were made tangible to the senses, by giving to
them a bodily form and specific duties ; as the Spirit
of springs, and of each of the several fruit trees. But
the most of them were feebly imagined existences. In
their worship, the Iroquois were accustomed to return
their thanks to these subordinates of Ha-wen-ne -yu,
under the general name of H o-no-c he-no -keh. This
term signifies " the Invisible Aids," and included the
whole spiritual world, from He-no, the Thunderer,
down to the Spirit of the Strawberry. But few of
them had specific names, or were mentioned in their
worship, except conjointly. The Iroquois appear to
have had but a faint conception of the omnipresence
of the Great Spirit, as elsewhere observed ; or of any
individual power sufficiently potent to administer, un
assisted, the stupendous works of creation, and the
complicated affairs of man. In part from this cause,
undoubtedly, they believed that the Great Spirit had
surrounded himself with subordinate spiritual beings
of his own creation, to whom he intrusted the imme
diate supervision of the various works of nature. He
thus rendered himself, in a limited sense, omnipresent,
and ruled and regulated, with ease and convenience,
the works of creation. These Spirits were never
objects of worship. The Iroquois regarded them
merely as the unseen assistants of Ha-wen-ne-yu, and
the executors of his will.
54
EVIL SPIRITS
Evil spirits were believed to be the creations of
Ha-ne-go-ate-geh. Pestilence and disease were sup
posed to be the work of evil spirits. Witches and
enchanters were believed to be possessed with them.
There were also the Spirits of poisonous plants and
roots. All the agencies of evil were brought into
existence by, and held under the dominion of the
Evil-minded. To counteract their machinations, the
efforts of the Great Spirit and his spiritual host were
incessantly put forth. At their religious festivals, the
Iroquois invoked Ha-wen-ne-yu to shield them against
their secret designs. " Great Spirit, master of all
things, visible and invisible ; Great Spirit, master of
other spirits, whether good or evil ; command the good
spirits to favor thy children ; command the evil spirits
to keep at a distance from them."
The Iroquois believed that tobacco was given to
them as the means of communication with the spiritual
world. By burning tobacco they could send up their
petitions with its ascending incense, to the Great Spirit,
and render their acknowledgments acceptably for his
blessings. Without this instrumentality, the ear of
Ha-wen-ne-yu could not be gained. In like manner
they returned their thanks at each recurring festival to
the Invisible Aids, for their friendly offices, and pro
tecting care. It was also their custom to return thanks
to the trees, shrubs and plants, to the springs, rivers
and streams, to the fire and wind, and to the sun,
moon and stars ; in a word, to every object in nature,
which ministered to their wants, and thus awakened
a feeling of gratitude. But this was done without
1 La Hontan.
55
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the intervention of the incense of tobacco. They
addressed the object itself.
A belief in witches is to this day, and always has
been, one of the most deeply-seated notions in the
minds of the Iroquois. The popular belief on this
subject rose to the most extravagant degree of the
marvellous and the supernatural. Any person,
whether old or young, male or female, might be
come possessed of an evil spirit, and be transformed
into a witch. A person thus possessed could assume,
at pleasure, the form of any animal, bird or reptile,
and having executed his nefarious purpose, could
resume his original form, or, if necessary to escape
pursuit, could transmute himself into an inanimate
object. They were endued with the power of doing
evil, and were wholly bent upon deeds of wickedness.
When one became a witch, he ceased to be himself.
According to the current belief, he was not only will
ing to take the life of his nearest friend, but such an
one was the preferred object of his vengeance. The
means of death employed was an unseen poison.
Such was the universal terror of witches, that their
lives were forfeited by the laws of the Iroquois. Any
one who discovered the act, might not only destroy
the witch, but could take to himself the dangerous
power of deciding who it was. To this day, it is next
to impossible, by any process of reasoning, to divest
the mind of a Seneca of his deep-seated belief in
witches. 1
1 But a year since a woman was shot on the Allegany (Seneca) reserva
tion, on the pretence of witchcraft. Such instances have been frequent
among the Senecas w.ithin the last fifty years. Not the least singular
156
FALSE FACES
There is a current belief among the Iroquois, that
these demons are banded together in a secret and
systematic organization, which has subsisted for ages ;
that they have periodical meetings, an initiation cere
mony, and a novitiate fee. These meetings were held
at night, and the fee of the neophyte was the life of
his nearest and dearest friend, to be taken with poison,
on the eve of his admission.
The tendency of the Iro
quois to superstitious beliefs
is especially exemplified in
their notion of the existence
of a race of supernatural
beings whom they call False-
faces. This belief has pre
vailed among them from the
most remote period, and still
continues its hold upon the
Indian mind. The Falsefaces
are believed to be evil spirits
or demons without bodies,
arms or limbs, simply faces,
and those of the most hideous
description. It is pretended
that when seen they are usu
ally in the most retired places,
darting from point to point,
and perhaps from tree to tree,
by some mysterious power ; and possessed of a look so
frightful and demoniacal as to paralyze all who behold
feature of the case is that they sometimes confess the act. There may be
some foundation for this strange delusion in the phenomena of nature.
157
pa-go -sa, or False Face,
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
them. They are supposed also to have power to send
plagues and pestilence among men, as well as to de
vour their bodies when found, for which reasons they
were held in the highest terror. To this day there are
large numbers of the Iroquois who believe implicitly
in the personal existence of these demons.
Upon this belief was founded a regular secret organ
ization called the Falseface band, members of which
can now be found in every Iroquois village both in
this State and Canada, where the old modes of life are
still preserved. This society has a species of initia
tion, and regular forms, ceremonies and dances. In
acquiring or relinquishing a membership their super
stitious notions were still further illustrated, for it de
pended entirely upon the omen of a dream. If any
one dreamed he was a Falseface, it was only necessary
to signify his dream to the proper person, and give a
feast, to be at once initiated ; and so any one dreaming
that he had ceased to be a Falseface, had but to make
known his dream and give a similar entertainment to
effect his exodus. In no other way could a member
ship be acquired or surrendered. Upon all occasions
on which the members appeared in character they wore
false faces of the kind represented in the figure, the
masks being diversified in color, style and configura
tion, but all agreeing in their equally hideous appear
ance. The members were all males save one, who was
a female, and the Mistress of the Band. She was called
Gd-go-sa Ho-nun-nas-tase-ta^ or the keeper of the False-
faces ; and not only had charge of the regalia of the band,
but was the only organ of communication with the
members, for their names continued unknown.
FALSEFACES
The prime motive in the establishment of this or
ganization was to propitiate those demons called False-
faces, and among other good results to arrest pestilence
and disease. In course of time the band itself was be
lieved to have a species of control over diseases, and
over the healing art ; and they were often invoked for
the cure of simple diseases, and to drive away, or ex
orcise the plague, if it had actually broken out in their
midst. As recently as the summer of 1849, when the
cholera prevailed through the State, the Falsefaces, in
appropriate costume, went from house to house at
Tonawanda, through the old school portion of the
village, and performed the usual ceremonies prescribed
for the expulsion of the pestilence.
When any one was sick with a complaint within the
range of their healing powers, and dreamed that he saw
a Falseface, this was interpreted to signify that through
their instrumentality he was to be cured. Having in
formed the mistress of the band, and prepared the cus
tomary feast, the Falsefaces at once appeared, preceded
by their female leader, and marching in Indian file.
Each one wore a mask or false face, a tattered blanket
over his shoulders, and carried a turtle shell rattle in
his hand. On entering the house of the invalid they
first stirred the ashes upon the hearth, and then
sprinkled the patient over with hot ashes until his head
and hair were covered ; after which they performed
some manipulations over him in turn, and finally led
him around with them in the falseface dance ( Ga-go-sa),
with which their ceremonies concluded. When these
performances were over, the entertainment prepared
for the occasion was distributed to the band, and by
LEAGUE OF THE I R O <^U O I S
them carried away for their private feasting, as they
never unmasked themselves before the people. Among
the simple complaints which the Falsefaces could cure
infallibly, were nose bleed, toothache, swellings, and
inflammation of the eyes. The false face shown in
the figure was purchased of an Onondaga on Grand
river.
The proneness of the Indian mind to supersti
tious beliefs is chiefly to be ascribed to their legen
dary literature. (94) The fables which have been
handed down from generation to generation, to be
rehearsed to the young from year to year, would fill
volumes. These fabulous tales, for exuberance of
fancy, and extravagance of invention, not only sur
pass the fireside stories of all other people, but to
their diversity and number there is apparently no
limit. There were fables of a race of pigmies who
dwelt within the earth, (94) but who were endued
with such herculean strength as to tear up by its
roots the forest oak, and shoot it from their bows ;
fables of a buffalo of such huge dimensions as to
thresh down the forest in his march ; (9 ^ fables of
ferocious flying-heads, winging themselves through
the air; of serpents paralyzing by a look ; of a mon
ster mosquito, who thrust his b ill through the bodies
of his victims, and drew their blood in the twinkling
of an eye. There were fables of a race of stone giants
who dwelt in the north ; of a monster bear, more
terrific than the buffalo; of a monster lizard, more
destructive than the serpent. There were tales of
witches, and supernatural visitations, together with
marvellous stories of personal adventure. Super-
160
LEGENDARY LITERATURE
added to the fables of this description, were legends
upon a thousand subjects, in which fact was embel
lished with fiction. These legends entered into the
affairs of private life, and of individuals, and were
explanatory of a multitude of popular beliefs. Min
gled up with this mass of fable, were their historical
traditions. This branch of their unwritten literature
is both valuable and interesting. These traditions are
remarkably tenacious of the truth, and between them
all there is a striking harmony of facts. Any one
who takes occasion to compare parts of these tradi
tions with concurrent history, will be surprised at
their accuracy, whether the version be from the Oneida,
the Onondaga, the Seneca, or the Mohawk. The
embellishments gained by their transmission from hand
to hand are usually separable from the substance, and
the latter is entitled to credence. With these fables,
legends and traditions the Indian youth was familiar
ized from infancy. His mind became stored and
crowded with bewildering fictions. Without books,
and without employment, in the intervals between
the hunt, the council, and the warlike expedition, the
mind naturally fell back upon this unwritten literature
of the wilderness. The rehearsal of these marvellous
tales furnished the chief entertainment at the fireside
in the Indian village, and also at the lodge far hid
in the depths of the forest. The credulity of youth
would know no limits, when the narrator himself
credited the tale he was relating. Growing into man
hood under such intellectual influences, the young
warrior would not readily discriminate between that
which was too marvellous for belief and that which
VOL. I. II
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
was consistent with truth, but would adopt the whole
as equally veritable. That early and constant famil
iarity with such a mass of uncorrected fancies should
beget a permanent tendency of mind to fall into super
stitious beliefs, is far less surprising than would be
an exemption from all such delusions.
From a vague and indefinable dread, these fables
were never related in the summer season, (94) when
the imagination was peculiarly susceptible. As soon
as the buds had opened on the trees, these stories
were hushed, and their historical traditions substituted.
But when the leaves began to fall, their rehearsal
again furnished the chief amusement of the hours of
leisure in Indian society.
The immortality of the soul was another of the
fixed beliefs of the Iroquois. This notion has pre
vailed generally among all the red races, under different
forms, and with different degrees of distinctness. " The
happy home beyond the setting sun," had cheered
the heart, and lighted the expiring eye of the Indian,
before the ships of Columbus had borne the cross
to this western world. This sublime conclusion is
another of those truths, written, as it were, by the
Deity, in the mind of man, and one easily to be
deciphered from the page of nature by unperverted
reason. This truth has always been taught among
the Iroquois, as a fundamental article of faith.
In connection with the immortality of the soul,
must be placed their belief in future punishments.
This is maintained to have been a part of their an
cient faith, but with how much truth it is difficult to
determine. It is now taught by the unchristian-
162
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL
ized portion of the Iroquois, as an essential part of
their belief.
The worship of the Iroquois, it is believed, has
undergone no important change for centuries. It is
the same, in all respects, at this day, that it was at
the commencement of their intercourse with the whites.
But their faith appears to have suffered some en
largement. They seem to have silently adopted such
thoughts of the missionaries as could be interwoven
harmoniously with their own creed, while at the same
time they firmly and constantly excluded all those
beliefs which were inconsistent with their own relig
ious system, as a whole. The principal illustration
of this position is to be found in their present views
of the nature and office of punishment. They believe
that the wicked, after death, pass into the dark realm
of Ha-ne-go-ate-geh) there to undergo a process of
punishment for their evil deeds. Those who are not
consumed by the degree of punishment inflicted, are,
after this purification, translated to the abode of the
Great Spirit, and to eternal felicity. Evil deeds in
this life are neutralized by meritorious acts. After
the balance is struck between them, if the good pre
dominate, the spirit passes direct to Ha-wen-ne -yu-geh ;
but if the bad overbalance, it goes at once to Ha-nis-
ha-o-no -geh, the dwelling-place of the Evil-minded,
where punishments are meted out to it in proportion to
the magnitude of its offences. Certain crimes, like
those of witchcraft and murder, were punished eter
nally, but others temporarily. The resemblance be
tween this system of punishment and the purgatory
of the Catholic church leads to the inference, that they
163
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
derived from the Jesuits some of their ideas of the
nature and office of punishment, and of its limitations.
While, therefore, the Iroquois may have obtained
more systematic and enlarged views upon these sub
jects from without, at the same time, as they affirm,
they may always have believed that the wicked were
excluded from heaven, and sent to a place of infe
licity. Their traditions tend to establish a belief in
future punishments, as a tenet of their ancient faith.
There is another practice, now universal among
the Iroquois, which appears still more decisively to
be of Jesuit origin. It is the confession of sins.
Before each of their periodical religious festivals, there
is made a general and public confession. Several
days before the time designated for the festival, the
people assemble by appointment, and each one in
turn, who has a confession to make, rising, and taking
a string of white wampum in his hand, acknowl
edges his faults and transgressions, and publicly pro
fesses a purpose of amendment. The white wampum
is the emblem of purity and sincerity. With it he
confirms and records his words. The absolution or
forgiveness of sins formed no part of the motive or ob
ject in the confession. It had reference to the future con
duct exclusively. One who was willing to confess a fault
from a sense of religious duty, would, by the act,
strengthen his mind against future temptation. This
custom has prevailed so long among them, that they
have lost its origin. It contains no such analogy
to the practices of any Christian community as to
compel us to ascribe it to external influences, but yet
it has about it so much of the fragrance of Christ-
164
MORAL SENTIMENTS
ianity, that it awakens in the mind a doubt of its
Indian origin. It is by no means certain, however,
but that it is one of their own primitive religious
customs, under a modified form.
Reverence for the aged was also one of the precepts
of the ancient faith. Among the roving tribes of the
wilderness, the old and helpless were frequently aban
doned, and in some cases, hurried out of existence, as
an act of greater kindness than desertion. But the
Iroquois, at the epoch of the formation of the League,
resided in permanent villages, which afforded a refuge
for the aged. One of the prominent aims of their first
lawgiver, Da-ga-no-we -da, was to bind the people to
gether by the family ties of relationship, and thus
create among them an universal spirit of hospitality,
and a lasting desire of social intercourse. After the
establishment of the Confederacy, certainly, these prac
tices never prevailed among the Iroquois. (121) On
the contrary, their religious teachers inculcated the
duty of protecting their aged parents, as divinely en
joined. " It is the will of the Great Spirit that you
reverence the aged, even though they be as helpless
as infants."
The obedience of children, their instruction in virtu
ous principles, kindness to the orphan, hospitality to
all, and a common brotherhood, were among the doc
trines held up for acceptance by their religious instruc
tors. These precepts were taught as the will of the
Great Spirit, and obedience to their requirements as
acceptable in his sight. "If you tie up the clothes of
an orphan child, the Great Spirit will notice it, and
1 Sose-ha -wd (Johnson).
165
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
reward you for it." " To adopt orphans, and bring
them up in virtuous ways, is pleasing to the Great
Spirit." "If a stranger wander about your abode,
welcome him to your home, be hospitable towards
him, speak to him with kind words, and forget not al
ways to mention the Great Spirit." l
Respect for the dead was another element of their
faith. At various periods of their history, it has mani
fested itself under different and very singular forms.
The burial customs of every people interest the mind.
Death is the great catastrophe of humanity. And
whether man has reached the highest intellectual eleva
tion, or still sits beside the forest streamlet, in the in
fancy of his mental growth, this event seizes upon his
mind with solemn and absorbing earnestness. With
the Iroquois different customs have prevailed, in rela
tion to the mode of burial. At one period they buried
in a sitting posture, with the face to the east. Skele
tons are still found in this position, in various parts of
the State, with a gun barrel resting against the shoulder;
thus fixing the period of their sepulture subsequent to
the first intercourse of this people with the whites. It
is supposed that this custom was abandoned at the
persuasion of the missionaries, although there is a tra
dition ascribing it to a different cause. Another and
more extraordinary mode of burial anciently prevailed
among them. The body of the deceased was exposed
upon a bark scaffolding, erected upon poles, or secured
upon the limbs of trees, where it was left to waste to a
skeleton. After this had been effected by the process
of decomposition in the open air, the bones were re-
1 Johnson.
1 66
BURIAL CUSTOMS
moved, either to the former house of the deceased, or
to a small bark house by its side, prepared for their
reception. In this manner the skeletons of the whole
family were preserved from generation to generation,
by the filial or parental affection of the living. After
the lapse of a number of years, or in a season of public
insecurity, or on the eve of abandoning a settlement, (89)
it was customary to collect these skeletons from
the whole community around, and consign them to a
common resting-place. To this custom, which was
not confined to the Iroquois, is doubtless to be as
cribed the barrows and bone mounds which have been
found in such numbers in various parts of the country.
On opening these mounds, the skeletons are usually
found arranged in horizontal layers, a conical pyramid,
those in each layer radiating from a common centre.
In other cases they are found placed promiscuously. 1
The religious system of the Iroquois taught that it
was a journey from earth to heaven of many days
duration. Originally, it was supposed to be a year,
and the period of mourning for the departed was fixed
at that term. At its expiration, it was customary for
the relatives of the deceased to hold a feast; the soul
of the departed having reached heaven, and a state of
felicity, there was no longer any cause for mourning.
The spirit of grief was exchanged for that of rejoicing.
In modern times the mourning period has been re
duced to ten days, and the journey of the spirit is now
1 There are Senecas now residing at Tonawanda and Cattaraugus, who
remember having seen, about sixty years ago, at the latter place, these
bark scaffoldings, on which bodies were then exposed. The custom still
prevails among the Sioux upon the upper Mississippi, and among some of
the tribes in the far west.
167
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
believed to be performed in three. The spirit of the
deceased was supposed to hover around the body for a
season, before it took its final departure ; and not un
til after the expiration of a year according to the ancient
belief, and ten days according to the present, did it
become permanently at rest in heaven. A beautiful
custom prevailed in ancient times, of capturing a bird,
and freeing it over the grave on the evening of the
burial, to bear away the spirit to its heavenly rest.
Their notions of the state of the soul when disem
bodied, are vague and diversified ; but they all agree
that, during the journey, it required the same nourish
ment as while it dwelt in the body. They, therefore,
deposited beside the deceased his bow and arrows,
tobacco and pipe, and necessary food for the journey.
They also painted the face and dressed the body in its
best apparel. A fire was built upon the grave at night,
to enable the spirit to prepare its food. With these
tokens of affliction, and these superstitious concern
ments for the welfare of the deceased, the children of
the forest performed the burial rites of their departed
kindred. 1 The wail and the lamentation evidenced the
passionate character of their grief. 2 After the mourn-
1 To this universal custom of the red race, of depositing the valuable
articles of the deceased by his side, as well as utensils and vessels to pre
pare and contain his food, we are indebted for all the relics we possess of
the earlier epochs of our aboriginal history. ( 10 ~) Articles are still dis
entombed from the soil from year to year, some of which reach back to
the era of the Mound Builders.
2 In ancient times, the practice prevailed of addressing the dead before
burial, under the belief that they could hear, although unable to answer.
The near relatives and friends, or such as were disposed, approached the
body in turn ; and after the wail had ceased, they addressed it in a pa
thetic or laudatory speech. The practice has not even yet fallen entirely
1 68
BURIAL CUSTOMS
ing period had expired, the name of the deceased was
never mentioned, from a sense of delicacy to the tender
feelings of his friends.
Unless the rites of burial were performed, it was
believed that the spirits of the dead wandered for a
time upon the earth, in a state of great unhappiness.
Hence their extreme solicitude to procure the bodies
of their slain in battle.
Heaven was the abode of the Great Spirit, the
final home of the faithful. They believed there was
a road down from heaven to every man s door. On
this invisible way, the soul ascended in its heavenly
flight until it reached its celestial habitation. As
into disuse. The following address of an Iroquois mother over the body
of her son was made on a recent occasion. Approaching his inanimate
remains to look upon him for the last time, her grief for some moments
was uncontrollable. Presently, her wailing ceased, and she thus addressed
him : tf My son, listen once more to the words of thy mother. Thou
wert brought into life with her pains. Thou wert nourished with her
life. She has attempted to be faithful in raising thee up. When thou
wert young, she loved thee as her life. Thy presence has been a source
of great joy to her. Upon thee she depended for support and comfort in
her declining days. She had ever expected to gain the end of the path of
lite before thee. But thou hast outstripped her, and gone before her.
Our great and wise Creator has ordered it thus. By his will I am left to
taste more of the miseries of this world. Thy friends and relatives have
gathered about thy body, to look upon thee for the last time. They
mourn, as with one mind, thy departure from among us. We, too, have
but a few days more, and our journey shall be ended. We part now, and
you are conveyed from our sight. But we shall soon meet again, and
shall again look upon each other. Then we shall part no more. Our
Maker has called you to his home. Thither will we follow. Na-ho ."
After this was over, the wail continued for a few moments, when the body
was borne away. The above was furnished to the author by Hd-sa-no-
an -da (Ely S. Parker), who heard it delivered. See also a specimen of
an address to the dead in La Hontan s Voy. North Am. Lond. ed. 1735,
vol. ii. p. 54.
169
LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS
before observed, the spirit was supposed to linger for
a time about the body, and perhaps to revisit it. In
consequence of this belief, a superstitious custom pre
vailed of leaving a slight opening in the grave, through
which it might reenter its former tenement. To this
day, among a portion of the Iroquois, after the body
has been deposited in a coffin, holes are bored through
it for the same purpose. After taking its final depar
ture, the soul was supposed to ascend higher and
higher on its heavenly way, gradually moving to
the westward, until it came out upon the plains of
heaven.
The inhabitants of this sinless dwelling-place of
Ha-wen-ne -yu were believed to possess a body, and
the senses, appetites and affections of the earthly life.
They carried their knowledge with them, and the
memory of former friends. Sex was in effect abol
ished, but families were reunited, and dwelt together
in perpetual harmony. All the powers of the Indian
imagination were taxed to picture the glowing beauties
of their celestial home. It was fashioned to please
the natural senses. A vast plain of illimitable exten
sion, it was spread out with every variety of natural
scenery which could please the eye, or gratify the
fancy. Forests clothed with ever-living foliage, flow
ers of every hue in eternal bloom, fruits of every
variety in perpetual ripeness, in a word, the meridian
charms of nature met the eye in every direction. To
form a paradise of unrivalled beauty, the Great Spirit
had gathered every object in the natural world which
could delight the senses, and having spread them out
in vast but harmonious array, and restored their bap-
170
WASHINGTON
tismal vestments, he diffused over these congregated
beauties of nature the bloom of immortality. In this
happy abode, they were destined to enjoy unending
felicity. No evil could enter this peaceful home of
innocence and purity. No violence could disturb,
no passions ruffle the tranquillity of this fortunate
realm. In amusement or repose they spent their
lives. The festivities in which they had delighted
while on the earth were re-celebrated in the presence
of the great Author of their being. They enjoyed
all the happiness of the earthly life, unencumbered
by its ills.
With the Iroquois, heaven was not regarded as a
" hunting ground," as it appears to have been by
some Indian nations. Subsistence had ceased to be
necessary. When the faithful partook of the sponta
neous fruits around them, it was for the gratification
of the taste, and not for the support of life.
Among the modern beliefs engrafted upon the
ancient faith, there is one which is worthy of partic
ular notice. It relates to Washington. 1 According
to their present belief, no white man ever reached
the Indian heaven. Not having been created by the
Great Spirit, no provision was made for him in their
scheme of theology. He was excluded both from
heaven and from the place of punishment. But an
exception was made in favor of Washington. Because
of his justice and benevolence to the Indian, he stood
preeminent above all other white men. When, by
the peace of 1783, the Indians were abandoned by
1 His name among the Iroquois was Hd-no-dd-ga -ne-ars y which signi
fies " Town Destroyer."
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
their English allies, and left to make their own terms
with the American government, the Iroquois were more
exposed to severe measures than the other tribes in
their alliance. At this critical moment, Washington
interfered in their behalf, as the protector of Indian
rights, and the advocate of a policy towards them
of the most enlightened justice and humanity . (29)
After his death, he was mourned by the Iroquois as
a benefactor of their race, and his memory was cher
ished with reverence and affection. A belief was
spread abroad among them, that the Great Spirit had
received him into a celestial residence upon the plains
of heaven, the only white man whose noble deeds had
entitled him to this heavenly favor. Just by the en
trance of heaven is a walled enclosure, the ample
grounds within which are laid out with avenues and
shaded walks. Within is a spacious mansion, con
structed in the fashion of a fort. Every object in
nature which could please a cultivated taste had been
gathered in this blooming Eden, to render it a de
lightful dwelling-place for the immortal Washington.
The faithful Indian, as he enters heaven, passes this
enclosure. He sees and recognizes the illustrious
inmate, as he walks to and fro in quiet meditation.
But no word ever passes his lips. Dressed in his uni
form, and in a state of perfect felicity, he is destined to
remain through eternity in the solitary enjoyment of the
celestial residence prepared for him by the Great Spirit.
Surely the piety and the gratitude of the Iroquois
have, jointly, reared a monument to Washington
above the skies, which is more expressive in its praise
than the proudest recitals on the obelisk, and more
172
SPIRITUALITY OF THEIR FAITH
imperishable in its duration than the syenite which
holds up the record to the gaze of centuries.
The beliefs of our primitive inhabitants, when
brought together in a connected form, naturally call
forth an expression of surprise. A faith so purely
spiritual, so free from the tincture of human passion,
and from the grossness of superstition, can scarcely be
credited, when examined under the ordinary estimate
of the Indian character. It has been the misfortune
of the Indian never to be rightly understood, espe
cially in his social relations. Their religious and
moral sentiments, such as they were, exercised as de
cisive an influence upon Indian society, as the precepts
of Christianity do over enlightened communities.
They furnished springs of action, rules of intercourse,
and powers of restraint. And yet, where is the pic
ture of Indian social life which reveals the domestic
virtues, the generous friendships, the integrity between
man and man, the harmony of intercourse, and the
sympathies of the heart, which bloomed and flourished
in the depths of the forest? We have met the red
man upon the war-path, and not at the fireside. We
have dealt with him as his oppressor, and not as his
friend. His evil traits, ever present with the mind,
form the standard of judgment ; and when his virtues
rise up before us, they create surprise, rather than an
swer expectation, because the standard of estimation is
universally unjust.
The mind of the Iroquois was deeply imbued with
religious sentiments, the practical results, the actual
fruits of which, unseen for the most part, by those
who know the Indian only in his intercourse with the
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
whites, reveal themselves in unexpected beauty, when
we examine his social relations, and view him in his
domestic life. Their influence upon the Iroquois, in
their intercourse with other nations, is necessarily sec
ondary. To judge of their religious system from its
direct effects, it is necessary to look into Indian society
itself. Here its primary influence, at least, must fall.
It would be a grateful task to array the virtues, which
sprang into existence in the seclusions of the wilder
ness, to light up the character of the red man. From
the harmony which characterized their political rela
tions under the League, down to the domestic quiet
of the sylvan home, the picture is much the same.
Peace, hospitality, charity, friendship, harmony, in
tegrity, religious enthusiasm, the domestic affections,
found a generous growth and cultivation among the
Iroquois. Genius, learning, and Christianity change
the features of society, and cast over it an artificial
garment, but its elements continue the same. It need
not awaken surprise that the Indian has rivalled many
ot the highest virtues of civilized and christianized
man ; or that in some of the rarest traits in the human
character, he has passed quite beyond him.
Whatever excellences the Iroquois character pos
sessed are to be ascribed, in a great measure, to their
beliefs, and above all, to their unfailing faith in the
Great Spirit. By adhering to that sublime but simple
rruth, that there was one Supreme Being, who created
and preserved them, they not only escaped an idola
trous worship, but they imbibed a more ennobling and
spiritual faith than has fallen to the lot of any other
unchristianized people. (G2)
Chapter II
Worship of the Iroquois Keepers of the Faith Thanks to the
Maple Planting Festival Berry Festival Green Corn Festi
val Harvest Festival New Year s Jubilee Sacrifice of the
White Dog Address to the Great Spirit Influence of their
Worship
THE Iroquois had a systematic worship. It
consisted in the celebration of periodical fes
tivals, which were held at stated seasons of
the year. These observances were suggested by the
changes in the seasons, the ripening of the fruits, and
the gathering of the harvest. They were performed
annually, with the same established ceremonies, which
had been handed down from age to age. The wor
ship of the Iroquois, as before remarked, has under
gone no change in centuries* It is still the same, in
all essential particulars, that it was at the period of
their discovery. Some slight additions, ascribable,
doubtless, to missionary instructions, will be detected,
but they are too inconsiderable to change the form, or
disturb the harmony of the whole. Upon an exam
ination of the principal features of the system, it will
become apparent that it was chiefly a thanksgiving
worship, although the supplication of the Great Spirit
for the continuance of his protection entered into it as
an essential element.
Six regular festivals, or thanksgivings, were ob
served by the Iroquois. The first, in the order of
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
time, was the Maple festival. This was a return of
thanks to the maple itself, for yielding its sweet
waters. Next was the Planting festival, designed,
chiefly, as an invocation of the Great Spirit to bless
the seed. Third came the Strawberry festival, in
stituted as a thanksgiving for the first fruits of the
earth. The fourth was the Green Corn festival, de
signed as a thanksgiving acknowledgment for the
ripening of the corn, beans and squashes. Next
was celebrated the Harvest festival, instituted as a
general thanksgiving to " Our Supporters," after the
gathering of the harvest. Last in the enumeration is
placed the New Year s festival, the great jubilee of the
Iroquois, at which trie white dog was sacrificed.
The principle involved in the formal worship of
the Great Spirit at stated periods, and the fidelity
with which the Iroquois, in prosperity and in ad
versity, adhered to these observances from generation
to generation, are of much more importance in form
ing a judgment of their religious sentiments than the
mere ceremonies themselves. In this constant rec
ognition of their dependence upon the divine power,
there is much to awaken a feeling of sympathy and
a sentiment of respect for a people who, untaught
by revelation, had reached such high conclusions.
By assembling at periodical seasons to render their
thanks to Ha-wen-ne -yu for his gifts, they fully rec
ognized the duty which rested upon them as the re
cipients of such favors. And, also, by supplicating
the continuance of his watchful care, and by invok
ing his blessing upon their present acts, they mani
fested the sincerity of their faith, and the fulness
176
KEEPERS OF THE FAITH
of their trust in the great Author of their being.
But the ceremonies themselves are not without a
peculiar interest. They will convey to the mind a
more distinct impression of the nature and simplicity
of their worship. No attempt will be made to de
scribe these observances with the minuteness of a
picture. An outline of those appropriate to each
festival will sufficiently illustrate their general charac
ter and purpose.
The question here presents itself as to the religious
office or priesthood among the Iroquois. Under
the League itself no sacerdotal office was recognized.
Sachems were raised up, and invested with their titles
by a council of all the sachems of the League. Chiefs
were first raised up in the nation to which they be
longed, and their title was afterwards confirmed by the
same general council. But no religious dignitaries
were ever raised up by the council of sachems to fill
any priestly station. In each nation, however, there
was a select class appointed by the several tribes to
take the charge of their religious festivals, and the
general supervision of their worship. They were
styled Ho-nun-de -ont ) or " Keepers of the Faith," as
the term literally signifies. In the election of this
class, their powers and duties, and the tenure of their
office, there are many circumstances to distinguish
them as a sacerdotal order. (49) To their number
there was no limit, and they were usually about as
numerous as the chiefs. The chiefs themselves were
ex officio keepers of the faith/ f)5) The office was
elective, and continued as long as the individual was
faithful to his trust. Suitable persons were selected
VOL.I. 12 1 77
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
by the wise men and matrons out of their respective
tribes, and advanced to the office. Their original
names were then taken away, and new ones assigned,
out of a collection of names which belonged to this
class. At the first subsequent council of the nation,
their appointment and names were publicly an
nounced, which in itself completed the investiture.
The number furnished by each tribe was an evidence
of its fidelity to the ancient faith. They were, to
some extent, censors of the people ; and their ad
monitions were received with kindness, as coming
from those commissioned to remonstrate. In some
cases they reported the evil deeds of individuals to
the council, to make of them an example by exposure.
Sometimes they held consultations to deliberate upon
the moral condition of the people. It was the duty
of every individual to accept the office when be
stowed ; but he could relinquish it at any moment by
laying aside his new name and resuming his old. (G8)
It was their duty to designate the times for hold
ing the periodical festivals, to make the necessary
arrangements for their celebration, and to conduct the
ceremonies. Certain ones of their number, by previ
ous appointment, made the opening speech, and the
thanksgiving address at the council, and also delivered
religious discourses whenever they were deemed advis
able. All of the members of this class were equal in
authority and privileges. Those animated by the
highest zeal and enthusiasm would naturally assume
the most active charge ; but they had no acknowl
edged head. The distribution of all powers, duties
and offices among a number of equals was the pre-
178
KEEPERS OF THE FAITH
vailing feature of their civil polity. It was necessary
that women as well as men should be appointed
keepers of the faith, and about in equal numbers. To
the matrons more particularly was intrusted the charge
of the feast. The Iroquois never held a mourning or
religious council, without preparing an entertainment
for all the people in attendance on the evening of
each day. None but those matrons who were keepers
of the faith could take any part in its preparation.
But their duties were not confined to the supervision
of the feast. They had an equal voice in the general
management of the festivals, and of all of their re
ligious concernments. During a discourse or address,
all the keepers of the faith acted, if necessary, as
prompters to the speaker, and through him com
municated to the people any injunction or precept
which they deemed advisable. For this reason, one
of their names as a class was that of " prompters."
Notwithstanding the systematic organization of the
keepers of the faith, and the precise limitation of
their duties, there do not seem to be sufficient rea
sons for calling this class a religious order, or a
priesthood, as these terms are usually understood.
They were distinguished by no special privileges,
except while in the act of discharging their pre
scribed duties ; they wore no costume, or emblem
of office, to separate them from the people. In fact
they were common warriors, and common women,
and, in every sense, of and among the people. The
office was one of necessity, and was without reward,
like all Indian offices of every name, and also with
out particular honor to the individual.
179
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
O-TA-DE-NONE -NE-O NA WA -TA ; ; OR, THANKS TO
THE MAPLE
This was the first festival of the spring. It was
usually called the Maple Dance. The primary idea
of this ceremonial was to return thanks to the maple
itself; but at the same time they rendered their thanks
to the Great Spirit for the gift of the maple. It lasted
but one day. When the sap began to flow, the
keepers of the faith announced the time and place for
commemorating the recurrence of this event, and
summoned the people to assemble for that purpose.
Some days before the time appointed for the festival,
the people assembled for the mutual confession of
their sins, both as an act of religious duty, and as a
preparation for the council. This act preceded all the
festivals ; but it was more general and thorough at the
three last than at the three first, as they were deemed
more important, and continued for a greater length of
time. This council, Sa-nun-dat-ha-wa-ta^ literally " a
meeting for repentance," was opened by one of the
keepers of the faith, with an address upon the pro
priety and importance of acknowledging their evil
deeds, to strengthen their minds against future tempta
tions. He then took the string of white wampum in
his hand, and set the example by a confession of his
own faults ; after which he handed the string to the
one nearest to him, who received it, made his confes
sion in like manner, and passed it to another. In this
way the wampum went around from hand to hand ;
and those who had confessions to make stated wherein
they had done wrong, and promised to do better in
180
THANKS TO THE MAPLE
the future. Old and young, men, women, and even
children all united in this public acknowledgment of
their faults, and joined in the common resolution of
amendment. On some occasions the string of wam
pum was placed in the centre of the room, and each
one advanced in turn to perform the duty, as the in
clination seized him. A confession and promise with
out holding the wampum would be of no avail. It
was the wampum which recorded their words, and gave
their pledge of sincerity. The object of the confession
was future amendment. The Iroquois appear to have
had no idea either of the atonement or of the forgive
ness of sins. Meritorious acts neutralized evil deeds,
but neither the one nor the other, when done, could
be recalled, or changed, or obliterated.
The celebration of this festival was not limited to
one particular place, but it was observed in all the
villages of the several nations of the League, which
were too remote to unite around the same council-fire.
At the time appointed, the people gathered from the
subjacent districts, some to offer religious admonitions,
some prepared for the dance, others for the games, and
still others for the enjoyment of the feast. It was one
of their festive days, awakening the eagerness of ex
pectation in the minds of all. On the morning of the
day, the matrons, to whom the duty appertained, com
menced the preparation of the customary feast for the
people, which was as sumptuous as the season and the
means of the hunter life would afford. Towards me
ridian, the out-door sports and games, which were
common to such occasions, were suspended, and the
people assembled in council. An opening speech was
181
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
then delivered, by one of the keepers of the faith.
The following, made at the opening of one of these
councils among the Senecas, is in the usual form, and
will illustrate their general character :
" Friends and Relatives : The sun, the ruler of the day,
is high in his path, and we must hasten to do our duty. We
are assembled to observe an ancient custom. It is an institu
tion handed down to us by our forefathers. It was given to
them by the Great Spirit. He has ever required of his people
to return thanks to him for all blessings received. We have
always endeavored to live faithful to this wise command.
" Friends and Relatives, continue to listen : It is to per
form this duty that we are this day gathered. The season
when the maple tree yields its sweet waters has again returned.
We are all thankful that it is so. We therefore expect all of
you to join in our general thanksgiving to the maple. We
also expect you to join in a thanksgiving to the Great Spirit,
who has wisely made this tree for the good of man. We
hope and expect that order and harmony will prevail.
" Friends and Relatives : We are gratified to see so many
here, and we thank you all that you have thought well of this
matter. We thank the Great Spirit, that he has been kind to
so many of us, in sparing our lives to participate again in the
festivities of this season. Na-hd ." l
Other speeches often followed, which were in the
nature of exhortations to duty. These occasions were
seized upon by their moral teachers, to inculcate anew
the precepts of their faith, and to offer admonitions
for their spiritual guidance. One of the keepers of
1 It is almost the universal custom among the Iroquois to conclude
their speeches, on all occasions, with this exclamation. It signifies sim
ply, " I have done. *
182
THANKS TO THE MAPLE
the faith, addressing the people at such a time, would
inculcate the virtues which became a warrior, and un
fold the duties which were incumbent upon them as
members of one common brotherhood. The duty of
living in harmony and peace, of avoiding evil speaking,
.of kindness to the orphan, of charity to the needy,
and of hospitality to all, would be among the promi
nent topics brought under consideration. He would
remind them that the Great Spirit noticed and re
warded good acts, and that those who hoped for suc
cess in the affairs of life, should be ready to do them
whenever occasion offered ; that those who had done
wrong should not be treated harshly; that enmities
were not to be contracted, lest a spirit of revenge
should be awakened, which would never sleep ; and
finally, that those who pursued the right path would
never fall into trouble.
When these speeches and exhortations were con
cluded, the dance, which was a prominent feature of
their religious festivals, was announced. It is proper
here to observe, that dancing was regarded by the
Iroquois as an appropriate mode of worship. They
regarded the dance as a perpetual outward ceremonial
of thanksgiving to the Great Spirit. A belief prevailed
among them that the custom was of divine origin.
" The Great Spirit knew the Indian could not live
without some amusement, therefore he originated the
idea of dancing, which he gave to them." The
dance set apart in a peculiar manner for the worship
of the Great Spirit, at their festivals, was one of their
(Johnson).
183
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
own invention ; and the most spirited, graceful and
beautiful in their list. It is known as the Great
Feather Dance (O-sto-weh -go-wa). It was performed
by a select band, in full costume, and was reserved
exclusively for religious councils and for great occa
sions. It lasted about an hour, never failing to arouse
a deep spirit of enthusiastic excitement. Before the
band came in, one of the keepers of the faith made a
brief speech, explanatory of its origin, nature and
objects ; in which the popular belief was interwoven,
that this dance would be enjoyed by the faithful in
the future life, in the realm of the Great Spirit, to
whose worship it was especially consecrated.
After the conclusion of this dance others fol
lowed, in which all participated. Before they were
ended, the usual thanksgiving address to the Great
Spirit, with the burning of tobacco, was made. In
ancient times the Maple festival was terminated with
these dances. One of the keepers of the faith
made a closing speech, after which the people par
took of the feast, and separated for their respective
homes.
There is a popular belief among the Iroquois that
the early part of the day is dedicated to the Great
Spirit, and the after part to the spirits of the dead ;
consequently their religious services should properly be
concluded at meridian. They still retain the theory,
and to this day religious discourses are seldom contin
ued after noon ; but in practice it was found impossible,
from the tardiness of the people in assembling, to con
clude the ceremonies of the festival before twilight.
A further innovation was made many years ago by
184
GA-KA-AH OR KILT.
THANKS TO THE MAPLE
devoting the evenings of these festive days to dancing,
for the entertainment of guests from other villages or
nations, who chanced to be with them. This became,
in time, the universal custom, and they now continue
the practice for their own amusement. These even
ing entertainments, however, in strictness, form no
part of the festival, although apparently it is one
proceeding from the opening of the council until late
at night, when the entertainment is ended. A
distinction should constantly be held in view, between
their proper religious exercises, and their amusements,
and also between the ancient mode of celebrating these
festivals, and the modern. The regular religious
ceremonies at the Maple festival consisted of the
opening discourse by one of the keepers of the faith,
the exhortations of others, the Feather dance, the
thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit, with the in
cense of tobacco, two or three other dances, the clos
ing speech, and the feast in common.
In ancient times these ceremonies were concluded
at meridian, but in modern times at twilight. Formerly
all the exercises at these festivals were of a strictly
religious character, except certain games which were
common to these occasions. But in later times other
dances have been added, and also an evening entertain
ment devoted exclusively to dancing. There were
likewise certain games of chance, sports, and athletic
games, common to all these festivals, which yet formed
no part of their religious ceremonies. They were
merely outside diversions for the people. Still the
Maple festival, as celebrated at the present day
among the descendants of the ancient Iroquois, is
85
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the same, in its essential features, as at the period
of its institution. 1
A-YENT -WA-TA ; OR, PLANTING FESTIVAL
This word signifies " the planting season." When
this time arrived another festival was held to celebrate
the event. It continued but one day. In its observ
ances there was nothing to distinguish it very materially
from the Maple festival. A description is therefore
unnecessary, except to point out some peculiarities.
The object of this festival was two-fold : to render
thanks to the Great Spirit for the return of the planting
season, and to invoke his blessing upon the seed which
they had committed to the earth, that it might yield
an abundant harvest.
The Indian had no Sabbath, no sacred writings to
furnish him an inexhaustible fountain of instruction ;
but his gratitude was awakened by every returning
manifestation of divine goodness. When nature had
reclothed herself in the vestments of spring, and the
teeming earth invited him to commit the seeds to her
bosom, he recognized in the event the watchful kindness
of the Great Spirit. There is something eminently
spiritual and beautiful in this Indian conception of
the natural periods of worship. Seizing upon the
moment when the most conspicuous evidences of the
protecting care of the Deity were before him, he ac
knowledged both his existence and his beneficence,
1 The Iroquois have long been in the habit of manufacturing sugar from
the maple. Whether they learned the art from us, or we from them, may
be a difficult question ; although the former would seem the more prob
able, from the want of suitable vessels among them for boiling. (87)
186
PLANTING FESTIVAL
and manifested, at the same time, his gratitude and
devotion, by those simple rites which the piety of his
heart suggested.
At the time appointed by the keepers of the faith,
the people assembled to observe the day. After the
speeches were over, the Feather and other dances were
performed, as at the Maple festival. In ancient times,
the thanksgiving address, or prayer to the Great Spirit,
with the burning of tobacco, was confined to the last
three, or the principal festivals ; but in later days such
a prayer was offered generally at the first three also.
As elsewhere observed, when the Iroquois returned
thanks to the various objects in nature which ministered
to their wants, or when they acknowledged to each
other their thankfulness to the Great Spirit, or to the
lesser Spirits, they never burned tobacco. In these
cases, their thanks were returned to the trees and
plants and elements direct, to do which, according to
their theology, did not require the use of incense,
while, as to the spiritual world, they merely avowed to
each other that they returned their thanks. But when
they offered a prayer, or called upon the Great Spirit,
or his Invisible Aids, they were obliged to use the as
cending smoke to put themselves in communication
with the spiritual world.
This address occurred at no particular stage in the
ceremonies of the day. The keepers of the faith
having appointed one of their number to perform this
duty, the person designated selected a suitable moment
for its delivery. Advancing to the fire prepared for
the purpose, he called the attention of the people by
an exclamation, which was the known precursor of
187
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
this address. Having sprinkled a few leaves of Indian
tobacco upon the fire, he addressed Ha-wen-ne ] -yu> as
the smoke ascended. The following, delivered at a
Planting festival among the Senecas, will illustrate the
general character of these prayers or thanksgiving
addresses :
" Great Spirit, who dwellest alone, listen now to the words
of thy people here assembled. The smoke of our offering
arises. Give kind attention to our words, as they arise to thee
in the smoke. We thank thee for this return of the planting sea
son. Give to us a good season, that our crops may be plentiful.
" Continue to listen, for the smoke yet arises. (Throwing
on tobacco.) Preserve us from all pestilential diseases. Give
strength to us all that we may not fall. Preserve our old men
among us, and protect the young. Help us to celebrate with
feeling the ceremonies of this season. Guide the minds of thy
people, that they may remember thee in all their actions.
Na-bo 1 ."
There was nothing further to distinguish this festi
val from the former.
If, after the planting season, a drought should come
upon the land, threatening a failure of the harvest, a
special council was frequently called, to invoke He-no^
the Thunderer, to send rain upon the earth. Before
the time appointed for this council, the people assem
bled, as before other festivals, for mutual confession.
They feared, as they expressed it, " that some of their
number had done some great wrong, for which the
Great Spirit was angry with them, and withheld the
rain as a merited punishment." After this special
council was opened in the usual form, the Thanksgiv-
188
BERRT FESTIVAL
ing dance, and the Ah-dd-weh, hereafter to be described,
were introduced, which were supposed to be peculiarly
acceptable to He -no. At a proper time, in the progress
of these ceremonies, the keeper of the faith, who had
been appointed as usual, advanced to the fire, and having
laid on the leaves of tobacco, and gained the attention
of the people, he made the following invocation of the
Thunderer, as the incense ascended :
" He -no, our Grandfather, listen now to the words of thy
grandchildren. We feel grieved. Our minds are sorely
troubled. We fear Our Supporters will fail, and bring famine
upon us. We ask our Grandfather that he may come, and
give us rain, that the earth may not dry up, and refuse to
produce for our support. Thy grandchildren all send their
salutations to their grandfather, He -no"
Then taking another handful of tobacco, and
placing it upon the fire, he changed the address to
Ha-wen-ne -yu :
" Great Spirit : listen to the words of thy suffering chil
dren. They come to thee with pure minds. If they have
done wrong, they have confessed, and turned their minds, (at
the same time holding up the string of white wampum with
which the confession was recorded.) Be kind to us. Hear
our grievances, and supply our wants. Direct that He -no may
come, and give us rain, that Our Supporters may not fail us,
and bring famine to our homes. Na-ho ."
After concluding the dance the assembly was dis
missed.
HA-NUN-DA -YO ; OR, BERRY FESTIVAL
In the progress of the seasons, next came the
Strawberry, the first fruit of the earth. The Iroquois
189
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
seized upon this spontaneous gift of nature for their
sustenance, as another suitable occasion for a thanks
giving festival. By such ceremonials they habituated
their minds to a recognition of the providential care
of Ha-wen-ne -yu ; cultivating, at the same time, a
grateful spirit for the constant return of his gifts.
The observances at this festival were the same as
those at the Maple, with a sufficient variation of terms
to designate the particular occasion. It was concluded
with a feast of strawberries. The berries were pre
pared with maple sugar, in capacious bark trays, in
the form of a jelly ; and in this condition the people
feasted upon this great luxury of nature.
The ripening of the Whortleberry was often made
the occasion of another festival. It was in all respects
like the last,, the only difference consisting in the fact,
that the former was an acknowledgment for the first
fruit of plants, and the latter for the first fruit of
trees.
AH-DAKE -WA-O ; OR, GREEN CORN FESTIVAL
The word from which this takes its name signifies
"a feast." It continued four days, the proceedings
of each being different in most particulars, but each
one terminating with a feast.
When the green corn became fit for use, the season
of plenty with the Indian had emphatically arrived.
They made it another occasion of general thanksgiving
to the Great Spirit, and of feasting and rejoicing
among themselves. Corn has ever been the staple
article of consumption among the Iroquois. They
cultivated this plant, and also the bean and the
190
AH-DE-A-DA-WE-SA OR OVER-DRESS
r RONT
AH-DE -A-DA-WE-SA o ft OVER-DRESS
8 ACK
GREEN CORN FESTIVAL
squash, before the formation of the League. From
the most remote period to which tradition reaches,
the knowledge of the cultivation and use of these
plants has been handed down among them. 1 They
raised sufficient quantities of each to supply their ut
most wants, preparing them for food in a great variety
of ways, and making them at least the basis of their
sustenance. 119 In their own mode of expressing
the idea, these plants are mentioned together, under
the figurative name of " Our Life," or " Our Sup
porters." It cannot, therefore, be affirmed with cor
rectness, that the Indian subsisted principally by
the chase. (84) After the formation of the League,
they resided in permanent villages, and within certain
well-defined territorial limits. The fruits of the chase
then became a secondary, although a necessary means
of subsistence. 2
On the first day of this festival, after the intro
ductory speeches had been made, the Feather dance,
the thanksgiving address, with the burning of to-
1 According to the legend, the corn plant sprang from the bosom of
the mother of the Great Spirit, after her burial.
2 The quantities of corn raised by the Iroquois was a constant cause
of remark among those who went earliest among them. The first expe
dition into the Seneca country, of a warlike character, was made by the
Marquis De Nonville, as early as 1687, but a few years after the ge
ographical location of the Iroquois nations became known to the French
and English. He thus speaks of the quantity of corn: " We remained
at the four Seneca villages until the 24th of July. All that time we
spent in destroying the corn, which was in such great abundance, that
the 1 loss, including old corn which was in cache which we burnt, and
that which was standing, was computed according to the estimate after
wards made, at four hundred thousand minots of Indian corn"
(1,200,000 bushels). Documentary Hist. New York, vol. i. p. 238.
This, however, must be regarded as an extravagant estimate. (88)
191
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
bacco, and three or four other dances, made up the
principal religious exercises. This address was intro
duced in the midst of one of the dances which suc
ceeded the first. One more specimen of these brief
prayers of the Iroquois, as made by the Senecas, will
be furnished. Having placed the leaves of tobacco
on the fire, as usual, the keeper of the faith thus
addressed Hd-wen-ne -yu :
t
" Great Spirit in heaven, listen to our words. We have
assembled to perform a sacred duty, as thou hast commanded.
This institution has descended to us from our fathers. We
salute thee with our thanks, that thou hast preserved so many
of us another year, to participate in the ceremonies of this
occasion.
" Great Spirit, continue to listen : We thank thee for thy
great goodness in causing our mother, the earth, again to bring
forth her fruits. We thank thee that thou hast caused Our
Supporters to yield abundantly.
u Great Spirit, our words still continue to flow towards thee.
(Throwing on tobacco). Preserve us from all danger. Pre
serve our aged men. Preserve our mothers. Preserve our
warriors. Preserve our children. We burn this tobacco ;
may its smoke arise to thee. May our thanks, ascending with
it, be pleasing to thee. Give wisdom to the keepers of the
faith, that they may direct these ceremonies with propriety.
Strengthen our warriors, that they may celebrate with pleasure
the sacred dances of thy appointment.
" Great Spirit ; the council here assembled, the aged men
and women, the strong warriors, the women and children, unite
their voice of thanksgiving to thee. Na-ho ! " l
1 Fora similar address in use among the Ottawas, see La Hontan s
North Am., Lond. Ed. 1735, vol. ii. p. 34.
192
GREEN CORN FESTIVAL
Before partaking of the feast, the people went out
to witness some of those games which were often in
troduced, as an amusement, to accompany the other
exercises of these festive days.
The second day commenced with the usual address,
after which they had the Thanksgiving dance, Ga-na-
o-ub, which was the principal religious exercise of the
day. This dance was not necessarily a costume per
formance, although it was usually given by a select
band in full dress. In figure, step, and music, it was
precisely like the Feather dance, the chief difference
between them being the introduction of short thanks
giving speeches between the songs of the dance. This
dance is fully explained elsewhere ; but it is proper to
say, to make it intelligible here, that the music con
sisted of a series of thanksgiving songs, performed by
select singers, who accompanied themselves with turtle-
shell rattles, to mark time. Each song lasted about
two minutes, during which the band danced around
the room, in column, with great animation. When
the song ceased, the dancers walked around the coun
cil-house, about the same length of time, to the beat
of the rattles. The thanksgiving speeches were made
during these intervals between the songs. A person
arose, and perhaps thanked the Maple as follows :
" We return thanks to the Maple, which yields its
sweet waters for the good of man." Again the dance
was resumed, and another song danced out, after
which another speech was made by some other person,
perhaps as follows : " We return thanks to the bushes
and trees, which provide us with fruit." The dance
was then resumed as before. In this manner the
VOL. i. 13 I93
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
thanksgiving speeches, the songs and the dance were
continued, until all the prominent objects in nature
had been made the subjects of special notice. There
were always set speeches introduced with the Thanks
giving dance, at the Green Corn and Harvest festivals,
and they formed a conspicuous part of the worship of
the Iroquois. These speeches, or the principal ones,
may be collected into one, for the purpose of showing
the range of subjects taken ; yet it must be borne in
mind that each object formed the subject of a separate
speech, and was followed by a thanksgiving song,
adapted to the case, which the band danced through.
It may be proper further to add, that these speeches
were consolidated to form the principal part of the
annual thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit, made
at the burning of the White Dog. The following is
their natural order :
" We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which
sustains us. We return thanks to the rivers and
streams, which supply us with water. We return
thanks to all herbs, which furnish medicines for the
cure of our diseases. We return thanks to the corn,
and to her sisters, the beans and squashes, which give
us life. We return thanks to the bushes and trees,
which .provide us with fruit. We return thanks to
the wind, which, moving the air, has banished dis
eases. We return thanks to the moon and stars,
which have given to us their light when the sun was
gone. We return thanks to our grandfather He -no,
that he has protected his grandchildren from witches
and reptiles, and has given to us his rain. We
return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon
194
GREEN CORN FESTIVAL
the earth with a beneficent eye. Lastly, we return
thanks to the Great Spirit, in whom is embodied all
goodness, and who directs all things for the good of
his children."
After the conclusion of the Thanksgiving dance,
two or three other dances followed, and after them
the feast, with which the exercises of the day were
concluded.
The third morning was set apart for a thanksgiving
concert, called the Ah-dd-weh> which constituted the
chief ceremony of the day. The council was opened
by an introductory speech by one of the keepers of
the faith, upon its nature, objects, and institution.
This novelty in their worship was a succession of short
speeches made by different persons, one after another,
returning thanks to a great variety of objects, each
one following his speech with an appropriate song, the
words of which were of his own composing, and often
times the music also. In a chorus to each song all
the people joined, thus sending forth a united anthem
of praise. They passed through the whole range of
natural objects, thanking each one directly, as in the
Thanksgiving dance; but they were not in the Ah-
do-weh confined either to the natural or to the spirit
ual world. Acts of kindness, personal achievements,
political events, in a word, all the affairs of public and
private life were open on this occasion to the indul
gence of the grateful affections. Oftentimes one or
two hours were consumed, before the people had all
expressed their thanks to each other for personal
favors, to the works of nature for their constant min
istration to their wants, and to the Great Spirit and
95
LEAGUE OF THE IROgJLJOIS
the " Invisible Aids " for their protecting care. Many
of the speeches on these occasions, especially those
which referred to objects in the natural world, were
the same from year to year. But those which grew
out of their private relations would vary with circum
stances. This was esteemed one of their highest re
ligious exercises, and it always continued to be one of
their favorite observances. When the Ah-do -weh
was concluded, two or three dances were generally
introduced before the enjoyment of the feast, with
which, as before remarked, each day s proceedings
were terminated.
On the fourth day, the festival was concluded with
the peach-stone game, Gus-ga-a, a game of chance, on
which they bet profusely, and to which they were ex
travagantly attached. It was not in the nature of a
religious exercise, but a favorite entertainment, with
which to terminate the Green Corn ceremonial. It is
elsewhere described.
It should be held in the memory, that at the period
of the institution of their religious festivals, they were
concluded at meridian ; during the middle period of
their history, they were continued until towards twi
light ; but in modern times, an evening entertainment,
in the way of dancing, always follows each day ot the
festival, so long as it continues, although it forms no
part of their religious observances. It may be further
observed, that at the present time, this festival lasts
but three days, the proceedings of the third and fourth
being completed on the former day.
At the close of each day, the people regaled them
selves upon a sumptuous feast of succotash. This
196
HARVEST FESTIVAL
was always the entertainment at the green corn sea
son. It was made of corn, beans and squashes, and
was always a favorite article of food with the red man.
It may be well to state in this connection, that among
the Iroquois at the present day, they do not sit down
together to a common repast, except at religious
councils of unusual interest. The feast, after being
prepared at the place of council, is distributed at its
close, and carried by the women, in vessels brought
for the purpose, to their respective homes, where it is
enjoyed by each family at their own fireside. But when
the people feasted together after the ancient fashion,
as they still do occasionally, they selected the hour of
twilight. The huge kettles of soup, or hommony, or
succotash, as the case might be, were brought into
their midst, smoking from the fire. Before partaking
of this evening banquet, they never omitted to say
grace, which, with them, was a simple ceremonial, but
in perfect harmony with their mode of worship. It
was a prolonged exclamation, upon a high key, by the
solitary voice of one of the keepers of the faith, fol
lowed by a swelling chorus from the multitude, upon
a lower note. It was designed as an acknowledgment
to each other of their gratitude to the great Giver of
the feast.
DA-YO-NUN -NEO-QUA NA DE-O-HA -KO; OR,
HARVEST FESTIVAL
After the gathering of the harvest, the Iroquois
held another general thanksgiving for four days. It
was the last in the year, as the New Year s obser
vances were not of the same general character. The
197
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
name given to this festival signifies " Thanksgiving
to Our Supporters." It was instituted primarily to
return thanks to the corn, beans and squashes, which
are always characterized by the Iroquois under this
figurative name. Also, to the triad of Spirits, who are
so intimately connected in their minds with the plants
themselves, that they are nearly inseparable. The
resulting object, however, of all these Indian rites,
was the praise of Ha-wen-ne -yu. Nature having
matured and poured forth her stores for their suste
nance, they instituted this ceremonial as a perpetual
acknowledgment of their gratitude for each returning
harvest.
In the mode of summoning this council, and in the
religious ceremonies, and concluding festivities of each
day, it so closely resembled the Green Corn worship,
that a separate description is rendered unnecessary.
These religious councils were seasons of animation
and excitement. The greater activity in social inter
course among the people, generally awakened by these
ceremonies and festivities, contributed largely to keep
up the spirit of these occasions. In the evening, as
soon as the twilight hour was passed, the people
gathered for the dance, as this entertainment, since
the innovation before referred to, always follows the
religious ceremonies of each day. The Iroquois have
numerous dances, and to the practice itself they have
always been extravagantly addicted. On such occasions
the passion was gratified by a free indulgence, and the
hours of the night passed by unheeded. With the
Iroquois in their festivities, as with more refined com
munities, neither the admonition of the setting stars,
198
NEW TEAR S JUBILEE
nor of the fallen dew, " counselled sleep." Not, per
haps, until the faint light of approaching day illumined
the east, did the spirit of enjoyment decline, and the
last murmur of the dispersing council finally subside.
GI -YE-WA-NO-US-QUA-GO-WA ; OR, NEW YEAR S
JUBILEE a*)
The name given to this festival literally signifies
" The most excellent faith," or " The supreme belief."
Among the ceremonies incident to the worship of
the Iroquois, the most novel were those which ushered
in the new year. In mid-winter, usually about the
first of February, this religious celebration was held.
It continued for seven successive days, revealing, in
its various ceremonials, nearly every feature of their
religious system. The prominent act which char
acterized this jubilee, and which, perhaps, indicated
what they understood by "The most excellent faith,"
was the burning of the White Dog, on the fifth day
of the festival. This annual sacrifice of the Iroquois
has long been known, attracting at various times con
siderable attention. But the true principle involved
in it appears not to have been rightly understood. In
the sequel, it will be found to be a very simple and
tangible idea, harmonizing fully with their system of
faith and worship.
Several days before the time appointed for the
jubilee, the people assembled for the confession of
their sins. On this occasion they were more thorough
1 This word will analyze as follows : Gi -ye-wa, faith or belief; no-
us -qua (superlative), excellent or best j and go -wa, great or supreme.
199
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
in the work than at any other season, that they
might enter upon the new year with a firm purpose
of amendment. This council not unfrequently lasted
three days, before all the people had performed this
act of religious duty.
The observances of the new year were commenced
on the day appointed, by two of the keepers of the
faith, who visited every house in and about the Indian
village, morning and evening. (95) They were disguised
in bear skins or buffalo robes, which were secured
around their heads with wreaths of corn-husks, and
then gathered in loose folds about the body. Wreaths
of corn-husks were also adjusted around their arms
and ankles. They were robed in this manner, and
painted by the matrons, who, like themselves, were
keepers of the faith, and by them were they commis
sioned to go forth in this formidable attire, to an
nounce the commencement of the jubilee. Taking
corn-pounders in their hands, they went out in com
pany, on the morning of the day, to perform their
duty. Upon entering a house, they saluted the
inmates in a formal manner, after which, one of them,
striking upon the floor, to restore silence and secure
attention, thus addressed them :
u Listen, Listen, Listen: The ceremonies which the
Great Spirit has commanded us to perform, are about to com
mence. Prepare your houses. Clear away the rubbish.
Drive out all evil animals. We wish nothing to hinder or
obstruct the coming observances. We enjoin upon every one
to obey our requirements. Should any of your friends be taken
sick and die, we command you not to mourn for them, nor
allow any of your friends to mourn. But lay the body aside,
200
NEW TEAR S JUBILEE
and enjoy the coming ceremonies with us. When they are
over, we will mourn with you." 1
After singing a, short thanksgiving song, they passed
out.
In the afternoon this visit was repeated in the same
manner. After saluting the family as before, one of
the keepers of the faith thus addressed them : -
" My Nephews, my Nephews, my Nephews : We now
announce to you that the New Year s ceremonies have com
menced, according to our ancient custom. You are, each of
you, now required to go forth, and participate in their obser
vance. This is the will of the Great Spirit. Your first duty
will be to prepare your wooden blades (Ga-ger-we-sa) with
which to stir up the ashes upon your neighbors hearths.
Then return to the Great Spirit your individual thanks for the
return of this season, and for the enjoyment of this privilege."
Having sung another song, appropriate to the occa
sion, they departed finally, and when they had in this
way made the circuit of the village, the ceremonies of
the first day were concluded.
On the first day, however, the White Dog was
strangled. (96) They selected a dog, free from phys-
1 This singular injunction exhibits the deep interest taken in the per
formance of these religious ceremonies. In practice, also, they possessed
sufficient self-control to carry out the requirement to the letter. If a per
son died during this festival, the body was laid aside until it was con
cluded, and the relatives of the deceased participated both in the religious
ceremonies, and in the amusements connected with them, with as much
interest and attention as if nothing had happened. Sometimes those festi
vals were broken up by a bad omen : as if, for instance, a dog should bite
one of the keepers of the faith on his visitorial round, they would stop the
festival, and appoint a new one.
201
LEAGUE OF THE I R U O I S
ical blemish, and of a pure white, if such an one could
be found. The white deer, white squirrel, and other
chance animals of the albino kind, were regarded as
consecrated to the Great Spirit. White was the Iro-
quois emblem of purity and of faith. In strangling
the dog, they were careful neither to shed his blood
nor break his bones. The dog was then spotted, in
places, over his body and limbs, with red paint, and
ornamented with feathers in various ways. Around
his neck was hung a string of white wampum, the
pledge of their sincerity. In modern times, the dog
is ornamented with a profusion of many-colored rib
bons, which are adjusted around his body and limbs. 1
The ornaments placed upon the dog were the voluntary
offerings of the pious ; and for each gift thus bestowed,
the giver was taught to expect a blessing. When the
dog had been thus decorated, it was suspended by the
neck about eight feet from the ground, on the branch
ing prong of a pole erected for that purpose. Here
it hung, night and day, until the morning of the fifth
day, when it was taken down to be burned. Often
times two dogs were burned, one for each four of the
tribes. (57) In this case, the people separated into
two divisions, and after going through separate pre
paratory ceremonies, they united around the same altar
for the burning of the dogs, and the offering of the
thanksgiving address to the Great Spirit.
On the second day all the people went forth, and
1 The author once (February 6, 1846) counted nine different colored
ribbons upon a white dog thus hung up during a New Year s celebration
among the Senecas at Tonawanda. They were tied around his mouth,
neck, legs, body and tail.
202
NEW YEAR S JUBILEE
visited in turn the houses of their neighbors, either in
the morning, at noon, or in the evening. They went
in small parties apparelled in their best attire. It was
customary, however, for the people to be preceded by
the two keepers of the faith who made the recitations
the day previous, as a matter of etiquette ; the houses
not being open to all, until these personages had made
their call. At this time was performed the ceremony
of stirring the ashes upon the hearth, which appears
to have no particular idea attached to it, beyond that
of a formal visitation. (95) Putting aside the dis
guise of the day before, the keepers of the faith as
sumed the costume of warriors, plumed and painted,
in which attire they visited every family three times, in
the morning, at noon, and in the evening. Taking
in their hands wooden blades or shovels, they entered
the lodge and saluted the family. One of them then
stirred the ashes, and having taken up a quantity upon
the blade of the shovel, and sprinkled them upon the
hearth, he thus addressed the inmates, as they were in
the act of falling : " I thank the Great Spirit that he
has spared your lives again to witness this New Year s
celebration." Then repeating the process with another
shovel full of ashes, he continued : " I thank the Great
Spirit that he has spared my life, again to be an actor
in this ceremony. And now I do this to please the
Great Spirit." The two then united in a thanksgiving
song prepared for the occasion, upon the conclusion
of which they took their departure. Other parties of
the people then came in successively, and each went
through the same performances. In this manner every
house was thrice visited on the second day, by the
203
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
keepers of the faith in the first instance, and afterwards
by the whole community.
The proceedings upon the third and fourth days
were alike. Small dancing parties were organized,
which visited from house to house, and danced at the
domestic fireside. Each set selected a different dance,
appointed their own leader, and furnished their own
music. One party, for instance, took the Feather
dance, another the Fish dance, another the Trotting
dance, to give variety to the short entertainments
which succeeded each other at every house. It was
not uncommon, on such occasions, to see a party of
juveniles, about a dozen in number, dressed in full
costume, feathered and painted, dancing the War
dance, from house to house, with all the zeal and
enthusiasm which this dance was so eminently calcu
lated to excite. In this manner every house was made
a scene of gaiety and amusement, for none was so
humble or so retired as to remain unvisited.
Another pastime incident to these days was the
formation of a " thieving party," as it was called, a
band of mischievous boys, disguised with false faces,
paint and rags, to collect materials for a feast. This
vagrant company strolled from house to house, ac
companied by an old woman carrying a huge basket.
If the family received them kindly, and made them
presents, they handed the latter to the female carrier,
and having given the family a dance in acknowledg
ment of the present, they retired without committing
any depredations. But if no presents were made, or
such as were insufficient, they purloined whatever
articles they could most adroitly and easily conceal.
204
DREAMS
If detected, they at once made restitution, but if not,
it was considered a fair win. On the return of this
party from their rounds, all the articles collected were
deposited in a place open to public examination ;
where any one who had lost an article which he
particularly prized, was allowed to redeem it, on
paying an equivalent. But no one was permitted
to reclaim, as the owner, any article successfully taken
by this thieving party on its professional round.
Upon the proceeds of this forced collection, a feast
was eventually given, together with a dance in some
private family.
Guessing dreams was another of the novel practices
of the Iroquois, which distinguished these festive days.
It is difficult to understand precisely how far the self-
delusion under which the dreamer appeared to act
was real. A person with a melancholy and dejected
countenance, entering a house, announced that he had
a dream, and requested the inmates to guess it. He
thus wandered from house to house, until he found
a solution which suited him. This was either received
as an interpretation of an actual dream, or suggested
such a dream as the person was willing to adopt as
his own. He at once avowed that his dream had
been correctly guessed ; and if the dream, as inter
preted, prescribed any future conduct, he fulfilled it
to the letter at whatever sacrifice. The celebrated
Cornplanter, Gy-ant -wa-ka, resigned his chiefship in
consequence of a dream. 1 In relation to dreams, the
1 The dream of Cornplanter occurred about the year 1810. His in
fluence with the Senecas had been for some years on the wane, which his
friends ascribed to his friendly relations with the whites. During a New
205
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
Iroquois had ever been prone to extravagant and
supernatural beliefs. They often regarded a dream
as a divine monition, and followed its injunctions to
the utmost extremity. Their notions upon this sub
ject recall to remembrance the conceit of Homer,
that " dreams descend from Jove." (62)
During the first four days the people were without
a feast, from the fact that the observances themselves
did not require the assembling of the people at the
council-house. But entertainments were given in the
Year s celebration at his village on the Allegany, he went from house to
house for three days, announcing wherever he went that he had had a
dream, and wished to find some one to guess it. On the third day, a
Seneca told him that he could relate his dream. Seeing him nearly naked
and shivering with cold, he said : " You shall henceforth be called
O-no -no," meaning " cold." This signified that his name, Gy-ant -
iva-ka, should pass away from him, and with it his title as a chief. He
then explained the interpretation to Cornplanter more fully : " That he had
had a sufficient term of service for the good of the nation. That he was
grown too old to be of much further use as a warrior or as a counsellor,
and that he must therefore appoint a successor. That if he wished to
preserve the continued good-will of the Great Spirit, he must remove from
his house and sight every article of the workmanship or invention of the
white man. " Cornplanter, having listened with earnest attention to this
interpretation, confessed that it was correctly guessed, and that he was re
solved to execute it. His presents, which he had received from Wash
ington, Adams, Jefferson, and others, he collected together, with the
exception of his tomahawk, and burned them up. Among the presents
thus consumed was a full uniform of an American officer, including an
elegant sword and his medal given him by Washington. He then selected
an old and intimate friend to be his successor, and sent to him his toma
hawk and a belt of wampum, to announce his resolution and his wishes.
Although contrary to their customs, the Senecas, out of reverence for
his extraordinary dream, at once raised up as a chief the person selected
by Cornplanter, and invested him with the name of Gy-ant -^va-ka, which
he bore during his life. Cornplanter, after this event, was always known
among the Iroquois under the name of O-no -no. This tomahawk, the
last relic of Cornplanter, is now in the State Historical Collection at
Albany. (112)
206
SACRIFICE OF THE WHITE DOG
evenings at private houses, where the night was devoted
to the dance. Another amusement at this particular
season was the Snow-snake game, which, like all Indian
games, was wont to arouse considerable interest.
On the morning of the fifth day, soon after dawn,
the White Dog was burned on an altar of wood
erected by the keepers of the faith near the council-
house. It is difficult, from outward observation, to
draw forth the true intent with which the dog was
burned. The obscurity with which the object was
veiled has led to various conjectures. Among other
things, it has been pronounced a sacrifice for sin.
In the religious system of the Iroquois, there is no
recognition of the doctrine of atonement for sin, or
of the absolution or forgiveness of sins. Upon this
whole subject, their system is silent. An act once
done was registered beyond the power of change.
The greatest advance upon this point of faith was
the belief that good deeds cancelled the evil, thus
placing heaven, through good works, within the reach
of all. The notion that this was an expiation for
sin is thus refuted by their system of theology itself.
The other idea, that the sins of the people, by some
mystic process, were transferred to the dog, and by
him thus borne away, on the principle of the scape
goat of the Hebrews, is also without any foundation
in truth. The burning of the dog had not the slight
est connection with the sins of the people. On the
contrary, the simple idea of the sacrifice was, to send
up the spirit of the dog as a messenger to the Great
Spirit, to announce their continued fidelity to his
service, and also to convey to him their united
207
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
thanks for the blessings of the year. The fidelity
of the dog, the companion of the Indian, as a hunter,
was emblematical of their fidelity. No messenger so
trusty could be found to bear their petitions to the
Master of life. The Iroquois believed that the Great
Spirit made a covenant with their fathers to the effect,
that when they should send up to him the spirit of
a dog, of a spotless white, he would receive it as the
pledge of their adherence to his worship, and his ears
would thus be opened in a special manner to their
petitions. To approach Hd-wen-ne-yu in the most
acceptable manner, and to gain attention to their
thanksgiving acknowledgments and supplications in
the way of his own appointing, was the end and
object of burning the dog. They hung around his
neck a string of white wampum, the pledge of their
faith. They believed that the spirit of the dog hov
ered around the body until it was committed to
the flames, when it ascended into the presence of
the Great Spirit, itself the acknowledged evidence
of their fidelity, and bearing also to him the united
thanks and supplications of the people. This sacri
fice was the most solemn and impressive manner of
drawing near to the Great Spirit known to the Iro
quois. They used the spirit of the dog in precisely the
same manner that they did the incense of tobacco, as an
instrumentality through which to commune with their
Maker. This sacrifice was their highest act of piety.
The burning of the dog was attended with many
ceremonies. It was first taken down and laid out
upon a bench in the council-house, while the fire of
the altar was kindling. A speech was then made over
208
SACRIFICE OF THE WHITE DOG
it by one of the keepers of the faith, in which he
spoke of the antiquity of this institution of their
fathers, of its importance and solemnity, and finally
enjoined upon them all to direct their thoughts to
the Great Spirit, and unite with the keepers of the
faith in these observances. He concluded with thank
ing the Great Spirit, that the lives of so many of
them had been spared through another year. A
chant or song, appropriate to the occasion, was then
sung, the people joining in chorus. By the time
this was over, the altar was blazing up on every
side ready for the offering. A procession was then
formed, the officiating keeper of the faith preceding,
followed by four others bearing the dog upon a kind
of bark litter, behind which came the people in Indian
file. A loud exclamation, in the nature of a war-
whoop, announced the starting of the procession.
They moved on towards the altar, and having marched
around it, the keepers of the faith halted, facing the
rising sun. With some immaterial ceremonies, the dog
was laid upon the burning altar, and as the flames sur
rounded the offering, the officiating keeper of the faith,
by a species of ejaculation, upon a high key, thrice
repeated, invoked the attention of the Great Spirit.
"j^#tf, qua, qua : (Hail, hail, hail.) Thou who hast cre
ated all things, who mlest all things, and who givest laws and
commands to thy creatures, listen to our words. We now
obey thy commands. That which thou hast made is returning
unto thee. It is rising to thee, by which it will appear that
our words are true." l
1 Some leaves of tobacco were attached to the wampum around the
dog s neck, with the incense of which this invocation was made.
VOL. i. 14 209
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U I S
Several thanksgiving songs or chants, in measured
verse, were then sung by the keepers of the faith, the
people joining in chorus. After this, was made the
great thanksgiving address of the Iroquois. The
keeper of the faith appointed to deliver it, invoked
the attention of Ha-wen-ne-yu by the same thrice-
repeated exclamation. As the speech progressed, he
threw leaves of tobacco into the fire from time to
time, that its incense might constantly ascend during
the whole address. The following is the address, as
delivered among the Senecas: 1
"Hail, Hail, Hail: Listen now, with an open ear, to the
words of thy people, as they ascend to thy dwelling, in the
smoke of our offering. Behold thy people here assembled.
Behold, they have come up to celebrate anew the sacred rites
thou hast given them. Look down upon us beneficently.
Give us wisdom faithfully to execute thy commands.
" Continue to listen : The united voice of thy people con
tinues to ascend to thee. Forbid, by thy wisdom, all things
which shall tempt thy people to relinquish their ancient faith.
Give us power to celebrate at all times, with zeal and fidelity,
the sacred ceremonies which thou hast given us.
u Continue to listen : Give to the keepers of the faith
wisdom to execute properly thy commands. Give to our
warriors, and our mothers, strength to perform the sacred cer
emonies of thy institution. We thank thee that, in thy wis
dom, thou hast given to us these commands. We thank thee
that thou hast preserved them pure unto this day.
" Continue to listen : We thank thee that the lives of
1 Taken down by Hd-sa-no-an -da (Ely S. Parker), as delivered by his
grandfather, Sose-/ta -<wa, at Tonawanda. This is the ancient address
handed down from generation to generation, and unchanged in its essential
particulars. Sose-ha -^wd has delivered it thus for the past twenty-five
years at Tonawanda.
210
ADDRESS TO THE GREAT SPIRIT
so many of thy children are spared, to participate in the exer
cises of this occasion. Our minds are gladdened to be made
partakers in the execution of thy commands.
" We return thanks to our mother, the earth, which sus
tains us. We thank thee that thou hast caused her to yield
so plentifully of her fruits. Cause that, in the season coming,
she may not withhold of her fulness, and leave any to suffer
for want.
u We return thanks to the rivers and streams, which run
their courses upon the bosom of our mother the earth. We
thank thee that thou hast supplied them with life, for our
comfort and support. Grant that this blessing may continue.
"We return thanks to all the herbs and plants of the earth.
We thank thee that in thy goodness thou hast blest them all,
and given them strength to preserve our bodies healthy, and to
cure us of the diseases inflicted upon us by evil spirits. We
ask thee not to take from us these blessings.
" We return thanks to the Three Sisters. We thank thee
that thou hast provided them as the main supporters of our
lives. We thank thee for the abundant harvest gathered in
during the past season. We ask that Our Supporters may
never fail us, and cause our children to suffer from want.
<c We return thanks to the bushes and trees which provide
us with fruit. We thank thee that thou hast blessed them,
and made them to produce for the good of thy creatures. We
ask that they may not refuse to yield plentifully for our
enjoyment.
u We return thanks to the winds, which, moving, have
banished all diseases. We thank thee that thou hast thus
ordered. We ask the continuation of this great blessing.
" We return thanks to our grandfather He -no. We thank
thee that thou hast so wisely provided for our happiness and
comfort, in ordering the rain to descend upon the earth, giving
us water, and causing all plants to grow. We thank thee that
211
LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S
thou hast given us He -no, our grandfather, to do thy will in
the protection of thy people. We ask that this great blessing
may be continued to us.
u We return thanks to the moon and stars, which give us
light when the sun has gone to his rest. We thank thee that
thy wisdom has so kindly provided, that light is never wanting
to us. Continue unto us this goodness.
u We return thanks to the sun, that he has looked upon the
earth with a beneficent eye. We thank thee that thou hast,
in thy unbounded wisdom, commanded the sun to regulate the
return of the seasons, to dispense heat and cold, and to watch
over the comfort of thy people. Give unto us that wisdom
which will guide us in the path of truth. Keep us from all
evil ways, that the sun may never hide his face from us for
shame and leave us in darkness.
"We return thanks to the Ho-no-che-no -kek. 1 We thank
thee that thou. hast provided so many agencies for our good
and happiness.
"Lastly, we return thanks to thee, our Creator and Ruler.
In thee are embodied all things. We believe thou canst do no
evil ; that thou doest all things for our good and happiness.
Should thy people disobey thy commands, deal not harshly
with them ; but be kind to us, as thou hast been to our fathers
in times long gone by. Hearken unto our words as they have
1 The Ho-no-che-no -keh included the whole spiritual world, or subor
dinate spirits created by Hd-iven-ne -yu. They were believed by the Iro-
quois to be mere agencies or instrumentalities through whom the Great
Spirit administered the government of the world. They were also believed
to have been created to minister to the happiness and protection of the
Indian upon earth.
It should also be noticed that the leading objects in the natural world
which are made the subject of their thanks, are designed to include all
lesser objects. Under each head, by a figure of speech, whole classes of
objects were included. Thus " the rivers and streams 11 include all bodies
of water, springs, fishes, &c. ; "the wind 11 includes all the birds of the
air.
212
ADDRESS TO THE GREAT SPIRIT
ascended, and may they be pleasing to thee our Creator, the
Preserver and Ruler of all things, visible and invisible.
Na-M."
After the delivery of this address, the people, leav
ing the partly consumed offering, returned to the
council-house, where the Feather dance was performed.
With this the religious exercises of the day were con
cluded. Other dances, however, followed, for the
entertainment of the people, and the day and evening
were given up to this amusement. Last of all came
the feast, with which the proceedings of the day were
terminated.
On the morning of the sixth day, the people again
assembled at the place of council. This day was
observed in about the same manner as one of their
ordinary religious days, at which the Thanksgiving
dance was introduced.
The seventh and last day was commenced with the
Ah-dd-weh ; after which the Peach-stone game was
introduced, with the determination of which ended
the New Year s jubilee.
Other incidents and circumstances connected with
the worship of the Iroquois might be pointed out,
and would be necessary to a full explanation of the
details of their religious system ; but sufficient has
been presented to exhibit its framework, and the
principles upon which it rested. No attempt has
been made to furnish a picture of either of these
religious councils, by a minute description of their
proceedings. All the detail has necessarily been
omitted. To realize these festive and religious cere
monials of our primitive inhabitants, it would be
213
LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS
^\j
necessary to have a delineation of the incidents of each
day, step by step, a description of the dances, the
several games, and of the preparation of the feast, and
also an explanation of their modes of social intercourse
and of action, the spirit by which the people were
animated, and the general character of the scene.
These festivals have been observed from generation
to generation, and at the same seasons of the year,
upon the Mohawk, at Oneida, in the valley of
Onondaga, on the shore of the Cayuga, and in the
several villages of the Senecas. Before the voice of
the white man was heard in these peaceful and
secluded retreats of the forest, that of the Indian had
been lifted up to the Great Spirit with thanksgiving
and praise. The origin of these festivals is lost, as
well as the date and order of their institution ; but
the Iroquois believe that they have been observed
among them, at least since the formation of the
League. They have no tradition, which professes to
have taken the custody of these dates and events.
To one who has witnessed these observances
from time to time, and learned to comprehend the
principles and motives in which they originated, they
possess a peculiar but almost indefinable interest.
These simple religious rites of a people, sitting, it
must be admitted, near the full meridian of natural
religion, are calculated to fill the mind with serious
impressions. In their earnest and constant efforts
to draw near to the great Author of their being,
to offer thanks for the unnumbered blessings strewn
upon their path, and to supplicate the continuance of
that watchful care without which there was no pres-
214
INFLUENCE OF THEIR WORSHIP
ervation, there is a degree of heart-felt piety which
the mind cannot resist. We may derive instruction
from the faith of any race, if it rises above the
grossness of superstition, into the regions of spiritual
meditation. The moral nature of man unfolds with
thought; and the Indian, in the shades of the forest,
as well as Socrates in the groves of Athens, or Moses
upon the skirts of Sinai, may contribute some new
lessons to the fund of moral instruction.
In this and the preceding chapter, the design has been
to expose the structure of the worship of the Iroquois,
and to elucidate the beliefs by which it was upheld.
By the standard of Christian judgment, it must be
confessed that the Faith and Worship of the Iroquois
make up a system which, in its approaches to the
truth, rises infinitely above the theological schemes of
all other races, both ancient and modern, which origi
nated independently of revelation. Having a firm
hold upon the great truths of natural religion, they
established a ceremonious but simple worship. Unlike
the bloody ritual of the Aztecs, its influence upon the
mind, and upon the social life of the Indian, was mild,
humanizing and gentle. The fruits of their religious
sentiments, among themselves, were peace, brotherly
kindness, charity, hospitality, integrity, truth and
friendship ; and towards the Great Spirit, reverence,
thankfulness and faith. More wise than the Greeks
and Romans in this great particular, they concentrated
all divinity into one Supreme Being ; more confiding
in the people than the priestly class of Egypt, their
religious teachers brought down the knowledge of the
" Unutterable One " to the minds of all. Eminently
2I 5
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
pure and spiritual, and internally consistent with each
other, the beliefs and the religious ceremonies of the
Iroquois are worthy of a respectful consideration. A
people in the wilderness, shut out from revelation,
with no tablet on which to write the history of passing
generations, save the heart of man, yet possessed of the
knowledge of one Supreme Being, and striving, with
all the ardor of devotion, to commune with him in the
language of thankfulness and supplication, is, to say the
least, a most extraordinary spectacle ; not less sublime
in itself than the spectacle of the persecuted Puritan,
on the confines of the same wilderness, worshipping
that God in the fulness of light and knowledge, whom
the Indian, however limited and imperfect his con
ceptions, in the Great Spirit most distinctly discerned.
Their limited knowledge of the attributes which
pertained to a Being endued with creative power,
will not appear so surprising, when it is remembered
to be the highest achievement of learning and piety,
fully to comprehend the marvellous perfections of the
Deity. When the complicated structures of Egypt,
Greece and Rome are brought under comparison with
the simple and unpretending scheme of theology of
the children of the forest, there is found reason to
marvel at the superior acuteness and profundity of the
Indian intellect. It may be safely averred, that if
the sustaining faith and the simple worship of the
Iroquois are ever fully explored and carefully eluci
dated, they will form a more imperishable monument
to the Indian than is afforded in the purity of his
virtues, or in the mournfulness of his destiny.
216
GA-GEH-TA YEN-CHE-NO-HOS-TA-TA OR KNEE BAND,
YEN-NIS-HO-QUA-HOS-TA OR WRIST BAND,
GA-GEH-TA YEN-NIS-HA-HOS-TA OR ARM BAND,
Chapter III
The New Religion Ga-ne-o-di -yo, the Instructor Pretended
Revelation Sose-ha -wa, his Successor Speech of Da-aV-ga-
dose Speech of Sose-ha -wa Doctrines of the New Religion
ABOUT the year eighteen hundred, a new
religious teacher arose among the Iroquois,
who professed to have received a revelation
from the Great Spirit, with a commission to preach to
them the doctrines with which he had been intrusted.
This revelation was received under circumstances so
remarkable, and the precepts which he sought to incul
cate contained within themselves such evidences of
wisdom and beneficence, that he was universally re
ceived among them, not only as a wise and good
man, but as one commissioned from Hd-wen-ne -yu to
become their religious instructor. The new religion,
as it has since been called, not only embodied all the
precepts of the ancient faith, and recognized the
ancient mode of worship, giving to it anew the sanc
tion of the Great Spirit, but it also comprehended
such new doctrines as came in, very aptly, to lengthen
out and enlarge the primitive system, without impair
ing the structure itself. Charges of imposture and
deception were at first preferred against him, but dis
belief of his divine mission gradually subsided, until,
at the time of his death, the whole unchristianized
portion of the Iroquois had become firm believers in
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the new religion, which, to the present day, has
continued to be the prevailing faith. (GG)
The singular personage who was destined to obtain
such a spiritual sway over the descendants of the an
cient Iroquois, was Ga-ne-o-di-yo^ or " Handsome
Lake," a Seneca sachem of the highest class. He
was born at the Indian village of Ga-no-wau-ges 3 near
Avon, about the year 17.35, an< ^ died at Onondaga in
1815, where he happened to be on one of his pastoral
visits. By birth he was a Seneca, of the Turtle tribe,
and a half-brother of the celebrated Cornplanter,
through a common father. The best part of his life
was spent in idleness and dissipation, during which,
although a sachem and ruler among the Senecas for
many years, and through the most perilous period of
their history, he acquired no particular reputation.
Reforming late in life, in his future career he showed
himself to be possessed of superior talents, and to be
animated by a sincere and ardent desire for the welfare
of his race. He appears to have adopted the idea of
a revelation from Heaven, to give authority and sanc
tion to his projected reformation. At this period,
and for a century preceding, the prevailing intem
perance of the Iroquois had been the fruitful source
of those domestic disorders which, in connection with
their political disasters, seemed then to threaten the
speedy extinction of the race. A temperance refor
mation, universal and radical, was the principal and
the ultimate object of the mission which he assumed,
and the one upon which he chiefly employed his influ
ence and his eloquence, through the residue of his
life. Knowing that argument and persuasion were
218
GA-NE-O-Dl -TO, THE INSTRUCTOR
feeble weapons in a contest with this mighty foe,
Handsome Lake had the sagacity to address himself
to the religious sentiments and the superstitious fears
of the people. To secure a more ready reception of
his admonitions, he clothed them with the divine sanc
tion ; to strengthen their moral principles, he enforced
anew the precepts of the ancient faith ; and to insure
obedience to his teachings, he held over the wicked
the terrors of eternal punishment. Travelling from
village to village, among the several nations of the
League, with the exception of the christianized Onei-
das, and continuing his visits from year to year, this
self-appointed apostle to the Indians preached the new
doctrine with remarkable effect. Numbers, it is said,
abandoned their dissolute habits, and became sober
and moral men ; discord and contention gave place to
harmony and order, and vagrancy and sloth to am
bition and industry. What peculiar motives induced
him, when past the meridian of life, to change the
whole tenor of his past career, and embark in this
philanthropic enterprise for the social and moral im
provement of the Iroquois, it may be difficult to ascer
tain. The origination of this project has, at times,
been ascribed to Cornplanter, as a means to increase
his own influence ; but this is not only improbable,
but is expressly denied. The motives by which
Handsome Lake claimed to be actuated were entirely
of a religious and benevolent character, and in pursu
ance of the injunctions of his spiritual guides.
At the time of his supernatural visitation, about the
year 1800, Handsome Lake resided at De-o-no-sa-
dd-ga, the village of Cornplanter, on the Allegany
219
LEAGUE OF THE
river, in the State of Pennsylvania. As he explained
the matter to his brethren, having lain ill for a long
period, he had surrendered all hope of recovery, and
resigned himself to death. When in the hourly ex
pectation of departure, three spiritual beings, in the
forms of men, sent by the Great Spirit, appeared be
fore him. Each bore in his hand a shrub, bearing
different kinds of berries, which, having given him to
eat, he was, by their miraculous power, immediately
restored to health. After revealing to him the will
of the Great Spirit, upon a great variety of subjects,
and particularly in relation to the prevailing intemper
ance, and having commissioned him to promulgate
these doctrines among the Iroquois, they permitted
him to visit, under their guidance, the realm of the
Evil-minded, and to behold with his mortal eyes the
punishments inflicted upon the wicked, that he might
warn his brethren of their impending destiny. Like
Ulysses and ^neas, he was also favored with a glance
at Elysium, and the felicities of the heavenly residence
of the virtuous. With his mind thus stored with di
vine precepts, and with his zeal enkindled by the dig
nity of his mission, Ga-ne-o-di-yo at once commenced
his labors. 1
After his death, Sose-ha-wd (Johnson) of Tona-
1 The Iroquois are under the impression that Handsome Lake received
a license from Washington to preach. There is no doubt that he applied
to the government during the presidency of Jefferson for some recognition
of his mission ; but the paper which they still call the license, now in the
possession of Blacksmith, at Tonawanda, is simply a letter from General
Dearborn, dated in 1802, commending his teachings. ( 6 ") Sose-ha -^wd
(Johnson) fixes the period of this revelation in June, 1800. This vener
able man has preached the doctrine upwards of thirty years.
220
SQSE-HA -WA
wanda was appointed his successor, the first and only
person ever " raised up " by the Iroquois, and in
vested with the office of supreme Religious Instructor.
A sincere believer in the verity of Gd-ne-o-di -yo s mis
sion, and an eminently pure and virtuous man, Sose-
ha-wd has devoted himself with zeal and fidelity to
the duties of his office, as the spiritual guide and
teacher of the Iroquois. He is a grandson of Hand
some Lake, and a nephew of Red Jacket, and was
born at the Indian village of Gd-no-wau -ges, near
Avon, about the year 1774, and still resides at Tona-
wanda in the county of Genesee. (32)
At the Mourning and Religious councils of the
League, which are still held, at intervals of a few
years, among the scattered descendants of the children
of the Long House, it has long been customary to set
apart portions of two or three days to listen to a dis
course from Sose-hd-wa upon the new religion. On
these occasions, he explains minutely the circumstances
attending the supernatural visitation of Handsome
Lake, and delivers the instructions, word for word,
which he had been accustomed to give during his own
ministration. Handsome Lake professed to repeat
the messages which were given to him from time to
time by his celestial visitants, with whom he pretended
to be in frequent communication, and whom he ad
dressed as his spiritual guardians, thus enforcing his
precepts as the direct commands of the Great Spirit.
It is singular that the credulity, not only of the
people, but of their most intelligent chiefs should have
been sufficiently great to give credence to these super
natural pretensions ; but yet it is in itself no greater
221
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
than that indicated by their belief in witchcraft, or in
the omens of dreams. The influence of the new re
ligion has been extremely salutary and preservative,
without the restraints of which, the fears of Ga-ne-o-
di-yo might have been realized ere this, in the rapid
decline, if not extinction of the race. Their down
ward tendencies were arrested, and their constant di
minution of numbers was changed to a gradual
increase. Its beneficent effects upon the people
doubtless contributed more to its final establishment
than any other cause.
At their councils and religious festivals, it was cus
tomary for the chiefs and keepers of the faith to
express their confidence in the new religion, and
to exhort others to strengthen their belief. The
late Abraham La Fort, De-dt-ga-dose^ } an educated
Onondaga sachem, thus expressed himself upon this
subject at a Mourning council of the Iroquois, held
at Tonawanda as late as October, 1 847 :
" Let us observe the operations of nature. The
year is divided into seasons, and every season has its
fruits. The birds of the air, though clothed in the
same dress of feathers, are divided into many classes ;
and one class is never seen to associate or intermingle
with any but its own kind. So with the beasts of the
field and woods ; each and every class and species have
their own separate rules by which they seem to be
governed, and by which their actions are regulated.
These distinctions of classes and colors the Great
Spirit has seen fit to make. But the rule does not
stop here ; it is universal. It embraces man also.
The human race was created and divided into different
222
SPEECH OF D E-A T -G A-D O S E
classes, which were placed separate from each other,
having different customs, manners, laws, and religions.
To the Indian, it seems that no more religion had origi
nally been given than was to be found in the operations
of nature., which taught him that there was a Supreme
Being, all powerful and all wise ; and on this account,
as well as on account of his great goodness, they
learned to love and reverence him. But in these latter
times, when the restless and ambitious spirit of the
white-skinned race had crossed the boundary line, and
made inroads upon the manners, customs and primitive
religion of the Indian, the Great Spirit determined to,
and through his servant Gd-ne-o-di-yo did reveal his
will to the Indian. The substance of that will was no
more than to confirm their ancient belief that they
were entitled to a different religion, a religion adapted
to their customs, manners, and ways of thinking."
As the discourse delivered by Sose-hd-wa^ from
time to time, contains a very full exposition of their
ancient beliefs, and mode of worship, together with the
recent views introduced by Handsome Lake, mingled
up in one collection, presenting, probably, a better
idea of their ethical and religious system than could
be conveyed in any other manner, it is given entire,
and will explain itself. 2
1 Furnished to the author by Ha-sa-no-an -dd (Ely S. Parker), from
notes taken at the time.
2 The subjoined translation was prepared by Ha-sa-no-an -da (Ely S.
Parker), from copious notes taken by him at the time of its last delivery
in October, 1848, at a general Mourning council of the Iroquois, held at
Tonawanda. It is proper to add, that he has listened to its delivery on
several occasions, and is perfectly familiar with the subject. With some
slight alterations, the language is his own. This discourse, as it is given,
was made on the forenoons of the 4th, 5th, and 6th days of October, 1 848.
223
LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UO1S
>sj
" The Mohawks, the Onondagas, the Senecas, and
our children (the Oneidas, Cayugas and Tuscaroras)
have assembled here to-day to listen to the repetition
of the will of the Great Spirit, as communicated to us
from heaven through his servant, Ga-ne-o-di-yo.
" Chiefs, warriors, women and children: - We give
you a cordial welcome. The sun has advanced far in
his path, and I am warned that my time to instruct
you is limited to the meridian sun. I must therefore
hasten to perform my duty. Turn your minds to the
Great Spirit, and listen with strict attention. Think
seriously upon what I am about to speak. Reflect
upon it well, that it may benefit you and your children.
I thank the Great Spirit that he has spared the lives
of so many of you to be present on this occasion. I
return thanks to him that my life is yet spared. The
Great Spirit looked down from heaven upon the suffer
ings and the wanderings of his red children. He saw
that they had greatly decreased and degenerated. He
saw the ravages of the fire-water among them. He
therefore raised up for them a sacred instructor, who
having lived and travelled among them for sixteen
years, was called from his labors to enjoy eternal feli
city with the Great Spirit in heaven. Be patient
while I speak. I cannot at all times arrange and pre
pare my thoughts with the same precision. But I
will relate what my memory bears.
" It was in the month of O-nike -ya (June), that
Handsome Lake was yet sick. He had been ill four
years. He was accustomed to tell us that he had
resigned himself to the will of the Great Spirit. I
nightly returned my thanks to the Great Spirit/ said
224
SPEECH OF SOSE-HA -WA
he, c as my eyes were gladdened at evening by the
sight of the stars of heaven. I viewed the ornamented
heavens at evening, through the opening in the roof
of my lodge, (124) with grateful feelings to my Creator.
I had no assurance that I should at the next evening
contemplate his works. For this reason my acknowl
edgments to him were more fervent and sincere.
When night was gone, and the sun again shed his
light upon the earth, I saw, and acknowledged in the
return of day his continued goodness to me, and to all
mankind. At length I began to have an inward con
viction that my end was near. I resolved once more
to exchange friendly words with my people, and I
sent my daughter to summon my brothers Gy-ant-
w<2-&z (Cornplanter), and Ta-wan-ne-ars (Blacksnake).
She hastened to do his bidding, but before she re
turned, he had fallen into insensibility and -apparent
death. Ta-wan-ne-ars, upon returning to the lodge,
hastened to his brother s couch, and discovered that
portions of his body were yet warm. This happened
at early day, before the morning dew had dried.
When the sun had advanced half-way to the meridian,
his heart began to beat, and he opened his eyes. Ta-
wan-ne-ars asked him if he was in his right mind ; but
he answered not. At meridian he again opened his
eyes, and the same question was repeated. He then
answered and said, A man spoke from without, and
asked that some one might come forth. I looked,
and saw some men standing without. I arose, and as
I attempted to step over the threshold of my door, I
stumbled, and should have fallen had they not caught
me. They were three holy men who looked alike,
VOL. I. 15 225
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
and were dressed alike. The paint they wore seemed
but one day old. Each held in his hand a shrub
bearing different kinds of fruit. One of them address
ing me said, " We have come to comfort and relieve
you. Take of these berries and eat ; they will restore
you to health. We have been witnesses of your
lengthened illness. We have seen with what resigna
tion you have given yourself up to the Great Spirit.
We have heard your daily return of thanks. He has
heard them all. His ear has ever been open to hear.
You were thankful for the return of night, when you
could contemplate the beauties of heaven. You were
accustomed to look upon the moon, as she coursed in
her nightly paths. When there were no hopes to you
that you would again behold these things, you will
ingly resigned yourself to the mind of the Great Spirit.
This was right. Since the Great Spirit made the
earth and put man upon it, we have been his constant
servants to guard and protect his works. There are
four of us. Some other time you will be permitted to
see the other. The Great Spirit is pleased to know
your patient resignation to his will. As a reward for
your devotion, he has cured your sickness. Tell your
people to assemble to-morrow, and at noon go in and
speak to them." After they had further revealed their
intentions concerning him they departed.
" At the time appointed Handsome Lake appeared
at the council, and thus addressed the people upon
the revelations which had been made to him : I have
a message to deliver to you. The servants of the
Great Spirit have told me that I should yet live upon
the earth to become an instructor to my people.
226
THE NEW RELIGION
Since the creation of man, the Great Spirit has often
raised up men to teach his children what they should
do to please him ; but they have been unfaithful to
their trust. I hope I shall profit by their example.
Your Creator has seen that you have transgressed
greatly against his laws. He made man pure and
good. He did not intend that he should sin. You
commit a great sin in taking the fire-water. The
Great Spirit says that you must abandon this enticing
habit. Your ancestors have brought great misery and
suffering upon you. They first took the fire-water of
the white man, and entailed upon you its consequences.
None of them have gone to heaven. The fire-water
does not belong to you. It was made for the white
man beyond the great waters. For the white man it
is a medicine ; but they too have violated the will of
their Maker. The Great Spirit says that drunkenness
is a great crime, and he forbids you to indulge in this
evil habit. His command is to the old and young.
The abandonment of its use will relieve much of your
sufferings, and greatly increase the comfort and happi
ness of your children. The Great Spirit is grieved
that so much crime and wickedness should defile the
earth. There are many evils which he never intended
should exist among his red children. The Great
Spirit has, for many wise reasons, withheld from man
the number of his days ; but he has not left him with
out a guide, for he has pointed out to him the path in
which he may safely tread the journey of life.
" c When the Great Spirit made man, he also
made woman. He instituted marriage, and enjoined
upon them to love each other, and be faithful. It is
227
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
pleasing,to him to see men and women obey his will.
Your Creator abhors a deceiver and a hypocrite.
By obeying his commands you will die an easy and a
happy death. When the Great Spirit instituted mar
riage, he ordained to bless those who were faithful
with children. Some women are unfruitful, and
others become so by misfortune. Such have great
opportunities to do much good. There are many
orphans, and many poor children whom they can
adopt as their own. If you tie up the clothes of an
orphan child, the Great Spirit will notice it, and reward
you for it. Should an orphan ever cross your path
be kind to him, and treat him with tenderness, for
this is right. Parents must constantly teach their
children morality, and a reverence for their Creator.
Parents must also guard their children against improper
marriages. They, having much experience, should se
lect a suitable match for their child. When the parents
of both parties have agreed, then bring the young pair
together, and let them know what good their parents
have designed for them. If at any time they so far
disagree that they cannot possibly live contented and
happy with each other, they may separate in mu
tual good feeling ; and in this there is no wrong. (100)
When a child is born to a husband and wife, they
must give great thanks to the Great Spirit, for it is
his gift, and an evidence of his kindness. Let par
ents instruct their children in their duty to the
Great Spirit, to their parents, and to their fellow-men.
Children should obey their parents and guardians,
and submit to them in all things. Disobedient chil
dren occasion great pain and misery. They wound
228
THE NEW RELIGION
their parents feelings, and often drive them to desper
ation, causing them great distress, and final admission
into the place of Evil Spirits. The marriage obliga
tions should generate good to all who have assumed
them. Let the married be faithful to each other, that
when they die it may be in peace. Children should
never permit their parents to suffer in their old age.
Be kind to them, and support them. The Great
Spirit requires all children to love, revere and obey
their parents. To do this is highly pleasing to
him. The happiness of parents is greatly increased
by the affection and the attentions of their children.
To abandon a wife or children is a great wrong, and
produces many evils. It is wrong for a father or
mother-in-law to vex a son or daughter-in-law ; but
they should use them as if they were their own
children. It often happens that parents hold angry
disputes over their infant child. This is also a great
sin. The infant hears and comprehends the angry
words of its parents. It feels bad and lonely. It
can see for itself no happiness in prospect. It con
cludes to return to its Maker. It wants a happy
home, and dies. The parents then weep because
their child has left them. You must put this evil
practice from among you, if you would live happy.
" { The Great Spirit, when he made the earth, never
intended that it should be made merchandise; but he
willed that all his creatures should enjoy it equally.
Your chiefs have violated and betrayed your trust
by selling lands. Nothing is now left of our once
large possessions, save a few small reservations.
Chiefs and aged men you, as men, have no lands
229
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
to sell. You occupy and possess a tract in trust for
your children. You should hold that trust sacred,
lest your children are driven from their homes by
your unsafe conduct. Whoever sells lands offends
the Great Spirit, and must expect a great punishment
after death. "
Sose-hd-wa here suspended the narration of the
discourse of Handsome Lake, and thus addressed the
council :
" Chiefs, keepers of the faith, warriors, women
and children: You all know that our religion
teaches, that the early day is dedicated to the Great
Spirit, and that the late day is granted to the spirits
of the dead. It is now meridian, and I must close.
Preserve in your minds that which has been said.
Accept my thanks for your kind and patient atten
tion. It is meet that I should also return my thanks
to the Great Spirit, that he has assisted me thus far,
in my feeble frame, to instruct you. We ask you all
to come up again to-morrow, at early day, to hear
what further may be said. I have done."
The next morning, after the council had been
opened in the usual manner, Sose-hd-wa thus con
tinued :
" Relatives, uncover now your heads and listen :
The day has thus far advanced, and again we are
gathered around the council-fire. I see around me
the several nations of the Long House ; this gives me
great joy. I see also seated around me my counsel
lors (keepers of the faith), who have been regularly
appointed, as is the custom of our religion. Greet
ings have been exchanged with each other. Thanks
230
THE NEW RELIGION
have been returned to Ga-ni-o-di-yo. Thanks also
have been returned to our Creator, by the council
now assembled. At this moment the Great Spirit
is looking upon this assembly. He hears our words,
he knows our thoughts, and is always pleased to see
us gathered together for good. The sun is now high,
and soon it will reach the middle heavens. I must
therefore make haste. Listen attentively, and consider
well what you shall hear. 1 return thanks to our
Creator, that he has spared your lives through the
dangers of darkness. I salute and return my thanks
to the four Celestial beings, who have communicated
what I am about to say to you. I return thanks to
my grandfather (Handsome Lake), from whom you
first heard what I am about to speak. We all feel
his loss. We miss him at our councils. I now
occupy his place before you ; but I am conscious that
I have not the power which he possessed.
" Counsellors, warriors, mothers and children :
Listen to good instruction. Consider it well. Lay
it up in your minds, and forget it not. Our Creator,
when he made us, designed that we should live by
hunting. It sometimes happens that a man goes
out for the hunt, leaving his wife with her friends.
After a long absence he returns, and finds that his
wife has taken another husband. The Great Spirit
says that this is a great sin, and must be put from
among us.
"The four Messengers further said, that it was
wrong for a mother to punish a child with a rod.
It is not right to punish much, and our Creator
never intended that children should be punished
231
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
with a whip, or be used with any violence. In
punishing a refractory child, water only is necessary,
and it is sufficient/ 120 * Plunge them under. This
is not wrong. Whenever a child promises to do
better, the punishment must cease. It is wrong to
continue it after promises of amendment are made.
Thus they said.
"It is right and proper always to look upon the
dead. Let your face be brought, near to theirs, and
then address them. Let the dead know that their
absence is regretted by their friends, and that they
grieve for their death. Let the dead know, too,
how their surviving friends intend to live. Let
them know whether they will so conduct themselves,
that they will meet them again in the future world.
The dead will hear and remember. Thus they
said.
" Continue to listen while I proceed to relate what
further they said: Our Creator made the earth.
Upon it he placed man, and gave him certain rules
of conduct. It pleased him also to give them many
kinds of amusements. He also ordered that the
earth should produce all that is good for man. So
long as the earth remains, it will not cease to yield.
Upon the surface of the ground berries of various
kinds are produced. It is the will of the -Great
Spirit, that when they ripen, we should return our
thanks to him, and have a public rejoicing for the
continuance of these blessings. He made every
thing which we live upon, and requires us to be
thankful at all times for the continuance of his
favors. When Our Life (corn, &c.) has again ap-
THE NEW RELIGION
peared, it is the will of the Great Ruler that we as
semble for a general thanksgiving. It is his will
also that the children be brought and made to par
ticipate in the Feather dance. Your feast must con
sist of the new production. It is proper at these
times, should any present not have their names pub
lished, or if any changes have been made, to announce
them then. The festival must continue, four days.
Thus they said. Upon the first day must be per
formed the Feather dance. This ceremony must
take place in the early day, and cease at the middle
day. In the same manner, upon the second day, is
to be performed the Thanksgiving dance. On the
third, the Thanksgiving concert, Ah-do-weh^ is to
be introduced. The fourth day is set apart for
the Peach-stone game. (98 All these ceremonies, in
stituted by our Creator, must be commenced at the
early day, and cease at the middle day. At all these
times, we are required to return thanks to our Grand
father He -no and his assistants. To them is assigned
the duty of watching over the earth, and all it
produces for our good. The great Feather and
Thanksgiving dances are the appropriate ceremonies
of thanksgiving to the Ruler and Maker of all things.
The Thanksgiving concert belongs appropriately to
our Grandfathers. In it, we return thanks to them.
During the performance of this ceremony, we are
required also to give them the smoke of tobacco.
Again, we must at this time return thanks to our
mother the earth, for she is our relative. We must
also return thanks to Our Life and its Sisters. All
these things are required to be done by the light of
233
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
the sun. It must not be protracted until the sun has
hid his face, and darkness surrounds all things.
" Continue to listen : We have a change of sea
sons. We have a season of cold. This is the hunting
season. It is also one in which the people can amuse
themselves. Upon the fifth day of the new moon
Nis-go-wuk -na (about Feb. ist), (95) we are required to
commence the annual jubilee of thanksgiving to our
Creator. At this festival all can give evidence of their
devotion to the will of the Great Spirit, by participat
ing in all its ceremonies.
" Continue to listen : The four Messengers of the
Great Spirit have always watched over us, and have
ever seen what was transpiring among men. At one
time, Handsome Lake was translated by them to the
regions above. He looked down upon the earth and
saw a great assembly. Out of it came a man. His
garments were torn, tattered and filthy. His whole
appearance indicated great misery and poverty. They
asked him how this spectacle appeared to him. He
replied that it was hard to look upon. They then
told him that the man he saw was a drunkard. That
he had taken the fire-water, and it had reduced him
to poverty." 53 Again he looked, and saw a woman
seated upon the ground. She was constantly engaged
in gathering up and secreting about her person her
worldly effects. They said, the woman you see is in
hospitable. She is too selfish to spare anything, and
will never leave her worldly goods. She can never
pass from earth to heaven. Tell this to your people.
Again he looked, and saw a man carrying in each hand
large pieces of meat. He went about the assembly
234
THE NEW RELIGION
giving to each a piece. This man, they said, is blessed,
for he is hospitable and kind. He looked again, and
saw streams of blood. They said, Thus will the earth
be, if the fire-water is not put from among you.
Brother will kill brother, and friend friend. Again
they told him to look towards the east. He obeyed,
and as far as his vision reached, he saw the increasing
smoke of numberless distilleries arising, and shutting
out the light of the sun. It was a horrible spectacle to
witness. They told him that here was manufactured
the fire-water. Again he looked, and saw a costly
house, made and furnished by the pale-faces. It was
a house of confinement, where were fetters, ropes and
whips. They said that those who persisted in the use
of the fire-water would fall into this. Our Creator
commands us to put this destructive vice far from us.
Again he looked, and saw various assemblages. Some
of them were unwilling to listen to instruction. They
were riotous, and took great pride in drinking the
strong waters. He observed another group who were
half inclined to hear, but the temptations to vice which
surrounded them allured them back, and they also
revelled in the fumes of the fire-water. He saw an
other assemblage which had met to hear instructions.
This they said was pleasing to the Great Spirit. He
loves those who will listen and obey. It has grieved
him that his children are now divided by separate in
terests, and are pursuing so many paths. It pleases
him to see his people live together in harmony and
quiet. The fire-water creates many dissensions and
divisions among us. They said that the use of it
would cause many to die unnatural deaths ; many wilJ
235
LEAGUE O F THE IRO^UOIS
be exposed to cold, and freeze ; many will be burned,
and others will be drowned while under the influence
of the fire-water.
"Friends and Relatives: All these things have
often happened. How many of our people have been
frozen to death ; how many have been burned to
death ; how many have been drowned while under the
influence of the strong waters. The punishments of
those who use the fire-water commence while they are
yet on the earth. Many are now thrown into houses
of confinement by the pale faces. I repeat to you, the
Ruler of us all requires us to unite and put this evil
from among us. Some say that the use of the fire
water is not wrong, and that it is food. Let those who
do not believe it wrong, make this experiment. (64)
Let all who use the fire-water assemble and organize
into a council ; and those who do not, into another
near them. A great difference will then be discovered.
The council of drunkards will end in a riot and tumult,
while the other will have harmony and quiet. It is
hard to think of the great prevalence of this evil among
us. Reform, and put it from among you. Many re
solve to use the fire-water until near death, when they
will repent. If they do this, nothing can save them
from destruction, for them medicine can have no power.
Thus they said.
" All men were made equal by the Great Spirit ; but
he has given to them a variety of gifts. To some a
pretty face, to others an ugly one ; to some a comely
form, to others a deformed figure. Some are fortunate
in collecting around them worldly goods. But you are
all entitled to the same privileges, and therefore must
THE NEW RELIGION
put pride from among you. You are not your own
makers, nor the builders of your own fortunes. All
things are the gift of the Great Spirit, and to him must
be returned thanks for their bestowal. He alone must
be acknowledged as the giver. It has pleased him to
make differences among men ; but it is wrong for one
man to exalt himself above another. Love each other,
for you are all brothers and sisters of the same great
family. The Great Spirit enjoins upon all, to observe
hospitality and kindness, especially to the needy and
the helpless ; for this is pleasing to him. If a stranger
wanders about your abode, speak to him with kind
words ; be hospitable towards him, welcome him to
your home, and forget not always to mention the Great
Spirit. In the morning, give thanks to the Great
Spirit for the return of day, and the light of the sun ;
at night renew your thanks to him, that his ruling
power has preserved you from harm during the day,
and that night has again come, in which you may rest
your wearied bodies.
"The four Messengers said further to Handsome
Lake : --Tell your people, and particularly the keepers
of the faith, to be strong-minded, and adhere to the
true faith. We fear the Evil-minded will go among
them with temptations. He may introduce the fiddle.
He may bring cards, and leave them among you. (97)
The use of these are great sins. Let the people be
on their guard, and the keepers of the faith be watch
ful and vigilant, that none of these evils may find their
way among the people. Let the keepers of the faith
preserve the law of moral conduct in all its purity.
When meetings are to be held for instruction, and the
237
LEAGUE OF THE IRQ QUO IS
people are preparing to go, the Evil-minded is then
busy. He goes from one to another, whispering many
temptations, by which to keep them away. He will
even follow persons into the door of the council, and
induce some, at that time, to bend their steps away.
Many resist until they have entered, and then leave it.
This habit, once indulged, obtains a fast hold, and the
evil propensity increases with age. This is a great sin,
and should be at once abandoned. Thus they said.
" Speak evil of no one. If you can say no good
of a person, then be silent. Let not your tongues
betray you into evil. Let all be mindful of this ; for
these are the words of our Creator. Let all strive to
cultivate friendship with those who surround them.
This is pleasing to the Great Spirit.
"Counsellors, warriors, women and children: I
shall now rest. I thank you all for your kind and
patient attention. I thank the Great Spirit, that he
has spared the lives of so many of us to witness this
day. I request you all to come up again to-morrow at
early day. Let us all hope, that, until we meet again,
the Creator and Ruler of us all may be kind to us,
and preserve our lives. Na-ho ."
The council, on the following day, was opened with
a few short speeches, from some of the chiefs or
keepers of the faith, returning thanks for the privileges
of the occasion, as usual at councils ; after which Sose-
ka -wa, resuming his discourse, spoke as follows :
" Friends and Relatives, uncover now your heads :
Continue to listen to my rehearsal of the sayings com
municated to Handsome Lake by the four Messengers
of the Great Spirit. We have met again around the
238
THE NEW RELIGION
council-fire. We have followed the ancient custom,
and greeted each other. This is right, and highly
pleasing to our Maker. He now looks down upon
this assembly. He sees us all. He is informed of the
cause of our gathering, and it is pleasing to him. Life
is uncertain. While we live let us love each other.
Let us sympathize always with the suffering and needy.
Let us also always rejoice with those who are glad.
This is now the third day, and my time for speaking
to you is drawing to a close. It will be a long time
before we meet again. Many moons and seasons will
have passed, before the sacred council-brand shall be
again uncovered. Be watchful, therefore, and remem
ber faithfully what you may now hear.
" In discoursing yesterday upon the duties of the
keepers of the faith, I omitted some things important.
The Great Spirit created this office. He designed that
its duties should never end. There are some who are
selected and set apart by our Maker, to perform the
duties of this office. It is therefore their duty to be
faithful, and to be always watching. These duties they
must ever perform during their lives. The faithful,
when they leave this earth, will have a pleasant path
to travel in. The same office exists in heaven, the
home of our Creator. They will take the same place
when they arrive there. There are dreadful penalties
awaiting those keepers of the faith who resign their
office without a cause. Thus they said.
" It was the original intention of our Maker, that
all our feasts of thanksgiving should be seasoned with
the flesh of wild animals. But we are surrounded by
the pale-faces, and in a short time the woods will be
239
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
all removed. Then there will be no more game for
the Indian to use in his feasts. The four Messengers
said, in consequence of this, that we might use the
flesh of domestic animals. This will not be wrong.
The pale-faces are pressing you upon every side. You
must therefore live as they do. How far you can do
so without sin, I will now tell you. You may grow
cattle, and build yourselves warm and comfortable
dwelling-houses. This is not sin; and it is all that
you can safely adopt of the customs of the pale-faces.
You cannot live as they do. Thus they said.
" Continue to listen: It has pleased our Creator
to set apart as our Life, the Three Sisters. For this
special favor, let us ever be thankful. When you have
gathered in your harvest, let the people assemble, and
hold a general thanksgiving for so great a good. In
this way you will show your obedience to the will and
pleasure of your Creator. Thus they said.
" Many of you may be ignorant of the Spirit of
Medicine. It watches over all constantly, and assists
the needy whenever necessity requires. The Great
Spirit designed that some men should possess the gift
of skill in medicine. But he is pained to see a medi
cine man making exorbitant charges for attending the
sick. Our Creator made for us tobacco. This plant
must always be used in administering medicines.
When a sick person recovers his health, he must
return his thanks to the Great Spirit by means of
tobacco ; for it is by his goodness that he is made well.
He blesses the medicine ; and the medicine man must
receive as his reward whatever the gratitude of the re
stored may tender. This is right and proper. There
240
THE NEW RELIGION
are many who are unfortunate, and cannot pay for
attendance. It is sufficient for such to return thanks
to the medicine man upon recovery. The remem
brance that he has saved the life of a relative, will be
a sufficient reward/ 11
" Listen further to what the Great Spirit has been
pleased to communicate to us: He has made us, as
a race, separate and distinct from the pale-face. It is
a great sin to intermarry, and intermingle the blood of
the two races. Let none be guilty of this transgres-
sion.<">
c<
At one time the four Messengers said to Handsome
Lake, Lest the people should disbelieve you, and not
repent and forsake their evil ways, we will now disclose
to you the House of Torment, the dwelling-place of
the Evil-minded. Handsome Lake was particular in
describing to us all that he witnessed ; and the course
which departed spirits were accustomed to take on
leaving the earth. There was a road which led up
wards. At a certain point it branched ; one branch
led straight forward to the Home of the Great Spirit,
and the other turned aside to the House of Torment.
At the place where the roads separated were stationed
two keepers, one representing the Good, and the other
the Evil Spirit. When a person reached the fork, if
wicked, by a motion from the Evil keeper, he turned
instinctively upon the road which led to the abode of
the Evil-minded. But if virtuous and good, the other
keeper directed him upon the straight road. The
latter was not much travelled ; while the former was
so frequently trodden, that no grass could grow in the
pathway. It sometimes happened that the keepers
VOL. i. 16 241
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
had great difficulty in deciding which path the person
should take, when the good and bad actions of the
individual were nearly balanced. Those sent to the
House of Torment sometimes remain one day (which
is there one of our years). Some for a longer period.
After they have atoned for their sins, they pass to
heaven. But when they have committed either of the
great sins (witchcraft, murder, and infanticide), they
never pass to heaven, but are tormented forever.
Having conducted Handsome Lake to this place, he
saw a large and dark-colored mansion covered with
soot, and beside it stood a lesser one. One of the
four then held out his rod, and the top of the house
moved up, until they could look down upon all that
was within. He saw many rooms. The first object (G3)
which met his eye, was a haggard-looking man ; his
sunken eyes cast upon the ground, and his form
half consumed by the torments he had undergone.
This man was a drunkard. The Evil-minded then
appeared, and called him by name. As the man
obeyed his call, he dipped from a caldron a quantity
of red-hot liquid, and commanded him to drink it, as
it was an article he loved. The man did as he was
directed, and immediately from his mouth issued a
stream of blaze. He cried in vain for help. The
Tormentor then requested him to sing and make him
self merry, as was his wont while on earth, after drink
ing the fire-water. Let drunkards take warning from
this. Others were then summoned. There came
before him two persons, who appeared to be husband
and wife. He told them to exercise the privilege they
were so fond of while on the earth. They immediately
242
THE NEW RELIGION
commenced a quarrel of words. They raged at each
other with such violence, that their tongues and eyes
ran out so far they could neither see nor speak. This,
said they, is the punishment of quarrelsome and dis
puting husbands and wives. Let such also take warn
ing, and live together in peace and harmony. Next
he called up a woman who had been a witch. First
he plunged her into a caldron of boiling liquid. In
her cries of distress, she begged the Evil-minded to
give her some cooler place. He then immersed
her in one containing liquid at the point of freezing.
Her cries then were, that she was too cold. This
woman, said the four Messengers, shall always be tor
mented in this manner. He proceeded to mention
the punishment which awaits all those who cruelly ill-
treat their wives. The Evil-minded next called up a
man who had been accustomed to beat his wife.
Having led him up to a red-hot statue of a female, he
directed him to do that which he was fond of while he
was upon the earth. He obeyed, and struck the
figure. The sparks flew in every direction, and by
the contact his arm was consumed. Such is the pun
ishment, they said, awaiting those who ill-treat their
wives. From this take seasonable warning. He
looked again and saw a woman, whose arms and hands
were nothing but bones. She had sold fire-water to
the Indians, and the flesh was eaten from her hands
and arms. This, they said, would be the fate of rum-
sellers. Again he looked, and in one apartment
he saw and recognized Ho-ne-ya-wus (Farmer s
Brother), his former friend. He was engaged in re
moving a heap of sand, grain by grain; and although
243
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
he labored continually, yet the heap of sand was not
diminished. This, they said, was the punishment of
those who sold land. Adjacent to the house of tor
ment was afield of corn filled with weeds. He saw
women in the act of cutting them down; but as fast
as this was done, they grew up again. This, they said,
was the punishment of lazy women. It would be
proper and right, had we time, to tell more of this
place of torment. But my time is limited, and I must
pass to other things.
cc The Creator made men dependent upon each
other. He made them sociable beings ; therefore,
when your neighbor visits you, set food before him.
If it be your next door neighbor, you must give him
to eat. He will partake and thank you.
Again they said : - - You must not steal. Should
you want for anything necessary, you have only to tell
your wants, and they will be supplied. This is right.
Let none ever steal anything. Children are often
tempted to take things home which do not belong
to them. Let parents instruct their children in this
rule.
Many of our people live to a very old age. (121)
Your Creator says that your deportment towards them
must be that of reverence and affection. They have
seen and felt much of the misery and pain of earth.
Be always kind to them when old and helpless. Wash
their hands and face, and nurse them with care.
This is the will of the Great Spirit.
" It has been the custom among us to mourn for
the dead one year. This custom is wrong. As it
causes the death of many children, it must be aban-
244
THE NEW RELIGION
doned. Ten days mourn for the dead, and not lon-
ger. (102) When one dies, it is right and proper to
make an address over the body, telling how much you
loved the deceased. Great respect for the dead must
be observed among us.
"At another time the four Messengers said to
Handsome Lake, they would now show him the
Destroyer of Villages (Washington 1 ), of whom you
have so frequently heard. Upon the road leading
to heaven he could see a light, far away in the dis
tance, moving to and fro. Its brightness far exceeded
the brilliancy of the noonday sun. They told him
the journey was as follows : First, they came to a
cold spring, which was a resting-place. From this
point they proceeded into pleasant fairy grounds,
which spread away in every direction. Soon they
reached heaven. The light was dazzling. Berries
of every description grew in vast abundance. Their
size and quality were such that a single berry was
more than sufficient to appease the appetite. A sweet
fragrance perfumed the air. Fruits of every kind met
the eye. The inmates of this celestial abode spent
their time in amusement and repose. No evil could
enter there. None in heaven ever transgress again.
Families were reunited, and dwelt together in harmony.
They possessed a bodily form, the senses, and the re
membrances of the earthly life. But no white man ever
entered heaven. Thus they said. He looked, and
1 Washington was named by the Iroquois Ha-no-da-ga -ne-ars, which
signifies the Destroyer of Villages. The Presidents have ever since been
called by this name. They named the Governors of all the provinces with
which they had intercourse, and afterwards continued the names to their
successors. ( 69 )
245
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
saw an inclosure upon a plain, just without the en
trance of heaven. Within it was a fort. Here he
saw the Destroyer of Villages/ walking to and fro
within the inclosure. His countenance indicated a
great and a good man. They said to Handsome
Lake : The man you see is the only pale-face who ever
left the earth. He was kind to you, when on the
settlement of the great difficulty between the Amer
icans and the Great Crown (Go-wek -go-wa), you were
abandoned to the mercy of your enemies. The Crown
told the great American, that as for his allies, the
Indians, he might kill them if he liked. The great
American judged that this would be cruel and unjust.
He believed they were made by the Great Spirit, and
were entitled to the enjoyment of life. He was kind
to you, and extended over you his protection. For
this reason, he has been allowed to leave the earth.
But he is never permitted to go into the presence of
the Great Spirit. Although alone, he is perfectly
happy. All faithful Indians pass by him as they go
to heaven. They see him, and recognize him, but
pass on in silence. No word ever passes his lips.
" Friends and Relatives : -- It was by the influence
of this great man, that we were spared as a people, and
yet live. Had he not granted us his protection, where
would we have been ? Perished, all perished.
" The four Messengers further said to Handsome
Lake, they were fearful that, unless the people re
pented and obeyed his commands, the patience and
forbearance of their Creator would be exhausted ;
that he w 7 ould grow angry with them, and cause their
increase to cease.
246
THE NEW RELIGION
" Our Creator made light and darkness. He made
the sun to heat, and shine over the world. He made
the moon, also, to shine by night, and to cool the
world, if the sun made it too hot by day. The keeper
of the clouds, by direction of the Great Spirit, will
then cease to act. The keeper of the springs and
running brooks will cease to rule them for the good
of man. The sun will cease to fulfil its office. Total
darkness will then cover the earth. A great smoke
will rise, and spread over the face of the earth. Then
will come out of it all monsters, and poisonous ani
mals created by the Evil-minded ; and they, with the
wicked upon the earth, will perish together.
" But before this dreadful time shall come, the
Great Spirit will take home to himself all the good
and faithful. They will lay themselves down to sleep,
and from this sleep of death, they will rise, and go
home to their Creator. Thus they said.
" I have now done. I close thus, that you may
remember and understand the fate which awaits the
earth, and the unfaithful and unbelieving. Our Crea
tor looks down upon us. The four Beings from
above see us. They witness with pleasure this assem
blage, and rejoice at the object for which it is gathered.
It is now forty-eight years since we first began to
listen to the renewed will of our Creator. I have been
unable, during the time allotted to me, to rehearse all
the sayings of Gd-ne-o-di-yo. I regret very much that
you cannot hear them all.
" Counsellors, Warriors, Women and Children : -
I have done, I thank you all for your attendance,
and for your kind and patient attention. May the
247
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
Great Spirit, who rules all things, watch over and
protect you from every harm and danger, while you
travel the journey of life. May the Great Spirit bless
you all, and bestow upon you life, health, peace and
prosperity ; and may you, in turn, appreciate his great
goodness. Na-ho "
Chapter IV
National Dances Influence of the Dance Costume War
Dance Speeches in the War Dance Great Feather Dance
Trotting Dance Fish Dance Dance for the Dead Concerts
SUFFICIENT has been said in the preceding
pages to convey an impression of the uses of
the Dance among the Iroquois. It remains
to notice the several dances themselves, to point out
some of the characteristics of each, and also to exhibit
more fully the spirit of this amusement, and its power
over the minds of the people.
With the Iroquois, as with the red race at large,
dancing was not only regarded as a thanksgiving
ceremonial, in itself acceptable to the Great Spirit,
but they were taught to consider it a divine art, de
signed by Ha-wen-ne -yu for their pleasure, as well
as for his worship. It was cherished as one of the
most suitable modes of social intercourse between
the sexes, but more especially as the great instru
mentality for arousing patriotic excitement, and for
keeping alive the spirit of the nation. The popular
enthusiasm broke forth in this form, and was nour
ished and stimulated by this powerful agency. These
dances sprang, as it were, a living reflection from the
Indian mind. With their wild music of songs and
rattles, their diversities of step and attitude, their
graces of motion, and their spirit-stirring associations,
249
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
they contain within themselves both a picture and
a realization of Indian life. The first stir of feeling
of which the Indian youth was conscious was en
kindled by the dance ; the first impulse of patriotism,
the earliest dreams of ambition were awakened by
their inspiring influences. In their patriotic, religious
and social dances, into which classes they are properly
divisible, resided the soul of Indian life. It was more
in the nature of a spell upon the people than of a
rational guiding spirit. It bound them down to
trivial things, but it bound them together ; it stimu
lated them to deeds of frenzy, but it fed the flame
of patriotism.
The Iroquois had thirty-two distinct dances, out
of which number twenty-six were claimed to be
wholly of their own invention. Twenty-one of
these are still in use among the present Iroquois.
To each a separate history and object attached, as
well as a different degree of popular favor. Some
were costume dances, and were performed by a small
and select band ; some were designed exclusively for
females, others for warriors alone ; but the greater
part of them were open to all of both sexes who
desired to participate. Many of these dances, with
out doubt, have been handed down among the Iro
quois for centuries, transmitted from generation to
generation, until their origin is lost even to tradition.
Others spread throughout the whole Indian family,
and were known and used from Maine to Oregon.
Indian amusements, as well as arts, were eminently
diffusive, as Indian life was much the same from
ocean to ocean. They are better described by their
250
INFLUENCE OF THE DANCE
effects than by a minute examination of the mode,
manner and circumstances of each in detail. It is
to their influence, as a means of action, that they
owe their chief importance. And it is to the zeal
and enthusiasm with which they were cherished and
performed, that attention should principally be di
rected. Their overpowering influence in arousing the
Indian spirit, and in excluding all thoughts of a dif
ferent life, and their resulting effect upon the formation
of Indian character cannot be too highly estimated.
The tenacity with which the Iroquois have always
adhered to these dances furnishes the highest evi
dence of their hold upon the affections of the people.
From the earliest days of the Jesuit missions, the
most unremitted efforts of the missionaries have been
put forth for their suppression. Christian parties
were organized at an early day in each nation, of
such as were willing to abandon the dance and their
religious festivals, and lead a different life. These
parties, down to the present time, have always been
largely in the minority, except among the unexpa-
triated Oneidas, who are now entirely denationalized,
and, perhaps, the Tuscaroras, who are partially so ;
but the body of the Senecas, Onondagas and Cayugas,
upon their several reservations, still cling to their
ancient customs, and glory in the dance as ardently
as did their forefathers. When it loses its attractions,
they will cease to be Indians. 1
1 A Mourning council of the Iroquois was held at Tonawanda, in
October, 1846, to raise up sachems. There were about six hundred Iro
quois in attendance, representing all of the Six Nations. On the second
day the Great Feather Dance was performed by a select band of Onon-
daga and Seneca dancers. The author then first had occasion to realize
2 5 <
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
The Feather dance and the War dance were the
two great performances of the Iroquois. One had
a religious, and the other a patriotic character. Both
were costume dances. They were performed by a
select band, ranging from fifteen to twenty-five, who
were distinguished for their powers of endurance,
activity and spirit. Besides these, there were four
other costume dances. In the residue, the performers,
who were the people at large, appeared in their
ordinary apparel, and sometimes participated to the
number of two or three hundred at one time. The
Iroquois costume may be called strictly an apparel
for the dance. This was the chief occasion on which
the warrior was desirous to appear in his best attire.
Before describing these dances, it will be proper to
notice the va rious articles of apparel which made up
the full-dress costume of the Iroquois.
One of the most prominent articles of apparel was
the Kilt, Ga-ka-ah (see plate, I. 184), which was se
cured around the waist by a belt, and descended to
the knee. In ancient times this was made of deer
skin. It was fringed and embroidered with porcu
pine quill-work. Some of these kilts would excite
admiration by the exactness of their finish and ad
justment, and the neatness of the material. In mod
ern times various fabrics have been substituted for
the deer-skin, although the latter is still used.
the magical influence which these dances have upon the Indian. It was
impossible even for the spectator to resist the general enthusiasm. It was
remarked to Da-at -ga-dose (Abraham La Fort), an educated Onondaga
sachem, that they would be Indians forever, if they held to these dances.
He replied, that he knew it, and for that reason he would be the last to
give them up.
252
COSTUME
The porcupine (Ga-hd-da) is covered with a species
of quill perfectly round, without down or feather, and
terminating in a sharp point. The small quills are
from one to four inches in length, and are white with
the exception of the tip ends or about one-fifth of the
quills, which are of a dark brown color, and give to
the animal its dark appearance. After being picked
and seasoned they are colored red, blue and yellow
by artificial dyes, and then used in connection with
the white ones. For heavy border work the quills
are moistened and flattened down, and in that form
are used, as will be seen in the plate (I. 44) ; but for
vine or figure work, a thread is stitched through the
deer-skin and around the quill, and drawn down so as
to compress it. This process is repeated at intervals,
the quill being bent between the stitches. No pat
terns are used to work from, the eye and the taste
being the principal guides. In combining colors
much taste is displayed.
Upon the head-dress, Gus-td-weh (see plate, I.
254), the most conspicuous part of the costume, much
attention was bestowed. The frame consisted of a
band of splint, adjusted around the head, with in
some instances a cross-band arching over the top,
from side to side. A cap of net-work, or other
construction, was then made to enclose the frame.
Around the splint, in later times, a silver band was
fastened, which completed the lower part. From the
top a cluster of white feathers depended. Besides
this, a single feather of the largest size was set in the
crown of the head-dress, inclining backwards from the
head. It was secured in a small tube, which was
253
LEAGUE OF THE
I RO 9 UOIS
Xj
fastened to the cross-splint, and in such a manner as
to allow the feather to revolve in the tube. This
feather, which was usually the plume of the eagle, is
the characteristic of the Iroquois head-dress.
Gus-to -weh, or Head Dress.
Next was the Leggin, Gise -ba (see plate, I. 256),
which was fastened above the knee, and descended upon
the moccason. It was also made originally of deer-skin,
and ornamented with quill-work upon the bottom and
side, the embroidered edge being worn in front. In
later times, red broadcloth, embroidered with bead-work,
as represented in the plate, has been substituted for
deer-skin in most cases. Much ingenuity and taste
were displayed in the designs, and in the execution of
the work upon this article of apparel. The warrior
might well be proud of this part of his costume.
254
GOS-TO-WEH OR HEAD DRESS
GA-DE-US-HA OR NECK LACE
COSTUME
The Moccason, Ah-ta-qu d-d -weh (see plate, I. 35),
was also made of deer-skin. In the modern moc-
cason, represented in the plate, the front part is worked
with porcupine quills after the ancient fashion, while
the part which falls down upon the sides is embroidered
with bead-work according to the present taste.
Not the least important article was the belt, Ga-
geti-ta (see plate, I. 101), which was prized as
highly as any part of the costume. The one repre
sented in the plate is of Indian manufacture. These
belts were braided by hand, the beads being inter
woven in the process of braiding/ 11 Belts of deer
skin were also worn. These belts were worn over
the left shoulder and around the waist.
Arm Bands, Knee Bands, and Wrist Bands, made
of various articles and ornamented in divers ways,
Knee Rattle of Deers 1 Hoofs.
were likewise a part of the costume. Sometimes they
were made of deer-skin, sometimes of white dog-skin,
and in later times of red and blue velvet, embroidered
with bead-work, as represented in the plate (1. 216).
In addition to the knee-bands, Knee Rattles of
deers hoofs, as shown in the figure, and in modern
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
times, of strips of metal, or of bells, made a neces
sary part of the costume. Personal ornaments of
various kinds, together with the war-club, the toma
hawk, and the scalping-knife, completed the attire.
The war-club used in the dance, was usually a light
article, of which the following is a representation :
, or War- Club.
The various articles of apparel which now make up
the costume of the Iroquois, are precisely the same
that they were at the epoch of the discovery. No
change has been made in the articles themselves, al
though there have been changes in the materials of
which they were made. The deer-skin, in later days,
has been laid aside for the broadcloth, and the porcu
pine quill for the bead. By making a resubstitution
of material, the original costume would be recovered
in full. (114)
In preparing for the dance, all the articles above
described were not necessarily used by each individual.
Those strictly needful were the head-dress, the belt
and kilt, to which each wearer added such ornaments
and rattles as he was disposed. Usually they were
nude down to the waist, and also below the knees, to
give greater freedom to their limbs. A great diversity
could be seen in their costumes when brought together
in the dance, in consequence of the different fabrics of
256
GISE-HA OR MALE LEGGIN,
COSTUME
which they were composed, and the variety in their
personal ornaments, notwithstanding every article of
apparel was of the same pattern. Specimens of full
Iroquois costumes, both male and female, are given
in the engravings which are introduced as frontis
pieces/ 1 ^ These, and the several plates which are
given to illustrate the male costume in detail, will sav
the necessity of any further description.
Ga-no-jo -Oy or Indian Drum.
I foot.
The two dances mentioned before this digression
were the highest in the popular favor. One was of
original invention, the other imported; one was of
a strictly religious character, and the other of a patri
otic ; but both were equally effective to arouse the
enthusiasm of the people. All things considered,
however, the last of the two, the War dance, Wa-
sa-seh, was the favorite. It was the mode of en
listment for a perilous expedition, the dance which
preceded the departure of the band, and with which
VOL. i. 17 257
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
they celebrated their return. It was the dance at
the ceremony of raising up sachems, at the adoption
of a captive, at the entertainment of a guest, the
first dance taught to the young. It was not of Iro-
quois origin, but was adopted from the Sioux, as its
name imports, reaching back through them to a re
mote antiquity. 1 The characteristic feature of this
dance is to be found in the speeches which were
made by those surrounding the band of dancers be
tween each tune, or at each break in the dance.
From this source the people derived as much enter
tainment as they did excitement from the perform
ance itself. It was the only dance in which speeches
and replies were appropriate, or ever introduced ;
and in this particular it was a novelty, leading
oftentimes to the highest amusement. By these
speeches, which both relieved the performers and
diverted the people, the dance was lengthened out
to two and even three hours, before the spirits of
the company were expended.
The War dance was usually performed in the evening.
It was only brought out on prominent occasions, or at
domestic councils of unusual interest. Fifteen made
a full company, but oftentimes twenty-five and even
thirty participated. After the business of the day was
disposed of, and the dusk of evening had crept in,
1 The name of the Sioux in the Seneca dialect is Wa-sa -seh-o-no. By
contraction and usage, the word Wa-sa -seh is now used for the Sioux
dance, the name by which the \Var dance has always been known among
the Iroquois. This dance has been ascribed by some to the Shawnees,
and called Sa-iva-no -o-no, or the Shawnee dance, this being the Seneca
name of the Shawnees. One of the Iroquois names of this dance is
Ne-ja f , but Wa-sa -seh is the customary name.
258
WAR DANCE
preparations began for the dance. The people gathered
within the council-house, usually in increased numbers,
because of this expected entertainment, and arranging
themselves in favorable positions, they quietly awaited
the approach of the dancers. The arrangements were
made, including the selection of the number, the ap
pointment of the leader, and of the singers of the
war-songs, by the keepers of the faith. In an adjacent
lodge, the band assembled to array themselves in their
costumes, and to paint and decorate their persons for
the occasion. The war-whoop ever and anon broke
in upon the stillness of the evening, indicating to the
listening and expectant throng within the council-house,
that their preparations were progressing to a com
pletion. A keeper of the faith, in the mean time,
occupied the attention of the people with a brief speech
upon the nature and objects of this dance. Presently,
a nearer war-whoop ringing through the air, announced
that the band were approaching. Preceded by their
leader, and marching in file to the beat of the drum,
they drew near to the council-house. As they came
up, the crowd gave way, the leader crossed the thresh
old, followed quickly by his feathered band, and
immediately opened the dance. In an instant they
grouped themselves within a circular area, standing
thick together, the singers commenced the war-song,
the drums beat time, and the dancers made the floor
resound with their stirring feet. After a moment the
song ceased, and with it the dance ; the band walking
around a common centre to the beat of the drum at
half time. Another song soon commenced, the drums
quickened their time, and the dance was resumed. In
259
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
the middle of the song there was a change in the music,
accompanied with a slight cessation of the dance, after
which it became more animated than before, until the
song ended, and the band again walked to the beat of
the drum. Each tune or war-song lasted about two
minutes, and the interval between them was about as
long. These songs were usually recited by four singers,
using two drums of the kind represented in the figure,
to mark time, and as an accompaniment. The drums
beat time about twice in a second, the voices of the
singers keeping pace, thus making a rapid and strongly
accented species of music. 1
It would be difficult, if not impossible, to describe
the step, except generally. With the whites, the
dancing is entirely upon the toe of the foot, with rapid
changes of position, and but slight changes of attitude.
But with the Iroquois, it was chiefly upon the heel,
with slow changes of position, and rapid changes of
attitude. The heel is raised and brought down with
great quickness and force, by muscular strength, to
keep time with the beat of the drum, to make a re
sounding noise by the concussion, and at the same
time to shake the knee-rattles, which contributed
materially to the "pomp and circumstance" of the
dance. In the War dance, the attitudes were those of
1 These war songs are in a dead language, or, at all events, the Iroquois
are unable to interpret them. They are in regular verses, or measured sen
tences, and were learned by them with the dance originally. Charlevoix has
furnished a translation of some of these songs as follows : "I am brave
and intrepid. I do not fear death, nor any kind of torture. Those who
fear them are cowards. They are less than women. Life is nothing to
those who have courage. May my enemies be confounded with despair
and rage. " These songs were sung by captives at the torture ; and
doubtless those used in the War dance are of the same general character.
260
WAR DANCE
the violent passions, and consequently were not grace
ful. At the same instant of time, in a group of dancers,
one might be seen in the attitude of attack, another
of defence; one in the act of drawing the bow, another
of striking with the war-club ; some in the act of
throwing the tomahawk, some of listening, or of watch
ing an opportunity, and others of striking the foe.
These violent motions of the body, while they, perhaps,
increased the spirit and animation of the dance, led to
disagreeable distortions of the countenance, as well as
to uncouth attitudes. But, at the same time, the
striking costumes of the dancers, their erect forms at
certain stages of the figure, their suppleness and ac
tivity, the wild music, the rattle of the dance, together
with the excitable and excited throng around them,
made up a scene of no common interest.
In this dance, the war-whoop and the response always
preceded each song. It was given by the leader, and
answered by the band. A description of this terrific
outbreak of human voices is scarcely possible. It was
a prolonged sound upon a high note, with a decadence
near the end, followed by an abrupt and explosive
conclusion, in which the voice was raised again to the
original pitch. The whole band responded in a united
scream upon the same key with which the leader con
cluded, and at the same instant. 1
An attempt is here made to rep
resent this wild cry. It is given
by the Indian with wide-open
mouth. His voice slides down the
descending notes, when he pauses
an instant to take a new inspiration,
all which is to be expended in the sudden and far-reaching yell with which
261
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
In this celebrated dance, therefore, which has doubt
less been used for centuries, and been performed
throughout the whole area of the American republic,
we find this simple succession of acts : the war-whoop
and responses, the simultaneous commencement of the
war-song and the dance, the slight cessation at the
middle of the tune, with a change in the music, the re
newal of the dance with redoubled animation, and the
final conclusion of the war-song in perhaps less than
two minutes from its commencement ; and lastly, the
walk at the beat of the drum around a central point
for about two minutes, until the war-whoop again
sounded, and another war-song was introduced. This
round was continued until the spirit of the dancers
began to flag, and the desires of the people had been
reasonably gratified. Without any speeches between
the tunes to relieve the band, it usually lasted about
an hour; but with speeches, it often continued for
three hours with unabated animation.
Any one present was at liberty to make a speech
at any stage of the dance. His desire was manifested
by a rap. At the sound the dance ceased, or, if
finished, and the band were walking, they were re
quired to stop, and all present, as well as the music,
to be silent. The only condition affixed to the right
of making a speech, was that of bestowing a present
at its close upon the dancers, or upon the one to
whom it was addressed. After the speech was con
cluded, and the present delivered, the war-whoop and
responses were again sounded, the drums beat, the
the piece concludes. On this last note the whole band join in chorus, using
the syllables " ah um, 11 connected in one, or something like it.
262
SPEECHES
song and the dance commenced, and were ended
as before. Then followed another speech, and still
others, alternating with the songs, or suspending
the dance at the moment of its highest animation,
at the pleasure of the speaker. In this manner the
War dance was continued until the spirit of enjoyment
began to subside, when the final war-whoop put an end
to the dance, and the band retired.
These speeches were often pleasantries between
individuals, or strictures upon each other s foibles,
or earnest exhortations, or perchance patriotic ebul
litions of feeling, according to the fancy of the
person and of the moment. Some of them were
received with rounds of applause, some with jeers,
and others with seriousness and deference. They
usually lasted but two or three minutes. The Indian
has a keen appreciation of wit, and is fond of both
jest and. repartee, as well as of ridicule.
To convey a fuller impression of the character of
these speeches, and of the nature of the dance itself,
a few specimens will be introduced. These speeches
are short and rather unmeaning, when separated
from the occasion, and the connection in which they
were called forth. Those most interesting would
require an explanation of collateral circumstances to
be understood, and they are therefore excluded.
Those to be given are not particularly interesting ;
but they explain themselves, and will answer the pur
pose for which they are introduced as fully as if they
sparkled with wit.
After the band came in and opened the War dance,
several songs were performed before any one was
263
LEAGUE OF THE IROgJJOIS
disposed to interrupt them. All eyes were turned
upon the several costumes of the band, upon the
spirit and activity of individuals in the dance, and
the animation and enthusiasm of the party. Round
after round followed, until the spirit of the company
was fully aroused, when it began to expend itself in
speeches and witticisms. The first rap was made
by ^o-no-ai-o a humorous old chief. Silence being
restored, he spoke as follows : " Friends and Rela
tives I am occasionally fond of a drink of the
strong waters. I do not know how it is with Ta-ya-
d d-o-wuti-kuh, (the guest to whom the War dance was
given), (9) but presume it is something the same with
him, and therefore I send him a sixpence to buy a
drink with on his way home." Gives the money.
Again the drum sounded, the war-whoop and re
sponses were given, and the music and the dance
were resumed. At the end of the tune another rap
restored silence. Ha-sque-sa-o, another chief, and one
somewhat noted for his fondness for the fire-water,
spoke as follows : " Friends and Relatives I am
much pleased with the dance, and hope it will con
tinue to be well sustained. I return my thanks to
the war-dancers for the spirit with which they per
form their duty. I wish them all prosperity and
long life. If any one should look at me, they will
find that I keep my eye fixed upon the dancers, and
furthermore, that I have a good eye, so much so,
that one would think I wore glasses. I take from
my pocket a shilling for the dancers." Gives the
money. The dance was then resumed. At the end
of the song, the speech of Ha-sque-sa-o called out
264
SPEECHES
a reply from Sa-de-wa-na, as follows : " Friends
and Relatives --We have just heard some one on
the other side of the house announce, that he had an
eye so bright that one would think he wore specta
cles. But as he has a pair of red eyes, we must, I
suppose, conclude that he uses red spectacles." Gives
tobacco to the dancers. This hit at Ha-sque r -sa-o s
infirmity was received with applause. Again the
dance goes on as usual. Among the dancers were
men of all sizes, figures and heights. There was one
warrior, especially, of such herculean proportions that
he might be called a giant. He furnished a theme
for the next speech, which was made by Ha-sa-no-
ari-da^ the dance having ceased, as follows : " Friends
and Relatives I admire the ease and grace with
which Ha-ho-yas manages his wonderful proportions.
He has every reason to be proud of his size and dig
nity. I propose to give him a present of two plugs
of tobacco, supposing that it will be sufficient for one
quid. 1 Gives the tobacco. Ha-ho-yas received the
tobacco with seeming pleasure, and the people the jest
with considerable merriment. At the conclusion of
the next song, he thus replied : " Friends and Rela
tives - - I return my thanks to Ha-sa-no-ari-da for
his present. I assure him that my intellectual ca
pacities correspond very justly with my physical
dimensions. I hope my brother will publish my
fame from the rising to the setting sun." Again the
war-whoop sounded, the music opened, and the dance
was renewed.
Other speeches were made from time to time, some
of which called forth applause, and in due time a reply
265
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
adapted to the case. After a number had thus spoken,
Sa-de-wa-na rapped again. When the music and the
dancers were still, he thus said : " Friends and Rela
tives I have made another strike. I desire to make
a present to the women who have assisted in preparing
the feast. But as I cannot give presents to all, I wish
to see the one who has to-day eaten the most beef, and
is considered the most greedy. I request her to come
forward and receive the present." One of them, Gi-
an-ok, advanced and received the money, good-
naturedly, which the people applauded. After a few
more courses of the dance, a speech was made by
O-no -sa, of a more serious cast, as follows: "Friends
and Relatives We have reason to glory in the
achievements of our ancestors. I behold with sadness
the present declining state of our noble race. Once
the warlike yell and the painted band were the terror
of the white man. Then our fathers were strong, and
their power was felt and acknowledged far and wide
over the American continent. But we have been re
duced and broken by the cunning and rapacity of the
white-skinned race. We are now compelled to crave,
as a blessing, that we may be allowed to live upon our
own lands, to cultivate our own fields, to drink from
our own springs, and to mingle our bones with those
of our fathers. Many winters ago, our wise ancestors
predicted that a great monster, with white eyes, would
come from the east, and, as he advanced, would con
sume the land. This monster is the white race, and
the prediction is near its fulfilment. They advised
their children, when they became weak, to plant a tree
with four roots, branching to the north, the south, the
266
SPEECHES
east, and the west ; and then collecting under its shade,
to dwell together in unity and harmony. This tree,
I propose, shall be this very spot. Here we will
gather, here live, and here die." Gives tobacco, to the
dancers. The dance was then resumed as before, and
continued until a rap announced another speech from
To-no-ai -o, the first speaker, who, after silence was re
stored, addressed the dancers : "In my view of the
dance you do not do it as well as it can be done ;
although you doubtless have done as well as you
know how. When I was a young man, I was the
greatest dancer of my time. I did not know any one
who could surpass me in the War dance. Further
more, I was considered the best singer of the war-
songs. I hope, however, you will continue to do the
best you can, even though you fail to perform this
dance as well as it can be done. I have another piece
of the leaf which I will turn over to the singers. I
wish them to swallow the juice, as it will make their
voices clear, and help their singing." Gives the
tobacco. Again the dance was resumed. After the
next tune, this speech called out a reply from Ja-ese\
as follows : " Friends and Relatives We have just
heard a speaker, on the other side of the house, boast
ing of what he had done in his younger days. I do
not like to hear such high speaking of one s self. I
should like to see ^o-no-ai-o come out and show the
people what he can do, or what he used to do in his
younger days." Gives money to the dancers. Again
the war-whoop sounded, the responses followed, and
the music and the dance made the house resound. In
this manner was this famous dance conducted by our
267
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
primitive inhabitants around their domestic council-
fires.
These illustrations will suffice to exhibit the general
character of these speeches, as well as of the dance
itself. In the numerous addresses and witticisms
which the War dance called forth, the Iroquois took
the highest delight. They served the double purpose
of relieving the dancers themselves, who would soon
have been exhausted by continuous exertion, and of
entertaining the people in the interval. This was the
secret of its great popularity as a dance, and of its uni
versal adoption. To this day, a well-conducted War
dance is the highest entertainment known among the
Iroquois.
Gus-da -zva-sa, or Rattle.
Second in the public estimation, but first intrinsi
cally, stood the great Feather dance, 0-sto-weti-go-wd,
sometimes called the Religious dance, because it was
specially consecrated to the worship of the Great
Spirit. The invention, or at least the introduction of
this dance, is ascribed to the first To-do-da -ho, at the
period of the formation of the League. In its Iro
quois origin, they all concur. It was performed by a
select band, ranging from fifteen to thirty, in full cos
tume, and was chiefly used at their religious festivals,
although it was one of the prominent dances on all
268
GREAT FEATHER DANCE
great occasions in Indian life. This dance was the
most splendid, graceful and remarkable in the whole
collection, requiring greater powers of endurance, sup
pleness and flexibility of person, and gracefulness of
deportment, than either of the others. The saltandi
ars, or dancing art, found in the Feather dance its
highest achievement, at least in the Indian family ;
and it may be questioned whether a corresponding
figure can be found among those which are used in
refined communities, which will compare with it in
those particulars which make up a spirited and grace
ful dance.
The music was furnished by two singers, seated in
the centre of the room, each having a turtle-shell
rattle of the kind represented in the figure. 1 It con
sisted of a series of songs or measured verses, which
required about two minutes each for their recitation.
They were all religious songs, some of them in praise
of the Great Spirit, some in praise of various objects
in nature which ministered to their wants, others in
the nature of thanksgivings to Ha-wen-ne -yu, or sup
plications of his continued protection. The rattles
were used to mark time, and as an accompaniment to
the songs. In using them, they were struck upon the
seat as often as twice or thrice in a second, the song
and the step of the dancers keeping time, notwith
standing the rapidity of the beat.
The band arrayed themselves in their costumes in
1 To make this rattle they remove the animal from the shell, and af
ter drying it, they place within it a handful of flint-corn, and then sew
up the skin which is left attached to the shell. The neck of the turtle is
then stretched over a wooden handle.
269
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
an adjacent lodge, came into the council-house, and
opened in all respects as in the case last described.
Instead of grouping, however, within the area of a
circle, they ranged themselves in file, and danced
slowly around the council-house in an elliptical line.
When the music ceased, the dance also was suspended,
and the party walked in column to the beat of the
rattles. After an interval of about two minutes, the
rattles quickened their time, the singers commenced
another song, and the warriors, at the same instant,
the dance. The leader, standing at the head of the
column, opened, followed by those behind. As they
advanced slowly around the room, in the dance, they
gestured with their arms, and placed their bodies in a
great variety of positions, but, unlike the practice in
the War dance, always keeping their forms erect.
None of the attitudes in this dance were those of the
violent passions, but rather of the mild and gentle
feelings. Consequently, there were no distortions
either of the countenance or the body ; but all their
movements and positions were extremely graceful,
dignified and imposing. The step has the same
general peculiarities as that in the dance last described,
but yet is quite distinct from it. Each foot in succes
sion is raised from two to eight inches from the floor,
and the heel is then brought down with great force as
frequently as the beat of the rattles. Frequently one
heel is brought down twice or three times before it
alternates with the other. This will convey an im
pression of the surprising activity of this dance, in
which every muscle of the body appears to be strung
to its highest degree of tension. The concussion of
270
GREAT FEATHER DANCE
the foot upon the floor served the double purpose of
shaking the rattles and bells, which form a part of the
costume, and of adding to the noise and animation of
the dance.
The dancers were usually nude down to the waist,
with the exception of ornaments upon their arms and
necks, as represented in the engraving, thus exposing
their well-formed chests, finely rounded arms, and
their smooth, evenly colored skins, of a clear and
brilliant copper color. This exposure of the person,
not in any sense displeasing, contributed materially to
the beauty of the costume, and gave a striking expres
sion to the figure of the dancer. Such was the physi
cal exertion put forth in this dance, that before it
closed, the vapor of perspiration steamed up, like
smoke, from their uncovered backs. No better evi
dence than this need be given, that it was a dance full
of earnestness and enthusiasm. One of their aims was
to test each other s powers of endurance. It not un-
frequently happened that a part of the original number
yielded from exhaustion before the dance was ended.
Nothing but practice superadded to flexibility of per
son and great muscular strength would enable even an
Indian to perform this dance. When the popular ap
plause was gained by one of the band for spirited or
graceful dancing, he was called out to stand at the head
of the column, and lead the party : in this way several
changes of leaders occurred before the final conclusion
of the figure.
In this dance the women participated, if they were
disposed. They wore, however, their ordinary ap
parel, and entered by themselves at the foot of the
271
LEAGUE OF THE I R O U O I S
column. The female step is entirely unlike the one
described. They moved sideways in this figure,
simply raising themselves alternately upon each foot
from heel to toe, and then bringing down the heel
upon the floor, at each beat of the rattle, keeping pace
with the slowly advancing column. With the females
dancing was a quiet and not ungraceful amusement.
As a scene, its whole effect was much increased by
the arrangement of the dancers into column. In this
long array of costumes, the peculiar features of each
were brought more distinctly into view, and by keep
ing the elliptical area around which they moved,
entirely free from the pressing throng of Indian specta
tors, a better opportunity was afforded to all to witness
the performance. To one who has never seen this
dance, it would be extremely difficult to convey any
notion of its surprising activity, and its inspiring influ
ence upon the spectators. Requiring an almost con
tinuous exertion, it is truly a marvellous performance.
The Thanksgiving dance, Ga-na-o-uh, was likewise
a costume dance, and given by a select band. It re
sembles the one last described so closely, both in step
and plan, that it is not necessary to describe it.
One of the most simple figures among the Iroquois,
was called the Trotting dance, G a-d a-shote. It was
usually the opening dance at councils, and at private
entertainments, when no costume figures were intro
duced. A person appointed to act as leader, followed
by a few others, took the floor and began. Others
joined in as the column passed around the room.
The music was entirely vocal, and furnished by those
who danced. It consisted of about twenty different
272
FISH DANCE
songs, each lasting something less than two minutes.
In this dance the tune was the mere repetition of one
exclamation by those at the head of the column, fol
lowed by a response, in chorus, from the residue.
Three specimens are given in illustration. The leader,
in concert with those nearest him, sang the following
syllables : Ta-ha-we-ya-ha > to which all the others
responded, Ha-ha . This would be repeated and re
sponded to, for about two minutes, the pronunciation
of the syllables being subjected to a musical variation
each time. When the tune ended, the band walked
for about the same length of time. The next song
might consist of the syllables Ga-no -oh-he-yo, with the
response Wa-ha-ah-he-yo . This would be continued,
and the key varied, in the same manner as the last.
After this was ended, and the dancers had refreshed
themselves by walking, perhaps the next song would
consist of the following syllables : Tu-wa-na-he-yo\
and the response Wa-ha-ah-hd .
As to the step it was very simple, being nearly a
trot, or alternate step on each foot. In dancing, those
engaged stood close to each other, and advanced slowly
around the council-house. The women participated,
but they were by themselves at the foot of the column.
As this dance was extremely simple, it was not uncom
mon to see two and even three hundred engaged in it
at one time, moving around in three or four concentric
lines.
Another figure, in very general use, was called
the Fish dance, Ga-so-wa-o-no.^ It was of foreign
origin. The music consisted of singing, accompanied
with the drum, and the squash-shell rattle ; the two
VOL. i. 18 273
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
singers seating themselves in the centre of the room
facing each other, and using the drum and rattle to
mark time, and increase the volume of the music.
The step was merely an elevation from heel to toe,
twice repeated upon each foot alternately ; bringing
down the heel each alternate time with considerable
force, to mark time and make the floor resound.
The dance was commenced by the leader, who took
the floor, followed by others, and walked to the beat
of the drum. When the song commenced, each alter
nate dancer faced round, thus bringing the column
into sets of two each, face to face, those who turned
dancing backwards, but the whole band moving around
the room, as in other cases. Each song or tune lasted
about three minutes. At the end of the first minute
there was a break in the music, and the sets turned,
thus reversing their positions ; at the end of the second
there was another change in the music, in the midst
of which the sets turned again, which brought them
back to their original positions. Through the third
and last subdivision o.f the time, the dance was con
tinued with increased animation. At the close of it,
those who had been dancing backwards faced around,
and the whole column walked about two minutes, to
the beat of the drum. Another tune was then com
menced and finished in the same manner.
The peculiarity of this dance was the opportunity
which it afforded the Indian maiden to select whomever
she preferred as a partner. In this particular the cus
tom of refined communities was reversed. The warrior
never solicited the maiden to dance with him ; that
privilege was accorded to her alone. In the midst of
274
GISE-HA OR FEMALE LEGGIN-
DANCE FOR THE DEAD
the dance, the females present themselves in pairs
between any set they may select, thus giving to each a
partner. This rule prevails in all Indian dances ; so
that the Indian maiden at her own convenience
" gracefully presents her personage to the one she de
signs to favor, and thus quietly engages herself in the
dance." In none of the changes of position in this
dance do the partners join hands. This figure usually
continues less than an hour. Sometimes, as a mark
of respect to a guest, or distinguished chief, two wo
men presented themselves before him, as partners in
the dance.
The Passing dance, Ga-no -ga-yo^ was also in high
favor. It is similar to the last, the column being
divided into sets of two each, the women engaging in
whichever set they please. At a certain stage of the
song, the woman passed her partner, and took the
next, her place being supplied from behind. They
danced around the room, facing each other in pairs,
the men moving backwards. The music and the step
were about the same as in the dance last described.
An occasional and very singular figure was called
the Dance for the Dead. It was known as the O-ke-
wa. It was danced by the women alone. The music
was entirely vocal, a select band of singers being
stationed in the centre of the room. To the songs
for the dead, which they sang, the dancers joined in
chorus. It was plaintive and mournful music. This
dance was usually separate from all councils, and the
only dance of the occasion. It commenced at dusk
or soon after, and continued until towards morning,
when the shades of the dead, who were believed to be
2 75
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
present and participate in the dance, were supposed to
disappear. This dance was had whenever a family,
which had lost a member, called for it, which was
usually about a year after the event. In the spring
and fall, it was often given for all the dead indiscrimi
nately, who were believed then to revisit the earth
and join in the dance.
One of their performances was called the Buffalo
dance, Da-ge -ya-go-o-an -no. It was designed for
males alone. The music consisted of singing, accom-
Gus-da -wa-sa, or Squash-shell Rattles.
panied with the drum and the rattle. Its principal
feature was the attempt to imitate the actions of the
buffalo. According to tradition, this dance originated
in a warlike expedition of the Iroquois against the
Cherokees. When they had proceeded as far as the
Kentucky salt lick, they heard, for the first time, the
buffaloes, "singing their favorite songs" (bellowing
and grumbling). From this bellowing the music, and
from their actions the plan of the dance, were made.
In connection with the dances of the Iroquois, may
be mentioned their concerts, which occupy a con
spicuous place in their amusements. But one will be
276
CO N CERTS
noticed of the four, which make up the number of
kinds. It was called the Q-ee-dose . It was given in
the night, in a dark room, and no women were allowed
to be present. Those engaged in the concert were
seated on benches around the room, in a continuous
row, each one holding in his hand a rattle, of the kind
represented in the figure. These rattles were made to
give each one a different note, by means of different-
sized shells, and holes bored in them to emit the
sound. Among twenty of them, rattled together at
such a concert, no two would give the same sound.
Corn was placed inside the shell. When the parties
were ready, one of their number sang a song, to which
they all beat time with their rattles, and at certain in
tervals all joined in the song in chorus. Another then
commenced a song, which was continued and finished
in the same manner. After each one in turn had
sung his song, which, with the accompaniments and
the choruses, made a not unpleasant entertainment,
the concert was ended. 1
The other three are the Medicine concert, Ga-no-da-
yo-suh ; the Female concert, O-e-un-do-ta ; and the
Thanksgiving concert, Ah -do-weh, before described.
1 The Indian appears to have had a good perception of time, and to
have measured it, in his music and dances, with considerable exactness ;
but in tune he was sadly deficient. He knew nothing of the natural in
tervals of tones and semi-tones. There runs always through his music
one predominant and constantly recurring sound, from which the others
vary by all kinds of irregular intervals and fractions of intervals. The
tunes of the Iroquois, if the name may be given to their rude minstrelsy,
were both numerous and varied, and capable, also, of inspiring enthusi
asm or sadness. In their occasional songs, as in the Ah-do -iveh, the
music, as well as the words, was often impromptu. The Indian voice,
especially that of the female, is musical, and highly capable of cultivation.
277
LEAGUE OF THE I R O ^U O I S
It will not be necessary to describe the remaining
dances. Sufficient, at least, has been presented, to give
a general idea of the Dance among the Iroquois. A
few of them have been given in detail, as they seemed
calculated to furnish a glimpse of Indian society.
These amusements of our primitive inhabitants are not,
in themselves, devoid of interest, although they indi
cate a tendency of mind unbefitting rational men. A
hunter by nature and by inclination, averse to cities,
and impatient of labor, the chase, the war-path, and
the council-fire, with the dance, furnished the three
great employments of his life. Who shall tell how
much the hopes, the friendships, the happiness, and
even the virtues of the Indian, were bound up in indis
soluble connection with the Dance ? With it the Iro
quois kindled the flame of patriotism which glowed in
his breast, while vindicating the prowess of his race
upon the hills of New England, on the prairies of the
Mississippi, or in the trackless forests of the South.
With it he celebrated his victories, and in the days of
peace cultivated his social affections. And with it,
also, at stated seasons of the year, he offered up his
praise and homage to the Great Spirit, the ever present
Author of his being. 1
1 SCHEDULE OF IROQUOIS DANCES. (123)
Those marked thus *, are of foreign origin 5 thus j, are now obsolete 5
and thus J, are costume dances.
1 O-sto-weh -go-wa, ;{; Great Feather Dance. For both sexes.
2 Ga-na -o-uh,;}; Great Thanksgiving Dance. "
3 Da-yun -da-nes-hunt-ha, Dance with Joined Hands. "
4 Ga-da -shote,* Trotting Dance. "
5 O-to-wa -ga-ka,* f North Dance. "
2 7 8
SCHEDULE OF DANCES
6 Je-ha -ya,
7 Ga -no-jit -ga-o,
8 Ga-so-wa -o-no,*"
9 Os-ko-da -ta,
10 Ga-no -ga-yo,|
1 1 So-wek-o-an -no,"*
12 Ja-ko -wa-o-an -no,
i 3 Guk-sa -ga-ne-a,-)-
14 Ga-so -a,-j-
15 O-ke -wa,
1 6 O-as-ka-ne -a,
1 7 Da-swa-da-ne -a,
1 8 Ga-ne-a -seh-o, j
19 Un-da-da-o-at -ha,-]-
20 Un-to-we -sus,
2 1 Da-yo-da -sun-da-e -go,
22 Wa-sa -seh,^ J
23 Da-ge -ya-go-o-an -no,
24 Ne-a -gwi-o-an -no,*
25 Wa-a-no -a,-j-
26 Ne-ho-sa-den -da,-j-
27 Ga-na-un -da-do,-}- J
28 Un-de-a-ne-suk -ta,-j- J
29 Eh-nes -hen-do,-}-
30 Ga-go -sa,
31 Ga-je -sa,
32 Un-da-de-a-dus -shun-ne
Antique Dance.
Taking the Kettle out.
Fish Dance.
Shaking the Bush.
Rattle Dance.
Duck Dance.
Pigeon Dance.
Grinding Dishes.
Knee Rattle Dance.
Dance for the Dead.
Shuffle Dance.
Tumbling Dance.
Turtle Dance.
Initiation Dance for Girls.
Shuffle Dance.
Dark Dance.
Sioux, or War Dance.
Buffalo Dance.
Bear Dance.
Striking the Stick.
Squat Dance.
Scalp Dance.
Track Finding Dance.
Arm Shaking Dance.
False Face Dance.
-at -ha,-j- Preparation Dance.
For both sexes.
((
< (
For Females.
c<
II
tt
(I
ft
((
For Males.
279
Chapter V
National Games Betting Ball Game Game of Javelins Game
of Deer Buttons Snow Snake Game Snow Boat Game Arch-
. ery Peach-Stone Game Enthusiasm for Games
IN their national games is to be found another
fruitful source of amusement in Indian life.
These games were not only played at their re
ligious festivals, at which they often formed a con
spicuous part of the entertainment, but special days
were frequently set apart for their celebration. They
entered into these diversions with the highest zeal and
emulation, and took unwearied pains to perfect them
selves in the art of playing each successfully. There
were but six principal games among the Iroquois, and
these are divisible into athletic games, and games of
chance.
Challenges were often sent from one village to
another, and were even exchanged between nations,
to a contest of some of these games. In such cases
the chosen players of each community or nation were
called out to contend for the prize of victory. An
intense degree of excitement was aroused, when the
champions were the most skilful players of rival
villages, or adjacent nations. 1 The people enlisted
1 Tradition relates that the war which ended in the expulsion of the
Eries, about the year 1654, from the western part of New York, origi
nated in a breach of faith or treachery on the part of the Eries, in a Ball
game to which they had challenged the Senecas.
280
BETTING
upon their respective sides, with a degree of enthusi
asm, which would have done credit, both to the spec
tators and the contestants, at the far-famed Elian
games. For miles, and even hundreds of miles, they
flocked together at the time appointed to witness the
contest.
Unlike-the prizes of the Olympic games, no chap-
lets awaited the victors. They were strifes between
nation and nation, village and village, or tribes and
tribes ; in a word parties against parties, and not
champion against champion. The prize contended
for was that of victory ; and it belonged, not to the
triumphant players, but to the party which sent them
forth to the contest.
When these games were not played by one com
munity against another, upon a formal challenge, the
people arranged themselves on two sides, according
to their tribal divisions. By an organic provision of
the Iroquois, as elsewhere stated, the Wolf, Bear,
Beaver and Turtle tribes were brothers to each other,
as tribes, and cousins to the other four. In playing
their games they always went together, and formed
one party or side. In the same manner the Deer,
Snipe, Heron and Hawk tribes were brothers to each
other, as tribes, and cousins to the four first .named.
These formed a second, or opposite party. Thus in
all Indian games, with the exceptions first mentioned,
the people divided themselves into two sections, four
of the tribes always contending against the other
four. (57) Father and son, husband and wife, were thus
arrayed in opposite ranks.
Betting upon the result was common among the
281
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
Iroquois. As this practice was never reprobated by
their religious teachers, but, on the contrary, rather
encouraged, it frequently led to the most reckless in
dulgence. It often happened that the Indian gambled
away every valuable article which he possessed ; his
tomahawk, his medal, his ornaments, and even his
blanket. (98) The excitement and eagerness with which
he watched the shifting tide of the game, was more
uncontrollable than the delirious agitation of the
pale-face at the race-course, or even at the gaming
table. Their excitable temperament and emulous
spirits peculiarly adapted them for the enjoyment of
their national games.
These bets were made in a systematic manner, and
the articles then deposited with the managers of the
game. A bet offered by a person upon one side, in
the nature of some valuable article, was matched by a
similar article, or one of equal value, by some one
upon the other. Personal ornaments made the usual
gaming currency. Other bets were offered and taken
in the same manner, until hundreds of articles were
sometimes collected. These were laid aside by the
managers, until the game was decided, when each
article lost by the event was handed over to the
winning individual, together with his own, which he
had risked against it.
With the Iroquois, the Ball game, O-ta-da-jisti-qua-
age, was the favorite among their amusements of this
description. This game reaches back to a remote
antiquity, was universal among the red races, and was
played with a degree of zeal and enthusiasm which
would scarcely be credited. It was played with a
282
BALL GAME
small deer-skin ball, by a select band, usually from six
to eight on a side, each set representing its own party.
The game was divided into several contests, in which
each set of players strove to carry the ball through
their own gate. They went out into an open plain or
field, and erected gates, about eighty rods apart, on its
Ga-ne-a, or Ball Bat.
5 feet.
opposite sides. Each gate was simply two poles, some
ten feet high, set in the ground about three rods
asunder. One of these gates belonged to each party ;
and the contest between the players was, which set
would first carry the ball through its own a given
number of times. Either five or seven made the
game, as the parties agreed. If five, for example, was
the number, the party which first carried, or drove the
ball through its own gate this number of times, won
the victory. Thus, after eight separate contests, the
283
LEAGUE OF THE IKO^UOIS
parties might stand equal, each having won four ; in
which case the party which succeeded on the ninth
contest would carry the game. The players com
menced in the centre of the field, midway between the
gates. If one of them became fatigued or disabled
during the progress of the game, he was allowed to
leave the ranks, and his party could supply his place
with a fresh player, but the original numbers were not
at any time allowed to be increased. Regular man
agers were appointed on each side to see that the
rules of the game were strictly and fairly observed.
One rule forbade the players to touch the ball with
the hand or foot.
In preparing for this game, the players denuded
themselves entirely, with the exception of the waist-
cloth l (see plate, I. 51). They also underwent,
frequently, a course of diet and training, as in a
preparation for a foot-race.
When the day designated had arrived, the people
gathered from the whole surrounding country, to
witness the contest. About meridian they assem
bled at the appointed place, and having separated
themselves into two companies, one might be seen
upon each side of the line, between the gates, arranged
in scattered groups, awaiting the commencement of
the game. The players, when ready, stationed them
selves in two parallel rows, facing each other, midway
on this line/ each one holding a ball bat, of the kind
1 The Ga -ka, or waist-cloth, was a strip of deer-skin or broadcloth,
about a quarter wide and two yards long, ornamented at the ends with
bead or quill work. It was passed between the limbs, and secured by a
deer-skin belt, passing around the waist, the embroidered ends falling over
the belt, before and behind, in the fashion of an apron.
284
BALL GAME
represented in the figure, and with which alone the
ball was to be driven. As soon as all the prelimi
naries were adjusted, the ball was dropped between
the two files of players, and taken between the bats
of the two who stood in the middle of each file,
opposite to each other. After a brief struggle be
tween them, in which each player endeavored, with
his bat, to get possession of the ball, and give it the
first impulse towards his own gate, it was thrown out,
and then commenced the pursuit. The flying ball,
when overtaken, was immediately surrounded by a
group of players, each one striving to extricate it,
and, at the same time, direct it towards his party
gate. In this way. the ball was frequently imprisoned
in different parts of the field, and an animated
controversy maintained for its possession. When
freed, it was knocked upon the ground, or through
the air ; but the moment a chance presented, it was
taken up upon the deer-skin network of the ball bat,
by a player in full career, and carried in a race towards
the gate. To guard against this contingency, by
which one contest of the game might be determined
D O
in a moment, some of the players detached them
selves from the group contending around the ball,
and took a position from which to intercept a runner
upon a diagonal line, if it should chance that one of
the adverse party got possession of the ball. These
races often formed the most exciting part of the
game, both from the fleetness of the runners, and
the consequences which depended upon the result.
When the line of the runner was crossed, by an ad
versary coming in before him upon a diagonal line,
285
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
and he found it impossible, by artifice or stratagem,
to elude him, he turned about, and threw the ball
over the heads of both of them, towards his gate ;
or, perchance, towards a player of his own party, if
there were adverse players between him and the gate.
When the flight of the ball was arrested in any part
of the field, a spirited and even fierce contest was
maintained around it; the players handled their bats
with such dexterity, and managed their persons
with such art and adroitness, that frequently several
minutes elapsed before the ball flew out. Occasion
ally in the heat of the controversy, but entirely by
accident, a player was struck with such violence that
the blood trickled down his limbs. In such a case,
if disabled, he dropped his bat and left the field,
while a fresh player from his own party supplied
his place. In this manner was the game contested :
oftentimes with so much ardor and skill that the
ball was recovered by one party at the very edge
of the adverse gate ; and finally, after many shifts
in the tide of success, carried in triumph through
its own. When one contest in the game was thus
decided, the prevailing party sent up a united shout
of rejoicing.
After a short respite for the refreshment of the
players, the second trial was commenced, and con
tinued like the first. Sometimes it was decided in
a few moments, but more frequently it lasted an
hour, and sometimes much longer, to such a system
had the playing of this game been reduced by skill
and practice. If every trial was ardently contested,
and the parties continued nearly equal in the number
286
GAME OF JAVELINS
decided, it often lengthened out the game, until the
approaching twilight made it necessary to take another
day for its conclusion.
On the final decision of the game, the exclama
tions of triumph, as would be expected, knew no
bounds. Caps, tomahawks and blankets were thrown
up into the air, and for a few moments the notes of
victory resounded from every side. It was doubtless
a considerate provision, that the prevailing party were
upon a side of the field opposite to, and at a distance
from, the vanquished, otherwise such a din of ex
ultation might have proved too exciting for Indian
patience.
In ancient times they used a solid ball of knot.
The ball bat, also, was made without network, hav
ing a solid and curving head. At a subsequent day,
they substituted the deer-skin ball and the network
ball bat in present use. These substitutions were
made so many years ago that they have lost the date.
Ga-geb -da, or Javelin.
The game of Javelins, Ga-na -ga-o, was very simple,
depending upon the dexterity with which the javelin
was thrown at a ring, as it rolled upon the ground.
They frequently made it a considerable game, by en
listing skilful players to prepare for the contest, and
by betting upon the result. The people divided by
287
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
tribes, the four brothers playing against their four
cousin tribes, as in the last case, unless the game
was played on a challenge between neighboring
communities.
The javelin was five or six feet in length, by
three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and was usually-
made of hickory or maple. It was finished with
care, sharpened at one end, and striped as shown in
the figure. The ring was about eight inches in di
ameter, made either into a hoop or solid like a
wheel, by winding with splints. Sometimes the jave
lin was thrown horizontally, by placing the forefinger
against its foot, and supporting it with the thumb
and second finger ; in other cases it was held in the
centre, and thrown with the hand raised above the
shoulder.
On either side, from fifteen to thirty players were
arranged, each having from three to six javelins,
the number of both depending upon the interest in
the game, and the time they wished to devote to the
contest. The javelins themselves were the forfeit, and
the game was gained by the party which won them.
Among the preliminaries to be settled by the
managers, was the line on which the ring was to be
rolled, the distance of the two bands of players
from each other, and the space between each and
the line itself. When these points were adjusted,
and the parties stationed, the ring was rolled by one
party on the line, in front of the other. As it
passed the javelins were thrown. If the ring was
struck by one of them, the players of the adverse
party were required, each in turn, to stand in the
288
GAME OF JAVELINS
place of the person who struck it, and throw their
javelins in succession at the ring, which was set up
as a target, on the spot where it was hit. Those of
the javelins which hit the target when thus thrown
were saved ; if any missed they were passed to the
other party, and by them were again thrown at the
ring from the same point. Those which hit were
won, finally, and laid out of the play, while the
residue were restored to their original owners. After
this first contest was decided, the ring was rolled
back, and the other party, in turn, threw their
javelins. If it was struck, the party which rolled it
was required, in the same manner, to hazard their
javelins, by throwing them at the target. Such as
missed were delivered to the other party, and those
which hit the target when thrown by them, were won
also, and laid out of the play. In this manner the
game was continued, until one of the parties had
lost their javelins, which, of itself, determined the
contest/ 122 )
There was another game of javelins, Ga-ga-da-yan-
duk, played by shooting them through the air. In
this game, the. javelin used was made of sumac, be
cause of its lightness, and was of the same length
and size as in the former. This game was divided
into contests, as the Ball game, and was won by the
party which first made the number agreed upon.
The game was usually from fifteen to twenty, and
the number of players on a side ranged from five to
ten. When the parties were ready, the one which
had the first throw selected the object upon which
the javelin was to be thrown, to give it an upward
VOL. i. 19 289
LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS
^VJ
flight, and also its distance from the standing point.
If, for example, it was a log, at the distance of a
rod, the player placed his forefinger against the foot
of the javelin, and, supporting it with his thumb and
second finger, he threw it in such a manner, that it
would strike the upper side of the log, and thus be
thrown up into the air, and forward, until its force
was spent. In this manner all the players, in turn,
threw their javelins. The one which was thrown the
greatest distance won a point. If another, upon the
same side, was in advance of all upon the opposite
side, it counted another, and so on for every one
which led all those upon the opposite side. In the
next contest, the second party chose the object over
which to throw the javelin, and the distance. The
game was thus continued, until the number of points
were gained which were agreed upon for the game.
Gus-ga-e-sa -ta, or Deer-buttons S^
This was strictly a fireside game, although it was
sometimes introduced as an amusement at the sea
son of religious councils, the people dividing into
290
GAME OF DEER BUTTONS
tribes, as usual, and betting upon the result. Eight
buttons, about an inch in diameter, were made of
elk-horn, and having been rounded and polished,
were slightly burned upon one side to blacken them.
When it was made a public game, it was played by
two at a time, with a change of players, as elsewhere
described in the Peach-stone game. At the fireside,
it was played by two or more, and all the players
continued in their seats until it was determined. A
certain number of beans, fifty perhaps, were made the
capital, and the game continued until one of the
players had won them all. Two persons spread a
blanket, and seated themselves upon it. One of
them shook the deer-buttons in his hands, and then
threw them down. If six turned up of the same
color, it counted two, if seven, it counted four, and if
all, it counted twenty, the winner taking as many
beans from the general stock as he made points by
the throw. He also continued to throw as long as
he continued to win. When less than six came up,
either black or white, it counted nothing, and the
throw was passed to the other player. In this man
ner the game was continued until the beans were
taken up between the two players. After that the
one paid to the other out of his own winnings, the
game ending as soon as the capital in the hands of
either player was exhausted. If four played, each
had a partner, or played independently, as they were
disposed ; but when more than two played, each one
was to pay to the winner the amount won. Thus, if
four were playing independently, and after the beans
were distributed among them, in the progress of the
2 9 r
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
game, one of them should turn the buttons up all
black, or all white, the other three would be obliged
to pay him twenty each ; but if the beans were still
in bank, he took up but twenty. The deer-buttons
were of the same size. In the figure they are repre
sented at different angles.
Ga-zua f -sa, or Snow-Snake.
Among the amusements of the winter season, in
Indian life, was the game with Snow snakes. It was
primarily designed as a diversion for the young; but
it was occasionally made a public game between the
tribes like the other, and aroused a great degree of
spirit, and the usual amount of betting. The snake
was thrown with the hand by placing the forefinger
against its foot, and supporting it with the thumb and
remaining fingers. It was thus made to run upon the
snow crust with the speed of an arrow, and to a much
greater distance, sometimes running sixty or eighty
rods. The success of the player depended upon his
dexterity and muscular strength.
The snakes were made of hickory, and with the most
perfect precision and finish. They were from five to
seven feet in length, about a fourth of an inch in thick
ness, and gradually diminishing from about an inch in
width at the head, to about half an inch at the foot.
The head was round, turned up slightly, and pointed
with lead to increase the momentum of the snake.
292
SNOW SNAKE GAME
This game, like that of ball, was divided into a
number of separate contests ; and was determined
when either party had gained the number of points
agreed upon, which was generally from seven to ten.
The players were limited and select, usually not more
than six. A station was determined upon, with the
line, or general direction in which the snake was to
be thrown. After they had all been thrown by the
players on both sides, the next question was to deter
mine the count. The snake which ran the greatest
distance was a point for the side to which it belonged.
Other points might be won on the same side, if a sec
ond or third snake was found to be ahead of all the
snakes upon the adverse side. One count was made
for each snake which outstripped all upon the adverse
side. These contests were repeated until one of the
parties had made the requisite number of points to
determine the game.
Top view
Bottom view
Da-ya-no-t d-yen-d d-qu a, or Snow Boat.
With the snow boat was played one of the winter
games of the Iroquois, in which the strife was to dis
cover which boat would run the farthest in an iced
293
LEAGUE OF THE I R O QU O I S
trench or path. The boat was about fifteen inches in
length, and made of beech, or other hard wood, some
thing in the fashion of a canoe. It was solid, with the
exception of an oblong cavity in the centre, over
which arched a hickory bow, designed to suspend
bells or other rattles upon. In the stern of this little
vessel a white feather was inserted for a flag, by which
to follow it in its descent. On the bottom the boat
was rounded, but with a slight wind lengthwise, as
shown in the figure, to give it a true direction.
A side hill with an open plain below was the
kind of place selected to try the speed of the boats.
Trenches in a straight line down the hill, and about a
foot wide, were made by treading down the snow ;
after which water was poured into them that it might
freeze and line the trenches throughout their whole
extent with ice. These trenches to the number of a
dozen, side by side, if as many individuals intended
to play, were finished with the greatest care and exact
ness, not only down the hill side, but to a consider
able distance across the plain below. At the same
time the boats themselves were dipped in water that
they might also be coated with ice.
The people divided by tribes in playing this, as in
all other Iroquois games ; the Wolf, Bear, Beaver,
and Turtle tribes playing against the Deer, Snipe,
Heron, and Hawk. (55) At the time appointed the
people assembled at the base of the hill and divided
off by tribes, and then commenced betting upon the
result, a custom universally practised on such occa
sions. The game was played by select players who
were stationed at the top of the hill, each with two or
294
SNOW BOAT GAME
three boats, and standing at the head of his own
trench. When all was in readiness the boats were
started off together at the appointed moment, and
their rapid descent was watched with eager interest by
the people below. It is not necessary to describe the
scene. If the game was twenty it would be continued
until one side had made that number of points. A
count of one was made for every boat which led all
upon the adverse side, so that if there were six players
on a side it was possible for that number to be made
at one trial. On the contrary, if all the boats but one
upon one side were in advance of all on the adverse
side but one, and the latter was in advance of all, this
head boat would win and count one. The principles
of the game are precisely the same as in the Snow
Snake game. All of these Indian games were played
with great zeal and enthusiasm. To us they appear
to be puerile -amusements for men in the prime of
manhood ; but yet they were adapted to the ways and
habits of a people living without arts, and without the
intellectual employments which pertain to civilized
life. Such games mark the infancy of the human
mind, but they often beget a generous emulation and
a ready skill which lead to future improvement and
elevation.
In archery the Indian has scarcely been excelled.
With a quick eye and a powerful muscle, he could
send the arrow as unerringly as the archers of Robin
Hood. It cannot be called, in strictness, a game,
but trials of skill were common in ancient times ;
successful archery raising the individual into high
repute.
295
LEAGUE OF THE I R O
O I S
The Indian bow was usually from three and a
half to four feet in length, with such a difficult spring
that an inexperienced person could scarcely bend
it sufficiently to set the string. To draw the string
back, when set, an arm s length, could only be done
by practice, superadded to the most powerful mus
cular strength. An arrow thus sent would strike
its object with fearful velocity. The arrow was about
three feet in length, and feathered at the small end
Wa-d -no, or Bow.
Go. -no, or Arrow. ,( 74 )
with a twist to make it revolve in its flight. It gave
to its motion horizontality and precision, doubtless
suggesting, at a later day, the idea of the twist in the
rifle barrel, by which the ball is made to revolve in
the same manner. The English and Scottish archers
feathered their arrows, but without this peculiarity.
Three feathers were also used by them, which were
set parallel with the arrow and with each other. But
they were set upon one side of the arrow at its three
quarters, and in such a way that the three parallel feath
ers formed obtuse angles with each other. The Indian
296
ARCHERY
used but two feathers, which passed around the oppo
site sides of the arrow in a twist, as shown in the
figure. For this purpose the feather was stripped off
from the quill and tied to the arrow with sinew.
Originally, the Indian arrow was pointed with a flint
or chert-head, which would enable it to penetrate
deeply any object at which it was directed. With
such an arrow, it was an easy matter to bring down
the deer, the wild fowl, or the warrior himself. Skele
tons have been disentombed, having the skull pene
trated with an arrow-head of this description, with
the flint-head itself still in the fracture, or entirely
within the skull. In Oregon and on the upper Mis
sissippi, the Indian arrow is still pointed with flint.
Thus it was with the Iroquois, until the bow was
laid aside for the rifle. Arrow-heads of this descrip
tion are still found scattered over the whole surface
of the State. .With Indian youth, the bow and the
arrow is still a favorite source of amusement.
y or Arrow.
3 feet.
In ancient times arrows were pointed with horn or
bone as well as with flint, and made even more dan
gerous missiles in the former cases. The above is a
representation of an arrow of this description, which,
with several others, was purchased of an Oneida on
Grand river. It is about three feet in length and
pointed with deer s horn.
The sheaf is an Indian invention of great an
tiquity, and universal among Indian races. It was
297
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
sometimes made of the skin of a small animal, like
the wolf, which was taken off entire, dressed with the
hair on, and hung upon the back, the arrows being
placed within it. But the choicer articles were made
of dressed unhaired deer-skin, and embroidered with
porcupine quills as represented in the figure. It was
made of two strips of deer-skin about two feet in
length and of unequal width : one of these was narrow
for the back side ; the other about three times its
wjdth so as to make a convex front, thus forming a
species of sac in which the arrows were deposited.
The ordinary sheaf, as used by the Iroquois in ancient
times, would hold from fifteen to twenty-five arrows ;
Ga-das-ba, or Sheaf.
2 feet.
but those used by the western Indians were generally
large enough for forty or fifty. It was worn on the
back inclining from the left shoulder down towards
the belt on the right side of the body, crossing the
back diagonally. There are deer-string fastenings at
each end, the lower ones being attached to the waist-
belt, and the upper ones passing around the neck and
under the left arm. To draw forth an arrow and
place it in the bow, it was necessary to raise the right
hand to the left shoulder when it came at once in
contact with the feathered end, which projected from
the sheaf; so that it was but the work of a second to
set an arrow in its place.
298
FOOT-RACES
Foot-races furnished another pastime for the Iro-
quois. They were often made a part of the enter
tainment with which civil and mourning councils
were concluded. In this athletic game the Indian
excelled. The exigencies, both of war and peace,
rendered it necessary for the Iroquois to have among
them practiced and trained runners. A spirit of emu
lation often sprang up among them, which resulted
in regular contests for the palm of victory. In these
races, the four tribes put forward their best runners
against those of the other four, and left the question
of superiority to be determined by the event of the
contest. Before the time appointed for the races,
they prepared themselves for the occasion by a process
of training. It is not necessary to describe them.
They dressed in the same manner for the race as for
the game of ball. Leaping, wrestling and the other
gymnastic exercises appear to have furnished no part
of the public amusements of our primitive inhabitants.
An ancient and favorite game of the Iroquois,
Gus-ka-ehy was played with a bowl and peach-
stones. (98 It was always a betting game, in which
the people divided by tribes. By established custom,
it was introduced as the concluding exercise on the
last day of the Green Corn and the Harvest festivals,
and also of the New Year s jubilee. Its introduc
tion among them is ascribed to the first To-do-da -ho,
who flourished at the formation of the League. A
popular belief prevailed, that this game would be
enjoyed by them in the future life, in the realm of
the Great Spirit ; which is, perhaps, but an extrava
gant way of expressing their admiration for the game.
299
LEAGUE OF THE I RO^UOIS
A dish, about a foot in diameter at the base, was
carved out of a knot, or made of earthen. Six peach-
stones were then ground, or cut down into an oval
form, reducing them in the process about half in size,
after which the heart of the pit was removed, and the
stones themselves were burned upon one side, to blacken
Gus-ka*-eb, or Peach Stones.
Ga-jlh y or Bowl.
them. The above representation will exhibit both the
bowl and the peach-stones ; the latter being drawn in
different positions to show the degree of their convexity.
It was a very simple game, depending, in part, upon
the dexterity of the player, but more upon his good
fortune. The peach-stones were shaken in the bowl
300
PEACH STONE GAME
by the player, the count depending upon the number
which came up of one color, after they had ceased roll
ing in the dish. It was played in the public council-
house by a succession of players, two at a time, under
the supervision of managers appointed to represent the
two parties, and to conduct the contest. Its length
depended somewhat upon the number of beans which
made the bank, usually one hundred, the victory being
gained by the side which finally won them all.
A platform was erected a few feet from the floor and
spread with blankets. When the betting was ended,
and the articles had been delivered into the custody of
the managers, they seated themselves upon the plat^
form in the midst of the throng of spectators, and two
persons sat down to the game between the two divi
sions into which they arranged themselves. The beans,
in the first instance, were placed together in a bank.
Five of them were given to each player, with which
they commenced. Each player, by the rules of the
game, was allowed to keep his seat until he had lost this
outfit, after which he surrendered it to another player
on his own side selected by the managers of his own
party. And this was the case, notwithstanding any
number he might have won of his adversary. Those
which he won were delivered to his party managers.
The six peach-stones were placed in the bowl and
shaken by the player; if five of them came up of one
color, either white or black, it counted one, and his
adversary paid to him the forfeit, which was one bean ;
the bean simply representing a unit in counting the
game. On the next throw, which the player having
won, retained, if less than five came up of the same
3 or
LEAGUE OF THE IRO9UOIS
>*j
color, it counted nothing, and he passed the bowl to
his adversary. The second player then shook the
bowl ; upon which, if they all came up of one color,
either white or black, it counted five. To pay this for
feit required the whole outfit of the first player, after
which, having nothing to pay with, he vacated his seat,
and was succeeded by another of his own side, who re
ceived from the bank the same number of beans which
the first had. The other player followed his throw as
long as he continued to win ; after which he repassed the
bowl to his adversary. If a player chanced to win five,
and his opponent had but one left, this was all he could
gain. In this manner the game continued, with vary
ing fortune, until the beans were divided between the
two sides in proportion to their success. After this
the game continued in the same manner as before, the
outfit of each new player being advanced by the mana
gers of his own party ; but as the beans or counters
were now out of sight, none but the managers knew
the state of the game with accuracy. In playing it
there were but two winning throws, one of which
counted one and the other five. When one of the par
ties had lost all their beans, the game was done.
There were some other peculiarities and variations
in this game which would be necessary to a full under
standing of it, but sufficient has been given to illus
trate its general character. As they began to play this
game about meridian, it often happened that it was
necessary to take another day for its conclusion. It
was made a long game by its constitution, as it was
carefully guarded against the extreme fickleness of most
games of chance. It so happens that games of this
302
ENTHUSIASM FOR GAMES
description do not depend for their interest upon the
striking combinations involved in their construction.
This is dependent very much upon practice, habit, and
association. Oftentimes the most simple game in its
contrivance is the most attractive and absorbing to the
practiced player. This game, as simple as it may ap
pear, was productive of a great degree of excitement,
and when finally decided, the exultation of the victors
broke forth in vehement rejoicings. Having intently
watched, for hours, the ever-changing tide of the game,
when the long suspense was over, and the tension of
the mind was ended, its rebound, under the impulse of
victory, exhibited itself in extravagant exclamations.
A brief description of the plan of these games will
no more exhibit their hidden sources of entertainment,
than a volume descriptive of chess would reveal the
fascinations of the game itself. These games all depend,
for their interest, upon circumstances. The Olympic,
Pythian and other games of the Greeks, and the Apol-
linarian, Circensian and other games of the Romans,
consisted chiefly, as is well known, of running, leaping,
wrestling, riding, and chariot-racing. Aside from the
last, they were not, intrinsically, much superior to the
games of the Iroquois. But in the hands of the Greeks,
especially, they were made the most extraordinary en
tertainments of the ancient world. Among the Iro
quois, in the celebration of their national games, as far
as they went, is to be found the same species of enthu
siasm and emulation which characterized the celebra
tion of the games of antiquity. Although the national
games, like the popular songs of one people, may be
incapable of exciting the enthusiasm or awakening the
LEAGUE OF THE IRO^UOIS
patriotic spirit of another ; yet they are not, for this
reason, devoid of interest. If it be asked what inter
est for us can attach to these games of the Iroquois,
one answer at least may be given; they show that
the American wilderness, which we have been taught
to pronounce a savage solitude until the white man
entered its borders, had long been vocal in its deepest
seclusions, with the gladness of happy human hearts.
34
Chapter VI
Indian Society Ancient Villages Stockaded Bark House Mar
riagePassion of Love Unknown Divorce Rights of Property _
Hospitality Criminal Code Faith of Treaties Use of Wampum
Usages of War Captives not Exchanged Adoption The
Hunt Indian Life
NOTWITHSTANDING the simplicity of
Indian life, and its barrenness of those higher
social enjoyments which pertain to refined
communities, Indian society was bound together by
permanent institutions, governed by fixed laws, and
impelled and guided by well-established usages and cus
toms. The diversified powers, motives, and restraints
embraced within them, exercised an important influence
upon their social life, and therefore they present fruit
ful and interesting subjects of investigation. To form
a judgment of the Indian character, which is founded
upon a knowledge of his motives and principles of
action, he must be seen in his social relations. But it is
not deemed advisable to consider these topics minutely.
The Iroquois resided in permanent villages. Not
knowing the use of wells, they fixed their residences
upon the banks of rivers and lakes, or in the vicinity of
copious springs. About the period of the formation of
the League, when they were exposed to the inroads
of hostile nations, and the warfare of migratory bands,
their villages were compact and stockaded. Having
run a trench several feet deep, around five or ten acres
VOL. I. 20
LEAGUE OF THE IROQUOIS
of land, and thrown up the ground upon the inside,
they set a continuous row of stakes or palisades in
this bank of earth, fixing them at such an angle that
they inclined over the trench. Sometimes a village
was surrounded by a double, or even triple row of
palisades. Within this enclosure they constructed
their bark-houses, and secured their stores. Around
it was th 
