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FRONTISPIECE.
new series, Div, of Entomology, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture.
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BULLETIN No. 1.—NEW SERIES.
Vo Perak MeN Or AGRICULTURE.
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THE HONEY BEE:
A MANUAL OF
PoenweLiONn LN APICULTURE:
BY
FRANK BENTON, M. 8S.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE,
1895.
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,
Washington, D. C., September 20, 1895.
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a
manual entitled The Honey Bee: A Manual of Instruction in Apicul-
ture, by Mr. Frank Benton, who has been in charge of the apiarian
work of this division for several years. The constant demand for infor-
mation concerning bee culture has for a long time shown the need for
such a public manual, and the work was begun and nearly completed
under the direction of my predecessor, Dr.C. V. Riley. Thedelay in the
completion of the manuscript has been caused by the necessity of wait-
ing for the results of certain experiments, and by the time occupied
in the preparation of the numerous illustrations.
The apiarian industry in the United States is practically a develop-
ment of the last forty years, although isolated individuals were engaged
in this work long prior to that time. The importance of the industry
at the present day is not generally realized, and the following figures
will probably be surprising to many well-informed individuals:
Apiarian societies in the United States---~-.....-...-.-..----.-.-------- 110
IMS MMEME IB eee Af oe ese 22 Se re eae soos sess. 8
Steam factories for the manufacture of beehives and apiarian implements. 15
Honey produced in the United States in 1869 (according to United States
ITD RIEORINE lcs Se rah a a Bae ota ess ws oleae am pounds... 14, 702, 815
Honey produced in the United States in 1889 (according to United States
NA EST 2 Sad ie AR Gn nD PL a a pounds.. 63, 894, 186
Persons engaged in the culture of bees (estimated) -...........--.------- 300, 000
Honey and wax produced, at wholesale rates (Eleventh Census) -.....---. $7, 000, 000
Mr. Benton’s estimate of the present annual value of apiarian products .$20, 000, 000
As supplementary to these figures it may be stated that in addition
to the 15 steam-power factories there is a very large number of smaller
factories, using mainly hand and horse power, which are engaged in the
production of supplies, such as hives, smokers, honey extractors, sec-
tions, comb foundation, and other apiarian apparatus. It is estimated
by Mr. Benton that the present existing flora of the United States
could undoubtedly support, with the same average profit, ten times the
0
4 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
number of colonies of bees it now supports. This branch of agri-
cultural industry does not impoverish the soil in the least, but, on the
contrary, results in better seed and fruit crops. The total money gain
to the country from the prosecution of this industry would undoubt-
edly be placed at several times the amount given in the table above
were we ouly able to estimate in dollars and cents the result of the
work of bees in cross fertilizing the blossoms of fruit crops. In sup-
port of this it is only necessary to refer to the fact that recent inves-
tigations by another division of this Department have shown that
certain varieties of pear are nearly or quite sterile unless bees bring
pollen from other distinct varieties for their complete cross fertilization.
I respectfully recommend the publication of this manual as No. 1 of
the new series of bulletins of this division.
tespectfully, L. O. HOWARD,
Entomologist.
Hon. J. STERLING MORTON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
PREP ACE.
This treatise is designed to make the practical management of an
apiary plain to those whose acquaintance with the subject is limited,
and to direct such as may find in it a pleasant and profitable occu-
pation to a system of management which may be followed on an exten-
sive scale with the certainty of fair remuneration for the labor and
capital required. With this object in view the author has deemed it
best to treat the natural history of the bee but briefly, and also to give
little space to matters which are in question, or to different methods of
accomplishing given results, or to such as are only adapted to a limited
portion of the country, but rather to explain one settled way widely
applicable and which will lead to success. The methods advised here
are such as the author has found practical during an extended expe-
rience, yet in regard to numerous details many works—both foreign and
American—have been consulted, none more freely than Langstroth on
the Honey Bee, revised by Chas. Dadant & Son, and Bees and Bee
Keeping, by Prof. F. R. Cheshire.
Many of the illustrations were specially prepared for this bulletin.
Some have been taken from publications of the Department of Agri-
culture. These include some of the smaller ijlustrations of honey-
producing plants and also Plates III to X, which are from reports of
the Botanist of the Department. Plates II and XI, and figures 5, 6,
8, 44, 50, 51, and 76 are copied from Cheshire; figs. G8 and 69 from
Simmins. The Department is also under obligations to the A. I. Root
Company, to Chas. Dadant & Son, T. F. Bingham, Hayck Bros., Van
Allen & Williams, and Dr. T. L. Tinker, for electrotypes.
FRANK BENTON.
WASHINGTON, D. C.
5
CONDENTES:
eaArTuR. |.—Classiication of the honey bee... .-..2..-- 22-22 - cscs nnn esses
DimieTe nL aNecCIes, ANG TACOS oe = 2S Soe! US Soe Socom ode ae eas eee
Common Hast Mmdian honey bee, Apisindiea.... 02-1. 2 -- 6-5 = enn s eo one
diy toasG lagian nonéy bee, Apis. foreda'.2 2. 2.22 os. ess aa me eee ee eee
Giant saat. dian honey bee, Apis dorsata. 2.2 22-6 face cl ene ewe nn denen
Commou- hive or honey bee, Apis mellifica...... .....--<.- ---20-----2-2---
CEST DIORS TT GE St Se oe SO Oe oe ene eo eae eee
CSET DMRS ee) i tg et ae tI ee ne
Rarniglans oo S22. -- - eR Sea one eS Hein See Sa5 2 Wawe mc seas
German, cammon, plack.or brown bees. 22-.'5... 2.25.2. - <5. 2 -- eon
CuarTeR II.—Kinds of bees composing a colony—Bee products and descrip-
tom OL-comps—Developments of brood. ..2-- 0.22 2+. pane econ 3-2 = eae
renee DeOmis CONG oe 20S ae kg SCS so wae on a he a= Swe eee ned Soe
Bee products and organs used in their preparation..........-..----------
J OREP OE I USO eae Se a ne RO ee 2 Eo
TPS IS Sle es AS = eee eee Ie ee ee ee
ines DedHat ie eis atin =f Sepa a eek on b= rene owen eee
Ui TE ital Spc Nets dae aka pa SSS i ig One ee SM FE Se
Se ean ae eee se ers A LR Sa RE a ans peu hoe Yaa
BORNE rer sae oN ecte A eee tiv ee aan ars aa a oa Ade a dg Salons aoe
eR ee a Na cra i a aloha oe Aen Da oa - Ma wg pws aes
SUerionenp minal TOO fam. 2 reat oe aden a oes Sas ae ee Se6 sos eae
RoE e et Tein fo oc eu oe tc ous Sea a Pee 55 Sees ae
Sine eeec ren are rete oa Pa ee Pte boot e owe oe ats kan San eteecin
CHaArTsR 1il.—Qnuieting and manipulating bees........-..-...--.-...--.-.-.--
Cuaprer IV.—Establishing an apiary: Time—Selecting hives of bees—Movy-
ing bees—Selection of site
Selection of stocks
Pn ON eaters 2 te rman ee ieee RI Oo ee he ewe aan Sau cceuae
PeeNUIOMTNe Ue. a nema s Peek Sete ay PS Ce eld. eke en
nN uaa toe) APRESS nena SMe eS ee ha an i Sa oe Wee ed ae ee one
Bee smokers
See one rata aren Cl es Do sss 5 on pa Soo ae tne tae wa angn we
Honey extractors and honey knives
eee ANNUM BRE ee) eee an a alan ods g tinea og aciencmmen ee cence aneceds
Queen introducing-cages
Bee feeders
ee ee a ee ee
Oe a a es
en en a a
ee SE CN SO ar wig ee a arenniens bow encacacecccees
Pepa TTT Ie ke oe en coke cece ca ccce%e
aster Wen PQOMINGS. . cs coo lc ck ed ec cnc ca cecu wccccccceece
7
8 CONTENTS.
Page.
CHAPTER VI.—Bee pasturage..........-- Ne « SOLIS Sue Sok ee hae Lata 56
Gultivation of honey plants.22. Uoe so see eet oe ee eee 59
BGS. 28 GLOSS feTblliZers 222 2. - See eee oe oe ee oe ae Se ee ee 62
Honey and ‘pollen producing plants. + 29-22. 2-42 -C. ee = ee eee 64
CBAPTER VIl.—Spring manipulationc. 2222-2072 ese ee ee eee 69
Pranstermne: 602... 8228 las eee. nee ee nae eee 71
CEAPTER VIIl.—Securing surplus honey and’ wax... 02. 25-202 ee eee 75
Extracted amoneyoee tee > Se LA Re USE See ies | eee ten 75
Comb honey ess. toes 2 oo West ae eee ea nS Be ee ek eae no 79
Putting on-sections. =. 5. ie:cd.) sa eee ee oe ee ee ee 81
Production Of was... 2s be cae do ee ee eee eae ee ee 84
CHarrer EX.—Rearing and introducing queens... 220i 2252 ee ee eee 87
Marlin equecnpls 202. a e228 SE ae ee ee ce Oe ec 92
Introducime queens. 22020228041 Ace Se re ere ee 93
CHAPTER X:-—-Inerease of colonies: 22. S252 Boe ee Se eee ee ee 95
Natural swarm: 60. jc. oo Oe Ae eee hee a cee ee ee 95
Chipping. queens: 225.1. 6 si. fos ee Se ee eae 97
Auhomatie WiVerss 2-222 doshas SSS eens see cee See ee eee 98
Prevention. of after-swarMmine she os 2 en 2 aoc ee eee eee eee 98
ATbUNCIALINCTOABS | 2222 2e= 2335 25 Se oe Cee eee nee cee eee 99
MOAR S 0S eS eS SRS Ee ite 100
Driving OF rushing :..o2 22 25 Se ae ee a) Sg ort ee 100
The nucleus ‘system 2: 0a. 2b cchiah es ae Seer e | ee ae ee a eee 101
Prevenvion Ol SWarnin g so Soe oly 2 ene. te eee ee 101
Wequeenin gc: ~~. Se eee SPS Se mM Meo ar ree eee ee LMS Sh ob 102
ReQueening... 25.22. Se a ees Abn eens ae ee 102
Space near entrances 222252520 seo oe eee a = pene ee oe Sa eee ee eee 103
Langdon non-swarming deyices222 2. oo. 22 ee eee eee 104
Nelection in bréeding = 220322 ge oets Colao ee ae ee 105
CHAPTER, X1/— Winterme ‘bees. 2--..- 522. 2b ett =e oe eee 106
Outdoorswintermge ss! o2- oO ee eee ee 109
Indoor wintering = - S2cco5 0. 3 2, oe a eee eee eo eee ee 111
CHAPTER XII.—Diseases and enemies of bees. ---. 22222) < --o oo 2s ee 112
Diarrhea andvdysentery 2.0/2. scot ee eee ee eo 112
Foul brood. 2... 2:22 Se. oiek puss 2 Nese Ae ace ee tee eine a Noe ee 112
Whe wax mobh jo. soo. Lek Ss te errr mnie aie eee eae ete 113
Branlaiombeé louse <* fics “sets 2 oe ee eee eee ee oh eee oe 115
Other:enemiesre 225-2 ae See a Secs eee Se ee cer 115
Robberies, dragon ies, €te-. — yee ee ne oe eae 115
Ants “and: wasps. - 2 «jes. 2222 Sec. alee es Seek ae ie es Ae eee 115
SUMS So a ie rete Nae oes es cena 116
Toads and lizards 320.22. oo 52 ne Bo ie a ne ee 116
Binds Sse 2 5 Sean eee as dest lee kaos see eee ee ee 116
Mamimals 22.25 A222 28 hehe ae oe he ee Ao ee eae ee er ee 116
Robher bees =. oe yc tt ea ee eee ae ee ee ene ere 116
TUAW UNIO WOTK BIS! 2 oer. Nee ee et ee ie ee en ee 117
Brief list of books and journals relating to apiculture.......-...-..----.----- 118
EL
USTRATIONS.
PLATES.
Page.
Pe MennT nay MIAPVOANL.. “hee tose ela Ck ee eke Ses he Frontispiece.
PLATE fie eons Meter stroman (eet te, SSO to ea eed be bee a See Sa wdis a 16
Bi Piers cay ake Oi pee Ren oe ae ne kale fee wee = oes le 22
eeu MecChIRAgO Sasi) Ac on ee Se ee Seek eas 64
1V.—Esparcet or sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa)........--...--..-----. 64
V.—Sweet clover or melilot (Melilotus alba).........--.----.--.--- 64
ae Neel CACECla CONS ICIE) —- 2 S22 S22 2 8 aS Sek ses 2 eee 64
ie Mesqutic Ci rosopie jalelora) 25000. ooo. Sep ols 3 Poe ae 64
VIII.—Blue weed or viper’s bugloss (E£chium vulgare) ...---.---------- 64
IX.—Crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum) .-.--.-.----..---------- 64
x isrke clover Cirtjottum habridum) . =... -- 22202202. 2-20.22 2.2. 64
a heer A UR CBee noes ore Sc eee te ee 25 Bro ee oe 112
TEXT FIGURES.
Fic. 1. Worker cells of common East Indian honey bee (Apis indica) .....--- 12
2. Worker cells of tiny East Indian honey bee (Apis florea)..........--- 13
3. Comb of tiny East Indian honey bee (Apis MIBLEM oS, Meee foo Otte 14
4. Worker cells of common honey bee (Apis ere PEN or. Sade ing es Beet 15
Pv aries OF Neen Und WOEKEES. .. 22-200. <2 2-62-52 4 ee ee chee ssn 19
peas eben CPCOUEEINT (TONG. 22 oats 5 a aan 5 wns = Sen oe oes - == 4 20
7. Modifications of the legs of different bees..-..-.-.-........----..---- 21
So. Heat and tongue of Apis mellifica worker... ~--.-. 222-22... 2-2%-+- 22
See aI aie RIOGIDD HORS fF ee. ie Se Se ec 26
iC comm nadine, sido of hive Tomoyed 2-2. 2... -2-.2. set a5---- oss: 27
Pi Ged Hecthion OF brood apariment, .<. 2.02202 2-4. 555s4as~55 45a. «- 29
ieee cree Wiest ean ETUDIOET ne i ao on Se oe on ete ee Ho wo 31
13. Manipulation—removing comb from hive. ..---..-.-..--..-----.-.-.- 32
14. Manipulation—tilting to bring reverse side of comb to view. -....---- 33
15. Manipulation—reverse side of comb brought to view...-....-...--- 33
16. Manipulation—examining reverse side of comb.........-.---..----- 33
ier een GlOded-GnG. fPamea os. 5 <5 2 eS ne 2s wo nen wn ses caw one 34
is. Box liye prepared for tramsportation....-...-...--< 2-2. -2..--sse.6% 37
19. Frame hive prepared for transportation. ....-.........--------...-.- 37
SO TTT OS GLC Chose OPIS ORS eR i a A roe 38
eee eR ee yi tal EU es hn mie WS mid A > a Ak node ewes s 39
22. Ancient Greek movable comb hive.......--.......-..-...--....--2.-- 41
23. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive with cap and gable roof.--. 41
24. Langstroth frame—showing construction........-.......-.---.----- 42
Serre Gian) atte Wee BOs MURAL SP MTOR oe ss ce OY wae ne Sew cae wens wcnen one 42
ee I CMRI EE ee OMT OM eh OSS is te eee oh an. ba Gwe eee s won e ceca en 43
Brae ete a OEM VOM Se Ure oe eG dni oes ow Raine cance «scene cecess 43
10
Fic. 28.
. The Langstroth hive (Dadant-Quinby form), cross section showing
42.
de
75.
76.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Section of improved tin frame-test \--x..5—-226- Sse ee ee
CONSTLUCTION =~ 224 3. Se be ee ae a ee
Lie Nonpareil hives. 23253805 Soe Mok eet ee
. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive—open. .-..---.--.--.......
; “Lhe Bingham ‘beetsmokerso2e.o5(0—.2 oes ee oe ce
. Automate reversible honey extractor. .-.2 2.32.22 ee
-/Quinby- muneapping knife: 7. 25 seu Cee Be ee eee
. Bingham.c& Hetherington uncapping Knife: 2l 222-225 eee
wi xcelsion wax extractor 20. 2.6 So 1 ew oe ee eh See
OM Plucity Weeder... 222) Cle Se chee, ae ee ee ea
. Fruit-jar bee feeder, bottom of feeding stage and perforated cap
shown:separately 2. 2.52 c7 esa e se Soe ee ees ee eee ee
whey Porter spring “bee'escapenis 22. 2a oe Es ee ee eee
. Daisy foundation fastener... --. .- ok te eee See ee Ma ee ara ie 3.-
. Fastening starter of comb foundation in frame.....-....---...-.-..-
Spur wike-embedder 0 ol. oss o asec hae ee ee
; Comb-foundation machine. 222.5. .o Vee ee. - Se ee
Willow herb: (2 pilobium angustifolium) 22.5.5. = ee ee
. Wagner’s flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris wagnert)_.---..-----.----------
) Dwarf Essex or winter'rape (Grassica napur) i224. 352) se
> -Summier or bird rape (Brassica, napus). <5) 54 fees eee
. Sachaline or giant knotweed (Polygonum sachalinense)....--.-.------
psRussian-or Hairy vetch\(icta villosa) oss-- 32-2 a eae ee ee
‘Mountain: laurel (Kalmia daujougn) 22 oo eee 2 ase eee
VApple(Porus malus).sotse oes Vee ce eee Eee ee eee
. Sreath-like wild: aster (Asie ercoides)s.. 2 ae ee eee
. Transferring—drumming the bees from a box hive into a frame hive.
. [ransferred comb and inserted: queen cell. = --22:2227-2 5) cee
Uncapping and ‘extracting “honey....22 25.2... 3255.2 .na ee eee
. One-piece “‘ V’’-grooved sections........=.-.--- etme yest se 8
. Super with section holders and sections in place -..-................
. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, elevated from bottom board
and slid back for ventilation in summier 25... 2. 4 eee
. Langstroth hive with combined surplus case and shipping crate. --.--
+ ELOney Shipping Cases; 2... .Po28 2. wae eee ee
{Boardman solar wax 6xtracbors 57228 e ce pees ao ee
. Comb showing worker brood and queen cells.._-..-...-..-......-...
. Queen cells and worker brood in various stages........-....---..-..
. The Benton queen cage for transporting a queen and attendants by
V2 11 nee em BO A ce OR Py ear ea Kai iT) ES ot PB ee Sa Sete
piaCaring a queen tor manling. oo 6. ee eee a ee ee
. Queen introducine-cage: “2.05 oo. sec so ae See eg ee
waiving a Swarmzor Wee 2 ooo i. ose. meee eee ea ee
. The Simmins non-swarming system, single-story hive with supers - --
. The Simmins non-swarming system, donble-story hive with supers -.
. Beehives with Langdon nonswarmer attached. ...-...-.-.....--..--.
>; Percolator for preparation of winteriood 2035-2 a- e
The American straw hive ot Havels Bros 9-2. 22 -> =. es ee eee
Davis hive with newspapers packed between inner and outer cases
and brood ‘frames on end for winters 2. es". 6222254525) oe
. Double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering as well as summer
use below 40° north latitude in United States. -..-...............-
An aplary in Vermont—winter View-.-: 2222... 25..-.<- 224 oc ue ee
Cheshire antirobbing entrance.......-.--..-....-..- go vials CER een
MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
CHAPTER I.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE HONEY BEE.
THE DIFFERENT SPECIES AND RACES.
A knowledge of the structural peculiarities and the life history of
bees will aid anyone who essays to manage them for profit in deter-
mining more accurately what conditions are necessary to their greatest
welfare. It is not to be understood that such knowledge will take the
place of an acquaintance with those conditions under which actual
practice has shown that bees thrive, but that it forms a good basis for
an understanding of whatever practice has found best in the manage-
ment of these industrious and profitable insects. It will also assist in
pointing out in what way practice can be improved.
In a small treatise like the present one, the object of which is to give
in plain language the information needed by one who engages in bee
keeping primarily for profit, it is not possible to do more than present
a mere outline of classification and a few general facts regarding struc-
ture. The reader who finds them interesting and valuable in his work
is reminded that the treatment of these matters in more extended
volumes, such as Langstroth’s, Cheshire’s, ete., will be found far more so.
Singling out from the order Hymenoptera, or membranous-winged
insects, the family Apide, or bee family, several marked types called
genera are seen to compose it, such as Apis (the hive bee), Bombus (the
bumble bee), Xylocopa (the carpenter bee), Megachile (the leaf-cutter),
Melipona (the stingless honey bee of the American tropics), ete. All
of these are very interesting to study, and each fulfills a purpose in
the economy of nature; but the plan of these pages can only be to con-
sider the first genus, Apis, or the hive bee. Incidentally it may be
mentioned that the plan of introducing the stingless bees (Velipona)
from tropical America has frequently been brought up with the expec-
tation of realizing important practical results from it. These bees
might possibly be kept in the warmer portions of our country, but their
honey yield is small, not well ripened, and not easily harvested in good
Shape, since the honey cells are of dark wax, like that made by our
bumble bees, and they are not arranged in regular order, but in irregular
clumps like those of bumble bees. The writer had a colony under obser-
vation last year, and experiments have been made with them in their
native lands as well as in European countries. Of the genus Apis the
only representative in this country 1s mellifica, although several others
are natives of Asia and Africa.
ll
al
12 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
THE COMMON EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE.
(Apis indica Fab.)
The common bee of southern Asia is kept in very limited numbers
and with a small degree of profit in earthen jars and sections of hol-
low trees in portions of the British and Dutch East Indies. They are
also found wild, and build when in this state in hollow trees and in
rock clefts. Their combs, composed of hexagonal wax cells, are ranged
parallel to each other like those of A. mellifica, but the worker brood
cells are smaller than those of our ordinary bees, showing 36 to the
square inch of surface instead of 29, while the comb where worker
brood is reared, instead of having, like that of A. mellifica, a thickness
of seven-eighths inch, is but five-eighths inch thick.
(Fis -1.)
The workers.—The bodies of these, three-eighths
inch long when empty, measure about one-half inch
when dilated with honey. The thorax is covered
with brownish hair and the shield or crescent between
the wings is large and yellow. The abdomen is yel-
low underneath. Above it presents a ringed appear-
ance, the anterior part of each segment being orange
yellow, while the posterior part shows bands of
brown of greater or less width and covered with
whitish-brown hairs; tip black. They are nimble on
foot and on the wing, and active gatherers.
The queens.—The queens are large in proportion to
Fic. 1.—Worker cells : ° “2
of common EastIndian their workers and are quite prolific; color, leather or
honeybee (Apisindica); Cark coppery.
Breeze, Ouemal) The drones.—These are only slightly larger than
the workers; color, jet-like blue black, with no yellow, their strong
wings showing changing hues like those of wasps.
Manipulations with colonies of these bees are easy to perform if smoke
be used, and though they are more excitable than our common live bees,
this peculiarity does not lead them to sting more, but seems rather
to proceed from fear. The sting is also less severe.
Under the rude methods thus far employed in the management of
this bee no great yields of boney are obtained, some 10 or 12 pounds
having been the most reported from a single hive. It is quite probable
that if imported into this country it would do more. These bees would
no doubt visit many small flowers not frequented by the hive bees we
now have, and whose nectar is therefore wasted, but very likely they
might not withstand the severe winters of the North unless furnished
with such extra protection as would be afforded by quite warm cellars
or special repositories.
: EAST INDIAN BEES. 13
THE TINY EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE.
(Apis florea Fab.)
This bee, also a native of Hast India, is the smallest known species
of the genus. It builds in the open air, attaching a single comb to a
twig ofashruborsmalltree. This comb is only about the size of a man’s
hand and is exceedingly delicate, there being on
each side 100 worker cells to the square inch of
_surface (figs. 2 and 3). The workers, more slen-
der than house flies, though longer bodied, are
blue-black in color, with the anterior third of
the abdomen bright orange. Colonies of these
bees accumulate so little surplus honey as to give
no hope that their cultivation would be profit-
able.
THE GIANT EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE.
Fic. 2.—Worker cells of
This large bee (Plate I, figs. 2 and 3), which (PY. "torcay; natural sine
might not be inappropriately styled the Giant (Original).
East Indian bee, has its home also in the far East—both on the con-
tinent of Asia and the adjacent islands. There are probably several
varieties, more or less marked, of this species, and very likely Apis
zonata Guér. of the Philippine Islands, reported to be even iarger
than A. dorsata, will prove on further investigation to be only a variety
of the latter. All the varieties of these bees build huge combs of very
pure wax—often 5 to 6 feet in length and 3 to 4 feet in width, which
they attach to overhanging ledges of rocks or to large limbs of lofty
trees in the primitive forests or jungles. When attached to limbs of
trees they are built singly and present much the same appearance as
those of the tiny East Indian bee, shown in the accompanying figure
(fig. 3). The Giant bee, however, quite in contradistinction to the other
species of Apis mentioned here, does not construct larger cells in which
to rear drones, these and the workers being produced in cells of the
same size. Of these bees—long a sort of a myth to the bee keepers of
America and Europe—strange stories have been told. It has been
stated that they build their combs horizontally, after the manner of
paper-making wasps; that they are so given to wandering as to make
it impossible to keep them in hives, and that their ferocity renders
them objects greatly to be dreaded. ‘The first real information re-
garding these points was given by the author. He visited India in
1880-81 for the purpose of obtaining colonies of Apis dorsata. These
were procured in the jungles, cutting the combs from their original
(Apis dorsata Fab.)
14 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
attachments, and it was thus ascertained that (as might have been
expected in the case of any species of Apis), their combs are always
built perpendicularly; aiso that the colonies placed in frame hives
and permitted to fly freely did not desert these habitations and that,
far from being ferocious, these colonies were easily handled by proper
precautions, without even the use of smoke. It was also proved by
the quantity of honey and wax present that they are good gatherers.
The execution at that time of the plan of bringing these bees to the
United States was prevented only by severe illness contracted in India.
These large bees would doubtless be able to get honey from flowers
whose nectaries are located out of reach of ordinary bees, notably those
of the red clover, now visited chiefly by bumble bees and which it
is thought the East In-
dian bees might pollinate
and cause to produce seed
more abundantly. Even
if no further utilizable,
they might prove an im-
portant factor in the pro-
duction in the Southern
States of large quantities
of excellent beeswax, now
such an expensive article.
Should these bees and
the common East Indian
bee (Apis indica), pre-
viously referred to, visit
in the main only such
flowers as are notadapted
to our hive bees, their in-
troduction, wherever it
Fic. 3.—Comb of tiny East Indian honey bee (Apis florea); could be made successful,
one-third natural size. (Original.) would, without decreas-
ing the yield from our
hive bees, add materially to the honey and wax production of the coun-
try. Theoretical conclusions as to the results of such an introduction
can not be of much account unless based upon an intimate acquaintance
with the nature and habits of the bees to be introduced. Enough is
known of the small bee to remove all doubt regarding the possibility
of its successful introduction, and it is also probable that the large one
would prove valuable. In neither case does there appear any possi-
bility that evil results might follow their introduction. There are also
numerous other varieties or species of bees in Africa and Asia about
which no more or even less is known, but to investigate them fully will
require much time and considerable expense. It is a subject, however,
that should receive careful consideration because of the possible bene-
fits to apiculture and the wider beneficial effects on agriculture.
4
APIS MELLIFICA—VARIOUS RACES. 15
THE COMMON HIVE OR HONEY BEE.
(Apis mellifica Linn.)
Besides the common brown or German bee imported from Europe to
this country some time in the seventeenth century and now widely
spread from the Atlantic to the Pacific, several other races have been
brought here—the Italian in 1860, and later the Egyptian, the Cyprian,
the Syrian, the Palestine, the Carniolan (Pilate I, figs. 1, 4, and 5), and
the Tunisian. Of these the brown or German, the Italian, and,in a
few apiaries, the Carniolan bees are probably the only races existing
pure in the United States, the others having become more or less
hybridized with the brown race or among themselves or their cultiva-
tion having been discontinued. It should also be remarked that so
few have kept their Carniolans pure that purchasers who wish this
race should use caution in their selection or else import their own
breeding queens. There are many breeders of Italians from whom
good stock can be obtained. Egyptian bees
were tried some thirty years ago, but only to a
very limited extent, and, as has been the case
with Syrians and Palestines imported in 1880,
and whose test was more prolonged and general,
they were condemned as inferior in temper and
wintering qualities to the races of bees already
here, it not being thought that these points of
inferiority were sufficiently balanced by their
greater prolrficness and their greater energy in
honey collecting.
The Tunisians, for similar reasons and also
because they are great collectors of propolis,
never became popular, although a persistent
attempt was made a few years since to create
sale for them under the new name of “Punic, Dia ee aire
bees,” the undesirable qualities of the race hay- monhoney bee( Apismetlifiea):
ing previously been made known, under the orig." ® (Origimal.)
inal name, by the author, who had tested them carefully for several
years—a part of the time in Tunis.
Cyprians.—Bees of the race native to the Island of Cyprus have pro-
duced the largest yield of honey on record from a single colony in this
country, 1,000 pounds in one season. Everyone who has fairly tested
them admits their wonderful honey-gathering powers and their perse-
vering courage in their labors even when the flowers are secreting
honey but scantily. They winter well and defend their hives against
robber bees and other enemies with greater energy than any other
known race. When storing honey Cyprians fill the cells quite full
before sealing, and thus the capping rests against the honey, present-
16 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
ing a semitransparent or ‘‘ watery” appearance, which is undesirable.
They are extremely sensitive, hence easily angered by rough or bun-
gling manipulators, and when once thoroughly aroused are very ener-
getic in the use of their stings. - These faults have caused a very —
general rejection of Cyprians, especially by those who produce comb
honey. Even the producers of extracted honey do not seem to have
learned how to manipulate Cyprians easily and without the use of
much smoke, nor how much more rapidly they could free their extract-
ing combs from Cyprian bees than from Italians. Nor have they
seemed to count as of much importance the fact that Cyprians, unlike
Italians and German or common bees, do not volunteer an attack
when undisturbed; that they will, in fact, let one pass and repass
their hives quite unmolested and even under such circumstances as
would call forth a vigorous and very disagreeable protest from the
other races just mentioned. It is to be regretted that there has been
such a widespread rejection of a race having such important and well-
established excellent qualities. It would be easier by selection in
breeding to reduce the faults of this race than to bring any other cul-
tivated race to their equal in the other desirable points.
Cyprians are smaller-bodied and more slender than bees of European
races. The abdomen is also more pointed and shows, when the bees
are purely bred, three light orange bands on the three segments nearest
the thorax. The underside of the abdomen is even lighter orange
colored nearly or quite to the tip. The postscutellum—the small
lunule-like prominence on the thorax between the bases of the wings—
is likewise orange colored instead of dull, as in European races. The
rest of the thorax is covered with a russet-brown pubescence. Cyp-
rians are the yellowest of the original races, and their bright colors
and symmetrical forms render them attractive objects.
Ttalians.—Through the agency of the United States Department of
Agriculture bees of this race were introduced direct from Italy in
1860. There had previously been repeated individual efforts to secure
Italians bred in Germany, where the race had been introduced some
years earlier, and a small number of queens had been landed here alive
in the autumn of 1859, but most of these died the following winter and
the few remaining alive seem not to have been multiplied as rapidly as
those obtained in Italy by a purchasing agent of the Department of
Agriculture and landed here early in 1860. Their good qualities were
soon appreciated, and they had become well established and widely
spread long before the Cyprians, imported twenty years later. For
this reason, together with the fact that they cap their surplus combs
whiter than some other races and because less skill is required in
subduing and handling Italians, they have retained their popularity
over bees which, though better honey gatherers, are more nervous
under manipulation. Their golden-yellow color has also proved so
attractive to many that the good qualities of more somber-hued races—
gentler, better winterers, and better comb builders—have not received
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE I.
HONEY BEES.
. Worker, Carniolan variety of Apis mellifica—twice natural size.
. Giant honey bee of East India (Apis dorsata), worker—twice natural size.
. Giant honey bee of East India (Apis dorsata), drone—twice natural size.
. Drone, Carniolan variety of Apis mellifica—twice natural size.
- Queen, Carniolan variety of Apis mellifica—twice natural size.
oT me 0 we
«pam
APIS MELLIFICA—VARIOUS RACES. 17
due consideration. Italians are, however, certainly preferable to the
common brown or black bees, for they show greater energy in gather-
ing honey and in the defense of their hives against moth larve and
robber bees, while at the same time they are gentler under manipula-
tion than the blacks, though they do not winter as well in severe
climates.
italian workers nearly equal Carniolans in size, and show across the
abdomen when the latter is distended with honey not less than three
yellow bands, which approach more or less a reddish or dark leathery
color. By selection in some instances, and in others by the introduc-
tion of Cyprian blood, Italians and Italian hybrids have recently been
bred which show four or five yellow bands or which are even yellow to
the tip of the abdomen. They are certainly pleasing to the eye, and
- in case due heed has been given to the vigor and working qualities of
the stock selected when establishing the strain, no valid objection can
be brought against them except the tendency they have to revert to
the original type of Italians. This is due to the comparatively short
time they have been bred, and with each season’s selection will of
course grow less.
Carniolans.—These, the gray bees from the elevated Alpine province
ot Carniola, Austria, are the gentlest of all races, and as, besides their
other good qualities, they winter the best of any, it is not surprising to
see that they have steadily grown in favor. Their sealed combs are
exceedingly white, as they do not fill the cells so full that the honey
touches the capping, and they gather little propolis, qualities highly
appreciated by the producer of comb honey. They are quite prolific,
and if kept in small hives, such as have been popularized of late in the
United States, are somewhat more inclined to swarm than the other
races introduced here. This tendency becomes more pronounced when
they are taken into a country whose summers are hot, like ours, and
their hives are not well shaded, as they have been bred for centuries,
with only slight introduction of outside blood, in a climate where the
summers are short and cool. Moreover, the practice in Carniola is to
place the long, shallow hives used almost exclusively there, in beehouses
and side by side, one above the other, with intervening air spaces, so
that at most only the front ends are exposed tothe sun. This manage-
ment long continued has doubtless tended to develop and fix more or
less permanently in this race certain characteristics which should be
taken into account in their management elsewhere. With these pre-
cautions they do well in all parts of the United States. (See Plate I,
figs. 1, 4, and 5.)
The Carniolan worker is readily recognized by its large form, less
pointed abdomen, and general ashy gray coat, the abdominal segments
especially presenting a ringed appearence on account of silvery white
hairs which cover the posterior half of each of these segments. By
crossing Carniolans with Italians or with Cyprians a yellow type with
4526—No. 1 2
18 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
silvery rings is produced, and by continued selection in breeding the
gentle disposition of the Carniolans can be secured with the greater
honey-gathering powers of Cyprians should these be employed in form-
ing the new strain.
German, common black, or brown bees.—These bees are found com-
monly throughout our country from ocean to ocean, both wild and
domesticated. Exactly when they were introduced from Europe is not
known, but considerable evidence exists which shows that there were
no hive bees (Apis mellifica) in this country for some time after the first
colonies were established; also, it was not until near the close of the
last century that they reached the Mississippi, and less than half a
century has passed since the first were successfully landed on the Pacifie
Coast.
Many bee keepers, having more attractively colored and frequently
better bees, are inclined to consider this race as possessing hardly any
redeeming qualities, or at least to underrate these because accompanied
by undesirable traits. While it is true that they have some serious
faults, the latter are not so great as those of some other races. They
have become thoroughly acclimated since their first importation, over
two centuries ago, and besides possessing good wintering and comb-
building qualities, they will, when the flow of honey is quite abundant,
generally equal Italians in gathering. But the disposition which bees
of this race have of flying toward one who approaches the apiary and
stinging him, even though the hives have not been molested, their way
of running excitedly over the combs and dropping in bunches when
they are handled, besides stinging the backs of the operator’s hands,
unless the whole colony has first been thoroughly subdued and the
bees induced to gorge themselves with honey, or are constantly deluged
with smoke, are very annoying to the novice who undertakes to per-
form necessary manipulations with them, and may even so discourage
and daunt him as to cause the neglect of work of great importance
to the welfare of the colony. The easy discouragement of bees of this
race when a sudden check 1n the flow of honey occurs is also a pecul-
larity which does not commend them. These things, tending to reduce
profits, often dampen the beginner’s enthusiasm before he has acquired
the knowledge and skill necessary to make the work genuinely success-
ful. He had therefore better choose either Italians or Carniolans, and
use as breeders only queens that are known to have mated purely.
The common race shows considerable variation in its markings and
qualities. The workers havea dull, rusty brown color, especially about
the thorax. Some strains are however much darker than others and
in general the drones are darker than the workers. In size workers,
drones, and queens of this race are intermediate between the other
European races and those from the Orient. The same care and skill
applied in the selection of breeding stock would result in as great im-
provement in this as in any of the more attractive yellow races.
eo
CHAPTER Ii.
KINDS OF BEES COMPOSING A COLONY—BEE PRODUCTS AND
DESCRIPTION OF COMBS—DEVELOPMENT OF BROOD.
KINDS
OF BEES IN
A COLONY.
Each colony of bees in good condition at the opening of the season
contains a laying queen and
some 30,000 to 40,000 worker
bees, or six to eight quarts by
measurement. Besides this
there should be four, five, or
even more combs fairly stocked
with developing brood, with a
good supply of honey about it.
Drones may also be present,
even several hundred in num-
ber, although it is better to
limit their production to se-
lected hives, which in the main
it is not difficult to accomplish.
Under normal conditions the
queen lays all of the eggs which
are deposited in the hive, being
capable of depositing under fa-
vorable conditions as many as
4,000 intwenty-four hours. Or-
dinarily she mates but once,
flying from the hive to meet
the drone—the male bee—high
in the air, when five to nine
days old generally, although
this time varies under different
climatic conditions as well as
with different races. Seminal
fluid sufficient to impregnate
the greater number of eggs she
Fic. 5.—Ovaries of queen and workers: A, abdomen
of queen—under side (magnified eight times); P, peti-
ole; O,O, ovaries; hs, position filled by honey sac; ds,
position through which digestive system passes; od,
oviduct; co.d,common oviduct; E, egg-passing ovi-
duct; s, spermatheca; i, intestine; pb,poison bag;
p-g, poison gland; st, sting; p, palpi. B, rudimentary
ovaries of ordinary worker; sp, rudimentary sperma-
theca. C, partially developed fertile
worker; sp, rudimentary spermatheca. (From Ches-
hire.)
ovaries of
will deposit during the next two or three years (sometimes even four
or five years) is stored at the time of mating in a sae—the spermatheca,
opening into the oviduct or egg-passage (fig. 5,s). The queen seems
19
20 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
to be able to control this opening so as to fertilize eggs or not as she
wills at the time of depositing them. If fertilized they develop in‘o
workers or queens according to the character of the food given, the
size and shape of the cell, ete.; if unfertilized, into drones. The queen’s
life may extend over a period of four or five years, but three years is
quite as long as any queen ought to be kept, unless a particularly valu-
able one for breeding purposes and not easy to replace. Indeed, if
full advantage be taken of her laying powers it will rarely be found
profitable to retain a queen longer than two years.
Upon the workers, which are undeveloped females, devolves all the
labor of gathering honey, pollen, propolis, and bringing water, secret-
ing wax, building combs, stopping up crevices in the hive, nursing the
brood, and defending the hives. To enable them to do all this they
are furnished with highly specialized organs. These will be more fully
referred toin connection with the description of the products gathered
and prepared by the workers.
Fic. 6.—A, Head of queen, magnified ten times, showing smaller compound eyes at sides, and three
ocelli on vertex of head; n, jaw notch. B, head of drone, magnified ten times, showing larger com-
pound eyes at sides, with three ocelli between; n, jaw notch. (From Cheshire.)
The drones, aside from contribtting somewhat to the general warmth
of the hive necessary to the development of the brood, seem to have
no other office but that connected with reproduction., In the wild state
colonies of bees are widely separated, being located wherever the
swarms chance to have found hollow trees or rock cavities, hence the
production of many drones has been provided for, so young queens
flying out to mate will not run too many risks from bird and insect
enemies, storms, ete. Mating in the hive would result in too continuous
in-and-in breeding, producing loss of vigor. As we find it arranged, the
most vigorous are the most likely to reproduce their species.
At the time of the queen’s mating there are in the hive neither eggs
nor young larve from which to rear another queen; thus, should she be
lost, no more fertilized eggs would be deposited, and the old workers
gradually dying off without being replaced by young ones, the colony
would become extinct in the course of a few months at most, or meet a
ORGANS AND PRODUCTS OF BEES. 21
_ speedier fate through intruders, such as wax-moth larvie, robber bees,
wasps, ete., which its weakness would prevent its repelling longer;
or cold is very likely to finish such a decimated colony, especially as
the bees, because queenless, are uneasy and do not cluster compactly.
The loss of queens while flying out to mate is evidently one of the
provisions in nature to prevent bees from too great multiplication, for
were there no such checks they would soon become a pest in the land.
On the other hand, the risk to the queen is not uselessly increased, for
she mates but once during her life.
BEE PRODUCTS AND ORGANS USED IN THEIR PREPARATION.
Pollen and honey form the food of honey bees and their developing
brood. Both of these are plant products which are only modified some-
what by the manipulation to which they are subjected by the bees and
are then stored in waxen cellsif not wanted for immediate use. Pollen,
the fertilizing dust of flowers, is carried home by the bees in small pel-
Fic. 7.—Modifications of the legs of different bees: A, Apis: a, wax pincer and outer view of hind
leg; b, inner aspect of wax pincer and leg; c, compound hairs holding grains of pollen; d, anterior
leg, showing antenna cleaner; e, spur on tibia of middle leg. B, Melipona: f, peculiar group of spines
at apex of tibia of hind leg; g, inner aspect of Wax pincer and first joint of tarsus. C, Bombus:
h, wax pincer; 7, inner view of same and first joint of tarsus—all enlarged. (From Insect Life.)
lets held in basket-like depressions on each of the hind legs. The hairs
covering the whole surface of the bee’s body are more or less service-
able in enabling the bee to collect pollen, but those on the under side
of the abdomen are most likely to get well dusted, and the rows of
hairs, nine in number, known as pollen brushes, located on the inner
surface of the first tarsal joint (fig. 7, b), are then brought into use to
brush out this pollen. When these brushes are filled with pollen the
hind legs are crossed during flight and the pollen combed out by the
spine-like hairs that fringe the posterior margin of the tibial joint—that
above a in fig. 7. The outer surface of this joint is depressed, and this,
with the rows of curved hairs on the anterior margin and the straighter
ones just referred to forms a basket-like cavity known as the cor-
22 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
biculum or pollen basket, represented by the longest joints of the legs,
A, B, and ©, fig. 7. Into this the pollen falls, and with the middle
pair of legs is tamped down for transportation to the hive. Having
arrived there, the bee thrusts its hind legs into a cell located as near to
the brood nest as may be, and loosening the pellets lets them fall into
the bottom of the cell. The tibial spur (fig. 7, e) on each middle leg is,
as Professor Cheshire has pointed out, probably of use in prying the
pellets out. The latter are simply dropped into cells and left for some
other bee to pack down
by kneading or pressing
with its mandibles. Va-
rious colors—yellow,
brown, red, slate, etce.,
according to the kinds
of flowers from which
gathered— frequently
show in layers in the
same cell. Often when
partly filled with pollen
the cell is then filled up
with honey and sealed
moreor less hermetically
with wax. The bees
store the pollen, for con-
venience m feeding,
above and at the sides
of the brood and as near
to it as possible, the
comb on each side of the
brood nest being gener-
ally well stored with it.
NECTAR AND HONEY.
The liquid secreted in
the nectaries of flowers
is usually quite thin,
Fic. 8.—Head and tongue of Apis mellifica worker (magni- Containing, when just
fied twelve times). a, Sean, or feeler; mm, mandibula, or gathered, a large per-
outer jaw; g, gum flap, or epipharynx; map, maxillary palpus; :
pg, paraglossa; ma, maxilla, or inner jaw; lp, labial palpus, centage of water. Bees
l, ligula, or tongue; b, bouton, or spoon of the same. (Reduced gyek or lap it up from
from Cheshire.)
such flowers as they can
reach with their flexible, sucking tongue, 0.25 to 0.28 inch long. (Fig.
8,1.) This nectar is taken into the honey sac (Plate IT, h. s.) located in
the abdomen, for transportation to the hive. It is possible that part of
the water is eliminated by the gatherers before they reach the hive. A
Russian bee keeper, M. Nassanoff, while dissecting a worker, discovered
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF BEE (magnified ten times).
A. Horizontal section of body; Jp, labial palpus; mz, maxilla; e, eye; dv, dv, dorsal
vessel; v, ventricles of the same; No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, salivary gland systems, 1, 2, 3;
ec, cesophagus; pro.t, prothorax; mesu.t, mesathorax; mefa.t, metathorax: g, g,
ganglia of chief nerve chain; n, nerves; hs, honey sac; p, petaloid stopper of honey
sae or stomach mouth; c.s, chyle stomach; bt, biliary or Malpighian vessels; s/,
small intestine; J, lamelle or gland plates of colon; Ji, large intestine.
TIhih ty ge gt
’ . a
ORGANS AND PRODUCTS OF BEES. 23
between the fifth and sixth abdominal segments a small canal, to which
he attributed an excretory function, and Zoubareff, having noticed bees
ejecting a watery substance while returning from the fields, suggested
that this gland probably served to separate a portion of the water from
the nectar, the liquid deposited in the cells appearing to contain less of it
than that just secreted by the flowers. ’ However this may be, evapora-
tion takes place rapidly in the heat of the hive after the nectar or thin
honey has been stored, as it is temporarily, in open cells. Besides being
thin, the nectar has at first a raw, rank taste, generally the flavor and odor
peculiar to the plant from which gathered, and these are frequently far
from agreeable. To make from this raw product the healthful and deli-
cious table luxury which honey constitutes—‘‘fit food for the gods”—
is another of the functions peculiar to the worker bee. The first step is
the stationing of workers in lines near the hive entrances. These,
by incessant buzzing of their wings, drive currents of air into and
out of the hive and over the comb surfaces. If the hand be held be-
fore the entrance at such atime a strong current of warm air may
be felt coming out. The loud buzzing heard at night during the
summer time is due to the wings of workers engaged chiefly in ripen-
ing nectar. Instead of being at rest, as many suppose, the busy workers
are caring for the last lot of gathered nectar and making room for
_ further accessions. This may go on far into the night, or even all night,
to a greater or less extent, the loudness and activity being proportion-
ate to the amount and thinness of the liquid. Frequently the ripening
honey is removed from one set of cells and placed in others. This may
be to gain the use of certain combs for the queen, or possibly it is merely
incidental to the manipulation the bees wish to give it. When, finally,
the process has been completed, it is found that the water content has
usually been reduced to 10 or 12 per cent, and that the disagreeable
odors and flavors, probably due to volatile oils, have also been driven
off ina great measure, if not wholly, by the heat of the hive, largely
generated by the bees. During the manipulation an antiseptic—formic
acid—secreted by glands in the head of the bee, and it is also possible
other glandular secretions, have been added. The finished produet is
stored in waxen cells above and around the brood nest and the main
cluster of bees, as far from the entrance as it can be and still be near
to the brood and bees. The work of sealing with waxen caps then goes
forward rapidly, the covering being more or less porous.
Each kind of honey has its distinctive flavor and aroma, derived, as
already indicated, mainly from the particular blossoms by which it was
secreted, but modified and softened by the manipulation given it in the
hives. When the secretion is abundant in a flower having a short or
open corolla, hence one from which the bees find it easy to obtain the
honey, they will confine their visits to that kind if the latter is present
in sufficient numbers. Thus it is that linden, white clover, buckwheat,
24 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
white sage, mesquite, sourwood, aster, tulip tree, mangrove, orange, and
other kinds of honey may be harvested separately, and each be readily
recognizable by its color, flavor, consistency, and aroma. When, how-
ever, no great honey yielder is present in large quantity and the source is
miscellaneous, all manner of combinations of qualities may exist, intro-
ducing great an4 often agreeable variety. Thus the medicinal qualities
and the food value of different kinds of honey differ as greatly as do
their prices on the market.
PROPOLIS.
This substance, commonly known as “bee glue,” is obtained by the
bees from the buds and crevices of trees, and is carried to the hives in
the corbicula or basket-like cavities on the outside of the tibial joints
of the workers’ hind legs, the same as they carry pollen. The workers »
with their mandibles scrape together and bite off the particles of pro-
polis, and with the front and middle legs pass them back to the baskets,
where the middle legs and feet are used to tamp them down. The
pellets can be readily distinguished from those of pollen, the latter
being dull and granular in appearance, while the freshly gathered
propolis is compact and shiny. This resinous material, which becomes
hard soon after it is gathered, is at first quite sticky, and the bee bring-
ing it requires aid in unloading. Another worker takes hold of the
mass with its jaws, and by united exertion they get it out of the pocket,
though often by piecemeal and in long threads. It is not stored in cells,
but is used at once to stop up crevices in the hives and to varnish the
whole interior surface, as well as to glue movable portions fast, also in
strengthening the combs at their attachments, and if the latter are
designed exclusively for honey, aud especially if not filled at once, the
edges of their completed cells receive a thin coating of propolis, which
adds considerably to their strength. The bees often make the flight
hole smaller by filling a part of it with masses of propolis, sometimes
mixed with old wax. Carniolans gather the least and Tunisians the
most propolis of any of the different races. On this account the former
are better suited than the latter to the production of fancy white
comb honey.
BEE POISON AND THE STING.
The worker and the queen are supplied with another organ which is
of great importance to them, namely, the sting; for without this the
hard-earned stores of the hive would soon be a prey to all manner of
marauders, and the queen would be deprived of an organ of occasional
use to her in dispatching rivals, and of daily use to her during the
working season in the deposition of eggs. The darts work independ-
ently and alternately, and are connected at the base with the poison
sac, without whose powerful contents such a tiny weapon would be
wholly ineffective. Poison glands pour an acid secretion—largely
formic acid—into this sac, whence it is conveyed to the tip of the sting
ORGANS AND PRODUCTS OF BEES. 25
along the groove or canal formed by the junction of the sheath and the
darts. The sting being but an ovipositor modified to serve also another
purpose in addition to oviposition, in the perfect female (the queen) its
main use is in placing the eggs in their proper position in the bottoms
of the cells.
Formic acid is known to have considerable antiseptic properties.
Chemical tests show its presence in well-ripened honey, but not in
freshly gathered nectar. The natural conclusion is that it has been
added by the bees to assist in the preservation of the honey. In what
manner it is supplied has frequently been questioned. Tests applied
to the blood of the bee show its presence there, and the secretions of
the head glands show still larger quantities. It is therefore reasonable
to suppose that these glands, as well as the poison glands themselves,
secrete formic acid, and that the honey receives its portion from the
former, the head glands, upon being disgorged from the honey-sac or
during the manipulation to which it is subjected in the hive.
WATER.
During cold or cool weather much condensation of moisture takes
place in wooden hives as these are usually arranged. The water, col-
lecting in drops on the interior walls of the hive and on the cold, sealed
honey, often trickles down over the cluster of bees, to their great
injury. It has been claimed that when brood rearing begins this con-
densed moisture will be utilized in the preparation of brood food.
Very possibly it may, yet its use is probably detrimental, since it is
charged with waste products of the hive—those of respiration, ete. In
its absence the water contained in the honey, if the latter has not gran-
ulated, seems to be sufficient. Later, however, when no condensation
takes place in the hive and the greater number of developing larve
require considerable supplies of water in their food, special trips are
made to brooks and pools for it, and dew is often gathered from leaves.
SILK.
The larval bee produces a small amount of silk from glands in its
head. The pupal cell is partially lined with this. Later, as the bee
develops, there being no further use for the glands, they become
atrophied.
WAX.
The light-colored pellets which are carried into the hive on the hind
legs of the workers, and which have been described as pollen, are often
mistaken for wax. The fact is, wax is not gathered in the form in
which we see it, except in rare instances, when, bits of comb having
been left about, small quantities will be loaded up and taken in as
pellets on the legs. Ordinarily it comes into the hive in the shape of
honey and is transformed by the workers within their own bodies.into
wax. This production is wholly confined to the workers, for although
26 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
the queen has. wax plates on the underside of the abdomen and wax
glands beneath them, yet both are less developed than in the workers
and are never used. The wax plates of the worker overlying the
secreting glands are well shown in fig. 9. those of the queen and of
the related genera, Bombus and Melipona, being shown for comparison.
During wax secretion, that is, when combs are being built or honey
cells sealed over, a high temperature is maintained in the hive, and
many workers may be seen to have small scales of wax protruding
from between the segments of the abdomen on the underside. The
molds or plates, eight in number, in which the scales appear are con-
cealed by the overlapping of the abdominal segments, but when
exposed to view (fig. 9, @) are seen to be five-sided depressions lined
with a transparent membrane. The wax glands themselves are beneath
this membrane, and through it the wax comes in aliquid form. As the
scales harden they are pushed ont by the addition of wax beneath.
lh
‘ Te Wie TeAM (1
; f Pini Tay ay
Al y ANP I}
Wy YA Yih i aeee
wi i nth nn ‘tt i De TNeS
an i i a sth i na NaN
} The ee iain rile AN ils Hf PTLYAINS
ar Mey Liao ‘yee Vy yao Hr i ne sd ny it ls ‘ay, te eT ) \
Hit 1] i ah TN i }
Fic. 9.—Wax disks of social bees: a, Apis mellifica worker: b, A. mellifica queen; ce, Melipona worker;
d, Bombus worker—all enlarged. (From Insect Life.)
The bees pluck them out with neat pincers (fig. 7, @ and b) formed by
the articulation of the hind tibis with the adjacent tarsal joints, pass
them forward to the mandibles, and mold them into the shape of hex-
agonal cells, meanwhile warming and moistening them with the secre-
tions of the head glands to render the wax more pliable.
COMBs.
Wax is fashioned by the workers into cells of various sizes and shapes,
according to the use to be made of them. The most regular in shape
and size are the cells designed for brood (fig. 4). These combs in which
workers are bred show nearly 29 cells on a square inch of surface, the
combs being seven-eighths inch thick and the cells generally quite
regular hexagons in outline. Drone cells are larger, there being but 18
of them to the square inch of surface, and the comb is 14 inches thick.
2
4
|
Pe J
_ -
——— oS =
COMB BUILDING. 27
The cells of combs desigued only for honey are frequently more irreg-
lar in shape, generally curve upward somewhat, and are often deep-
ened as the honey is stored in them, so that these combs sometimes
reach a thickness of 2 or 3 inches.
The cells in which queens are bred bear in size and shape some
resemblance to a ground or peanut. They are often irregular in form,
being sometimes curved, or short and thick, according to the space
below their point of attachment, which is most frequently the lower
edge or the side edge of a comb, or sometimes a mere projection or
angularity in the general surface of a comb. Queen cells open down-
ward instead of being built horizontally like drone and worker cells
(figs. 62 and 63).
Into the material used in constructing brood combs bees often incor-
porate bits of wax and fiber-like gnawings of cocoons from old combs
in which brood has been reared, and if given cappings or trimmings of
combs they will work them all over and utilize most of the material.
Fic. 10.—Comb building—side of hive removed. (Original.)
Also when the bees have abundant supplies of pollen much of this is
incorporated into the material of brood combs, thus saving the costlier
substance—wax. Such combs show at once by their brownish or straw
color, even when first constructed, that they are not made of wax
alone. It will readily be seen from the above that the quantity of
honey consumed by the bees in producing a pound of comb must vary
greatly, for if the comb is designed for surplus honey it will be made
of newly secreted wax, while if for brood other material will, as just
stated, replace a portion of the wax. The amount of honey coming in
varies from day to day, and it is difficult to estimate how much is con-
sumed in feeding aud keeping warm the brood; moreover, a high tem-
perature is required in the hive to facilitate the secretion and working
of wax, necessitating, of course, extra food consumption when the out-
28 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
side temperature is low. Accordingly estimates as to the amount of
honey required to produce 1 pound of comb range from 5 pounds to 25
pounds. More accurate experiments are needed in this direction before
anything positive can be stated. Until then 18 to 20 pounds might be
looked upon as nearest the correct figure for white surplus combs, and
half as much for dull straw-colored or brownish combs built for brood
rearing.
DEVELOPMENT OF BROOD.
Ordinarily the winter cluster in a hive of bees occupies the more cen-
tral combs, four or five in number. Near the middle of this cluster the
queen deposits the first eggs of the season (which are fertilized eggs) in
the small-sized or worker ceils. Under favorable circumstances, that
is, in a Strong colony amply protected against inclement weather, this
deposition usually occurs in January, though in a very mild climate some
brood is generally present during every month of the year, and the cessa-
tion of egg-laying is very short. The eggs hatch on the third day after
deposition into minute white larvie, to which the workers supply food
in abundance. The composition of this food has been the subject of
much attention and more theorizing. It may be considered as pretty
certain that during the first three days of the life of the larva its food
is a secretion from glands located in the heads of the adult work-
ers—a sort of bee milk, to which, after the third day, honey is added
in the case of the worker larvae, and honey and pollen in the case of
drone larve. As this weaning proceeds both worker and drone larve
receive pollen, and in constantly increasing proportions, in place of the
secretion. But this rich albuminous substance is continued to the
queen larvee throughout their whole period of feeding; moreover, the
quantity of this food supplied to each queen larva is apparently super-
abundant, for after it ceases to feed quite a mass of the food somewhat
dried out will be found in the bottom of the cell from which a well-
developed queen has issued. After assuming the pupa form the young
queen is attached to this food by means of the tip of the abdomen, and
it very likely continues for some time to.receive nourishment from the
mass.
The following table shows approximately the time occupied in the
development of worker, drone, and queen:
| | From Fane
| i Kgg Larva. | Pupa tion of egg
| | toimago. |
= — Se ree ‘
i |
i Days Days | Days Days.
IwiQueen’ <2 th. eae 5A | a 154
| Worker .....-- | 3 Oy a 13 21
; WONG) ese e 3 Ol; 15 24
|
The original circles of brood are gradually increased by the deposition
of eggs in the cells next outside those already occupied, and circles are
soon begun in the adjoining combs. In this way the space occupied by
OO eee ee ee
*”
3
;
.
‘
)
DEVELOPMENT OF BROOD. 29
the developing bees is gradually increased, while preserving the gen-
eral spherical shape of the brood nest thus formed, which, however, the
shape of the hive often modifies somewhat. As already mentioned, each
circle of brood has rows of pollen cells about it, chiefly above and at the
sides, and the combs on either side contiguous to the brood are usually
well packed with pollen. Outside of the pollen most of the honey on
hand is stored. Thus (fig. 11) a cross section made in any direction
through the middle of a hive in normal condition at the opening of the
active season should show this relative arrangement of brood, pollen,
and honey, which economizes most the heat of the hive and the labors of
the nurse bees, favoring in this way the rapid increase of the population.
THE WORKER.
The worker larve are fed five days, and then the cell is given by the
adult bees a covering which is quite porous by reason of numerous
e
im
Z
/
f—
L-
aes
.
~
a TaN es
LIZ.
Z SEL
WSS
Fic. 11.—Cross section of brood apartment: s, 8, sides of hive; ¢, t, top-bars of frames; h, p, l, sb,
combs containing (hk) honey, (p) pollen, (7) larve and eggs, and (sb) sealed brood. (Original.)
pollen grains incorporated into its mass, this openness of texture being
necessary to give the developing bee air to breathe. The larva strength-
eus this capping by a loose webwork of silk within, extending down the
side but slightly and attached at its edges to the last skin cast by the
molting larva. Thisskin,extremely delicate and pressed closely against
the inside of the cell, forms the lining of its sides and bottom. In
about twelve days after sealing, that is, twenty-one days from the time
the egg was deposited, the imago, or perfect bee, bites its way through
the brown covering.
In the course of a couple of days it takes up the work of a nurse, and
in a week to ten days may appear at the entrance on pleasant days,
taking, however, but short flights for exercise, as ordinary field work is
30 - MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
not undertaken until it has passed about two weeks in the care of
brood. The worker then takes up also wax secretion, if honey is to be
capped over or combs built, although old bees can and do to a certain
extent engage in wax production.
THE DRONE.
Kegs left unfertilized produce drones and require twenty-four aays
from the time they are deposited until the perfect insect appears. They
are normally deposited in the larger-sized horizontal cells, and when
the latter are sealed, the capping is more convex as well as lighter-colored
than that of worker brood, which is brown and nearly flat.
The fact that drones develop from unfertilized eggs is to be noted as
having an important practical bearing in connection with the intro-
duction of new strains of a given race or of new raccs of bees into an
apiary. Irom a single choice home-bred or imported mother, young
queens of undoubted purity of blood may be reared for all of the colo-
nies of the apiary, and since the mating of these young queens does
not affect their drone progeny, thereafter only drones of the desired
strain or race and pure in blood will be produced, rendering, therefore,
the pure mating of future rearings falily certain if other bees are not
numerous within a mile or two. Eventually also all of the colonies
will be changed to the new race and without admixture of impure
blood, provided always that the young queens be reared from mothers
of pure blood mated to drones of equal purity.
:
j
;
> age ae oe ee
=
CHAPTER III.
QUIETING AND MANIPULATING BEES.
The demeanor of bees toward an individual depends largely upon his
bearing and treatment of them. Langstroth, in his excellent treatise,
Langstroth on the Honey Bee (p. 193, revised edition), says:
Let all your motions about your hives be gentle and slow; never crush or injure
the bees; acquaint yourself fully with the principles of management, and you will
find you have little more reason to dread the sting of a bee than the horns of a
favorite cow or the heels of your faithful horse.
Most bee manipulators, however, grow somewhat indifferent to stings,
since in time they become
so inoculated with the pot-
son of the bee that the pain
of the sting is less severe
and the swelling slight.
But to avoid the stings ts,
with some of the races more
recently introduced into this
country, simply a question
of carein manipulation and
a free use of smoke. Itis
not meant that the bees
should be stupefied with
smoke, but merely alarmed
and subjugated, and when-
ever they show any dispo-
sition to act on the offen-
Sive recourse is to be had
to smoke. It is not neces-
sary that the smoke should
befromaparticular source,
but that from certain sub-
stances, as tobacco, subju- Fic. 12.—Use of veil and bee smoker. (Original.)
gates them more quickly,
while burning puffball stupefies them for the time. There are some
objections to these substances which do not apply to wood, either par-
tially decayed or sound, and as the latter when in a good smoker holds
fire best and is very effective, it is advisable to keep a good supply at
hand. Seasoned hickory or hard maple are best, though beech, soft
31
BY4 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
maple, etc., are good. The most improved bellows smokers, when sup-
plied with such fuel sawed 5 or 6 inches long and split into bits a half
inch or less in size, will burn all day and be ready at any time to give
a good volume of blue smoke, by which bees of most of the races now
cultivated in this country are subdued at once.
With Italian or black bees a puff or two of smoke should be given
at the hive entrance and the cover and honey board, or quilt, removed
slowly and carefully, smoke being driven in as soon as the least opening
is made and the volume increased enough to keep down all bees as fast
as the covering isremoved. The smoker may then be placed on the wind-
ward side of the hive to
allow the fumes to pass
over the top and toward
the operator. The frames
may then be gently pried
loose and lifted out care-
fully, without crushing a
bee if it can be avoided.
Crushing bees fills the air
with the odor of poison,
which irritates the bees.
So also when one bee is
provoked to sting others
follow because of the odor
of poison.
Too much smoke will
often render certain ma-
nipulations difficult; for
example, when queens are
to be sought out, or nuclei
or artificial swarms made,
volumes of smoke blown
Fig. 13.~ Manipulation—removing comb from hive. (Origi- in between the combs will
ee drive the bees from them
so that they will cluster in clumps on the bottoms of the frames or in
the corners of the hives. A little observation and judgment will enable
one to know when the bees need smoke and how much of it to prevent
any outbreak on their part, which it is always best to forestall rather
than be obliged to quell after it is fully under way.
The frame hive as now made—with metal rabbets and arrangements
for surplus honey, and quilts instead of honey boards—reduces propo-
lization to a minimum and renders the danger of irritating the bees by
jarring when manipulating much less. As a prerequisite to rapid and
safe manipulation perfectly straight combs are necessary.
With the common or black bees it is never safe to do without the veil
as a protection to the face, and with these bees it will also be very difii-
MANIPULATION OF COMBS. 33
cult to avoid stings on the hands unless considerable smoke has been
driven intothe entrance beforehand and
time has been given the bees to get well
filled with honey before the hive is
opened; even then frequent recourse to
smoke will generally be necessary.
Blacks are by far the most troublesome
of all races about flying from their hive
entrances to sting in an unprovoked
manner. Next to these are the crosses
containing the blood of theblacks. Ital-
ians have much less of this disposition,
and Carniolansand Cyprians rarely, the
latter almost never, fly from their hive
entrances to attack unless their hives Fic. 14.—Manipulation—tilting to bring re-
have been disturbed. Pwre Cyprians
verse side of combin view. (Original.)
can generally be handled without the use of the bee veil by skillful bee
Fic. 15.—Manipulation—reverseside
of comb brought to view. (Orig-
inal.)
manipulators who understand the qualities of
therace. Much ofthe work among pure Ital-
ians can be done without a veil after one has
gained experience in manipulation. During
four years’ residence in Carniola the writer,
manipulating annually several hundred col-
onies of bees, never had occasion to employ a
bee veil. If no bees but gray Carniolans of
pure blood are in the apiary and some smoke
is used a veil will never benecessary. They
may be handled in all kinds of weather, early
and late, even during the night, yet with but
a small part of the risk which attends the
manipulation of other races. Nor will it be
necessary to deluge them with smoke from
time to time, as one is obliged to do with blacks. To dispense entirely
withthebee veilisamoreimportantcon-
sideration, especially to the professional
beemaster, than is at first apparent to
the inexperienced. Its use injures the
eyesight seriously, especially where one
is obliged to strain his eyes for hours to
see eggs, larvee, etc., in the cells, to hunt
out queens and queen cells, and adjust
frames. Besides this, the hindrance to
rapid work which the veil causes, as
- well as the great discomfort in wearing
it for hours during hot weather, are
Fig. 16.— Manipulation—examining re-
considerations worth weighing. verse side of comb. (Original.)
4526—No, 1 3
34 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
To recapitulate: To secure easy, rapid, and safe manipulation accu-
rately made hives, with the frames, if hanging, arranged to rest on
folded metal rabbets, and the combs perfectly straight, are essential.
It is equally important also that some one of the gentler races be kept
Fic. 17.—Quinby
sed-end frames. (From A B C of Bee Culture.)
Further ore, a good bee smoker fed with dry fuel is necessary, while
the bee escape to clear supers without manipulation of combs is a great
help. Quilts, queen excluders, and bee escapes reduce the amount of
manipulation required, and at the same time facilitate what is abso-
lutely necessary.
In general, the best time to manipulate hives is when most of the
bees are busy in the fields. The young bees left at home are most easily
controlled and the old ones returning are generally laden.
CHAPTER IV.
ESTABLISHING AN APIARY: TIME—SELECTING HIVES OF BEES—
MOVING BEES—SELECTION OF SITE.
Spring is the best season to establish an apiary, especially for a per-
son unacquainted with the practical care of bees. Colonies in good
condition procured then are more easily kept in order by the novice than
if purchased in the fall. Mistakes in management may possibly be rem-
edied before the season closes, and by the time it 1s necessary to pre-
pare for the winter the learner will have gained a certain amount of
practical knowledge of the nature and requirements of the bees. If
the start be made late in the season mistakes, if they occur, may result
fatally before the proper remedy can be applied.
The beginner had better obtain his start by purchasing one or two
colonies of pure Italian or Carniolan bees in accurately made frame
hives and in first-class condition. These he should get from some bee-
master of repute near his own place, if possible, in order to avoid
expressage and possible damage through long confinement or numerous
transfers. The cost per colony may be $6 to $8; yet bees at this price
will generally be found much cheaper in the end, for, though common
bees in box hives may frequently be obtained for half or even less than
half as much, the cost, when finally transferred into frame hives, fitted
up with straight combs, and the common queens replaced by Italians
or Carniolans, will not be less. The possession of a colony already in
prime working order gives the novice a standard with which to com-
‘pare all others and often enables him to avoid costly experiments.
Another plan, also commendable, is to agree with some neighboring
bee keeper to deliver as many first swarms on the day they issue as are
wanted. These will give the right start if placed as soon as received
in hives with foundation starters and the frames properly spaced—13
inches from center to center, it being understood that the swarms are
early and prime ones, with vigorous queens. Only those issuing from
colonies that have swarmed the year before or from such as were them-
selves second swarms of the previous year should be accepted. Swarms
from these will have queens not over one year old. It is better to have
queens of the current year’s raising, but these can only be obtained by
taking the second or third swarms from a given hive, which come later
and are smaller, or by substituting young queens for those which come
with the swarms.
SELECTION OF STOCKS.
The relative strength of different stocks may be determined by
watching the flight of the bees. The playing of the young bees in
front of the hive is apt to deceive one. This lasts but twenty minutes
1?) —~<
v0
36 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
or So, but a weak stock compared then with a strong one whose young
bees are not flying might be regarded as very populous. The young bees
Sporting in front of the hive may be known by their light, fuzzy appear-
ance, and by the fact that as they take wing to leave the hive they turn
their heads toward the entrance and sail about it in semicircles, fre-
quently alighting on the flight board and taking wing again. They are
thus marking the location of the hive so as to be able to return to it,
for an attempt to enter another hive might result fatally to them. They
finally fly away in constantly widening circles. Field workers used to
the location fly in a direct line away from the hive. When the young
bees return they do not alight at once as do the field workers laden
with honey, but generally hover about the entrance until certain they
have reached the right hive. Having noted by their flight which stocks
seem to have the most bees, a closer examination can be made by blow-
ing a little smoke of any sort into the entrances and tipping the hives
back, if they stand on loose bottom boards. When not so constructed
the examination must, of course, be made by removing the top covering,
or if the combs are built in frames, some of these.
In addition to the strength of the colony, the number of combs con-
taining brood, straightness, kind and age of combs, amount of honey
on hand, the cleanliness and healthfulness of the colony are points
upon which full information is desirable. In April a good colony
located in a central latitude ought to have brood in five or six combs;
yet as ordinarily wintered it will be difficult to find colonies having
at this time more than three or four combs containing brood. The
combs should be straight, so that if in an old-fashioned box hive they
can be cut out and fitted without great waste into frames, and if the
hive is a frame one it is absolutely necessary to have combs straight
and built wholly within the frames in order that the latter may be read-
ily removed and returned to the hive. The less drone comb the better.
There will always be enough, an area half the size of a man’s hand
being quite sufficient for each hive. The larger size of the drone cells
and greater thickness of the combs (14 inches) will make it readily recog-
nizable. If over one-eighth of the surface is drone comb the colony
should be rejected. If the combs are so old as to be nearly black and
to show cell walls much thickened they are very objectionable. There
should be several pounds of sealed honey in each hive in early spring.
Other things being equal, those stocks which come through the winter
with 20 pounds or so of sealed honey in the combs will develop much
faster than those having just enough to last them until they gather
fresh honey rapidly enough to supply their daily needs. The presence
of an abundance gives the bees courage. ‘They do not fear to draw upon
their stores to supply the young that are fast developing. The combs
filled with honey part with their heat only slowly when the outside tem-
perature falls, and there is thus less danger of a check in the develop-
ment of the brood through too low temperature in the hive,
Pe. ee ee
Ss Oe
ahs eA ee
' Fig. 19.—Frame hive prepared for transportation. (Orig.)
SELECTING AND MOVING BEES. i; y'
If the surfaces of the combs, the frames, or the inner walls of the hive
are spotted with a brown, crumbly looking substance, it is an evidence
that the bees have had diarrhea during the winter or spring, and if they
have been badly affected not only will the combs and the whole interior
of the hive be soiled, the former perhaps
so as to be rendered almost worthless, but
the bees will lack vitality, and will soon
dwindle in numbers, not being able to sur-
vive the first arduous labors of the open-
ing of the season. It is not always easy
to determine whether a stock in a box hive
is affected with foul brood or not, for the
odor of decaying brood is not of itself
sufficient to warrant such a conclusion,
although it is well to reject any hive hav-
ing any putrid odor about it. The natural
odor of the hive, produced as itislargy —————eE=
by honey, wax, pollen, and propolis, is not F'-.18.—Box hive prepared for trans-
unpleasant to most people, so that the See
presence of any disagreeable odor should arouse suspicion. If larve
that have turned black are seen in the cells, and the capping of the
sealed brood is sunken and in some instances perforated, showing
brown and repy contents in the bottoms of the cells, and the putrid
odor is present, the existence of foul brood (Bacillus alvei Cheshire) is
pretty certain. This is a scourge much to be dreaded. Not only
should no hives or colonies be purchased from the same apiary, but
none in the vicinity of an
apiary so affected.
MOVING BEES.
In moving bees the box
hives should be turned bot-
tom upward, the bees driven
back by blowing a little
smoke on them, and a few
loose rolls of rags laid across
the lower edges of the combs
in such a manner that a
piece of sheeting, sacking,
or preferably cheese cloth or
other open material may be
tied over the whole lower end and drawn tightly, so as to press
the rolls against the combs and hold them in place. It is even
well to tack strips of lath outside of the covering, so placed that
they will cross the rolls of rags and press the latter more firmly against
the lower edges of the combs. Strips may also be tacked around the
38 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
lower edges of the hive to hold the cloth in place, or it may be fastened
by winding with strong cord. The bees should be thus prepared as
late in the day as possible, care being taken that none escape, and at
dusk stood bottom upward in a spring conveyance or on straw or hay
several inches deep in the box of a wagon, with straw packed between
and around the hives. It is advisable to drive slowly, avoiding ruts as
much as possible. By turning the hives bottom upward the weight of
the combs rests on their points of attachment, and since in such hives
the combs are not always attached well down the sides danger of break-
age is lessened, especially when the rolls of cloth are pressed against
the edges of the combs. If the bees are in frame hives, the frames of
which have not been disturbed recently, it is likely that, with care in
Fic. 20.—An apiary in Florida. (Reproduced from photograph.)
driving, the combs will not get displaced. If necessary to use a sheet
or cloth to give ventilation, it should be tied over the top and the hive
placed in the wagon in the same position it occupied on the stand, lest
the combs, not being attached all the way down, should fall to one side
or the other. Except during quite warm weather and for long trips
it may not be necessary to adopt all the precautions here indicated,
although in case bees are to be transported on long journeys by rail or
water far more careful preparation is even necessary.
SELECTION OF SITE.
The apiary should be located where no surface water will collect dur-
ing heavy storms, yet the ground should not be very uneven, but rather
a gentle slope. In the colder portions of the United States a south-
eastern exposure is decidedly preferable, though in the South the slope
of the site is less important to the welfare of the bees; a direct southern
LOCATION OF APIARY. 839
or southwestern exposure, however, will be found extremely uncom-
fortable at times both for the operator and for his bees. A windbreak,
such as a board fence, a hedge, or a row of evergreens on the north and
west, is advisable as a protection against sharp winds in winter and
early spring, which keep many bees from reaching their hives even when
near the entrances. Some shade is desirable, yet such density as to
produce dampness is extremely detrimental. In moist elevated regions,
which are of course cool, no shade will be needed, except temporarily
for newly hived swarms. Tall trees are objectionable in or near the
apiary, because swarms are likely to cluster so high as to render their
capture difficult and dangerous. Some of the self-hivers or nonswarm-
ing devices now offered for sale may with improvement yet accomplish
the end in view, but heretofore clipping one wing of each laying queen
F ia, 21.—An apiary in California. (Reproduced from photograph.)
and using all precautions to prevent after-swarming, making artificial
swarms, selection in breeding, or any other means known to limit
Swarming, have not sufficed to prevent the occasional issuance of a
swarm with a queen having wings. Therefore it is advisable to have
the apiary located under or near low trees, where the hives can be
readily seen from the house. Carniolan, Italian, and Cyprian bees give
less trouble to passers-by or to live stock than do the ordinary brown
or German bees, or hybrids of these races, yet whatever race be kept,
itis best to have the apiary as secluded as the necessary or desirable
conditions will permit.
The frontispiece and figures 20, 21, and 75, taken from photographs
of apiaries located in different parts of the country, give a fair idea of
sites actually occupied and the arrangement of hives.
CHAPTER V.
HIVES AND IMPLEMENTS.
The safest and best rule in making or selecting hives and implements
for the apiary is, have them simple and accurate in construction. <A plain
box with frames and-as few other loose parts as possible will yield in
the hands of a skillful beemaster far better results than the most elabo-
rately constructed bee palace manipulated by one who does not under-
stand the nature and requirements of bees; in fact, the most experienced
generally prefer the former. The important point to decide in connec-
tion with any proposed modification or adjunct of the hive is whether
its adoption will more than compensate for the resultant loss of sim-
plicity. While zealously endeavoring to preserve simplicity of construc-
tion, however, complete adaptability to the purpose designed must be
kept in view, and should not be sacrificed because of a slight added
expense. The bee keeper needs but few implements. With even a
limited number of hives, a smoker, a wax extractor, and a few queen-
introducing cages are the most necessary, and one or two bee veils had
better be added to the equipment, the total cost of which need not exceed
$5 to $6. If theintention be to produce comb honey, and but a few hives
are kept, then sections folded and with starters in place had better be
purchased, but with ten or more hives and time during the winter season
to prepare sections for the harvest, a section folder and a foundation
fastener, costing together about $3, may be profitably added to the outfit.
If only extracted honey is wanted a honey extractor with one or two
uncapping knives should be purchased instead of the section folder and
foundation fastener, the cost of the outfit being in this case some $15 to
$18. Fifty or even seventy-five hives may be managed conveniently
and economically with no greater investment in implements than that
indicated above, and if both comb and extracted honey are wanted the
cost of the outfit, it can readily be seen, need not exceed $20.
HIVES.
In regard to the particular style or form of hive to be used to insure
the best results, it should be stated that while an intelligent apiarist
whose experience has been considerable may be successful with almost
any hive, even with poor ones, there can be no doubt that a hive not
only adapted to the nature of the bees but also to the climate of the
bee keeper’s particular locality, and at the same time permitting the
rapid performance of all operations necessary in securing surplus
40
HIVES—MOVABLE FRAMES. 41
honey, will very materially affect the net profit of an apiary. This
being the case, the original cost of a hive, whether a dollar or two more
or less, is of small importance compared with the desirability of secur-
ing convenience and simplicity in its management and of promoting
the welfare of the bees in winter and summer. Frame hives managed
with intelligence and skill are essential to the greatest success. Inae-
curately made frame hives, neglected, as is too
frequently the case, so that the combs are built
irregularly between or across the frames, are not
one whit better than box hives. Even an accu-
rately built frame hive, if no attention is given to
the spacing of the frames when combs are being
built, will soon present no advantages over a box
hive of the same dimensions and having the same
space for supering above the brood apartment.
The frame and hive most in use in this country re as 5 Re
is the invention of Rey. L. L. Langstroth,and this = (After La Maison rus.
hive, with slight modifications, has been generally 9 “4° P"PUShed maT#)
adopted in England and her colonies. It is also becoming known and
appreciated on the continent of Europe. The patent on the frame—
the essential feature—expired many years ago, so that anyone who may
wish to do so is now free to employ the invention. It is still used by
many in the same form in which it was brought out in 1852. Others
have changed the dimensions of the frames and given them different
hames, while retaining the
special feature of the inven-
tor’s principle, namely, the
loose-fitting frame suspend-
ed by the projecting ends
of its top bar on a contin-
uous rabbet. The outside
dimensions of the Lang-
stroth frame most in use
are 173 inches long by 9}
inches deep (fig. 24). Mr.
M. Quinby, one of the most
practical and_ successful
beemasters of our century,
Tm i
@ |
i
Vit f
Fic. 23.—Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, with cap preferred frames 12 inches
a eas roof. (Redrawn from Langstroth on the Honey deep by 18 inches long, and
ee.
and these are still used by
many large honey raisers. Other sizes are also used somewhat.
The bars composing frames are usually made seven-eighths inch wide,
although some prefer to have the top bar 1 inch or even 14 inches wide,
and the bottom bar is made by some as narrow as five-eighths inch or
even three-eighths inch square. The narrower bottom bar, at least
down to a width of five-eighths inch, renders the removal of the frames
4? MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
less difficult, and bees are brushed off a little more easily; but when
combs cut from box hives are to be fitted into the frames it is not quite
so easy to hold the pieces in the center of the frame by means of trans-
ferring sticks and get the bees to fasten them securely at the bottom as
it is with full seven-eighths-
inch bottom bars. Top bars
have been made by some
hive manufacturers from
one-fourth-inch to three-
eighths-inch strips,
strengthened somewhat by
a very thin strip placed
ene re ae edgewise on the underside
as a comb guide; but such
Rie: Arie seeaae eee cei sti by 93 in. outside; bars are much too light and
pn, projecting nail. (Original.)
will sag when filled with
honey or with brood and honey, and when section holders or other
receptacles for surplus honey or sets of combs are placed above them
more than a bee space exists between the upper and lower sets of frames
or between the section holder and the frames below, and the bees will
fill in with bits of comb between these, making it difficult to remove the
top story or any of the combs from it; indeed, an attempt under such
Fic. 25.—Form in which to nail frames: b, button; db, double button. (Original.)
circumstances to remove combs from the top story generally results
in tearing the frames apart and breaking the combs, and if honey leaks
out robbing may be induced at some times of the year, all because of an
error in construction. To avoid this the top bar should never be less
than five-eighths inch to three-fourths inch thick, while for long top
bars seven-eighths-inch or 1-inch strips are preferable. The side and
bottom bars may be made of one-fourth-inch strips. A corner is taken
from the end of the top bar by a cross cut made at exactly right angles
on the underside of the top bar, reaching to within one-fourth inch of |
the top of the bar, and another cut from the end so as to meet the first-
is tease sch
i
“al
CONSTRUCTION OF FRAMES. 43
mentioned one. Each side bar can then be nailed by one nail driven
from above through the top bar, and two driven through the side bar
itself into the end of the top
bar. The bottom bar can then
be nailed on, or, better still,
cut short enough to permit it
to be inserted between the
side bars, the nails holding it
to be driven through the lat-
ter. Nailing frames loosely
or without getting them ex-
actly in true brings with it
ereatdisadvantages. If only
slightly outofshapethey may
swing together at the bottom
or touch the sides of the hive,
and in either case will be
elued fast by the bees; alsoin
the first instance the combs,
which are always built per-
pendicularly, will not be wholly within the frames. To avoid these
troubles it is essential, first, that the parts for the frames be cut very
accurately; second, that the frame be in exact shape at the time of
nailing; and third, that the nails be driven in quite firmly; long, slen-
der, flat-headed wire nails being necessary to secure proper stiffness of
the frame. Nails 14 to 12inches long made of No. 16 or No, 17 wire, or
4d. fine wire nails are the right size. Nailing in a form, such asis shown
by fig. 25, is therefore advisable. Greater ease in withdrawing the
frames is secured by making the
bottom of the frame one-fourth inch
less in width than the ~pper part.
A round-headed nail er a curved
wire-staple driven through the side
bar at each lower corner into the
endof the bottom bar and left pro-
jecting one-fourth inch will also
facilitate the removalof frames and
their insertion in the hive without
the crushing of bees, aud hence
allow more rapid manipulation. (Fig. 24, pn.)
The hive to hold the frames should be the plainest kind of a box, the
frames resting on rabbets made in the upper edges. Constructing it
with lock joints, as shown in fig. 26, or by halving together tho ends
of the boards, as in fig. 27, and, in either case, nailing in both direc-
tions makes a strong hive body. The latter may be single-walied for
mild climates or where cellar wintering is practiced; but for severe
regions it is advisable to have permanent double walls with the inter-
Culture.)
Fic. 27.—Manner of nailing hives. (Original.)
44 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
spaces filled with chaff, ground cork, or similar material, or else outer
cases should be provided giving space between the latter and the hive
proper for dry packing. As the bees always try to glue the frames
fast by means of propolis, it is better to make them rest on strips of tin,
galvanized iron, or band iron. The rabbet should therefore be made
eleven-sixteenths inch deep, and the strip of iron or other metal frame.
rest nailed on so that its edge will project upward five-sixteenths inch
from the bottom of the rabbet. Folded strips of tin as made by manu-
facturers of apiarian implements are preferable to single strips nailed
on, since they facilitate the sliding of frames and do not cut the top bars
where the latter rest upon them (fig. 28). The projecting ends of
the top bars being one-fourth inch thick, the bars themselves come
within one-eighth inch of the upper edge of the hive. It is essential
that the distance between the ends of the frames and the hive should
not exceed three-eighths inch, lest in time of plenty the bees should
build comb there; nor can less than one-fourth inch space be allowed,
for if the bees can not readily pass around the ends of frames of the
Langstroth type they will glue the frames to the side walls of the hive,
making it very difficult, if not
impossible, to remove them
without breakage. If, as sug-
gested, the frames are made
one-fourth inch shorter at the
bottom than at the top, that
is, 172 inches at bottom and
Fig. 28.—Section of improved tin-frame-rest: A, folded 173 inches at top, the hive
edge on which frame rests; B and D, nails. (From Should then be 184 inches in-
ee) side from front to rear, the
frames running in this direction. If the frames are accurately made
there will then be one-fourth inch space at each end of the frame just
below the top bar and three-eighths inch at each end of the bottom
bar. Between the frames and the bottom board, on which the hive
rests, one-half inch space answers, but five-eighths inch is preferable.
The width of the hive will depend, of course, upon the number of frames
decided upon, 12 inches being allowed for each frame, and three-eighths
inch added for the extra space at the side. If a top story to contain
frames for extracting is placed over the brood chamber, its depth is to
be such as to leave the space between the two sets of combs not over
five-sixteenths inch, and in this, as in the lower story, the space between
the ends of the frames and the hive wall should be no more than three-
eighths inch. A good way to keep rain from beating in between the
stories and also to retain the warmth of the bees in outdoor wintering,
yet admit of suitable provision for the upward escape of moisture, is —
to have the second story fit over the top of the lower one, and rest on
ledges made by nailing strips around the latter one-half inch below the
upper edge. As this makes the upper story nearly 2 inches larger from
front to rear than the lower one, it will be necessary when arranging
i en ee ee er 8 a ee eS
CONSTRUCTION OF HIVES. 45
this story for frames to make the front and rear double-walled. This
is easily done by tacking on the inside of each end two half-inch strips,
on which a half-inch board is then nailed. These inside end pieces
should be only wide enough to reach within three-fourths inch of the
top edge of the outer ends, and, like the lower story, should be finished
at the top with a metal rabbet for the frames to rest on, or the inside
piece may be made to come within three-eighths inch of the top and its
upper edge beveled so the frames can not be greatly propolized, an -
arrangement which answers very well for this story.
As to the width of hives and consequent number of frames each
story is to hold, there has been of late much diversity of opinion.
The original Langstroth hive held ten frames in the lower story and
QQ uw °° FHqqdqq}:AEA|\ALANAXNL[AIAIXII..LEL
HTT THATTE HEE EEE EET
PEELE ATE EL ed Pe OP
|
\E
»
WK
SS
NSE
{it U
2
Fic. 29.—The Langstroth hive—Dadant-Quinby form—cross section showing coustruction.
(From Langstroth.)
4%
MW
eleven frames in the second or top story. A demand for smaller-sized
brood chambers and uniformity of the stories having been created, the
larger hive-manufacturing establishments gave hives constructed to
hold eight frames the most prominent place in their catalogues, and
by many it was considered that those who adhered to the older, larger
form did so merely through conservatism. But after some years’ trial
a reaction in favor of larger hives seems to have set in, especially
among producers of extracted honey. Many of the latter are finding
that with carefully bred queens even twelve-frame brood apartments
give the best results. The author’s experience of over twenty-five years
with frame hives of various sizes and styles, both American and foreign,
-in widely differing climates, convinces him that to restrict a hive to
a capacity of less than ten frames for the brood chamber is, in most
46 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
localities. undesirable, but it will frequently be found advantageous
to contract temporarily the space occupied by the bees. For extracted
honey alone, especially in any region having a short flow of honey,
twelve-frame capacity is preferable. Thin, movable partitions, known
as “division boards,” enable
one to contract the space at
will, and the addition of su-
pers or top stories gives stor-
age room for surplus honey.
Some prefer to have the hive
in one story holding twice
the usual number of frames
== and contractible with a divi-
js = | cca
Fic. 30.—The Nonpareil hive. (From ge eSooinis for then usually at one end, par-
Frofit.) allel with the combs, and the
surplus honey is obtained from the rear part of the hive, either in sec-
tions held in wide frames or it is extracted with a machine from ordi-
nary frames. This plan renders access to all of the frames somewhat
easier than when two or more stories are used, but as the methods now
most followed involve on
the whole less manipula- ate: AO HN) 7
tion of individual frames UI UF; i}
ay
TE
IT TTT th TM
ni MAUVTATTTT TULL
UH a MUAH
than was formerly deemed
advantageous this supe-
riority can not count for
much—hardly enough in
fact to balance the limita-
tion as to the number of
frames and the inconven-
ience of larger and more
unwieldy hive bodies, cov-
ers, and bottom boards.
Small hives may yield
excellent results in the
hands of a skillful bee-
master, but an equal de- Fic. 31.—Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, open: a,
gree of skill will, in gen- front of brood apartment; b, alighting board; c, movable en-
eral, give as good, if not trance block; d, cap; e, pees mat; f, carriage-cloth cover
for frames; g,g,frames with combs. (From Langstroth.)
better, returns from large
hives, and the novice who may not know just when or how to perform
all operations will find himself much safer with hives holding ten or
twelve frames in each story, and far more likely to secure good returns
from them than from smaller ones.
A good, tight roof or cover is indispensable, well painted, so that no
drop of water can get infrom above. A flat roof slanting from front to ©
ee ON ae eee eS ee en See She eo en
Tevet %..
CONSTRUCTION OF HIVES. 47
rear will answer, but a ventilated gable roof with the sides well slanted
is far preferable. Above the sections or the upper set of frames a piece
of carriage cloth, enameled side down, should be laid during the summer
season to prevent too great escape of heat above and to keep the bees
from getting into the roof or propolizing it. The cloth is more suitable
than a board, since the latter when propolized can not be removed with-
out considerably jarring the bees. If the carriage cloth be weighted
with a board which has been clamped with a strip across each end to
prevent warping, there will be less propolization of the sections above
or building of bits of comb on the tops of the frames when these have
been used. To dispense with this extra piece and also to render the
gable cover flat on the underside, the board which rests on the car-
riage cloth may be nailed to the cover permanently. During very hot
weather the quilt may be turned back and the cover propped up.
The bottom board to the hive may be nailed permanently or the hive
may be merely placed on it. In either case the sides and back of the
hive should be wide enough to come down over the edges of the bottom
board and thus shed all water that runs down the outside of the hive.
A sloping board in front will facilitate the entrance of heavily laden bees
and many that fall to the ground will crawl in if the hive is within 8 or
10 inches of the ground. Many persons place the bottom boards directly
on the ground, and the majority have them but 3 or 4 inches above the
surface. By arranging them farther from the ground, at least 6 ors
inches, dampness is avoided and the ease in manipulation is greatly
increased. English manufacturers make the Langstroth hive with per-
manent legs some 6 or 8 inches long. This is no doubt necessary in
the damp climate of that country, and even here the free circulation of
the air beneath the hive and the entrance of direct rays of sunlight at
times are so beneficial that there might well be a return to this valua-
ble feature, which was part of the original Langstroth hive.
Great accuracy of parts must be insisted upon in hives and frames,
both because covers and top stories should be made to fit interchange-
ably, and because the bees carry out their own work with great pre
cision, so that ease in manipulation of combs can only be secured by
nice adjustment. Hives cut by machinery are therefore greatly to be
preferred, and though most of those kept in stock by apiarian manu-
facturers do not include in their construction all of the features men-
tioned above, they still answer in most particulars the requirements
of bee life, and, if proper protection for the winter be afforded, are very
serviceable.
IMPLEMENTS.
BEE SMOKERS.
No well-appointed apiary in these days is without one or more bee
smokers. The professional bee keeper who has once used a bellows
smoker would as soon think of dispensing with this implement as a
48 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
skillful cook would be disposed to go back from the modern cooking
range to the old-fashioned fireplace.
For hundreds of years smoke has been used to quell and even stupefy
bees, and various forms of bee smokers have long been used; but the
modern bellows form, so far superior to the old clumsy implements
which oftentimes required both hands of the operator, or to be held
between the teeth, is purely an American invention. Mr. M. Quinby,
one of the pioneers in improved methods in apiculture in America, was ©
the inventor of the bellows smoker having the fire box at the side of
the bellows so arranged as to ena-
ble the operator to work it with
one hand, and when not in use to
stand it upright and secure a draft
which would keep the fire going.
Certain improvements on the original Quinby smoker
have been made without changing the general form of
the implement, one of the most effective and durable of
these improved makes being the Bingham direct-draft
i. smoker. Other modifications are the Crane, with a cut-
Fic.32.-TheBing- Off valve, the Clark, Hill, and Corneil smokers. The
ham bee smoker. medium and larger sized smokers, even for use in small
aplaries, are preferable. They light easier, take in all kinds of fuel, and
hold fire better, while they are always much more effective since they
furnish a large volume of smoke at a given instant, thus nipping in the
bud any incipient rebellion. The bee smoker and its use are well shown
by figs. 12, 32, and 53.
VEILS.
Veils for the protection of the face will be needed at times—for vis-
itors if not for the manipulator. The beginner, however, should use
one under all circumstances until he has acquired some skill in opening
hives and manipulating frames and tras become acquainted with the
temper and notes of bees, so that he will have confidence when they
are buzzing about him and will know when it is really safe to dispense
with the face protector. Veils are made of various materials. In those
which offer the least obstruction to the sight, black silk tulle or brus-
sels net is used, the meshes of which are hexagonal. Linen brussels
net is more durable than silk, as is also cotton, though the latter turns
gray in time and obstructs the vision. By making the front only of
silk and the sides of some ordinary white cotton netting the cost of the
veil is less, but it is not so comfortable to wear in hot weather, being
less open. A rubber cord is drawn into the upper edge, which brings
the latter snugly in about the hat band. By having the veil long and
full and drawing it over a straw hat with a wide, stiff brim, tying the
lower edge about the shoulders or buttoning it inside a jacket or coat,
the face is securely protected. (Fig. 12.)
ee ee ee ee ne
IMPLEMENTS. 4Y
HONEY EXTRACTORS AND HONEY KNIVES,
The honey extractor (fig. 33) consists of a large can, within which a
light metal basket revolves. The full combs of honey, from which the
cappings of the cells have been removed by a sharp knife, are placed
inside the basket and after several
vapid revolutions by means of a simn-
ple gearing are found to have been
emptied of their contents. The combs,
only very slightly damaged, can then
be returned to the hives to be refilled
by the bees. If extra sets of combs
are on hand to supply as fast as the
bees need the room in which to store A a
honey, great yields can often be ob- | Lz
tained. A good extractor should be
made of metal, and the basket in
which the combs are revolved should
be light, strong, and doubly braced
on the outside so that the wire-cloth SES EE
surface, against which the combs Fic, 33,—Williams’ automatic reversible
= : - honey extractor.
press, will not yield. The wire cloth
used, as well as all interior parts of the extractor, should be tinned,
as acids of honey act on galvanized iron, zine, iron, etc. Wire cloth
made of coarse wire and with meshes one-half inch square is often
used, but it injures the surface of new combs and those very heavy
with honey more than that made
of about No. 20 wire and with
one-fourth-inch meshes.
For removing the wax cov-
ering with which the bees close
the fullcellsa peculiarly shaped
knife, known as an uncapping knife, is needed (figs. 34 and 35). The
blade, which should be of the finest steel to hold a keen edge, is fixed
at such an angle with the handle as to keep the hand that grasps the
latter from rubbing over the surface of the comb or the edges of the
frames. The form of knife with
curved point is best adapted to
reach any depression in the comb,
which, if uncapped and emptied SS
of its honey, will likely next time 16. 35.—Bingham & Hetherington uncapping
be built out even with the general oe
surface. Dipping the knife in hot water facilitates rapid work, and
of course the heavier-bladed knives hold the heat better than thin-
bladed ones, and are for this reason preferred by some; also because
they more surely lift the capping clear from the surface of the comb.
4526—No, 1——4
ATRATAN si
Al
Fig. 34.—Quinby uncapping knife.
50 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
“WAX EXTRACTORS.
A solar wax extractus is needed in every apiary; several are kept
running in many large apiaries. Extractors which render wax by steam
are also used. To, the latter class belongs the improved Swiss wax
extractor (fig. 36), This implement, invented in Switzerland and
improved in America, consists of a tin or copper vessel with a circle of
perforations in the bottom near the sides to let in steam from a boiler
below, and within this upper vessel another receptacle—the comb
receiver—made of perforated zinc. Its use, as well as that of the solar
wax extractor, is described under the head of ‘Wax production.” —
Within a few years wax extractors employing the heat of the sun
and known as solar wax extractors have come into general use (fig. 61).
The essential features in all the forms that have been devised are a
metal tank with a glass cover and usually a wire-cloth strainer, below
which is placed the receptacle for the wax,
the whole so arranged as to enable one to tilt
it at such an angle as will catch the direct
rays of the sun. The effectiveness of the
solar wax extractor is increased by having
the glass doubled, and adding also a reflector,
such as a mirror or a sheet of bright metal.
An important advantage of the solar wax
— extractor is the ease with which small quan-
— tities of comb can be rendered. By having
1 J this machine much is therefore saved that
might be ruined by wax moth larve if allow-
ed to accumulate, besides serving at the same
FG, 36-—Excelsior wax extractor, vime to increase these pests about the apiary.
The wax obtained by solar heat is also of
superior quality, being clean, never water-soaked nor scorched, and
also light in color, owing to the bleaching action of the sunlight.
The cost of a medium-sized solar wax extractor does not exceed that
of the larger Swiss steam extractors, yet of the two the former is likely
to prove by far the more valuable, even though it can be used only
during the warmer months.
Casall
Ear
v
QUEEN-INTRODUCING CAGES.
In every apiary there should be several of these on hand. The best
are such as permit the caging of the queen directly on the comb over
cells of honey. A little practice will enable anyone to make very
serviceable and cheap cages for introducing queens. From a piece of
wire cloth having ten to twelve meshes to the inch cut a strip 2 inches
wide; cut this in pieces 44 inches long, roll each piece around a stick
to give it a cylindrical form, lap the edges, and sew with a piece of
wire. Then in one end of this cylinder make slits three-quarters inch
IMPLEMENTS. Al
apart and three-quarters inch deep, and bend over the tongues thus
formed so as to close this end of the cage. With the flat end of a
pencil press warm wax or comb into the bottom _uside to give it firmness,
Then unravel five or six strands of the wire clotu at the other end.
The wire points left after unraveling these stre~ds* ay be pressed into
the comb so as to confine a queen and four or fi.e of her attendant
workers. (Fig. 66.)
Most of the queen-mailing cages are arranged to admit of their use
in introducing the queens also, so that when received it is only neces-
sary to withdraw a cork and place the cage on top of the brood frames,
thus admitting the bees to the candy. They will eat their way in and
release the queen in twenty-four to forty eight hours. This plan is
very good for such as lack experience in handling queens, and hence
might injure them by grasping the abdomen, by pinching the thorax
too hard, or by catching the legs on the wire cloth of the introducing
cage.
BEE FEEDERS.
During warm weather liquid food may be placed in any open recep-
tacles which can be set in the
upper stories of the hives. Tin
fruit or vegetable cans that have
been used may be made to serve a
the purpose, a wooden float for jy¢.57_simplicity feeder. (From A BC of Bee
each or some bits of comb being ae)
put in to keep the bees from drowning; but during cool weather feeders
arranged to admit the bees but not permit the escape of heat had better
ee
as
.
«
s
s
a
a
4
t
Fic. 38.—Fruit-jar bee feeder. Bottom of feeding stage and perforated cap shown separately. (Orig.)
52 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
beemployed. Glass fruit jars with metal caps are generally at hand, and
make excellent feeders by merely punching a few holes in each cap.
After the jar is filled with liquid food and the cap screwed on tightly
it is inverted over a feed hole in the quilt or honey board. The cap, or
top story, with cover, protects the whole, and it is very easy to see when
more food is wanted by merely raising the cover slightly. If arranged
on a feeding stage covered on the underside with wire cloth, as shown
in fig. 38, feeding may be accomplished without being troubled by the
workers.
Feeders of various forms constructed of wood or tin, or of these
maverials combined, most of them serving the purpose excellently, are
offered in catalogues of apiarian manufacturers.
SECTION FOLDERS.
Sections can be folded or put together readily over an accurately
made block just large enough to fill the space inclosed by a section,
- and several machines to facilitate the work in case it is to be done on
a large scale have been devised.
BEE ESCAPES.
The bee escape (fig. 39) is an important labor-saving invention for
the honey producer. A number of them may be regarded as necessary
in every apiary. They are in-
serted in holes bored in a hon-
ey board and used in freeing
supers from bees, as described
under “‘ Honey production.”
FOUNDATION FASTENERS.
For sections.—Several styles
of implements for fastening
thin foundation in sections have been devised. All of them do the
work well. A simple one, which is also low priced, is Parker’s; Clark’s
and the Daisy are also highly recommended, and A. C. Miller’s is very
complete, working automatically. The latter, and the Daisy shown in
fig. 40, each require the use of a lamp.
For frames.—lf the top bars of the frames have a slot or saw kerf
one-eighth to three-sixteenths inch deep on the underside, made by
Fic. 39.—The Porter spring bee escape.
passing them lengthwise over a circular saw, sheets of foundation can —
be very readily fastened by slipping the edge into this groove and run-
ning melted wax along the angle formed on each side by the founda-
tion and the top bar. A bent spoon or a tin cup with a small nozzle is
handy for this purpose. If the top bar is flat on the underside it will
be necessary to press the foundation firmly against it; that is, to incor-
porate the edge of the wax sheet into the wood of the top bar by rub-
bing it with a smooth bit of hard wood or bone, such as a knife handle,
Poecsewhcech ee ee
ee ee
IMPLEMENTS. 53
moistening this implement to prevent the wax from sticking, and then
fix it firmly by pouring melted wax down the other side. In the case
of top bars having triangular comb guides or a projecting tongue on
the underside the foundation can be securely fastened by merely cut-
ting five or six slits three-eighths to one-half inch ~
deep in one edge of the foundation and bending the ont
tongues thus formed in alternate directions so as |
to place the V-edge of the top bar between them,
when they can be firmly attached to the top bar by
rubbing with a knife handle as before. Soapsuds
or starch water may be used to advantage in moist-
ening the knife handle. The foundation roller (fig.
41), a small disk of hard wood which revolves ina
slot at the end of a handle and costs but a few
cents, does effective work in fastening foundation
in brood frames; in fact, it is rather better than
the knife handle for the work just mentioned, ex-
cept that it will not reach into the corners of the
frames, and to secure the foundation there the knife
handle must still be used. The roller will need to ~ gjtion fastener. (From
be moistened the same as the knife handle. Gleanings.)
It is particularly important that the sheets of foundation be well
fastened, for if one edge breaks loose with the weight of the bees it will
crumple down in such a way as not only to ruin that comb, or rather to
prevent the building of a good comb in the frame in question, but also
Fig. 41.— Fastening starter of comb foundation in frame. (Original.)
very likely in the adjoining frames if they have not been previously
built out; and in this case damage will probably result to them. To
prevent bulging of the comb it is also essential that the sheets of foun-
dation, if not wired, be narrower than the inside depth of the frame
and shorter than its inside length. A full inch of space should be
54 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
allowed between the bottom bar and the sheet of foundation, and a
half inch at each end for two-thirds of the way up.
With these precautions swarms may even be hived on full sheets of
foundation without wiring the frames; but the practice will probably
continue of using starters, chiefly in the case of swarms, and, when full
sheets are employed, of alternating them with combs already built out.
Some prefer to wire the frames even though it is considerable trouble,
for the combs require less attention while in process of construction
and are firmer for shipping, for use in the extractor, or for any other
manipulation. Two or three horizontal wires will suffice. No. 30
annealed tinned wire is the preferable size and quality. The end bars
of the frame are pierced by four holes, the first 1 inch below the
top bar. A small tack secures the end of the wire, which is then
passed back and forth and drawn up so as to leave no slack. The
four horizontal wires, 2 inches apart, will be sufficient to render
combs quite secure. After fastening the foundation to the top bar in
the usual way the wires are
embedded in the wax by a
spur embedder, which is a
small wheel with grooved
teeth (fig. 42). Where large
numbers of frames are to
be wired a current of elec-
tricity from a small bat-
tery will do the work more
neatly and quickly than the
spur embedder.
The disadvantages of wiring frames are, first, its expense, caused
chiefly by the time employed in doing it; and second, the fact that
wherever the wire does not get embedded into the midrib of the founda-
tion, as is sure to happen in many cases, the rearing of brood is inter-
fered with, and also, under the methods employed by the majority in
wintering, moisture is very likely to cause the combs to cleave from the
wires, whereupon the bees are disposed to gnaw the combs away from
the wires in spots and not rebuild them.
These disadvantages, except that of expense, are overcome by incor-
porating fine wire in the sheets of foundation when they are rolled.
The sheets are trimmed with wooden shears, which leave the ends of
the wires projecting. These are then glued te the bars of the frame.
The added expense is again the main objection, except to those who
wish to ship colonies or nuclei, or transport them from place to place
for pasturage. |
Fic. 42.—Spur wire-embedder. (From Gleanings.)
COMB-FOUNDATION MACHINES.
The first attempts to give bees outlines of cells as a basis for comb
building were made in Germany. The top bars of the frames were
coated on the underside with beeswax, and a strip of wood having
IMPLEMENTS. 55
the outlines of bees’ cells cut on it was then pressed against this wax
so as to form a guide which should lead the bees to build their combs
within the frames. This was only a comb guide, but was succeeded by
small strips of wax having the outlines of bees’ cells pressed on them
by hand, a block of wood being engraved for this purpose. The gen-
eral use of comb foundation, especially of the full sheets, was only
made possible through the improved means of manufacturing it devel-
oped in the United States. The slow process of hand stamping was
succeeded by its rapid production on machines, the essential feature of
which is two engraved cylinders
between which the warm sheet of
wax is made to pass (fig. 43). Such
machines are now made in numer-
ous patterns costing from $15 up.
Foundation is made with flat-bot-
tomed cells and also with the same
form as that given by the bees to
combs constructed wholly by them-
selves. Both sorts are _ readily
accepted by the bees and built out.
Both these kinds are also made in
various qualities and weights. Only
a good quality of perfectly pure
beeswax should be accepted. Brood
foundation is made in light, medium, Fig. 42 Com oundakin machine. (rom
and heavy weights. For use in sec- Pe rae
tion boxes thin surplus and extra thin surplus are made of light-colored
wax. When full sheets are used in sections it is better to have it extra
thin lest there should be a noticeable toughness of the midrib, technically
known as “fishbone.” For unwired frames the medium or heavy brood-
comb foundation should be employed.
Until used it is best to keep comb foundation between sheets of paper
and well wrapped, since if long exposed to the air the surface of the
wax hardens somewhat, but if well packed it may be used years after
itwas made with almost the same advantage as when first rolled out.
It requires considerable skill to make foundation successfully, and
those who use but a small amount will do better to purchase their supply.
The high quality of nearly all of the foundation thus far supplied in this
country has also justified this plan. Should the practice of adulter-
ating wax become as common among comb-foundation manufacturers
in this country as on the continent of Europe no doubt many more
would procure machines and make their own foundation.
CHAPTER VI.
BEE PASTURAGE.
Bees obtain their food from such a variety of sources that there are
few localities in our country where a small apiary could not be made to
yield a surplus above its own needs. Even in the center of our larger
cities bees placed on the roofs of stores and dwellings have often fur-
nished quite a surplus gathered from the gardens of the city and its
environs. Again, in regions where the soil is too light, rocky, or wet
to admit of profitable cultivation, it is often the case that honey-pro-
ducing plants abound; indeed, waste land is frequently far more profit-
able for the honey-producer than fields that have been brought under
cultivation, especially when the latter are mainly devoted to grain or
potato raising, for insignificant weeds in field or swamp often yield
honey abundantly, and among the best yielders are certain forest trees,
whose blossoms, by reason of their distance from the ground and in
Some instances their small size, escape notice. Showy flowers made
double by the gardener’s skill, such as roses, dahlias, chrysanthemums,
etc., have rarely any attraction for our honey bees. Moreover, the small
number of these ornamental plants usually found in any one locality
renders the honey yield, even in case they are abundant secreters of
nectar, so slight that they are of little value. The novice who is seek-
ing to determine the honey resources of his locality should therefore
not be led into error by these. He should compare the flora of his
locality with reliable lists of honey-producing plants, and, if possible,
consult some practical beemaster familiar with his surroundings. And
all information on this score should be fully accepted only after care-
ful verification, as it is very easy for anyone to be deceived regarding
the sources of given honey yields—plants which produce abundantly
one season not always yielding the next, or those that produce honey ~
freely in one portion of the country not yielding anything in another.
Soil and climate, the variations of successive seasons, and all other
conditions affecting plant growth—conditions which even the most skill-
ful scientific agriculturists admit are exceedingly difficult to understand,
and in many respects, as yet unexplainable—influence the amount and
quality of nectar secreted by a given plant
The danger of overstocking is largely imaginary, yet in estab-
lishing a large apiary it is of course essential to look to the natural
resources of the location, and especially to decide only upon a place
where two or more of the leading honey-producing plants are pres-
ent in great numbers. In the North, willows, alder, maples, dan-
delion, fruit blossoms, tulip tree (frequently called whitewood), locust,
56
BEE PASTURAGE. 57
clovers (white, alsike, crimson, and mammoth red), with alfalfa and
melilot, chestnut, linden or basswood, Indian corn, buckwheat, fire-
weed, willow-herb, knotweeds, mints, cleome, golden-rods, Spanish
needle, and asters may be cited as the chief sources of pollen and
honey; and of these the tulip tree, locust, white clover, alfalfa, melilot,
linden, and buckwheat furnish most of the surplus honey. The fruit
blossoms, with the exception of raspberry, come so early that a small
proportion only of the colonies are sufficiently strong to store surplus,
Fic. 44.— Willow herb (EZpilobium angustifolium). A, young flower: s, stigma turned back; a, anthers:
l, lobe or pod. B, older flower: s, stigma turned forward; a, anthers; 1, lobe. C, spike of flowers.
D, section of pollen grain: e, extine; i, intine; ti, thick intine; f, fovilla. E, growing point of pollen
grain: é, e,extine; t.7,intine; f, fovilla; pt, pollen tube. (From Cheshire.)
and of course this statement applies with still more force to plants which
blossom before apple, pear, cherry, etc. Some of the clovers, mustard,
rape, cultivated teasel, chestnut, barberry, sumac, coral berry, pleurisy
root, fireweed, borage, mints, willow-herb, Spanish needles, cleome, ete.,
though yielding well, are only found abundantly over certain areas,
and do not therefore supply any considerable portion of the honey that
appears on the market, though when any of them are plentiful in a
certain locality the bee keeper located there will find in nearly all cases
that the surplus honey is greatly increased thereby.
58 | MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
In the middle section of our country, from Maryland, Virginia, and
North Carolina westward, most of the sources named above are present,
although the maples (particularly hard maple) furnish less, and fruit
bloom, the clovers, linden, and buckwheat are not as great yielders as in
the North. Sourwood or sorrel tree, mountain laurels, sour gum or
tupelo, huckleberry, cowpea, magnolia, and persimmon make up in part
for these, the sourwood being especially important, while in some locali-
ties certain species of asters yield very abundantly. The tulip tree
(known commonly as poplar) is a greater yielder than in the North,
while in the western portion of the middle section the Rocky Mountain
bee plant or cleome and more extensive areas of alfalfa and melilot are
very important sources.
In the more southern States fruit bloom is far from being as great a
source of honey as in the North, though with the extension of orange
groves in Florida and Louisiana an increased production of very fine
honey may be looked for in those States. The titi, magnolia, palmetto,
and black mangrove yield well in some parts, and sour gum (tupelo or
pepperidge), cotton, and pennyroyal are sources not to be overlooked.
In Texas horsemint and mesquite, the latter also extending farther
West, furnish fine yields, while many mountain localities of southern
California are clothed with white and black sages—wonderful honey
producers. In certain localities there the orange and other fruit
orchards, and also wild buckwheat, give the bees excellent pasturage
for a portion of the year.
Certain small homopterous insects, such as plant-lice, bark-lice, mealy-
wings, and some leaf-hoppers, which congregate on the leaves or bark of
various plants and trees, notably pines, oaks, and beeches, and suck
their juices, secrete a sweet liquid, which is often taken up by bees as it
falls on the surrounding vegetation. This secretion, commonly known
as honeydew, or plant-louse boney, is usually of an inferior quality,
though that from pine-tree aphides is sometimes fairly good. Most of
it granulates very soon after having been gathered, sometimes even
before the cells have been sealed.
Under peculiar conditions of the atmosphere sweet exudations, also
known as honeydew, drop from the leaves of certain plants and are
eagerly taken up by the bees. This substance is sometimes very
abundant and of excellent quality. It should not, however, be con-
founded with the secretions of extra-floral glands such as are possessed
by the cowpea, horse bean, partridge pea, and vetches. These seem
to be natural productions for the purpose of attracting insects to the
plants, while the former is apparently an accidental exudation through
the plant pores, brought about very likely by some sudden change of
temperature. Both are, however, merely the saccharine juices of the
plant, and when refined by the bees may become excellent honey.
BEE PASTURAGE. 59
CULTIVATION OF HONEY PLANTS.
In all localities there will probably be found intervals during tne
working season when bees will find very little or even nothing to
gather, unless supplied by cultivation. When possible it is always
best to fill in such intervals with some honey-producing plant which at
the same time furnishes some other product—fruit, grain, forage, green
manure, or timber. The attempt to cultivate any plant for its honey
alone has not thus far been found profitable, in practice, however
promising it may seem theoretically. Catnip (Vepeta cataria), mother-
wort (Leonurus cardiaca), globe thistle (Echinops sphwrocephalus),
figwort (Scrophularia nodosa), bee balm (Jelissa officinalis), borage
(Borago officinalis), Rocky Mountain cleome (Cleome serrulata), meli-
lot or sweet ciover (Melilotus alba), and linden (Tilia americana) have
all been recommended repeatedly and tried here and there somewhat
Fic. 45.—Wagner's flat pea (Lathyrus sylvestris wagneri).
extensively. But thus far the hope of securing a sufficient increase in
the crop of honey to pay for the cultivation of these plants has in all
cases had to be abandoned. With the appreciation in value of agri-
cultural lands the prospects for the profitable cultivation of any crop
for honey alone are still further removed. Yet the writer is fully con-
vinced that in the future, especially in the older portions of our country,
eminent success in bee raising will require much more attention to the
furnishing of artificial pasturage for the bees, a close study, in fact, of
the bee flora of one’s locality, and a systematic effort to supply the
deficiencies by sowing self-propagating honey plants, and such as may
be cultivated with profit for other reasons besides their honey yield.
Among those plants which have just been mentioned as having been
cultivated at various times for their honey alone, the linden for shade
60 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
and ornament as well as for timber, catnip for sale as an herb or to
secure its seed, and melilot for forage or green manuring are the only ones
which, under present conditions, might in some cases be profitably
cultivated. There may be introduced with advantage, however, all
such honey-producing plants
as, with one sowing or plant-
ing, will readily propagate
themselves and without cul-
tivation extend their area
along roadsides and over
waste lands, always except-
ing of course such as may
become troublesome weeds.
For this purpose most of the
plants referred to above are
available, and many others
which like these are adapted
to one portion or another of
our country might be added,
Fic. 46.—Dwarf Essex or winter rape (Brassica napus). 8; for example, pleurisy root
or butterfly weed (Asclepias
tuberosa), Indian currant or coral berry (Symphoricarpos symphori-
carpos), viper’s bugloss (Hehiwm vulgare), lady’s thumb (Polygonum
persicaria), horsemint (Monarda citriodora), willow-herb (EHpilobium
angustifolium), ete., but of course it can not be expected that they will
thrive and thoroughly establish themselves without further attention,
except in such localities as present very favora-
ble conditions for their growth. Furthermore,
there is always the risk that a plant which
yields honey abundantly in one part of the
country may not do so in another region, even
though it grows well, so that it is necessary
in most cases, especially with wild plants, to
test them anew before extensive introduction,
no matter how well established their reputation
as honey producers may be elsewhere.
Among plants of economic value in other
directions fruit trees and shrubs are to be ;
counted as of much importance to bees. The ie
apple and the cherry yield well, the others less, ARS
though the gooseberry, were it more plentiful, ~*~ “=~
would be of considerable value. Strawberry F'¢-47.—Summer or bird rape
; : aves (Brassica napus).
blossoms are, in general, visited sparingly and
yield only a small amount, but the raspberry, coming later, when the
colonies are stronger, is a most important source, greatly liked by the
bees, and furnishing as fine a quality of honey as is known. Ten acres
as ee
BEE PASTURAGE. 61
in raspberries will furnish pasturage for three weeks to 75 or 100 colonies
of bees. -Mustard for seed, and rape for pasture and seed, may be made
to furnish much to the bees in early spring. Buckwheat honey is dark
and strong, but is relished by some, and when well ripened is good
winter food for bees, so that whenever this plant can be made to blos-
som at a time when the bees find nothing better and a crop of grain can
also be harvested from it, a plenti-
ful supply should by all means be
sown; the clovers, white, alsike,
crimson, and mammoth or medium
red may be sown for pasturage,
hay, forage, for purposes of green
manuring, or for seed, and honey
of fine quality obtained if a suf.
ficient number of blossoms are
allowed to appear. Alfalfa (Medi-
== cago sativa),a mostimportant honey
weed (Polygonum produceras well as perennial forage
crop, can be grown over a much
greater area of the United States than has heretofore been generally
supposed. Sainfoin (Onobrychis sativa) and serradella (Ornithopus
sativus), both most excellent honey plants, have not received the atten-
tion they merit either North or South. Japan clover (Lespedeza striata)
is grown profitably in the South, and more even might be expected
from the introduction of sulla clover (Hedysarum
coronarium) there. The trial of both by bee keep-
ers in middle and northern regions is strongly
recommended. They should also try the dwarf
(quick-growing) varieties of cowpeas ( Vigna sinen-
sis) extensively grown in the South for forage and
green manuring. Vetches are of recognized value
for the same purposes, especially the Russian hairy
vetch ( Vicia villosa). Sachaline (Polygonum sacha-
linense) and flat peas (Lathyrus sylvestris) are vis-
ited by bees, and in certain situations may be found
of value otherwise. Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
yields wellin July and August. Parsnips (Pastinaca |
sativa) when grown for seed are assiduously visited :
by bees for honey during June, July, and August, P'S: 49.—Raussian or hairy
Gorse or furze (Ulex europeus) for forage may Poh tae
prove valuable in some localities here, as it is highly esteemed in some
parts of Europe. Its odorous yellow blossoms, much frequented by
bees, appear in May. Filbert bushes (Corylus avellana) will grow in
many portions of our country, yielding, besides nuts, an abundance
of early pollen, even in February or March. The carob tree (Cera-
tonia siliqua) succeeds in the Southwest, yielding a crop of economic
knot
sachalinense).
62 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
value, besides a harvest in late summer for bees. It is also a fine
ornamental tree. There are no finer shade or ornamental trees for
the lawn or roadside than lindens (basswoods) and horse-chestnuts.
To these locust, sourwood, and tulip trees may be added. The timber
of all is useful; and since they are great honey yielders their propaga-
tion near the apiary is very desirable.
Bees range ordinarily within 2 or 5 miles in all directions from their
homes, but sometimes go farther. Pasturage to be especially valuable,
however, should be within 2 miles, and less than a mile distant to
the main source is quite preferable. The advantage is probably not so
much in the saving of time in going back and forth, for bees fly with
great rapidity, but because when sudden storms arise, especially those
accompanied by high winds, the heavily laden bees are more likely to
reach home safely and the hive will not be decimated of its gathering
force.
BEES AS CROSS-FERTILIZERS.
Allusion has already been made in this bulletin to the importance of
bees in the complete cross fertilization of fruit blossoms and to the fact
that certain varieties of pears have been found to be completely self-
sterile, requiring, therefore, pollen from other varieties before they can
develop perfect seeds and fruits. It is interesting to study the ways
in which cross fertilization of plants is secured through the visits of
insects. The part that bees perform in the development and perpetua-
tion of numerous ornamental and economic plants is thereby clearly
shown. Space will only permit the introduction here of one or two
examples. The willow-herb, which is an abundant secreter of nectar
and thus attracts bees freely, illustrates one feature in pollination by
bees. A young blossom of this plant (fig. 44, A) shows the stamens
maturing and shedding their pollen, while the pistil remains curved
downward and with closed stigmas. In the older flower (fig. 44, B),
the stamens having shed their pollen and begun to wither, the pistil
has straightened up and exposed its stigmatic surfaces for the recep-
tion of the pollen which a bee chancing to come from a younger blossom
is likely to bring. Self-pollination is thus positively prevented and
cross fertilization is insured.
In the mountain laurel the anthers are held securely by little pockets
in the corolla, so that as the flower opens the stamens are found bent
over (fig. 50, B) ready to be liberated (fig. 50, C) by the visit of a bee.
When the stamen flies up the pollen is discharged from the anther and
dusted on the underside of the bee. The latter as it alights on the
next flower naturally touches the stigma first and rubs off some of the
pollen it has brought from the last flower visited. It then proceeds to
secure the nectar of the flower on which it has just alighted, and in
doing this liberates the stamens of this flower and gets dusted again
with pollen, which it carries to the next flower.
The cross section of an imperfectly developed apple shown herewith
(fig. 51, B) illustrates the importance of complete fertilization of fruit
BEES AS CROSS-FERTILIZERS. 63
blossoms. The seed vessel at uw shows only an abortive seed, and the
side of the fruit nearest this point is also correspondingly undeveloped.
This is owing to imperfect or complete lack of fertilization of this
carpel, five distinct fertilizations being necessary to produce a perfect
Fie. 50.—Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia). <A, flowering branch. B, expanded flower: ap, anther
pocket. C,section of expanded flower: ap, ap, anther pockets; s,stigma; a, antber (free); pg, pollen
grains in shower; ca,calyx. D,section of flower bud: ap. antherpocket. E,stamen more enlarged:
a,anther; po, pores; pg, pollen grains; f,filament. (From Cheshire.)
fruit. Bees being, during the period of fruit blossoms, the most abun-
dant insects that might effect the necessary distribution of the pollen
of these flowers, the importance is at once seen of having an apiary in
or near the orchard. Continued rainy or cold weather may keep the
bees confined to their hives much of the time during fruit bioom, hence
Fic.51.—Apple (Pyrus malus), showing structure of flower and result of imperfect fertilization.
A, blossom : s,stigmas; a, anthers; p. petal; s’, sepal; ca, calyx; d, dissepiment. B, cross section ot
imperfectly developed fruit: f. f, fertilized carpels; u, unfertilized carpel. (From Cheshire.)
it is advisable to have them near at hand and in numbers proportionate
to the size of the orchards, so that even a few hours of sunshine will
assure their making a thorough distribution of the pollen. In the
absence of accurate experiments regarding the number of colonies of
bees required to insure proper fertilization in the orchard, and also in
64 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
view of the fact that surrounding conditions vary greatly, it is difficult
to say exactly how many colonies are positively necessary for a given
number of trees. However, four or five well-populated hives for every
hundred large apple trees will doubtless suffice, even though no other
hive bees are within a mile of the orchard. The bees of a neighbor’s
aplary are often quite sufficient for the orchardist’s purpose, the benefit
resulting from their labors being, therefore, mutual, though the orchard-
ist doubtless derives in this case greater advantage from them than
does their owner himself. Escaped swarms lodged in forest trees in
Fic. 52.—Heath-like wild aster (Aster ericoides). (Original.)
the vicinity of the orchard are sometimes sufficiently numerous to per-
form the work well. The colonies required to pollenize the blossoms
of the apple orchard will pollenize also those of many other fruit and
seed crops grown within their flight and which ripen their pollen and
develop their pistils either before or after the apple.
HONEY AND POLLEN PRODUCING PLANTS.
In the following lists the intention has been merely to indicate the
main sources from which our hive bees secure honey and pollen. Any-
thing like a complete enumeration of those plants of the United States
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.
WOte. de
|
ALFALFA (Medicago sativa).
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PLaTE IV.
ESPARCET OR SAINFOIN (Onobrychis sativa).
1, 2, 3, 4, parts of flower; 5, pod; 6, 7, seed.
: i ae > .
" i 4 ou
Nees J «
Chg ie”
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE V.
Wharx de
SWEET CLOVER OR MELILOT (Melilotus alba).
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI
PT NICHOLS S.
ACACIA (Acacia constricta).
¥
*s
ey
¢
J
=)
«
PLaTe VII.
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
MESQUITE (Prosopis juliflora).
ire
=
¥ S
-*
‘a4
7
¥
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE Vidi.
es
(te
Say
4
~ | ) .
he : : es ‘ R Gewin ta
4 c Ne
" BLUE WEED or VIPER’S BUGLOSS (Echium vulgare).
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX.
\
Gwing del,
CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnatum).
a
vas
»
oe
4.e
sha
1 i a
ip as
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.
\
= 7
> sill TA
7 HATHA) kali AWS
j Vin
LUN Nad
Coming del. \
ALSIKE CLOVER (Trifolium hybridum).
. i +a
=
_
-
7
-
a
-
-—
i
; - oar
— es ae ee ee eee ee lee
= « -— ~~
HONEY AND POLLEN PLANTS. 65
visited by hive bees would occupy far too much space for a brief treat-
ise like this. Many plants are therefore omitted which secrete nectar
freely but which are abundant only locally; others are left out because
they secrete only at rare intervals, or under peculiar conditions, or are
visited by bees only when some better honey source fails; others again
because, though secreting well and readily yielding their honey or pol-
len stores to the bees, they are not often present in sufficient numbers
in any one locality to enable the bees to add materially to their surplus
stores. Such plants are, however, often of great value because. they
cause the bees to rear brood during intervals between the times of stor-
ing surplus honey and thus keep the colonies populous for successive
harvests.
Besides the main honey plants it would be easy to name for any loeal-
ity quite a number of secondary importance which are frequented by
honey bees, yet even though the localities were but a few miles apart
scarcely any two lists would agree either as to the plants to be included
or as to their relative importance. The following honey and pollen pro-
ducing plants are therefore of wide distribution or of special importance
in certain localities.
For convenience separate lists are given for the three sections of the
United States made by the parallels of 35° and 40° N. The flora of the
western portion of each section differs of course greatly from that of
the eastern part of the same section. Only the most important honey
yielders among those of local interest in the extreme Southwest and the
West have been included in the lists, and the chief range of each has
been noted. An effort has been made to indicate by the type the rela-
tive importance of the plants as pollen and honey producers.
NORTH AND NORTHEAST.
[Above 40° N.]
ei euiee ae | Ac TROPEM)...~ — 228 o-wtn- oa--------=----+2-=.-.-Apml.
IE le ee a aa ft a a Sg ces po a. -4---~ April:
EI te a re ete ee ee Ge nim me De anes 3-0 = 4 ~ -April.
I ee eee eos. doe be anc Gant cones ~d A pr.—May.
Dandelion (Tararacum taraxacum = T. officinale of Gray’s Manual)--...-...: A pr.—May.
Sugar, Rock, or Hard Maple (Acer saccharum— A. saccharinum of Gray’s
REM = a SS ery. Ye fo
Juneberry, or Service Berry (Amelanchier canadensis) ........-...-----.----- May.
RIS So) OS ee ae May.
ES Se May.
ee Coe NE FLU (PONE). 8 ee cae ween eens enue May.
i rt sc Se pac mae c cnceneeeeass - May.
Huckleberries and Blueberries (Gaylussacia and Vaccinium) -.............-May-June.
CoMMON, BLACK, or YELLOW Locust (Robinia pseudacacia)..........---..-May-June.
European Horse-chestnut (dsculus hippocastanum) ......-----.-..-------May-June.
Common Barberry ( Berberis vulgaris) ................-...-..-..-------.-.May-June.
Tuip TREE, or “ WHITEWOOD” (Liriodendron tulipifera) ............-.-...May-June.
ee cee cee wencecc cnc May-June.
ere os ko uae eteusines cece cace aes May-June.
4526—No.
66 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
White Mustard and Black Mustard (Brassica alba and B. nigra) .........-.- June
BASED BIR Y.Gitwbus)\c. 22.2 Tas sae see see Seas Sein te res June.
WEEE .CLONV.ER: (iri foliunt repens) ica ae sae eye ek oe June-July.
ALSIKE CLOVER (Dyifolium hybridum) 2 ccs <2 ar: = a See eee June-July.
Edible Chestnut (Castanea dentata= C. sativa var. americana of Gray’s
Manual). % 2 Slots See Se. Sete tae Bee we ees oe cee See eee June-July.
ALFALFA; or LUGERN (Medicago sativa) << 32552555). Seas see June-July.
LINDEN, or BASSWOOD Cilia. americana) =. <A eye ee ee ee July.
Smooth Sumac (ithws. glabra) os) os So: eet as ees ee eee July.
Buttoubush (Cephalanthus occvdentauis) 255. seen ae oe ee ee July.
MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET Clover (Melilotus alba)....---.---.-..--.- July-Aug.
Indian ‘Corn: (Zea nays) cs set ee eee Soe Ee July-Aug.
Melon, Cucumber, Squash, Pumpkin (Citrullus, Cucumis, and Cucurbita) .July—Aug.
Jiireweed Chrechtiites leractifolag). S26 3. ses ee a See ee July—-Sept.
Chicory <(Crchortum. intypus) 5222528 335s ee se eee July-Sept.
KNOTWEEDS (Polygonum, especially P. pennsylvanicum and P. persicaria) . Aug.-Sept.
BUCKWHEAT ( Fagopyrum fagopyrum = I’. esculentum of Gray’s Manual). Aug.—Sept.
Indian Currant, or Coral Berry (Symphoricarpos symphoricarpos — 8. vul-
gariscok-Gray's Manual) 26 224 Sot cee tet ee oe eee Aug.-Sept.
GREAT WILLOW-HERB (Lpilobium angustifolium) -...-.-.----------------Aug.—Sept.
Thoroughwort, or Boneset (Lupatorium perfoliatum)...--.--------------- Aug.—Sept.
Bur Marigolds (Bidens, especially SPANISH NEEDLES, Bidens bipinnata).-Aug.—Oct.
Wild! Asters Aster) 2 235. ooo hak ees 2 ee a ee Aug.—Oct.
GOLDEN-RODS (Solidago) Sec. S22 ese ee Se ek ae Se ee ee Aug.—Oct.
MIDDLE SECTION.
[Between 35° and 40° N.]
Redbud (Cercis canadensis). ec 222 se 22s oh 5 ee shee sees aeee eee Mar.-Apr.
Alder (Alnus rugosa =A. serrulata of Gray’s Manual). ......---.---------- Mar.-Apr.
Red or Sort: Maple. ( Acer rubrum) se saa oe eel oa. ee eee a ee Mar.-Apr.
Buln CUTNUS) se on cs ton a5 os thence eb oes ae oe Ge ce Soe ee ee a ee nee eee ene
Willows. (SW)? os 2 Seow Sc ee SE Sees ae a se ee ne See ee Mar.-May.
Dandelion (Taraxacum taraxacum = T. officinale of Gray’s Manual)....-.-.-- Apr.-May.
Apricot (Prunes Grmeniaed))- 2.452 2 e ae. sce nee see nae eee) ae see eee Apr.—May.
dumeverry( Amelanchier camatensis) 2 202. nen semen = eine ee Apr.-—May.
Wald Crab, Apples: (Pyris) 22-2.- ceca. > Stas hee ee ee ete see eee Apr.—May.
Gooseberry and ‘Currant (Wibes) .- 22 .sc2 2ce5 te oo eee ee ae ene een cree Apr.-May.
Rhododendrons (Rhododertiron) 5.2.4 a2 cans Soe eee ee ee ee See Apr.-May.
Peach, Cherry, and Plum CPvUnus) ct «22> ae eee ease eee me ee eee Apr.-May.
Peary and Apple CPayrus).. te. ho Sl ee eee ee eee Sen eee Apr.—-May.
CRIMSON CLOVER (Trifolium incarnaiim).—-- 2-42 ae ena no eee eee Apr.-May.
Huckleberries and Blueberries (Gaylussacia and Vaccinium) .-.----------- May.
American Holly Citer-opata) e222 502m Oot ae eae ene ee ee ee May.
Black Gum, Sour Gum, Tupelo or Pepperidge (Nyssa aquatica = N. sylvatica
oP Gray's Manual) -i2.05 see Ree i oe ee eee May.
Manzanitas (Arctostaphylos) (Calitomiiays: 2222 S35: 2 oe eee eee May.
ComMMON, BLACK, or YELLOW LocusT (Robinia pseudacacia) ....--------- May.
Barberry (Berberis canadensis) -2- ee ae os eee May.
TULIP TREE, or!“ POPLAR *(Uiriodendron twp ene) see ae ae ae ee May.
Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latijolia)-s22- sacra == ne aa Sees loe May-June.
Grapevanes ACV ts) .....32.e te kee Soe ee artes eens May-June.
Persummon ((Diospyros Dirgintanag, 22]. ee ee eee ae May-June.
White Clover (Trifolium Tepens ) == sees ore ae es eee May-June.
Alsike Clover (Trifolium, jiyjbridum) s-22e2 eee eee Stee eee ae May-June.
RASPBERRY (Rubus ys22ic2. on Vo hoe eee eee ere oe ene ee eee May-June.
.
‘
q
HONEY AND POLLEN PLANTS. — «67
nn) BM MEME Mes Shans oe oss ho en we mine Soc bewes eves see cee May-Aug.
EDIBLE CHESTNUT (Castanea dentata = C. sativa var. americana of Gray’s
CO Oe eR ees ne EEE ES ieee: ee nS 7 ee ae June.
Puneet Cat R Cd BNO) 2 Coe ccs Bes. oe nds wee one Deh ssc ane June.
Catalpas, or Indian Bean Trees (Catalpa) .-.. ......-.-.....-..-.....--=.June,
MAGNOLIA, or SWEET Bay (Magnolia glauca)... -.-.--..---.------------« June.
Smee Ore “0 Alia WEPICORE)—... -2 os ke se SS iat June.
SOURWOOD, or SORREL TREE (Ozydendrum arboreum)......--------June-July.
Oxeye Daisy, or Whiteweed (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum)..------.--------June-July.
Seer e Sr TAe. Cee PURI oes or Io Pe la ee ea eee eles July.
parlenvuannerphalaninunaccuentalis):" 22. 2": ace Ft. 2 2c Jus Jace ate ee July.
CLEOME, or ‘‘ ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT” (Cleome serrulata = C. integ-
pape OL eay onal) CW eph)- 2 98 55 Sl bab oot ee July—Ang.
Penne, | Menage santa) ( West) oe te oe goss eel oi yee. July—Aug.
MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET CLOVER (Welilotus alba) .....-----.. July-Aug.
DUNES SS aN a0 1 ae le ae ee PEO ere oe eee July—-Aug.
Cucumber, Melon, Squash, Pumpkin (Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita) .July—Aug.
Knotweeds (Polygonum, especially P. pennsylvanicum and P. persicaria) -...-July—Sept.
Buckwheat ( Fagopyrum fayopyrum = F. esculentum of Gray’s Manual)..-.../ Aug.—Sept.
Wild Asters (Aster, especially HEATH-LIKE ASTER, Aster ericoides) ...--.. Aug.-Oct.
Thoroughwort, or Boneset (Lupatorium. perfoliatum) ....-------.---.---- Aug.-Oct.
Bur Marigolds ( Bidens, especially SPANISH NEEDLES, Bidens bipinnata) . .. Aug.—Oct.
Pa BE ON 2S ee res eel ea a eee ee ee gene a ea Aug,—Oct.
SOUTH.
men RPEMNIILS CT MMEASELOML LS Yoo OS ces rt eh ee sale w Sea oes so,- eS Feb.-Mar.
A ( Yt ee Be Ss eee: Feb.-Mar.
Peereire Maple ( Ace FRUTUIMN) =. 2522. 52--- 5 655-2 ete eae e see .---28 Feb.—Mar.
iI eens oe 5 So re A Sage ie DES s Sn an ee Sake wee Feb.—Mar.
URSA mn eee Re oe ees eee nn A oe ae ot city ee Feb.-Mar.
Dandelion (Taraxacum taraxacum = T. officinale of Gray’s Manual).-.-...-. Feb.-Mar.
ERS OO RS a ee a a Feb.-Mar.
Carolina Cherry, or Laurel Cherry (Prunus Seniincawa) ee oe 2 eens March.
wumeueery ( Amelanehier canadensis) - 2... 2.2 22.-2-- 5. -- 2 c2 ieee eons woe March.
Penman temen (CAirée) 222 8 25.2 to Se. oe ct oe. ~~. .-- 2-1 Mar Apr
Cottonwoods, or Poplars ( Populus) ....:-.-. ---..--2-..----+.------------.-Mar.—Apr.
TiTI (Cliftonia ligustrina) (Florida and southern Georgia, westward). ....Mar.—Apr.
Ppomouctry aneetmrrann. (hives). 2-22 55. es i ne ese ees -- --.- Mar. Apr.
ee ere ae een PONS) oo <r pe eee we ek caw ene nds Mar.-Apr.
NT Gert PNY oe 2 pr hon 2 4 oe ae San Coke seek ec Mar.-Apr.
Huckleberries and Blueberries (Gaylussacia and Vaccinium) .....-----.--2 April.
Crimson, Clover (Trifolium tncarnatum) ...< ...--- .--- 25-6 ..cc 02.4 -4-- .--- April
Biack Gum, Sour GuM, TUPELO, or PEPPERIDGE (Nyssa aquatica = N. syl-
Sp IIeIINE EERIE RD acer ye Soe Soh sade nea ows de wos April.
BALL, or BLACK SAGE (Ramona stachyoides, R. palmeri, ete.—= Audibertia
stachyoides, etc., of the Botany of California) (California). -..........April
ee en CaN LS Ca EM GMEUIME) <r wages Sonic etc Sone eee ween nd Apr.-May.
Manzanitas (Arctostaphylos) (California)...... ............-.-. .--- see eeed Apr.-May.
NEN MM eet RNs Metre roe alt ccm a Sa ccus Saw Ges wocevs waan cued Apr.-May.
Common, Black, or Yellow Locust (Robinia pseudacacia).....-...---..-----2 Apr.-May.
Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) ....-- ete ee SO ES Sah am ns wae d Apr.-May.
EDIBLE CHESTNUT (Castanea dentata= C. sativa var. americana of Gray’s
ES ee Se ae ay ae Apr.—May.
Sprn TREN NETE SC AEBEM MOU SIMMLELG Jos da vs Sons's Cie uaa oecs Savsee ae vece cous ceesd Apr.-May.
68 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
Catalpas(Catalpa) C225 52 acon. Venn aa eee eee ee re eee ae eae Apr.-May.
MAGNOLIAG (Magnolia) 28 222 sos nee Se ae ee ee Apr.—May.
Rhododendrons, Rosebays, Azaleas oeueds iy yep reine Ske ai eS = Apr.—May-June.
MESQUITE (Prosopis juliflora) (Texas and westward).--....- ase oo Se Apr.-July.
Cowpea ( Vigna simensis) 22. 2.52 eee konto Ol ee eee Apr.-Aug.
TuLie TREE, or “ POPLaR,” (Liriodendron tulipifera)= 2... 2222 3. es oe Mays
Mountam Unaurel:CMalmva ta tfolid).- 2c oe cee ee eee ee = ee ee May.
Grapevines (Visco. siso8 er eek Gee Oe ees be are Cer ee eae eee eres May.
Raspherry (Rubus) 2055 62255 ee 58 8 Ne oS oe i RL Raat aie Rea
China Berry, China Tree, or Pride of India (Melia azedarach).-.....--.---- May.
WHITE SAGE (Ramona polystachya = Audibertia polystachya of the Botany
California):( California) \+.022 02. 52 oe ees ce sae oe ee ee a ace bee Lane ones
HORSEMINT (onarda citr ipdora) Bae ee hie ee mes pena A PON EN Re ae Ph. e May-July.
SOURWOOD, or SORREL TREE (Oxydendrum arboreum)...-..---.-----+ May-June.
SAW PALMETTO (Serenoa serrulata) (coasts of Georgia and Florida) ..May-Jute.
BANANA (MUSA SAPleNlUM) 2m, Doon. Ue ace SIS See cl ae Ee = ee eee May-Sept.
IND EN, OL LINN (Lt GMericane nani. 25. ls Bee ee ee June.
Red Bay (Persea borbonia = P. carolinensis of Gray’s Manual) .....------- June.
Indian’ Corn (Zea mays) .2---2--2.-- eS eS et Ne Ape eA ee ae Oe eas June-July.
Cucumber, Melon, Squash, Pumpkin (Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita) .---. June-July.
CABBAGE PALMETTO (Sabal palmetto) (coasts of South Carolina,
Coorvia, and Mloridia)eso3 2 oii oes oe Beer Beek ee a ee eee ee ere June-July.
BLACK MANGROVE (Avicennia tomentosa and A. oblongifolia) (Florida) . June-July,
AE AIGA Medeago Saba) Wo 226 soe: oe ee a een eee ere June-Aug.
MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET CLOVER ( Melilotus alba) -...-..----..---= June-Aug.
Corton: (Goss prim heroaceum) 2 poe = 35 cee cep oclaee See eel ees June-Aug.
WippePENNYROYAL (Hedeoma pulegioiies) 2255 865224 hee as eS eee June-Sept.
BLUE GUM and RED GuM ( Eucalyptus globulus and E. rostrata) (California) . July—Oct.
WILD BuckwHEat (Lriogonum fasciculatum) (Caiifornia) ---..-.---.----- Aug.-Sept.
Japan or Bush: Cloner (Lespedeza striata) 2 sooo. oe ee eee Aug.—Sept.
Bur Marigolds ( Bidens, especially Spanish Needles, Bidens bipinnata) -.--.-..- Aug.-frost.
Wild Asters (Aster, especially HEATH-LIKE ASTER, Aster ericoides).--.-.---- Aug.—frost.
Goiden-rods (Solidago) oi. hace ces nia ce nen eueee La ein oh Se Oejsiate se Siem emeerte Aug.—frost.
CHAPTER VII.
SPRING MANIPULATION.
+ The first examination in the spring should be mainly for the purpose
of ascertaining whether or not the honey stores have been exhausted.
It should be early, and hence not so extended as to risk the loss of much
warmth from the brood apartment. Merely lifting one edge of the quilt
or, if the bottom board is a Joose one, tipping the hive back so as to get
a view in between the combs will often suffice. Should there not be at
least the equivalent of two full frames of honey it is best to supply the
deficiency at once. Without disturbing the brood full combs may be
substituted at each side for the empty ones. If combs stored with
honey and sealed over are not in reserve liquid honey or sugar sirup
may be poured into empty ones and placed in the hives at night. A
less dauby plan is to use one or more feeders directly over the brood
nest, supplying several pounds of food at once. An excellent way is to
give at one time all they need in the shape of a cake of bee candy, made
by mixing fine sugar with just enough honey to produce a stiff dough.
This cake of candy should be wrapped in heavy paper (half parchment,
or such as is used for wrapping butter is good) and laid on top of the
frames, after having punctured the paper in several places with a pencil
or Sharp stick to give the bees ready access. ‘T'wo or three twigs or
strips of wood laid across the frames before the cake is placed on them
will also give the bees a better opportunity to reach the food.
If the food be given in small quantities brood rearing will be en-
couraged and still greater supplies of food will be called for, render-
ing it absolutely necessary to give a large amount at once or continue
the feeding until natural sources fully supply the needs of the bees and
brood, otherwise both may starve. Three pounds of sugar dissolved in
one quart of water will make a suitable sirup for spring feeding. Dry
sugar may be used instead of sirup. The bees will liquify it themselves
if they have access to water. For stimulative purposes honey is better
than sugar, “strained honey” being better than extracted. This is
because of the greater amount of polien which the strained product
contains, the pollen being highly nitrogenous, hence capable of building
up muscular tissue. But if the liquid honey is one-half more in price
per pound than sugar the latter would doubtless be the more econom-
ical, certainly so if a plentiful supply of good pollen in the combs or
fresh from the fields can be had. Rye flour put in sunny places and
sprinkled with honey to attract the bees will be collected until new
pollen comes.
When the weather has become sufficiently settled to render safe
the inspection of the brood combs, or, in general, when the bees fly
69
70 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
the greater part of each clear day, the work of the queen may be
inspected. Should the comb having the largest area of brood in it
be toward one side of the hive it is best to locate it as near the center
as may be, placing on either side successively those combs having
smaller circles of brood and on each side of these the combs containing
no brood, but well stored with pollen, while those having honey only
will come still outside of these. The brood nest will then have an
opportunity to develop equally in all directions. Empty combs are of
little use at this time ontside of the brood nest as thus arranged, and
should be replaced by combs of honey if the latter is needed, or removed
altogether. If the combs are well crowded with bees and the queen
shows by her regular and compact placing of the brood, as well as by
the quantity she seems to have, that she is vigorous and thus capable
of accomplishing more than any ordinary brood nest will require of her
at this time of the year, a frame filled with worker comb may be slipped
into the center of the brood nest. This will be taken possession of
immediately by the bees, cleaned and warmed up, whereupon the queen
will soon have it filled with eggs. From time to time other combs may
be added in the same manner. If cautiously and judiciously followed
this plan, supplemented by liberal stores, will increase the brood area
and eventually the population of the hive. But the utmost caution is
needed, for if done too early cool weather may cause the bees to cluster
more closely and result in the chilling of some part of the brood which
has thus been spread. The very object sought is not only missed, but
the loss of brood will prove a serious setback to the colony. The escape
of any of the warmth generated by the bees, as also sudden changes
in the weather, should be guarded against. Warm covering above and
outer protection are therefore absolute necessities if the best results are
to be attained. With favorable weather for the development of brood
it is certain that stimulative feeding, if made necessary by the fact that
the natural honey resources of the country will not alone bring the
strength of the colony fairly up to the desired standard by the opening
of the harvest, is to be begun six to seven weeks before the opening of
the honey flow from which surplus is to be expected.
If, however, this honey flow comes so early that it is likely to be pre-
ceded by weather unfavorable to the development of brood, it will be
necessary to allow for this by beginning the stimulation even earlier, so
that it may be done more gradually, and the greatest care will have to
be taken to retain all the heat of the brood nest. Should the main flow
be preceded by a lighter one, especially if the latter comes some weeks
before the chief harvest, it may be important to watch the brood nest
closely lest it becomes clogged with honey to the exclusion of brood,
inclining the bees not to enter surplus receptacles placed above and
causing the colony to be weak in numbers later in the season. This
state of affairs can be easily avoided by the timely use of the honey
extractor, since the brood combs, emptied of the honey which the
aka ial ae tial
SPRING MANIPULATION—TRANSFERRING. 71
workers in an emergency have stored wherever they found vacant cells,
are made available for the queen. Before the main harvest opens it may
even be necessary in order to keep the combs filled with brood to feed
back gradually this extracted honey or its equivalent; but by taking
it away and returning it gradually the object sought will have been
accomplished, namely, keeping the combs stocked with brood until the
harvest is well under way, or as long as the larger population thus
gained in the hive can be made available.
It is in this getting workers ready for the early harvest—hives over-
- flowing, as it were, with bees—that the skill of the apiarist is taxed to
its utmost. The work properly begins with the close of the summer
preceding the harvest, for the first steps toward successful wintering
should be taken then, and unless wintered successfully the colony can
not be put in shape to take full advantage of an early honey harvest.
Good judgment in the application of the hints given in this chapter,
with careful and frequent attention, will bring colonies to the chief
spring or early summer flow of honey in good condition, with plenty
of bees and with combs well stocked with brood, provided they have
wintered well and have good queens.
TRANSFERRING.
If colonies have been purchased in box hives, it is advisable at the
first favorable opportunity to get them into frame hives.
Fia. 53.—Transferring—drumming the bees from a box hive into a frame hive. (Original.)
Karly in the season—that is, in April or May in middle latitudes,
before the brood nest has reached its greatest extension and while the
hive contains the least honey—it is not a difficult matter to drive the’
72 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
bees from their combs, cut out the latter, and fit them into frames. If
the combs thus fitted in are held temporarily in place in the frames,
the bees, under whose care they should be placed at once, will fasten
them securely in a few hours or days at most. To drive the bees from
the box hive proceed as follows: Toward the middle of a pleasant day
blow smoke into the hive to be transferred, and after the bees have
been given a few minutes in which to lap up their fill of honey, invert
the hive and place over the open end an empty box, or the frame hive
itself, making whichever is used fit closely on the hive (fig. 53). By
rapping continuously for some minutes on the hive the bees will be
impelled to leave it and cluster in the upper box. A loud humming
will denote that they are moving. The hive thus vacated may then be
taken into a closed room and sne side pried off to facilitate the removal
of the combs. The box containing the bees is to be placed meanwhile
on the spot originally occupied by the box hive, the bees being allowed
to go in and out without restraint, only two precautions being neces-
sary, hamely, to shade the box well and provide for ventilation by
propping it up from the bottom, leaving also, if possible, an opening at
the top. When the combs have been fitted into frames, the hive con-
taining them is placed on the original stand and the bees shaken from
the box in front of it.
In filling the frames with combs cut from a box hive, the largest and
straightest sheets having the most sealed worker brood in them should
be selected first and so cut that the frame will slip over them snugly,
taking pains, as far as possible, to have the comb placed in the frame
in the same position in which it was built, since most of the cells, instead
of being horizontal, are inclined upward, the inclination of the deeper
store cells being greatest. The comb, if not heavy, can be held in place
temporarily by slender wire nails pushed through holes punched in the
side and top bars. Before the introduction of wire nails the writer used
long thorns pulled from thorn-apple trees, which served the purpose
very well. In the case of combs heavy with honey or brood or pieced
more or-less it will be safer to use, in addition to a few wire nails, a pair
or two of transferring sticks. ‘These are simply slender strips of wood
slightly longer than the depth of the frame and notched at each end.
By placing such a stick on either side of the comb and winding ainealed
wire around the top and bottom ends so as to draw the sticks firmly
against the surface of the combs the latter will be held securely in the
frames. The midrib between the rows of cells should be pressed neither
to one side nor the other; thus, if cells on one side are deeper than those
on the other, they should be shaved down, unless the honey will be cut
into too much, in which case the comb may be allowed to project on one
side until it has been fastened in the frame and the hive has been gen-
erally put in order by the bees, the point being not to force them to try
to manage too much running honey at one time, lest robbing be induced.
In many instances the comb when pressed into the frame will seem to
ae ere
TRANSFERRING. 73
be so firm as not to need nails or sticks, but in the heat of the hive, and
with the weight of the bees that will cluster on it to repair the cut edges
and fasten them to the bars of the frame, unsupported combs are very
apt to give way, creating disastrous confusion. Thus the sticks, nails,
or their equivalent should always be used (fig. 54). All frames should
be filled with perfectly straight combs so as to be interchangeable.
With care in fitting in and some trimming and pressing into shape
afterwards, fully three-fourths of the worker combs cut from box hives
can be made into good, serviceable combs in frame hives. The precess
is much facilitated if such combs are used in the extractor one the
first season or two after transferring.
Should the time be near the swarming season the combs will be so
filled with brood and honey that the task will be much greater, and the
transfer should be postponed until three weeks after the first swarm
issues. The brood left by the old queen will have matured and issued
from the cells by that time, and the young queen, if no accident has
Fic. 54.—Transferred comb and inserted queen cell. (Original.)
happened to her, will have begun laying; yet there will usually be only
eggs, with a ee a few very young larve, present in the combs at this
time, so that the cutting out and fitting of the latter into frames will
not be as troublesome nor attended with so much waste as just before
the swarm issued.
Still another plan—one which it would not be best to employ before
fairly warm weather has set in, but which will render the work of
transferring the lightest—is to turn the box hive bottom upward and
place on it the brood apartment of a frame hive, having in it frames
filed with worker combs or with comb foundation, arranging at the
same time to give the bees ready access from their combs to those above
and no entrance to their hive except through the frame hive above.
This can easily be done by making a temporary bottom board for the
frame hive, with several holes through it, or with one large one about
the size of the open end of the box hive. As soon as it is perceived
that the queen has taken possession of the new combs—as she will be
74 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
almost certain to do, especially if one of the combs placed above con-
tains some brood—a piece of queen-excluding zinc placed over the open-
ing between the two hives will keep her above, and three weeks later,
when all the brood in the combs below has matured, the box hive may
be removed and the combs transferred to frames, if worth using in
this way; but if old or composed of drone cells or very irregular in
Shape these combs may be rendered into wax, after extracting any
honey that may happen to be in them. Inverting the box hive will
generally cause the bees to remove what honey they have stored in the
combs. This honey will be utilized in building out the foundation
placed in the added story, or, having these combs completed, the bees
will store in them whatever remains. If the quantity of honey in the
lower story is great, so that the combs above seem likely to become so
clogged as to give the queen but little room in which to lay, the central
combs should be kept free by using the extractor, so as to induce the
queen to take possession of them. Should it happen that the queen
fails to enter the superposed hive, the plan may be adopted of driving
her, with a large part of her workers, from the box hive into the new
story placed above, as described on page 72, the hive body with frames
merely taking the place of the transferring box there mentioned.
When the lower combs have been nearly deserted it will be safe to
assume that the queen has gone into the upper hive along with the
main force of the workers, and a sheet of excluder zinc may be placed
between the two hives.
CHAPTER VIII.
SECURING SURPLUS HONEY AND WAX.
If the colonies of bees have been brought to the opening of a given
honey flow with a powerful population recently hatched it will require
no great skill to secure a good crop, granted, of course, that the flowers
actually do secrete the nectar. In the ordinary course of events some
colonies are likely to come through to the early harvest in good shape, but
if all those contained in a large apiary are in prime order at this time
itis good evidence of skill on the part of the attendant, this even though
the weather and other circumstances may have favored his work. To
secure a yield of surplus honey the part remaining to be done, if all
goes well, is merely to put the surplus receptacles in place, admit the
bees, and remove the combs when filled and sealed. But if swarming
complications arise the whole of the bee keeper’s skill and ingenuity
inay again be called into requisition to keep the forces together and
storing in the surplus receptacles. Should the expected harvest not
come—that is, should the flowers from which the yield is anticipated not
secrete honey, or should they bloom when the weather would not permit
the bees to fly—of course no amount of skill could make up the deficiency.
In such a case all that can be done is to carry the colonies through to
the next honey yield in good shape—to keep up (by feeding if necessary)
the populousness of the colonies. The flow may begin suddenly or
before it is looked for; it may be excellent for only a very short time, a
day or two even, and be cut off short in the midst of its greatest abun-
dance. Thus the skill lies in having the colonies ready for whatever may
come and a force sufficient to store the whole season’s surplus in a few
days.
EXTRACTED HONEY.
One of the most important points in securing extracted honey is to
have a large stock of surplus combs. These, with the strong colonies
of bees to utilize them, and the honey extractor, are the great requisites
of the producer of extracted honey. As fast as the bees can cover and
utilize them, these combs are added to the colonies, one or two at a time
from the opening of the season until the brood apartment is full. As
soon as more combs than the lower story will hold are needed a second
story filled with combs may be added, or but two or three may be placed
in it at one side with a division board next to them. It is a good plan
to sort over the combs cf the brood apartment, removing several of the
iv
76 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
less regular ones, or if all are alike as regards regularity and in having
worker cells only, but some contain considerable honey and little
brood, these are to be removed and the empty space filled in with good
worker combs. The removed combs should be placed in the top story,
which, if the weather and the strength of the colony permit, is to be filled
out with combs at once. The strongest colonies will, of course, begin
work first, and can often spare partly filled combs to be placed in the top
stories of less populous colonies, thus encouraging the latter to begin
workin the upper stories. Itis safe to say that in general more than twice
the yield of toney can be obtained from colonies supplied during the
whole honey flow, with all the completed combs they are able to utilize,
than can be expected from colonies that have to build all of the combs
for their surplus while storing. Completed combs not being available,
comb foundation in full sheets should be employed. During the early
part of the harvest this will be drawn out very quickly and aid greatly
in securing the honey which otherwise might be lost for want of store
combs as fast as might be needed. During a fair yield the foundation
will pay for itself the first season in the extra amount of honey, and the
combs, properly cared for, can be used year after year—indefinitely, in
fact—for extracting. The best of them should be picked out constantly
to replace less desirable ones that may be found in the brood apartment,
or to give to new swarms destined to produce extracted honey. Some
prefer for the surplus cases frames half the depth of ordinary brood
frames, finding them easier to manipulate.
Whenever the combs of a top story are nearly filled, and before they
are completely sealed, it may be lifted up and another story, filled with
empty combs, placed between it and tke brood apartment, and this may
be continued until the end of the honey fiow, and all may be left on the
hive during the warm weather. It would, of course, be easier to add
the new stories successively at the top—that is, above the partially filled
surplus stories—and this plan works well as long as the honey flow is
abundant, but when put on just as the yield slackens, even if but little,
or when the weather is cool, the bees may refuse to begin work in the
new super unless it is placed between the partially filled ones and the
brood apartment. Leaving the filled top stories on the hives for some
time permits the more complete evaporation of the moisture contained
in the newly gathered honey, and by marking the stories the honey
from a certain source, when the yield has been sufficient to get the
combs filled and sealed, can be extracted by itself. If the supply of
combs is insufficient to hold the whole amount gathered, it must then be
extracted as fast as sealed, lest the bees, lacking ready cells in which to
deposit their surplus as fast as gathered, hang idly about, or if space
for new combs exists, only slowly provide these, losing meanwhile much
of the harvest. When sealed the honey will generally be found fairly
ripened, though it may improve by being stored in open buckets or cans
in a dry, warm room.
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee. eet
————————— ee
EXTRACTING HONFY. 77
The process of extracting is extremely simple, and a little practice
will enable an observing person to do it well (fig. 55). As indicated
above, some judgment is required in the selection of combs, regard
being had to the future condition of the colony. The filled combs, as
fast as removed, are placed in a light case the size of a hive, or a tin can
made specially for the purpose, covered closely to prevent the access
i.
aie
i. 10!
Fig. 55.—Uncapping and extracting honey. (Original.)
of robbers, and taken to the extracting room, which should be bee-proof.
It is not always necessary to use such eare in excluding all bees, but
the novice should practice it until he learns to distinguish by the actions
of the bees when such precautions may be dispensed with. Whenever
possible the stories containing surplus honey should be lifted up and
honey boards containing bee escapes slipped between them and the
78 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
brood apartment early in the morning of the day before the extracting
is to be done, in case the bees are still gathering, otherwise the night
before will do. The combs will then be free from bees, or nearly so,
when the operator wishes to remove them, and will contain no honey
gathered within twenty-four hours, the last day’s gathering having also
been ripened considerably during the night preceding the insertion of
the escapes. When the queen has not been restricted in her laying to
the lower story by means of excluders, this plan of freeing the combs
of bees will fail in case the escapes are placed on lower stories above
which the brood and the queen may be. The only way then will be to
remove the combs one by one, after smoking the bees to quiet them,
and shake or brush off the latter into the top story. Italians can not
be shaken off unless their bodies are pretty well filled with honey, but
they may be safely brushed off after smoking. For this a single large
feather from the left wing of a turkey is best. Other races can be
shaken off after smoking. Eastern bees should never be brushed from
the combs when extracting, nor at any time unless they are gorged
with honey. They can all be shaken off easily, and will need less smoke
than the European races.
When much extracting is to be done, top stories of hives or light
cases with cloth covers, weighted with a rod sewed into the loose edge,
may be used to hold the full combs as fast as taken from the hives, and
these, placed on a wheelbarrow, cart, or car, can be easily transported to
the extracting room. The uncapping knife, kept in hot water when
not in use, is passed rapidly under the capping of the sealed combs,
the point of it being used to reach depressed surfaces. The loosened
cappings drop into a sieve resting over a pan, or into the upper part of
a can specially designed to receive cappings. The small amount of
honey removed with the cappings drains through the strainer and is
drawn off below. The uncapped combs are placed in the extractor at
once. As the cells generally slant upward more or less, especially
those built for store cells outside the brood nest, the throwing out of
the honey is facilitated by placing each comb in such a manner as to
bring the top bar at the right hand, the basket being revolved in the
most natural way—that is, from right to left. A little practice will
enable the operator to note the speed required in order to free the combs
entirely from honey, which will depend, of course, upon the consistency
of the honey and the length of time combs are revolved. While it is,
in general, best to avoid extracting from combs containing brood, cases
will arise where it is necessary. If the brood is sealed, there will be
less liability of injuring it than when open cells containing larve are
placed in the extractor; but a moderate degree of speed continued
somewhat longer will usually bring the honey out without disturbance
to the immature bees. Three persons can work together very advan-
tageously—one to remove the surplus cases or combs from the hives,
free them of their bees, and bring them into the extracting room, where
EXTRACTING HONEY—SECURING COMB HONEY. 19
two assistants uncap and extract the honey. If the bees are not gath-
ering honey and are therefore prone to rob, the person who removes the
combs from the hives should be assisted by an active boy who can
cover hives or cases quickly or lift the iatter when necessary. The
combs when emptied may be returned at once to the hives if the bees
are still engaged in storing. The slight damage which they have sns-
tained under the uneapping knife or in the extractor will soon be
repaired; indeed, with a little experience the uncappers will be able to
smooth and trim irregular combs in such a way as to render them
straighter after they have been through the extractor. It is particu-
larly desirable, in order to straighten the combs of transferred colonies
and get them in good working trim, that they be run for extracted
honey during the first year or two; moreover, a good yield of extracted
honey is more likely to be obtained from recently transferred colonies
than comb honey, especially if the manipulators are beginners in the
work.
When the extracting is done after the close of the gathering period,
the greatest care should be taken not to start robbing. The surplus
combs should be returned to the hives just before nightfall, and not
even a taste of sweets of any kind should be left exposed. The object
in returning the combs is to have them cleaned up, and also to have
them under the protection of the bees until cool weather puts a stop to
the destructive work of wax-moth larve. When sharp frosts occur, the
surplus combs may be removed from the hives and placed in a dry, cold
room. An open loft (if not infested with mice or if the combs are pro-
tected from the latter) is a good place, and it is much better to place
the combs so they do not touch each other.
COMB HONEY.
The general directions given in the preceding chapter on spring ma-
nipulation to secure populous colonies apply as well to those designed
for comb honey as to those which are to produce extracted honey. If any
difference is to be observed it is even more important that the former
be brought to the opening of the honey flow with the brood combs com-
pactly filled with developing bees to the exclusion of honey, than that
the latter should be so; and colonies not strong enough to enter sections
readily, if at all, may still be utilized, and often do fairly well in the
production of extracted honey.
The old-fashioned surplus boxes holding 25 to 30 pounds are regarded
quite as relics of the past by those who use frame hives and produce comb
honey in fine marketable shape, and even if for home consumption the
pound (fig. 56) and 2-pound sections are always preferred, since they
are so cheap, permit the use of comb foundation, and are in neat shape
and of convenient size for the table.
Section holders (fig. 57) with sections folded and in place, each see-
tion supplied with thin foundation, preferably full sheets, but at least
80 - MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
guides, should be in readiness before the opening of the harvest. Forty
to fifty sections for each hive should be prepared. One-piece sections, if
bought in the flat, should be placed in the cellar for two or three days
before folding. If the section back of the V-joints is then moistened
slightly they can be set up rapidly without breakage. Sections made
of white poplar are by far the
neatest looking and do not cost
much if any more than bass-
wood, so that bee keepers
might show their disapproval
of the wholesale destruction of
our basswood or linden timber
by resolutely refusing to buy
sections made of that wood.
The four-piece sections, if well
SS made, are preferable to the one-
Fic. 56.—One-piece V-grooved sections. (From Glean- piece. The latter do not keep
ae. their shape as firmly as the
four-piece sections, which are made with lock joints at all the corners.
The foundation for sections should be the quality known as “thin
surplus.” It is made of selected, light-colored wax, 10 to 12 square
feet to the pound, and 1 pound will furnish full sheets for about 100
standard sections. The sheets for these sections (44 by 44 inches)
should be cut no larger than 3? inches square. These will take up
about three-sixteenths of an inch in fastening, which will leave nearly
one-half inch space between
the lower edge and the bot-
tom piece of the section and
allow the foundation to stretch
while being drawn out. This
is necessary, otherwise the
partially completed comb will
bulge as soon as it reaches
the bottom of the section. In
cutting foundation either for
sections or frames one edge—
the one to be attached— a
should be perfectly straight. 1G. 57.—Super with sections and section holders in place:
To secure this not more than _a\, super; D, separator; i, sections; F, follower; G,
C A wedge. (From Gleanings.)
six to ten sheets (depending
on their thickness) should be laid in one pile, and a sharp, thin-bladed
knife, as well as a straight rule, used. Two or three piles may be laid
side by side and with a rule long enough to reach across them all a
dozen to thirty sheets can be cutatatime. Dipping the knife in warm
water facilitates the work.
The sheets are fastened in the section by the use of one of the
machines mentioned on page 52, They secure the wax to the wood by
ry
ee ee ee ee ee a
b
Pe ee ee ee oe
—— Ce
a ee ee
COMB HONEY—PUTTING ON SECTIONS. $1
pressure combined in some instances with heat. Fig. 40 shows one of
these. The simplest form consists merely of a sliding lever hinged toa
block. It is intended to be fastened by means of screws to a table or
bench, and is then ready for use when the lever is moistened with honey,
starch water, or soapsuds along the edge which is to touch the wax
sheets. The foundation is laid flat on the top piece of the section in
such a way that the straight edge passes the center line one-eighth of
au inch, and the whole is then slipped under the lever. The latter is
brought down with a sliding motion toward the operator and at the
same time the foundation is bent up at right angles to the top piece.
If the wax is slightly soft it will adhere firmly. A heated brick placed
before the pile of starters will keep the edges soft enough if the work
is done in a moderately warm room.
Starters half to three-fourths inch in width are sometimes used at
the bottoms of sections to secure firm attachment of combs there.
Bees incline to gnaw these bottom starters away unless the top pieces
of foundation reach within one-half inch of them. ‘Top starters an
inch or less in width may be used alone as comb guides when it is
desirable to avoid great outlay for foundation.
The use of strips of tin or wood as separators (fig. 57, D) between the
sections insures straight combs with smooth surfaces, thus convenient
to handle and ship.
The sections furnished with starters or full sheets of foundation are
slipped with separators into supers and piled away ready for use as soon
as the harvest opens. |
PUTTING ON SECTIONS.
It is better not to put surplus honey receptacles on the hive until the
honey flow actually begins, as, of course, no work will be done in them
until then. Moreover, all the heat is needed in the brood apartment
during the early part of the season. The bees might also become dis-
couraged by the large amount of empty space and might not begin
work in it at all before swarming. The sections would also be soiled by
the bees crawling over them and daubing them with propolis.
The bee keeper who is familiar with the honey-producing flora of his
locality will note the development of the flower buds of any plant from
which he expects a crop and will be able to judge accurately by a glance
at the colony when sections are needed. The beginner will do well to
consult carefully the list of honey-producing plants given in the chapter
on “Bee pasturage,” and also endeavor by inquiry in his neighborhood
to ascertain what other sources, if any, are within the reach of his bees.
The usual time of blooming of all principal honey plants should be
noted, and the management to secure populous colonies having been
in accordance with the directions given in Chapter VII on * Spring
manipulation,” the opening of the first blossoms of any one of the
important honey yielders should be the signal for placing supers with
sections on all hives intended for comb-honey production. Should
these indications not be sufficient, there is still another which no one
4526—No. 1 6
82 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
could mistake. It is to examine the tops of the brood combs from time
to time and note when the store cells between the brood and the top
bar are being made deeper by added wax. The fresh, whitened appear-
ance which such combs present when viewed from above readily dis-
tinguishes them from the yellow or dark combs wholly built during
previous seasons. The lower edges of partially completed combs will
also show additions at the same time.
It having been determined that the time to put on sections has
arrived, the quilt used over the frames is removed and the super, with
section holders, sections, and separators in place, is set over the frames.
A clean enameled or carriage-cloth quilt should be laid over the tops of
the sections, if these are open above, and this weighted down with a
board which has been clamped to prevent warping. At this time the
Fia@. 58.—Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, elevated from bottom board and slid back for ven-
tilation in summer. (Redrawn from Langstroth.)
flight hole should be full width and the hive protected from the direct
rays of the sun during the hotter portions of the day. With small,
single-walled hives, such as hold eight combs or less, it may be neces-
sary, if the hives are crowded with bees, to raise them slightly from the
bottom board or slide them back, so as to give small openings at the
rear. Mr. Simmins’s plan of placing below the brood nest a hive cham-
ber with starters only in the frames permits the bees to avoid cluster-
ing too compactly and yet to keep up their work inside during extremely
hot weather. Ventilation and shading of hives assist greatly toward
the prevention of swarming, and having bred the colony up until it is
sufficiently strong to take advantage of the harvest, and having reached
the opening of that harvest, it is desirable by all means to keep the
forces together as long as the flow lasts. (Fig, 58.)
SE ee Ue
COMB HONEY—SECURING FULL SECTIONS. — «88
The supers should be removed as fast as fairly filled. The bees are
slow in sealing over the outside sections; therefore it is better not to
lose time waiting for these to be be completely capped, but replace the
whole with a new set. Some prefer to lift up the super when about
three-fourths completed and place the empty one below—that is, between
it and the brood chamber.
The objection to this plan is
that by the time the sections |
placed above have been fully
completed they will have
more or less propolis daubed
on them and the combs will
be considerably soiled by the
bees running over them. A
better plan to secure the
completion of the outside
sections is, after removing a
number of supers, to select =
enough incomplete sections Fie.59.—Langstroth hive with combined surplus case and
to fill one super, which is BE oa ara a as om
then placed on a strong colony for completion, or the partly filled see-
tions may be used in the middle of new supers as bait sections to induce
the bees to cluster and begin work in them at once.
Notwithstanding such precautions for the prevention of swarming as
shading the hives, ventilation, having only young queens, and the
removal of the outside combs,
substituting for them frames of
foundations or starters near the
center of the brood nest, swarms
will sometimes issue, especially
ale ) i from hives devoted to comb-
—— chk ik : a: Z honey production. The best
plan in this case is to hive the
swarm in a clean new hive
whose frames have been filled
with starters and place this on
the stand of the parent colony,
moving the latter to a new
position 6 or more feet away.
The swarm in its new quarters
will then be joined by the rest
of the field workers from the parent hive, and the whole force, reunited
and having for some days no brood to care for, will constitute a strong
colony for storing honey. The super of partly finished sections should
be lifted, bees and all, from the parent hive and placed on the brood
chamber of the new colony.
Fic. 60.—Honey shipping-cases. (From Gleanings.)
84 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
The supers should be promptly removed at the close of the honey
harvest, honey boards with bee escapes in them being used to free
them from bees, as described under the head of ‘“‘ Extracting.” If the
gathering season for the year has also ended, an examination of the
brood apartment should be made to determine whether feeding is neces-
sary, either to prolong brood rearing or for winter stores.
PRODUCTION OF WAX.
The progressive apiarist of the present time does not look upon the
production of wax in so great a proportion compared with his honey
yield as did the old-time box-hive bee keeper. The latter obtained much
of his honey for the market by crushing the combs and straining it out,
leaving the crushed combs to be melted up for their wax. Before the
use of supers late swarms and many colonies quite heavy in honey were
smothered by the use of sulphur; the light ones because their honey
supply would not bring them through the winter, and the very heavy
ones because of the rich yield in honey. Frequent losses of bees in
wintering and through queenlessness gave more combs for melting, as
without frame hives, honey extractors, or comb-foundation machines,
the vacated combs were not often utilized again. The wax from the
pressed combs was all marketed, since there could be but little home
use for it.
The bee keeper of to-day, after having removed the honey from the
combs by centrifugal force, returns them, but slightly injured, to be
refilled by the bees, and at theend of the season these combs are stored
away for use in successive years, or he secures the surplus, also apart
from the brood, in neat sectional boxes, to be marketed as stored—that
is, without cutting.
The wax must therefore come from the cappings of combs where
extracted honey is produced, from occasional broken comb, bits of drone
comb that are cut out to be replaced by worker comb, from unfinished
and travel-stained sections from which the honey has been extracted,
or from old brood combs that need to be replaced. Since the price per
pound of extracted honey is usually not less than one-third and that
of comb honey one-half the price of wax, and it has already been indi-
cated (p. 28) that some 12 to 15 pounds of honey may in general be
safely reckoned as necessary to produce 1 pound of comb, it can readily
be seen that it is much more profitable to turn the working force, in so
far as possible, to the production of honey rather than wax, taking only
as much wax as can be produced without lowering the yield of honey;
and what wax is taken is practically turned into honey the following
year, for it is made into comb foundation, which, judiciously used,
inereases in turn the season’s yield of honey.
Wax being so much more valuable than honey, it behooves the bee
keeper to save even the smallest pieces of comb; but during warm
weather they must not be left long or they will serve as breeding places
es
a ee
ee eee ee Te
=. = - 2. |
hi
SD Ak ee
RENDERING WAX. - $5
for the wax moth, unless fumigated with burning sulphur or exposed to
the fumes of bisulphide of carbon two or three times each month until
no more eggs of the moth remain.
The old way of rendering wax was to put the combs into a sack made
of some open stuff, weight this down in a kettle of water, and boil for
some time. The wax rose, and when cold was removed in a cake.
This process, besides being dauby, often yielded inferior wax—burned,
water-soaked, or filled with settlings.
The most approved method of rendering wax is, for moderate-sized
apiaries at least, by means of the solar wax extractor (fig. 61), already
mentioned under the head of “Implements.” Its management is very
simple. The machine is placed in the sunniest spot in or near the
apiary, and all of the wax cappings, after having been drained of honey
or worked over by the bees, as well as bits of comb, are thrown into
the receiver above the wire
strainer, the glass is adjusted,
and the whole is turned so that
the direct raysof thesun enter.
More bits of comb are added
from time to time during the
day. The melted wax trickles
through the strainer and col-
lects in a tin placed at the
lower edge of the tank or
melter. The cake is removed
each mormng, it having cooled
and coutracted during the
night sufficiently to cause the
mass to cleave readily from
the vessel. Fic. 61.—The Boardman solar wax extractor. (From
The solar wax extractor can oeaeee)
be used during four or five months of the year in the more northern
States, and for a longer time in the South. To render wax at other
times steam heat is best. When available a jet from a boiler may
be connected with a barrel or vessel containing the combs and a large
amount rendered in ashort time. In smaller apiaries a steam extractor
for use over a boiler on the stove may be employed (fig. 36). The
manner of using these extractors is simple. The cappings and bits
of comb to be rendered are placed in an inside basket made of per-
forated metal. Upon placing this over a water boiler, into which it
fits closely, the steam rises through holes in the bottom of the upper
can and readily penetrates the mass. The melted wax runs out
through a spout at the lower edge of the upper can and is caught in a
pan partly filled with warm water. As fast as the mass in the perfo-
rated can settles away more bits of comb are added. The dark residue
remaining is composed of cocoons, pollen, and accidental impurities.
86 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
These may, however, contain considerable wax which they have
absorbed as it melted. This waste may be avoided in a great measure
if the combs are broken up and soaked in rain water for twenty-four
hours before melting.
Cakes of wax, if designed for the comb-foundation manufacturer,
will be acceptable just as they come from the wax extractor, but if for
the general market they should all be remelted in order to purify them.
This must be done with care or the wax will be seriously injured. Iron
vessels will discolor it, and as well or spring water frequently contains
iron, the use of rain water, whenever it is to come in contact with the
melted wax, will be found more desirable. Under the same circum-
stances it is best to melt the wax slowly, for if heated too rapidly the
particles become disaggregated and take up a certain quantity of water,
the mass loses its luster, and becomes pale and granular. In tbis con-
dition its market value is low. Remelting slowly, especially in a solar
wax extractor, will restore it.
These difficulties in purifying wax may be avoided if it is melted in
a tin or copper vessel and in a water bath, that is, the melter is to stand
within a larger vessel containing sufficient water to surround the former.
As much wax as possible should be melted at one time, aud when con-
venient the inner can is left standing in the water, so that the wax
remains liquid some time, permitting the impurities to settle. These
may be shaved from the bottom of the cake and remelted if they con-
tain much wax.
:
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—
CHAPTER IX.
REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS.
So much of the bee keeper’s success depends upon the strength of
his colonies, and this in turn upon the character of the queens heading
these colonies, that he needs to be well informed as to what constitutes
a really good queen and how to produce such, and, having this knowl-
edge, it will be profitable to be constantly on the alert to see that all
colonies are supplied with the best queens procurable. With a queen
from a poor strain of bees, or an unprolific one from a good strain, a
colony, even in a season of abundant honey secretion, will give little or
no return, while the seasons are not frequent during which one given
a fair start and having a large, prolific queen of an active honey-
producing strain can not collect a fair surplus beyond its own needs.
Admitting this, it will be plain to all that queen bees differ proportion-
ately in value as much as horses or cattle, and the keeper of bees who
does not know how to select and produce the best can not be called a
beemaster.
When bees swarm they generally leave a number of sealed queen
cells in the parent colony. With blacks and Italians there are usually
6 to 10; rarely more than a dozen. Carniolans generally construct
about two dozen, but under favorable conditions can be induced to
build 75 to 100 good cells at atime. Fig. 62 represents a comb from a
hive of Carniolans which had built at one time 70 queen cells.
Cyprians usually make 30 or 40 queen cells, but may greatly exceed
this number under the best conditions, while Syrians nearly always
exceed it, sometimes even building as many as 200; and the writer
has seen 350 cells constructed at one time by a single colony of bees
in Tunis. It might be thought that where so many were constructed
only a small proportion of them would produce good queens. Suchis not
the case, however; for in general a much larger proportion of the cells
formed by these eastern races produce well-developed queens. But in
all hives some queen cells are undersized. This may be because they
are located near the bottom or sides, where space for full development
is lacking, but in many instances it arises from the fact that they are
formed last, and larvie that are really too old to make full-sized, perfect
queens have to be used. These smaller cells are usually smooth on the
outside and show thin walls. In selecting cells only the large, slightly
tapering ones, an inch or more in length and straight, should be saved.
87
88 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
Yet good queens may frequently be obtained from crooked cells, in case
the latter are large and extend well into the midrib of the comb.
ese >
@-2 re
s &.8-S.
(Original—from photograph.)
SG
F14. 62.—Comb showing worker brood and queen cells.
SIL PPL Rie? Sako?
See Le é2 "
On%
mee ak,
scececaces
a.
eeoseges -/
ce.
ee
When a laying queen is removed from a colony during the working
Season, eggs and larve of all ages are left behind. As indicated in
PRODUCTION OF QUEEN CELLS. 89
Chapter II, any egg which has been fertilized may be made to develop
into a queen. So also larve from such eggs may, up to the third day,
be taken to rear from without danger of producing inferior queens.
Cells in which to produce queens will be started over some of these
larve on the edges of the combs, or, by tearing down partitions and
thus enlarging the lower portion of the cell, a beginning is obtained
for a queen cell. Fig.63 shows such queen cells constructed over eggs
or larve originally designed to produce workers. They are known
as emergency cells. The young larva is at once liberally supplied
with a secretion, which is probably a production of the glands of the
head, and which analyses have shown to be rich in nitrogen and fatty
elements, being similar to that given at first to the worker larva.
This iscontinued throughout the whole feeding period, while, as Dr. Von
Planta has shown, in the case of the workers and drones, after the third
day the proportion of the constituents of the larval food is so changed
that they receive much less aibumen
and fat and more sugar. Itis chiefly
the influence of this food which causes
the larva that would have developed
as a worker to becomeaqueen. The
latter has somewhat changed in-
stincts, and its reproductive system
is developed, instead of abortive as
in the case of the worker. The size of
the cell, and, to a less extent per-
haps, its position, no doubt influence
this development, but the food seems
to be the main factor, for small cells
built horizontally, if their larve are
supplied with the food designed for
royal larvze, will be found to contain
queens, and frequently these queens,
even though small, are quite prolific,
and show in all respects the instincts —F'6-63.—Queen cells and worker brood in vari-
of a queen. ous stages. (Original.)
It is believed by most queen raisers that in order to secure the best
development of the young queens a colony should be allowed to build
but a few cellsat atime. That their belief is not well founded is shown
by the facts just cited concerning the large numbers of well-developed
queen cells which produce also perfect and prolific queens. It lies
within the skill of the beemaster to establish conditions favoring the
production of food for the queen larve—the so-called “royal jelly"—
and this having been brought about, there need be no hesitancy in per-
mitting the construction of hundreds of queen cells in one colony if
such numbers are needed.
It was formerly the plan, after removing the queen from a colony in
order to secure queen cells, to trim the lower edges of the combs con-
90 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
taining eggs or very young larve, or to cut out strips of comb about an
inch wide just below worker cells containing eggs or just-hatched larve.
This practice gave the bees space in which to build perfect full-sized
cells, but it had certain disadvantages. Good worker combs were
mutilated, often quite ruined, in order to secure the construction of the
cells and also in cutting out the latter. Cells so formed are often in
groups so close together that they can not be separated without injury
to numbers of them, necessitating, if desirable to save all, a close watch,
or at least frequent examination, for hours or even days, since all the
queens are not likely to emerge at the same time.
To remedy this Mr. O. H. Townsend, of Michigan, devised a plan which
is described in Gleanings in Bee Culture for July, 1880 (Vol. VIII, p. 322).
It consists in cutting combs whose cells contain eggs or freshly hatched
larve into narrow strips and pinning or sticking these on the sides of
brood combs in such a manner that the cells containing the eggs or larvee
from which queens are desired shall open downward. Mr. Townsend
removed the larvie from some of the cells, believing that he secured
better developed queens by limiting the number, and also because he
could then cut them out more easily for insertion in separate hives. In
the succeeding number of Gleanings (August, 1880), Mr. J. M. Brooks,
of Indiana, illustrated a plan for securing even greater regularity.
This consists in shaving off the cells on one side down nearly to the
midrib of each strip of worker comb containing the eggs or larvee
selected to rear queens from, and then sticking these strips on the under-
sides of horizontal bars nailed in ordinary comb frames. Mr. Henry
Alley, in his work on queen rearing, published in 1883, recommends
sticking the prepared strips, shallow cells downward, on the lower edges
of combs which have been trimmed so as to round downward. This
leaves plenty of space for the full development of queen cells, the eggs
or larvee in alternate cells having been removed as in the plans previ-
ously mentioned. All conditions being favorable, many cells conven-
iently located are thus secured, and if the exact age of the eggs or just-
hatched Jarve has been noted the time the young queens will emerge
may be known beforehand, so that preparation can be made for them.
Nuclei—small clusters of bees containing a quart to two quarts—are to
be placed in separate hives and given combs, emerging brood, and a
supply of food, and to each of these a mature cell is to be given. The
nuclei thus prepared may be confined to their hives with wire cloth
and placed in a cellar for two or three days, and when set out, just at
dusk (p. 117), the bees will adhere to their new location. Full colonies,
whose queens it is desired to replace, may also be made queenless about
two or three days beforehand, and when mature the cells inserted
one each in these. In cutting out the cell a small piece of comb,
triangular shaped, 14 to 2 inches long and about 14 inches broad at
the top, is to be left attached to it whenever practicable, since it will
then be easy to insert it in one of the combs of the queenless colony
QUEEN NURSERIES—TESTING QUEENS. 91
or nucleus, by cutting out a corresponding triangular piece. Fig. 54
shows a queen celi inserted in a brood comb. It is safest not to cut
the cells out until they are within twenty-four to forty-eight hours of
their full maturity. In case a nucleus or colony has not been queen-
less long enough to make it ready to accept a queen cell, the latter
may be placed in a cell protector made of wire cloth or of a spiral coil
of wire and then inserted between the central combs of the hive. The
lower end only of the protector is open, so that the upper portion of the
cell—the part easily bitten open by the workers—is wholly covered.
Queen nurseries on the general plan devised many years ago by Dr.
Jewell Davis, of Illinois, are used to hold surplus maturing cells and
the young queens, after emerging, for which colonies or nuclei are not
ready atonce. These nurseries consist of compartments about 14 inches
square, made of wood and wire cloth, and so arranged that they may
be suspended in the center of a colony of bees, a frame being filled with
them for this purpose. Each compartment contains a bit of soft candy
to sustain the life of the queen in case the bees fail to feed her. Spiral
coils of wire somewhat longer than those used as queen-cell protectors
have been arranged with a metal cup for food, so that, in principle,
they are the same as the compartments of the Davis queen nurseries
and are used for the same purpose.
The young queens will usually mate when from five to seven days
old, flying from the hive for this purpose. If any undesirable drones are
in the apiary they may be restrained from flying by means of excluder
zine over the hive entrances, permitting only workers to pass in and
out. In a day or two after mating the queen generally commences to
deposit eggs, and is then ready for use in the apiary or to be sent away
as an “untested queen.” To enable her to rank as a “tested queen” it
will be necessary to keep her three weeks or a little longer in order to
see her worker progeny and ascertain by their markings that the queen
has mated with a drone of her own race. As both tested and untested
queens are usually raised from the same mothers—the best in the given
apiary—either may be obtained for honey production; but for use as
breeders only tested queens which have been approved in every way
should be purchased, unless, indeed, the purchaser prefers to buy sev-
eral untested queens, which can usually be obtained for the price of one
approved and selected breeder, and do his own testing, trusting that
among them one or more may prove valuable as a breeding queen.
‘Warranted queens” are untested queens sent out with a guaranty
that they have mated purely. If few or no drones of another race are
in the vicinity of a breeder, he is tolerably safe in doing this. The
proper plan is for the breeder to keep a record of the brood of all such
queens and replace such as show that they have mismated.
Exact records of the ages of all queens should be kept, and notes on
the qualities of their progeny are desirable, while in some instances
particulars as to pedigrees are valuable.
92 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
MAILING QUEENS.
Queens are now transported nearly always by mail, and sent to all
parts of the United States, and even to distant foreign countries,
the cage used almost exclusively being the one shown in fig. 64 or
some slightly modified form of the
same. Noattempt was ever made
to patent this cage, and as the
construction is obvious from the
figure given here, anyone who
desires can make and useit. The
food usually employed in these
Fic. 64.—The Benton cage for transporting aqueen Gages by queen breeders is a soft
and attendants by mail. (Original.)
candy recommended many years
ago as bee food by the Rev. Mr. Scholz, of Germany. The Scholz
candy is made by kneading fine sugar and honey together until a
stiff dough has been formed. Some think it an improvement to heat
the honey before adding the sugar. The Viailon shipping candy
Fic. 65.—Caging a queen for mailing. (Original—from photograph.)
consists of four parts of brown sugar and twelve of white sugar,
with two tablespoonfuls of honey and one of flour to each pound of the
mixed sugars; these, with a little water added, form a batter, which
is boiled until it commences to thicken, when it is poured into the food
compartment of the mailing cage. “Mr. I. R. Good recommended for
~~
MAILING QUEENS—INTRODUCING QUEENS. 93
use in queen cages a mixture of granulated sugar and extracted honey;
hence this candy has since been known as the Good candy. The bees
fed on it leave loose granules of sugar in the cage, and these becoming
moist often daub the whole interior in such a way as to cause the death
of queen and workers. It is therefore not adapted to long journeys.
The food for the journey having been placed in the end opposite that
containing the ventilating holes, a bit of comb foundation is pressed
down over it to assist in retaining the moisture, the food compartment
having also previously been coated with wax for the same purpose.
- The cover, with perhaps a bit of wire cloth between it and the bees to
give greater security, together with the address and a 1-cent stamp,
completes the arrangement for a queen and eight to twelve attendant
workers to take a journey of 3,000 miles. A special postal regulation
admits them to the mails at merchandise rates (1 cent per ounce). For
transportation to distant countries of the Pacific a larger cage and
more care are necessary to success. A recent estimate by one of the
apiarian journals places the number of queens sold and thus trans-
ported in the United States annually at 20,000.
INTRODUCING QUEENS.
Most of the mailing cages are arranged so that when received the
removal of the wooden lid and also of a small cork at one end will permit
the bees to eat their way out when assisted by those of the hive to which
the queen is to be given. The cage is laid, with the wire cloth down,
on the frames of a colony that has previously been made queenless.
In twenty-four to forty-eight hours the queen will usually have been
liberated, but it is safer not to disturb the combs for four or five days
lest the bees, on the watch for intruders when their combs are exposed,
regard the new queen as such, and, crowding about her in a dense ball,
sting her instantly or smother her.
Colonies having only young bees accept queens readily, so that when
a swarm has issued and the parent stock has been removed to a new
stand the time for queen introduction is propitious. During a great
honey flow queens are accepted without much question, if any at all.
They may at such times nearly always be safely run in just at dark by
lifting one corner of the cover or quilt of a queenless hive and driving
the bees back with smoke. The new queen, having been kept without
food and away from all other bees for a half hour previously, is then
slipped in and the hive left undisturbed for several days. This and
similar methods of direct introduction without cages, having been
developed and advocated by Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, are
known as the Simmins methods of direct introduction of queens.
In the fall and at all times when honey is not coming in freely, caging
the queen for a few hours or days is desirable. A cage which permits
the queen to remain directly on the comb itself is infinitely superior to
94 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
any other. Fig. 66 shows a pipe-cover cage as made by the author,
the size of which may be greater if circumstances require—that is, when
it seems advisable, with a queen of great value, to include under the
cage a number of cells containing emerging brood. Ordinarily the size
here shown will suffice. The queen is caged before a closed window on
a comb of honey with five or six recently emerged bees taken from the
hive to which she is to be introduced. The comb holding the caged
queen is to be placed in the center of the
queenless colony, where the bees will cluster
on it, yet with the end of the cage pressed
firmly against the adjoining comb, so that the
cage will remain in place even though a heavy
cluster should gather on it. On the following
day, just before dark, the queen should be
released, provided that upon opening the hive
the workers are not packed densely about the
cage trying to sting her through it. In the
latter case she should be left twenty-four or
ee are ane ann es even forty-eight hours longer, and in the
es te autumn it is generally advisable to keep her
caged several days or even a whole week. If left longer than one day
all queen cells should be hunted out and destroyed a few hours before
releasing the queen. Feeding while the queen is caged is a good plan
if gathering is not going on briskly. Upon freeing the queen, diluted
honey drizzled down between the combs will serve to put the bees in a
good humor for the reception of the new mother bee. The entrance
of the hive should be contracted for a short time so that but a few bees
can pass in or out at a time.
The conditions necessary to success in introducing queens are com-
plied with by the above plan, namely: The bees are queenless long
enough to have become fully aware of the fact, yet usually not long
enough to have started queen cells; the strange queen is caged a suf-
ficient length of time to acquire the peculiar odor of the hive to which
she is to be given; the bees are all at home when the queen is released,
and thus all become thoroughly gorged with food and are well disposed
toward the new queen. No robber-bees come about, and by morning
all is in order.
As queens mate only once (p. 19), and workers and drones live but a
few weeks or at most a few months (p. 20), if an Italian, a Carniolan,
or other choice queen mated to a drone of her own race, be introduced
to a given colony the bees of this colony will soon be replaced by others
of the same race as the queen introduced. All of the colonies of an
aplary may thus be changed; or, from a single breeding queen the
apiary may be supplied with young queens pure in blood, and, since
these (even though mated to drones of another race) will produce
drones of their own blood the apiary will soon be stocked with males
of the desired race.
CHAPTER X.
INCREASE OF COLONIES.
NATURAL SWARMING.
An abundant secretion of honey and general prosperity of the col-
ony—with combs crowded with bees and brood—are the immediate
conditions which incite a colony of bees to swarm. If a colony in
prosperous condition be found when the gathering season has fairly
opened, with eggs or larvee in partly finished queen cells, a swarm may
be expected in a few days should the weather continue favorable. The
first one from a given hive usually issues within twenty-four to forty-
eight hours after the sealing of the first queen cell. In the case of
strong colonies this may occur in favored situations in the North early
in May, in the Middle States in April, and in the extreme South in
March. But most of the swarms will come, in each section, a month
later. When the flow of honey is prolonged the period during which
swarms may issue is also extended, and in case a second flow occurs in
midsummer, after an interruption, a second swarming period may occur.
The outward indications immediately preceding Swarming are a
partial cessation of field work on the part of colonies that have been
industriously gathering and the clustering or loitering of the workers
about the entrances at times when they have usually been engaged in
collecting and when other colonies no more populous are at work.
Apparently many are awaiting the signal to migrate, while some seem
not to have caught the spirit, but continue their field work. Suddenly
great excitement seizes the workers that happen to be in the hive at
the time. They rush forth pellmell, accompanied by the old queen, and
after circling about for some minutes cluster on some neighboring tree
or shrub.
It very rarely happens that a swarm fails to cluster before leaving,
but it may do so if it has swarmed before and returned to the hive
because the queen failed to accompany it. Spraying water on the
leaders or advance portion of the swarm from a force pump, firing a
gun among them, or throwing the reflection from a mirror on them will
disconcert the absconding swarm and nearly always cause the bees to
settle, but the remedy must be at hand and applied instantly.
When a swarm has fairly settled it is best to hive it as soon as possible,
lest others coming out may join it, occasioning a loss of queens, and
sometimes of bees, or much trouble in separating them. The operation
of hiving may appear very formidable to the novice and attended with
95
96 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
i
P
:
&
great risks, but a little experience fi, dispel such apprehensions. The
bees before swarming usually fill their sacs with honey and are quite
peaceable, so that by the use of a little smoke in hiving there is seldom
Fic. 67.—Hiving aswarm. (Original—from photograph.)
any difficulty. But to be doubly sure the novice should sprinkle sweet-
ened water over the cluster, and at the same time wear a veil to protect
his face. Of course, the hive has been ready for some time and has been
standing in the shade so it will not be heated. If the cluster should be
My
HIVING BEES—CLIPPING QUEENS. 97
on a small limb which can be readily cut off, it can be laid down in front
of the new hive, which should have a full: -width entrance or be raised
up in front. The bees will go trooping 1 in, . but if not fast enough gentle
urging of the rear guard with a feather will hasten. matters. If the
bees have clustered on a branch which it is desirable to preserve, yet
where the hive can conveniently be placed directly under the cluster
and close to it, the swarm may be shaken into the hive at once (fig. 67);
or the hive may be located on the stand it is to occupy and the bees
shaken into a large basket or into a regular swarm catcher and poured
in front of the hive. If the cluster is on the body of the tree it will be
necessary to place the hive near and smoke or brush the bees into it.
They will go up more readily than down, and may often be dipped with
a small tin dipper or a wooden spoon aha poured in front of the hive.
Whatever plan be pursued, expedition is advisable, and it is best before
leaving them to see that nearly all of the bees are inside of the hive; at
least no clusters, however small, should be left on the tree, as the queen -
might be among those left behind, in which case the swarm would desert
the new hive and return to the tree or go wherever the queen had
settled, or, failing to find her, would return to the hive whence they
had issued, unless meanwhile some other swarm should issue, which they
would be likely to join. A few bees flying about or crawling excitedly
over the spot from which the main part of the swarm has been removed
need not be heeded. They will find their way back to the stand from
which they came. As soon as the swarm is fairly within the new hive
_..the latter should be carried to its permanent stand, and well shaded
and ventilated. It is better policy, however, to place the hive contain-
ing the first swarm on the stand of the parent colony at once, removing
the latter to a new location. The new swarm, having the old queen,
with nearly all of the flight bees, will be in prime condition for storing
honey, so that supers may be placed on it as soon as it has made a fair
start in its new home—that is, on the second or third day after the
Swarm was hived. If there are uncompleted supers on the parent col-
ony which has been removed, they should be lifted over to the new hive
on the second or third day, as the parent coJony, having parted with so
many of its workers, will not be able to store at once. But the new
swarm, placed in a clean hive with starters only, will be in shape to store
in sections at once and produce the whitest combs and honey which the
source of the yield will permit.
CLIPPING QUEENS.
To prevent swarms from absconding and to facilitate the work of
hiving them, as well as to keep track more easily of the ages of queens,
many persons prefer to clip the wings of their queens as soon as mated.
The first season one of the large or primary wings is clipped half away;
at the opening of the second season the other large wing, and the third
season an additional clip is taken from one of the large wings, and with
4526—No. 1 7
98 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
it a portion of one of the secondary or smaller wings. With finely
pointed scissors this operation can be performed while the queen is
loose on the combs, but there is much danger of clipping one or more of
her legs also. If she be caught by her wings with the thumb and first
finger of the right hand, and then grasped by the thorax with the thumb ©
and first two fingers of the left hand, her wings can easily be reached
with the scissors. It will not do to grasp the queen by the abdomen;
and of course there should be but little pressure exerted on the thorax.
There are some objections against clipping. The queens, being unable
to fly, are liable to get lost in the grass or stray into the wrong hives
when they swarm during the absence of the attendant. They certainly
look unsightly when thus maimed, and occasionally the bees are more
disposed to replace such queens than unmutilated ones. Itis of course
preferable to lose one of these occasionally rather than the whole swarm.
When the qu2en is clipped the operation of hiving is very easy if the
bee keeper is on and to catch the queen as she falls from the entrance
to the ground. When the swarm is fairly out and while the bees are
still circling in the air an empty hive should be set in place of the one
from which the swarm has issued. The bees, missing their queen, will —
soon begin to return to their old location and will shortly crowd the
entrance of the new hive. When about one-fourth have entcred the
queen may be allowed to run in, and the treatment will then not be
different from that given any newly hived swarm. .
AUTOMATIC HIVERS.
Thus far the automatic hivers have been only partially successful, so
that the experimental stage has not yet been passed; but the practical
perfection of such a device is looked forward to with considerable
confidence.
PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMING.
The parent colony, removed from its old hive as soon as the first swarm
issues, will rarely cast a second swarm, especially if a young queen is
at hand to be introduced within a day or two. The surplus queen cells
are likely to be destroyed by this young queen, with the assistance of
the workers. A laying queen will be readily accepted by a colony which
by swarming and removal has lost its old bees, and ten to fifteen days
will be gained in the production of brood. Unless increase is especially
desired it is best to limit it in this way to first swarms. If still less
increase is wanted, methods which will be referred to later may be fol-
lowed to prevent swarming as far as possible, and such chance swarms
as do issue may be returned to the parent hive. If the queens are two
or more years old, they may in most instances be profitably destroyed
at this time and young:ones introduced from nuclei; but whether intro-
ducing young queens or returning the swarm with its old queen, great
care must be taken to destroy every queen cell, otherwise the introduced
queen may be killed or the swarm may again issue. If, however, no
PREVENTING AFTER-SWARMS—ARTIFICIAL INCREASE. 99
young queen is at hand and it is desirable to replace the old queen, all ~
cells but one may be destroyed, but this must on no account be jarred
or dented. The danger of overlooking a cell where the hive is crowded
with bees makes this method somewhat uncertain; moreover, when the
bees have once got the ‘“‘ swarming fever” they may swarm again with-
out preparation in the way of queen cells. It is also very troublesome
to remove supers to get at the brood combs. These difficulties will
induce many who may wish to limit the number of their colonies to
prefer hiving the swarms on starters of foundation on the old stands
and giving them the supers, while the parent colonies are placed near
them with entrances turned away for afew days. The flight bees return,
of course, to the old stand. The parent colony should be turned alittle
each day so as to bring it in five or six days side by side with the hive
containing the swarm, which is on the old stand, and make its front
face in the same way. By lifting it a day or so later, while the young
bees are flying, over to the opposite side of the old stand and turning
its entrance away from that of the hive on this stand, the bees that are
flying, as well as those that have marked their last location, will join the
swarm; and if the same operation be repeated at the end of another
week most of the remaining bees will find their way within a day or
two into the hive on the old stand. About this time—that is, some fif-
teen or sixteen days after the issuance of the first swarm—the young
queen will commence laying and may be put in place of the old one
which issued with the swarm. If honey is still coming in, the young
queen, with accompanying bees, may usually be safely introduced at this
time by shaking them in front of the hive from which the queen has
been removed, both lots of bees having been smoked beforehand so as
to get them to fi]l themselves with honey; or the two combs between
which the queen is found may be lifted, with adhering bees, and placed
in the center of the colony to which the queen isto be given. Before
doing this it is best to smoke the latter pretty thoroughly, and if two
of the brood combs from this hive have been removed a few hours before ~
and placed, after their bees have been shaken off, in the colony to be
united, and all other combs taken away from the latter, the bees, with
their queen, will be clustered on these brood combs, and they may be
lifted up without disturbance and placed in the middle of the other hive,
whose supers and cover are to be put in place at once and the bees left
to quiet down and resume storing. Under these circumstances the loss
of a queen will be very rare; nevertheless, in the case of an excep-
tionally valuable one, cages and other methods are advisable. (See
Chapter IX.)
ARTIFICIAL INCREASE.
The time lost in watching for swarms and hiving them, the occasional
losses of swarms, and the vexations attendant upon their issuance, such
as their clustering in tall trees, uniting and killing queens, and the
delay in their swarming when the time has come for it, have led bee
100 "MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
keepers to devise methods which would save their time and avoid as
far as possible the uncertainties connected with this feature of their
work. Where increase is desired the question is one of considerable
importance. In the more northern States, where the main honey yield
comes on suddenly and is abundant for a short period only, and swarm-
ing is confined mainly to a period of four to six weeks, or even to three
weeks if the colonies are of pretty uniform strength, this question has
less weight; but farther south, where the yield is more prolonged and
the period during which swarms are liable to issue is sometimes
extended over three or four months, it is of considerable moment, and
the bee master who intends to multiply the number of his colonies will
do well to follow some good system of control.
DIVIDING.
The simplest method of artificial increase is to lift from the populous
colony a portion of the combs, with adhering bees, and place them in
another hive near the parent colony, taking care that the part without
any queen should have a majority of the bees and should be on the
old stand. If a mature queen cell is at hand to give to this part a day
or two after the division, the new colony will soon have a laying queen,
should all go well. But this last point will need looking after ten days
or so later. Should a laying queen be at hand to supply to the queen-
less portion of the divided colony, the queen found in the hive at the
time of the division had better be left in that part of the colony which
remains on the original stand, since the old bees will of course return
to that spot and will not as readily receive a strange queen as will the
removed portion of the colony which has parted with its flight bees.
By introducing a laying queen when the division is made the deposi-
tion of eggs will be begun a week earlier than if a cell only should be
given. At this season of the year this will make a difference of a good
many thousands of workers, and will also prevent the bees from clog-
ging the brood combs with honey, as they would if left without a laying
queen for a week or more. The supers are to be placed on this part on
the old stand, which, having most of the flight bees, will be far better
able to store surplus than the other portion. The plan of making the
division nearly equal is quite objectionable in case it is followed closely
by the main honey flow of the season, for it places neither colony in
the best condition for immediate storing. But if only a moderate yet
continuous honey flow, followed by a larger yield, is to be anticipated,
both parts will have time to become populous, and the equal division,
if done in time—that is, before the ‘swarming fever” has taken hold
of the colony—will be likely to prevent swarming.
DRIVING OR BRUSHING.
In case, however, some immediate work is expected of either part of
the divided colony, it is preferabie to make the division in such a way
as to secure about all of the flight bees as well as most of the young
——
ee eS ee ee ee ee a ee:
ARTIFICIAL INCREASE—PREVENTION OF SWARMING. 101
bees, which will soon become flight bees, in the hive on the old stand.
‘This may be done by shaking or brushing nearly all of the bees from
the combs of the hive to be divided, or, if the latter 1s a box hive, the
swarm may be driven into an empty box, as described under “ Trans-
ferring,” in Chapter VII, and then hived as an ordinary swarm, the
parent colony receiving also the same treatment as described under
“ Natural swarming.”
THE NUCLEUS SYSTEM.
Perhaps the safest plan, considering that the yield, even when one is
acquainted with the flora, can not be foretold, is to follow the plan of
making nuclei, and, as soon as these have laying queens, building them
up gradually to full colonies by adding frames of brood, frames filled
with worker comb, or with comb foundation, or merely starters, as may
seem best. This system, besides being safe, has certain other advan-
tages. It leaves the parent hives strong for the working season, yet
tends to discourage swarming, because whenever colonies become over-
crowded, and before they have contracted the swarming fever, one or
more brood combs are removed and the colony is thus induced to con-
tinue work in the brood chamber to fill the empty space, while, of course,
they are kept supplied with plenty of storage room above for surplus
honey. Furthermore, it is easy to exchange the young queen of the
nucleus, aS soon as she commences laying, with the queen of the full
colony. If the nucieus has been started early, the full colony will thus
secure a queen of the current season’s raising sufficiently early to
reduce greatly the probability of its wanting to swarm that year, even
though permitted to get very strong, as it is almost certain to do under
such circumstances. These nuclei build straight combs and may be
relied on to build, even without foundation, worker comb only.
On the whole, a rational method of artificial increase is preferable to
natural swarming; but experience and judgment in carrying it out are
required to make it advantageous. It should be cautiously undertaken
by the beginner, and the main reliance placed upon natural swarming
until the bee keeper is familiar with the bees’ way.
PREVENTION OF SWARMING.
The most commonly practiced and easily applied preventive measure
is that of giving abundant room for storage of honey. This to be
effective should be given early in the season, before the bees get fairly
into the swarming notion, and the honey should be removed frequently,
unless additional empty combs can be given in the case of. colonies
managed for extracted honey, while those storing in sections should be
given additional supers before those already on are completed. With
colonies run for comb honey it is not so easy to keep down swarming as_
in those run for extracted honey and kept supplied with empty comb.
Free ventilation and shading of the hives as soon as warm days come
will also tend toward prevention. Opening the hives once or twice
102 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
weekly and destroying all queen cells that: have been commenced will
check swarming for a time in many instances, and is a plan which seems
very thorough and the most plausible of any to beginners. But some-
times Swarms issue without waiting to form cells; it is also very difficult
to find all cells without shaking the bees from each comb in succession,
an operation which, besides consuming much time, is very laborious
when supers have to be removed, and greatly disturbs the labors of the
bees. If but one cell is overlooked the colony will still swarm. The
plan therefore leaves at best much to be desired, and is in general not
worth the effort it costs and can not be depended on.
DEQUEENING.
The removal of a queen at the opening of the swarming season inter-
feres, of course, with the plans of the bees, and they will then delay
swarming until they get a young queen. Then if the bee keeper
destroys all queen cells before the tenth day, swarming will again be
checked. But to prevent swarming by keeping colonies queenless
longer than a few days at most is to attain a certain desired result at
a disproportionate cost, for the bees will not store diligently when first
made queenless, and the whole yield of honey, especially if the flow is
extended over some time or other yields come later in the season, is
likely, or even nearly sure, to be less from such colonies, while the inter-
ruption to brood rearing may decimate the colony and prove very dis-
astrous to it. The plan is therefore not to be commended.
REQUEENING.
Quite the opposite of this, and more efficacious in the prevention of
swarming, is the practice of replacing the old queen early in the season
with a young one of the same Season’s raising, produced, perhaps, in the
South before it is possible to rear queens in the North. Such queens
are not likely to swarm during the first season, and as they are vigor-
ous layers the hive will be well populated at alf times and thus ready
for any harvest. This is important inasmuch as a flow of honey may
come unexpectedly from some plant ordinarily not counted upon, and
also since the conditions essential to the development of the various
honey-yielding plants differ greatly, their time and succession of honey
yield will also differ with the season, the same as the quantity may vary.
Young queens are also safest to head the colonies for the winter. The
plan is conducive to the highest prosperity of the colonies and is con-
sistent with the securing of the largest average yield of honey, since
besides giving them vigorous layers it generally keeps the population
together in powerful colonies. It is therefore to be commended on all
accounts as being in line with the most progressive management, with-
out at the same time interfering with the application of other preventive
measures.
> / whe
eo ee a
PREVENTION OF SWARMING. 103
SPACE NEAR ENTRANCES.
Arranging frames with starters or combs merely begun between the
brood nest and the flight hole of the hive while the bees are given stor-
ing space above or back of the brood-nest (figs. 63 and 69) is a plan
'
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aa
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--—-— = =
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Fic. 68._The Simmins non-swarming system—single-story hive with supers; be, brood chamber;
se, super; st, starters of foundation; e, entrance. (Redrawn from A Modern Bee-Farm.)
strongly recommended by Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, and which
has come to be known as “the Simmins non-swarming method,” some
features of it and the combination into a well-defined method having
been original with him. It is
an excellent preventive meas-
a
ae eS ee ee
==
ure, though not invariably
successful even when the dis-
tinctive feature brought for-
ward prominently by Mr.
Simmins—empty space _ be-
tween the brood combs and
entrance—is supplemented by
other measures already men-
tioned; but when, in addition
to the space between the
brood and the flight hole, the
precaution be taken to get
supers on in time, to ventilate
the hive well, and to keep
queens not over two years old,
warming will be very limited, ne ee ee a arr chncbee va consen,
If to these precautions be st, chamber with starters; e, entrance. (Redrawn
added that of substituting for from A Modern Bee-Farm.)
the old queens young ones of the current season’s raising, before swarm.
ing has begun, practical immunity from swarming is generally insured.
IM io
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Udsdddddhddathidddk dda lear
AOOOCLEE DADE D APOE ODD LE Eh PEEPPOPE PPLE LEP PPPPMM
104 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
LANGDON NON-SWARMING DEVICE.
This device (fig. 70, D), first described and illustrated in Insect Life
for April, 1893 (Vol. V, No. 4), is designed to do more than merely pre-
vent swarming. The following claims are made by the inventor:
(1) It prevents all swarming without caging queens, cutting out queen cells or
manipulation of brood combs.
(2) Two light colonies that would not do much in sections if working separately
make one good one by running the field force of both into the same set of supers.
(3) No bait sections are needed, as the bees can be crowded into the sections with-
out swarming.
(4) The honey will be finished in better condition, that is, with less travel stain,
because the union of the field forces enables them to complete the work in less time.
(5) There will be fewer unfinished sections at the close of the honey harvest for
the reason just mentioned.
Fic. 70.—Beehives with Langdon non-swarmer attached: A, B, hives; S.S8’,supers; D,non-swarming
device; e, e/, entrances corresponding to hive entrances; sl, slide for closing entrance; c¢,c’, conical
wire-cloth bee-escapes; ex, ex', exits of same. (From Insect Life.)
(6) Also for the same reason honey can be taken off by the full case instead of by
the section or holderful.
(7) Drones will be fewer in number, as a double handful will often be killed off in
the closed hive while the other is storing honey rapidly.
(8) Artificial swarms and nuclei can be more easily made, as combs of brood and
bees can be taken from the closed hive in which the queen can be found very
qnickly.
(9) It enables one to care for more than twice as many colonies as under the
swarming system.
Results according with the claims mentioned above have been reported
from various localities, but numerous adverse reports have also been
given, the latter indicating clearly that some modification of the device
is necessary if it is to be made generally serviceable. <A further trial
of the principle under varying_conditions and climates will also be.
required to decide its exact value.
ee ae ee ee ee, ee ee a
PREVENTION OF SWARMING. 105
The manner of using the device is simple. Before the colonies swarm
the device is attached to the fronts of two adjacent hives. The slide
(fig. 70, s!) having been inserted at one end of the device, the bees
returning from the fields are all run into the other hive, on which the
supers are then placed. Before the colony, thus made doubly populous,
decides to swarm, the slide and supers are both changed to the other
hive. This is. repeated every four or five days during the swarming
period.
SELECTION IN BREEDING.
Some races of bees show greater-inclination than others toward
swarming, aud the same difference can be noted between individual
colonies of a given race; therefore, whatever methods be adopted to
prevent or limit increase, no doubt the constant selection of those
queens to breed from whose workers show the least tendency toward
Swarming would in time greatly reduce this disposition. Indeed, it is
perfectly consistent to believe that persistent effort, coupled with rigid
and intelligent selection, will eventually result in a strain of bees quite
as much entitled to be termed non-swarming as certain breeds of fowls
which have been produced by artificial selection are to be called non-
sitters. These terms are of course only relative, being merely indica-
tive of the possession of a certain disposition in a less degree than that
shown by others of the same species. It might never be possible to
change the nature of our honey bees so completely that they would
never Swarm under any circumstances, and even if possible it would
take a long period, so strongly implanted seems this instinct. But to
modify it is within the reach of any intelligent breeder who will persist-
ently make the effort. Such work should be undertaken in experi-
mental apiaries where its continuance when a single point has been
gained will not be affected by the changes of individual fortunes.
Many features connected with swarming still remain mysteries. The
whole subject requires still more study, and its full elucidation would
no doubt be of great practical value toapiculture. The field is inviting.
CHAPTER XI.
WINTERING BEES.
There will be little complaint of losses in wintering bees, whether in
a cold climate or a warm one, whether indoors or outside, provided the
following points are observed with each colony:
(1) The colony must have a good queen.—By a good queen is meant one
not over two years old and which shows no signs of failure during the
latter part of the season. It is preferable to have a queen of the cur-
rent season’s raising. Such a queen, if reared from good stock and
under good conditions during the latter part of the summer, will be in
her prime the following spring, and if no other conditions are lacking
will have her colony strong for the harvest.
(2) Plenty of good bees.—Bees that are several months old or that
have gathered a heavy fall harvest of honey are not good to depend
upon for the winter. They drop off gradually of old age before there
are young bees to fill their places, and the queen, however prolific, not
having bees enough to cover her eggs, can not bring up, as she other-
wise would, the strength of the colony to a proper standard in time
for the harvest. There should be young bees emerging at all times up
to the month of October, or, in the South, even later. .
(3) Good food and plenty of it—Any well-ripened sealed honey that
is not crystallized is good winter food. Honeydew stored by bees and
honey from a few flowers (cruciferous plants, asters, etc.) crystallizes in
the combs soon after it is gathered and the bees are obliged to liquefy
it as they use it. They can not do this well in dry, cold weather, and
dampness within the hive, though it might enable the bees to liquefy
the crystallized honey, is otherwise inimical to bee life, especially so
during winter. Some of the crystallized food is also wasted; hence the
bees may starve even though the fall weight indicated sufficient stores
for winter. Disastrous results are very likely, therefore, to follow the
attempt to winter on such food.
The removal of all pollen when preparing bees for winter has been
advised by some, who assert that it is unfit winter food and produces
dysentery. It will not, of course, alone sustain the life of the adult bees,
but if all conditions are right no more of it will be eaten than the bees
require to repair the waste of bodily tissue, and this being slight in
winter the consumption 1s small as long as other food lasts. The pollen
grains which by accident find their way into honey as the bees gather
it would probably be quite sufficient to supply this waste in the case of
the adult workers and no harm would result to these bees from the
106
WINTER FOOD FOR BEES. 107
substitution of other combs for those containing pollen. But good col-
onies should begin brood rearing in January or February, and pollen or
a suitable substitute for it containing nitrogen must then be present
or the nurse bees will be subjected to a fearful drain on their vitality
to supply the rich nitrogenous secretion required by the developing
larve; in fact, they can not do so long, and the colony dwindles, This
absurd theory that bees can not have access to pollen in winter without
detrimental results can best be answered by referring to the well-known
fact that a colony in a large box or straw hive, freely ventilated, yet
having some part of the hive protected from drafts of air and kept dry,
will almost invariably come out strong in the spring if populous in the
fall, heavy with honey, and having a young and vigorous queen. The
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Fic. 71.—Percolator for preparation of winter food. (Original.)
pollen, it could not possibly be claimed, had been injurious to such
colonies, although they always gather and store it without restriction,
and are not disturbed in the possession of it. In truth, their stores of
pollen have constituted an important factor in their development, and
the strong instinct which they have toward making accumulations of
pollen for winter use and which they have exercised for thousands
of years undisturbed is of great benefit to them.
Other conditions being equal, those colomes having the most honey
stored compactly in the brood apartment and close about the very
center where the last brood of young bees should emerge, are the ones
which will winter best. Forty pounds for a northern latitude and 30
in the middle sections of the United States may be considered only a
108 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
good supply. When natural stores are found to be lacking in the
brood chamber, the best substitute is a sirup made of granulated sugar,
which should be fed early in the autumn as rapidly as the bees can
manipulate it and storeit away. If
given slowly the bees will be incited
to rear brood unseasonably, and will
consume much of the food im this
way. If several pounds be given
at a time—placed in the top story of
the colony to be fed, just at night-
fall—it will be stored away quickly,
so that in a week at most the full
winter stores will be completed.
The bees will seal it over better if fed
slowly at the last; that is, after the
Hie. 72.—The he hive of Hayck main feeding. Sirup made by per-
colation of cold water through a
mass of sugar and then through some porous material, as cotton, is what
is called a completely saturated solution; that is, it contains all the sugar
the water can be made to hold, and will not trouble by granulation (fig.
71). The same difticnlty is avoided
by adding well-ripened honey to
moderately thick sirup, about one-
fourth or one-fifth as much honey
as sirup. Molasses, brown sugar,
glucose, etc., are not suitable for
winter stores for bees.
It is poor policy to permit bees to
enter winter quarters without an
abundance of stores—better twice
the amount that will be actually
consumed than merely enough to
enable them to live through.
(4) The bees must be kept dry and
warm.—A substantial hive with a
tight roof will keep rain and snow
from the cluster; but the bees must
have air even during the severest
weather and also when in their most
quiescent state; hence the question
of ventilation has to be considered. yy¢.73._Davis hive with newspapers packed
It has occasioned more discussion between inner and outer cases, and brood
. frames on end for the winter. (Original.)
and experimentation than any other
point concerned in the wintering of bees. The amount of ventilation
both indoors and outside, whether upward ventilation or lower ventila-
tion, or both, and whether through the wooden walls of the hive alone,
UR)
a vane ca TCL HED LTD
yr WSS =a
Sf ee ro
pa
ee
SSS SSS
oe ee a ey ee a
WARMTH, DRYNESS AND QUIET FOR WINTER. 109
have given rise to thousands of experiments based on all sorts of theo-
ries, and innumerable losses have resulted. The matter is really more
complicated than would seem at first thought. The warm air about the
bodies of the bees (the winter temperature of the cluster. being about
72° F.) coming in contact with the cold surfaces of combs of honey in
ordinary hives, or with the inner walls of such hives, condensation and
deposition of moisture occurs. During severe weather this accumulates
in the shape of hoarfrost, which, melting with a rise of temperature,
trickles down over the combs, the walls of the hive, and the bees them-
selves, and, entering the honey cells through the somewhat porous cap-
ping, sours the honey with which it mixes. The soured food, dampness,
and chilling of the bees combine to bring on diarrhea, which is sure to
weaken and decimate the colony if it does not exterminate it. To
avoid these troubles the surplus moisture of the hive must be carried
away by free ventilation, which at the same time supplies pure air, but
which does not create drafts in the
hive nor permit such an escape of
heat as will chill the cluster through.
Straw hives (fig. 72) do this well; also
the forms shown in figs. 73 and 74
if well packed over the combs and
ventilated above the packing.
(0) There should be no manipulation
out of season.—Breaking up the clus-
ter and exposing the individual bees
and their combs toa low tempera- door wintering as well as summer use below
: 40° north latitude in the United States.
ture, as well as causing them to gorge Thickness of each wall, 3 inch; space be-
themselves with honey when an Op- tween walls, 2 inches, packed with dry chaff
: : or ground cork. (Original.)
portunity for a cleansing flight may
not occur soon, are also causes which bring on diarrheal difficulties,
Feeding to complete the winter stores, when necessary, should be done
soon after the last honey flow, so that the bees will settle down for
the winter on the approach of cool autumn days. After this they are
better off if left undisturbed until the final work of preparing them
for winter is done, which, if the hive is well arranged, will be no
material disturbance to the bees. It is always preferable not to be
obliged to touch the brood combs or disturb the cluster when the
weather is too cold for the bees to fly freely.
OUTDOOR WINTERING.
A consideration ot the requirements above mentioned jeads at once
to the essential features of any plan of outdoor wintering that may be
followed in the colder portions of our country with uniform success,
namely, the presence in the colony of a vigorous queen less than two
years old; a good cluster of healthy bees bred the latter part of the
Season, that is, of sufficient numbers so that when closely clustered
110 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
during quite cool weather late in October or November not less than
Six Spaces between the brood combs, and preferably eight or nine
spaces, Shall be occupied by a good number of bees, or that the cluster
shall be at such a time not less than 8, and preferably 10 to 12, inches
in diameter; the stores should consist of 30 pounds of well-ripened
honey or thick sugar sirup, stored and mostly sealed over and about
the bees; since in a long, shallow hive the heat is too diffused, combs
much longer than deep should be on end for the winter, to enable
the bees to economize their natural warmth; free access of pure air,
but without the creation of drafts, hence the entrance should be indi-
rect or screened in some manner; the ventilation should permit the
gradual passing away of the moisture-laden air of the hive, but not
Fig. 75.—An apiary in Vermont—winter view. (Reproduced from photograph.)
the escape of heat, hence 6 or more inches (in the coldest portions of the
United States 10 or 12 inches) of dry, porous material, soft and warmth-
retaining, should be on all sides of the cluster and near to it, the whole |
being protected by waterproof walls from any access of outside
moisture. Care to establish in all cases conditions similar to the above
before bees cease flying in the autumn will insure the apiarist against
any serious losses in wintering out of doors, even in the severest
portions of our country.
In the extreme South, where bees can fly out at any time of the year,
little extra precaution is needed for the winter beyond seeing that the
stores do not become exhausted during a drought or a protracted rain,
when no honey can be gathered. Just in proportion to the severity
and length of the winter season the above general rules may be looked
upon as applicable, always bearing in mind, however, that in the
variable climate of the middle section of the country many of the pre-
OUTDOOR AND INDOOR WINTERING. 111
cautions strictly essential in a colder climate may still be profitably
followed, although fair results may be expected in the main without
their strict observance.
INDOOR WINTERING.
Dry cellars or special repositories are utilized in those portions of
the country where the cold of winter is extreme and likely to be some-
what continuous. Economy of food is one of the chief advantages, but
two-thirds as much, or about 20 to 25 pounds per hive, are needed to
bring a colony through if conditions are favorable. The colonies, pre-
pared as regards bees, queens, character of stores, etc., the same as for
outdoor wintering, are carried into the cellar or repository just before
the first snows come or severe freezing occurs. Caps are removed or
lifted up and cushions or mats laid on the frames. Light is excluded
and all other disturbing influences in so far as possible, the effort being
made to keep the temperature at about 42° F, during the earlier part
of the winter. Later, especially after brood-rearing may have been
begun, a somewhat higher degree is admissible—45° to 46°, some even
allowing it to go up to 50°. No definite rule can be given, however,
since much depends upon the humidity of the air, ete. As long as the
bees remain quiet the temperature is not too high and is preferably
to be maintained. Should they become exceedingly restless, and the
opportunity occur during a winter thaw to give them a cleansing flight,
it will be advisable to return them for a few hours or a day or two to
their summer stands, and when they have flown and quieted down,
replace them in the cellar or repository. In the spring there should
not be too great eagerness to get them out of the cellar, provided they
are not restless. Their confinement indoors makes them somewhat
sensitive to the outside cold, and due caution should be observed, else
the ranks of the workers will become greatly decimated before young
ones appear to take their places.
The same questions regarding ventilation of hives indoors that puz-
zle many in the case of those left on their summer stands have been
discussed over and over. Al] that is necessary, however, is to consider
the same points, the question being less complicated, though, by reason
of the greater uniformity between the temperature surrounding the
cluster of bees and that outside the hive when the latter is in a suitable
winter repository. Some have reported success in wintering in damp
cellars, yet it is probable that such success was purely accidental, or
rather occurred in spite of the dampness of the repository, the other
conditions very likely having all been favorable, especially as regards .
ventilation of the cellar, and the important points of having good
stores and an even temperature, which should be several degrees higher
_ than is required in a dry cellar. Wintering in a damp repository is,
_ however, attended in general with such risks that it should by all means
be avoided, and the bees, even in a severe climate, intrusted prefera-
bly to their summer stands, if well prepared as regards their stores and
pulousness.
CHAPTER XII.
DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES.
DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY.
In the chapter on wintering bees allusion has been made to certain
conditions which bring about diarrhea in bees. Not only will soured or
fermented honey produce this disease, but thin honey also, by requir-
ing too great exertion on the part of the bees to get rid of the surplus
moisture taken into their bodies, may indirectly cause the disease.
Repeated complaints have been made by those located near cider mills
that the apple juice collected by their bees was the cause of diarrhea
and dysentery. Aphidid secretions sometimes have the same effect.
Prolonged and intense cold in the interior of the hive, especially if the
stores are not of the best quality, causes distention and resulting
weakness and soiling of the hive and combs. Dampness and chilling
of individual bees frequently cause it. The effort some make to avoid
the dampness often results in the chilling, for the cover is removed, and
also some portion of the packing or the quilt or honey board to let the air
pass through to dry the interior. The true remedy is a cleansing flight
and warmth in the hive. Should the weather not be favorable for this
out of doors, the hive may be brought into a warm room and a cage of
wire cloth 2 or 3 feet square placed over the entrance. When thoroughly
warmed up the bees will fly in this and find their way back into the
hive. Itis best to leave them in the warm room two or three days,
lowering the temperature gradually before returning the hive to its
outside stand.
FOUL BROOD.
This disease, being highly contagious, is dreaded most of all by the
bee keeper. It is due to the presence of minute vegetable organisms
in the body of the bee, the larva, or the egg, which prey upon its tissues.
These, as Prof. Frank Cheshire has shown, are bacilli, which, multiply-
ing with marvelous rapidity by division and also by spores, are carried
from hive to hive, until from a single infection the whole apiary is soon
ruined. The particular bacillus which is commonly known as foul brood
Professor Cheshire has described as Bacillus alvet, or hive bacillus, as it
affects not only the brood but also the adult bees. (See Pl. XI.) The
first symptoms noticeable in the hive are its lack of energy, then dead
larvee turned black in the cells, and finally sunken caps, some of them
perforated slightly over larve and pup. All of these symptoms may,
112
Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Eig.1x 790.
Pig.bx
Ig om
f
nea Ey. 7)
ay Y
‘
a ea aati
BACILLUS ALVEI (Cheshire).
[Drawn from nature by Frank R. Cheshire for Jour. R. Mier. Soec., and here reduced one-
sixth from the original plate. |
Fic. 1.—Residue of larva three days dead of bacillus alvei; b, bacilli. Spores and degener
ated trachee cover the field.
Fig. 2.—Healthy juices of bee larva.
Fig. 3.—Juices of larva (living) with disease in acute stage; a a, leptothrix forms.
Fic. 4.—Brood cells from a diseased colony; a a, cells containing healthy pupee; 0 d,
sunken and punctured cells in which pup have died.
Fic. 5.—Cultivation in sterilized agar-agar showing the colony form of bacillus.
Fic. 6.—Same cultivation twenty-four hours later.
Fig. 7.—Spore changing into bacilli.
Fia. 8.—Bacillus passing into spore condition,
FOUL BROOD—THE WAX MOTH. 113
however, be present when no foul brood exists; but if, upon opening
some of the cells whose caps are sunken or slightly punctured, a brown,
ropy, putrid mass is found, which, when lifted on the end of a sliver of
wood, glides back into the cell or strings down from the mass like thick
sirup, it is pretty certain that foul brood is present. Caution is neces-
sary or it may be spread all through the apiary. The hands, as well as
all tools used about the infected colony, should be cleansed by washing
in a solution of corrosive sublimate (one-eighth ounce dissolved in 1
gallon water) before going to another hive. If but few are found dis-
eased they should be burned at once—at night, when all the bees are at
home. If all or nearly all are affected, or if the disease does not seem
virulent and other apiaries in the neighborhood are not endangered
thereby, a cure may be attempted. Removal of all of the combs and
confinement of the bees in an empty box, obliging them to fast until
some drop from hunger, followed after releasing them by liberal feed-
ing, will frequently effect a cure, as indicated many years since by
Mr. M. Quinby. The hives may be disinfected by washing in carbolic-
acid water and used again. A second removal of the bees and fasting
may be necessary in some cases. It will also be well to feed medicated
sirup—l part of carbolic acid, or phenol, to 600 or 700 parts of sirup.
Many omit the fasting, but destroy all combs and frames and supply
comb-foundation starters, removing four days later all combs built and
giving a second lot of starters. It is well to supplement this treat-
ment with feeding of medicated sirup. Phenol having been suggested
to Professor Cheshire as a remedy, he experimented until he found
that if a sirup containing 1 part of phenol to 400 or 500 parts of the
food be poured in the cells adjacent to the brood, and the diseased
brood, after brushing off the bees, sprayed with a solution of 1 phenol
to 50 water, a cure was speedily effected. The great risk of spreading
the disease, as well as the time and expense which a cure by drugs or
by the fasting process involves, will cause immediate destruction to be
resorted to as the cheapest in the end if taken in time.
Bacillus gaytoni, also described by Professor Cheshire, is character-
ized by loss of hairy covering on the part of the workers and their
crawling out of the hives over the ground, constantly wriggling their
bodies until death occurs. It yields, according to Professor Cheshire,
to the same remedies as Bacillus alvei, but having been less destructive
and being far more likely to disappear without effort to cure it, less
attention has been given toit. Lately, however, it has been alarmingly
destructive in some of the extensive apiaries of California, Colorado,
and Texas, so that some simple remedy would be very welcome.
THE WAX OR BEE MOTH.
The larva of a moth known to entomologists as Galleria mellonella
Linn. ghaws passages through the combs of the bees, especially those in
or near the brood nest, often proving very destructive in weak or neg-
4526—No. 1——8
114 MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
lected colonies. The popular name, wax moth, was doubtiess given on
the supposition that the food of the larva was chiefly wax; but when an.
attempt to rear them on this substance in its usual commercial purity
is made slight development only results. Probably chemically pure wax
would not be touched by the larva; but in combs containing the larval
skins left by developing bees, or containing brood or pollen, they reach
their highest development if left undisturbed during warm weather,
finding ample nourishment in the nitrogen-containing pollen and animal
tissues left by the molting larve. To protect themselves from the bees
they line their galleries through the combs with a strong web of silk
and are able to retreat or advance rapidiy through them when attacked.
The observing bee keeper will occasionally notice the moths resting
during the daytime on the corners of the hives or under the roof pro-
jections or edges of the bottom boards. Its color is dull or ashy gray,
with light and dark streaks, making it so nearly like a protruding sliver
of a weather-beaten board as to protect it materially from its enemies
when resting on any unpainted surface that has been long exposed. At
nightfall the moths may be seen flitting about the hive entrances, seek-
ing an opportunity to enter and deposit their eggs. If prevented by
the bees, which are then instinctively on the alert, they deposit in the
crevices between the hive and stand or between the hive and cap. The
minute larvie as they emerge soon make their way into the interior of
the hive. It is possible also that some of the eggs of the moth may be
left where the bees crawling over them carry them into the hive by
accident, the freshly laid egg adhering readily to any substance it
touches. In the northern and middle sections of the United States
two broods are reared, the first appearing in May, the second and larger
brood in midsummer or even August. The eggs deposited by the last
brood develop slowly in the cooler autumn weather, but usually reach
the pupal stage, in which they normally pass the winter. Individual
moths may, however, be seen about the apiary during June and July,
and even into the autumn, so that egg deposition is constantly going
on, and any combs removed from the hive and left unprotected by bees,
especially if in a warm apartment or a closed box, will soon be in com-
plete possession of the destructive larve, which wax fat and soon reduce
them to a mass of webs. The only remedies are to keep the combs
under the constant protection of the bees, or, if the colonies are not
populous enough to cover them fairly, the combs should be hung so as
to leave a space between them in a cupboard or large box which can
be closed tightly, so as to subject them for some time to the fumes gen-
erated by throwing a handful or two of sulphur on live coals, or to the
odors of bisulphide of carbon in an open vial. Caution is needed in the
use of the latter, since it is highly inflammable.
Oriental races of bees are more energetic than others in clearing
out wax-moth larve, and Carniolans and Italians more so than the
common bees. But in colonies always supplied with good queens
¥ b
4
THE BEE LOUSE—MINOR INSECT ENEMIES. 115
the wax-moth larvw make little headway, and it is therefore only the
neglected hives that are seriously troubled. Moth-trap attachments
or moth-proof hives are therefore of 10 use, unless, in the case of the
former, larve seeking a secure place in which to pupate may be caught;
but that implies frequent examination, and the same or less attention
to the colony itself will suffice to do away with almost any breeding of
moths. Hives proof against the entrance of wax-moth larvie would,
as the statements here made regarding the breeding habits of thie
moth indicate, exclude the bees also. From the foregoing it can be
readily seen that the attentive apiarist no longer regards the wax moth
as a serious pest.
BRAULA OR “BEE LOUSE.”
A wingless dipteron, braula ceca Nitsch, known under the common
name of * bee louse,” is a troublesome parasite on bees in Mediterranean
countries, the adults, which are very large in proportion to the host,
gathering on the thoraces of the workers, rarely of the drones, but in |
ereat numbers on the queens. The writer has removed seventy-five at
one time from a queen, though ordinarily the numbers do not exceed a
dozen. When numerous they render the queen weak by the removal
of vital fluids. The insect has frequently been imported to this country
on queens with attendant bees, but thus far has probably gained no
foothold. Likely it will never do so in the North, but the case might
be different in any region resembling southern Europe in climate, and
it is by all means advisable to remove every one from any queen or
worker arriving here infested with them.
OTHER ENEMIES.
Robber flies, dragon flies, etc.—Several species of Asilus and related
predaceous Diptera do not live upon injurious insects alone, but also
capture and devour honey bees. They are more destructive in the
South than elsewhere. The same is true of the neuropterous insects
known as mosquito hawks, dragon flies, or devil’s darning needles.
There seems to be no remedy for any of these except that of frighten-
ing them away when noticed about the apiary. The ‘‘stinging bugs,”
belonging in the hemipterous family Phymatidie, often capture and
destroy workers as they visit the flowers. No remedy is practicable.
Ants and wasps.—Some of the larger ants and social wasps are very
troublesome to the apiarist in tropical and even in subtropical regions.
They seize the workers and cut them in pieces with their powerful jaws.
Having once reduced the hive defenders, they even make bold to enter
and carry off the queen as well as help themselves to honey. Trapping
them with honey or with meat and killing them, as well as destroying
the nests when found, are the only remedies. The paper nests are
easily burned away, while an effectual remedy against ants is to open
the hill and pour in an ounce or two of bisulphide of carbon.
1146 -- MANUAL OF APICULTURE.
Spiders.—Webs made about hive entrances often capture bees as
well as wax moths, and, notwithstanding this last-mentioned point in
their favor, they had better be removed. :
Toads and lizards.—These devour many bees, and whenever found
near the hives should be destroyed or removed to the vegetable garden.
Birds.—Swallows and kingbirds have been accused of eating many
bees. It is probable that the destruction of injurious insects by them
more than makes amends for the bees taken. This was clearly proven
in the case of the kingbird, stomachs of which, examined at the United
States Department of Agriculture, showed only a very small percentage
of honey bees, and these mostly drones.
MAMMALS.
Mice gaining access to the hive during winter gnaw out among the
combs a nest cavity and eat honey, pollen, and bees. Low entrances,
covered, if found necessary, with a strip of tin, will prevent the mice
from gnawing larger holes, yet permit the bees to pass in and out.
Skunks sometimes disturb hive entrances and catch bees as they come
out. Thisis particularly vexatious in the winter, when colonies should
be left quiet. In mountain localities, bears, led by their fondness for
honey, still occasionally overturn beehives. The remedies for both of
these are, of course, shooting or trapping.
ROBBER BEES.
When forage is scarce in the field, bees belonging to different colonies
often wage fierce wars over the stores already in hives. Thousands are
killed and the victors relentlessly carry off as booty every drop of honey
from the vanquished hive, leaving its bees to starve miserably. <A great
stir and loud buzzing in the hive of the conquerors attests their rejoicing
over the ill-gotten gains. Nor have they any code of morals which
inclines them to select as opponents forces equal in strength to their own.
With them ‘all’s fair in war.” Their only object is plunder, and they
therefore select the most defenseless, a colony disorganized through loss
of its queen being an especial mark for a combined attack.
Extreme caution to prevent robbing is always advisable. <A little
carelessness or neglect in the apiary early in the spring or toward the
latter part of the season may result in much loss. It is easier to prevent
robbing than to check it at once or without loss after it is well under
way. Leaving honey exposed about the apiary often induces robbers to
begin their work; hence extracting and similar work must be done in
bee-proof rooms whenever the bees are not gathering honey freely. It
may at such times be necessary to do all manipulating early in the
morning, before many of the bees have begun to fly, or later in the day,
after they have ceased, or even under a tent made of mosquito netting
and placed temporarily over the hive to be manipulated. Queenless
-and weak colonies should be put in order if possible before the honey
ROBBER BEES—LAYING WORKERS. Be
flow ceases. In any event the entrances of such hives should be con-
tracted until but few or even no more than one bee can gain access to
the interior at one time. Professor Cheshire has devised an excellent
entrance block to prevent or check robbing. This 1s shown in fig. 76,
and is so simple that anyone can make it. When contracted and placed
at the hive entrance it will be seen that the robbers must make their
way through a narrow and bent passage, something they are loath to
attempt, especially if at the first onset they find the passage well
guarded.
If robbing has begun it may sometimes be stopped by throwing
coarse grass or weeds over the entrance of the hive attacked, or by
leaning a pane of glass against its front, the entrance being, of co-.se,
contracted as indicated above. These plans tend to confuse the rob-
bers for a time, and meanwhile the rightful occupants of the hive may
be able to organize for defense. If convenient the colony attacked
may be moved a distance of a half mile or more and placed as far as pos-
sible from other apiaries until it can recuperate. Another plan in
extreme cases is to put the colony in a dark cellar for a few days, con-
fining the bees to the hive with wire cloth, so as to allow plenty of
ventilation, as described under the head of ‘Moving bees.” When
brought out of the cellar it is well
to place the colony on a new stand,
apart from the other bees, contract
the entrance, and leana board against
the front of the hive. Itisalso safest Fic. 76.—cheshire anti-robbing entrance: st,
io perme iG ont late in tle day, even *“*4#onsry piece; s;slide; p, pin orstop. (Re-
just at dusk, so the bees will begin eaters
flying from it gradually and not attract the attention of robbers. It
may be well, when removing a colony from its stand to save it from rob-
bers, to put in its place a hive with combs containing a little honey and
pollen. The robbers, instead of scattering and entering adjacent hives,
will continue to visit the same stand, their numbers gradually dimin-
ishing as the honey gives out and the pollen is sucked dry. If mean-
while the entrances of adjoining hives have been contracted and these
colonies are fairly strong and in normal condition, individual robbers
will be successively repulsed as they appear. Quiet will thus be even-
tually restored.
LAYING WORKERS.
Although laying workers are not strictly enemies of their kind, their
work hastens the extinction of the colony to which they belong, in case
the latter has become queenless and is without the means of rearing
another queen. They cause the expenditure of the stores and strength
of the colonies in a vain though well-meant endeavor to perpetuate
their species; the eggs which laying workers deposit, and for whose
development through the larval stage much honey and pollen are
118 oa ty 9? ee EAN ORD. OF APIOUETURE |. Shoe 6 cy ee ry iy
required, only resulting in the production of a lot of drones, for the if
most part weak and dwarfed. :
If not discovered until the hive is nearly depopulated, the remaining
old bees should be brushed off, and the combs, after the sealed drone
brood has been uncapped and jarred out, may be distributed among
other colonies. Should the affected colony still be worth saving, combs
containing emerging bees should be added and a queen introduced a
few days later, or a queen cell inserted, as soon as the added brood has
stocked the hive well with young bees.
BOOKS AND JOURNALS RELATING TO APICULTURE.
The following are among the leading books and journals relating to
apieulture :
BOOKS.
Langstroth on the Honey Bee. Revised edition, 1889. By Chas. Dadant & Son.
Quinby’s New Bee Keeping; or The Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained. 1884.
By L. C. Root.
The A BC of Bee Culture: A Cyclopedia of Everything Pertaining to the Care of
the Honey Bee. By A. I. Root.
Advanced Bee Culture: Its Methods and Management. By W. Z. Hutchinson.
Bees and Bee Keeping, Scientific and Practical. By Frank R. Cheshire. In two
volumes: Vol. I (scientific), Vol. II (practical). Published in London, England.
The Bee Keeper’s Guide; or Manual of the Apiary. By A. J. Cook.
A Modern Bee Farm and its Economic Management. By 8. Simmins. Published in
London, England.
The Blessed Bees. By John Allen.
Bee Keeping for Profit. By Dr. G. L. Tinker.
JOURNALS.
The American Bee Journal. Weekly. Chicago, Ill.
Gleanings in Bee Culture. Semimonthly. Medina, Ohio.
The Bee Keepers’ Review. Monthly. Flint, Mich.
The Nebraska Bee Keeper. Monthly. York, Nebr.
The American Bee Keeper. Monthly. Falconer, N. Y.
The Progressive Bee Keeper. Monthly. Higginsville, Mo.
The Southland Queen. Monthly. Beeville, Tex.
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