Full text of "Hopwood's Living pictures; their history, photo-production, and practical working"

GIFT OF
MICHAEL REESE

LIVING PICTURES

HOPWOOD'S

LIVING PICTURES

THEIR HISTORY, PHOTO - PRODUCTION, AND
PRACTICAL WORKING, WITH CLASSIFIED LISTS
OF BRITISH PATENTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

R. B. FOSTER, B.Sc,

BARRISTER-AT-LAW OF LINCOLN'S INN

NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

LONDON

THE HATTON PRESS, LIMITED

123-25, FLEET STREET, E.G.
1915

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

A SECOND EDITION of my work has been contemplated
for some time, but circumstances have prevented me from
devoting the large number of hours necessary for the
accurate verification of facts and the revision of the book.
I can only express my gratification that the labour has
been undertaken by a friend in whom I have the greatest
confidence.

For the moment it is interesting to look back to the
days in which the First Edition appeared. That year
marked the transition from history to actuality; it was
the period of search for new types of machines, for new
methods, and attempted forecasts of the future. Yet I
think it very doubtful whether many of those most
interested at that date foresaw the actual commercial
development which has taken place. Putting technical
matters aside for the moment, we may safely say that in
1899 the Living Picture was a popular music-hall "turn."
To-day it has established its own theatre, its own
personnel, its own audience. Technical advance has
been great. The more effective types of machines have
been perfected ; the actors of the day act for the screen,
just as they do for the auditorium; a whole network of
recording energy is spread over the entire world. In this
year of grace the Living Picture is possessed of an organiza-
tion so complete, so far-spread, that its future existence
and expansion is assured. It has entered into the life of

360735

vi PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

the peoples ; it has become a permanent part of their
recreation and education.

And yet, wonderful as has been the progress of the past
twelve years, more wonderful still will be the coming
decade. To-day we again stand looking to the future, as
we did in ninety-nine. Then we hoped for the perfecting
of the monochrome picture, and that has come. But
to-day shows us the promise of reality itself. Colour pro-
jection has made great strides, soon we may see its perfec-
tion. Sound and sight have in the past been linked by
artifice, but now we are in touch with the actuality of
simultaneous recording of sound and picture a veritable
record of events as entirely perfect as human sensation
can demand. In a few years time will no longer exist ;
any event, the gorgeous pageant, the historic speech, the
actor with his every intimate gesture and familiar intona-
tion, will live for ever. The history of the past few years
shows us how this may be, and it is such a history that
this edition records. A perusal of the proofs assures me
that the facts are well presented, and the cordial relations
which have existed between the reviser and myself entirely
remove my natural regret that the whole work is not

my own.

HENRY V. HOPWOOD.

LONDON, 1912.

REVISER'S PREFACE

ONE or two remarks will suffice to explain what has been
attempted in revising this work. The original text of
the old edition has, where possible, been left unaltered.
Chapters I., II., and III., dealing with the historic evolu-
tion of the Cinematograph, have been but slightly altered.
Chapters IV. and V., dealing with present-day apparatus
and films, have of necessity been largely rewritten. In
Chapter VI. only the chief points in manipulation and
practice have been dealt with. To have done full justice
to this part of the subject would have necessitated much
more space than is available. Chapter VII., dealing with
Pictures in Colours, Chapter VIII., dealing with Speaking
Pictures, and Chapters IX. and X., dealing with Legal
Matters, are entirely new. In dealing with present-day
applications and with film-subjects in Chapter XL, a
large portion of the original text has been rewritten. In
Appendix I. classified lists of British Patents are given in
lieu of a digest. These specifications are abridged in
volumes published by the Patent Office. In Appendix I -I,
the annotated bibliography in the original work has been
supplemented by lists of books and periodicals dealing
exclusively with the subject.

The task of revision has been somewhat formidable, and
it was not intended in the first place to undertake it alone.
This fact, in conjunction with existing circumstances,
largely explains the somewhat later appearance of the
book than would otherwise have been the case.

The reviser has to acknowledge the ready response ot

viii REVISER'S PREFACE

several leading manufacturers and firms in supplying in-
formation and particulars of apparatus ; the valuable
assistance by Mr. William Briggs, of the Inner Temple,
Barrister-at-Law, in connection with Chapters IX. and X. ;
the help given by Mr. H. W. Heath, B.Sc., of the Patent
Office, at the proof-stage, and in connection with many
of the illustrations ; and by Mr. Williams, of the Patent
Office Library, in connection with the Bibliography ;
and the permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery
to utilize the illustrations published in British Patent
Specifications for several of the illustrations.

It is hoped that the present work may not be too
technical for the reader unacquainted with the technics of
the subject, but who is in any way interested therein, and
may be also useful to manufacturers and others actually
engaged in the industry.

The reviser will be glad to have any criticisms and
suggestions for future editions.

2, PUMP COURT,

TEMPLE, E.G.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACK

I. PERSISTENCE OF VISION AND CONTINUED PERCEPTION

OF THE SAME OBJECT - - I

II. ILLUSION OF MOTION PRODUCED BY SUCCESSIVE VIEWS

OF SLIGHTLY VARYING DIAGRAMS - - II

III. CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE PRACTICAL DEVELOP-

MENT OF THE LIVING PICTURE - 47

IV. FILM MACHINES AND INTERMITTANCE MECHANISMS - 105

V. FILMS, THEIR PRODUCTION AND TREATMENT - "155

Celluloid arid non-flam films Perforation Cameras and
accessories Developing the negative Printing the
positive Developingthe positive Retouching, colour-
ing, and protecting the film Joining and repairing
films Cleaning and renovating films.

VI. EXHIBITING, ETC. - - 198

The projector The optical system Illuminants Screens
Stands Film - gate and steadying devices Film
centering Shutters and flicker Fire-preventing and
safety devices Film manipulation and housing
S tereoscopic projection Kinoplasticon Cinelife
Peep-shows Living pictures at home.

VII. COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY- - 253

Principles of colour photography Additive methods
Subtractive or superposition methods Kinemacolour
Chronochrome.

VIII. LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES - - 274

IX. CINEMATOGRAPH ACT, IQOQ, AND REGULATIONS - - 289

X. COPYRIGHT - - 311

The Copyright Act, 1911.

x CONTENTS

CHAPTER I'Ai'-K

XI. PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 325

Re view- Cinematography for science, education, and com-
merce Finis.

APPENDIX I. - - 339

British Patents Foreign Patents Classified lists of
British Patents.

APPENDIX II. 3?7

A. Annotated bibliography to 1898 B. Works of refer-
ence subsequent to 1898 C. British and foreign
periodicals.

INDEX - - - - - 373

LIVING PICTURES

CHAPTER I

PERSISTENCE OF VISION AND CONTINUED PERCEPTION
OF THE SAME OBJECT

IN all branches of applied science the reflective 'mind
derives pleasures from tracing a perfected instrument
back to its simplest form, thus separating its primary and
essential factor from those mechanical improvements and
additions which serve to render the apparatus perfect in
action and commercially practicable. For instance, the
telescope and microscope, the use of which has carried
man's sight farther and farther into the boundless realms
of the infinitely great and immeasurably small, derive
their utility, when all is told, from the fact that a ray
of light is bent out of its path when passing through any
point where a change of (optical) density occurs in the
material through which the ray is passing. The reason
of this it is not necessary to inquire into ; the experi-
mental fact is accepted on its own merits while the possi-
bility is admitted of some underlying verity which may
prove the connecting link between this and other related
phenomena, and still further simplify the expression of
the natural laws governing them. And thus pursuing our
present subject and- considering the marvellous mechanism
which brings the past in all semblance of vivacity under
present view, it is only necessary to ascertain the funda-
mental fact which renders possible so wonderful a result.
But, instead of analyzing the finished apparatus for our-

>^ .PICTURES

selves, it is best to take our starting-point from others, and
at once prepare to follow from its primitive germ the
growth of the Living Picture a history which could
never have been written were it not for the physiological
phenomenon of Persistence of Vision, that basis upon
which rests every one of the mechanical appliances
for producing the illusion of motion which will be
described.

The stock experiment which proves Persistence of
Vision is of so elementary a character that man must
be supposed to have noticed the effect long before he was
capable of theorizing upon its cause. If a stick with
lighted or glowing point is taken and whirled in a circle
(an action doubtless performed in prehistoric times), it
will be at once noticed, if the speed is great enough, that

FIG. i.

the glowing end of the stick is no longer seen as a point ;
but a luminous circle filling its whole path is visible
instead. Again, take a flat steel spring and fix it at one
end, strike the other so as to cause it to vibrate, and the
spring will appear to fill the whole of the space over
which it moves, as seen in Fig. I. Now, it certainly does
not require much proof that neither stick nor spring can
be in two places at once ; and the only possible solution
of the mystery is that the luminous point or spring appears
to be in any given spot after it has moved away, and con-
tinues to appear there until its return to the same position,
when its image again falls on the same spot in the eye.
The observer thus gets an impression of continuous pres-
ence. This taking place all along the path of the moving
object naturally causes it in appearance to fill the whole

PERSISTENCE OF VISION 3

space. Fortunately this, as most other experimental
facts, admits of simple verbal expression one sentence
suffices we continue to experience the visual effect of
light after it has ceased to act. This phenomenon is
called, as already mentioned, Persistence of Vision, and
from this point we make our departure ; the investigations
and theories respecting the cause of this effect, whether
residing in the slow return of the brain-cells (after their
excitation) to normal state, or connected with the nature
of the stimulus experienced by the terminal of the optic
nerve in the retina, are all interesting ; but they do not
alter the experimental fact of persistence, which is cer-
tainly true, even though all the theories hitherto promul-
gated with respect to it should prove to be erroneous.

A sentence, which is probably the first written reference
to persistence of vision, is contained in the fourth book of
" De Rerum Natura," by Lucretius, dated about 65 B.C.
He says there : " This [perception of movement] is to be
explained in the following way ; that when the first image
passes off, and a second is afterward produced in another
position, the former then seems to have changed its
gesture. This we must conceive to be done by a very
rapid process," etc. Though seemingly so very a propos,
this passage is in reality only a reference to a theory of
dreams, and its interest arises from the fact that Dr.
Plateau found it quoted against him (by Dr. Sinsteden)
on the invention of the pheriakistoscope (see post, p. 15) ;
and it seems of some interest as being the first-quoted
anticipation of the first living-picture apparatus. Indeed,
Lucretius only expresses the fact of persistent vision, and
mentions no apparatus for its demonstration.

This matter appears to have been first treated of two
centuries later in the second book of Ptolemy's " Optics."
This work, written about ' the year A.D. 130, narrowly
escaped annihilation ; only two copies are known to exist,
and these are both Latin translations through the Arabic.

4 LIVING PICTURES

One copy is in the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris; the
other and more perfect example is in the Bodleian Library
at Oxford. Ptolemy in this treatise mentions that, if a
sector of a disc be coloured, the whole will appear of
that colour when rapidly revolved, and if the sector be
variously coloured at different distances from the centre,
the disc will appear ringed. Alhazen, the great Arabian
philosopher, refers to the subject about A.u. noo, as do
others, including Leonardo da Vinci, who was born
in 1452. Coming to later years, Newton, Boyle, and
others, mention the matter; but little practical investi-
gation was done except the attempts by Segner, d'Arcy,
and Cavallo, to measure the duration of vision after the
extinction of light. To conclude the references on this
subject, it is only necessary to mention that the period
of persistence is now accepted as (on the average) from
TO to ^i of a second, subject to the degree of intensity,
duration, and colour, of the light received by the eye.

Up to the end of the eighteenth century no progress
was made in the application of the principle of persis-
tence, and the character of last-century knowledge is well
summed up in Abbe Nollet's " Le9ons de Physique,"
1765, tome 5, where he says : " When an object moves
very rapidly before our eyes, we often attribute to it size
and shape which it does not possess. A polyhedron
revolved on its axis seems to us a sphere ; as does also
a circle revolved on one of its diameters, etc., etc." This
statement merely implies the knowledge that one object
may have the appearance of being in more than one place
at once if it move fast enough ; and here may be men-
tioned an old popular toy brought out by the Stereoscopic
Company under the name of " The Optic Wonder." In
this a piece of wire bent to the outline of one side of
a vase or the like symmetrical figure was made to revolve
rapidly round its vertical axis, and thereby gave the im-
pression of a complete vessel. As an addition a glass rod,

PERSISTENCE OF VISION

bent to a half outline of a glass shade and mounted out-
side the wire, caused the appearance of a complete trans-
parent covering. Later, a heavy metal top was used to
obtain rotation, the wires being inserted in a hollow
vertical spindle. This toy was manufactured in France
and known under the name of " la Toupie eblouissante,"
or Dazzling Top (Fig. 2).

So, up to the year 1825, demonstration was confined to
exhibiting the same object in more than one place at once ;
but in 1826 or thereabouts it was rendered possible to
arrange two different objects in such a manner that they
appeared to be in the same place at the same time. This
was accomplished by the Thaumatrope, the invention of

FIG. 3.

which is attributed by Brewster to Dr. Paris, who himself
claimed it in his book, " Philosophy in Sport made Science
in Earnest." It consists of a card having images on each
surface, inverted with respect to each other, as in Fig. 3,
and these images (when presented in rapid alternation by
the revolution of the card) both persist, and so appear
simultaneously and continuously present in the field of
view. With reference to the general acceptance of Dr.
Paris as inventor of this instrument (which Carpenter
attributes to Dr. Wollaston), it is well to notice the
following little-known story from Charles Babbage's
" Passages from the Life of a Philosopher " [Auto-
biography] : " One day Herschel [Sir John], sitting with

6 LIVING PICTURES

me after dinner, amusing himself by spinning a pear upon
the table, suddenly asked whether I could show him the
two sides of a shilling at the same moment. I took out
of my pocket a shilling, and, holding it up before the
looking-glass, pointed out my method. ' No,' said my
friend, ' that won't do ' ; then, spinning my shilling upon
the table, he pointed out his method of seeing both sides
at once. The next day I mentioned the anecdote to the
late Dr. Fitton, who a few days after brought me a
beautiful illustration of the principle. It consisted of
a round disc of card suspended between two pieces of
sewing-silk. These threads, being held between the finger
and thumb of each hand, were then made to turn quickly,
when the disc of card, of course, revolved also. Upon one
side of this disc of card was painted a bird ; upon the other
side, an empty bird-cage. On turning the thread rapidly
the bird appeared to have got inside the cage. We soon
made numerous applications, as a rat on one side and
a trap upon the other, etc. It was shown to Captain Kater,
Dr. Wollaston, and many of our friends, and was, after
the lapse of a short time, forgotten. Some months after,
during dinner at the Royal Society Club, Sir Joseph Banks
being in the chair, I heard Mr. Barrow, then Secretary to
the Admiralty, talking very loudly about a wonderful in-
vention of Dr. Paris, the object of which I could not quite
understand. It was called the thaumatrope, and was said
to be sold at the Royal Institution, in Albemarle Street.
Suspecting that it had some connection with our unnamed
toy, I went next morning and purchased for seven shillings
and sixpence a thaumatrope, which I afterwards sent
down to Slough to the late Lady Herschel. It was pre-
cisely the thing which her son and Dr. Fitton had con-
tributed to invent, which amused all their friends for a
time and had then been forgotten. There was, however,
one additional thaumatrope made afterwards. It con-
sisted of the usual disc of paper. On one side was repre-

, PERSISTENCE OF VISION 7

sented a thaumatrope (the design upon it being a penny
piece), with the motto, ' How to turn a Penny/ On the
other side was a gentleman in black, with his hands held
out in the act of spinning a thaumatrope, the motto being
' A New Trick from Paris.' "

To conclude the history of the Thaumatrope a reference
to a suggestion made by Claudet in 1867 is alone neces-
sary. In the ordinary form both sides of the card revolve
around the same axis at the same distance, and therefore
appear on the same plane. But Claudet suggested that
if the card were of considerable thickness, or a substitute
were provided (similar to a shallow matchbox cover), and
the axis of rotation passed through one side, as shown in
Figs. 4 and 5, the picture drawn on the other side (re-

Fins. 4 and 5.

volving at a distance from the axis) would come nearer to
the eye (situated either at A or B) than that through which
the axis passed. One object would thus appear to stand
in front of the other, giving an appearance of relief which
would convert the usual form into a Sterco-Thaumatrope.
This apparatus was designed by Claudet to demonstrate
rapid alternate convergent and divergent action of the
optical axes, but discussion of the questionable accuracy
of his conclusions is quite foreign to the subject of this
book, and finds its proper place in a stereoscopic treatise.
It is indeed strange that a toy which in the earlier
years of the present generation could be bought six on a
halfpenny card should have cost seven-and-sixpence at the
date of its inception, and should have tempted the Royal

8 LIVING PICTURES

Institution to enter commercial life ; but stranger still is
the thought of that shilling, carelessly spun seventy years
ago, being the first step in the long series of persistent
vision apparatus whose latest developments achieve results
wonderful indeed when not understood, more wonderful
still when a just comprehension is formed of the number-
less details which are necessary to the effective working of
a living picture. However, to return to the year 1826,
the date of the publication of the Thaumatrope's descrip-
tion. One stage in this history is here complete ; Fitton's
instrument set men thinking, and only six years elapsed
before the first appliance was introduced for obtaining the
illusion of motion.

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CHAPTER II

ILLUSION OF MOTION PRODUCED BY SUCCESSIVE VIEWS
OF SLIGHTLY VARYING DIAGRAMS

THE researches which led to further advance in the
illusive production of motion were distributed among
many scientific men, each to a great degree unaware of
the others' work. The starting-point on the theoretical
side was probably Dr. Roget's paper published in 1825,
on the apparent distortion of the spokes of a rotating
wheel when seen through a fence (i.e., a series of vertical
slots), a subject later investigated by Plateau. The latter,
in 1836, invented the Anorthoscope, an instrument which
reversed the illusion observed by Roget, and gave a correct
image from a distorted original. In this contrivance a
back disc bearing a distorted image revolves at a speed
four times greater than a front one which is pierced with
four radial slots at angular distances of go degrees. When
in motion this instrument shows four non-distorted images
formed from the one distorted original. Rose's Kalotrope
(shown in 1856 at the Polytechnic) further modified this
action, and caused beautiful symmetrical designs in curved
lines to be produced from originals of very commonplace
appearance. These instruments, though in their first
forms not strictly connected with the illusion of motion,
are so beautiful in their action that, depending as they do
on persistence of vision, they deserve mention in case any
reader cares to " look up " a subject of so interesting a
nature. But in the year 1849 Plateau himself suggested a
modification of this instrument which produced the illusion

LIVING PICTURES

of motion in a most effective manner, and this matter
will be referred to somewhat later in its proper sequence.

Probably it was due as much to the invention of the
Thaumatrope as to Roget's researches on the apparent
deformation of the spokes of revolving wheels that atten-
tion was directed to the fruitful combined subjects of
persistence of vision and rotation of a series of diagrams ;
for in 1831 we find several writers, including Aime and
Faraday, referring to the fact that when two cogged
wheels, with equal number of teeth, revolve at equal speed
in opposite directions, one in front of the other, the eye, if
placed at a distance, perceives a stationary image of one
wheel only. (Plateau had made the same observation in

FIG. 6.

1828.) This illusive stationary wheel merely results from
the strong image perceived each time the aspects of the
two wheels coincide, the phase when the cogs of one
wheel are passing over the spaces in the other forming,
so to speak, a blurred background on which the strong
stationary image stands out. To illustrate this Faraday
constructed a demonstration apparatus called Faraday's
Wheel (Fig. 6), in which two discs with notched edges
were revolved at equal speeds in opposite directions by
friction gearing. Faraday and Plateau both investigated
the results of revolving two cogged wheels in the same
direction and looking through the cogs of the front one at
the other; in which case also an apparently stationary
wheel was seen, though from a far different cause to that

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

in the first case, as will be seen in the following explana-
tion of the action of a slotted disc.

Faraday also pointed out that one wheel gave the same
result if revolved in front of a mirror, the image taking
the place of the second wheel, the advantage secured being
that speed of object and image were bound to be abso-
lutely identical.

It was but a step from this discovery to the employ-
ment of a disc pierced with slots to look through and
bearing radial lines on its face i.e., the side to be turned

FIG. 7.

FIG.

towards the mirror. From this experiment strange
results followed. When the slots were equal in number
to the radii (Fig. 7), the image (as seen through the slots
and in the mirror) appeared stationary; when the slots
were slightly fewer than the radii, the wheel appeared to
travel slowly forward (i.e., in the same direction as the
real motion of the disc), and to move in the backward
direction if the slots outnumbered the radial marks. Now,
it must be understood that the disc is revolved so rapidly
that if the image be viewed directly (i.e., not through the
slots] the black spokes would be confused into a grey

LIVING PICTURES

circle. Yet when seen through these small openings
every individual spoke appears distinctly, a fact which
points out the slots as the key to the mystery. The reason
is simple. Every time a slot passes the eye an impression
is received of the image of the whole face of the disc (as
seen in the mirror), and though the whole image is turning
rapidly, the slot (if narrow) goes so quickly past the eye
that the image has not time to move far enough to give
any impression of motion, and therefore it appears to be
standing still. If, now, when the second slot passes
before the eye the image presents a precisely similar view

FIG. 9.

FIG. 10.

to the previous one (and this is the case when radii and
slots are equal in number), it is obvious that it will not
appear to have moved at all ; for we shall have combined
two successive similar images, by the action of persistence,
into one permanent impression. If, however, the slots are
fewer in number than the spokes (Fig. 8), when the second
slot comes before our eye, the second spoke, instead of
falling in the same place as the first, will be seen slightly
in advance of that spot, and will thus give the impression
that the first spoke has moved forward a little. If, how-
ever, the slots are more numerous than the spokes (Fig. 9),

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 15

we receive our second view a little before the second spoke
has arrived at the spot where the first was seen, and we
therefore imagine the first spoke to have moved back
to that extent. It will now be clear that the whole
phenomenon depends on the fact of the moving image
being seen for so short a period that it appears to be still ;
during the time it is not seen another image takes its
place, and this substitution is effected so rapidly that the
first image persists in the eye until the second one is
presented to view, this order of things being repeated
with succeeding images so long as the disc is turned.

Suppose, now, instead of a series of similar images we
have a succession of slightly varying drawings (say of
a man) in which while the body agrees in all, yet the arm
is in different positions, such as lifted gradually higher
and then dropped so that the last of the series nearly
agrees with the first. In this case repeated views of the
body will all agree, but the arm will be seen, first low
down, then gradually rising, then falling and rising
again ; persistence of vision blending the images, so that
the action appears continuous although we really see it in
jerks. And here we have the true living picture, capable
of improvement no doubt, needing instantaneous photog-
raphy to confer accuracy, requiring extreme mechanical,
perfection to secure a sufficient number of pictures in a
second and to again combine the same into one con-
tinuous scene ; but yet, from this point onward, there
is little discovery to record, though many ingenious
inventions remain to be described. These inventions
naturally aimed at one result, but by different methods,
and therefore the history of each class of device must be
separately traced.

The instrument which has just been referred to as the
progenitor of all these species was invented simultane-
ously by Plateau of Ghent and Stampfer of Vienna ; and
though their instruments were identical they naturally

16 LIVING PICTURES

received different names from their respective originators.
Plateau forwarded an example of his Phenakistoscope
through Quetelet to Faraday in November, 1832, his
letter being printed in February, 1833. Stampfer first
made his Stroboscope in December, 1832, at which date
no description had been published of Plateau's previously
constructed Phenakistoscope. As an early instance of
confusion of terms it may be mentioned that Snell,
writing in 1835, calls the Stroboscope by the name of
Phantascope or Kaleidorama. Miiller in 1846 applied
this instrument for the demonstration of wave-motion,
and Poppe, Savart, and others, employed it for the
synthesis of other natural motions. One application is
shown in Fig. 10, where a pendulum appears to swing as
the successive stages of that action are momentarily
perceived through the slots by means of a mirror. It
will be understood that, while the slotted disc is of metal,
the diagrams are drawn on a circular removable card,
in order to allow the inspection of varying subjects.
One later and very interesting form of this instrument
may be mentioned here. Lommel in 1881 suggested that
a strong beam of light might be thrown, from behind,
through the disc by means of a lens bringing the beam to
ja focus in the slot. In this way a powerful illuminating
beam was passed through a very narrow opening, and as
it again spread out a mirror reflected it on to the surface
of the disc, as seen in Fig. n. When the disc was in
rotation the light only fell on the designs in intermittent
flashes as each slot allowed the beam of light to pass.
The result of interrupting the light in this way, instead
of by a slotted disc between the eye and the design, was
to render it possible for a whole roomful of people to see
the entire disc at once, whereas with the older arrangement
only a single person could view the effect at one time.

The slotted disc was, however, felt to be a great dis-
advantage by reason of the small amount of light which

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

could reach the eye ; an idea of the proportion allowed
to pass may be formed from the relative extent of slot
and opaque disc, for of course while the latter is before
the eye no light is received. Wheatstone endeavoured to
overcome this failing by allowing the disc to be viewed
on its face instead of in a mirror. By means of a cog
and snail motion the disc was kept at rest for a
comparatively long period and then rapidly jerked into
its next position. The eye was thus impressed with
a vigorous image which persisted over the short period of
blur caused by the rapid movement, and then received the
succeeding stationary image in its full strength.

FIG. ii.

FIG. 12.

This crude apparatus is interesting because of the
employment on some of the more modern machines of
an intermittent motion with such a long rest and such
rapid travel that a shutter is dispensed with ; while one
form of apparatus manufactured in France actually
took its name of Heliocinegraphe from the very same
cog and snail motion employed by Wheatstone fifty
or sixty years ago. It was subsequently suggested, in
order to obviate the use of a mirror, that a slotted disc
might be mounted in advance of the diagram but on
the same axis, so that they both revolved in the same
direction at the same speed (Fig. 12) ; and though this

i8 LIVING PICTURES

form of apparatus did not make its commercial appear-
ance till somewhat late in the day, it will be seen from
the drawing that the arrangement is exactly equivalent
to viewing the back of a slotted disc in a mirror. It,
however, opened the way for further improvement by
exhibiting clearly the shutter-like nature of the slotted
disc.

The first attempts at projection were founded on this
type of machine, the design wheel being transparent and
light thrown first through it, then through the slots, and
finally on to the screen by means of an objective. This
was done by Uchatius between 1851 and 1853, but
Plateau himself had practically attacked the same prob-
lem in 1849 in a modification of his Anorthoscope
(see p. n). It will be remembered that the Anorthoscope
produced four non-distorted images from a distorted
original. Plateau placed sixteen images in progressive
series round the margin of a glass disc, and in front of
this, in a reverse direction, revolved, at a four times
greater speed, an opaque disc with four slots. The front
of the apparatus could be observed by many people at
once, and to prevent confusion the parts of the disc
showing the non-erect images were screened off. It will
be seen that as a slot passed ne aperture in the screen
one image would be viewed and the light then cut off
while the transparent disc turned one-sixteenth of its
diameter and the opaque one one-quarter. The next
image would then be revealed, by its coincidence with
thq slot, in the same position as that in which the
previous image was obs.rved.

Plateau seemed very proud of the sensation caused by
his first design (drawn to his request, for by this date he
was unfortunately stone-blind). It represented a devil
blowing up a fire, and the effect was so striking that
Plateau was led to further suggestions of a photographic
character, which will be referred to in their proper place.

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 19

It is plain that to render this apparatus available for pro-
jection it but required a condenser behind the transparent
disc and an objective in front of the opaque one ; but
Plateau does not appear to have suggested this, and the
first application of differentially speeded discs to the
purpose of projection-work appears to be the Lantern
Wheel of Life, an instrument of considerably later date.
The Austrian Lieutenant (subsequently General) Franz
Uchatius wrote, on February 16, 1851, a letter to Prokesch,
the head of the Viennese optical house subsequently known
by the name of Fritsch. In this letter he refers vaguely
to the glories of the Phenakistoscope having been sur-
rendered, and his subsequent papers show that the
manufacture of his instruments was entrusted to the
above-mentioned firm. The first form attempted was
an arrangement exactly similar in principle to Fig. 12,
the light being thrown through a transparent design disc
on to a screen by means of an objective, the slotted
disc acting as a shutter. The loss of light proved to
be enormous ; figures of greater size than 6 inches could
not be shown ; and Uchatius was led to invent, and
Prokesch to manufacture, an apparatus of an exceedingly
ingenious and interesting nature, which was shown at the
Vienna Academy of Sciences in 1853.

In this later form the diagrams were painted on the
circumference of a transparent disc, which remained
stationary. In front of each design a lens was placed,
the whole circle of lenses being capable of adjustment in
order that all the optic axes should cross at the place
where the image was formed on the screen. The separate
lenses thus all threw their respective diagrams in the
same place, the succession of the series being attained
by revolving a limelight behind the diagrams, only one
of which was thus lit at a time. The interest of this
apparatus is great, not only from the fact that the source
of light was the only moving part, but also because this

LIVING PICTURES

appears to be the first suggestion of projecting successive
pictures through more than one optical system. Instead
of moving the illuminant, it would have been simple to
have deflected the light by means of a rotating mirror,
but this multiple form does not appear to have been fol-
lowed up, and though in any type of slotted machine with
continuously moving diagrams the loss of light must have
been enormous, yet it was towards the improvement of
this type that attention was directed. To secure increase
of illumination it was necessary to show the object for as
long as possible, making the change to the next diagram
in a very short time. This desire mainly arose because
the need for a projecting instrument was strongly felt

FIG. 13.

FIG. 14.

and it is certain that no toy attains a great popularity
whose use is confined to one individual at a time.

The most effective early device for this purpose was the
Ross Wheel of Life (Figs. 13 and 14), designed for use in
the Optical Lantern, and patented in 1871. The disc bear-
ing the figures is caused to revolve slowly ; the opaque disc
has one sector removed and travels at such a speed as to
make one revolution while the transparent disc moves one
stage. Thus in Fig. 13 two figures are seen through the
opening in the opaque disc. Its revolution promptly cuts
them out of sight, and by the time the opening comes
back to the same place the next pair of figures (in slightly
different attitudes) are found to occupy the same vertical
line. This arrangement is practically a substitution of
a one-slot disc for a four-slot one as used by Plateau in
the instrument last described, The result of this arrange-

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 21

ment is that the lantern screen is full of figures all in
motion and in various phases of the same action ; but
this multiplicity of images is confusing, and attempts
were made to show only one figure on the screen at
a time. Mr. Beale, of Greenwich, devised a method
whereby a face could be shown in motion by means of
a series of sixteen pictures illuminated by intermittent
flashes. A painting of a human bust was made on a
screen, the face being replaced by a hole, behind which
could be brought sixteen views of a face in the various
stages of a grimace or smile by means of the revolution of
a disc on the circumference of which they were painted.
A sixteen-holed shutter worked by gearing admitted a
flash of light to illuminate the painting for a moment as
each face arrived in its proper position, the light being
cut off during a quick change to the next expression. By
means of an ingenious contrivance which allowed only
every alternate opening in the shutter to act, and was
adjustable to show first one series of eight and then
another, the resultant grimace was varied in a most
amusing way. This arrangement, however, needed a full-
sized painting for every effect, and was not of the ordinary
magic-lantern nature; the separate pictures not being pro-
jected, but only illuminated intermittently.

A single and therefore larger figure than that given by
the Wheel of Life was subsequently projected on the
screen by the same inventor, whose " Dancing Skeleton "
was a great success. A disc was used, rotating in front
of a lantern condenser; but this disc, instead of being
formed of glass, was of thin sheet metal, the figures of
a skeleton in various attitudes being cut out, stencil
fashion, round the margin. These necessarily brilliant
white figures were projected on the screen in the usual
way by an objective, the light being cut off by an
interrupter (geared from the axle of the disc) during the
period of change. Mr. Beale also constructed this instru-

LIVING PICTURES

ment with the stencil figures on a long slip, performing
the necessary eclipses by a rising and falling shutter, the
whole arrangement being called by him the Choreutoscope.
An improved form of this device was patented by Hughes
(1884), and is applicable to any ordinary optical lantern.
Fig. 15 shows the working parts. Turning the handle
revolves a disc, a pin on which raises the shutter and so
interrupts the light. Teeth on the disc then come into
play, shifting the long slide one stage, and so soon as it
comes to rest the shutter drops and exposes the picture.
A continuous motion of the handle repeats these actions
with sufficient rapidity to throw an apparently permanent
and moving figure on the screen. A somewhat similar

FIG. 15.

arrangement to Beale's Rotary Choreutoscope was
patented in the United States by A. B. Brown in the
year 1869 (No. 93,594) ; see pp. 51, 132. This specification
is mainly of interest by reason of the construction employed
in the intermittent mechanism. It forms a very close
approach indeed to the modern cinematograph with
Maltese Cross motion ; a star-wheel and pin being used
to drive the design- wheel periodically, while a two-sector
shutter is shown geared to eclipse the light during the
change of picture. From this point it would be com-
paratively easy, by describing no more than two machines,
to bridge the gap of twenty years which still remains to
be traversed ere the first machine of distinctly modern
type appears. Mr. Heyl, in the year after Brown's United

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 23

States patent, exhibited a somewhat similar apparatus,
employing photographic images ; but consideration of his
machine must be deferred until the next chapter, for many
elementary forms of apparatus remain to be described
before the subject of chrono-photography is discussed.

Of the simpler diagram apparatus, however, the phena-
kistoscopic, or disc-and-slot machines, are practically
exhausted, except so far as their principles may recur in
some form of photographic device, and it is necessary now
to consider the cylindrical apparatus (directly derived
from ^tl^__PhenakisjLQ5arje), popularly introduced about
j.86o, and subsequently called the Zoetrope, Zootrope, or
Wheel of Life, the latter term being a name also applied
to a previously described lantern slide (p. 20). Desvignes
patented the Zoetrope, though not naming it, in 1860.
The year 1867, however, saw a patent (No. 64,117) issued
in the United States to William E. Lincoln, of Providence,
JJ.S.A,, for the selfsame contrivance under the name of
Zoetrope, apparently the first use of the word. But this
type of slotted machine takes its origin at a date far
anterior to those quoted above ; in fact, only a little more
than a twelvemonth elapsed between the invention of the
phenakistoscope (1833) and publication of the following
suggestion by W. G. Horner in the Philosophical Maga-
zine : " The apparatus is merely a hollow cylinder, or a
moderately high margin, with apertures at ecmal distances,
and placed cylindrically round the edge of a revolving
disk. Any drawings which are made on the interior sur-
face in the intervals of the apertures will be visible through
the opposite apertures, and, if executed on the same prin-
ciple of graduated action, will produce the same surprising
play of relative motions as the common magic disk does
when spun before a mirror. But as no necessity exists in
this case for bringing the eye near the apparatus, but
rather the contrary, and the machine when revolving has
all the effect of transparency, the phenomenon may be

LIVING PICTURES

displayed with full effect to a numerous audience.
I have given this instrument the name of
D&daleum, as imitating the practice which the
celebrated artist of antiquity was fabled to have
invented, of creating figures of men and animals
endued with motion. ... I have not thought
it requisite to give a more particular description
of the instrument, having communicated every
needful part of the detail, some weeks ago, to a
respectable optician of Bristol, Mr. King, jun."
This is an absolutely correct description of

FIG. 17.

FIG. 1 6.

the instrument patented by Desvignes twenty-
four years later, and known under the name of
the Zoetrope. The apparatus, in its modern
form, is shown in Fig. 16. A band of figures
having been placed inside the cylinder, the whole
is rotated, and the figures are then seen in
motion. The series of figures is such as shown
in Fig. 17, which forms a very good example.
The bodies, being equal in number to the slots,
appear to remain in the same place although
legs and arms are in motion. But the number
of heads being one less than the slots, the
whole series appears to have a slow motion
in the reverse direction to that in which the

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 25

Zoetrope is turning (cf. Fig. 9). The effect is therefore
that of a row of dancing figures, perpetually trying on
heads and then passing them to their neighbours, who
repeat the same antics. The variations between succes-
sive figures are better seen in Fig. 18, taken from Brad-

FIG. 18.

ley's English Specification, dated 1867. As shown in his
engravings the modern Zoetrope is a moderately high
cylinder, the slots being placed in the upper part. The
first commercial form, however, though the same in prin-
ciple, differed from this plan in construction. No drawing

FIG. 19.

of Homer's Daedaleum appears to have survived, but the
Desvignes' designs are of great interest, as foreshadowing
many later inventions, and reference will frequently be
made to his various suggestions. Fig. 19 shows his
arrangement of the slots below the design, a kind of casing,

LIVING PICTURES

T, in the interior of the cylinder, being fixed in such a
manner that it does not revolve, and serves the purpose
of limiting the field of vision. By the simple expedient of
turning the cylinder on its side the apparatus was adapted
for the exhibition of stereoscopic views, as seen in Fig. 20,
a suggestion being made that transparent images might
be employed.

^Anschutz used this form of apparatus to produce the
appearance of motion from series of animal movements
photographically obtained. It will be seen that when
diagrams are drawn the cycle of movement can be com-
pleted in a given number of pictures, and the older form

FIG. 20.

of instrument was therefore provided with a fixed set of
slots, the diagrams being prepared with a sufficiency of
figures to obtain the desired result. It is very different in
the photography of moving animals. In taking these, six,
eight, ten, or more pictures may be necessary before the
same attitude re-occurs ; and this, of course, is absolutely
necessary to enable the last picture to run on to the first
and give an endless repetition of the same movement.
Anschiitz was thus obliged to form his Zoetrope (called by
him the Tachyscope) as a very shallow cylinder, into which
could be inserted a long strip bent round to form the
walls. This strip bore the required number of images to
complete a cycle of movements, and was pierced with the

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 27

number of slots necessary to give a correct effect with the
number of pictures in the series. Marey not only used
photographs but also actual models, on a small scale, of
such animals as he desired to show in motion. One of
these Stereo-Zootropes is still preserved at the Paris. Physio-
logical Station, and by the continued observation of suc-
cessive models in different attitudes the effect is produced
of an actual animal running, or bird flying round the
interior of the cylinder. In this connection it is interest-
ing to refer again to Desvignes, whose 1860 Specification
shows a Zoetrope employing solid models. By the con-
struction of his apparatus (Fig. 21) the figures were placed
on the margin of the cylinder rather than in its interior,
but the idea is essentially similar to Marey's.

FIG. 21.

Now, one great defect of this, as indeed of every other
instrument where the object is in motion while seen through
a slit, is distortion. When the object and slit are trav-
elling in the same direction (as in the Phenakistoscope)
the object appears elongated ; when the reverse is the case
(as in the Zoetrope) it appears compressed in the direction
of its length. Plateau in 1849 had recognized this diffi-
culty, and therefore prepared his diagrams in a form pur-
posely distorted in an opposed sense to the distortion
caused by the revolving disc, one distortion thus neutral-
izing the other. This defect led Clerk-Maxwell, in 1869, to
propose the substitution of concave lenses for the slots,
their focal length being equal to the diameter of the
cylinder. The virtual image of the design opposite the
lens was thus formed exactly midway between lens and

28 LIVING PICTURES

picture, and this spot necessarily coincided with the axis
of rotation. That being the case, the successive images
were perceived in one an.d the same spot, and remained
stationary during the whole time they were individually
exposed to view, the movement of the lens being neutral-
ized by the movement of the real object on the other side
of the cylinder. It will be seen that the distortion com-
mon to all ordinary types of slotted machines was thus
done away with, and at the same time the images ap-
peared more brilliant a wide lens being substituted for a
narrow slot. Maxwell used this device for combining
series of diagrams of many physical phenomena (such as
smoke-rings, etc.), in order to show the resultant move-

ment, but the apparatus does not seem to have come into
general use.

In the year 1877, however, Reynaud patented a con-
trivance which attained almost instant popularity under
the name of the Praxinoscope (Fig. 22). In this instru-
ment the pictures are not directly viewed, but are seen in
a mirror, the picture under observation thus being the one
nearest the observer instead of that on the opposite side
of the cylinder. It will be seen that the pictures are
arranged on a slip placed round the interior of a drum
much more shallow than that of the Zoetrope, and the
centre of the cylinder is occupied by a set of mirrors, equal
in number to the diagrams, and arranged in polygonal
form, the said polygon having a diameter half that of the

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

cylinder. Now, as the picture is a quarter-diameter in
front of the mirror, its image will appear the same distance
behind, exactly on the axis of rotation, the one immovable
spot in the whole apparatus. A reference to Fig 23 will
make the action clear. O is the centre of rotation ; A, B, E
are two mirrors, and C, D, F the two pictures opposite
them. When a picture is in the position S', S, the mirror
T', T directly faces the eye, and the image is perceived as
if it were at D'", C'", its vertical central line coinciding
with the axis of rotation. It will also be seen that a
picture at C, D forms its image at D', C', and a picture at

FIG. 23.

D, F forms its image at D", C". In all these cases the
central lines of the various images agree, and manifestly
they will not appear to shift their position as a whole on
the change from one attitude to another. Further, when
the apparatus is in the stage shown by heavy lines (that
is to say, with the eye looking between the pictures on to
the junction line of two mirrors), half of one image will be
seen in one glass and half in the other, thus making up a
complete image from the combined halves ; the appear-
ance given when in action being that of a series of plain
glasses passing between an immovable image and the eye.
Here, then, there is no interruption of the light, and the

LIVING PICTURES

brilliancy of the image is so much the greater, while its
stationary position obviates that distortion which forms so
great a disadvantage in slotted machines. Reynaud sug-
gested an adaptation for stereoscopic purposes (Fig. 24),
but this does not seem to have been carried out.

Several ingenious additions to this instrument were,
however, subsequently made by the same inventor. One,
shown in Fig. 25, and called the Praxinoscope Theatre, was
designed to show a moving figure on a stage. The prax-
inoscope was screwed into position in the bottom portion
of a box, through the lid of which (standing at right
angles) an inspection opening was provided. Between

FIG. 25.

this opening and the praxinoscope a sheet of glass, bearing
a painted proscenium, was held at a slight angle, the
opening of the stage being left clear. On the interior of
the lid changeable pictures of scenery could be placed*
and were seen reflected in the glass as if they were really
in position behind the stage-front. At the same time the
moving figures in the praxinoscope (strongly illuminated
and drawn on a black background) were seen through the
transparent mirror, and thus appeared to be in motion on
a stage provided with scenery. This result was also
obtained in another manner, which permitted a large
number of observers to see the effect at once. A kind of

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 31

double magic-lantern (Fig. 26) was used, one member of
which threw some scene on the screen in the ordinary
way, while the other projected a beam of light through
pictures on a transparent praxinoscope drum. On leaving
the pictures, this light was reflected from the specially
angled central mirrors through a lens on to the screen,
where it formed an image of the moving figure superposed
on the scenery thrown by the other objective. This
apparatus was called the Projection Praxinoscope, or Prax-
inoscope Theatre.

In 1889 M. Reynaud patented another form of instru-
ment, which permitted the employment of much longer

series of pictures. In the previous form the length of the
series was limited by the size of the drum. It will be
seen by Fig. 27 that the subsequent method permitted a
long band to be wound from one reel to another, passing
over a skeleton drum on its way. The principle of
projection was the same as in the earlier instrument, the
permanent scene being thrown by a lantern, L ; while
another source of light, L', projected a beam through the
picture on to the central drum (of the usual praxinoscope
type) from which it was reflected, the mirror M again
diverting the light through the objective O. Another
mirror changed the direction of the rays and threw the
moving picture on the screen. An endless band per-

32 LIVING PICTURES

mitted the use of a comparatively long repeating series,
while the length of a non-repeating scene was only limited
by the size of the spools and the cost of preparing so large
a series of pictures. Under the name firstly of the Prax-
inoscope Projection Theatre or Optical Theatre, and subse-
quently under that of the Theatriaxinoscope, this apparatus
appeared on the Paris boulevards. A serious disadvantage

FIG 27.

of this form of Praxinoscope must be referred to. The
band is necessarily vertical, the objective sloping. This
militates against the sharpness of the projected pictures,
while the light being reflected from the drum, and again
diverted by two more mirrors, all tends to degrade the
clearness of the final image on the screen. But even
with these imperfections this arrangement marks the
culminating point in the development of the Praxinoscope

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 33

type, another form of which instrument, devised by the
same inventor, deserves mention from its extreme sim-
plicity. It was called La Toupee-fantoche or Marionette-top,
and, as seen in Fig. 28, consisted of four mirrors arranged
as a pyramid and surmounted by an interchangeable card
bearing four designs. The whole was placed on a spindle,
and, when rotated, gave a moving image on exactly the
same principles as those governing the more elaborate
devices previously described. This cylindrical type of
apparatus has subsequently been the theme of many
inventions, but has not come into extensive use, owing
largely, no doubt, to the development of the more con-
venient film machines.

FIG. 28.

Another class of device, employing diagrams with a
view to producing illusive motion, necessitates a consider-
able chronological backward movement for its origin.
Returning to the Thaumatrope, it will be remembered
that both sides of the card are perceived at one and the
same time ; the card revolves so rapidly that each picture
comes back before its image has faded from the eye, and
therefore both appear present at once. It will be con-
ceded that the same effect would be produced if the axis
of revolution were vertical instead of horizontal, and, in
fact, this form of Thaumatrope has been used for demon-
stration purposes (Fig. 29), while a penny street novelty
of June, 1898, shown in Fig. 30, is but a similar instru-
ment rotated by vanes and a blowpipe. Now, it is

LIVING PICTURES

apparent that if the second picture did not come into view
until just as the first was dying out, and remained in sight
after the first had entirely faded away, then, under such
circumstances, the two views would not be concurrently

FIG. 29.

FIG. 30.

perceived, and the first picture would have appeared to
have changed into the second. A toy based on this
principle was invented by Dr. Richard Pilkington. As

FIG. 31.

shown in Fig. 31, the Pedemascope is fitted with a design
giving the effect of jumping, an action from which its
name is derived. A card bearing the two extremes of a
movement printed on its two sides was mounted in a

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 35

wooden holder by means of a longitudinal groove, and the
holder was rapidly twirled between finger and thumb,
backward and forward, through a half- revolution, by
means of an axial pin projecting through a handle. Stops
were arranged on this latter to prevent the card exceeding
the necessary half-turn, and the apparatus may be con-
sidered as one of the most simple for exhibiting the
illusion of motion.

In 1868 Langlois and Angiers invented and patented
a means of rapidly alternating two microscopic views by
means of a pushing-piece, the views returning by the
spring of a block of rubber against which they were
mounted. This device they named the Kinescope ; and a

FIG. 32.

multiple form, designed for a watch-chain charm, is shown
in Fig. 32. Their specification also refers to this device
as the Photoscope. Another example of this two-diagram
class is the ordinary magic-lantern Slipping-Slide. One
glass bears a figure with, for example, his legs in dupli-
cate, one set being raised and the other lowered, as seen
in Fig. 33, wherein a clown is painted on a black back-
ground, and over him slides a second glass bearing two
black patches so arranged that one of the legs is covered
while the other is in full view. By a to-and-fro motion
of the slipping glass the two differently-posed legs are
alternately shown, with the apparent result of a gymnastic
performance, which may be varied by the action of a
second slipping glass arranged to alternately cover and

36 LIVING PICTURES

uncover the duplicate lower portions of the raised legs,
which then appear to work from the knee.

Another toy, shown in Fig. 34, is of a very simple
nature. A vertical spindle carries a set of four cards,
projecting radially at angles of go degrees, the whole set
being united and capable of rotation. In the four angles
between the cards four successive positions of the same
figure are shown. The set of pictures is rapidly rotated
by the cards acting as vanes when blown upon, and it
will be seen that one figure is observed when an angle is

FIG. 34.

opposite the eye, while a picture compounded of the left-
hand of one design and the right-hand of the next is seen
when a card stands "edge-on." A further development
of this was patented in 1895. The cards are independent,
and, instead of travelling at a fixed rate, are stopped back,
but when released fly over quickly by reason of their
spring connection with the central rotating shaft. Though
the inventor designed this apparatus as capable of rapid
action, it is not in fact so employed. It may be seen
frequently, working slowly, as a kind of revolving album
in photographers' windows.

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

When a large number of leaves are used, apparatus of
this character naturally takes the form of a book, in
which the bent-back leaves bearing the series of designs
are presented to the eye in rapid succession by their
escape from under a slowly-drawn-back thumb. The
first suggestion of this kind appears to be due to Linnett,
who in 1868 patented his Kineograph (Fig. 35). He also
suggested the use of mechanical appliances for turning
over the leaves, but showed no such arrangement. The
book idea (patented again in 1886) had a considerable

FIG. 35.

FIG. 36.

revival of popularity in 1897 (in which year another
patent was granted for an apparently similar device)
under the title of the Pocket Kinetoscope, half-tone photo-
graphs being employed instead of drawings. Book-
form apparatus were also brought out in France by a
M. Watilliaux under the name of Folioscope. A kind
of clip was patented in 1896 (No. 20,136) as a substitute
for the thumb, and as a means of providing more regular
action. A suggestion by Casler provides for the cards
being mounted radially on a wooden holder instead of
being bound in close contact (Fig. 36), and a bent-wire

LIVING PICTURES

lever bears on the upper portion of the cards in order
to gradually release them as it passes over. One of the
most perfect, and at the same time most compact, ap-
paratus in book form is Short's Filoscope. The book was
bound in a metal clip pivoted in a metal casing, and could
be revolved by pressure on an attached lever, as seen in
Fig. 37. The leaves are released in regular succession,

FIG. 37.

FIG. 38.

and fly over rapidly on their escape from the edge of the
case, the latter being so formed that the cards when not
in use possess a concave curve on their face. By this
means their resiliency is preserved and their rapid motion
when released is increased. The form assumed by the
leaves when the apparatus is closed is shown in Fig. 38.

A variation of this book-form type is Casler's Mutoscope,
which consists of a receptacle having an opening in its

FIG. 39.

face, under which a set of cards are passed, these being
arranged in a series on a flat plate. This plate can be
slid along the interior of the receptacle by means of a
handle passing through a slot, as seen in Fig. 39, and
each card is held back by a stop in order to allow it to be
inspected. When the edge of the card is drawn over the
stop, the whole rapidly flies past the opening into its

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

normal position, leaving the next picture in full view.
Another form of this apparatus is shown in Fig. 40, where
the cards are seen mounted on a band in such a manner
that one only projects from the top of the casing at a
time. The whole series may be pulled over at any desired

FIG. 40.

FIG. 42.

speed by means of a ring shown at bottom, the band of
views being returned by the action of an opposed spring.

A more compact arrangement, and one permitting con-
tinuous repetition of a series, is that in which the pictures
aje mounted on a revolving axle. Fig. 41 is a vjew of ap.

LIVING PICTURES

instrument invented by the same man, and called by the
same name as the preceding apparatus. A series of cards
sufficiently numerous to permit the representation of a
continuous scene is mounted radially from an axle. These
cards bear photographic enlargements 6 by 4 inches, and
the whole may be rotated at any desired speed by means
of a handle. Each picture is arrested momentarily by
a stop, thus allowing the picture to be distinctly seen, and
then permitting it to fly into its normal radial position
as the rotation of the axle sets its edge free. The patent
(No. 14,439 of 1895) provides that a longer series may

FIG. 43. FIG. 44.

be mounted in helix on the axle, which then must be so
arranged that it moves slowly sideways. A subsequent
patent suggests the interposition of resilient leaves be-
tween the picture cards in order to increase and preserve
their spring, and the same end may be attained by the
method of mounting shown in Fig. 42. It will be seen
that the form of card adopted carries the picture at a
tangent, and it therefore flies over rapidly without re-
quiring resiliency, a property not always possessed by
those materials best fitted for printing on, and which is
at the best somewhat difficult to maintain in apparatus
in constant use, A large number of these Mutoscopes,

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS 41

worked on a coin-freed principle, formed one of the
features of the Photographic Exhibition at the Crystal
Palace in May, 1898. Messrs. Lumiere's Kinora (Figs. 43
and 44) is very similar in principle, but varies in a few
details, mainly directed towards the important matter of
resiliency. The pictures are mounted on flexible sup-
ports, blackened on the back to obviate reflection of stray
light, and these supports possess a curved form. The
cylinder is rotated by a clockwork motor, H, so as to

FIG. 45.

bring the concave sides of the pictures towards the in-
spection lens inserted through the top of the casing.
A stop, C, arrests the pictures before they reach the lens,
to the axis of which they are held at right angles, the
curve in the flexible support straightening out to com-
pensate for the rotary movement of the axle. Each
picture therefore lies perfectly flat for inspection, and then
flies rapidly past the lens, returning to its proper radial
position and curved form by virtue of its elasticity. The

42 LIVING PICTURES

apparatus may also be set in motion by hand, and if more
than one scene is depicted in the series an automatic
stop, J, is provided. A simple form of this type is shown
in Fig. 45. The cards, tangentially mounted, are held back
by a guard, and when released fly into an upright position
for inspection, their vertical situation being maintained by
a wall against which they rest until covered by the next
picture.

One early application of the Phenakistoscope and
Zoetrope must be referred to, but the idea never brought
forth any very practical results, though many minds
attempted a solution of the problem. A glance at the
lists of British patents, and the Bibliography given at the
end of this work, will show that in early years great
attention was devoted to methods of attaining the
simultaneous perception of solidity and motion. Six
patents were applied for between 1853 and 1860, all
having this object in view, and other methods than those
therein described were suggested in various periodical?.
With but one exception no new principle was involved,
the only suggestions being either that the edges of two
discs should be viewed through ordinary stereoscopic eye-
pieces (the vision being interrupted by passing slots on an
independent disc), or else that the two views should be
mounted side by side inside a horizontally revolving
cylinder slotted in the usual way, an arrangement merely
equivalent to a Zoetrope working on its side, as was
shown in Fig. 20. The exception referred to is the
principle, suggested by Claudet in 1853, of allowing only
one eye to perceive one view at one time, a slightly
different design being presented to the other eye just
previously to the first being cut off. A continuous yet
progressive image is thus presented to the brain by means
of images impressed alternately on the two eyes and over-
lapping in point of time. Other methods involved the
principle of projecting one picture on the screen from one,

DIAGRAM ILLUSIONS

lantern before the previous view is shut off in the other,
thus presenting a continuous picture equally to both eyes.
With this method there is an inevitable unsteadiness in
the near foreground objects on the screen, owing to
the photographs being taken alternately from adjacent
positions.

Two other methods of changing the picture stand by

FIG. 46.

themselves. The first is the Viviscope (Fig. 46), in which
a band bearing a series of diagrams is in tight contact
with a large cylinder except where a small interposed
roller bears it off. This small roller travels round under
the band, which remains stationary while in contact with
the large cylinder. Each time, however, that the small
roller passes any point the band returns to contact with

44 LIVING PICTURES

the large cylinder in advance of its previous position.
The diameter of the roller is so proportioned that the
length of this advance is equal to the distance necessary
for the substitution of the next picture. A reference to
Patent 2,623 of 1890 will conclude the description of these
more or less primitive diagram forms of apparatus. It is
a method of substituting one picture for another by means
of sectional change over all its surface instead of dis-
placing it as a whole, and the methods suggested are
ingenious, although the device apparently has not had
a commercial career. The first stage of the History of
Living Pictures is now at an end ; the early short-cycle
devices have been described, and though some of them
have in their development attained a considerable degree
of progress, yet without photographic aid it is most prob-
able that they would not have reached so high a degree of
efficiency. Thus, the final evolution-stage of the Living
Picture commences with the rise of Chrono- Photography,
and this subject must next be pursued.

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CHAPTER III

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY AND THE PRACTICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF THE LIVING PICTURE

IT has been repeatedly mentioned in the previous chapter
that diagrams were unsatisfactory elements from which
to build up the illusion of action, and the reason is not
far to seek. The numerous attitudes through which a
man or animal passes when in active motion are not
perceived by the eye ; they succeed one another so rapidly
that only a general impression of the whole motion is
conveyed to the mind ; and this general impression,
though perhaps satisfactory (from an artistic point of
view) when shown in a single picture, cannot be expected
to afford sufficient grounds for the preparation of an
analytical series of diagrams representing the successive
phases of a motion which is only perceived as a whole.
It was early known that a moving object momentarily
illuminated appeared to be motionless, and, in fact, this
was easily deduced from the action of the Phenakisto-
scope. For instance, in 1850, Tyndall demonstrated the
successive phases of a water-jet's motion by the expedient
of illuminating it with an electric spark, and Fox-Talbot,
in 1851, suggested the production of instantaneous photo-
graphs by lighting the object in the same manner. This
portion of his patent he afterwards disclaimed, but it
forms an appropriate starting-point from which to pursue
the History of Chrono-photography, inasmuch as, in prin-
ciple, it is a matter of indifference whether a momentary
impression is made on a sensitive surface through the

48 LIVING PICTURES

illumination of the object for a very short period, or
whether the permanently illuminated object is only per-
mitted to throw its image on the plate for an equally
limited space of time.

But, in its early days, the science of Photography did
not provide its devotees with the means of securing an
image in a sufficiently short time a rapid exposure might
be made, but no surface of adequate sensibility was avail-
able ; so, though Photography was employed very early
in the production of images for the Phenakistoscope, yet
the only advantage secured was an accuracy of outline
not to be obtained by hand. Plateau, in 1849, suggested
the employment of photography for obtaining a series of
pictures (preferably stereoscopic) which should be abso-
lutely correct in outline, but he only foresaw a series of
prepared models as the originals of his views ; the length
of exposure necessary excluded other ideas. This accuracy
of outline, in some instances, was all that was required.
When Desvignes, in 1860, obtained a series of views
destined to show a steam-engine in action, the process
was simple and the result certain. Each element of the
engine necessarily followed a predetermined and invariable
path, and consequently it was only requisite to place the
engine in successive positions of one fly-wheel revolution
in order to obtain a series of photographs which, when
combined in the Zoetrope, undoubtedly gave an accurate
representation of the engine's usual motion. Still, it was
in no sense a reconstruction of a previously existing action
of the machine. The separate views were not obtained
during the engine's motion, and their accuracy was due
entirely to the certainty with which the object could be
placed in a series of positions known on mechanical
grounds to be those assumed by it when in action.

This certainty could not be secured when living creatures
were the subjects, and they could only be posed in a
series of attitudes such as, by supposition (generally

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 49

erroneous), they would assume in the course of the de-
sired movement. Confirmation of this view is afforded
by Mr. Wenham's letter of 1895, in which he relates an
amusing story of a series of posed photographs obtained
in 1852. The photographs themselves gave no cause for
complaint, but when combined by means of the phena-
kistoscope the subject, who had been using a pestle and
mortar, declared that " he never worked like that /" The
first suggestion of Chrono-photography appears to be con-
tained in Du Mont's patent of the year 1861. Therein
he says : " Nowadays, photographers are enabled to re-
produce on surfaces of great sensibility to the light what
they have termed instantaneous images ; they photograph
a moving object, such as a running horse, etc., but have
never thought of obtaining but a single image of the
same object, and did not even wish to reproduce several
successive ones, or the successive phases produced by
motion." Several arrangements were suggested by him,
in all of which a shutter was geared to expose the plates
when they were perpendicular to the axis of the lens.
The sensitive surfaces succeeded each other at regular
intervals, being placed either on a prismatic drum, sliding
frame, or dropped in series from an upper chamber into
a lower one ; the latter arrangement, according to the
drawings, being almost identical with a very common
method of plate-changing employed in later-day hand
cameras. Ducos du Hauron filed a patent application in
France in 1864 (No. 61,976) for " apparatus designed to
reproduce by photography any scenes, with all the
transformations undergone during a predetermined time."
The specification was not published until 1900. The
methods adopted are very interesting in the light of
subsequent developments. In one of these a large
number of very small lenses are used in conjunction
with a long shutter band. Fig. 47 illustrates the prin-
ciple of this method, showing the series of apertures, A,

LIVING PICTURES

and the band, B, which passes behind the lenses in
passing from the roller C to the roller D. The band
has a series of apertures so arranged that as the band
passes behind the lenses each of the latter is exposed in
turn, thereby obtaining a series of images. To project
these images, a series of pictures so obtained, a series of
similar projecting lenses are used, which are, however,
adjustable, in order that each individual picture may be
centred on the screen, and the pictures are successively

ooooooooo o
ooooooo o o

ooooooooo o
ooooooooo

O OOOOOOO O O
00 00000 O O

ooooooooo o
ooooooo oo

O o O o O O O O O O

FIG. 47A.

FIG. 47.

FIG. 47B.

projected by means of a similar shutter band. Other
methods also are described for viewing the pictures. In
one of these the successive images obtained on the plate
are printed on a long band passing from one spool, A,
Fig. 47A, to the take-up spool, B, and are viewed
through a small view opening, C, by reflection from a
concave mirror, M. In another method, illustrated in
Fig. 47B, concave lenses are used in a similar way to
that suggested by Maxwell in 1869 for the Zoetrope (see
p. 27). The positives are printed on a long band, AB,

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 51

which is drawn from one spool on to another, as in the
method just described. A second endless band, E, carries
a series of concave lenses, L, on the front edge, which
pass with the film across a stationary viewing aper-
ture. For this purpose the picture band carries pins,
P, which engage projections, D, from the band, E,
to draw the successive pictures, a, b, c, d, across the field
of view in register with the lenses L. This method has
a distinct similarity to some of the later continuously-
moving film apparatus described in Chapter IV. Edwards
also, in 1867, took out a patent in England (No. 849) for

FIG. 48.

obtaining successive small pictures instantaneously on
the same plate.

Two forms of apparatus, which appeared in 1869 and
1870 respectively, and casually quoted on p. 22, are in-
teresting, inasmuch as the instrument intended for use
with drawn designs shows a greater approximation to
modern machines than does the one which employed
photographs. Brown's apparatus, shown in Fig. 48, de-
pended on non-photographic images, of which a series
was painted on a polygonal glass plate, P, and dropped
into a holder somewhat similar to a magic-lantern slide.

52 LIVING PICTURES

The gear-wheel shown served to rotate the designs, and
was itself revolved intermittently by pins contained in
the lantern, with which it engaged when the slide was
pushed home. These two pins projected from a disc and
engaged periodically with a star-wheel, formed in one
piece with the gear-wheel which served to rotate the
picture-disc a motion which is, practically speaking, a
Maltese - cross movement. A two -sector shutter was
geared to eclipse the light when either of the two pins
caused the design-wheel to move.

The second instrument, Mr. Heyl's Phasmatrope, was
exhibited in February, 1870, at the Academy of Music in

| FIG. 49.

Philadelphia, and, though very successful, was based
on the synthesis of poses, and not of analytical photo-
graphs secured from a moving figure. As shown in
Fig. 49, the apparatus consisted of a large wheel con-
taining nine divisions, each of which was furnished with
two openings for the purpose of carrying transparencies.
The whole disc could be revolved, step by step, by means
of a ratchet and pawl worked by hand through a re-
ciprocating bar. A shutter, operated by the same means,
was so arranged as to cover the pictures during the whole
period of substitution. The transparencies were prepared
from posed subjects, such as the six different positions in
a waltz, etc,, the figures being | inch in height and

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 53

projected to life size. The negatives were wet collodion,
and that is sufficient reason why posing was necessary ;
putting the question of time required for exposure on one
side, there still remained the difficulty of rapidly substi-
tuting a fresh sensitive surface for the one just exposed,
and this difficulty could not be fully overcome until the
introduction of dry plates, or, better still, films. But
advances were nevertheless made, for the rise of chrono-
photography afforded opportunity to work out mechanical
details for obtaining rapid successive exposures, though
the resulting views were not intended for subsequent re-
combination into motion.

It was in the same year (1870) that Marey commenced
his researches on the analysis of motion, and the advance
in sensibility of photo-surfaces has lent continual aid from
that time onward. Marey in France and Muybridge in
America soon entered into communication ; the latter
started work in 1872, their common object being the
discovery of the successive attitudes which collectively
make up a given motion, though they worked by some-
what different methods. Marey confined himself from
the first to the method of casting his series of momentary
exposures on one plate by means of one lens, while
Muybridge adopted an opposed course. Some considera-
tion is necessary as to the results involved by these modes
of proceeding. Both methods had their respective advan-
tages as regards Chrono-photography pure and simple,
but one was limited in its development, the other contained
the vital elements of the modern living-picture machine.
Briefly stated, Muybridge's plan was to take successive
views of an object as it passed in front of a series of
cameras ; Marey obtained a series of pictures by repeated
exposures with one lens. Although Muybridge started
work at a somewhat later date than Marey, he devoted
greater attention to his subject, and it will be more
convenient to first discuss his plan and all the battery

54 LIVING PICTURES

forms of apparatus because they have not successfully
emerged from the " struggle for existence " as regards
the modern living picture they have died out.

In the year 1877 Muybridge, for the purpose of investi-
gating animal motion, laid out a course, similar to a
running-path, one side being bounded by a white back-
ground so as to obtain silhouette figures. Along the
other side was ranged a series of cameras, the shutters
of which were released by electro-magnets, set in action
by the moving object itself by means of strings placed
across the path, as seen in Fig. 50. This device allowed
large pictures to be taken, every one representing the object
as it appeared in front of the lens by which the photograph
was secured ; but it was absolutely necessary not only that

FIG. 50.

the members of the object should be in motion, but also
that the object itself should move along the path.

Still, this method was adopted by Anschiitz of Lissa,
in Prussia, with magnificent results, and series of photo-
graphs so obtained by him met with a ready sale when
printed on bands appropriately slotted for use as a
Tachyscope (see p. 26). Much of his success was due
to the employment of an improved form of shutter, very
similar to the present focal-plane pattern with adjustable
opening. Not only were his photographs prepared in this
manner for inspection, but in the year 1889 he brought
out his so-called Electrical Tachyscope, though there was
no point of similarity between this instrument and the
Tachyscope proper. As will be seen by the illustration
(Fig. 51), transparent photographs were arranged in series
round the margin of a disc contained in an inner room

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

and revolved before an opening equal in area to one
design. Both the inner chamber and that containing the
audience were darkened, and as each picture came behind
the aperture a pin on the disc operated an electric current,
thus causing a spirally wound Geissler tube (placed at the
back of the picture) to light-up momentarily, the successive
pictures being seen by the light of the repeated flashes.
The disc-form of this apparatus was exhibited in 1889,
but in 1892 it was patented with the additional suggestion

FIG. 51.

that a strip of photographs might be used, a suggestion
put in practice shortly afterwards by the introduction of
coin-freed or " penny-in-the-slot " apparatus (called the
Electric Wonder) for viewing living pictures in this and
other countries. This appears to have been the first
practical and public development of Desvignes' sugges-
tion, in 1860, to use an electric spark to render each
picture " visible at its proper time and place," Neverthe-
less, it must not be forgotten that Donisthorpe, in 1876

56 LIVING PICTURES

and 1878, suggested his so-called Kinesigraph, the feature
of which was intermittent illumination of a series of views
in strip form by similar means to those just described,
while the same expedient was one of the first adopted by
Edison when conducting the experiments which resulted
in the well-known Kinetoscope. About the same time
Muybridge had perfected a projection apparatus, called
the Zoopraxiscope, which he exhibited at the Royal Insti-
tution in 1889. His silhouette pictures were placed round
the margin of a 1 5-inch glass disc revolved between a
condenser and projecting lens. Immediately in front of
the glass disc a zinc one, pierced with one slot, revolved
in an opposite direction at such a speed that the slot
passed each time a picture came into position. The
demonstration was very successful, some photographs not
of silhouette nature also being projected.

But as regards the securing of the pictures themselves,
the necessity of the object having a progressive movement
as it passed the long line of separate cameras, as before
explained, limited the choice of subjects greatly, and
about the year 1887 attention appeared to be generally
directed to concentrating all these lenses within a space
which might be approximately considered as a single
point of view, and so render possible the recording of
successive attitudes of a figure which remained in one
place ; the background therefore no longer needing to
be an absolutely plain surface as was the case when
successive attitudes were photographed with a change
of local position. Le Prince, working on this principle,
in 1888 approached the modern type very closely in
appearance, but in appearance only. As will be seen
from Fig. 52, he employed a battery of sixteen lenses
acting on two sensitive bands, wound from one pair of
rollers to another, the two films being side by side. The
eight lenses facing one film were released in rapid succes-
sion, somewhat overlapping in point of time ; the other

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

series of eight lenses were then discharged, during which
time the first film was moved on ready to receive another
eight pictures ; each film being clamped by a cam-actuated
frame during exposure. These exposures were made over-
lapping in point of time ; that is to say, one lens was
always opened before the preceding one was shut off, and
when used for projection, as in Fig. 53, this same principle
was followed, and therefore no period of darkness occurred
between the respective separate pictures. The compli-
cated nature of the shutter mechanism is shown in Fig. 54,
the individual shutters being set in action by partially

FIG. 52.

FIG. 53.

toothed wheels, rotated in common, but acting at different
times by reason of the varying position of their teeth.
At the first glance this combination of serial exposure,
intermittently moving film, and clamping-frame appears
to be the first machine of the modern type. But con-
sideration will show that Le Prince's apparatus was
founded on absolutely different principles to those in
vogue at the present time, although some resemblance
may be seen to types suggested later, and it may be that
future machines may follow some of this inventor's
devices. The modern apparatus takes a series of pictures,
by means of one lens (or at least from one point of view),

LIVING PICTURES

on one film moved between the exposures. Le Prince
used many lenses and moved his film during the time
that neither it nor the lenses facing it were in use,
although exposure was going on by means of other lenses
on another film. Practically, his apparatus was a duplicate
arrangement of the battery type, and, further, the great
difference in position between the lenses at opposed
corners must have given rise to varying aspects of fore-
ground objects, thus inducing a false motion of the same
on the screen.

Londe meanwhile had entered the field. He had, in
conjunction with Colonel (later General) Sebert, con-

FIG. 54.

FIG. 55.

structed a compound apparatus composed of six indepen-
dent cameras arranged in circle as shown in Fig. 55. The
six lenses of these cameras were furnished with a series of
shutters, naturally arranged in circle, and each composed
of two members. The motive power was supplied by
springs (S, Fig. 56), and each shutter had two projecting
catches, C, one of which is shown in the drawing, the other
being situated underneath. A centre disc, T, rotated when
released, and was furnished with two projecting stops, one
of which opened the shutter by pressure on the catch C,
while the other closed it. The latter stop P was adjustable
for the purpose of varying the exposure by increasing the

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

distance between the two stops. This apparatus was used
by Colonel Sebert for the study of projectile motion.

One development of the battery type for securing a
limited series of views is that employed at the Salpetriere
for the analysis of abnormal motions, such as epileptic fits,
St. Vitus' dance, etc. Twelve lenses are employed, and
the shutters released by electro-magnets (Fig. 57). The
great point of the apparatus is an electrical controller, by
which the period allowed to elapse between two exposures
is capable of regulation within wide limits. The series of
twelve views can thus be completed in i| seconds or ex-

-.v

FIG. 56.

FIG. 57.

tended over minutes. This apparatus was three years
later in date than the pioneer film machine by Greene and
Evans, similar in character to those of the present day,
which have in nearly all instances followed its arrange-
ment, in general principles, at least, though the form has
been simplified and improved.

The multiple -type having shown itself as adapted solely
to the purposes of Chrono-photography, and being without
capability of adaptation in the direction of obtaining long
series, there remains simply the description of the single-
lens system of Chrono-photography. This method, insti-
tuted by Marey, was represented in its first stages solely

6o LIVING PICTURES

by instruments devoted to the analysis of motion ; by slow
stages and gradual improvement it developed the modern
living picture apparatus as we now know it. The earliest
attempt in Chrono-photography was hardly worthy of the
name, yet it pointed the road to the true method of single-
lens working. In the year 1865 Messrs. Onimus and
Martin exposed the bared heart of a living animal before
an opened lens for the purpose of photographing it while
iq motion. With the low degree of sensibility then
obtaining among photo-surfaces the exposure naturally
extended over one or more pulsations of the heart, but as
a pause takes place at each extreme of the heart's beat,
the outlines of these positions were better defined than the
space between, and a record was therefore obtained of the
maximum and minimum limits of a pulsation. Clearly it
was only necessary to secure outlines of several inter-
mediate positions in order that the experiment should
attain the character of Chrono-photography, properly
so called. It will be seen that a photograph of a man
lifting his arm would (if the exposure lasted during the
whole movement) result in a blur, but if a number of
separate exposures were made in the same time, a series
of overlapping images, equal in number to the exposures,
would occupy the place of the one-exposure blur, and the
outlines of these images would in addition form a perfect
record of the successive positions of the arm.

The apparatus necessary for this species of Chrono-
photography (i.e., on a fixed plate) is simple in the extreme.
It is only required that a slotted shutter should be revolved
before the plate (Fig. 58) in order that successive images
may be formed ; and these images will be separated in
proportion to the movement of the object. This method
is all-sufficient for the analysis of motion, but the results
had anything but a popular aspect; the different images
frequently consist in nothing but lines and dots repre-
senting rods and beads attached to a black-robed subject,

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

who when fully equipped appears to be under the hands of
a surgeon rather than those of a photographer. Much
work has been done on these lines, but such pictures,
valuable as they are for the physiological information they
impart, are in no sense suited for the reconstitution of the
movement of which they form the elements, and much
time elapsed before attempts were made to secure separate
and distinct photographs of the phases of a given motion.
Had a flexible surface been available, no doubt progress
would soon have been made ; indeed, the necessity of
separating the images was felt, and a longer plate, shifting
between each exposure, employed. Another method of
separating the images was to interpose a revolving mirror

FIG. 58.

between lens and object. This arrangement is interesting
from the fact that it was subsequently suggested to use the
same device in a reverse manner, causing it to project
separated pictures on to one place on the screen, while the
original arrangement gave separated pictures on the plate
from an original which remained in one place.

It cannot be postulated too emphatically that, even at
this early date, nothing was required but a flexible and
transparent film, capable of receiving an emulsion of
increased sensitiveness, in order that the modern living
picture might spring into existence ; but twenty years
were fated to elapse before these necessities were placed at
the disposal of the photographic world. Therefore nothing

LIVING PICTURES

was available except glass plates, and these were naturally
used in circular form in order that as long a series as
possible might be secured.

In the year 1874, however, an opportunity occurred
of photographing a very brilliantly lit object of great
interest ; and a desire on the part of M. Janssen to obtain
a chronographic photo-record of the Transit of Venus
across the sun's disc caused him to invent his Photographic
Revolver, and successfully employed it in the far-off regions
of Japan. This instrument was placed under cover, as
shown in Fig. 59, and when in use was directed on a
heliostat, which served to keep the image stationary by

FIG. 59.

neutralizing the sun's apparent motion. With it forty-
eight images were taken around the edge of a circular
plate in the space of seventy-two seconds, and this opera-
tion was repeated four times, so as to secure a record
of the interior and exterior contact at each margin of the
sun's disc. The mechanism by which this was effected
(shown in Figs. 60 and 61) merits description as being the
first practical automatic apparatus for obtaining a chrono-
photographic record consisting of separate pictures. A
large wheel, R, carried the sensitive plate (making one
revolution in seventy-two seconds), and in front of it a
disc, B, pierced with twelve openings, made one revolution

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

in eighteen seconds. Between these two wheels was
placed a partition, S, pierced with a single opening.
When the mechanism was released, the motor-wheels, O,
set both the sensitive plate and shutter-disc in motion.
The sensitive plate made the forty-eighth part of a revo-
lution and then stopped, this being effected by a Maltese-
cross movement. At the moment of its arrest one
of the twelve openings in B passed the fixed aperture P,
thus making an exposure. The plate moved on, while
protected by the opaque part of B between two openings,

and then stopped for the next exposure. Some instru-
ments of this kind were taken by an English commission
to the Andaman Islands in the following year (1875) for
the purpose of observing an eclipse of the sun, but the
expedition was unsuccessful owing to adverse weather.

Still at best the Photographic Revolver was but an
observing instrument, and little could be done in the
way of combining the distinct views into one motion ;
forty-eight separate pictures at the rate of twelve per
second would only last the fifteenth part of a minute,
and even then would compress the events of seventy-

64 LIVING PICTURES

two seconds into that time. To obtain a longer series,
Donisthorpe in 1876 further developed Du Mont's idea of
rapidly dropping an exposed plate into a lower chamber,
so leaving the next free for exposure, and provided a
special gearing by which the shutter covered the lens
during the change. Nevertheless, Janssen's instrument
was the model on which Marey founded his Photographic
Gun, which was of real value for analyzing motion
in such a way that it could be subsequently re-com-
pounded by means of the Zoetrope. Its name was well
chosen, and is perfectly descriptive of the apparatus
shown in Fig. 62. The length of barrel was necessitated

FIG. 62.

by the use of a long-focus lens, which was, of course,
absolutely indispensable when photographing a small
object at a considerable distance. This barrel was
arranged so as to telescope for focussing purposes. The
breech contained clockwork mechanism for effecting the
series of exposures, and a glance at Fig. 63 will explain
the methods employed. It will be understood that the
back cover is removed in order to show the parts. On
pressing the trigger a circular shutter with one opening
commenced revolving at a predetermined rate. Behind
this a disc (half of which is shown in the drawing) with
twelve openings also revolved, the sensitized plate lying

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 65

behind it and rotating with it by friction. This disc
together with the sensitized surface, was rotated by
means of a pawl (shown at the bottom left-hand) on an
arm worked by an eccentric, and every time one of
the twelve openings, backed by a portion of the sensitized
plate, came to rest opposite the lens-aperture the hole in
the shutter passed in front of it, admitting light and
making an exposure. It will be understood that during
its movement the sensitized plate was protected by the
opaque part of the revolving shutter. Marey used this
instrument in order to obtain some extremely effective

FIG. 63.

photographs of birds in flight ; nevertheless, the ap-
paratus was far from perfect. The defect of this
instrument was that twelve images in very few cases
gave a complete cycle of movement ; when the last
picture of the set (say of a bird in flight) was reached, the
bird had not arrived at that stage when the wings
occupied nearly the same position as in the first picture.
But still Marey adhered to the plan of using one lens for
making successive exposures, and his later improvements
followed out that principle.

In 1892 Demeny showed a similar but much improved
apparatus at the International Exhibition of Photog-

LIVING PICTURES

raphy. This was of the usual disc form, a rotating
shutter being used the travel of which was far more
rapid than that of the sensitized plate ; the latter only
moving a short distance to its next position while the
opaque part of the shutter made nearly a revolution before
the single aperture passed the lens. This apparatus was
called the Photophone, and its construction will be under-
stood from the very similar projecting apparatus, Fig. 64,
named the Phonoscope, in which the major portion of the
shutter is cut away in order to show the picture-disc.

FIG. 64.

The origin of this name is found in the fact that M.
Demeny used this instrument for securing a series of
twenty-four photographs of a man during the act of
pronouncing some phrase, in order to analyze the lip-
motions. The reconstitution of the lip-action was so
successful that a deaf-mute was enabled to read the words
" Vive la France " from the lips of a photograph. The
set of pictures being sufficiently long to cover the whole
period of utterance, an enthusiastic deaf-mute could pass
the day experiencing (it is impossible to say " hearing ")
the above-mentioned patriotic sentiment. It is worthy

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

of notice that even the intelligent specimen of humanity
above referred to was absolutely nonplussed when the
handle was turned backward, and the lip-motion con-
sequently reversed. Demeny's specification in which
the Photophone is described also includes some modifi-
cations directed towards obtaining longer series. The
views were mounted in spiral on a non-transparent drum,
the axis of the latter being furnished with a helix which
traversed the drum at such a rate as to maintain the
spiral set of pictures under the inspection lens, as seen in
Fig. 65. The shutter was not interposed between eye

FIG. 65.

FIG. 66.

and picture as is usually the case, but was mounted
between light and drum. Fig. 66 shows. the beam of
light passing through the slot in the shutter B, and, after
undergoing a deviation by the mirror m, falling on the
drum and thus illuminating the successive pictures by
intermittent flashes as the slot in the shutter periodically
permits light to pass. A reference to Fig. n will
demonstrate the relation between Lommel's invention
of 1881 and that of Demeny in 1892 ; the principle being
the same although the latter apparatus gave a longer
series and displayed but one image at a time. The speci-
fication suggests that a phonograph might be combined

LIVING PICTURES

with the inspection apparatus an idea previously set
forth by Donisthorpe in 1876 and 1878.

During these later years the extreme rapidity attained
by photographic emulsions, together with the possibility
of obtaining long lengths of flexible transparent film,
rendered the production of a long series of photographs
in rapid succession possible. Many steps leading up to
this desirable consummation have been quoted in the
past pages, and methods of securing rapid exposures were
invented to keep pace with increasing speed of plates ;
indeed, it may be said that as a general rule it has always
been possible to procure a shutter so rapid in its action

FIG. 67.

that it refused to yield a picture, and shutter devices have
always been ahead rather than abreast of plate speeds.

The idea of using a band for the purpose of lengthening
the series of views is almost as ancient as the Phenakisto-
scope itself. In fact, the first published description of the
Stroboscope contains a suggestion of this character,
Stampfer therein intimating that a long endless band
might be passed over two rollers, provided that suitable
means were employed in order to interrupt the light at
correct intervals of time. And, indeed, this fact was never
lost sight of. Desvignes, in 1860, proposed to place his
Zoetropic designs on endless bands (Fig. 67), but in the

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

days of wet-plate photography such an expedient was
entirely out of the question so far as securing pictures was
concerned, and even the early dry-plate, with all the
assistance it rendered, lent no substantial aid in this direc-
tion. Thus, in 1876, Donisthorpe proposed to place his
Kinesigraph pictures on a band arranged to run off one
roller on to another, but only for purposes of inspection ;
the negatives from which they were printed were obliged
to be obtained at a comparatively low speed on plates and
the positives actually mounted at accurate intervals. Not
until the introduction of celluloid as substitute for glass
was it possible to secure a long series of exposures on

FIG. 68.

a suitable strip, and the commercial
existence of this eminently suitable sup-
port began to bear fruit in the year
1888. Here, as in every other branch
of our subject, the first steps were not
directed towards the production of a
living picture. Potter suggested a very simple arrange-
ment for reeling a series of transparencies on a transparent
band through a magic-lantern, and a few months later
Adams patented an arrangement for the same purpose,
which is interesting from the fact that it contains, in a
crude form, very similar features to the first workable
living-picture machine. As seen in Fig. 68, the band was
drawn onward by a spring roller (S), but was normally
prevented from moving because it was gripped between a

70 LIVING PICTURES

roller and brake-block, both shown black in the illustra-
tion. When a pusher came into action the brake-block
was raised, as shown in the drawing, until the stud
dropped into a slot in the roller, when the teeth also
locked the wheel attached to the spool. This arrange-
ment would certainly have been unsuitable for rapid
working, if only on account of strain on the film, but it is
interesting as an example of how an idea may be " in the
air," for this spring roller, allowed to act intermittently by
means of an escapement tooth, was the feature of the
apparatus patented in the next year by Messrs. W. Friese-
Greene and M. Evans, to whom must be adjudged the
honour of having first introduced a practical instrument
capable of securing a record of any event, and suitable for
subsequent reproduction of a moving picture of the past
occurrence. Their joint specification was filed on June 21,
1889; on February 25, 1890, an actual instrument was
shown before the Bath Photographic Society, and at that
date their projection apparatus was in the maker's hands.
Their camera was capable of securing three hundred
exposures at the rate of ten in each second, though this
speed could be increased considerably if required. The
construction of this piece of apparatus was most ingenious,
and so simple that a short description will suffice. The
film passed from one spool over a plate, which held it flat
for exposure, and then on to a second spool by which it was
wound and stored. Both spools were driven at an equal
speed from the main-shaft, and thus the film would have
passed the exposure opening with a steady and uniform
motion had it not been that a roller was interposed
between the light-aperture and the receiving spool. This
roller contained a spring, continually wound from the
main-shaft. The spring would have forced the roller
round as fast as it was wound up but that on the roller's
edge was placed an escapement tooth which rested against
a cam. This cam (itself in continual rotation) stopped the

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 71

roller from turning, but a gap in its edge allowed the
escapement tooth to pass once in a revolution. When
this occurred the roller made one turn and drew down
sufficient film to remove the exposed picture and substi-
tute the next portion of the film. While this was
stationary and the cam making its next revolution, the
winding-up bobbin was storing away the piece of film just
pulled down, while the feeding-spool was reeling-off just
sufficient to supply the next sudden revolution of the
spring roller, the spring of which was at the same time
being wound up. A special shutter was also shown, but
it was of comparatively little importance when compared
with the arrangement for intermittent film-feeding de-
scribed above.

Greene was also working about this time, apparently
in conjunction with Rudge, on a machine designed to
project successive pictures without interrupting the light.
The images were placed alternately on the edges of two
discs which revolved side by side in front of a single large
condenser. The light and condenser could be moved
slightly out of the central line so as to illuminate, say, the
left-hand picture, and were then shifted so as to light up
the next design situated on the right-hand disc. While
this was being shown the left-hand disc turned one stage
in order to bring the third picture in position. Separate
projection lenses were used, one facing each disc. The
extent of movement required by the condenser in order to
illuminate the images alternately was very small, and
furthermore the light was not suddenly cut off, but died
away gradually, thus reducing the flicker. An experi-
mental machine on these principles was shown before the
Bath Photographic Society, but there appears to be no
record as to any exhibition of the perfected instrument.

As before stated, the honour of prior publicity un-
doubtedly rests with Messrs. Greene and Evans, but others
were working at the same problem, and in August, 1889,

72 LIVING PICTURES

Messrs. Donisthorpe and Crofts filed a specification in
which they showed another means for securing a stationary
film during the period of exposure or projection. This
device was ingenious, the film being in continual process
of unrolling from one spool and rolling on the other, and
yet the portion in use was kept stationary opposite the
lens without any sudden pull to change th$ portion
exposed. The film passed from one spool to another
at a continuous speed past the exposure opening, but this
movement was periodically neutralized by lifting film,
rollers and all, at a speed equal to the downward motion
of the film by means of a crank-motion, the whole frame
being steadied by rollers (shown black on drawing) running
between guides (Fig. 69). Thus a portion of film opposite
the lens was continually travelling nearer to the bottom
roller, but was also being raised at an equal speed ; the
same piece of film therefore remained in the same place
during exposure. This terminated, the whole frame sank
to a sufficient extent to expose the next section of film,
which, though still moving on, was kept in the same
position for so long as necessary by a repetition of the
raising of the whole mechanism. Though this apparatus
is somewhat complicated, the description afforded by the
specification is specially interesting as showing the diffi-
culties to be contended with at that date. The inventors
proposed obtaining their negatives on strips of sensitized
paper. Now paper, even at the present day, imparts
some grain to the negative, and this was the case to a
greater degree nine years ago. The pictures, therefore,
were designed to be prepared on a larger scale than at
present two and a half inches diameter was suggested ;
while for the band of transparencies the only available
material was again paper, rendered partially transparent
by vaseline or castor oil. This difficulty was so great that
the inventors also suggested that an opaque band might
be used and the pictures projected by reflected instead of

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

transmitted light, somewhat on the principle of the
Aphengescope, and a method quite recently revived. The
large size of the pictures, and consequent large extent
of film required to pass in a given time, together with the
considerable mass of moving parts, must greatly have
hampered the inventors in preparing an effective machine ;

FIG. 69.

but, after all, difficulties and even failures, to the philo-
sophic mind, are of almost equal interest with conspicuous
successes ; they afford equal ground for consideration, and
furnish data from which to accurately estimate the relative
values of various systems.

This apparatus again points out the one essential
needed to complete the modern living picture a trans-

74 LIVING PICTURES

parent, structureless support. This necessity was fur-
nished in the year 1888 by the introduction of celluloid.
On its first appearance this material was not so satis-
factory for photographic purposes as it is now, neither
could it, at first, be obtained in the requisite ribbon form,
and Marey's first instruments for using films were rendered
ineffective (except as regards pure chrono-photography)
by the limited length of the bands commercially available.
Nevertheless, invention and suggestion now began to move
at a rapid pace. Early in 1890 Evans suggested several
arrangements for moving the film intermittently. The
principal form was one in which a friction-roller in con-
tinuous rotation was brought into contact with the film
periodically for a sufficient time to move it one picture
length. This end might, of course, be attained by the use
of many mechanical equivalents. Other arrangements
shown by him are worthy of illustration as embodying the
germs of some more modern motions. For instance, two
small rollers, shown black in Fig. 70, are kept in continual
rotation, and gripping the film between them, draw it
onward at a constant speed. But the arm on which these
rollers are mounted is drawn backwards and forwards by
the black eccentric seen on the right. Consequently,
during the time the lens is open the rollers are drawn
to the right along the film without moving it though they
are rotating all the time ; but so soon as the lens is closed
the arm moves in the opposite direction, thus drawing the
film onward to the extent of the travel of the arm, plus
the amount due to the rotating grip of the rollers. Another
arrangement has two rollers situated on the ends of a
rocking arm mounted on a pivot (A, Figs. 71 and 72).
This arm is periodically tilted by a lever worked by the
black cam seen at the bottom of the drawings. In
Fig. 71 an exposure has just commenced. The film is
held steady by a light gripping frame, and the store reel
is occupied in rolling-up the slack portion of filrq. When

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

this is accomplished the cam causes the rocking-arm to
tilt, as seen in Fig. 72, thus drawing a fresh portion of
film in front of the lens, and then, suddenly returning to
its first position, leaves a double loop of slack to be stored
away exactly as seen in the preceding figure. A few days
afterward Varley filed a specification, showing another
means for attaining the same end as that secured by
Evans's rocking-arm namely, causing a loop to be formed

FIG. 70.

FIG. 71.

FIG. 72.

in the film by means of intermittent pressure. The film
was steadied by the action of two spring-pawls, which
gripped it against two rollers (A, Fig. 73). By the revo-
lution of a cam, not shown, an arm, B, was periodically
thrown forward against the film, of which a sufficiency
was driven back between the two rollers, A, to draw an
exact picture-length down. The arm then returned to its
first position, while the store-reel look up the slack so

7 6

LIVING PICTURES

formed. The cam seen in front works a double shutter
by means of levers. It was also suggested that light
should be allowed to act* through four holes in a screen,
forming marks at the sides of each picture for the purpose
of punching holes in exact register.

M. Marey, towards the end of 1890, constructed a
chrono-photographic camera in which a band passing
from one spool to another was employed. This apparatus
had been gradually evolved from one constructed in the
year 1888, having a paper negative band periodically

FIG. 73-

arrested by an electro-magnetic grip. In 1889 the paper
gave place to film, and a zoetropic instrument combining
views so obtained was exhibited at the Paris Exhibition
of that year, when M. Marey showed the apparatus to
Mr. Edison. In 1890 the mechanical details were finally
arranged as shown in Fig. 74. The Chronophotographe, or,
as it was first called, the Photochronographe, was driven by
clockwork, and all its parts could (previously to making an
exposure) be set in motion without actuating the film.
On touching a stud a friction-roller pressed the film

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

against the top right-hand roller (already in motion as
stated), which then began to drag the film off the left-
hand bobbin, past the exposure opening, and past a
spring, as shown by the dotted line. The receiving-
bobbin was mounted on a revolving spindle, but could
not itself revolve, by reason of the pressure exerted on
it by a brake. So soon, however, as the stud pressed
the friction - roller against first - mentioned roller, this
brake was taken off, and the receiving-bobbin, being free
to revolve, took up the film passed on to it. To render
the film periodically stationary, a rounded bar was pressed
against it at proper intervals of time by means of a star-
cam, thus gripping it tightly and preventing its motion.
Inasmuch, however, as the motive-roller was continually
dragging at the film, the latter would have been torn

FIG. 74.

were it not that the film passed over a weak spring. This
straightened out under the pressure exerted by the film,
thus shortening its path and feeding the roller with suffi-
cient film to last until the grip was taken off, when the
spring returned to its former position, and assisted to
draw the next section in front of the exposing aperture.
M. Marey did not succeed in obtaining very long series of
exposures with this apparatus. About forty pictures were
taken in whatever period of time seemed desirable, and he
complained, in an account given by him of his work, that
bands of film longer than 4 metres were not obtainable.
Still, had he confined his pictures to moderate dimen-
sions, he would doubtless have been more successful from
the living-picture point of view; the fact of procuring
negatives 9 centimetres (about 3^ inches) square was quite

78 LIVING PICTURES

sufficient to fill up his band long before an extensive
series was obtained. But as Director of the Physiological
Station his work lay mainly in the analysis of motion,
and the only use made of his early serial pictures was
to recombine a phase of motion by means of a modified
Zoetrope in order that the real action of one second might
be spread out in point of time to facilitate leisurely in-
spection, and for this purpose it was necessary to remount
the positives at proper intervals, the spacing on the nega-
tive band being 1 slightly irregular. Xbout the same time
M. Marey constructed a somewhat similar instrument for
use with the microscope, in order to record the various
motions of the lower forms of animal life.

At this point it is difficult to say whether a retrospective
view is necessary or not. If first ideas are to be taken
into consideration, then Mr. Edison should have been
mentioned earlier ; but the first intimation of his work
in the domain of the Living Picture did not reach England
until May 28, 1891, when a somewhat meagre account
of his Kinetoscope was printed in The Times, having been
received through Dalziel's Agency, while the full descrip-
tion of his invention, filed in the United States, August 24,
1891, was not issued until March 14, 1893 (No. 493,426),
and was never patented in England. The first public
exhibition of this instrument seems to have taken place
at the Brooklyn Institute on May gth, 1893, the first
machines in England being shown in Oxford Street in
October, 1894. It certainly appears as though Edison
might have established a claim to be considered the father
of the modern Living Picture (so many forefathers have
been mentioned; it is difficult to trace the exact pedigree)
had he not been deluded and delayed by affection for his
pet child, the Phonograph. It was apparently in 1887 that
he first conceived the idea of coupling the reproduction of
a past event with the repetition of sounds recorded at the
same time. He appears to have spent much time in

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 79

a fruitless attempt to secure his negatives in a manner
analogous to the reproduction of speech on the phono-
graph that is to say, in a spiral line round a cylinder
similar in every respect to that of the sound-recording
instrument, which was put into action at the same time.
And here it may be well to explain the nomenclature
of Mr. Edison's various productions. A Kinetograph takes
the separate pictures, the Kinetoscope recombines them
into motion. The prefix of Phono- denotes that a Phono-
graph is coupled with the instrument, consequently a
Phono-kinetograph records both events and sounds, and the
Phono-kinctoscope reproduces them by direct vision. This
instrument has also been called the Kinetophone. Edison's
first pictures were absolutely microscopic, a matter
which at once gave rise to a dilemma. If small, they
needed considerable enlargement in order to be viewed,
and this necessitated a sensitive surface, which should be
practically structureless. Nothing but collodion would
meet this requirement, and its low degree of sensitiveness
to light rendered it very difficult to obtain an image at all.
Increase of aperture in the lenses certainly would meet
the difficulty, but only at the expense of that definition
which was so essential when subsequent enlargement was
required. Therefore this method was abandoned, and
larger negatives obtained in spiral on sheets of cellu-
loid wrapped round a cylinder or on the edge of a disc,
and at this stage Edison adopted the method of lighting
his views momentarily for inspection by means of a
Geissler tube, through which a current was passed every
time pins (placed on the revolving disc) made the neces- ^^yU-
sary contact. This was the plan adopted in Anschiitz's
Electrical Tachyscope, exhibited in 1889 ; but it is appar-
ently impossible to discover at what date Mr. Edison hit
upon the same device. He finally settled down to a form
of instrument having a one-slot shutter and continuously
moving band ; the exposure was consequently extremely

LIVING PICTURES

brief, and the waste of light involved by this arrangement
rendered his apparatus as crude in its principles as the
first Phenakistoscope, though from the point of view of
mechanical accuracy it was a marvel.

In many of its mechanical details, however, Mr. Edison's
perfected Kinetoscope was unique, and a short description
of the apparatus, considered as a whole, will serve as a
basis for their elucidation. The mechanism was contained
in a cabinet furnished with an inspection opening at the
top, as seen in Fig. 75. This cabinet was divided into

FIG. 75-

three compartments, the one above extending over the
whole width of the case, and containing the essential
mechanism, the other two divisions each occupying one-
half of the lower portion. One side, shown in the drawing,
contained a spool-bank accommodating an endless film ;
while the other side enclosed the motive mechanism,
which was naturally electric, that method of driving being
well known as Mr. Edison's favourite. The celluloid
band was of the now familiar form ; that is to say, each
margin was perforated with four holes to every picture,
though in 1890, when his pictures were smaller, Mr.

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

Edison used a single line of perforations only. This
endless perforated band passed from one side of the spool-
bank to the other through the upper chamber, being
stretched over two sprocket-wheels (fitting the perfora-
tions), which drove the band past the inspection lens at a
constant speed equal to forty-six pictures per second.
Below the band, and opposite the inspection opening, an
incandescent lamp was situated ; the American patent
shows a peculiar form of alum-trough placed between
lens and film in order to absorb heat, and also a prism

FIG. 76.

arrangement for altering line of sight. As the band was
not arrested for the inspection of each picture, some
means of providing momentary illumination was necessary,
and this was accomplished by a one-slot shutter making
forty-six revolutions per second, so as to allow light to
pass each time a picture was accurately centred. The
mechanical ingenuity displayed in the accomplishment of
this method of intermittently illuminating a film con-
tinuously moving at so high a speed is worthy of all
praise; but it must not be overlooked that the system

82 LIVING PICTURES

itself was faulty, and totally precluded use of the apparatus
for projection purposes. A glance at Fig. 76, which shows
the shutter and film in plan, will demonstrate the enormous
waste of light involved by Mr. Edison's arrangement.
The slot was only one degree in width, and therefore only
one-three-hundred-and-sixtieth part of the available light
was allowed to pass to the eye. Under these circum-
stances no known source of light would have been powerful
enough to stand the w r aste in projection work, while a
camera arranged on the same principle would have been
an impossibility ; an attempt to secure forty-six pictures
per second would necessitate exposures of less than the
sixteen-thousandth part of a second a period too brief
for the most sensitive emulsion to cope with.

An entirely different arrangement was therefore adopted
in order to secure negatives in the camera, but little
information was allowed to transpire; and although the
patent specification was filed in the United States on
August 24, 1891, the patent itself was not issued until
more than six years had passed away. Up to August 31,
1897, it was only known, in vague terms, that Mr. Edison
used some form of intermittent mechanism giving one-
tenth movement and nine-tenths rest. The arrangement
is shown in Fig. 77. The film passes from spool A to
spool B, being drawn along by a sprocket-wheel driven
from the pulley C. The film would move continuously
were it not that the rotation of the sprocket-wheel is
periodically checked by the interaction of two-toothed
wheels, one (D) situated on the main shaft, and the other
(shown black in the illustration) beneath the sprocket-
wheel and on the same axle. To save strain, the pulley
runs loose when the two wheels D, E are locked together,
as shown in Fig 78. The right-hand wheel is just about
to allow the other to move one stage, the tooth passing
through a slot (Fig. 79). So soon as this tooth makes its
escape the wheel E turns and carries with it the sprocket-

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

wheel, and therefore the band. When a picture-length
has passed, the next tooth on E strikes the surface of D,
and remains locked until the next slot comes round and
permits another tooth to escape.

This machine would not, perhaps, be of great importance
were it a recent invention, but it must be remembered
that it was filed in 1891, on the same date as the Kineto-
scope specification, and these two documents make mutual
cross references to one another. The invention not
having been patented on this side of the Atlantic, the
question hardly affects the English public; but if rumour

FIG. 78.

FIG. 77-

FIG. 79.

speak truly, there were many users of perforated film in
the States who naturally did not foresee that, years after
acquiring their machines, they would have a covering
patent flourished in their faces a patent concealed from
public view for six years !

Two projecting machines were at one time on the
market under Mr. Edison's name; but they will be referred
to later, neither of them seeming to employ the inter-
mittent motion of an escapement nature which Mr. Edison
undoubtedly patented in 1891 and presumably applied to
his camera. It, however, seems feasible that this patented

84 LIVING PICTURES

method was abandoned in favour of another; the wear
must have been great, for both wheels were subjected to
sudden impact forty-six times per second, and the interval
between these impacts was mainly occupied by frictional
contact between tooth and checking surface.

From what has been said respecting the Kinetoscope, it
will be seen that this instrument was practically identical
in principle with Anschiitz's Electrical Wonder exhibited
at Frankfort in 1891, with the difference that in order to
secure momentary illumination of a continuously moving
film Edison used a revolving shutter and Anschutz a
flashing Geissler tube ; Edison's line of sight was vertical,
and that of Anschutz horizontal. Furthermore, in 1888,
Le Prince suggested the use of perforations and sprockets
for feeding his band through the machine ; but in the
absence of celluloid this band was metallic, and acted
rather as a carrier. Still, Mr. Edison must be credited
with the practical introduction of the perforated film, and
this system of perforation formed the foundation of a
large number of methods for securing accurate registration
and intermittent movement. The gauge of perforation
which he instituted has, with a few exceptions, been
practically adopted as the standard, and the maker of
every machine in present use which utilizes perforations
for feeding is so far indebted to the " Wizard of the West."
Furthermore, though the Kinetoscope was only available
(publicly, at least), for inspection, and not for projection,
Mr. Edison did the world a great service in bringing the
matter of living pictures into a prominent position ; he
demonstrated the fact that a suitable transparent flexible
band was commercially available, and the encouragement
thus given to manufacturers and inventors, who saw a
possible remunerative field for the exercise of their talents,
was doubtless largely responsible for the rapid progress
towards effective projection which was made during the
next three years.

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 85

On September 24, 1892, Mayer filed an American
specification (No. 525,991), which shows a new form of
step-by-step motion (Fig. 80). A tappet, P, with inclined
faces, is drawn to and fro between parallel guides by
means of a crank, C, and each time the frame carrying it
reaches the top or bottom of its stroke the inclined face
of the tappet strikes the inclined face of a tooth, T, thus
driving the drum onwards. This forward motion ended,
the tappet enters the straight portion between two teeth,
and so steadies the wheel. On its return journey it leaves
this space centred against the slide, and the circle of teeth
consisting in an odd number, there is naturally a tooth
ready placed for acting on when the tappet reaches the

FIG. So.

end of its stroke. After the wheel has been steadied by
the tappet, a slight pressure is maintained by detent-
springs to prevent accidental displacement.

In the same year (1892) a suggestion was made in The
Optician and Photographic Trades Review which, considered
from the purely theoretical side, is of considerable interest,
though the practical difficulties involved are obvious. It
was based on a modification of the ordinary panoramic
camera, in which, as is well known, the whole camera
revolves horizontally about the optical centre of the lens.
The image is thrown on a film carried round a curved
bearing-surface, a screen confining the action of the lens
to a comparatively small angle. When the curved film

86 LIVING PICTURES

extends over 180 degrees a half-revolution of the camera
forms a picture of one-half the horizon ; but if the film is
fed from one side and taken up at the other a complete
revolution may be accomplished and the whole horizon
embraced. Let us suppose this operation completed in
one-tenth of a second, and it will be plain that, given a
further supply of film, the camera might make another turn,
and yet another until the film was exhausted. Now, every
time the lens faces any particular object it will photograph
it again and again subject to the changes which it has
undergone during the revolution of the camera, and if a
positive be made and the operation reversed, light being
thrown through the film and lens on to a screen (the pro-
jector revolving all the time), then the whole horizon may
be reproduced in continual process of change on a circular
screen. The chief objections to this course are that public
audiences are not accustomed to a circular screen, and
also that the consumption of film would be enormous ;
with a two-inch lens about 6| inches of film would be used
every tenth part of a second, as against J inch at present.
Of course, as suggested, a part of the horizon could be
screened off and other subjects taken on the protected
portion of the film, but probably the collection made on
one ribbon would not be universally acceptable, and the
idea, ingenious as it certainly is, cannot be considered as
within the range of practical politics

In June, 1893, M. Marey took a French patent
(No. 231,209) for his Photochronographe, a slightly
improved form of the apparatus shown in Fig. 74 The
arrangement of its several mechanical details rendered
the spacing of the individual photographs somewhat
irregular, and the views were therefore of comparativelv
little use for subsequent projection.

Another French patent (No. 233,337) of October in the
same year contains the description of M. Demeny's
apparatus subsequently introduced as the Chronophoto-

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

graphe d' amateur or Biographe. Fig. 81 shows the principle
involved in the invention. The film was reeled from one
bobbin to another, being steadied in front of the aperture
by a pressure-frame. The lower or taking-up bobbin was,
however, mounted eccentrically, and thus on its down-
stroke gave a sudden pull to the film, which then remained
stationary while the bobbin rose and rolled up the film
previously pulled down. In this crude form the apparatus
was only adapted for taking short series; the amount of
film rolled up on the lower bobbin naturally increased
during working, and therefore varied the amount of film

FIG. 8r.

pulled down at each revolution. The error was obviously
that of imparting eccentric action to the store-bobbin ;
had the latter remained independent and the eccentric
motion been applied to an intermediate roller the action
would have been constant. This fact was soon recognized,
and M. Demeny incorporated a new and important modi-
fication into his German and English patents applied for
only two months later that is to say, in December, 1893.
This development was not added to his French patent
until July, 1894, and it is from this patent that Fig. 82 is
reproduced. The eccentric motion previously applied to

88 LIVING PICTURES

the bobbin was now transferred to an intermediate portion
of the mechanism, thus giving an intermittent pull to the
film, constant in extent and regular in action. The film,
after passing in front of the aperture, where it is steadied
by friction rollers, is periodically struck by an eccentric
rod or dog-motion, which draws down sufficient film to
change the picture. The film is meanwhile constantly,
passed on at a regular rate to the store-reel by a sprocket-
wheel. The specification further suggests that the
eccentric need not be shaped as .a rod or roller, but may
take the form of a " blade," and several devices of this
kind are shown in Fig. 83. This dog-motion or pitman
is still extensively employed, and it is only right to
recognize the name of Demeny as that of the originator
of this type of machine ; there does not appear to have

CD !

FIG. 83.

been any mention before 1893 of the motion used in the
Chronophotographe, though, considering the number of
instances in which vague suggestion has been found to
have long preceded practical application, it would probably
be somewhat rash to definitely affirm the statement.

In November, 1893, Friese-Greene filed an English
specification chiefly remarkable for its resemblance to
Varley's invention of 1890 (Fig. 73). However, as the
drawing shows the cam-driven arm more clearly, it is
reproduced in Fig. 84. Further extraordinary suggestions
were made for utilizing the apparatus in the production
of moving stage scenery; a double dissolving shutter was
shown, and it was said that cobalt salts might be used to
colour films in order to produce change of tint under the
influence of warmth ; though how this principle affects a
kinetographic film (which moves at short intervals of time
and is specially protected from heat) was not explained.

CH RONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 89

As a curiosity may be mentioned an idea published in
1893 in The Optician and Photographic Trades Review. The
suggested method of working depends largely upon the
optical properties of the cyclostat, an instrument for
rendering a revolving body optically stationary by means
of a prism rotated in the same direction as the body under
observation, but at half the angular speed. If, now, we
have a revolving circular sensitive surface, we can render
it optically stationary by means of a cyclostat, and can
take a photograph upon it by an exposure of any duration

FIG. 84.

despite its continual rotation. But if the sensitive surface
is formed of a portion of a flat spiral, lying on a plate
through a slot in which it is fed up and withdrawn, this
very action causes a rotation. This rotation will be
neutralized as a whole by the cyclostat, but the portion
of the spiral acted on will nevertheless be continually
added to on one side and drawn away on the other. The
image of any object will be therefore rendered optically
stationary, but will be subjected to blurring due to its
proper movement during the time that any specified

go LIVING PICTURES

portion of the spiral is exposed, as of course is the case in
every photographic exposure. But as the film dips down
through the slot a fresh piece is fed up and receives the
image in the same stage as the withdrawn portion, and
itself starts on its circular trip. By this means the extent
of blurring is kept within the usual limits. If a similar
spiral positive film is fed through the slot in the same
manner and viewed by means of a cyclostat a moving
picture may be seen, and as persistence is not called into
question, the rate of revolution of the spiral may be far
slower than the speed at which the photograph was
obtained and which was governed by the necessity of
making one revolution in a sufficiently short time to
obviate conspicuous blurring. Such an arrangement does
not lend itself to projection (except aphengescopically),
but would be suited for direct inspection. No trial
instrument on this principle appears to have been made ;
the complications caused by photographic manipulation
of a spiral film are probably quite a sufficient bar to the
experiment.

A new principle was introduced by Jenkins in 1894, his
United States specification having been filed on January 12
of that year, though not issued until May, 1896. The
Phantoscope Camera (Fig. 85) employed a continuously
moving film in front of which revolved a disc bearing a
number of lenses. The speed of this disc was so
determined that each picture on the film was ac-
companied in its travel past the aperture by an accurately
centred lens ; and though the film was moving in a right
line and the lens in a circle, projection took place over so
small an arc that the deviation from a right line was
insensible. Though the lenses pass an opening in the
casing, a little reflection will show that if the aperture be
rightly proportioned it does not act as a shutter ; on the
contrary, the pictures are independent, the formation of
one beginning before the exposure for the preceding one

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 91

has ceased. This apparatus should be reversible, but as a
matter of fact Mr. Jenkins adopted a different system for
his projecting Phantoscope which was not exhibited until
1895, nor described until 1896. The interest of the
Phantoscope Camera resides in the fact of its similarity to
Uchatius' arrangement of 1853 (p. 19) ; both had the image
and lens in fixed relation, but while Jenkins moves image
and lens together, Uchatius kept them stationary and

FIG. 85.

moved his source of light. This resemblance is, however,
of purely historical import ; no comparison is possible
respecting efficiency. There is no doubt but that Mr.
Jenkins not only successfully operated this form of
apparatus as a camera but also employed it for projection
purposes ; still it may be questioned whether such a
machine could be popularly introduced. In the November
of 1894 the same inventor filed another United States
specification (No. 536,569) for an inspection apparatus

LIVING PICTURES

somewhat on kinetoscope lines, but without a shutter, the
film being intermittently illuminated by the action of two
incandescent lamps mounted on a revolving arm.

With the commencement of the year 1895 considerable
activity was manifested in the United States no less than
in France and England, and it is to that year we must
look for the appearance of the Living Picture in a popular
and successful projection exhibition. On March 9 a most
ingenious specification was filed in the United States by
Gray, and subsequently issued on June 4 as No. 540,545.
It is perhaps questionable whether perfect registration

FIG. 86.

FIG. 87.

could be obtained with so many movements applied to the
same film, but there is no doubt as to the novelty of the
methods proposed. The apparatus being designed both
for projection and securing negatives, the drawings
illustrating the former purpose will serve to explain the
whole method, which was one of double projection
through one lens. Leaving the film out of the question
for the moment, Fig. 86 shows two arc lamps each
furnished with a condenser. From one of these con-
densers a beam of light proceeds directly to the projection
lens; if this beam be disregarded, it will be seen that the

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

light from the other condenser is caused to follow the
same path by a mirror, M, set at an angle of forty-five
degees. This mirror is shown in elevation in Fig. 87, and
consists of a half- circle of silvered glass, the other half-
circle being transparent. The mirror is rotated by bevel
gear, B ; and provided that the two beams of light bear
on it below or above its centre, the direct beam will pass
to the projection lens when the transparent portion is in
position, while the light from the lamp at right angles
will be thrown on the screen when the silvered part
comes round. Also, in a certain position, portions of both
beams of light will reach the projection lens ; that is to
say, one beam of light will be vignetted into the other and

FIG

there will be no interruption of illumination. This being
well understood, we will in imagination interpose the
necessary film, do away with the arc lamps and con-
densers, and consider the apparatus to be working as a
camera. Looking at Fig. 88, the film is seen coming
from the right-hand, dropping to the extent of half its
width, and being drawn along by forked fingers in order,
to be wound up on a receiving-spool. The oval seen in
the middle is the mirror, in rapid rotation, but at present
engaged in deflecting the beam of light in order to throw
an image on the lower portion of the film on the right-
hand. As it continues turning, the silvered portion passes
and the beam of light traverses the transparent glass and
begins to form an image on the upper part of the film

94 LIVING PICTURES

directly in front of us on the other side of the fork, and at
this stage both parts of the ribbon are being acted upon ;
exposure at right angles is not quite finished, exposure in
a right line has begun. So soon as the mirror has turned
sufficiently to allow the whole beam of light to come
straight on in the ordinary way, the exposure at right
angles terminates and that part of the ribbon is moved on
by a similar fork to that seen^in Fig. 88, thereby throwing
up a loop. In the same way, when the mirror begins to
cut off the direct light it also commences a new exposure
on the fresh surface at right angles, but there is always a
time when both portions of the ribbon are stationary and
receiving concurrent impressions. The result is a ribbon
bearing a double set of pictures, the upper series being

FIG. 89.

obtained direct, the lower at right angles, and every one
vignetting, so to speak, into both its predecessor and
successor. The claws are driven to and fro by a crank,
as shown in Fig. 89, the tooth dragging over the film in
one direction, but being pressed into the perforation by a
spring when travelling the other way. The complication
of a triple movement of the film would doubtless render
accurate registration somewhat difficult with this ap-
paratus, and it maybe thought that more emphasis has
been laid on it than it deserves ; but when it is remembered
that this machine contains the first of a long series of
claws and spring teeth for moving the film, and also
shows a semi-circular rotating mirror for deflecting the
light (a device patented in another connection at a far

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 95

later date), it will be conceded that the ingenuity displayed
by the inventor calls for recognition.

A few days later, on March 25, 1895, Eames filed a
specification in the United States, subsequently issued as
No. 546,093, showing an arrangement which could only be
called an improvement on Jenkins' Phantoscope Camera
if the question be considered in an economic sense. The
number of lenses was reduced to two, a substantial saving
in expense of construction, but the disadvantages intro-
duced appear to outweigh the saving secured. It is of
almost vital importance that the individual views be
obtained from the same point of view ; if succeeding
pictures be secured by lenses placed side by side, a
variation in position of foreground objects results as a
matter of course; and this variation, which is essential in
stereoscopic work, is prejudicial under other circumstances
and bound to cause a false vibration of objects on the
screen. It cannot be denied that enough trepidation is
liable to exist in the average Living Picture without
risking a further importation of so little desirable a
characteristic ! Still, the Animatoscope is a distant type of
machine, and as such it must be described. A single film
is employed ; but this film is of double width, and travels
continuously downwards behind a pair of lenses mounted
on sliding panels (Fig. 90). A circular shutter, furnished
with two slots, each extending halfway round, revolves
between lens and film. Presuming that exposure has just
commenced with the right-hand lens, the cycle of operation
is as follows. The film descends at a fixed rate, so also
does the lens, it being drawn down by the crank-rod
attached to the front panel. The lens does not, however,
travel at exactly the same speed as the film ; the moving
parts are so geared that when used for projection purposes
a line connecting the centre of the picture with the centre
of the screen shall always pass through the optical centre
of the lens. While this right-hand lens is descending, the

9 6

LIVING PICTURES

left-hand one is rising, but has no action on the film
because the light is cut off by the shutter. So soon as the
lens begins its descent light is admitted to act, and at this
time the position of affairs is such as to display the
characteristics of the machine. One lens has reached the
bottom and is just terminating its exposure; the other
lens is situated at half a picture height above and is just
commencing to act. The result is shown in Fig. 91,
where the two series of pictures are seen side by side upon
the film, the upper margin of one picture being level with
the centre line of that which follows. The speed of the

' **

\ CJT
.1

::-*

._..*

FIG. 90.

FIG. 91.

film is therefore reduced to one-half, the alternating
exposures or projections overlap, and all parts of the
apparatus are in continual movement. By these means it
is claimed that unsteadiness is avoided, while it is certain
there is no interruption of light either in camera work or
exhibiting.

And now the turning-point in the History of the Living
Picture is reached. Up to this date the Kinetoscope was
the only instrument of a distinctly popular nature, and it
may be safely affirmed that, whatever may have been done
in the way of private experiment, no public exhibition of a

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY 97

projected Living Picture had been a popular success.
With the advent of Messrs. Lumiere's Cinematographe,
however, this desirable consummation was attained, and
to them must be attributed the credit of stimulating
public interest to such a pitch as to lay a firm foundation
for the commercial future of cinematographic projecting
apparatus. It was on February 13, 1895, that Messrs.
Lumiere filed their French specification No. 245,032,
their English patent being dated April 8. To the French
documents four or five additions were made, and a further
English patent was taken a year later. As, however, these
additions are but slight expansions of the original ideas, it
is perhaps as well to describe them together. It may be
mentioned that the Cinematographe was exhibited at
Marseilles in April, 1895 ; and a display given at Paris in
the following July was the commencement of a career of
unequivocal success. The beauty of the Cinematographe
resides as much in its simplicity as in the results obtained,
and no apology is required for a somewhat lengthy descrip-
tion being given of a machine which has attained a position
of historical importance. Fig. 92 shows the casing opened,
while Fig. 93 clearly exhibits the hidden mysteries. First
and foremost let it be supposed that the machine is
arranged with a view to projection ; the film-spool is
placed in a holder at the top and the film is led through
the machine. It will be seen that the film is provided
with two holes only to each picture, one on each side.
Briefly stated, the action of the machine is as follows.
A picture is at rest opposite the lens, but so soon as a
rotating shutter cuts off the light two little pegs enter
a pair of perforations and then sink down, carrying the
picture band with them to the exact extent of one view.
The pegs then come to rest, steadying the film, and are
withdrawn in order that they may rise preparatory to
drawing down a fresh portion. While they are rising the
shutter passes away and allows the stationary picture to

g8 LIVING PICTURES

be projected. How this is accomplished will be understood
by reference to Fig. 93. The pegs are carried by an arm,
B, fixed on a frame, A, which is driven up and down by a
central cam. A rotating arm, working from the same
centre as the cam, has wedge-shaped ends, and the pins
are not rigidly fastened to the arm B, but are formed like
the prongs of a little fork which can slide backwards and
forwards. Every time the pegs arrive at the top, the
wedge on the end of the rotating arm acts against another
wedge, D, on the fork and drives the pegs into the perfora-

FIG. 92.

tions. This done, the frame, pegs, and film sink together.
Arrived at the bottom, the other end of the arm, furnished
with a wedge slanting the other way, comes round and
acts on the other side of D in order to draw the pegs out
so that they may rise without moving the film. This is
the whole principle of the machine in its simplest form,
but its efficiency depends on an important modification.
If the central cam were a disc, as shown in Fig. 93, the
frame would take as long to make its downward journey
as it would to travel in the reverse direction ; and, further,

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

the motion would be continuous. Therefore the cam is
formed as shown in Fig. 94, with the result that while the
cam turns through 60 degrees the frame remains stationary
for the insertion of the pegs ; a further movement of

FIG. 93-

120 degrees drops the frame, the pegs drawing the film
down. During the next 60 degrees of rotation the frame
remains still to allow the pegs to be withdrawn, while the
120 degrees required to complete one rotation are occupied

FIG. 94.

by the rise of the frame. Therefore the film is only in
movement for one-third of the total time of one revolution.
Some further modifications are shown in Fig. 95. Instead
of driving the cam at a regular speed, the toothed wheel S
may so act on the shaded wheel as to cause it to rotate

IOO

LIVING PICTURES

more quickly at one period than another, and in conse-
quence the film may be drawn down quickly, while the
raising of the pegs occupies a longer time. As the film is
stationary during the rise of the pegs, the picture may be
projected for considerably more than one-third of a com-
plete revolution, and the period of darkness is consequently
reduced. The two arms that act on the pegs are therefore
placed closer together and project from the edge of a disc,

FIG. 95.

better seen in Fig. 96. Subsequently these arms dis-
appeared, their functions being discharged by variations
in the surface of the disc itself; but the latest develop-
ments of this type of machine will be illustrated in the
next chapter.

While Messrs. Lumiere were triumphing over their
difficulties in France, the problem was also being attacked
on this side of the Channel, It is certain that Mr. Birt

CHRONO-PHOTOGRAPHY

rot

Acres was working concurrently with Messrs. Lumiere,
for he photographed the University Boat-race with his
Kinetic Camera on March 30, 1895, only a few days after
Messrs. Lumiere filed their French patent, and before the
deposit of their English one. In fact, Mr. Acres appears
to have been beaten all through the race by a few days;
his English patent is dated about five weeks after
Lurniere's, and he does not appear to have given a
public exhibition until the early days of 1896. But this
point is of little importance, for his apparatus was con-
structed on distinctly different lines to those adopted in
the Cinematographic. Fig. 97 shows the Kinetic Camera

FIG. 96.

at the commencement of an exposure. The film is firmly
held by the shaded clamping-frame F, pressed home by
the black cam C. While exposure is proceeding the upper
sprocket-roller is feeding out an exact picture-length that
is to say, it moves four teeth forward. So soon as the
shutter cuts the light off the clamping-frame is loosened,
and the roller R, which has been bearing against the film,
is thrown into its shaded position by the action of a spring,
thus drawing down the slack which has accumulated above
the clamp and substituting a fresh sensitive surface, which
is at once firmly held in position. A fresh exposure now
commences, during which the bottom sprocket-roller takes
up the looped film and so gradually forces the roller R

102

LIVING PICTURES

back into its original position, ready to act again when the
clamp is taken off. This apparatus has undergone several
christenings. Brought out in January, 1896, as the Kinetic
Lantern, this term was abandoned the following March in
favour of the name of " Kineopticon." Being called to give
an entertainment before the Prince of Wales in July, the
inventor found, to his surprise, that the programmes issued
under Royal auspices referred to his invention as the

FIG. 97.

" Cinematoscope." What could a loyal photographer do
except follow the same course as Mr. Acres actually did ?
Cinematoscope it was by Royal dictum, and Cinemato-
scope it remains to this day. But as " a rose by any other
name would smell as sweet," so did the Cinematoscope
retain its good qualities under all its varied nomenclature.

Paul also was pioneering the Living Picture as a source
of entertainment. The Prince's Derby was filmed in 1896,
and re-run at the Alhambra within twenty-four hours of
the event, after which the Animatograph became per-
manently installed there.

These exhibitions in France and England demonstrated
very clearly to the then few enthusiasts the possibilities of

CHRONOPHOTOGRAPHY 103

Living Pictures for entertainments. It is, however, at least
doubtful if anyone at the time realized the full extent of
their possibilities. The sudden jump in the number of
inventions after the year 1896 is itself an indication not
only of the increasing amount of ingenuity exercised in
perfecting methods and apparatus, but also to the increas-
ing popularity of Living Pictures. We have now also
come to a point at which it is necessary to abandon strict
chronological order and to give a separate account of the
different branches of the subject.

Established 1816

WRENCH'S

Manufacture in their own Factory
all kinds of

CINEMATOGRAPH MACHINES
AND ACCESSORIES

Optical Lanterns & Apparatus

For Particulars and Illustrations of their

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and Novelties
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LONDON, W.G.

CHAPTER IV

FILM MACHINES AND INTERMITTENCE MECHANISMS

UNDOUBTEDLY the most important developments in
Living Picture projectors are those in connection with
film machines, the popularity of these machines being
largely owing to the great conveniences of a long film,
which is light, portable, and comparatively cheap, and
can be rolled into a small compass.

A much greater variety of design has been introduced
than is commonly supposed, and an introductory view of
principles will greatly assist subsequent comprehension of
the working of different machines.

Apart from design and structure, the common and
central feature of all machines is a long film, bearing a
series of pictures and means for intermittently rendering
the successive views actually or apparently stationary.
These methods of intermittence form the subject for the
present chapter, and it is desirable to include in our
survey not only devices which have come into actual use,
but also others which, although not so fortunate, never-
theless, have some distinctive characteristic. That a
particular type of machine has not found its way into
general use is not a final test of merit. Indeed, the
efficiency of any given type of apparatus depends even
more on the excellence of workmanship than on the
mechanical devices employed ; and improved design is of
little ultimate advantage unless accompanied by a more
than equal advance in accuracy of construction. The
action of a Living Picture machine is in every respect

io6 LIVING PICTURES

comparable to that of a watch or a clock, and as regards
these latter it is certain that workmanship is the main
factor in the results attained; no doubt an English
chronometer greatly excels a machine-made watch, but
only on condition that far greater care is exercised in its
construction ; if this be not so, the probability is that the
commoner article will prove the more satisfactory. ' So it
is with Living Picture machines. The advantages and
disadvantages of different machines may be discussed till
no doubt remains as to which is best theoretically, but
even then the final test can only be the performance of the
individual machines, even though both are of exactly the
same design. Therefore, in considering the various types
of machines it. must be taken for granted that the work-
manship is perfect, and this assumption can only be
verified by inspection of the machine in actual operation.

The number of suggested mechanisms for obtaining
intermittence is so very large that a selection for more
detailed consideration is necessary, but various lists of
British patents dealing with different types of machines
and mechanisms are given in Appendix I. It has been
stated that the " description of an appreciable number of
these mechanisms would be a somewhat heavy and
monotonous task," but it is hoped that, heavy and
monotonous as the task of selection may be, the reader
may yet -be spared the mental indigestion, which is the
author's due and his alone.

To proceed then to principles. The different classes of
intermittence mechanisms may be considered according to
the movement of the film. Thus the film may be moved

i. Continuously (as, for example, in Donisthorpe's
machine, or the Phantoscope see Figs. 69, 85); and

(a) Seen for a very short period ;

(b) Rendered relatively stationary ;

FILM MACHINES 107

2. Intermittently (as in Lumiere's machines see
Figs. 92-95)

(a) By a sprocket-roller.

(1) Through interaction of a wheel with
teeth or pegs (including Maltese cross feed
mechanisms) ;

(2) Through interaction of a wheel or pin-
teeth with a worm or cam ;

(3) By the changing position of the sprocket-
feed-rollers ;

(4) By ratchet gearing.

(b) By the periodic grip of two rollers.

(1) Always in contact with the film (spring-
teeth) ;

(2) Inserted and withdrawn (claw feed).

(d) By pressure of

(1) A revolving eccentric ;

(2) A reciprocated arm.

(e) By other means than the above.

i (a). Continuously Moving Film seen for a very Short
Period.

This type is primeval. The Phenakistoscope worked on
this principle, and Plateau's " Diable soufflant," was
essentially similar, although the speed of image was
reduced. From these two instruments were derived all
such machines as the Lantern Wheel of Life, the Zoopraxi-
scope, and, in a degree, the Phonoscope ; while Edison^s
Kinetoscope and Anschutz's coin-freed Electric Wonder
fall into the same category. In the latter a Geissler tube
is momentarily illuminated when the picture comes under
the viewing-slot. In Petit's multiple view Kinetoscope,
Fig. 98, an endless band, B, moves in a direction opposite
to that of the film L, and is pierced with slots to act as a

io8

LIVING PICTURES

shutter. The apparatus is driven electrically, the motor
being reversed to return the film to its original spool. In

FIG.

another form of apparatus, Fig. 99, the shutter is a slotted
drum revolving between the light and the film. In a still

FIG. 99.

more recent apparatus the shutter consists of two con-
centric cylinders, each with a slot, and the picture is seen

FILM MACHINES

109

through the viewing eyepiece when the openings coincide.
But although even in so elementary a type of apparatus
there is some scope for suggestion and improvement, there
are comparatively few machines of this type. The reason
is not far to seek. Seeing that the vision is momentary,
it is clearly necessary that a sufficient amount of light
should pass through the slot. Lommel, in 1881, attacked
the problem by throwing a condensed beam of light
through a narrow aperture working in the focal plane
of the condenser, and this same system reappears in
Latham's invention (No. 4,841 of 1896), though in a con-
siderably elaborated form.

i (b). Continuously Moving Film rendered Relatively
Stationary.

Of this class there appears to be only one example
viz., Donisthorpe and Croft's machine, shown in Fig. 69.
In this case, object, lens, and image are all maintained in
fixed relation ; devices which move lens and film together
are better regarded as belonging to the next class.

i (c). Continuously Moving Film rendered Optically
Stationary.

The first attempt to render an image optically stationary
was probably made by Clerk- Maxwell in 1869, as explained
in Chapter II. His arrangement of concave lenses instead
of zoetropic slots is of interest in conjunction with Jenkin's
Phantoscope, already described, and Maskelyne's 1896
rotating lens drum. The stationary images are in both
cases obtained by virtue of the changing position of the
refracting surfaces of the lenses used. In Jenkin's machine
the film is moving in a right line across the aperture while
the lens is moving in a circle. In Maskelyne's Mutagraph
(Fig. 100) the film is rendered optically stationary by
means of a drum, L, composed of a number of concave

no LIVING PICTURES

lenses, which are fixed edge to edge in a suitable frame.
The film passes across the exposure aperture in contact
with the drum. Inside the drum L are two stationary
lenses on the line of the optical axis, the curvature of one
or both of these lenses corresponding to that of the lenses
on the drum. On the outside of the drum is the projecting
lens, while the source of light and the condenser are behind
the film. The effect produced is as follows : Each suc-
cessive picture on the film, in passing across the field of
view, coincides with one of the lenses on the drum. The
light passes through the picture on the film, thence through
the corresponding lens nearest to it on the drum, the two
fixed lenses, and the corresponding lens on the other side
of the drum, and then through the objective, reproducing
the picture on the screen. When any picture is central
with the optical axis, the faces of the various lenses will
be parallel, and act as a piece of plane glass or as a simple
lens, and the light suffers no deviation from its course.
As the parts move, the refracting surfaces change position,
and the deviation thus introduced precisely compensates
for the movement of the picture, and causes its image to
remain stationary upon the screen. Means are provided
for giving an independent motion to the sprocket-roller
in order to accurately centre the film either at starting or
during working. It was an instrument of this kind which
was taken to India in order to secure a view of the total
eclipse of the sun. Sad to say, the film disappeared on its
journey home, and neither the Wizard of Piccadilly nor a
reward of 50 succeeded in bringing the errant eclipse
to light.

The suggestion is made in Stroud's specification
(No. 4,661 of 1898) that lenses such as are used upon the
drum L should be mounted over pulleys, so that both the,
lenses and the film would then have a rectilinear motion
across the exposure aperture. In another apparatus a
cylindrical lens, 25, Fig. 101, is mounted in the aperture of

FILM MACHINES

FIG. ice.

FIG. 101.

FIG. 103.

FIG. 102,

FIG, 104.

ii2 LIVING PICTURES

a revolving shutter, 19, and the axis of curvature of the
lens is kept perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
film by the use of a chain passing round equal sized sprocket-
wheels, which are fixed on the axial bearing-frame of the
shutter 19 and on the lens respectively. The objective 23 is
a compensating cylindrical lens of opposite curvature. For
projecting work a series of lenses, 25, are mounted on the
shutter 19 over successive exposure apertures. The film
gate 29 in this apparatus is fitted with a frame which
reciprocates synchronously with the film to prevent
successive pictures from overlapping. In a still more
recent invention a lens is mounted on a slide which
reciprocates across the exposure aperture. This method
was used in a duplicate and mechanically modified form
in the Animatoscope (see Fig. 90).

Other devices for producing the variable deviation of
the luminous rays include prisms having angles which are
automatically variable. In one form the outer faces of a
liquid prism, P, Fig. 102, are oscillated on pivots, B, by the
arms E and cam H ; in another construction, Fig. 103, a
combination of two prisms, A B, is used, the carrying arms
C D of which are oscillated by the rotated cam E to
produce the same result. In such methods there is a
sudden return movement just before each picture
enters the gate. In other methods which avoid this
sudden return, a refracting prism having an even number
of faces is interposed between the film and lens, and is
revolved at such a speed that the face of the prism is
parallel to the film as each picture passes through its
central position, in which position the prism acts as a
piece of plain glass.

Another important optical method which has been used
is the employment of a mirror or mirrors, turning or
moving at such a speed as to maintain the beam passing
through the lens in a right line. This method was used
in Reynaud's Praxinoscope (Fig. 22), and has been

FILM MACHINES

modified and developed by many inventors. One modified
form of such apparatus described by Stroud (No. 4,661 of
1898) is interesting. The pictures (P, Fig. 104) are on one
drum, D, and two stationary mirrors, A B, are used in con-
junction with a series of lenses on the periphery of a con-
centric parallel drum, D. In Casler's apparatus (Fig. 105)
the film passes from the feed-roll 2 to the store-spool 3 in
contact with the segmental frame 16. This frame swings
from right to left at the same speed as the film, and is so
arranged that when starting on an oscillation a picture is
outlined by the opening 27. Light passes through this
opening and the picture to a mirror, 22, which is moved

FIG. 105.

by gearing at half the angular speed of the frame ; con-
sequently the rays are maintained optically stationary with
regard to the projection-lens. When the frame reaches
the extremity of its movement to the left, both it and the
mirror are rapidly returned to their original positions by
means of cams. In Campbell's apparatus (Fig. 106) the
band runs over a drum, being drawn from a box, 8, and
is illuminated by a mirror, 22. As it is only designed
for inspection purposes, the pictures are seen through
magnifying eyepieces, 6, the rays being rendered optically
stationary by the mirror 5, tilted by a lever, 19, the
latter being actuated by pegs, 20, on the drum. In
addition it is suggested that the instrument may be

LIVING PICTURES

employed (of course without the film) for the inspection
of machinery, etc. Britain's apparatus (Fig. 107), described

FIG. 106.

in specification No. 2,575 of 1899, is of interest in connec-
tion with Gray's apparatus of 1895 (see Fig. 86). A semi-

FIG. 107.

circular mirror, 58, alternately reflects the light on to
the mirror 59 and on to the mirrors 60, 61. Light thus

FILM MACHINES

alternately reaches the oscillating mirrors 36, 37, which
are rotated at half the angular speed of the cylinders, 27, 28,
over which the film of double width passes. The mirrors
36, 37 thereby alternately project a stationary image on
the film, and are alternately inactive on the return move-
ment. In other apparatus of this kind two mirrors
oscillating on a common axis, and actuated by cams,
are used alternately, and a cylindrical or other shutter
cuts off each mirror on its return movement. In Barr's
invention (No. 8,245 f ^QQ), a rotating helical mirror (6,
Fig. 108) reflects the light from the condenser or camera
objective h k on to the moving film /, thereby causing the
beam to travel with the film. For projection work a

FIG. 108.

FIG. 109.

similar mirror, C, reflects the light passed through the film,
through the projector i. The feed-rollers for the ribbon
and the shaft carrying the mirrors are geared so as to
maintain the required velocity ratio between the film and
mirrors. In Lumiere's invention (No. 7,482 of 1905),
Fig. 109, two perpendicular mirrors, m n, np, are movable
in a direction n n at right angles to the plane bisecting the
mirrors. If a point a on the film moves to a in a line
parallel to n ri , while the mirrors move half this distance
(i.e., a a' equals 2 nn'), into the position m n' t n p' ', it will be
seen that the direction of the twice reflected image will
be the same, and will appear to come from the original
position a. In the projector, Fig. 109, two stationary

n6 LIVING PICTURES

mirrors, k c, c h, are used so that the film and objective may
occupy convenient positions. The moving mirrors m n,
n p are mounted on a carnage, g, which is oscillated by a
cam,y, and an opposing coiled spring. During each return
movement the objective is closed by a shutter. The
suggestion is made that an endless chain of such double
mirrors may be formed and used in lieu of the oscillation
carriage. More recently it has been proposed to utilize a
series of small mirrors mounted on the periphery of a
rotating drum, the projecting light passed through the
moving film being reflected from these mirrors through
the projecting lenses.

There can be no question as to the ingenuity of the
many optical devices such as the foregoing for maintain-
ing a stationary image with a continuously moving film.
If merit was an infallible corollary to ingenuity, such
machines should be far more popular and more extensively
Used than they are. That it would be advantageous to
have a continuously moving film can hardly be doubted.
One obvious drawback to these methods is the necessarily
very expensive optical part of the apparatus, and as
between a rapidly moving optical system and an inter-
mittently moving film, experience has decided in favour of
the latter. As regards the comparative utility of the
various optical methods, it would be very different to
attempt anything like a detailed comparison. The sug-
gestion may, however, be made that such devices in which
the optical system moves continuously would probably be
more efficient and mechanically more convenient than
those in which the optical system has a reciprocating
motion.

Intermittent Feed Devices.

There are three essentials for a good machine
(I) During the time that any picture section is in the
gate, it must be absolutely steady. There must not,

FILM MACHINES 117

therefore, during this " stationary period " be any pull
on the film by the driving mechanism. As a rule the
gate is fitted with auxiliary means for steadying the film.
(2) In order to secure sufficient illumination, the stationary
period during which each picture is in the gate should be
as long as possible in comparison with the time interval
before the next picture occupies its place. (3) In order to
avoid undue wear and tear on the film, and particularly on
the sprocket-holes along the edges, there should be no
sudden pull or jerk on the film during a shift.

2 (a [i]). Film moved intermittently by a Sprocket-Roller
through Interaction of a Wheel with Teeth or Pegs.

To introduce this class an illustration may be given
which has nothing whatever to do with the Living Picture.
In fact, a prize might be offered for the first correct answer

FIG. no.

as to the use of the apparatus shown in Fig. no; but as
there are no prizes, it may be stated at once that the figure
is a drawing of a lawn-mowing machine with projecting
knives. Nevertheless, it will serve better than any other
as a foundation for the discussion of principles. Let us
imagine the wheel e to be joined to the axis of the ordinary
sprocket-roller; it will be seen that if the upper axle were
rotated the wheel e would be partially revolved every time
the segment d acted upon it. Further, if the segment

LIVING PICTURES

contained the right number of teeth, the wheel e might be
rotated to the exact extent necessary to draw the film one
picture-length onward. The reason why a movement of
this simple description would be ineffective is found in the
fact that the film requires to be started and stopped many
times a second. The momentum of the wheel e and the
film would carry the film on further than one picture-
length at each stroke. But as we have seen, an exactitude
in starting and stopping the film is one of the first
essentials for a Living Picture machine.

The simplest form of this class of mechanism is obtained
by rearranging the teeth on the large wheel and reducing

FIG. in.

FIG. 112.

the segments on the upper one to a single tooth each, as
seen in Fig. in. Here it is the large wheel which is
driven by the smaller, the large wheel standing still until
a fresh tooth comes round, the plain part of the upper
wheel resting against two teeth on the lower one, which
is thus steadied. A further development of this plan is
seen in Fig. 112, where a small fly-wheel only bears one
tooth, the rest of the circumference being specially
adapted to rest against the specially shaped intervals
between the slots in the large wheel in order to effectively
steady it. The single tooth may be replaced by a pin, P,
and the large wheel by a Maltese cross, M, Fig. 113. The
pin P, standing out from the disc D, enters a slot in the

FILM MACHINES

1 19

Maltese cross, which is attached to the sprocket-wheel,
gives it a quarter turn, and then passes on, leaving the
shaped portion N of the cross steadied by the raised
portion S of the pin-disc D. This arrangement moves
the cross once for every revolution of the pin-disc. If the
latter bears two pins, it will, of course, act twice instead of
once during each revolution. It is usual to use rollers in
order to reduce friction. Both the sprocket-roller feeding
the film and the roller drawing the film through the gate
may be simultaneously actuated by the use of two slotted

FIG. 113.

FIG. 114.

FIG.

wheels, M, M', Fig. 114, and a pin-disc, D, with two pins, P.
This arrangement was adopted by Paul in one of his early
machines. If desired, the whole arrangement may be
reversed, and instead of the pin driving the slot, the slot
may drive the pin. In one suggested form, illustrated in
Fig. 115, the lower slotted disc pushes one pin on at each
revolution, driving the previous one past the spring grip G,
which then locks the wheel in exact position.

This Maltese cross motion is one employed for many
years past in horology under the name of the Geneva

I2O

LIVING PICTURES

stop, wherein the arms of the cross were hollowed at their
ends so as to bear very accurately against the curved
edge of the pin-disc exactly as shown in the drawings.
One of these arms, however, was not hollowed, and there-
fore locked against the disc in order to prevent further
rotation, which would have resulted in over- winding ;
hence the name of stop. Though this stopping motion
was its first use, the arms were soon made alike, thus
permitting continual rotation, and the device has long
been employed in various branches of mechanical engineer-
ing to convert continuous into intermittent motion on

FIG. 116.

exactly the same principles as those applied to the
machines under present discussion. The motion was
one of the earliest in the field, and is still the most
popular, and the one most extensively used.

As already pointed out, the stationary period during
which any picture is stationary in the gate should be as
large a portion as reasonably possible of the interval
before the next picture takes its place, which interval we
will call the succession interval. These related periods
will depend on the relative sizes of the film-wheel and the
Maltese cross or slotted wheel, and upon the number of
pins and slots. The effect of varying these quantities

FILM MACHINES 121

can be seen very clearly by the aid of very elementary
mathematics.

In Fig. 116, O and O' represent respectively the driven
slotted wheel and the driving pin-wheel respectively. The
pin P is shown just about to enter one of the slots, and
the pin emerges from the slot at P', leaving the next slot
in position for the same or another pin P.

Let n = the number of pins on the pin-wheel O'.
R = the radius of the circle described by the pins.
S = the radius of the slotted wheel or cross O.
s = the number of slots.
20 l - the angle between consecutive slots.
2 fa = the angle swept out by the pin P during one

shift.

v = the number of revolutions per second of the
driving pin-wheel.

Then from these data we have

The number of shifts per second = nv,

the succession interval = ,

the angular velocity of the pin-wheel = 27rv,
the number of slots s = ~ = -

The relative stationary period =

^
succession interval

JL _ ^
nv ZTTV

I
nv

It will thus be seen that the ratio is larger or smaller
according as n and fa are smaller or larger. The effect of

122 LIVING PICTURES

increasing the number of pins is to lessen the relative
stationary period, while on the other hand the effect of
increasing the size of the pin-wheel is to increase the
relative stationary period. In practically all modern
Maltese cross machines one pin only is used, and the
size of the pin-wheel adjusted to give whatever ratio is
desired.

Another important point in the Maltese cross motion is
the manner in which the pin enters the slot. It will be
seen from Fig. 116 that just when the pin P enters the
slot O P its motion is perpendicular to the radius O' P. If
this direction is radially along the slot O P, then there will
be no impact on the surface L of the slot; if, however,
this direction is not radially along the slot (which case is
illustrated in Fig. 116) the pin P will impinge on the
surface L of the slot and start the slot-wheel with a
sudden jerk. The radial entry into the slot was advocated
by Paul in 1899, and in this case

7T - 7T 7T

2 * 2 S*

The relative stationary period = i - -\

1 i

- -- H -.

2 S

This ratio is a maximum when s is as small as possible,
and the smallest possible number of slots is three. With
three slots, therefore, the stationary period is five-sixths
of the succession interval.

The motion of the star-wheel and feed sprocket geared
therewith during the shift interval is also of interest, and
also that of the consequential motion of the film. If we
further consider the motion of the wheel O (Fig. 116)
during any shift interval, the angular velocity starts from
zero, increases to a maximum as the pin P crosses the
line O O' at the point P 2 , and decreases to zero when the

FILM MACHINES

123

pin leaves the slot. This motion of the star-wheel and of
the film may be further investigated as follows :

, in Fig. 117, be any point in the travel of the pin
when in the slot coinciding with the radius Op.

Draw p M perpendicular to O O'.

Let 6 and < represent the angles p O O' and p O' O
respectively.

Let O O' = C (a constant quantity).
Then p M = R sin (/> - O M tan

= (C-R cos <) tan ...... (i)

Also,

C - v/R 2 + S 2 - 2 R S cos O p O'

(2)

FIG. 117.

Differentiating equation (i) above, we have

R cos <#></> = (C - R cos (f>) sec 2 + R sin c/> tan </>... (3)
Now <f) = the angular velocity of the pin-wheel,

and

sec 2 =

R 2 + C 2 - 2 R C cose/) ,

77T- , , -TTa from A O p O .
(C R cos </>) 2

i2 4 LIVING PICTURES

Hence from equations (i) and (3)

, R (C cos $ - R)

= C"+Ti-2RCcos0*-

This equation (4) thus gives the angular velocity 6 of
the star-wheel in terms of </>, which is the known velocity
of the pin-wheel at any instant of the shift movement
determined by the value of <. By taking different values
for (f>, the relative velocity of the star-wheel can be
represented by curves.

We may take, for example, four typical cases as indi-
cated in Fig. 118.

Let fa represent the angle P O' O,

and 0! POO';

these are the starting values of the angles $ and respec-
tively, when the pin is just entering the slot.

Case A represents Paul's three-slot feed.

Case B represents the ordinary Maltese cross feed.

Case C represents a six-slot feed with radial pin entry.

Case D represents a six-slot feed with an oblique pin
entry, and where the pin and slot-wheels are of equal size.

In cases A, B, and C the initial angular velocity of the

slot- wheel

#! = zero, since R = C cos fa.

In case D, R = S and 1 = fa =_3o.
C = 2R cos 30 = ^3 R-

.*. from equation (4)

*; = ^ C0s 3--i o 4,

4 2 v 7 3 cos 30

= H;

that is, the slot-wheel is jerked forward with one-half the
angular velocity of the pin-wheel.

The motion of the slot-wheel can be represented by a
series of curves A, B, C, D, such as shown in Fig. 118,
corresponding to the cases A, B, C, D, and in which the

FILM MACHINES

125

height of the curve at any point of the (j> axis represents
the velocity of the slot- wheel when in the stage of its feed
movement corresponding to that point.

The motion of the film itself is determined partly by

C4S C
3'0? A P ,R

l-O

0-5

60 50* 40* 30* 20' IQ*

FIG. 118.

SVCCfSS/OH INTERVAL

Z0 30

50* 60*

this motion of the slot-wheel and partly by the radius of
the feed sprocket-wheel, which itself is determined by the
size and motion of the slot-wheel.

Let 2r = the diameter of the feed sprocket-wheel, which
is on the axis of the slot-wheel or geared therewith ; then,

126 LIVING PICTURES

since the linear feed of the film through the gate, what-
ever the feed-motion, is just a picture length, we have

r x 20 1 = linear feed of film
= f inches.

i.e., r = ^--inches.
ou l

Hence, for example, in case B, the ordinary Maltese
cross feed

?, = !, or 45.

.*. r = "477 inch approximately.

77"

In case C, 1 = -, or 30,

and r = 715 inch approximately;

and generally the smaller the angle turned through by the
slot-wheel during a feed, the larger the feed sprocket-
wheel must be. A small feed sprocket-wheel appears to
be the more popular.

The linear velocity of the film at any instant of the shift
motion is rd.

From equation (4)

r R (C cos </> - R) .

Also from equation (i)

R sin 6

By taking values of 6 equal to successive fractions of
19 the corresponding values of (f) are determined
geometrically, or from equation (6), and the linear velocity
of the film at any instant of its movement, corresponding
to the fractions of 6 V may be represented by another
series of curves, A' B' C' D' (Fig. n8A), for the cases

FILM MACHINES 127

A, B, C, D respectively, where the height of any curve at
any point represents the velocity of the film at the instant
of its shift movement corresponding to the position of the
point on the axis X X', representing its travel through the
J-inch shift.

The gradient of the curve at any point is proportional
to the acceleration which is enforced upon the film, and
thus is proportional to the tension or pulling force on the
film. Such curves as these thus serve to indicate the
variations in the tension or pull in the film during its
motion. It will be seen, for example, in case A, that of

FIG. n8A.

Paul's three-slot feed, that while there is no initial sudden
pull, there is a very severe tension or pull on the film
corresponding to the steep part of the curve A', whereas
in case D, in which the pin does not enter the slot radially,
there is a sudden pull on the film at the start; but the
strain on the film, represented by the much flatter curve
D' during the actual shift motion of the film, is com-
paratively small.

Notwithstanding the simplicity and utility of such
mechanism, the Maltese cross as a driving mechanism
has had a fluctuating popularity. There is inevitably
tremendous wear on the parts, and as the length of the

128 LIVING PICTURES

picture films increased, the problem of lubrication and of
preventing the wearing parts becoming unduly heated
became a serious consideration. The use of roller-pins
considerably reduces the friction, and the use of an oil
bath, suggested by Wrench in 1907, secures a minimum
of friction. Certainly post hoc, if not propter hoc, the
popularity of the Maltese cross mechanism revived after
the introduction of the oil bath. Fig. 119 illustrates the
oil bath as used in Butcher's " Silent Empire."

If the number'of inventions is any guide, there is still
room for improvement in this type of mechanism. A
very brief glance must, however, suffice.

FIG. 119.

Feed- Steady ing Devices. In constructions so far noticed
the shaped ends N (Fig. 113) of the cross engage the
surfaces of the pin-wheel to steady the feed sprocket
during the stationary period of the film in the gate. The
Maltese cross itself thus does the double duty of feeding
and steadying, and the steadying surface is limited by the
size of the cross. It has recently been proposed to fit
an additional cross, without any slots, adjacent to the
Maltese cross. This enables a locking surface of much
greater length to be used for steadying the film while
stationary, and also relieves the Maltese cross of half its
work. Fig. 120 illustrates the two crosses, M M', as used
on one of Kamm's projectors. In another arrangement

FILM MACHINES

129

(Fig. I2OA) by Guilbert of Paris, the Maltese cross wheel
is made as a solid casting, with the slots S recessed in the
face. A second casting includes the pin and the steadying

FIG. 120.

surface engaging the shaped periphery N of the rear part
of the Maltese cross casting. In another method by
Blair (Fig. 121), the pin-wheel 20 carries a cam groove,
21, by means -of which a spring-controlled locking lever,

FlG. I20A,

FIG. 121.

22, is moved into and out of engagement with shallow
notches, 23, in the Maltese cross wheel, which are inter-
spaced between the feed slots, 24, engaged by the pin-
wheel. Another feed motion by Mr. Kamm is designed

130 LIVING PICTURES

with a view to taking up any shock where the pin does
not enter the slot radially. The pin I (Fig. 122) is
carried on a disc, 2, resiliently mounted between two
discs, 3, 3*, on the driving-shaft. The Maltese cross
bearing 4 is pivoted on the bracket 7, carrying the
bearing-pin of the disc 3. A strong spring holds the
cross 5 and disc 3 in yielding contact, and the separa-
tion is adjusted by a screw, 12. This yielding contact
enables the cross and locking-disc 3" to separate in the
event of any grit or dirt getting in between them.

Devices for Rapid Shifts and Long Stationary Intervals.
We have already seen that it is possible to get almost any

FIG. 122.

ratio between the shift period and the stationary interval
by varying the sizes of the pin and slot-wheels, and the
number of pins and slots. Other devices for the same
purpose are as follow : (i) The pin-wheel is slidable
along the rotating axis, and by means of a cam mechanism
adjacent the pin-wheel the latter is moved into position
to advance the Maltese cross wheel every alternate or
third revolution. (2) The pin-wheel is eccentrically
mounted on a second wheel, and by the additional
rotary motion thereby obtained, the shift movement is
correspondingly accelerated. (3) The pin-wheel actuating
the Maltese cross attached to the feed sprocket-wheel is
itself actuated from a second Maltese cross. The actual
shift is therefore accomplished during a fraction only of

FILM MACHINES

the shift period of this second Maltese cross, which is
driven from the main driving-gear.

2 (a [2]). Film moved intermittently by a Sprocket-Roller
through Interaction of a Wheel or Pin-Teeth with

a Worm or Cam.

The earliest example of this class of mechanism,
illustrated in Fig. 123, was designed by Petit in 1895 for
a camera, and at first sight closely resembles Edison's
device shown in Figs. 78 and 79. The latter was, how-

FIG. 123.

FIG. 124.

ever, purely an escapement mechanism ; the toothed
wheel always had power applied to it, but could not turn
because it was locked, and therefore its driving-pulley
slipped. When a slot arrived in place, the tooth escaped
straight through it. The interaction of the wheels, how-
ever, supplied no power. In Petit's arrangement, on the
contrary, the slots are not straight. A star-wheel, b, co-acts
with a rotated wheel, a, having a series of slanting
slots, 3. As a slot, 3, approaches the wheel b, a slight
protuberance, 4, draws a tooth into the slot, which then
forces the tooth through to the other side of the wheel, a,
thus rotating the star-wheel and the film-sprocket attached

132

LIVING PICTURES

to it. The wheel a also steadies the wheel b between the
shifts. The protuberances 4 may be replaced by a kind
of hook, as shown in Fig. 124, which draws the pin into
the slot. A modification of this same movement is shown
in Fig. 125, where a solid " snail " is employed. In this
case the star-wheel, instead of being forced round through
an inclined groove, is caused to follow an inclined surface,
which acts somewhat as an escapement. The star-wheel
is not directly attached to the driving axle A, but a spring
is interposed, and one of the rollers on the end of the arm
is therefore always pressing against the edge of the
continually revolving " snail " S. For three-quarters of
a revolution this arm naturally remains still, but when the
inclined surface of the long tooth comes round, the arm

FIG. 12$.

follows it, making a quarter revolution, and turning the
sprocket-wheel to the same extent. So soon as the arm
escapes from the tooth the next arm finds itself steadied
against the regular surface of the " snail." A form of
snail motion was used very early by Wheatstone as a
motive device, whilst the earliest intermittent motions,
such as the Choreutoscope and Brown's apparatus of
1869 (see Fig. 48), employed pegs acting on slots placed
either around the edge of a disc or along a rack.

Another early suggestion was to use a worm (w,
Fig. 126) to drive a toothed wheel, a, connected to the
sprocket-wheel engaging the film. If the worm were
fixed, the film would be continuously driven, but the worm
is mounted on a sliding axis, x y and is moved backwards

FILM MACHINES

133

and forwards on this axis by a stationary pin, p, and
cam, c. Thus at one time the wheel a remains stationary,
the worm, so to speak, screwing itself on the wheel ; but
when the axle travels back, not only does the worm act in
its proper manner, but in addition drags the wheel round,
thus giving a quick rotation of the sprocket. A modified
form of worm action consists in dispensing with the cam c
and cutting away part of the thread, so that the wheel a
and sprocket is only rotated when the worm is in engage-
ment therewith. This, however, provides no steadying
means for the sprocket-wheel during the stationary
interval of the film. This steadying action will be
supplied if, instead of cutting away part of the worm, the
threads on this part are modified so as to have no turning

FIG. 127.

FIG. 128.

action on the wheel. We then get what is, to all intents
and purposes, the " drunken screw." The straight grooves
of the screw L (Fig. 127) keep the wheel K stationary, and
the inclined grooves feed it forward. If the screw is
reduced to one thread, we obtain a helical cam, a form
of drive which was used in a machine known as the
" Rosenberg " cinematograph (patent 16,080, 1896).

Another early method utilized a cam slot, AB (Fig. 128),
on the face of a driven disc, G, which is placed adjacent to
a pin-wheel, the pins of which stand out from the wheel.
Part of the cam is circular. The cam engages a pin at
the end A, and the pin-wheel is held stationary while the
pin is in the circular portion, but is advanced to the
position B by the other part of the slot, thereby rotating

134 LIVING PICTURES

the pin-wheel and the film-sprocket attached thereto. As
one pin emerges from the end B, the next pin is in position
to enter the end A.

It is somewhat surprising that this type of feed
mechanism in which a cam surface or worm is utilized
to drive the film sprocket-wheel intermittently has not
been more extensively used.. The shapes of the cams,

FIG. 129.

slots, or worms, can be modified to give almost any ratio
between the stationary and shift periods of the film, and
to start the film for the shifts without any jerk. That
this type of feed mechanism has very great possibilities
for giving a quick, steady feed is well exemplified by the
mechanism now used in the " Power " machine. To
the sprocket-wheel S (Figs. 129, 130), feeding the film,
is attached a star pin-wheel with four pins, i, 2, 3, 4.

FILM MACHINES 135

The driving member 22 has a diamond shape cam, 18,
separated from the locking ring 26 by two slots, 27, 27'.
As the driving member is rotated from the position shown
in Fig. 130, the outer part of the cam 18 moves the pin
4, and starts the rotation of the pin-wheel, rotating it just
sufficiently to shift the pins i and 3 into the slots 27, 27'
respectively. The cam 18 is shaped so as to start the
pin-wheel with a gradual motion, and the slots 27, 27'
carry the pin-wheel through a quarter of a revolution.
The ends of the slots at which the pins emerge are
rounded, so that the pins are moved out of the slots
without any jerk, and the pins 2 and 3 are left against the

inner circular surface of the locking-ring 26, and the pins
i and 4 against the outer surface. The pin-wheel is thus
held very steady until the cam again comes into action to
move the next pin, 4.

2 (a [3]). Film moved intermittently by raising and
lowering the Sprocket -Rollers.

If the sprocket-roller below the gate maintains a fixed
position, and is rotating continuously, it will, of course,
continue to draw down the film. If, however, it is
mounted, as shown in Fig. 131, the action on the film
may be rendered intermittent, although the sprocket-wheel
does not cease revolving. The sprocket-wheel S is
mounted eccentrically on a disc, D, the revolution of
which alternately raises and lowers the sprocket-wheel,

136

LIVING PICTURES

This latter receives a rotary motion of its own through
epicyclic gearing. The two movements are so propor-
tioned that the roller rises along the film at the same rate
as the sprocket-teeth rotate, and the wheel itself merely
travels up the film. On the downward motion it not only
rolls the film down in the ordinary way, but also super-
adds a drawing action due to its fall. This device, so
similar to Dameny's unworkable eccentric bobbin, was

FIG. 131.

FIG. 132.

employed in the Prestwich camera, and serves as a good
example of the manner in which an ineffective motion
may be transformed into a thoroughly effective and
reliable instrument by careful mechanical treatment.
The sprocket-roller, while receiving a motion of its own,
may be raised by a crank instead of by a direct eccentric
motion applied to its axle. If, however, the sprocket-
wheel does not receive a motion of its own, this movement

FILM MACHINES 137

forms the transition stage between a rising sprocket and
claw motion. The wheel e, in Fig. 132, rolls upwards
along the film, but is prevented from rotating in the
reverse direction by a ratchet, r. On the down-stroke of
the crank-arm H the wheel becomes fixed, and acts exactly
as a claw by drawing the film down.

2 (a [4]). Film moved intermittently by a Sprocket-Roller
and Ratchet Gearing.

The first use of a ratchet-gear appears to have been in
Heyl's 1870 machine (see Fig. 49), but this apparatus was
of very primitive type, a separate hand-pressure being
required for every movement of the disc. In Fig. 133 the

FIG. 133.

ratchet-wheel R is on the axis of the sprocket-feed-roller,
and is intermittently rotated by a spring pawl, P, and
crank rod, reciprocated by an eccentric, Q. A second
spring pawl, T, at the top prevents any backward rotation
of the ratchet-wheel. In another form (Fig. 134), the
driving pawl P is on a second disc, loosely mounted on
the same axis as the rachet R, and is reciprocated by
a crank and eccentric, C. The retaining pawl T not only
prevents backward rotation of the ratchet R, but engages
notches therein and locks it, being raised just before the
pawl feeds the rachet by the pin N. In another type of
construction (Fig. 135), the ratchet does not serve as a
motive device, but only as an escapement. The sprocket-
wheel attached to the ratchet has a hollow axle, through
which passes a spindle carrying a cam plate, N, in

138

LIVING PICTURES

frictional contact with the ratchet-wheel. Each time
the cam raises the retaining pawl T, the ratchet and

FIG. 134.

sprocket-wheel are therefore fed forward. This frictional
drive, however, is not necessary, as the sprocket-wheel

FIG. 135.

and ratchet may each be driven by separate power, such
as a contained spring. The cam disc may take the form
of a duplicate ratchet-wheel, having teeth set the other

FILM MACHINES

139

way to act as cams. The retaining pawl will then be
lifted as many times in a revolution as there are teeth on
the ratchet-wheels.

2 (b). Film moved intermittently by the Periodic Grip of
Two Rollers.

Two very early methods of obtaining an intermittent
motion from continuously rotating rollers were suggested
by Evans in 1890. One suggestion was that rollers might
be allowed to roll along the film for a time, thus leaving
it stationary, and then be drawn back as shown in Fig. 70.
Or the rollers might periodically be held apart and only

FIG. 136.

FIG. 137.

permitted to grip the film for a sufficient time to draw a
picture-length down. A simplification of this method
consists in making a part (Fig. 136) of one or both rollers,
C D, with a segmental piece, A, of larger diameter, these
segmental pieces forming the gripping surfaces inter-
mittently gripping the film B, and drawing it down a
picture-length on each rotation of the rollers. The length
of film fed forward at each step can be regulated by
varying the relative position of the gripping surfaces.
This can be done by gearing the rollers C D together
by skew-wheels 14, 15 (Fig. 137), and longitudinally
adjusting one or other of these wheels. In lieu of
shaping the gripping - rollers themselves or attaching
sections of felt or the like, the gripping portion may

140

LIVING PICTURES

comprise an adjustable pad, P, as shown in Fig. 138,
which illustrates the feed used in one of the latest
Maltheser machines. There is no apparent reason why
this type of feed should not have been used more exten-
sively. It would not be necessary to perforate the films,
which in itself would effect a considerable saving. The
grip could be confined to the edges of the film, thereby

FIG. 138.

saving the picture surface of the film, and the adjustment
of the feed is easily obtained by some such method as above
described.

2 (c [i]). Film moved intermittently by Spring Teeth.

The spring fork used by Gray in 1895 (Figs. 88 and 89)
was the forerunner of this type of movement. In some
degrees, also, the action of the sprocket-wheel in Fig. 132
resembles the spring-tooth action. Fig. 139 illustrates
another example. H and d are two similar spring-frames,
with teeth engaging the perforations in the film. The
frame H is fixed, while the frame d is reciprocated on a
bearing, G. The slope of the pins is such that on the

FILM MACHINES

141

downward motion of the frame d the pins d? carry the
film down a picture-length, and at the end of the stroke a
yielding part, d*, of the frame engages behind a ledge, g,
and presses the pins d 2 into the perforations to steady the
film just on the completion of its movement. On the
upward motion of the frame d the pins d' 2 spring out of

FIG. 140.

FIG. 139.

the perforations and ride over the edges of the film, while
the spring-teeth on the frame H engage perforations to
prevent the film being dragged backwards. In another
similar arrangement of this description (Fig. 140), a
reciprocating frame, A, carries two pivoted pawls, P,
with wedge-shaped teeth, T, which are lightly pressed
against the film by springs, F. On the upward motion of

142 LIVING PICTURES

the frame the upper slanting edges of the teeth drag over
the film ; on the downward motion, the spring presses the
teeth into perforations, and the film being in contact with
the straight under edge of the teeth, the latter have no
tendency to leave the perforations.

The obvious drawback to this type of feed is the action
of the spring teeth on the edges of the film on its upward
stroke. One method of avoiding the drawback is to shift
the film out of the path of the feed-pins during the return
motion. This is done by means of a swinging-plate inter-
mittently operated by a cam or equivalent. The draw-
back is, however, better avoided by the next type of feed
mechanism.

2 (c [2]). Film moved intermittently by Teeth mechanically
inserted and withdrawn.

The teeth are withdrawn and held from the film
during the return motion of the teeth, which corresponds
to the stationary interval. An example of this type of
mechanism has already been described in connection with
Lumiere's early Cinematographic (p. 95). It will be seen,
on referring to Fig. 93, that the pin-frame B is reciprocated
upwards and downwards by a revolving cam or eccentric,
and that the pins are alternately withdrawn and moved to
engage the perforations in the film by wedges on the
rotating arms C. In another camera by Blair, near in
point of date to Lumiere's, the film is intermittently
moved by a roller, I, shaped as shown in Fig. 141. As
an alternative, instead of shaping the roller I, a cylindrical
roller, R (Fig. 142), is fitted with projecting pins, Q, which
have an axial motion in the cylinder. The pins are
periodically protruded to feed the film, and retracted on
the return motion by means of the T-shaped head I of
each pin taking into a cam groove in a plate, O, mounted
at the side of the cylinder. It will thus be seen that for
this type of feed the motion required for the pins is

FILM MACHINES

143

substantially the path of the letter D, where the straight
part of the letter represents the feed motion, and the
curved part the return motion of the pins. Another way
of giving the pins such motion is by pivoting an arm
carrying the pins to a slide moved up and down by a cam
or eccentric, such, for example, as in Lumiere's camera,
and by providing a D-shaped cam groove for the T-shaped

FIG. 142.

FIG. 141.

ends, such as I, Fig. 142, on the pin frame, which may
have roller pins to minimize friction.

Another early mechanism for obtaining this D-path
motion of the claws is illustrated diagrammatically in
Fig. I43A. The claw A is at the end of the rod ABC.
The points M and O are fixed centres for the rods MB,
OC. The claws move through the vertical feed path
during the motion of the arm OC from R to S, and through

144

LIVING PICTURES

the return path during the motion of the arm OC from
S to R. The feed and return motions are with such
mechanism performed during the same interval of time-
namely, the time of a half-revolution of the arm OC. If it
is required to obtain a quicker vertical feed motion,
relatively to the return motion, a variable motion must be
given either to the point B or to the point C. In one
ingenious device (Fig. 1436) the pin-frame 17 receives

FIG.

FIG. 14313

its up and down motion from the eccentric disc 10, and its
to-and-fro motion from a second eccentric, 26. If the
eccentric 26 makes a half-revolution to each revolution
of the eccentric 10, the pins will first describe the path
shown in full lines, and then retreat along the dotted
continuation, thus greatly increasing the period during
which the film rests relatively to the shift period.

In another recent mechanism devised by Mr. Proszynski
(Fig. 1430) for the same object, the link OC is mounted

FILM MACHINES

145

on the same shaft as a slotted arm, S. The variable
rotation is given by the pin P, of an eccentric ring, E,
which rotates on the fixed disc F, and describes the dotted
path D as the driving-wheel V is rotated about the
centre Q. The pin P is steadied in the arm S, and in

FIG. 1430.

a slot, T, in the disc V, by the arm U, pivoted on the
disc V. In this mechanism the claws are adapted to act
along the gate slide so as to steady the film for projection
when the tractive force ceases.

If the link MB, in Fig I43A, is replaced by a stationary
slot, F, as in Fig. 144, to guide the pin E on the feed-

,.-<&

FIG. 144.

arms, the combined action of the rotating crank C and
the slot F will force the feed-pins B to describe the
D-curve G. This mechanism is used in Messrs. William-
son's cameras and perforators.

In another early method, and the forerunner of the
modern Kineto machine, a cam single groove is used to

1 4 6

LIVING PICTURES

obtain both the motions of the feed-pins. The feed-pins
are pressed back by a spring, / (Fig. 145), and the stud e
is consequently driven right home into the cam groove of
the revolving cylinder a. As the cylinder turns, the pin
frame will be drawn up and down, and the groove being
made to vary in depth, the pins are thrown more forward
at one time than at another. The forward pressure is
arranged to coincide with the downward course of the
pins, and vice versa. In a modification of this feed the
cam groove is of regular depth, to obtain the up-and-down
motion, and the to-and-fro motion of the pins is obtained

FIG. 145.

FIG. 146.

by an eccentric, such as 26, in Fig. 1430. Alternatively,
again, the to-and-fro motion is obtained by a rack and
pinion movement, operated from a second cam groove
in the cylinder a. In the more recent device (Fig. 146),
used in the Kineto projector, one of the latest
machines with the pin - feed, two cam grooves are
used in the cylinder a. One groove, o, in the outer
periphery engages a roller pin, /, and imparts the vertical
movement to the feed-slide b; the other groove, c, in the
top face of the first groove, o, engages the pin d to control
the position of the pin-frame relatively to the film. Two
balancing discs in the centre of the cylinder a are

FILM MACHINES 147

arranged to exactly counterbalance the difference in the
mass of the cam drum, and counteract any deflecting
strain on the bearings. The cylinder is driven by means
of a fixed ring, h, cut with internal teeth, and three planet
wheels on the spider g, gearing both with the ring h and
driving the central pinion e on the axis of the cylinder a.

The examples given will sufficiently indicate the in-
genuity which has been spent on this type of feed. It is
not much used for projectors, but is very extensively used
for feeding the film in perforating and printing machines.
The action of the pins serve in the latter to feed the
positive film along with the negative film, both films being
thereby fed at exactly the same rate.

The motion of the film during a feed by the claws
can be represented by curves similar to those shown in
Fig. n8A. In the case of the claw-feed the claws always
enter and leave the perforations when stationary, and the
curve will always start from X and finish at X'. The
quicker shift movements are represented by steep curves,
and the consequent strain on the film is correspondingly
great. The slower shift movements are represented by
flatter curves, and the consequent strain on the film is
correspondingly less.

2 (d [i]). Film moved intermittently by the Pressure of a
Revolving Eccentric.

The original so-called dog-motion, invented by Demeny,
is shown in Fig. 82. The amount of film fed forward can
be adjusted by adjustably mounting the eccentric roller R
along a slot in the revolving disc D (Fig. 147). If the film
passes between two gripping rollers, such as A, B, which
continually rotate, and thereby continually put tension on
the film, it is necessary to have pressure pads, P, at the
gate to hold the film stationary when the dog is not acting
on the film. It is more usual, however, to use a sprocket-
roller in lieu of the rollers A, B, for the purpose of taking

148

LIVING PICTURES

up the loop intermittently fed by the dog. The film is
not then under continuous tension. A very recent dog
feed-motion used on one of Kamm's machines is illustrated
in Fig. 148. The principle is similar to the cam action of
a sewing machine. A pin, P, on a rotating disc, O, travels
in the slot S of a pivoted arm, R, carrying the roller M,

FIG. 147.

FIG. 148.

actuating the film LL'. In the position shown, the roller
M is just about to feed the film, and a very quick feed is
obtained as the pin P rides over the hump X in the slot S.

2 (d [2]). Film moved intermittently by a Reciprocated Arm.

The roller which strikes the film need not have a rotary
action, though that is, perhaps, the best form, there being
no dead point. Evans, in 1890, showed a double tilting-
arm applied to this purpose (see Figs. 71 and 72), while
Varley almost simultaneously invented a cam-reciprocated
arm. In another early arrangement, shown in Figs. 74,
97, the feed-roller acted under the influence of a spring-
arm, when the film was released from clamps. Blair, in
1896, suggested a rocking arm with a roller, Q 2 (Fig. 149),
at one end, which is oscillated by an eccentric, E 5 , on the
driving-shaft E. By another eccentric, E 2 , set at right-

FILM MACHINES

149

angles to E 5 , pins, N, are intermittently engaged with the
film to hold it steady during the stationary interval. In a
further development of this type of motion, a pair of

FIG. 149.

vibrating levers, P, P' (Fig. 150), with rollers at their ends,
are linked together and worked up and down by a cam, T,
on the driving-shaft g. A spring gripper, t 2 , actuated by

FIG. 150.

a cam, t r , holds the film against the gate U during the
upward motion of the levers. In all such cases the feed
action takes place over an arc. Another device suggested
by Blair, in 1896, consisted of a rise-and-fall shutter, with

150 LIVING PICTURES

rollers at the top and bottom, and vertically reciprocated
by a crank. The film is clamped during the upward
motion of the shutter, and is fed forward on the down-
ward motion. In another machine, a similar vertical slide,
not forming the shutter, was intermittently raised by a
rotating cam, and the return-feed movement effected by a
spring. In a later machine (Fig. 151), of the same kind by
Hughes, the feed-rollers M, M' are mounted on a frame,
L, which is reciprocated along the vertical guide bar J by
a crank disc, O, and adjustable connecting rod, N. The
feed sprockets H, H' are continuously driven, and the
film passes over guide - rollers, p, so that the rollers
M, M' act at right angles to the moving film. In the

FIG. 152.

most recent machine of the same maker, the Bio-
Pictorescope, a horizontally moving " piston plunger," G
(Fig. 152), is reciprocated by a crank, C (see also Fig. 199).

2 (e). Film moved intermittently by Other Means
than the Above.

In addition to the above methods, there are one or two
miscellaneous methods of moving the film, which are at
any rate interesting, even if not in practical use. In one
such, Fig. 153, suggested in 1896, two blocks, M', are
driven forward intermittently to grip the edges of the film
against a plate on the other side. The gripping-blocks
and plate then sink together, carrying the film with them.
Flexible guards, M 8 , prevent the film buckling, and when
the pressure of the grippers ceases, a brake pad, Q, comes

FILM MACHINES 151

into action, and clamps the film while the film rises. In
another device, Fig. 154, two plates, A, are formed with
internal ribs, C, which are concentric with the plates for
the greater portion of their length, and then curl inwards
so that their ends are separated by the length of a picture.
The film D is notched along the edges, and the notches
engage the ribs. When the circular portion of the ribs
engage the film, it remains stationary. When the

FIG. 153.

FIG. 154.

inwardly curved part comes round, the film is drawn
down. The action is similar to the action of the cam
slots, illustrated in Fig. 128, on the pin-wheel in engage-
ment therewith.

If the reader has had the patience to follow out the
preceding rough outline of the mechanical methods for

152 LIVING PICTURES

obtaining intermittence, he will probably agree that there
appears to be little room for the introduction of many new
principles. Yet these descriptions have, in many cases,
been only outline; the illustrations but diagrams. The
extreme accuracy demanded in all these motions, together
with the necessity of moving the film at a high speed, and
yet stopping and starting it many times a second, renders
a large number of mechanical refinements necessary. If
it be permissible to express a personal opinion, it may be
suggested that the best form of machine is that in which
all parts (naturally excepting the film) are kept in continual
rotation, thus minimizing any variable pressure on the
elements of the apparatus. If intermittently acting
parts are employed, the workmanship must be of the
best, and the material such as will stand continued friction
and shock without perceptible wear. Further, whatever
the nature of the mechanism employed, it should, for the
safety of the film, apply tractive force gradually, and dis-
tribute that force over as large an area of the film as
possible. Thus, in dog-motion machines the size of the
dog is of great importance ; the larger it is, the larger
the area of film over which the blow is distributed. If
the strain takes place on a sprocket-roller, the film should
be kept in contact with it as much as possible, so as
to share the pull over a maximum number of perforations.
To attempt the systematic description of these arrange-
ments would be a hopeless task, as they are so bound up
with the build of the machine in which they appear.
Some have already been incidentally noticed, such as the
interposition of a spring as used in Greene and Evans'
early machine, which may be used to obtain variations in
the driving power ; and the use of fingers or pins for
intermittently engaging the film to hold it steady in the
gate. Other refinements will also incidentally appear in
considering various designs of machines in subsequent
chapters.

The Polytechnic
School of Cinematography

(A New Branch of the School of Photography)
307, 309 & 311, Regent Street, London, W.

(Within a few yards of Oxford Circus.}

PRESIDENT J. E. K. STUDD, Esg.

VICE-PRESIDENT DOUGLAS M. HOGG, ESQ.

DIRECTOR OF EDUCATION ... ROBERT MITCHELL.

The First and uniformly most successful

School of Photographyin the World

THE object of the present extension of the School is to afford high-
class and experienced instruction in Photography, as applied to
the Cinematograph. That the School is eminently successful in
its method of instruction is abundantly testified by the unsolicited
testimony of nearly five thousand pupils, more than half of whom are
professional workers.

Nearly all the heads of the Photographic Schools throughout the
country, many of the leading Professional and Pictorial Workers, many
Head Operators and Managers, both with purely Photographic and
allied industries, were trained at the Polytechnic.

Polytechnic Pupils have also been awarded nearly the whole of the
medals given by public authorities, as well as over THREE HUNDRED
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who give instruction to clients desiring assistance in special sections of
work.

N.B. The advantages of a teacher are not sufficiently recognized, a common
prevalent supposition being that anyone working frequently at any class of artistic work
has nothing further to learn ; in other words, practice and experience alone are of service.
As a matter of fact, in photography, attention to variables, as regards the subject, the
manipulation, and the appliances, not superficially visible or recognized, rather than a
high degree of operative skill, are the chief elements which lead to success. When
studying under the eye of a teacher, who is thoroughly acquainted with the difficulties
likely to arise, and having an intimate knowledge of the variables which underlie each
operation (based not on books or theories, but on a close familiarity with daily practice),
the conditions are entirely different, the teacher enabling the student to readily overcome,
if not altogether avoid, the innumerable troubles usually met with.

Further particulars on application.

juirers should ask to be directed to t},
where first-hand complete information can alone be obtained

N.B. All personal inquirers should ask to be directed to the PJwtographic School,

' ed.

HEPWORTH'S
V1VAPHONE

:: TTbe onty successful ::
Singing picture Machine

Now in use in hundreds of Picture

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Write to-day for full particulars.

Hepwortb Manufacturing Co,

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CINEMATOGRAPHERS,

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LONDON, W.

CHAPTER V

FILMS, THEIR PRODUCTION AND TREATMENT

Celluloid and non-flam films Perforation Cameras and accessories
Developing the negative Printing the positive Developing
the positive Retouching, colouring, and protecting the film
Joining and repairing films Cleaning and renovating films.

A FILM for projecting a Living Picture is nothing more,
after all, than a multiple lantern slide ; and its production
is therefore in all respects similar, with the exception
of those manipulative details necessitated by its peculiar
form, and the special care required to secure absolute
registration of each picture with its predecessor. In order
to describe all such devices connected with the treatment of
films, it may be assumed that whatever is good enough for
a lantern slide is the correct thing in the treatment for a
Living Picture film, only probably not good enough. After
considering the nature of the film itself, we shall have to
consider the various processes and manipulations to which
a film is subjected in the course of its career.

CELLULOID AND NON-FLAM FILMS.

A film should have certain properties to meet the exact-
ing demands made upon it. It should be strong, supple,
transparent, homogeneous, unaffected by atmospheric
conditions and changes, and, last but not least, it should
be non-inflammable. By one of Nature's contradictions,
celluloid, the substance most extensively used for films,
has all the qualities required except the last, being
extremely inflammable.

156 LIVING PICTURES

Celluloid as an article of manufacture was invented at
Newark by two brothers of the name of Hyatt, in 1869,
but at the time was designed merely for the production of
solid objects. It was not till the beginning of 1888 that
sheets were available for photographic purposes, and even
then much remained to be accomplished in order that
a sensitive emulsion might be supported evenly and with-
out deterioration. The Blair Company seem to have first
supplied films, and it was from them that both Edison and
Acres in the first instance obtained their supplies. A
patent was applied for in America in 1887 by a Rev. H.
Goodwin for celluloid films in rolls, with a non-curling
backing, but this patent was not granted till 1898. It
is strange that the then comparatively small subject
of Living Pictures should have afforded two instances of
patents so long delayed. In the meantime the Eastman
Company of America applied and obtained a patent for
a similar film, and put the films on the market. Messrs.
Lumiere also started to manufacture, and made their own
films, a fact which was probably the origin of the lack
of uniformity in gauge which prevailed until comparatively
recently.

The manufacture of celluloid at the present time forms
a very important branch of what is known as the nitro-
cellulose industry. The raw material from which celluloid
is made is cellulose, which is the principal constituent of
such materials as paper, cotton, cotton-waste, hemp, and
flax. The cellulose has first to be converted into nitro-
cellulose, which is a chemical name for what is more
commonly known as pyroxylin, or gun-cotton. This
conversion is effected by treating the cellulose with a
strong mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, and the
pulpy mass thereby obtained is bleached. The bleached
nitro-cellulose is then thoroughly washed to remove all
free acid. The prence of any acids give rise to by-
products which very rapidly decompose, and thereby

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 157

produce very inferior films, as well as being the cause of
accidents arising from such decomposition. Celluloid is
a solution of this nitro-cellulose in a solvent, containing
camphor, alcohol, ether, and sometimes amyl-acetate and
amyl-alcohol. It must be stated here that nearly all manu-
facturing companies have their secret compositions, which
are deemed more valuable as such than if disclosed to the
world through the medium of the Patent Office, even for a
possible monopoly in them for a period of fourteen years.

To obtain the celluloid in the form of thin films, the
solution is run out in a continuous manner from a thin
wedge-shaped opening on to an endless band having a
smooth surface, and forming a temporary support. The
thin coating thus obtained becomes hardened in travelling
through a drying chamber, which evaporates the solvent.
The film is then detached from the surface of the belt,
which travels round again under the discharge opening,
and the detached film is wound on a reel. In lieu of an
endless band, the solution may be poured on the surface
of a large cylinder.

The film has next to be cut into the required widths.
Practically speaking, there is at the present time only
one width used, which is about if inches. This gauge
was used by Edison for the Kinetoscope ; it was also
adopted by Paul in England, and, in spite of many
attempts to put films of other gauges on the market, the
original Edison gauge has prevailed. The pictures on
the film are normally I by f inch.

Before coating the film with emulsion, it is necessary
to coat it with a substratum which will enable the sensi-
tized emulsion to adhere to the film. There are many
ways of coating the film. It may be coated, for example,
in much the same way as the celluloid solution is coated
on the endless band in making the celluloid film. In
another method, a roller dipping into the emulsion coats
the film directly, or through the " .edium of an inter-

158 LIVING PICTURES

mediate roller, and the coated film passes through a
drying chamber to the reeling spool. The action is
essentially the same as the action of the chalking roller
of a lawn-tennis marker. It is very necessary that the
coatings deposited on the film should be perfectly even
and of the requisite thickness. The coatings are, of
course, applied in a dark-room.

The one and only drawback to the celluloid film is its
inflammability. For some time and especially after the
passing of the Cinematograph Act,* which enforces very
stringent regulations for the safety of the public where
inflammable films are used investigators have sought to
find an equally serviceable film which will not catch fire
so readily, or burn with such inextinguishable fury when
alight.

The inflammability of celluloid arises from the two
very inflammable ingredients, nitro-cellulose and camphor.
Of the several methods which have been tried for obtain-
ing a non-flam film base, the following are the chief:
(i) Solutions have been added to the nitro- cellulose-
camphor solution which will check combustion, such as
solutions of mineral substances, or alternatively substances
which will evolve incombustible gases. (2) Camphor has
been replaced by less costly substitutes. (3) Nitro-
cellulose has been replaced by some other cellulose
compound, such as cellulose acetate. (4) Films of
gelatin, casein, albumin or other colloid, or a thin layer
of celluloid sandwiched between two protective layers of
gelatin or other colloid, have been tried.

The first two methods do not seem at present to
have yielded satisfactory results for Living Picture films,
although products are obtained which are quite service-
able for other commercial purposes. The products are,
however, too brittle for Living Picture films. Films made
from gelatin and similar substances, or with protective
* See Chapter IX.

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 159

coatings of these materials, are unsatisfactory, largely
on account of their susceptibility to atmospheric con-
ditions and changes. The promise of the future seems to
lie in the use of the third method. Most of the well-
known makers of films supply, or have supplied, films
made from cellulose-acetate, which are, in the ordinary
meaning of the word, non-inflammable. If an Act of
Parliament were passed, making the use of non-flam films
compulsory, and prescribing a standard flammability test,
it is not unlikely that the virtues of such films would be
immediately discovered. It is to be feared, however, that
the inertia to be overcome before the use of such films
becomes anything like extensive is very great.

PERFORATING THE FILM.

Perforations and Gauges. As the prevailing method of
driving the film in taking and projecting machines is by
means of sprocket-rollers, the next step in the production
of a Living Picture film is usually to perforate it. Here,
again, as in the case of widths, the standard perforation
is that used originally by Edison. There are four per-
forations (Fig. 155) on either side of each picture, the
holes being exactly {^ inch apart, the crossways separa-
tion being i^ inches, just leaving a clear inch for the
picture. Lumiere endeavoured to substitute one pair of
holes to each picture length, but the attempt was not
successful. A similar attempt to depart from the standard
perforation has recently been made for the Pathescope.

Almost every conceivable shape of perforation has been
tried or suggested. The Lumiere perforation was circular,
but as the feed-sprockets are often square or rectangular,
there would, if the film is used in a machine having such
sprockets, be a tendency to split the film, as illustrated in
Fig. I55A. Lord Kelvin suggested a triangular shape.
The rectangular shape used by Edison is modified to

i6o

LIVING PICTURES

the extent of rounding the sides, leaving, however, at the
top and bottom a straight edge for traction purposes, and
thereby reducing the risk of rupture to a minimum. The

FIG. 155.

FIG.

importance of these considerations is heightened when
the question of strain on the film is considered. Tension
on the film is shared between the perforations actually

FIG. 156.

engaged with the sprocket-teeth, and it would appear easy
to carry the film round the major portion of the sprocket-
roller (Fig. 156), in order to subdivide the strain as far as

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 161

possible. But this can only be done to a limited extent ;
for not only do various films differ slightly in gauge, but
shrinkage in development, and even atmospheric influences,
tend to vary the distance between the perforations. Inter-
changeable sprocket rollers have been used to suit any
special make of film under exhibition, or any film in a
shrunk condition. It would seem that shrinkage had
much to do with slight differences in perforation gauges,
for at first perforating machines were in some instances
made to agree with finished films rather than with the
original standard perforation, as should have been the
case.

It must not be forgotten that in some types of cameras
and projectors (for example, certain continuous-motion
apparatus, and others in which the film is gripped, not
held by teeth) perforations are not necessary, although
they are not detrimental if present. Some very extra-
ordinary suggestions have also been made for perforating,
such as central eyelets, which would hardly facilitate
rolling, and the carrying of perforations across the film
between each picture, presumably in order that they
might be torn off like postage stamps. Reference may
also be made to Fig. 95, wherein a film is shown notched
on the edges. The advantages of this system are cer-
tainly not obvious.

Perforating Machines. The first and undoubtedly the
most important machine necessary for film-making is the
perforator. An accurate perforation is the fundamental
basis of a perfect projection at any rate, where a sprocket
feed is used. This demand for accurate perforation has
resulted in the production of several machines of mar-
vellous precision. There are broadly two classes of
machines : (i) Those in which the film is continuously
moving between two cylinders, formed respectively with
dies and punches, as illustrated in Fig. 157. This type
does not admit of many variations in structure and

162

LIVING PICTURES

working. It was more used in the early days than it is
to-day, having given place to the second type. (2) Those
in which reciprocating punches are used, the film being

FIG. 157.

fed intermittently, generally by a claw feed. Fig. 158
illustrates Williamson's perforator, which is representa-
tive of this type, as well as embodying the fruits of the

FIG. 158.

long experience of its designer. With this machine two
films, face to face, can be perforated together, in order
to protect the sensitive surface from getting scratched,
which is liable to occur to a greater or less extent when

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 163

the films are perforated singly, and also incidentally to
double the output. The films are fed by rollers, A, so as
to form loops, H, H, before entering the guide channel M.
The machine punches four pairs of holes at a time, and,
as security for absolutely uniform perforation, the recipro-
cating slide P, carrying the punches C, carries also a
similar set of dowel pins, D, which engage the perfora-
tions just previously made before the punches C perforate
the next section of film. The film is fed by the claw
feed E, which is described in Fig. 144. The sprocket N

FIG. 159.

A, Film-holder (feed); B, film-guide rollers; C, small channel for feed
rolls ; D, feed rolls ; E, rear guide ; F, cams ; G, pressure rods ;
H, regulating nut ; I, milled-head screw ; J, screw, fixing the claws
in the carriage ; K, detachable die ; L, front guide ; M, claws ;
N, slide, carrying punches ; P, motor ; R, sprocket wheel ; S, re-
winder.

is driven from the driving wheel B, and maintains a free
loop of perforated film, thereby avoiding any pull on the
film during the perforating. In order to keep the per-
forations very accurately central, the guiding channel M
is fitted with two parallel resilient bars, which are linked
together in such a manner that, if the width of the film
should vary in the slightest degree, the bars will not only
remain parallel, but will yield to exactly the same extent
from the centre of the channel, at all points along the
channel.

164

LIVING PICTURES

In most perforating machines, however, only one pair
of holes is punched at a time, as in Debrie's perforator
(Fig. 159). There are quite a number of points which
arise on the question as to the advisability or otherwise
of punching more than one pair of holes at a time, into
which it is impossible to enter fully here. There is no
apparent fundamental objection in principle, as four pairs
of holes can be as accurately punched as a single pair,
provided, of course, the punches and dies are accurately

FIG. 1 60.

spaced. There is certainly a saving as regards output,
and the probable cumulative error of spacing will be one
quarter of the corresponding error where only a single
pair of holes are punched at a time. If anything should
happen to one of the four punches or the dies, or one of
the punches were to become inaccurately spaced, it is
preferable to replace the complete set than to attempt to
doctor any single punch, as, if this is not done with
extreme accuracy, it might introduce an error in spacing

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 165

which would be cumulative along the whole length of the
film.

In some machines, again, dowel pins are not used for
positioning the film, but an intermittent clamp is used,
which comes into operation immediately the film is fed
forward, and is released just before the next feed.

The provision of means for adjusting the spacing of
the perforations is a very valuable one, and in some cases
is a necessity, as will be more fully explained in dealing
with the production of the positive film. Debrie's per-
forator has such adjustment, as also has the Newman
and Sinclair perforator. In one form of adjustment the
position of the dowel pins b, relative to the punch pin B
(Fig. 160), is adjusted from an index finger, d. In an
alternative adjustment designed by Mr. Newman, only

one dowel pin, P (Fig. i6oAj, is used, which is mounted
on a strong arm, S, secured at N to the bar NN', carry-
ing the punches Q. The position of the dowel pin P
is controlled by a micrometer thumb-screw, K, at the
opposite end of the spring bar S, and it will be seen that
the displacement of the dowel pin P is only a fraction of
the displacement of the end of the spring bar S, produced
by turning the screw K, and thus an exceedingly fine
adjustment can be obtained. An alternative method of
adjusting the gauge is to adjust the feed of the film.
This may be done, for example, by making the position
of the fulcrum C' (Fig. 160) adjustable along the feed
arm C. A further development of this apparatus recently
suggested by Mr. Thornton comprises the addition of
means for visually inspecting the film, in order that the
operator may adjust the gauge as perforation progresses.

166 LIVING PICTURES

This is accomplished by providing an opening, E, in the
table, and projecting the picture in the opening on a
vertical screen, for which purpose a lamp, F, mirror, #,
and projecting lens, G, are provided. In this way the
film is projected just as in the projector, excepting that
it will take four shifts to bring the next picture into full
view on the screen. Any tendency in the picture to
creep on the screen will thus be noticed, and the per-
forating adjusted from the handle d.

TAKING THE NEGATIVE, AND APPARATUS THEREFOR.

The Camera. After perforating the film, the next step
is to obtain the negative. Of cameras, the cinema-
tographer, like the ordinary photographer, has a wide
choice, and can now have a motor-driven hand camera.
Broadly speaking, a camera for Living Pictures is similar
to an ordinary roll-film hand camera, but fitted with
mechanism for drawing successive portions of the film
into the focal plane for exposure at a rapid rate. The
previous chapter has recorded the various mechanisms
which could be used for this latter purpose, but in prac-
tice the only one used is the claw-feed mechanism. The
reason for this is that such mechanism gives a very
accurate feed, while at the same time it is the least com-
plicated, and can be made lighter than other feed
mechanisms. Fig. 161 may be taken as illustrating a
typical modern camera. The upper film box A holds
the unexposed film, and the lower box B the exposed
film. The film is threaded over the upper sprocket C,
and through the gate D, which contains a mask limiting
the area of the film exposed to the required size namely
i inch by f inch. The film then passes over a second
sprocket, E, into the box B. The arms C', E', carry
rollers to press the film into engagement with the
sprockets C, E, and loops, P, P', are left on either side

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 167

of the gate to prevent any tension of the film while it is
in the gate. In front of the gate is the shutter, the
simplest form of which consists of an opaque disc from
which a sector is cut away. This open part crosses in
front of the film during its stationary interval in the gate,
and the opaque part masks the film during the shifts.
Two shutters relatively adjustable are used when an
adjustable exposure is required. The shutter, the upper
and lower sprockets C, E, the intermittent feed mechanism,
and the take-up spool in the box B, are all driven in

unison from the handle turned by the operator. The
provision of the focussing tube F, which contains a
magnifying glass, enables the film to be accurately
focussed by inspection. The lens is fitted in a focussing
mount, and can be automatically set for focussing near
objects, when focussing by inspection is undesirable.
The camera is also fitted with a film punch for register-
ing on the film the termination of any particular exposure,
and with dials indicating the amount of film exposed and
the amount left.

i68

LIVING PICTURES

The spool box is an important accessory for all cameras.
To keep them light-tight, the light-trapped slot S, Fig. 161,
through which the film enters or leaves the box, is often
rendered light-tight by padding the slot with a soft plush
material. Now, when a film is rubbed vigorously by soft
material of this character, electrical markings are liable to
If any dirt or grit should get on to the material,

occur.

FIG. i6iA.

scratches also will be produced on the film. A scratched
or marked negative cannot give a good positive, as no
method of printing is known which will select the good
parts of a negative and reject the bad. It is therefore, at
any rate, necessary to periodically brush and clean any
soft material used for padding. Fig. i6iA illustrates a
spool box fitted with a padded mouthpiece, M, which is

FIG. 16113.

hinged, in order to be accessible for cleaning. It is auto-
matically positioned, and held in the film slot S when the
door is closed.

For the same reason also the film, and especially the
sensitive surface of the film, should, as far as possible, be
prevented from rubbing against any surface during its
path through the camera. Where guiding slots or sur-

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 171

should prefer a simpler camera is not surprising, and
Fig. 165 illustrates a camera noted for an absolute
maximum of simplicity consistent with the requirements
for efficiency. It will be seen that only one sprocket
wheel is used, which does the double duty of drawing the
film from supply and feeding it to the take-up spool.
A further feature of this camera is that the whole feed
mechanism, including the sprocket and claw feed (which

FIG. 164.

; of the type illustrated in Fig. 144), is mounted on a
ta enable bracket screwed on to the camera case.
With these cameras the film is driven by hand or by
eparate motor, and the camera must be mounted on a
od or other support. The latter method of driving is
autom suitable for studio work where a current is available,
the can> impracticable for outdoor and topical work. Many
against pts have been made to devise a camera with a self-
spool bo ne d motor, which can be held in the hand while the
The cam is being taken, just like an ordinary hand camera,

i68

LIVING PICTURES

occur.

FIG. i6iA.

FIG. i6iB.

id
de-

.riost

hinged, in order to be accessible for cleaning. It is av *
matically positioned, and held in the film slot S when :neral
door is closed.

For the same reason also the film, and especiall vour to
sensitive surface of the film, should, as far as possil ldlcatecl
prevented from rubbing against any surface d ur 'internal
path through the camera. Where guiding slots

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 171

FIG. 164.

is of the type illustrated in Fig. 144), is mounted on a
detachable bracket screwed on to the camera case.

With these cameras the film is driven by hand or by
a separate motor, and the camera must be mounted on a
tripod or other support. The latter method of driving is
very suitable for studio work where a current is available,
but is impracticable for outdoor and topical work. Many
attempts have been made to devise a camera with a self-
contained motor, which can be held in the hand while the
picture is being taken, just like an ordinary hand camera.

172

LIVING PICTURES

Different motor mechanisms have been tried, but the only
successful type of motor is an air motor, as originally
suggested by Mr. Proszynski, whose " Aeroscope " camera

FIG. 165.

(Fig. 166) is the outcome of numerous experiments. The
four cylinders A contain air at 300 to 400 pounds pressure,
and are in communication with a chamber, B, supplying a

FIG. 166.

constant pressure of air at 40 to 50 pounds to the motor C
which drives the claw-feed mechanism. Side by side,
behind the cylinders A, are the film spools. The spool
boxes have shaped shallow channels, such as A, Fig. i66A,

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 173

extending some distance round the periphery of the spool
box, forming a light-tight channel slot for the film.

With the motor working in the camera, a certain amount
of vibration is to be expected. There are three possible
vibrations of the camera, namely : (i) Movements of the
camera parallel to the optical axis ; (2) oscillations round
the optical axis ; and (3) angular oscillations of the optical
axis.

The first two vibrations are liable to affect the sharp-
ness of the picture, but only to an inappreciable extent, as
the actual extent of the vibrations is so very small. The
angular vibration or movement of the optic axis would
affect the position of the picture on the film much more
seriously, and, in order to eliminate any such vibration as

FIG. i66A.

far as possible, a large heavy flywheel, W, is driven from
the shutter to rotate very rapidly, which acts gyroscopi-
cally to keep the optical axis constant.*

The Camera Stand. A most important auxiliary for the
camera is the stand. In taking Living Picture films
absolute rigidity of the camera is a sine qua non. The
enormous magnification to which a film is subjected on
projection (anything between 100 and 200 times) renders
it absolutely essential that vibration should be entirelv
eliminated, and with this object the stand should receive
rigorous criticism. In some cases, of course, portability
must be Considered ; and with an apparatus of light build
any ordinary tripod of proved reliability maybe employed.

* See Photo Journal, March, 1913, p. 106.

i;4 LIVING PICTURES

In addition to rigidity and portability, means must be pro-
vided for adjusting the camera, and for following an object
to keep it within the field of view. For this purpose
tripod stands are fitted with a revolving head (H, Fig.. 167),
and this revolving head carries a tilting base, B, on which
the camera is secured. These two revolving and tilting
adjustments enable the photographer to readily point the
camera in the required direction, and the adjustments are
readily effected by suitable handles.

Such mechanism will usually provide a slow movement
of the camera, and auxiliary means are provided on most
tripods now in use for rapidly moving the camera round.

FIG. 167.

For this purpose the handle-turning gear is adapted so
that it can be disconnected or thrown out of use, and
enabling the camera to be swung round by hand.

The Lens. For a good Living Picture negative, a good
lens is an absolute necessity. In view of the high mag-
nification of the picture on projection, sharpness in the
picture is the first consideration, and in the case of
rapidly-moving objects, especially, the shorter the exposure
the sharper the picture is likely to be. The actual
exposure i.e., the light action on the negative depends
partly on the length of the exposure, and partly on the
aperture of the lens through which the light passes. A

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 175

wide aperture will allow more light to pass than a narrow
aperture. Consequently, if the light is at all poor, it will
be necessary to use as wide an aperture as possible. The
aperture of a lens is generally given in terms of the focal
length ; thus, a lens working at F/6 means that, when the
picture is focussed on the film, the aperture A, Fig. 168,
through which the light enters is one-sixth of the focal
length B of the lens ; and in the case of distant objects the
distance of the lens from the film will be very approxi-
mately the focal length. A lens which will work with
a wide aperture is, thus, much more rapid than one which
will work at a small aperture. There are many lenses
available which work at F/3'5. A lens has also recently

FIG. 165.

been put on the market, by Dallmeyer, with a focal length
of 2 inches, and which works at an aperture of F/i'g, and
at the present moment is the most rapid lens procurable.
Where the light is sufficiently good, it is often advisable to
stop down the lens by means of an iris diaphragm, the
gradation of tones in the picture, and the distance and
perspective effects, being thereby greatly improved.

A telephoto lens is a useful adjunct for filming distant
objects. With a cinematograph camera, considerations of
rigidity make it impossible to use a long focus lens with a
long camera extension. A telephoto lens (Fig. 169) is
a combination of a positive element, A, which by itself
would give a photographic image like an ordinary camera

i;6 LIVING PICTURES

lens, with a negative element, B, which by itself will only
give a virtual image. The focus of the positive element is
at F', while the focus of the combination is at F. The
combination is thus equivalent to a positive lens of long
focal length, but works at a much less camera extension,
and the function of the negative element is to enable the

FIG. 169.

positive element A to give a more detailed image of a
narrower field of view without the necessity of using a lens
of long focal length with a long camera extension.

DEVELOPING THE FILM.

Let us assume that the perfect operator has exposed
a perfect film ; much has yet to be done before the
picture is ready for projection. The negative has first
to be developed, and the ordinary amateur, who finds a
difficulty in keeping his finger-nails from damaging the
film of four plates in a single dish, may well stand aghast
at the idea of a curvilinear celluloid reptile anything from
100 to 500 feet long, so minute in detail as to render
judgment of density difficult, and demanding to be
uniformly developed throughout. Of the many methods
proposed for development, certain may be taken as types,
but as regards the developer only one rule applies. It
must be non-staining. Otherwise, in this, as in all other
branches of photography, one man's meat is another man's
poison, and the golden rule here as elsewhere is to find
a developer that suits personal methods, and stick to it.
As regards methods and apparatus, there are, broadly
speaking, two ways of dealing with the film (i) winding

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 177

it on a framework, and manipulating the framework in
the various baths ; and (2) feeding the film continuously
through the developer and other liquids, and possibly
passing it straight through a drying chamber, and reeling
it as a finished negative.

Developing Frames, Drums, etc. Figs. I7OA and 1706
illustrate the most common forms of frames on which the
film is wound for treatment. The wooden frame A is
perhaps the most commonly used in conjunction with a
vertical tank, which may be grooved to accommodate
five or six such frames. The pin frame (Fig. 1706), on
which the film is wound in a spiral, can be used with a
flat dish. When a drum such as B is used, it is mounted

FIG. I70A. FIG. I70B.

for development over a trough, the lower part of the
drum dipping into the liquid. The use of such drums
necessitates two persons to lift the drum from one trough
to another, whereas frames such as A can be manipulated
by one person. Such frames and drums are generally
formed of a series of laths, but glass drums may be used.
Blair in the early days advocated the use of such glass
drums, and that each drum be kept for its own trough
and solution, the film being wound from the one to the
other at each stage of treatment. A ruby incandescent
lamp could be used inside the cylinder to enable the
progress of development to be watched. The glass drums
were also recommended, on account of the greater security

i 7 8

LIVING PICTURES

they offer with respect to cleanliness. The expense of
such drums would, however, be somewhat heavy, and it
is doubtful if the advantages would be sufficiently great.
Two other forms of apparatus are of interest. In Marey's
apparatus (Fig. 171), two drums, P, P, are used, the film F,
wound in spiral, passing from one to the other. The
drums do not themselves enter the liquid, but the film
is carried down and under a roller, G, immersed in the
trough D. The film might also be passed as an endless
band through a long trough, A (Fig. 172), by means of a
rotated roller, B.

For drying the film, the most common method is to

/ ^r\

ri^jj

s ^h

FIG. 171.

' " ; " " /

FIG. 172.

wind the film on a large rotated drum, such as B in
Fig. I7OA, the drum being rotated by a motor in a room
which is kept at a uniform temperature of 80 C. An
alternative method is to hang the film by hand in a zig-
zag path from a series of hooks in the ceiling.

Continuous Processes. With such frames the necessary
winding from one frame to another, though very con-
venient for comparatively short lengths of film, such as a
topical film, is not the most scientific method for large
quantities of film. The use of glass drums, as previously
described, suggests a method that might be adopted
namely, joining several lengths of film, and running the
film on to the drum at one end, and off at the other end,

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 179

straight on to the next drum, keeping the drums con-
tinuously rotating. The idea of running the film in at
one end of a machine, and bringing it out as a finished
negative at the other end, is by no means a modern idea,
and, in essence, is no more awe-inspiring than the idea of
putting raw tobacco in at one end of a cigarette-making
machine which is designed to deliver finished cigarettes
at the other end. Such a method for developing and

FiG. 173.

finishing the film in a continuous process has, strange to
say, yet found very little favour, but is almost bound to
be the method of the future. One of the few to realize
the scientific value of such methods is Mr. Hepworth,
who adopted it from the very beginning. Fig. 173 illus-
trates diagrammatically the essential features of Mr.
Hepworth's apparatus, as described in the British patent
specification. Four long narrow troughs, M, M 1 , M 2 , M 3 ,
side by side, contain respectively developer, fixer, harden-

i8o

LIVING PICTURES

ing solution, and glycerine solution for preventing the
film becoming brittle on drying. At the ends of the
troughs are feed sprockets, M 4 , on two shafts, M 5 , M 7 ,
which are both driven from the worm-shaft, M 11 . The
film A is fed through each trough in succession, passing
in the intermediate stages through a water-trough, O,
supplied with a continuous flow of water. Weighted
rollers, E 4 , press the film into engagement with the
sprockets M 4 . In passing through the water-trough O,
the film passes through guide slots, P 4 , in an oscillating
bar, P. In case of any entanglement, the bar P is

N\NX^^^ *

FIG. 174.

tilted, and an alarm sounded. On leaving the trough M 3 ,
the film is fed over rollers, N 8 , in a drying chamber, and
is finally reeled on a spool, M 2 . In Mr. Hepworth's
more recent apparatus, the developing and fixing troughs
are duplicated one above the other, and the film passes
horizontally in a zigzag path through the water-trough,
round a series of sprocket rollers at the ends of the water-
tank, and the balanced bar P is found to be unnecessary.
The films are reeled direct from the washing tank, and
the reeled film passed to a separate drying room. In
other varieties of suggested apparatus, the film is fed

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 181

through vertical tanks over suitably-positioned rollers,
and a large variety of apparatus of this type is possible.
In a recent apparatus (Fig. 174), devised by Mr. Thornton,
the film is fed in a long helical path over two parallel
rollers, 61, 62, the lower rollers dipping into the developing
and other troughs to an adjustable extent. The rollers are
provided with a series of guide flanges, to guide the travel
of the film.

PRODUCING THE POSITIVE.

The negative, exposed, developed, fixed, and dried, is
of course only a means to an end ; a positive must now
be made from it. In this series of operations, even more
care is required than in producing the negative. When
bands of any substance are subjected to the action of
solutions and incidental strains, there is always a risk of
irregular shrinking or stretching, and any error due to
this cause is liable to be doubled in intensity by the
time the positive is completed. In addition, the pictures
should stand at mathematically equal distances apart,
and any looseness or irregularity in the printing may
cause a variation first in one direction and then in
another. The result is a slight want of registration
between successive views, giving a most annoying,
tremulous motion to the picture when projected on the
screen. There are some steps in the production of a
picture film in which makeshift apparatus may with
more or less impunity be used the developing arrange-
ments, for instance. So long as the trays hold water,
and the room is dark and the solutions right, any make-
shift of apparatus will do so long as the film is handled
carefully. There must, however, be no makeshift about
the camera nor about the printing apparatus.

There have been a large number of machines con-
structed for use as cameras and projectors which may
also be used for printing, more especially those in which

182

LIVING PICTURES

intermittent claw-feed mechanism is used. As, however,
the vast majority of cameras are not so adapted, a
machine specially adapted for printing postives becomes
necessary. Such machines are, broadly speaking, of two
classes: (i) Continuously-moving-film machines, in which
the negative and positive films move continuously across
an illuminated printing zone ; and (2) intermittently-
moving-film machines, in which each section of the film
is in turn passed through a frame, and during the
stationary interval is exposed either by means of a
shutter, or by switching the light on and off synchro-
nously with the movement of the film.

FIG. 175.

Continuously - Moving - Film Machines. This type of
machine was used in the early days by Jenkins and
Marey. Fig. 175 shows the machine used by Jenkins,
which is still quite representative of modern machines of
this kind. It will be seen that a sprocket wheel is used
to hold the films in registration, each film passing in-
dependently from one spool to another, but held in close
contact, negative uppermost, between two plates under a
shielded incandescent lamp.

A very important point in contact printing apparatus
is the maintenance of a good contact between the films at

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 183

all points. A slight arching of the section of film ex-
posed is one means of obtaining good contact, and is
perhaps even more effective than flat pressure* Also,
when the film is arched in one direction, it cannot buckle
in the transverse direction, but, on the other hand, will
be extended through an even surface.

In another early machine by Mr. Joly (Fig. I75A), the
films are brought together in passing through an inclined
guide, F, and are exposed in passing over a sprocketed

FIG. i75A.

roller. In such apparatus exposure is determined by three
factors : (i) The length of the printing zone, (2) the rate
of movement of the film, and (3) the intensity of the
printing light any one of which can be varied. In the
intermittent-movement type, on the other hand, the ex-
posure is determined by two factors only : (i) The rapidity
of the intermittent movement, and (2) the intensity of the
printing light. The continuously-moving type has thus
an extra variable in the length of the printing zone,
whereby the exposure can be increased without slowing

184 LIVING PICTURES

down the speed, and thereby reducing the output. As
against this advantage may perhaps be put the possible
risk that, in passing over a curved sprocket wheel, there is
more tendency to a variable strain on the film, with con-
sequent irregularity ; whereas in the intermittent-move-
ment machines, in which a claw feed is generally used,
the claw feed serves to maintain a very exact register.

For positives sensitized with silver emulsions, a com-
paratively short exposure is sufficient. It has, however,
recently been proposed to print on to films sensitized
with a bichromate emulsion, such as are used for the
gum-bichromate, carbon, and like processes in ordinary
photography. The materials necessary for such films are
considerably cheaper than those necessary for silver print-
ing; also, if they prove satisfactory, their value for making
tinted or composite two- or three-colour films may be very
great. A bichromate emulsion is, however, very much less
sensitive to light than a silver emulsion, and the exposure
necessary in printing is therefore much longer. The pro-
longed exposure cannot be obtained by increasing the
intensity of the printing light, because increased in-
tensity involves increased heating power, and the heating
limit which the film will stand is reached long before
the required printing intensity. With the intermittent-
movement apparatus, therefore, the result of prolonged
exposure would necessitate such a small rate of printing
that the output would be too small to be of any value.
Mr. Thornton overcomes the above difficulties by (i)
taking advantage of the additional variable in the con-
tinuous-moving-film type of machine, and enlarging the
printing zone along which the film travels to many yards ;
and (2) using mercury vapour lamps for printing, in the
form of long tubes which can extend all the way along
the printing zone. An additional advantage of these lamps
is that they have a high printing but low heating power.

In one type of apparatus (Fig. 176) the negative and

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 185

positive films are carried over the surface of a large
drum, A. The surface of the drum is padded so as to
slightly arch the films, F, G, which are pressed into con-
tact with the drum by an endless transparent band, B, or
by endless rubber bands pressing on the edges of the films.
The printing light in the form of long mercury vapour
tubes, C, extends nearly the whole length of the track of the
film. If necessary, the apparatus may be kept cool by a
supply of cold air through the pipe d and casing D. In
another form of apparatus the films are carried in a long
straight course of man) 7 yards between two endless bands

FJG. 176.

travelling in side-guides along the printing course, and
these guides are arranged so that the films are slightly
arched, to obtain good printing contact. A series of
mercury vapour tubes extends along the printing course.
In yet another form the films are temporarily secured
together by an easily removable adhesive, and travel in a
helical course over two parallel rollers similar to the
rollers in Fig. 174. The series of mercury vapour tubes
is arranged between the folds of the films.

Intermittent-Moving Machines. In these machines the
motion of the film is the same as in the projector, except-

186

LIVING PICTURES

ing that the movement of the film is slower and the
stationary period longer. Williamson's printer (Fig. 177)
illustrates this type of machine. The printing box is
divided into two compartments. The upper compart-
ment contains the printing lamp J, and is lined with
asbestos ; the lower compartment O contains a motor

FIG. 177.

and a system of cone pulleys to give four speeds there-
from. Each of these four speeds is further controlled by
a regulating switch, L, giving six speeds to the motor.
This combination thus gives twenty -four alternative
speeds. The printing lamp J is adjusted towards and
away from the films by the handle P, and is further con-

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 187

trolled by a switch, M, to vary the intensity of the
printing light. A very wide range of exposures is thus
obtainable. The lamp J is a focus lamp having a grid
filament. The feed and other mechanism is mounted
on a brass plate, U, Fig. 178, fitting a mahogany frame
hinged to the front of the cabinet, and the working parts
are thus protected. The negative and positive films A, B,
travel over the sprocket F, through the printing gate E,
being clawed down intermittently by claw mechanism, T,
of the kind shown in Fig. 144. From the printing gate

FIG. 178.

the films travel over the sprocket G, and are wound on
the spools C, D, or, alternatively, the printed positive
may be passed directly into the developing apparatus.
The bevel wheel W actuates a shutter which intermit-
tently shuts off the light from the films synchronously
with the feed mechanism. In printing films of different
density, the speed of the motor, the intensity of the light,
and the position of the lamp, may be varied by the re-
sistances L, M, and the handle P.

The Debrie printer (Fig. 179) has similar character-

i88

LIVING PICTURES

istics, but varies in design and details. The lamp is
focussed on to the films by a lens which is also adjustable.
The lower switchboard controls the motor, and the upper
switchboard with the voltmeter controls the printing
lamp. After leaving the upper sprocket wheel, the
negative film enters a brass guide fitted with friction
rods, by which it is held back to a certain extent, to
allow for the difference in gauge due to shrinkage during
development. The lower part of the gate consists of a

FIG. 179.

long parallel channel in which the films fit perfectly, thus
insuring accuracy, and the centering of the films is conse-
quently automatic. The films are held during the printing
period by an intermittently-actuated clamp, and adjust-
able spring plates hold the film lightly when moving
forward. The shutter consists of a two-part red and
green revolving disc, the red part cutting of! the light
during the shifts, but allowing inspection ; and the green
light for printing is intended to increase the contrasts in

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 189

the printed film, and gives a better gradation of tone. It
is estimated that such machines will print about 1,000 feet
of film per hour from an ordinary negative.

For printing special positives, for example, in which the
pictures may have to be printed in a special order, the
printing machines have to be specially modified for the
particular purposes.

Perforating the Positive. Owing to the fact that in
the camera the film is fed by means of perforations, the
negative film must be perforated before exposure. In the
operations of developing the negative there is a certain
shrinkage in the film. Consequently the spacing of the
perforations in the finished negative are slightly smaller
than in the undeveloped negative. Where intermittent-
moving-film printing machines are used, the positive must
of necessity be perforated before printing, in order to
obtain simultaneous intermittent feed. The perforation
gauge for the positive film should, strictly speaking, be
very slightly less than the gauge used for the negative
film, by just the amount due to shrinkage in the finished
negative. When the positive is developed and finished,
there will then be an additional slight shrinkage. Where
continuous printing machines are used, there is no method
of positioning the pictures to the perforations, and it is
thus necessary to perforate the film after it is printed and
finished. In all such cases, and especially where there is
any likelihood of any variation in the spacing between
the pictures, as is found to be the case with bichromate
printing methods, the provision of means for adjusting the
spacing of the perforation is very valuable, and in a still
further degree the provision of means for visually inspecting
the film as perforation proceeds, so as to be able to adjust
the spacing.

DEVELOPING THE POSITIVE.

The development of the positive film is conducted in the
same manner as for the negative film, but the different

igo

LIVING PICTURES

character required in the resulting film requires considera-
tion. Density and gradation must be carefully watched.
Light is of extreme value in living-picture projection, and

the image must therefore not be too dense. At the same
time all detail must be secured, and some deposit be present
over the whole extent of the picture ; and sparkling points
have a distressing habit of drawing attention to the failings

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 191

of flicker and incorrect registration, even when only present
in the slightest degree. In developing the positive, the value
of apparatus in which the film is passed into the developer
as soon as possible after leaving the printing apparatus
is especially high. The complete plant devised by Mr.
Hepworth is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 180,
and includes a perforating machine, C, the printing
machine H, and the developing plant shown in Fig. 173.
The negative film J is passed from the spool J' to the
spool J, and joins the already perforated positive film A
just before entering the printer H. The printed positive
then immediately enters the developing trough, and by
the visible image developed it can be seen whether the

&RYIN&

FIG. 181.

printing is correct and the printing light adjusted. It is
possible with such apparatus to join a whole series of
negative films and print a complete spool straight off,
instead of joining a series of positive films. Means are
adapted whereby an audible alarm is automatically given
whenever there is a change of density in the negative,
thereby indicating the necessity of readjusting the print-
ing light.

In another complete outfit devised by Mr. Thornton,
the different sections, A, B, C, D, E, F (Fig. 181), of the
plant, are not tanks or boxes, but rooms of formidable
dimensions. The hot air from the lamps in the printing
room B may be utilized for drying, and forced by a
pump, 72, into the drying rooms A ? E, F,

LIVING PICTURES

RETOUCHING AND COLOURING.

Development and drying ended, the film is ready for
projection, subject to such improvement and rectification
as retouching can supply. Flaws and spots are fatal. In
a single picture they are detrimental enough, but their
presence in a film of successive views gives rise to a
twinkling and flickering effect, due to their sudden per-
ception and equally sudden disappearance, which is
irritating and fatiguing to the eye.

The film may be tinted with uniform colour, thereby
giving a very pleasing, and in some cases appropriate,
effect. Or it may be coloured, and on this subject a few
remarks may not be out of place. In an ordinary lantern
slide outline is of comparatively little moment, but in a
Living Picture it is everything. A spire of a church in the
single view does not offend the eye if the colouring over-
steps the proper outline, provided that the shape is rendered
symmetrical. Far other in a Living Picture. The
slightest variation between successive views gives rise to
a continuous bulging and contraction which no respect-
able church would allow its steeple to indulge in. Illusion
of motion is due to alteration in position of their outlines
as compared with that of stationary objects, and this pro-
gression is minute in successive views. The slightest
inaccuracy in colouring may neutralize this, and render
the steps by which an object is apparently advanced far
more jerky than is the case in the photographic views.
Therefore the colouring should be in the nature of tinting
rather than partaking of the gaudy display of the average
lantern slide. In the early days colouring was done by
hand, each picture being separately coloured. To colour
a small picture measuring i inch by J inch is very different
from colouring an ordinary lantern slide 3! by 3^ inches,
and a magnifying glass was necessary. As films began to
increase in length, and when several copies were wanted,

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 193

the labour and cost involved were very great, and it became
apparent that other methods were required. The stencil
process has been adapted and perfected, particularly by
the firms of Gaumont and Pathe, and forms an art in
itself. Three stencil films are necessary for each picture.
Each stencil is in the nature of a mask which is registered
with the film, but leaving openings where the colouring is
to reach the film. Three stencils are required one for
applying the yellow, a second for the red, and a third for
the blue. The stencils have in the first instance to be made
by hand, but serve for a large number of copies, and the
colours are applied by special machines.

PROTECTING FILMS.

As regards the protection of films little has been done.
Machines are constructed with the greatest care, and
every possible precaution is taken against damage to films
in the course of projection ; but where will the lantern-
slide maker be found who will send his wares out without
cover-glasses? It has been proposed to cement a plain
film by its edges over the positive. This, however, would
double the thickness of the film, and it is well understood
that celluloid obstructs light to a greater extent than
glass. It has also been suggested to confine the attempt
to the strengthening of the margins, leaving the security
of the picture surface to be attained by perfecting the
structure of the film gate. Films are, however, sometimes
coated with a celluloid varnish, which protects the film
surface from scratches.

JOINING AND REPAIRING FILMS.

Before the film spool is passed into the exhibitor's hands,
it is very probable that a number of sections of the film
have to be joined together, and rejoining the broken ends
of a film is also an operation which, unfortunately, has to

194 LIVING PICTURES

be frequently performed. If the film is torn right across
a picture has to be sacrificed. The perforations may
become damaged, and must be replaced, or a sideways
strain will be placed on the film, which will inevitably end
in rupture of the band sooner or later. The two solvents
for celluloid are amyl acetate and acetone, the latter being
preferable. The ends of the broken film must be trimmed
so as to render the two proximate pictures at an exactly
correct separation, and the junction must be freed from
grease and film, and scraped down so as not to leave an

FIG. 182.

abrupt thickening where the edges overlap. The film-
mender (Fig. 182) usually has two clamping plates carrying
pegs which register the ends of the film in position, and
between these clamping plates is a presser plate for press-
ing the joined ends. For non-flam films a special solvent
is usually provided.

CLEANING AND RENOVATING FILMS.

To obtain a clear picture on the screen, it is necessary
that the film be free from stains, grease, and other

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 195

markings, which are bound to appear on the film some time
during its career, however carefully the film is used; and
unless the film is a new one it is often very advisable
to put it through a cleaning process before use. It may
be that smears or marks are left on the film after its
treatment in the developing, washing, and fixing solutions,
though this should not be so if the film is properly treated
and handled. Debrie's cleaning machine (Fig. i83A) is
more especially devised for removing such stains. The

FIG. i83A.

film passes from the spool A over a wick-pad, B, which
receives a regulated supply of alcohol from the tank C.
The film is cleaned by being drawn between a rubber-
covered roller, D, and an endless band, E, which is provided
with a series of chamois leather pads, F. The roller and
band are driven in an opposite direction to the travel
of the film, which then passes over the rubber-coated
roller G by which the film is drawn through the
machine.

For removing scratches it has been suggested to apply

ig6

LIVING PICTURES

a thin coating of celluloid, so as to fill in the scratches
and leave a smooth, even surface.

To remove grease and dirt from a film, benzoline is one
of the most satisfactory fluids to employ. Methylated
spirit has the tendency, not only to make the film curl, but
also to take the nature out of the film and leave the surface
dry and brittle. Benzoline, on the other hand, is a
mineral oil, free from acid, and feeds the film in much the
same manner as grease and oil feed leather. Fig 18313
illustrates the Seabourne film-cleaning machine. The

FIG. 18313.

benzoline is contained in the tank A, and the film passes
from the spool B under a roller in this tank, and then
round wiping rollers, which wipe off superfluous moisture
and fluid before the film passes against the cleaning brushes
C, D. These brushes are formed of a ring of strips of
chamois leather, and rotate at a speed of 2,000 revolutions
a minute. The film is lightly pressed against them by
rollers, c, d, and then passes against another similar pair
of chamois leather polishing brushes, E, F, before being
rewound. The pieces composing the brushes are always
tending to fly apart, and any dirt or grit is thrown off by

FILMS, AND THEIR PRODUCTION 197

centrifugal action. The brushes E, F, dry the film, and
leave an extremely fine coating, which not only preserves
the suppleness of the film, but acts as a preservative.

Here, then, the film passes into the exhibitor's hands,
and any further remarks regarding it must be relegated to
the next chapter, wherein are described many accessories
and aids which render the exhibitor's life endurable, if not
happy.

CHAPTER VI

. EXHIBITING, ETC.

The projector The optical system Illuminants Screens Stands
Film-gate and steadying devices Film centering Shutters
and flicker Fire-preventing and safety devices Film manipu-
lation and housing Stereoscopic projection Kinoplasticon
Cinelife Peep-shows Living pictures at home.

IF the modern projector is a very much more complicated
machine than the earlier machines, the pictures it is
possible to project are correspondingly superior. With
the great variety of choice of excellent machines, there is
hardly any excuse at the present day for a bad picture
show, although, of course, the most perfect projector is of
comparatively little value in the hands of an ignorant
or careless operator. In dealing with the various problems
arising in the exhibition of Living Pictures, we shall have
occasion to describe in more or less detail many variations
in constructions of actual machines, and it will facilitate
both the task of describing and of following them, to first
describe the general construction of a typical machine.
The fact that the Gaumont Company have a continuous
record of construction from the earliest days suggests the
appropriateness of taking their Chrono projector as
a typical machine for this purpose. The machine,
Figs. i84A, 1846, is a Maltese cross machine.

The whole apparatus is supported on a strong frame or
stand, such as illustrated in Fig. 194. The lantern O,
nearly always asbestos-lined, is mounted on transverse
rails, R, which enable the lantern to be moved across the

198

EXHIBITING, ETC.

199

stand to utilize either the lens L for the film, or a second
lens, L', for ordinary magic-lantern slides. The transverse
rails R are themselves adjustable along rails, R', to adjust
the lantern towards and away from the lenses L, L'. The
condenser mounting C is outside the lantern body, so that

FIG. i84A.

the condenser is accessible from the outside of the lantern.
The slide-carrier D carries in one half an opening for the
slide, and on the other half an opaque cut-off, which cuts
off the light from the lantern when the carrier is drawn to
the position shown. An auxiliary cut-off, D', is formed
of two adjustable slides with semicircular ends. The

200 LIVING PICTURES

front part of the apparatus carries the film mechanism,
film spools, and all the projector machinery. The film is
contained, to start with, in the upper spool box A, which
holds about 1,500 feet of film, and after passing through
the projector is spooled in the lower spool box A'. Both
spool boxes are fireproof, and are fitted with fire-trapped
slots, T, designed for the purpose of preventing fire spread-
ing into the spool boxes if the film happens to catch fire.
The film is drawn from the upper spool box by a sprocket,
K, which is continuously rotated from the driving shaft F,
and the edges of the film are kept in engagement with the
sprocket teeth by a resiliently mounted spring roller k.
A loop, /, is left between the sprocket K and the gate G,
which is being continuously fed and intermittently drawn
in as the film passes through the gate. This loop prevents
any tension on the film while it is stationary in the gate.
The feed sprocket is seen at S, and the film is pressed
against the sprocket by extensions, X, X, of the runners W
on the hinged back of the gate. These runners exert a
yielding pressure on the edges of the film, and the pressure
is adjustable. A second loop, /', is left between the feed
sprocket S and the continuously-rotating take-up sprocket
K', which is on the main driving shaft F, turned by the
handle h. The edges of the film are pressed against the
sprocket K' by resiliently-mounted rollers similar to
the upper roller k. All the sprockets and rollers over
which the film passes are shaped so that the film is in
contact therewith only at the edges, and not on the face
of the film. The film thus travels through the machine in
a hollow track. The shaft t, on which the take-up spool
is mounted, is positively driven by bevel and shaft gearing
from the main driving shaft F, and the spool is driven by
a spring friction clutch, so that the speed of the spool may
accommodate itself as the diameter of the film wound
increases, and at the same time prevent the film being
wound loosely on the shaft. The slip gear can be adjusted

EXHIBITING, ETC.

201

FIG. 1845.

202 LIVING PICTURES

by a screw as the diameter of the wound film increases. A
flywheel, Y, on the pin-wheel shaft of the feed mechanism
tends to maintain a steady feed motion. A safety shutter,
E, hinged behind the gate, is linked w 7 ith centrifugal
mechanism, M, which is geared with the main driving
shaft F. So long as the handle h rotates at a sufficient
speed, and each picture is moved on after being fed
into the gate before it becomes heated and catches fire, the
centrifugal mechanism maintains the shutter open. The
shutter closes behind the gate immediately the machine
slows down below the safety limit. Immediately in front
of the film is the shutter, Fig. 1840, which is rotated from
the shaft F sufficiently fast not only to cut off the light

FIG. 1840. FIG. 1840.

during each shift of the film, but also to cut off the light
once during the interval of projection of each picture.
This double cut-off is to minimize flicker. In the latest
model of the Chrono projector, a three-sectored shutter,
Fig. 1840, now the most common form of shutter, is
mounted on a rotated arm projecting in front of the
apparatus, and so that it intercepts the light just about
where the light comes to a focus in front of the projecting
lens L. The shutter is driven to make one complete
revolution for each picture succession interval, so that
it not only cuts off the light during the actual shift of the
film, but twice in addition while the picture is projected
on the screen. In front of the gate is a sliding panel, P,
which carries a gate mask and the lens L. The gate

EXHIBITING, ETC. 203

mask is for the purpose of outlining the boundary of each
picture projected, an<i the panel can at any time be
adjusted vertically by the lever handle H so that the mask
may include just one picture, and the accompanying
motion of the lens keeps the projected picture centred on
the screen.

The gearing of the machine is arranged so that eight
pictures are fed for each turn of the handle h, which
is normally turned at a rate of two revolutions per second.
The projector is, of course, often run by motor, in which
case a motor-driven pulley is secured to the driving
shaft F.

Instead of taking a series of projectors of various types
and describing the individualities of each separately, it
will be better to take in turn the different sections of the
projector and projecting system, and to note variations
and modifications of these, some of which are in use and
to be found on modern machines.

THE OPTICAL SYSTEM.

The essentials of the optical system are illustrated
in Fig. 185. The function of the condenser A is to
collect as much light as possible from the source O and
condense it on to the gate G, where the picture projected
is situated. The circle of light x, x, should completely
cover the gate mask, and leave a margin of light for
adjusting the mask. This margin must be sufficient to
allow for adjusting the mask and gate when this method
of centering the picture on the screen is used, as in the
Chrono machine,

The function of the projecting lens B is to project
a magnified image of the illuminated picture on the screen.
In view of the magnification of the picture as much light
as possible is required, and it will be seen that the amount
of light collected by the condenser depends upon the angle

204

LIVING PICTURES

of the cone of light LOM. The larger the condenser,
therefore, and the nearer the light to it, the larger the
amount of light collected. The larger the condenser is,
however, the more expensive it is ; the light O must also
be situated beyond the focus F of the condenser, the
position being determined by the distance of the project-
ing lens B from the light ; also, again, the nearer the light
is to the condenser, the hotter the latter will become.

FIG. 185.

The actual size and focal length of the condenser used
must be a compromise between these conflicting require-
ments. . Condensers varying from 4 inches to 14 inches
diameter, and between 2^ inches to 12 inches focal length,
can be obtained ; but in practice condensers of 4 or 4?/
inches diameter, and 3 to 3^ inches focal length, are the
most common in use.

Owing to expansion due to heating, a suitable mounting
of the condenser is important. The glass must have

EXHIBITING, ETC.

205

ample room to expand in the mount, and the mount itself
should lit loosely. A massive mount supplying a large
conducting surface, and with openings for ventilation, is ad-
vantageous. An alternative method is to mount the glasses
of the condenser between spring claws, such as C, Fig. 186.
These claws C can slide in the frame A as the glass
expands. Separate frames, A, B, are used for the back and
front components of the condenser, and will only fit in
their respective slides, so that the component glasses
cannot be incorrectly positioned.

It is in all cases advantageous to have the condenser

FIG. 186.

mounted on the outside of the lantern body, so as to
enable easy access thereto in cases of breakage. Any
condenser is liable to break owing to unequal expansion
or contraction in the glass, a good condenser being less
liable to break than a cheap one. Other common causes
are, too sudden heating and too sudden cooling of the
condenser. To avoid the former the condenser should be
warmed gradually, and not exposed suddenly to the full
force of the arc lamp or projecting light. This maybe
done by starting with a weak light, or by keeping the
light away from the condenser until it is warm, before

206 LIVING PICTURES

moving it up into position. The second cause is avoided
by abstaining from any attempt to artificially cool the
condenser by means of draughts, contact with cold
surfaces, or other equally disastrous methods.

The choice of a projecting lens is an important one, as
it is the lens which affects the magnification of the picture,
and for a good sharp picture a good lens is necessary.
The focal length of the lens required is determined by the
size of the picture and the distance of the projector from
the screen. The usual formula for a magnified image of a
circular disc is

diameter of image diameter of disc

distance of image from lens distance of disc from lens

In cinematograph projection the gate is, as a general rule,
so near the focus/, Fig. 185, of the lens that the distance
of the picture from the lens is practically the focal length
of the lens, and for rough approximation the formula
becomes

size of projected image size of gate

distance of screen from projector focaF length of lens

Having any three of these quantities given, therefore, the
fourth required quantity is readily determined to a sufficient
approximation.

The light, condenser, gate, and lens, must be correctly
positioned. A convenient way of doing this is to put
a temporary picture of a non-inflammable nature in the
gate, such as a thin piece of transparent paper or glass
bearing an image, and to centre and focus the image on
the screen, arranging the lantern so that the centre of the
gate and the lens are in the line joining the centre of the
condenser and the centre of the screen. This temporary
slide can then be removed, and the light adjusted until as
much as possible of the centre of the screen is filled with

EXHIBITING, ETC. 207

a clear white disc, such as h, Fig. 187. If the light is not
properly centred, effects on the screen such as a, b, c, d,
e,f, or g, will be produced according to the wrong posi-
tion of the light. When the light, condenser, and lens,
are correctly adjusted, the condenser will be brought to a
focus at a point, F 2 , slightly in front of the lens, and not
within the lens, as is so often explained. The shutter
is often placed at or near this position F 2 , and it is,
strictly speaking, the most correct position for the
shutter.

The aperture of the lens has an importance which is
often overlooked. Of the light which reaches the picture,
part is directly passed through the picture and the lens, in
proportion to the transparency of the picture. If this

FIG. 187.

transmitted light were the only part to consider, there
would be no point in having a lens with a larger aperture
than the diameter of the entering cone of rays. Not all
the light gets through the picture, however. A large part
of it is diffused by the particles forming the image that
is, wherever the film is not transparent. The opaque
parts of the picture in the gate constitute, in fact, a highly
luminous object, and the rays emanate from these parts in
all directions, as indicated by the broken lines in Fig. 185.
It is desirable, therefore, to collect as much as is possible
of this diffused light, and, clearly, a large aperture will
collect a larger cone of rays than a small one. A lens
which has a large aperture i.e., a high F value is thus
a great advantage.

208 LIVING PICTURES

The handling of the lens is another important point for
the operator. The lens should always be handled with
great care, and the glass touched or rubbed as little as
possible ; a piece of cotton-wool or a piece of clean linen
should be used, never a rough duster or cloth which may
be in the slightest degree greasy, rough, or gritty. A" very
convenient device for handling a lens is the handle h,
Fig. 188, provided on the Cineopse lenses provided by
Guilbert. The component elements of these lenses are

(,, '

FIG. i 88.

mounted in rings, a, b, c, d, which cannot be put together
in any but the correct order, and the lenses can thus be
cleaned without touching the glass itself.

A recent method of illumining the picture in the gate
has been introduced by Newton and Co., consisting
in substituting for the condenser a large concave mirror
behind the light, and for the projecting light a mixed jet
of oxygen and compressed acetylene plays on a small
pastil at or near the focus of the mirror, and so as to pro-
duce a converging cone of reflected light to illuminate the
gate. A much larger mirror can be used, and a greater
amount of the light from the pastil collected, than with the
ordinary condenser.

EXHIBITING, ETC.

209

THE ILLUMINANT.

The question of lighting is, perhaps, somewhat out of
place here, being common to all branches of projection
work ; and it is manifest that the system of lighting
employed need not, and indeed does not, affect the
mechanism employed for the presentation of Living
Pictures, although it has a considerable influence on the
result on the screen. Still, the choice and handling of
the various illuminants is a sufficiently important one
to justify a few remarks on the subject. For safety and
power the arc lamp is undoubtedly pre-eminent, and, with

FIG. 189.

the rapid extension of public electric lighting, an electric
supply is available in most large halls. A direct current
supply on a low voltage is the most convenient and the
most efficient. The upper carbon is connected, as shown
in Fig. 189, to the positive pole of the supply through
a cut-out resistance ; and the action of the current is to
form a hollow or crater, Fig. 190, a, where the light
is concentrated, while the opposite pole very conveniently
burns to a fine point. A convenient test for the right
connection is to throw an image of the arc on the screen
by removing the projecting lens. The crater or hollow
should be projected in an inverted position on the screen,

210

LIVING PICTURES

and the upper carbon should appear on the screen as the
lower one. The light is more steady with a direct current
than with an alternating current, which sometimes has
a tendency to revolve round the carbons and to cause an

FIG. 190.

unsteady light on the screen. With a direct current a
hand-fed arc lamp is the best, as the upper carbon burns
away twice as rapidly as the lower one. To assist the
formation of a suitable crater directed towards the con-
denser, the lower carbon is preferably adjusted slightly in

FIG. 191.

front of the upper one, and the positive carbon is cored
and of larger diameter than the negative carbon, which is
solid. With an alternating current, a type of arc lamp,
known as a " Scissors Arc Lamp " (Fig. 191), is often recom-
mended, in which the carbons are set at an angle, and are

EXHIBITING, ETC. 211

centred simultaneously, either from a handle or auto-
matically. A crater is then formed in both carbons, as
shown in Fig. 190, c. This position of the carbons is
preferable to the alternative straight position shown in
Fig. 190, b.

The voltage of public supplies is generally far in excess
of that required to obtain the current for feeding the arc
lamp. Generally 45 to 50 volts would be sufficient,
whereas the supply is often 200 volts or more. If a high
voltage is used the current required can be obtained
by means of resistances. The resistance required is deter-
mined by Ohm's Law, namely :

. , voltage

Resistance = - . -T-*

current required

In calculating the resistance, the total resistance of the
circuit, including that of the arc lamp itself, must be
taken. With this method, however, a large amount of
power is wasted ; thus, if C is the actual current used
in amperes, and R the resistance of the lamp in ohms,
and R' the auxiliary resistance used to keep the current
down to requirements, the power consumed by the resist-
ance is R X C 2 watts per hour, and this power is absolutely
wasted in heat. Unless, therefore, this power can be
utilized in some other way, the method of employing
resistances is not an economic one. An alternative method
is to employ a motor generator that is to say, to utilize
the direct supply at high voltage to drive a motor, and
from this motor to drive a generator which will supply
a lower voltage for the lamps. In such cases it is useful
to have either a duplicate motor generator to fall back
upon, or an alternative direct circuit with a resistance.
In the case of an alternating current supply the voltage
can more conveniently be reduced by a transformer.

If electric light cannot be employed, a good mixed oxy-
hydrogen jet limelight is perhaps the best substitute, and

212 LIVING PICTURES

can be used with comparative safety. Other alternatives
are : (i) a mixed oxy-acetylene light ; (2) a carburetter
or ether-saturator along with compressed oxygen. Fig. 192
illustrates a combined carburetter jet, the oxygen being
supplied either from a cylinder or generator through the
tube 10.

FIG. 192.

The comparative luminosities of the various illuininants
are approximately as follows :

Candle-Power.

Four-wick oil lamp ... ... ... ... 80 to 100

Acetylene generators with ordinary burners 100 ,, 250
Oxygen with ordinary house gas used with

blow-through jet 300 500

Oxygen gas compressed in cylinders, and

used for mixing jet 1,000 1,500

Oxygen in cylinder with an ether-saturator

or carburetter jet ... ... ... ... 1,000 ,, 2,000

Oxy-acetylene light with gases in cylinders 1,000 ,, 2,500

The electric arc light 1,000 ,, 100,000

Where a limelight is used a good lime is necessary.
Special limes are made for limelight jets composed of
compressed oxides of rare earth, thorium, and cerium,
baked in electric ovens at very high temperatures. Instead
of the usual method of supporting the lime, shown in
Fig. 192, the lime is preferably held horizontally, as shown
in Fig. 193, by a holder which slips on to the peg provided

EXHIBITING, ETC. 213

for the usual hole in the lime, which with this arrange-
ment can be made solid.

For limelight jets it is, perhaps, on the whole, better
to utilize cylinders of compressed hydrogen or acetylene.
Not that the other methods are dangerous if properly
used, and they may be invaluable in out-of-the-way places
where cylinders cannot be easily replenished. Where,
however, a carburetter or ether-saturator is used, it is very
important that the operator should be fully alive to the

FIG. 193.

possible dangers of these sources of light. On no account
should the reservoirs be filled with gasolene or ether
anywhere near the neighbourhood of a light, as the
vapours of these substances will catch fire at a distance of
several feet. They should, accordingly, be filled in the open
air, and on no account in a closed operating box. It has
often been suggested that some certification of public
operators should be required, and there is very great force
in this suggestion.

THE SCREEN.

The screen is another important part of a Living Picture
outfit. It is no use to secure a powerful illuminant,
and then to waste any more than is necessary on the
screen. Of the light which falls on the screen, part is
transmitted, part absorbed, part reflected. If the pictures
are projected from the same side of the screen as the
audience, the screen should be opaque, and possess a

214 LIVING PICTURES

smooth, white, diffusing surface. It is a common practice
to whitewash the screen, or dip it in a solution of white-
wash. Screens made by treating a fine mesh fabric with
aluminium are becoming more and more popular. A rough
aluminium surface, such as will result by using a coarse
or cheap fabric, will not be as good as an ordinary fine
calico or linen screen. The only disadvantage of these
metallic screens is the tendency to oxidize ; but the pictures
are certainly improved, and the life of a screen is sufficiently
long to compensate for any tendency to oxidization.

Where the pictures are projected from behind the screen
a translucent screen is, of course, necessary, and for ex-
hibitions of short duration a wet screen is as good as any.
For daylight projection a translucent screen is also neces-
sary, and the screen should be shaded as much as possible
from any strong direct light, as, for example, by a conical
shade extending a short distance to the front and rear
of the screen, the rear opening, being slightly larger than
the cone of light from the projector.

It is in all cases very necessary to have a perfectly flat
surface, and, where a flexible screen is used, it should
be uniformly taut across the surface. The screen should
also be perpendicular to the direction of projection, and,
where the projector is tilted to the horizontal, the screen
should also be tilted at the same angle to the vertical,
otherwise the picture will be distorted, and will not be in
focus over the entire surface of the screen. A very effective
addition to the picture is a black border or framing just
circling the boundary of the picture.

THE STAND.

The stand for the projecting machine should be strong
and rigid. It must be remembered that the enlargement
on the screen is much greater in a Living Picture than
for an ordinary lantern slide, while the apparatus itself is
subjected to treatment which no mere optical lantern is

EXHIBITING, ETC. 215

called upon to undergo. The needful rigidity is usually
obtained by the use of a strong iron stand, Fig. 194,
having arrangements for tilting the apparatus to the
required angle. On no account should any hollow body
be used as a support. There is a very large degree of
sympathy between one sense and another, and there is

FIG. 194.

little doubt that a continual rattle impinging on the ear
tends to intensify irritation caused to the eye by any
flicker on the screen, and it is very necessary to minimize
or conceal this same flicker as much as possible.

THE FILM GATE AND FILM STEADYING DEVICES.

In the early projectors the film gate was lined with felt
or other soft material, with the idea of avoiding wear
on the film. It was soon found, however, that grit and
dirt had a very nasty habit of collecting in the soft
material, and with disastrous results to the film. .Also,
if the film fired in the gate, the soft fabric was burnt,
and the gate had to be refitted before it could be used
again. The regulations under the Cinematograph Act
prescribe that the film gate shall be of massive construc-
tion and shall be provided with ample heat-radiating
surface, and that the passage for the films shall be suffi-

2l6

LIVING PICTURES

ciently narrow to prevent flame travelling upwards and
downwards from the light opening.

In nearly all modern machines the film is pressed along
the edges only by one or more yielding strips of hardened
polished steel, as shown in Fig. 1846, and the pressure
of which can be finely adjusted. It has also been pro-
posed to use spring-pressed rollers, which extend at the
top and bottom of the gate across the whole width of the

FIG. 195.

film. For intermittently steadying the film in the gate
while projected it has been suggested to use a clamping
frame, or a steadying pin frame, intermittently operated
synchronously with the feed mechanism. In moving
through the gate the film gets up a very considerable
velocity and momentum, and the manner in which the
film is arrested and steadied in the gate makes all the
difference to the steadiness in the picture on the screen.

EXHIBITING, ETC. 217

It will be seen from Fig. 195, that when the intermittent
feed acts at a point A at a distance from the gate G,
and the tractable force suddenly ceases, the momentum
of the film tends to carry it forward and to form a
loop, L, against the action of the springs pressing on
the edges of the film. With a claw feed the claws could
be adapted, as in Mr. Proszynski's mechanism, Fig. 1430,
to act at the gate in such a manner that they do not
leave the film at the end of the downward stroke until
the film is stationary, and thereby act to steady the picture
for projection. The dog feed cannot be adapted to per-
form an equivalent steadying function, and the Maltese
cross feed only to a very limited extent. The latter
cannot be adapted to feed the portion of film in the gate,
and the next best thing is to situate the feed sprocket
as near the lower edge of the gate as possible, so as to
leave a minimum of film between the gate and the feed
sprocket. The two runner extensions X, X, in Fig. 1846,
serve to guide the film on to the feed sprocket. In
Wrench's machine the corresponding runners are slotted
for the passage of the sprocket teeth.

In some machines the gate opens at the back, as in
Fig. 1843, while in others it opens at the front. In the
latter case the emulsion side of the film has a rigid
bedding, and the film is inserted and removed on the side
remote from the lantern and the light ; but there is not
much room for opening the gate when short-focus lenses
are used, which necessarily work close to the gate. In a
recent arrangement on the Kamm projectors this difficulty
is avoided. The door of the gate and the lens slide
toward and away from the film gate.

FILM CENTERING.

If the successive pictures do not register exactly in the
gate, the result will be that the picture on the screen will
not keep its position in the centre of the screen, but will

2i8 LIVING PICTURES

creep up or down the screen. Although such creep is
rendered less likely by the precision of modern machines,
there are contributory causes, such as any inaccuracy in
making a join, or in perforating, or in the spacing of the
pictures, which may arise in taking the negative or in
printing the positive. All modern machines are therefore
fitted with centering means to keep the picture in the
centre of the screen, and which can be adjusted while the
machine is running. Where, moreover, the projector is
run by motor, the operator is much freer to utilize these
means to the fullest advantage than where he has to turn
an operating handle.

The following are the principal types of methods used
for the purpose, each of which methods, however, can be
accomplished in more than one way :

1. By adjusting the gate mask and lens.

2. By imparting to the film an extra movement indepen-
dent of the feed movement.

3. By altering the feed so as to feed a longer or shorter
length of film sufficient to compensate for the creep.

Centering the Film by adjusting the Gate Mask
and Lens.

In order to keep the centres A, B, C, Fig. 196, of the
picture, lens, and screen, in a right line, when the centre

FIG. 196.

of the picture shifts from A to A', the lens should receive

a proportionate adjustment: BB' = AA' x -r-?^" As, how-

ever, BC is very nearly equal to AC, it is sufficiently
accurate if the lens is adjusted the same amount as the

EXHIBITING, ETC.

219

gate mask. This method of adjustment is, perhaps, the
simplest, and is used on many machines. The adjustment

FIG. 197.

may be effected by rack and pinion, or by a pivoted
lever, H, as in Figs. i84A, 18413. There must be a sufficiently
large circle of illumination, x, x, Fig. 185, on the gate to

22O

LIVING PICTURES

allow the adjustment, and the light does not remain on the
line of centres ABC. To avoid the latter defect, the light
and the condenser may be adjusted simultaneously with the
gate and lens. In Butcher's Empire, Fig. 197, the parts
are simultaneously adjusted from the handle H, which
moves the arm A, connected to the base of the lantern

FIG. 198.'

body, and also the rod B, controlling the mount carrying
the lens and gate mask. In another machine, Fig. 198,
the casing 15 carries the plate 8, supporting the lens and
mask, the mounting for the condenser, and the casing 20
for the light. The various parts slide on uprights, 3, and
the adjustment is effected from the lever 25 through the
shaft 23 and links 22, 21.

Centering the Picture by imparting an Extra Movement
to the Film Independent of the Feed Movement.

(a) The additional movement may be imparted by an
adjustable roller, as in Hughes' Bio-Pictorescope, Fig. 199,
in which the rollers p are adjustable by racks and pinions
from handles R. This adjustment is also used in Wrench's

EXHIBITING, ETC,

221

FIG.

199.

222

LIVING PICTURES

machine, Fig. 200, which is a dog-feed machine, the
adjusting roller /being operated from the handle /.

(b) A vertical movement of the Maltese cross sprocket,
or of the whole driving mechanism, will give the additional
movement of the film. The former method is illustrated
in the Power machine, Fig. 201, in which the film
sprocket 6 and the intermittent driving pin-wheel 22 are
carried on a framing carriage which is vertically adjusted
on the main frame from a handle, H, through links L.
The intermediate gear-wheel 38, gearing with the stationary

FIG. 200.

FIG. 201.

driving pinion 37 and the adjusted pin-wheel 22, is on
a sliding support, 40, and is simultaneously adjusted.

This method is also illustrated by the Ernemann pro-
jector, Fig. 202, in which the driving mechanism, includ-
ing the lower feed sprockets A and the Maltese cross
sprocket C, are vertically adjusted on the frame M from
the handle H. It will be seen that in this machine the
driving spindle is also raised and lowered.

(c) In lieu of giving the feed mechanism as a whole
a vertical adjustment, the same result can be effected by
rotating the Maltese cross M, Fig. 203, and film sprocket S,
about the axis O of the pin-wheel P. It will be seen,
however, that while the Maltese cross remains in contact

EXHIBITING, ETC.

223

with the periphery of the pin-wheel the step of the feed
will be altered by any rotary adjustment of the cross, and
in order, therefore, that the shutter shall mask the film
during a shift there must be a compensating stepping
adjustment of the shutter. A centering adjustment of this
kind is used in one of Kamm's machines. The sprocket-

FIG. 202.

wheel is adjusted about the axis of the pin- wheel from
a lever or handle behind the frame carrying the driving
mechanism, and the shutter is simultaneously adjusted by
means of a sliding bar,/), Fig. 204. This bar has relatively
inclined slots, /> 2 , p 3 , engaging respectively the stud n and
a pin, /> 4 , on the disc o, carrying the shutter pinion j.

224

LIVING PICTURES

When the bar p is adjusted, the slot p 3 rotates the disc o
by means of the slot p 2 and pin p 4 , thereby causing the
shutter pinion j to roll on the toothed wheel k by which it
is driven.

(d) A fourth method of imparting an additional move-
ment to the film is by giving an extra rotation to the feed
sprocket in addition to the feed movement, and without
moving its axis. This may be accomplished in several
ways:

FIG. 203.

FIG. 204.

(i.) A direct rotation may be given to the sprocket-
wheel. Fig. 205 illustrates one example of this method.
The spindle of the sprocket / is formed with spiral slots, g,
engaged by pins, i, on an axial rod, h, which is positioned
between a cam, k, and a strong spring. By turning the
cam k the axial movement of the rod h and pin, i, gives the
additional rotation of the sprocket /. This method is very
similar to that used in Maskelyne's Mutograph (see
Fig. 100),

EXHIBITING, ETC.

225

(ii.) In another method illustrated in Fig. 206, the
sprocket a is driven by differential gear, i, m, j, and the

FIG. 206. FIG. 207.

intermediate wheel m can be rotated round the axis of

the sprocket, the rolling action giving the additional
rotation to the sprocket.

226

LIVING PICTURES

(iii.) In a third method the pin-wheel e t Fig. 207, of a
Maltese cross feed is adjustable about the axis of the
Maltese cross h. The feed sprocket g and the cross are
mounted in a frame, be, which is rotatable about a pivot,
d, coaxial with the cross. When the frame be is rotated,
the pinion m of the driving gear rolls on the toothed
wheel n. It will be seen that the step of the feed is not
altered by this adjustment as there is no relative dis-
placement of the cross and the pin-wheel.

Centering the Film by modifying the Feed to feed a
Longer or Shorter Length of Film to
compensate for the Creep.

(a) In lieu of rotating the pin-wheel about the axis of
the Maltese cross, or vice versa, or giving an additional
rotation to the cross, a fourth alternative is to give an

FIG. 208.

additional direct rotation to the pin-wheel. This is
adopted in Mr. Hepworth's mechanism (Fig. 208).

The pin-wheel P is driven by the gearing 28, 29, 30, 31.

EXHIBITING, ETC. 227

The pin-wheel P and the wheel 31 are supported in a
mounting, 36, which can be moved round the axis of the
wheel 30, which is loosely mounted on the shaft 27,
carrying the Maltese cross M and film sprocket S. The
adjustment of the mounting 36 is effected from the
shaft 40, which is in gear with the toothed wheel 35 on
the mounting. It will be seen that such adjustment
causes the wheel 31 to roll on the wheel 30, thereby
imparting a forward or backward rotation of the pin-wheel
independently of its normal rotation. This independent
rotation will also alter the step of the shutter. The
simultaneous adjustment of the shutter is effected by
gearing the wheel 35 with the casing 38 of the differential

FIG. 209.

gear, included in the shutter driving train, the shutter
being mounted on the shaft 17'. This mechanism has
the somewhat curious feature in that it provides an
unlimited adjustment of the film in either direction. If we
keep the driving gear and wheel 30 stationary, it will be
seen from Fig. 209 that, as the pin-wheel P makes one
complete revolution about the Maltese cross in the
direction of the arrow A, the cross would be rotated
through one complete revolution i.e., equivalent to four
shifts were it not for the rotation of the pin-wheel about
its own axis due to the rolling of the wheel 31. This
rotation of the pin-wheel rotates the cross backwards in
the direction C through a quarter-revolution for each

228

LIVING PICTURES

complete rotation of the pin-wheel on its axis. If, therefore,
the gearing 30, 31, is so arranged that the pin-wheel
rotates the cross backwards four times during a complete
revolution about the axis of the cross, the position of the
film will ultimately remain unchanged. The operator
can thus turn the adjusting handle to the necessary
extent in either direction without having to consider
whether he has come to the limit of adjustment in either
direction.

FIG. 210.

FIG. 211.

(b) Two other adjustments for dog-feed machines
require notice.

(i) In Beard's mechanism (Fig. 210), the dog b is
carried by two discs, b 1 , the spindle, 6 2 , of which is
mounted on a frame, 6 3 , turning on the axis of the
driving wheel b 4 . When adjusted by the sector c 9 the
driven wheel b* rolls on the driving wheel b 4 , and an
additional rotation, backwards or forwards, can thus be
given to the beater. To correspondingly adjust the
shutter e, an intermediate pinion, h, of a different train,
b* t f l , h, g, e 1 , is given an additional rotation on adjusting

EXHIBITING, ETC. 229

the frame b 3 , thereby causing a corresponding additional
rotation of the pinion e l of the shutter shaft. The adjust-
ment of the pinion h is effected by the gearing 6 7 , h z , which
rocks the arm h l on which the pinion h is mounted.

(2) The feed may also be altered by drawing in or
letting out the slack film between the gate and the take-up
sprocket. In one of Kamm's machines, the roller g
(Fig. 211), which presses the film on the sprocket, can be
adjusted round the axis f 1 of the sprocket by rotating
the arm h carrying the roller. To allow the film to be
threaded easily, the arm is made in two parts, A, h 2 ,
pivoted at t.

An alternative method is an adjustable roller, such
as/> in Hughes' machine (Fig. 199).

THE SHUTTER AND FLICKER.

The objectionable phenomenon of flicker is traceable to
the fact that the picture is periodically cut off from view
a state of affairs which, of course, does not obtain in
natural vision. It must be remembered that, though
persistence of vision insures the continuance of one image
until the next image is received, yet the impression does
not continue in its full force, and the general result is,
therefore, a series of successive increases and decreases in
the brilliancy of the picture as perceived by the eye.
Furthermore, the decreases are gradual, whereas every
fresh view is presented suddenly in full brilliancy.

There are, broadly speaking, four methods which have
been tried or suggested for removing flicker:

1. By maintaining a constant illumination on the screen.

2. By synchronously switching the projecting light off
and on.

3. By a sufficiently quick shift movement of the film to
avoid the necessity of the shutter.

4. By special constructions and arrangement of the
shutter.

LIVING PICTURES

i. Maintaining a Constant Illumination on the Screen.
One method, and a very early one, suggested by Acres in
1897, is to produce a series of views by alternately using
two lenses, the views being arranged on the film in the
order i, 3, 2, 4, 5, 7, 6, etc., the film being moved behind
one lens while the exposure is made with the second lens.
In the camera, Fig. 212, the film is driven by two sprocket-
rollers, A, A', a loop, B', being formed between them.
A crank, F, drives a double-toothed rack, C, backwards
and forwards, thus rotating the sprocket-rollers, which,
however, can only turn in one direction, being prevented
from moving backwards by a locking ratchet. Thus, in
the illustration an exposure is proceeding with the left-

FIG. 212.

FIG. 213.

hand lens. As the slide C moves to the right, the sprocket-
roller A will not be moved, but A' will rotate and draw
the loop B' behind the right-hand lens. So soon as
exposure with this begins, the rack moves back to the
left, and now it is the sprocket-roller A' which remains
still, while A draws off more film from the loop B, and at
the same time passes on sufficient film to re-form the
loop B' between the lenses. In the duplicate projector,
Fig. 213, a parallel beam of light from the lens Q either
passes through the objective N' by reflection from the
mirror P', or is cut off by a rotating mirror, P, and trans-
mitted from N on .principles the same as those explained
in connection with Figs. 86, 87.

EXHIBITING, ETC. 231

A modification of this method, used by Mr. Friese
Greene consists in duplicating the film and apparatus,
using two films side by side, which are fed and exposed
alternately. In both these methods, however, the
alternate views are taken from adjacent points of view, and
this must induce an apparent vibration of the foreground
objects on the screen, and, indeed, there appears to be little
advantage in using a duplicate system for obtaining the
films unless it be so arranged that both systems work
through one objective, as in Fig. 86, or at least from one
point of view. This objection is obviated by another
suggested method, consisting in using an ordinary single
film and intermittently projecting a clear disc between
the intervals of shift. This method also obviates any
special modification in the camera or projector, apart
from the necessary but simple modification of the shutter
to make the alternate projections.

2. Synchronously switching the Projecting Light on and
off. This method is quite a recent one. In one modifica-
tion the projecting light is switched on when the picture
is in the gate, and extinguished while they are changed,
for which purpose the projecting arc is intermittently
induced by a circuit which includes a make and break
contact controlled from the feed mechanism. An
auxiliary lamp projecting a clear white disc may be
switched on and off alternately with the projecting arc.

3. Using a very Rapid Shift, and dispensing with a Shutter.
This method was used by Wheatstone (see p. 17), and has
been tried with modern Maltese cross projectors. It might
be successful and efficient if the pictures were of uniform
tint all over the surface that is to say, if they were not
pictures at all. As, however, high lights are a necessity
in all lantern or other views, their continual presence
gives rise to a " rain " effect, usually associated with
damaged films. It must not be forgotten that a percep-
tion of this sort persists as well as any other ; the eye

232

LIVING PICTURES

has no power of applying a physiological function to
artistic impressions, and throwing it out of action in other
cases. Still, the merits of this course of proceeding are
purely relative, and, if the period of change is very rapid,
there is no reason to doubt that with the majority of views
a shutter may be dispensed with.

4. Special Forms of Shutters. A medium course to dis-
pensing with a shutter altogether is to modify it so as
to neither entirely cut off the light during a shift interval,

FIG. 214.

FIG. 215.

nor to permit the change of picture to be clearly perceived.
The various means for this purpose include, (a) a shutter
pierced with slots or holes, three types of which are shown
in Fig. 214; (b) a translucent pleated shutter, Fig. 215 ; (c)
a shutter with graded opacity, so as to gradually cut off the
light, Fig. 2l6A ; (d) giving short supplementary obtura-
tions during the time the picture is illuminated, by means
of additional intermediate blades, A, Fig. 2i6B; (e) the
use of a polarized beam of light which is rotated by electro-

EXHIBITING, ETC.

233

magnetic action to such a degree that it cannot pass
through the second prism, a method which, however, is
hardly possible owing to the inevitable loss of light.

None of these devices, however, are perfectly satis-
factory. They are essentially based on the theory of
the persistence of vision, according to which, as explained
in the first chapter, the action of the light on the retina

FIG. 2i6A.

FIG. 2i6B.

gradually dies down when the picture is cut off, whereas
when the light is projected on the screen the action on
the retina is very sudden. Mr. Proszynski, who has exten-
sively investigated the subject of flicker, has put forward
the somewhat startling and revolutionary view that the
suppression of flicker has nothing to do with the pheno-
menon of persistence of vision, and, further, that the con-

tinuity of cinematographic vision is quite illusionary, and,
indeed, something which does not exist. The action on
the retina can be represented graphically. In Fig. 217
the light is intermittently projected at times represented by
the points t, u, v, and lasting for the time intervals tt', ^^u',
vv. The intervals t'u, u'v, represent the intervals during
which the shutter acts. The dotted curves represent the

234 LIVING PICTURES

variation in the intensity which would be produced on the
retina by the separate projections, whilst the full lines
represent the actual variations in intensity produced by
the rapid alternations. The area of the shaded parts
represents the total effect on the eye. Mr. Proszynski
attacks the problem of flicker on the basis that the eye
cannot directly measure any period less than /^ second.
A flash or interruption of light lasting T ^ second will
seem to the eye the same as one lasting -^ second. In
other words, for a normal person T V second is the limit
of perception. If, therefore, there are two or more illu-
minations lasting longer than -^ second, and following
one another at regular intervals shorter than T V second,
say -gV second, we cannot conceive the interruptions, and

FIG. 218.

the effect will be that of a constant light. The shutter in
Fig. 218, when rotated fifteen times per second, gives
alternations every ^ second, or forty-five alternations
a second. The film should thus accomplish a shift in
V second, corresponding to the passage of one blade
across the lens. With the ordinary Maltese cross having
the four slots, the shift interval is one-fourth of the total
interval i.e., is -^ second, assuming one shift per revo-
lution of the shutter. With this combination only two-
thirds of the change movement of the film would be
masked. With the above shutter, therefore, the inter-
mittent mechanism should give a shift interval of one-
sixth the total interval in order that the shift may be
completely masked. The method often adopted where

EXHIBITING, ETC.

235

the shift interval is not quick enough is to slightly enlarge
one of the blades of the shutter sufficiently to mask the
shift. This, however, destroys the regularity of the alter-
nations of light and dark, and is at best a makeshift.

Other alternatives for obtaining regular obturations of
iV second or less may, of course, be used with equally
satisfactory results. It is, for example, possible to obtain
the regular obturations of T V second or less by other forms
of shutter, such as a single-bladed shutter, or one with two
blades, or with a cylindrical shutter, Fig. 2igA, or a
cone-shaped shutter, Fig. 2igB, as used on the Motio-
grapru

The shutter is usually put at or near the position F 2 ,

FIG. 2198.

Fig. 185, where the optical beams cross, so that the whole
area of the screen may be illuminated and darkened simul-
taneously, or as nearly so as possible. Where the shutter
is not in this position, the blades should be shaped as in
Fig. 220, so that the edges travel across the screen parallel
to the margin of view.

A shutter in front of the lens has to be somewhat large.
In many machines the shutter is situated near the film,
in which position it is possible to use a much smaller
shutter. Mr. Kamm has recently suggested putting the
shutter behind the film gate, and to use fan blades. This
arrangement serves not only to cut off a great amount of
heat from the film during the actual obturations, but also

236 LIVING PICTURES

creates a draught of air on to the film and gate, thereby
considerably lessening the liability to fire.

In connection with the above theories of flicker, an
old device (Fig. 221) of M. Gaumont, known as "la
grille," arid consisting of a black fan pierced with a

FIG. 220. FIG. 221.

number of holes, is interesting. When the fan is put
into rapid motion, and the picture viewed through the
holes, flicker is almost entirely eliminated. The sug-
gestion here is that the effect may be due to alternations
of light oftener than T V second.

FIRE-PREVENTING AND SAFETY DEVICES FOR
PROJECTORS.

The chief source of danger in cinematographic work
arises from the inflammability of the celluloid films. If
proper care is exercised in handling these films there
should be little or no danger, and far more serious con-
sequences are likely to result from any panic amongst the
audience than from the fact of some film having caught
fire. The regulations under the Cinematograph Act (see
Chapter IX.) must be observed before any exhibition can
take place in which inflammable films are used, and the
licensing authorities may supplement these by addi-

EXHIBITING, ETC.

237

tional regulations. The regulations under the Cine-
matograph Act deal chiefly with the buildings themselves,
exits, fire appliances, the handling of films, lighting, and
licences. There are, however, three namely, Regulations
6-8 which deal with the construction of projectors.

When the projector is running at full normal speed, the
individual pictures are not in the gate long enough to be
ignited by the condensed beam of light from the lantern.
The danger arises if the machine slows down and the film
is left exposed in the gate. The gate itself, of course, gets
hot, but the heat is largely conducted away, and the part
of the gate in contact with the film can be isolated from
the heated portions by asbestos.

The various devices designed to prevent the film firing
in the projector, and to prevent fire spreading, fall under
different heads, according to the purpose directly in view.

Devices for screening the Film from the Heat of the Projecting

Light.

The idea and use of a heat-absorbing medium between
the light and the film was one of the earliest methods
suggested. Lumiere's original plan was to use a flask,
B, of water, Fig. 222, which also acted as the condenser.

FIG. 222.

FIG. 223.

A piece of carbon, D, is suspended in the water to draw
off the gases set free by the gradual heating of the water.
The water-flask does not, however, prove a sufficiently
good condenser, and with a strong light used the water

LIVING PICTURES

should soon be at boiling-point. This difficulty arises
even when circulating systems are used. Mr. Newman
has proposed a long conical water-tube, 6, Fig. 223, sur-
rounded by a water-trough, a, fitted at the front of the
condenser, and with externally connected filling and ex-
panding tubes, b 2 . A cold-water circulating system through
the trough would further cool the tube b.

Devices comprising an Automatically -Controlled Shutter which
comes into Action if the Machine slows down, or in Some
Cases if the Film breaks.

Practically speaking, all modern machines are fitted
with a shutter of this description, and there are numerous
ways of adapting such shutters. In many cases the
shutter is opened by the action of a centrifugal governor
driven from the driving shaft of the machine. Fig. 224
illustrates one of the earliest arrangements. The shutter e
is controlled by the governor i on the driven shaft

FIG. 224.

FIG. 225.

When the projector is running normally, the balls i fly
outwards against the action of the spring/; if the pro-
jector stops or slows down below the safety limit, the
spring / draws the balls in, and drops the shutter. In
other projectors the shutter closes under the action of
gravity. A pneumatic control, devised by Mr. Prestwich
in 1899, is interesting. The driving-wheel B (Fig. 225)

EXHIBITING, ETC. 239

of the machine works a pump, A. The cylinder E has an
adjustable outlet, K, and is adjusted so that when the
machine is working normally the pressure is sufficient to
raise the piston F which carries the shutter.

It will be seen that with these arrangements the safety
shutter only acts when the speed of the machine is re-
duced below the safety limit. It is possible, however, for the
film to break below the gate, and leave the film stationary
in the gate while the machine continues to run at full
speed. To provide against this contingency, the film may
control additional safety devices. In Butcher's Empire,
a light roller, R (Fig. 197), rests on the film, and should
the film break the roller drops and automatically operates
a brake which stops the machine, thereby automatically
causing the release of the safety shutter, which, when the
machine is running, is held open by the centrifugal
governor G. In other arrangements the shutter is held
open by an electromagnet, the current through which is
broken if the machine slows down or if the film breaks.
Another arrangement is to hold the safety shutter open
by a catch, and to use the film as an insulator between
two contacts, so that if the film breaks, the current in the
completed circuit energizes an electromagnet which re-
leases the shutter. The current may, in addition, be
utilized to switch off the projecting light, and, if the
machine is motor-driven, to stop the motor also.

Preventing the Film firing by directly cooling the Film
in the Gate.

This may be done by directing the current of cold air
or gas, that will check combustion, on to the film. A
recent alternative, proposed by Mr. Kamm, is to shape the
blades of the shutter as a fan. The shutter may be placed
behind the gate so as to screen the film from heat during
the obturations, as well as fan the film.

240

LIVING PICTURES

Devices for preventing the Fire spreading along the Film.

To confine the fire to the film gate, it has been sug-
gested to provide a pair of rollers, N, N 1 , N 2 , N 3 , Fig. 226,
at the top and bottom of the gate ; also a pair of spring-
controlled wedge clamps have been suggested which can
be released by hand, or automatically by the burning of a
strip of inflammable material used to hold them in opera-
tive position. Another device is the provision of two
tubes, 12, Fig. 227, of fire-proof material on both sides of
the gate, which are designed to prevent any film which
may accidentally unroll from falling across the projected

FIG. 227.

rays and becoming ignited. The film also passes through
two shoots, 14, 15, above and below the gate. The mem-
bers 14 are carried by spring-operated levers normally
held apart out of action by less inflammable connec-
tions, 19. The film is thus clamped at both sides of the
gate if the picture in the gate becomes ignited. Such
devices are not so common as other analogous devices for
preventing the fire spreading into the spool box, and
which are necessary to satisfy Regulation 7, cited above.

The spool box is often provided at some point adjacent
to the slot with a spring or weight actuated slide or clamp,
or one automatically actuated on the ignition of the film,
or of a fuse suitably positioned so as to catch fire if the

EXHIBITING, ETC. 241

film ignites at the gate. It has also been proposed to
extend the film-channel right to the gate, and to include
cutting-knives for automatically severing the film at the
mouth of the spool box or the end of the guide channel.

In one such arrangement (Fig. 228) the ends a, b, and
a 1 , 6 1 , of the film channels, are connected to solenoids, e, e l ,
respectively. The film acts as an insulator, but if it be-
comes ignited the solenoids operate knives d, d l , to sever
the film.

Devices for extinguishing the Fire.

In one of these a water-spray, or extinguisher, is situated
over the spool box, and is automatically operated by an
ignited fuse in case of fire. In another device the apparatus
is lowered into a box which is closed by a light, tight lid,
with the object of stifling the fire.

Devices comprising Means for automatically switching
off the Projecting Light.

Such a device was provided on a very early automatic
living-picture apparatus displaying an endless band, and
designed by Mr. Hepworth (see British Specification

242 LIVING PICTURES

11,923 of 1897). A jockey roller is provided, so that if the
film tightens by reason of any entanglement or accident,
the roller rises and breaks the main supply circuit. In
other devices the film normally insulates two contacts
controlling various switches, and an alternative lighting
circuit. Such connections may even extend to the
emergency exits, so as to automatically unlock these.

FILM MANIPULATING AND HOUSING.

In all projection work, the rule for obtaining a correct
image on the screen is film-side upside-down to the con-
denser. Placing the film-side towards the projecting lens
reverses the picture not a serious matter as a rule, unless
a well-known landscape or any lettering appear on the
scene. But this error is apt to cause strange effects in
other ways. For instance, at one entertainment Ranjit-
sinhji was shown batting in grand style left-handed !
Not a likely experiment for an Australian test match, it
must be confessed !

When the spool has been used, it will require rewinding
backwards before it can be used again. Some machines,
such as Hughes's Bio-Pictorescope, have been made with
a double-feed mechanism, and the operation of reversing
in this case consists simply in reversing the projector.
This projection in a reversed direction is sometimes used
to give " trick " films. A reversed diving scene, for
instance, will show an existing splash which gradually
dies down, and from which emerges a man, feet uppermost,
who in this attitude makes his way to the diving-board,
from which he should have started. The same effect can,
of course, be obtained by running the film directly through
an ordinary machine without rewinding the film, and
using a reversing prism to erect the images which other-
wise would be upside-down.

To rewind the film it is more usual to use a separate

EXHIBITING, ETC. 243

rewinder, which is a comparatively simple machine com-
pared with the projector. Fig. 229 illustrates Wrench's
rewinder. The rewinding spool A is driven by a ratchet
and pawl, and can run on as a free wheel when the
winding handle H is stopped. A brake, C, is caused to act
on the spool B by a backward rotation of the handle H.
This arrangement enables the film periodically to be
drawn taut on the spool A, as well as serving as a brake to
stop the rewinding.

Various methods of spooling the film have been sug-

gested with a view to avoiding the necessity of rewinding
the film ; but for general convenience and utility the use
of an ordinary spool probably offers the greatest advan-
tages. In one method the store spool is to lie flat ; the
film is drawn from the centre, and after passing through
the machine, is wound in the ordinary way. There does
not appear to be anything impracticable in this method,
but it does not appear to have found its way into use.

If a film breaks while running through the projector
unfortunately not an uncommon occurrence it is, of

244

LIVING PICTURES

course, impossible to mend it permanently before proceed-
ing, and a temporary join is necessary. This is sometimes
done by a pin or small clip, sometimes it must be admitted
by merely wetting the film to make the broken end adhere
temporarily to the film roll. A spool clip which avoids in
any way tearing the film consists of a pin, B (Fig. 230),
which can be drawn through the clamping screw A, and

this clamping screw slides towards and away from the
spool axis along a slot, C, on the spool D. The loose end
of the film is pressed on the existing core E (whether
the spool core or the film already wound) by the pin B,
which is clamped in position by the nut A. If a subse-
quent break occurs, the^pin B can be withdrawn and
reinserted higher up the slot to reclamp the broken end.

STEREOSCOPIC PROJECTION AND OTHER METHODS OF
OBTAINING SOLIDITY AND RELIEF.

So far reference has been made only to ordinary ex-
hibiting, in which the pictures are projected on to a flat
screen. The term "Moving Pictures" has been exten-
sively used, and if " motion " effects were all that were
desired, it could be safely asserted that a very high degree
of perfection has been attained. For a good " Living "

EXHIBITING, ETC. 245

Picture, however, it is necessary to combine the percep-
tion of solidity and relief with that of motion. Between
ordinary still-life photographs there may be considerable
differences in the effects of solidity and relief conveyed
to the eye, and the same is true of Living Picture films.
There is, however, a marked difference between the
impression obtained from the most perfect single picture
and from a stereoscopic pair when viewed in a stereoscope,
and it is a matter of common experience that the im-
pression of solidity and relief is often much more in-
tensified with a stereoscope than is conveyed by the
actual view.

The term " stereoscope " is derived from two Greek
words, signifying <: solid" and "relief," and, etymologically
speaking, a stereoscopic picture is one which to the eye
conveys the impression of solidity. The term has, how-
ever, come to have a narrower meaning, and as ordinarily
used implies the reproduction of binocular vision. For this
reproduction two conditions have to be observed (i) that
to each eye is presented a picture which differs from its
companion to the same extent as two pictures taken from
two relatively adjacent standpoints at the same distance
apart as the eyes ; and (2) that these dissimilar pictures
are made to appear at one place to the eye so that
the impressions merge into one picture. The latter
purpose may be accomplished with a stereoscope or by
projection. The attempts made to get the simultaneous
impressions of solidity, relief, and motion, date as far back
as 1853, and the earlier methods have already been
noted in Chapter II. The following suggestions, amongst
others, have also been made for living-picture projection :
(i) Double projection and a viewing stereoscope for each
observer has been suggested. (2) The two films are
coloured in complementary colours and viewed through
differently coloured glasses, so that each eye may select
its proper picture. This is the method used for the well-

246

LIVING PICTURES

known plastograph still-life pictures. The pictures need
not be separate, but may overlap to save space. A recent
method for combining the two components in one picture
is interesting. The component images are produced on
a two-colour screen, the colours of which are complemen-
tary, or almost complementary, and so that the elements
of one component picture are only situated for example
on the red elements R (Fig. 231), whereas the elements
of the other component are only situated, for example, on

FIG. 232.

the green elements G. It will be seen that the components
are not whole components, but sections of a component,
the two sections just filling the picture. The photograph
or projected picture is viewed by coloured spectacles, the
glasses of which are correspondingly coloured complemen-
tary to each other, so that each eye picks out its own
component. (3) The use of polarized light for projecting
the pictures has been suggested, with viewing analyzers
relatively crossed so that each eye selects its own picture.
(4) To avoid the use of two films, pictures may be taken

EXHIBITING, ETC. 247

from adjacent standpoints alternately on to one film. This
may be done by using two objectives and an auxiliary
optical system, or by oscillating the camera transversely.
The latter alternative, suggested by Mr. Theodore Brown,
involves a considerable vibration of the camera, but admits
of a simplified modification, consisting in oscillating the
camera C more slowly upon an arc, as illustrated in
Fig. 232. Demonstrations showing the effect of solidity
and relief with this method were given before the Optical
Society in 1904. The effect is not really a stereoscopic
one, but is what might be called a " panoramic " one.
The same effect is produced where a film is taken from
a moving vehicle, and is due to the fact that the succes-
sive pictures are taken from successively adjacent stand-
points.

Such methods as the foregoing have not as yet come
into extensive use, owing no doubt to the practical
difficulties and cost involved in duplicate apparatus, or
supplying each observer with a separate viewing apparatus.
Also, where pictures are taken alternately from adjacent
positions and projected alternately without special view-
ing instruments, there is the liability to a vibration of the
foreground objects, which it is apparently impossible to
avoid.

Effects of solidity and relief have been obtained by other
methods and involving other principles.

Pepper's Ghost will need no introduction to the reader,
who will no doubt also be familiar with the methods by
which the spirit is made to appear. Instead of employing
living persons, it is possible to so utilize a living-picture
film that the images on the film appear to walk about the
stage like ghosts, with the difference, however, that as
reality is aimed at, there is no attempt to produce a
ghostlike appearance. Mr. Theodore Brown has specialized
in these productions, and one of these methods is used to
produce what are known to the general public as " Kiqo-

248 LIVING PICTURES

plasticon " pictures. Fig. 233 reveals the secret. It will
be seen that, instead of a shadow of a living person being
projected on the translucent screen F, which would be
done to produce a real ghost, the living-picture film
is projected on to this screen, and the projected images
appear to the audience in the auditorium I, to be at or
about the position J on the stage, the effect being due to
reflection from the transparent mirror A. As, moreover,
this mirror is transparent, the stage scenery is also seen,
and the effect is that of real persons moving on the stage.
The films used have to be specially taken. The subjects
are posed against a black background or tunnel lined with

black material. The subjects are dressed in light costumes,
so that the resulting positive film pictures give white
images surrounded with a dense background, almost
entirely or absolutely impervious to light. Thus, only
the transparent images will be projected, and these only
will be seen by the audience. The size of the picture
area on the screen is so adjusted that when the artist
goes out of the field of view, the point at which the exit
is made corresponds with that occupied by the edge of the
scenic wings C, with the result that the artist appears to
go behind the real wings, and also to make his or her
appearance from behind the wings. The appearance of the
artists walking towards and away from the front of the

EXHIBITING, ETC.

249

stage is due to the varying size of the figures on the film,
and these effects are carefully arranged for by photo-
graphing the original actors on a studio floor with a rake
corresponding to the rake of the theatre stage floor.

The popularity of the Scala during the time of these
exhibitions as, indeed, at all times for that matter is
sufficient evidence both of the attractiveness of these
effects and of the possibilities of these methods of exhibi-
tion. There are, however, certain drawbacks in all
methods where an indirect view of the projecting screen
is used, such as in the method just described, where the

FIG. 234.

image is seen by reflection from the mirror A. The
definition of the visible image is impaired by reason of the
fact that there is a reflection from both surfaces of the
mirror, thereby producing a double image. This draw-
back is not very great so long as the observer is fairly in
the centre of the auditorium. Another drawback is the
large amount of light required for projection, owing to
the large amount of light lost both at the screen and
by the reflection from the mirror. A third drawback
arises from the large amount of stage-room required both
for housing the mirror and the projector and screen, which

250 LIVING PICTURES

have to be kept from view. There is also the serious
item of the mirror itself, which in the Scala measures
something like 18 feet by 16 feet. To avoid some of these
drawbacks Mr. Brown proposes to project the film on a
screen in the ordinary way, either from the front or back
of the screen, and to obtain the stage scenery by reflection.
One such method, devised more especially with a view to
easy adaptation to existing picture palaces, is illustrated
in Fig. 234, which shows a sectional view. The stage
setting is positioned at C, D, E, below the level and in
front of the screen O on which the pictures are projected.
It thus occupies part of the space usually appropriated
for the orchestra. The stage setting is seen by reflection
from the mirror A, and appears to be at H, I, J, behind
the actual back wall M of the building. The screen O
and mirror A are mounted with collapsible bellows, N,
and both fold down when it is desired to project ordinary
pictures. The name of " Cinelife " has been suggested
for these picture effects.

There is, indeed, hardly any limit to the possibilities of
such means for obtaining not only effects of solidity and
relief, but also, where desired, illusion effects. Hamlet's
ghost will be a greater reality than ever.

MISCELLANEOUS METHODS OF EXHIBITING.

In addition to theatre exhibitions, animatography has
struck several by-paths. Commercial energy has, for
example, seized upon the Living Picture for purposes of
advertisement. Processes of manufacture, advertisements
of health resorts, glimpses of scenery on "unique tours,"
the inducements which colonial life can offer, have, amongst
many others, been the subjects of living-picture films.

Penny-in-the-slot machines have also been devised.
The Kinetoscope was modified to render the scene visible
to several observers. In another of these machines, Joly's

EXHIBITING, ETC.

251

Photozootrope, the picture-band was run past several
eye-pieces, and illuminated by a central light and slotted
drum. A portable peepshow, designed by Mr. Hughes, is
seen in Fig. 235. The picture is thrown on a proscenium
at the inner end of a box provided with several eye-pieces.

FIG. 235.

An ordinary projector can be used, and the structure is
adapted to be easily taken to pieces and re-erected.

A recent development one as yet in comparative
infancy is the "Home" cinematograph. The Living
Picture is almost surely destined to vie closely with the

252

LIVING PICTURES

ordinary lantern for home and private entertainments,
and many makers now specialize in apparatus simplified
to the utmost limit for such purposes. The problem

FIG. 236.

of the necessary light, which is greater for a Living Picture
than for an ordinary lantern-slide, is greatly simplified in
the Pathescope, shown in Fig. 236, in which the light is
generated in working the machine.

CHAPTER VII

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

Principles of colour photography Additive methods Subtractive
or superposition methods Kinemacolour Chronochrome.

PRINCIPLES OF COLOUR PHOTOGRAPHY.

HOWEVER perfect and perfectly executed a black-and-
white photograph may be, and even if toned in the various
art tones now possible, it leaves something to be desired
if the attractiveness of the object or view lies in its colours.
Accordingly, apart from the methods of colouring films by
hand and machine described in a previous chapter, the
efforts of photographic scientists have from the earliest
times been directed to the reproduction by photography
of the colours seen by the eye, and as projected on the
focussing screen of the camera. In the absence of a
sensitive plate which will directly reproduce the colours
projected on it, recourse must be had to indirect methods,
and Clerk Maxwell, as early as 1861, showed how it could
be done. Preceding him, Isaac Newton had demonstrated
that ordinary white light consisted of a large number of
different coloured lights which could be separated by a
prism. On the theory that light is an undulation, then, as
there are undulations of every different period from one
end of the spectrum to the other, there are an infinite
number of kinds of light in the spectrum, each of which is
identified with a particular wave-length, and is therefore a
pure colour that is, is not compounded of two or more
colours. Newton also showed that the different colours

253

254 LIVING PICTURES

of the spectrum could be recombined to reproduce the
original white light. What was even more significant was
that the white light could also be reproduced by a suitable
combination of the colours from particular parts of the
red, green, and blue-violet portions of the spectrum. Also,
different colours could be obtained from different combina-
tions of these three colours. Yellow, for example, could
be obtained from red and green, and, indeed, all the
colours of nature can be reproduced and imitated by suit-
able combinations of these three red, green, and blue-
violet coloured lights, which are from this fact called
primary colours. No theory of the nature of light pro-
vides any explanation of these facts, and accordingly an
explanation was sought for in the constitution and function
of the eye. Young's theory of colour vision is that the eye
is provided with three sets of nerves, each of which is
extremely sensitive to one of the three primary colours,
and in a much less degree to the other two. The action
of the light of any colour on the eye is quite independent
of the wave-lengths contained in the colour. The impres-
sion depends entirely upon the extent to which each
of the three, nerves are affected. The pure yellow of the
spectrum containing only one wave-length will affect the
red and green nerves in just the same way as yellow com-
pounded of red and green and containing probably several
wave-lengths. If, then, we can reconstitute the colours of
a picture in terms of the three primary colours, by suitable
combinations of these colours, the effect to the eye will be
the same as the original picture. Clerk Maxwell showed
how this could be done, and how the results of Newton's
researches and Young's theory of colour vision could be
applied to photography.

To take Maxwell's own description : " Let a plate of
red glass be placed before the camera and an impression
taken. The positive of this will be transparent wherever
the red light has been abundant in the landscape, and

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 255

opaque where it has been wanting. Let it now be placed
in a magic-lantern along with the red glass, and a red
picture will be thrown on the screen. Let this operation
be repeated with a green and a violet glass, and, by means
of three magic-lanterns, let the three images be superposed
on the screen. The colour of any point on the screen will
then depend on the corresponding point of the landscape ;
and, by properly adjusting the intensities of the lights, etc.,
a complete copy of the landscape, as far as the visible
colour is concerned, will be thrown on the screen. The
only apparent difference will be that the copy will be more
subdued, or less pure in tint than the original. Here,
however, we have the process performed twice first on
the screen, and then on the retina." It is in this method
assumed that the sensitive plates used for the colour
images are equally sensitive to rays of every colour i.e.,
are panchromatic. To obtain a plate of this character is,
however, more easy to assume than to accomplish. Max-
well did, however, obtain the earliest colour reproductions
by this process. Such processes, in which the projections
of three component images of the red, green, and blue in
the picture are added, are known as additive processes. If
now we go a step farther, and suppose that we have three
living-picture films in lieu of Maxwell's single images, and
that these are run through three projectors simultaneously,
and the projected pictures superposed on the screen, we
should obtain a Living Picture in colours. Unfortunately,
the direct application of Maxwell's method is attended by
many difficulties ; but before dealing with these and the
ways of avoiding them, it will be convenient to briefly
describe other processes.

Subtr active Processes. The foregoing method of adding
colours by adding the projections of coloured lights must
be clearly distinguished from methods which involve
mixing pigments, or combining two or more filters and
passing a beam of light through them. A very different

256 LIVING PICTURES

effect would, for example, be obtained if, instead of
separately projecting the red, green, and blue-violet
images produced by Maxwell's method, these were united
together in register and used in a single lantern. The
picture would be far from resembling the original. We
can, it is true, imitate almost any colour by a suitable
mixture of the three fundamental colours of artists
carmine (pink), chrome-yellow, and blue (prussian blue)
and these three colours are referred to by artists, and are
popularly known as primary colours. The colour of a
mixture of pigments is, however, very different from a
true mixture of the colours of the separate pigments.
Helmholz showed that when light falls on a mixture
of pigments, part 'of it is acted on by one pigment only,
and part of it by another ; while a third part is acted
on by both pigments before it is sent back to the eye.
The two parts reflected directly from the pure pigments
enter the eye together, and form a true mixture of the
colours ; but the third portion, which has suffered absorp-
tion by both pigments, is often so considerable as to give
its own character to the remaining tint. This is the
explanation of the green tint produced by mixing most
blue and yellow pigments. The process is one of subtrac-
tion. The yellow pigment absorbs most of the blue and
violet of the incident white light, reflecting the red and
green, the combination of which is seen as yellow. The
blue pigment, however, absorbs most of the red and yellow,
whilst also reflecting the green. As the result, the green
is the preponderating colour which reaches the eye. The
amount of yellow and blue from the individual pigments
which reaches the eye is very small compared with the
amount of the light which suffers absorption by one or other
of the pigments. This difference between the additive and
the subtractive method of adding colours (to use an
Irishism) is also illustrated in the following way : If we
take three lanterns and project three discs of light partly

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

257

overlapping, as shown in Fig. 237, and insert in each
lantern a coloured filter, one coloured red, another coloured
green, and a third coloured blue-violet, the result on the
screen will be the colours indicated. This illustrates the
addition of coloured lights. If, on the other hand, we use
one lantern, and take three circular discs coloured yellow,
pink, and blue, with the three fundamental colours of the
painter, and partly superpose the discs, as illustrated in
Fig. 238, the result will be as indicated, and the black
centre illustrates the result of subtracting all the colours
in the white projecting light by one or other of the filters.
The white patch in the centre of Fig 237, on the other

CKtfti

BLUl

FIG. 237.

FIG. 238.

hand, illustrates the result of adding the colours of the
filters, if the colours are the primary colours red. green,
and a blue-violet.

The fact that it is possible to imitate almost any colour
of nature by a suitable combination of these pink, yellow,
and blue pigments suggests, however, that it should be
possible to reconstitute the colours in a picture by three
component images in these colours. The method of
doing this was accomplished by a French scientist, Ducos
du Hauron. The process is broadly as follows : Three
negatives are taken, as in Clerk - Maxwell's additive
process, through red, green, and blue-violet filters, which

258 LIVING PICTURES

respectively pass the red, green, and blue-violet com-
ponents of the light passing through them. The negative
taken through the red filter will have an image wherever
the red light has acted. The absence of image corre-
sponds thus with the component light stopped by the
red filter. The positive from the red negative will thus
be a record of this subtracted component, and constitutes
what is known as the minus-red positive. Now, when red
is subtracted from white light, the result, known as the
" complementary " colour, is blue-green, approximately
the primary blue of the artist. The minus-red positive is
therefore stained or coloured in this colour, the dye or
colour being known as the " minus-red " colour. Simi-
larly, from the negative taken through the green filter, the
minus-green positive is obtained and coloured " minus-
green," which is the " complementary " of green, and is
approximately the pink of the artist. The negative taken
through the blue filter gives the minus-blue positive, which
is approximately the yellow of the artist, and the comple-
mentary of the blue of the taking filter.

These three colour components are superposed in exact
register, and can be mounted either on paper or as a
lantern slide. It will be seen that where there is white in
the picture, there will be an image in each component
negative, but no image in any of the component positives,
so that the white paper base will be clearly visible ; or
if the components constitute a lantern slide, the white
projecting light will be freely passed. Similarly, where
there is black in the picture, there will be no image in any
of the component negatives, and there will be a super-
position of three colour images in the combined positives,
which produce the black. Where there is green in the
picture, there will be images in the minus-red (the blue)
and the minus-blue (the yellow) positives, and the green
is reproduced by the same subtractive processes as
described above in connection with a mixture of yellow

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 259

and blue pigments. Other colours are similarly recon-
stituted.

Supposing, then, that we have three coloured living-
picture films made from negatives taken through the red,
green, and blue filters instead of single images, and that
these films are united in register, the projection of such a
tripart film would give a Living Picture in colours. Thus
we have a second method, theoretically possible, and on
which much experimental work is being done, but again
involving practical difficulties which so far have not been
successfully removed.

Other Additive Methods. (i) If we project colours alter-
nately in sufficiently rapid succession, the resultant effect
will be that the eye will merge the colours by persistence
of vision. Thus, if, in taking a film, the successive ex-
posures are made through red, green, and blue filters,
each colour filter recurring at every third exposure, then
the positive film will contain a recurring series of com-
ponent red. green, and blue component images. If the
film is passed through the projector, and the red, green,
and blue filters caused to recur in front of the corre-
sponding components, or alternatively, if the components
are coloured or toned red, green, and blue respectively,
then, provided the components recur sufficiently quickly
for the eye to combine the colours, we should obtain not
only the effect of motion, but also of colours. Kinema-
colour is a development of this process.

(2) If a surface is ruled with a series of lines alternately
red, green, and blue, leaving no spaces, and so fine that
the eye cannot detect any of the lines singly, the com-
bined effect of the colours is produced. The same effect
is produced if, instead of lines, we have small areas
forming a mosaic. The use of such a screen for colour
photography was introduced by Du Hauron in 1892. If
a screen of this kind is coated with a sensitive emulsion,
and the exposure made through the screen, the different

260

LIVING PICTURES

sets of red, green, and blue areas serve the same function
as Clerk-Maxwell's colour niters. If the exposed plate is
developed as a positive, then the red, green, and blue
component images will be split up into small areas behind
the corresponding colour areas. As the eye cannot
perceive the individual colour areas, it sees the combined
effect of the three-colour images and a colour picture
results. This is the principle used in producing what are
known as Autochromes, Lumiere's screen which is used
having colour areas made from very small starch grains.
If, then, we could form a screen on celluloid and make a
living-picture film in this way, we should presumably

FIG. 239.

obtain a Living Picture in colours. Unfortunately, there
are many material difficulties in the way of obtaining for
Living Pictures the very beautiful results obtained in still-
life subjects. Joly, in 1896, introduced a modified method
in which the screen need not be inseparably associated
with the sensitive plate. He used the line screen first
described, and in exposing the negative the screen is
pressed into close contact with the sensitive surface.

On printing a positive transparency we obtain images
of the three colours, corresponding to Clerk-Maxwell's
images, but broken up, and each image is associated with
the corresponding colour filter by recombining the screen

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 261

with the positive, so that the red, green, and blue lines
register with the images taken through them. The line
screens have been improved upon, and various screens
suggested, in which the colours are grouped according to
a definite regular pattern, some of the patterns used being
shown on a magnified scale in Fig. 239, in which the
differently shaded or clear areas represent the different
areas coloured in primary colours. The advantage of
having a separate screen is that any number of positives
can be produced from the one negative, whereas with a
screen in which the colour areas are quite promiscuous
and without any arrangement and order, no two screens
will be alike, and the re-registration of the screen with the
positive would be an impossibility. The direct application
of this method for Living Pictures has been suggested,
and much experimental work is being done on this process.
Sensitiveness of Photographic Plates to Colours. In all the
above methods it has been assumed that the sensitive
plates used are equally sensitive to all colours. An ordin-
ary plate, however, is not so sensitive. If exposed to the
spectrum, the density of the image will vary considerably,
the most active colours being at the blue end of the spec-
trum, and the least active at the red end. It is possible,
however, by suitably treating the plates with selected dyes
and chemicals to make a plate sensitive to green or red. A
plate thus treated is known as an orthochromatic plate.
By treating the plate with a selected combination of dyes,
it is possible to make it more equally sensitive to both
green and red. Such a plate which is sensitive to all
colours is known as a panchromatic plate. One of the
greatest difficulties in obtaining Living Pictures has been
to find a panchromatic emulsion which is sufficiently red-
sensitive. This difficulty is not so acute for still-life pho-
tography, since the restrictions in the time for exposure
are not so great as with Living Pictures, where sixteen or
more exposures every second are necessary.

262 LIVING PICTURES

The foregoing brief review of principles will, it is hoped,
enable the reader to more easily follow the methods used
for obtaining Living Pictures in colours.

Friese Greene's Method. The first recorded method, by
Friese Greene in 1899, is somewhat unique, and for that
reason alone is interesting. It is primarily a method for
still-life photography. A disc (Fig. 240), containing three
red, green, and blue sectors, is rotated rapidly in front of
the camera lens, so that the niters recur in rapid succes-
sion. A positive is made from the negative, and is pro-
jected behind the rotating disc. The patent specification
explains that the negative will contain the vibrations, not
only of the three colours employed, but also of all the

FIG. 240.

varieties of colour caused by the blending of these colours,
and that the projected picture will show all the colours of
the original. The idea apparently is to assist the plate
to record and reproduce the colours projected on the plate.
Unfortunately, the plate does not respond, and the method
fails when put to practical test.

Persistence of Vision Methods : Kinemacolour.The next
proposal appeared in 1899 by Lee and Turner, and formed
the starting-point of the modern Kinemacolour process.
It is partly a persistence of vision method and partly a
triple projection method. A three-sectored disc, as used
by Friese Greene, is rotated in front of the camera lens at
such a speed that the successive exposures on the film are
made through the successive sectors. We thus obtain a

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

263

recurring series of red, green, and blue colour records.
The method of projecting is somewhat involved. Three

consecutive pictures are superposed at a time by means
of three projecting lenses, i l , i 2 , i 3 (Fig. 241), the red
picture through a red filter, the green picture through a

FIG. 242.

green filter, and the blue picture through a blue filter.
This is accomplished by a shutter (Fig. 242) formed of
sectors, each sector having three concentric coloured

264 LIVING PICTURES

bands. The colours are stepped as shown, and the three
sectors are separated by black sectors. If we follow one
of the pictures on the film, say a red component, which is
just entering the lens i l , when in front of this lens it is
projected through the outer red sector R 3 on the shutter.
When the film is stepped, the black sector masks all three
lenses, and the red component is projected through the
lens i 2 , through the middle red sector R 2 . After the
next shift the same red component is projected through
the lens 3 , through the inner red sector R 1 . Each com-
ponent is thus projected three times. It will also be
noted that three pictures are superposed which are not
necessarily identical, especially if the living subjects in the
picture are very active. The three pictures are, in fact,
three successive phases of an ordinary picture film. We
might reasonably expect, therefore, to find that there is a
certain amount of fuzziness in the projected picture. In
addition to this difficulty, the knowledge with regard to
emulsions and filters was not at this time sufficiently far
advanced to obtain a proper balance of colours in the
picture. Nevertheless, the method had in it the germs of
great possibilities, and many suggestions followed. The
direct application of the persistence of colour vision
method was suggested by Vaughan in 1902. The negative
was to be taken through the same sectored screen (Fig. 240),
as used by Friese Greene, and the positive band pro-
jected through a similar screen, in which the sectors are
separated by black sectors. This method obviates the
superposition of three consecutive pictures, but introduces
others, since in order that the eye may recombine the
colours the speed of projection, and therefore of taking,
has to be correspondingly increased. The fact that the
exposures have to be made through colour filters makes
matters much worse, and the exposure which is necessary
is reduced beyond the limits for which the film can be
sensitized for red. The strain on the film, moreover, both

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 265

in taking and projecting at nearly three times the ordinary
speed, is prohibitive.

In 1902 Mr. G. A. Smith was invited by Mr. Urban to
assist in a thorough series of experimental researches with
a view to obtaining colour reproductions. Mr. Stnith's
story has been told by himself in a lecture before the
Royal Society of Arts on December 9, 1908. The chief
problems then existing were to find a film equally sensitive
to all colours, and a method which would only necessitate
the use of ordinary films and existing machines and
accessories. Mr. Smith departs from Maxwell's three-
colour system of colours, and maintains that it is possible
to exhibit satisfactorily every colour to the eye, including
the purest of whites, by dividing the spectrum into two
parts. " If," says Mr. Smith, " we ask individuals to set
down the principal colours of Nature, placing them in
order of luminosity or brightness to the eye, the average
of the lists will be as follows : white, yellow, orange, red,
green, blue, violet, indigo, black. ... I find that it is
possible with two carefully adjusted filters to pass to the
sensitized plate or film colours in proportions parallel to
the above order. Through one filter I pass white and
yellow, then through orange and scarlet, to the darkest
red I can sensitize for. Through the other filter I pass
white and yellow again, as these two are at the head
in luminosity and require fullest representation ; then on
through green, blue-green, blue, and violet, in the propor-
tions suggested by the above luminosity list. The aim
is to secure, by a careful adaptation of filters to emulsion,
a record of colour luminosity stated in gradations of tone
from white to black, through a scale of greys, this scale
being fully represented in two successive pictures. I take
the pictures with an Urban Bioscope camera fitted with
the required filters to come into action alternately. One
film only is used, of the usual standard size, and I take the
pictures at the rate of not less than sixteen per second

266 LIVING PICTURES

through each filter, or thirty-two pictures per second in all.
When the negative record has been duly developed, and a
positive transparency developed from it, this positive
transparency represents, by its gradations of tone from
black to white in each successive pair of pictures, not only
a record in form and shape, but it also acts as a filter
or sifter of light ; for when it is passed in the path of rays
of coloured light it will screen or filter them so as to
reconstruct for our eyes the various proportions of colour
luminosity which were present in the scene when the
record was made. ... The question now is, What rays
of colour are we to use ? Apparently we must use the
same colours that we used as filters in the camera, and, in
fact, we may do so with pleasing results. But theoretical
critics will point out that, owing to the unfortunate over-
sensitiveness of the film to violet and blue, we must,
of necessity, have cut these colours down to such an extent
in our camera that if we use the same filters for recon-
structing colour for the human eye, their absence will
be sorely missed our whites will be so deficient in blue
and violet that they won't be white at all, but orange
or yellow. Our reply to this contention is, that white is
very largely a comparative sensation. What we agree
to call white in a painting, for instance, is often quite
different from what we agree to call white in another
painting, if we take steps to compare the two ' whites '
with one another. One may be yellowish or greyish com-
pared with the other, yet both are white enough in their
proper place in the picture, when surrounded with colours
in proper 'key,' as it were, to them. Again, the whitest
of paper will look yellow when compared with the purest
white of fresh fallen snow. Therefore, our whites pro-
duced by the mixture of coloured lights may possibly be
somewhat yellow as a matter of spectroscopic reality ; but
if the human eye accepts them as white by the comparison
with other colours in the same picture, we need scarcely

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 267

bother our heads further. But another way of meeting
the critical objection that the analytical niters of our
camera are necessarily too deficient in violet and blue
to give a proper rendering of colour when used as syn-
thetical or reproduction filters in projection, is to intro-
duce the missing beams of violet and blue into our
projecting instrument, and so make ourselves practically
secure of the whites or ' all-colour light,' required on
theoretical grounds. This I find it an advantage to do ;
and if you examine the light emanating from the project-
ing machine when lighted up and at work, you will see
that beams of red and green are alternately issuing from
the lens, and that these beams have added to them by
means of a supplementary shutter just those proportions
of violet and blue required to make pure white when
all are mixed. Thus we have light on our screen for our
whitest objects, which contains, as it should contain to
conform to theory, every colour of the spectrum from dark
red to violet."

In the camera used for taking Kinemacolour negatives
the lens L (Fig. 243A) is exposed alternately behind the
red and green coloured segments R and G, the opaque
shutter S masking the lens during each shift of the film.
The shutter used in the projector comprises the orange-red
and blue-green sectors R', G 7 , between which are trans-
parent sectors T, which cross the lens during the shift
of the film. At this period a separate violet shutter
crosses the lens to give the violet component, as referred
to above. The centre part of the blue-green section of the
shutter is modified in density to obtain a necessary balance
of colour. The pictures taken through the red and green
filters in the camera must, of course, be projected through
the corresponding segments of the shutter in the projector.
Fig. 244 illustrates a view of the projector.

It is well to have the theory of the process from the
inventor himself. The whole subject of colour and colour

2 68

LIVING PICTURES

phenomena is, after all, very far from being understood,
and it and the theories and problems arising from the
inventor's description open a very wide field for discussion.
According to the generally accepted theories, a two-colour
system in which only two-colour component images are
obtained, can at best be but a compromise for obviating
some of the difficulties involved in a three-colour system.
According to Dr. Mees, the process is " a striking testimony

FIG. 243A.

FIG. 243B.

to the good practical results which may sometimes be
obtained from a theoretically inaccurate system."'

Theory or no theory, however, the facts remain that it
was the first commercial process for obtaining Living
Pictures in colours, that the colour illusion is in the
majority of cases strikingly good, and that the enjoyment
of hundreds of thousands has made the name of Kinema-
colour deservedly famous.

* Xiiturc, October 26, 1911, p. 556.

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

269

Various suggestions have been made from time to time
by way of modifications and improvements, chiefly with

FIG. 244.

regard to details. The selection of colours offers a wide
scope for research. It has been proposed to interspace

270 LIVING PICTURES

the pictures with black-and-white projections at intervals,
presumably to rest the eye and to enhance the colours.
The eye cannot, of course, detect the interposed pictures.
Again, it has been proposed to dispense with the rotating
coloured niters, and to use a coloured band having alternate
red and green colour patches which will coincide with the
pictures. The band may be attached to the film, or alter-
natively the band may be loose and perforated just like
the film, in which case the sprockets are relied upon to
keep the bands in proper register. An alternative to using
colour filters for projection is to print the pictures as
coloured components, for which purpose the bichromate
methods of printing are recommended. Various modifica-
tions have been suggested for the Kinemacolour shutter ;
for example, to graduate the colour sectors used in colour,
starting from red to yellow for one sector, and green
to violet for the other sector. Other suggestions include
means for adjusting the relative areas of the sectors.

Simultaneous Projection Methods : Gaumont's " Chrono-
chrome." The direct application of Clerk-Maxwell's
method, as above suggested, has obvious difficulties.
Three cameras and projectors would be necessary to start
with, rendering the cost prohibitive. Very few, indeed,
of the methods for still-life photography could for this,
among other reasons, be possible for Living-Picture work.
One of the earliest methods suggested for Living Pictures
was suggested by Davidson in 1904. Colour filters, i, j, k,
are fitted to the camera, as shown in Fig. 245, and by
means of mirrors, e,f, g, h, three images are obtained on
the focal plane at abc. The system may be modified
for two-colour work by rearranging the filters and mirrors.
It is not necessary, however, to use reflectors to obtain
the component images. Friese Greene suggested in 1905
the use of prisms. A small angled prism, d (Fig. 246), is
fitted just behind the lens c of the camera, and operates
to produce a refracted image, nq, adjacent to the direct

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY 271

image, rj. These images are taken and projected through
two-colour niters, e, f, and the film is moving through the
plane rn. This method was exhibited in 1906, and the
results inspired the hope that the method would be of
practical value. None of such methods as the above in
which mirrors or prisms are used to obtain the component
images have, however, emerged from the lecture-room or
the laboratory.

FIG. 245. FIG. 246.

Multiple Lem Systems. One solution of the difficulties
of the above systems lies in the use of a separate lens in
taking and projecting each component film. A practical
difficulty in such method is to focus pictures of equal size
sufficiently close together on the film, and to recombine
them in register on the screen. Also the separate pictures
are taken from adjacent positions, and this renders still

FIG. 247.

more difficult their exact superposition on the screen.
The arrangement of objectives suggested by Christensen
is illustrated in Fig. 247. To get the axes of the lenses as
close as possible, and to equalize the exposures for the
different colours, the lens for the blue colour is in the
centre, and is recessed into the other two for the red and

272 LIVING PICTURES

green, which themselves are so proportioned as to equalize
the exposures necessary for the three colours. In order
to obtain pictures of exactly equal size, the lenses have
the same focal length for the colours they respectively pass.

Arrangement of the Different Colour Component Pictures
on the Film. The simplest arrangements are those in
which the component pictures are one above the other on
an ordinary film, or side by side either on separate films
of ordinary size, or on a film of twice or three times the
ordinary width. In the first case the feed mechanism
must feed the film through the space of two or three
pictures at each shift, which would be a great strain on
the film and feed mechanism of the camera or projector.
In the latter alternatives the wide film might not keep
perfectly flat, and special apparatus for the wide film is
necessary. If the component pictures are squeezed into
the space of an ordinary picture, as suggested by Ulysse, in
Specification No. 17,872 of 1910, the pictures will be exces-
sively small, and in addition there is the optical difficulty
of obtaining good pictures so close together on the film.

Gaumont's "' Chronochrome " System. To M. Gaumont,
of Paris, belongs the credit of being the first to success-
fully overcome the many difficulties and to successfully
realize a practical three-colour system for Living Pictures
in colours. The system, moreover, needs no scientific
apology, as it is based on Clerk-Maxwell's original three-
colour process, which is universally recognized as giving
the best rendering of colours. The demonstrations in
Paris in December, 1912, and in London in March, 1913,
met with well-deserved appreciation from all quarters, and
was universally recognized as being conclusive evidence
of a notable achievement. The pictures are taken in sets
of three, one above the other, on a film of standard width.
This avoids any gauge complications. The pictures are
not, however, of normal size, but each set of three pictures
occupies the space of about two ordinary pictures. This

COLOUR CINEMATOGRAPHY

273

necessitates a feed through two ordinary picture spaces at
each shift. To get good pictures so close together on the
film three lenses are used, each of which is cut off by two
parallel planes. The lenses are thus similar in size and
shape. Each lens is fitted with its colour filter. The
optical superposition on the screen is accomplished by
a very ingenious arrangement of the projecting lenses
A, B, C (Fig. 248). The outer lenses A, C, are not only

adjustable towards and away from the centre lens B, but
are also pivotally adjustable both about their horizontal
axes, c, d, and their vertical axes, a, b. The three lenses
carry the colour filters, and are used in conjunction with
three auxiliary condensers, situated behind the film gate.
There is no room for two opinions as to the excellence of
the pictures produced and exhibited, and that the process
should have a future before it.

CHAPTER VIII

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES

To make a picture on the screen realistic something more
is necessary than the visual effect alone. To see persons
in the act of talking without hearing what is said, or to
see waves dashing on rocks, or lions seemingly roaring
away, without hearing anything other than the faint buzz
of the projector, leaves an impression of something lack-
ing. From the very earliest times this want has been
felt, and it is now rarely that a Cinematograph exhibition
is given without a musical accompaniment of some sort.
A suitable and appropriate selection of pianoforte music
greatly improves an exhibition, and, on the other hand, an
inappropriate selection, or a bad rendering of a good
selection, is worse than no music at all. An ordinary
piano is all that is used in many places, but a piano,
organ, orchestra, or orchestra substitute, such as the
Cinephonium, however excellent the instrument may be,
have limitations ; and while these can be adopted to give
music harmonizing to a large extent with most pictures,
there are many sounds and noises, musical and otherwise,
which require special devices for imitation, such, for
example, as traffic, the buzz of aeroplanes, pistol shots,
waves, and many others. Invention and ingenuity have
not failed to supply means for imitating these in a very
realistic manner, but it requires a very considerable
amount of skill and practice to utilize such means to
the best advantage. The person in charge of the music
ajid effects has a very important part to play in any

274

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 275

picture exhibition. The effects can easily be underdone,
or overdone, or badly done ; they can too easily be brought
in at the wrong time, and the person in charge requires
to know the films beforehand, in order to be able to manip-
ulate his tools in the right way and at the right time.

The reproduction of the actual sounds, as well as the
picture, was attempted in the earliest days of the Cine-
matograph, and was used by Demeny for his Photophone,
and by Edison for his Phonokinetograph and Kineto-
phone. The production of imitation sounds or effects is
quite a different problem to the reproduction of the actual
sounds themselves. In the latter case the sound record
has to be made and reproduced with the picture. It
must, moreover, keep in time with the picture ; that is to
say, there must be " synchronism " between the sound
and the picture records. The ordinary gramophone
record is obtained by the action of a vibrating membrane
which produces a series of indentations in a soft surface
of wax. These indentations are used to reproduce the
vibrations of a membrane, and thereby reproduce the
original sounds. Stripped of all refinements, this is
the essential principle of the gramophone. If, then, a
record of the sounds can be made simultaneously with
the photographic record, it would not at first sight appear
to be difficult to reproduce them in synchronism. The
first of these problems is rendered difficult by reason of
the limitations of the sensitiveness of the recording gramo-
phone. The recording instrument must be within a
certain range of the sounds, and for a speaker or actor
the range is not a large one, and it is difficult to get the
instrument near enough and keep it outside the picture
view. Accordingly another method has been resorted to,
which is applicable in a large number of cases. The
gramophone record is taken first, and the picture film is
produced to the accompaniment of the record. To
succeed with this method it is obviously essential that

276 LIVING PICTURES

the speaking, singing, or acting, should synchronize with
the sound record for synchronism between the same
return and the picture film to be possible. A further
limitation arises from the size of record obtainable. A
small or short record means a short film. The size and
length of an ordinary record is very limited, and for a
speech, sketch, or piece of any material length, several
records are necessary, and these would need to follow
on at the proper time. Having obtained the record and
picture film, the problem of reproducing them syn-
chronously is still a formidable one. It is, of course,
theoretically possible for the operator to keep his eye
on the screen and his ear on the gramophone, and to
control the projector or gramophone so as to maintain
synchronism. This, however, throws an additional re-
sponsibility on the already overburdened operator, and
is not a practicable method. Accordingly, either an
auxiliary device is necessary to automatically indicate
to the operator if the synchronism is being maintained,
or some means by which the running of the projector
or gramophone, or both, is automatically adjusted to
maintain synchronism.

Alike with this problem of synchronism, as with the
problem of colour cinematography, one almost instinc-
tively looks to see what Messrs. Gaumont have achieved.
In one of their earliest methods, introduced in 1902, a
motor, AB (Fig. 249), is used to drive the projector K.
This motor is electrically controlled from the gramophone,
L. The gramophone drives a shaft, N, carrying collector
rings, X, of an electric circuit ; and carrying also rotating
brushes, D, E, which rub on a divided collector, the
sections of which are connected to the stator of the
motor, AB. The next step in advance is the use of
synchronized motors for driving both the gramophone
and the projector. Mester, in German) 7 , appears to have
been working on the same lines, and special types of

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 277

motors are used. The two motors of identical design
and the same power are driven from the same current,
and in order to better maintain synchronism the motor
armatures each have a number of sections which are
connected in pairs. A switchboard near the projector
includes a starting switch, whereby the gramophone is
first set in motion ; and when the record commences, the
gramophone disc operates a switch to start the projector.
A voltmeter on the switchboard indicates any want of
synchronism which is corrected by accelerating or retard-
ing the projector. This is effected by coupling the pro-
jector with its driving motor through a differential gearing,
which is operated from a separate motor. This latter

FIG. 249.

motor is started by an auxiliary two-way switch, so that
the differential can be used to retard or accelerate the pro-
jector to restore the synchronism. The results obtained
with the Chronophone are extremely satisfactory, and by
the use of the Auxetophone, in which the sound is in-
tensified by means of compressed air, the possibility of
the Chronophone in large halls is quite a possibility, as is
evidenced by its use at the Hippodrome in Paris, which
has a seating capacity of over four thousand.

The use of indicators for automatically indicating to
the operator any want of synchronism has been adopted
by many inventors in various ways. In one of the
earliest (Fig. 250) two indicating elements are used, one

378

LIVING PICTURES

consisting of a disc, s, rotated directly from the projector
6, and the other a concentric pointer, r, rotated by an
electro-magnet, which is intermittently energized by a
circuit, completed on every revolution of the gramophone
spindle d by means of a cam, e, on the spindle. The
disc s carries a mark, and so long as the mark on the disc
and the pointer are coincident, synchronism is being
maintained. If the pointer leads or lags, the projector
is speeded up or slowed down accordingly to restore
synchronism.

FIG. 250.

FIG. 251.

There is undoubtedly a comparative simplicity in such
a method as this, of which there have been many varieties.
In one by Thomassin (Fig. 251) a pointer, 7, is rotated
intermittently by a pawl, 3, and an electro-magnet
energized from the shaft 12 of the gramophone. The
electrical escapement is mounted on a coaxial disc, 22,
which is rotated in the opposite direction from the pro-
jector shaft 13. So long as synchronism is maintained
there will be no movement of the pointer, and any move-
ment of the pointer indicates the adjustment necessary

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 279

for the projector. With this apparatus there is a single
indicating element only.

Another apparatus of this type, and the only one which
appears to have survived and found its way into anything
like extensive use, is the Vivaphone, devised by Mr.
Hepworth. In this instrument a wheel, B (Fig. 252),
carrying the indicating pointer M, is rotated by two pawls,
D, I, which are actuated by two electro-magnets, G, L.
These electro-magnets are intermittently energized from
the projector and gramophone respectively. The spindle
B' of the wheel B rests between parallel bars, A 3 , and if
synchronism is upset, one pawl will rotate the wheel more

FIG. 252.

quickly than the other one, and thereby cause the pointer
M to move to one side or the other. The pointer carries
two red and green discs, M 1 , M 2 , which are thus brought
opposite the lamp, and indicate any disturbance of
synchronism. The attractiveness of the Vivaphone is that
it is adaptable for any gramophone and any projector.
The make and break contacts for intermittently energizing
the electro-magnets are carried on two fittings, S, T
(Figs. 253, 254). The fitting S rests on the disc of the
gramophone, and has a knife-edge engaging in the slot of
the centre pin, and the fitting T is carried by the driving
shaft of the projector respectively. These fittings, S, T,

280

LIVING PICTURES

and a battery, X, are connected up with the lamp K and
electro-magnets G, L, of the indicator, as shown in
Fig- 255-
Another somewhat different method and apparatus,

FIG. 253.

FIG. 254,

invented by Mr. Jeapes, which bears the stamp of extreme
simplicity, was brought out as the Cinephone by the
Warwick Trading Company. In this method a rotating
pointer, 5 (Fig. 256), is attached to the gramophone and

FIG. 256.

driven by it. The gramophone is positioned so that a
record of the rotation of the pointer is produced on the
film at one corner thereof. The gramophone is placed
near the corner io a of the projection screen, on which the

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 281

reproduction of the pointer appears. The operator then
controls the projector so that the reproduction maintains
the same angular speed as the pointer.

A difficulty with several synchronizing devices where
an indicating pointer is used arises when a film breaks or
is damaged, and a section of it has to be cut away. In
such cases it is necessary to slow down the projector until
the gramophone catches up, but there is no visible indica-
tion when synchronism is restored. With the Cinephone,
however, the restoration of synchronism is indicated by
the reproduction of the pointer on the screen.

FIG. 257.

The above by no means exhausts the devices of this
character, which have been many and various, and a list
of which is included in the Patents Appendix.

In another type of device, by Count Proszynski, the
projector is coupled with the gramophone by connecting
the spindle A (Fig. 257) of the projector with an air-pump
bellows, S, the air outlet T of which is regulated from
the phonograph O in such a manner that when syn-
chronism is faulty the bellows actuate a brake, B, or
otherwise control the speed of the projector.

In another and altogether different system, invented by
Mr. Lauste in 1906, the sound as well as the picture are

282

LIVING PICTURES

simultaneously recorded on the film. To obtain a photo-
graphic record of sound may not be recognized as a
common process, but it is nevertheless quite a possible
one, and some method of recording the sound and the
picture simultaneously on a picture film, either by photog-
raphy or in some other way, may be found to be one of
the best solutions of the problem of synchronization. It
certainly would solve the problem of the long piece or
play, since the continuous film is used for the sound
record as well as the picture record.

In Lauste's method the sound record is made photo-

FIG. 258.

graphically. A microphone transmitter, such as is used
for collecting the sound-waves at concert halls for trans-
mission, or, alternatively, one or more horns or trumpets,
a (Fig. 258), connecting with any ordinary loud-sounding
telephone or microphone transmitter, b, receives the
sounds, and transmits them over an electric circuit, c d,
to the receiver in the camera, A. At the receiver is an
electro-magnet, B, and the varying electric currents pro-
duced by the action of the sound-waves in the microphone
transmitter b vibrate a slotted diaphragm, C' (Fig. 259),
which moves between a fixed light and a fixed slotted

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 283

diaphragm, C. The vibrations of the diaphragm C'
corresponding to the sound-waves produce variations in
the light openings through the diaphragms C, C', and
consequently variations in the intensity of light falling on

FIG. 259.

the sensitive film in behind the diaphragm are produced.
The sensitive strip o (Fig. 260), on which the light falls,
is adjacent to the picture area o of the film m, and, when
developed, forms the sound record. The sound record
must be made while the film is moving continuously,

FIG. 260.

before or .after it is fed intermittently through the gate T
of the camera. It will thus be seen that the sound record
on the film is a few picture lengths behind the corre-
sponding section of the picture record. To reproduce
the sound record, use is made of the fact that the re-

284

LIVING PICTURES

sistance or conductivity of a selenium cell, when included
in an electric circuit, b, varies in accordance with the
intensity of light acting on it. In the projector (Fig. 261)
the film passes between a lamp, />', and a selenium cell, r,
in circuit with a loud-sounding microphone or telephone,
H. The variations in the current produced by the varia-
tions in the light intensity transmitted through the sound
record o, and falling on the selenium cell, cause a corre-
sponding variation of the sound membrane in the loud-
sounding microphone or telephone, H.

FIG. 261.

In another method, by Mrs. Von Madeler, the sound
record on the film is constituted by a wavy edge produced
on the film. The sound box B (Fig. 262) of the gramo-
phone has to be actuated in proximity to the film A.
The stylus consists of a rotated cutter, C, mounted on
a pivoted bracket, D, and vibrated by an arm, E, con-
nected with the diaphragm of the sound box B. The
cutter C is adjacent to the edge of the film A, and the
sound-waves are thus recorded and represented by the
wavy edge of the film produced by the cutter, As in

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 285

the previous case, the sound record is taken while the film
runs continuously, either before or after the film is fed
intermittently through the gate. A duplicate record may be
simultaneously reproduced on the other edge of the film.
To reproduce the sound record the sapphire or needle F 1
(Fig. 263) of the gramophone sound box has a flat end
resting against the edge of the film A as it passes through
the projector. The pressure of the needle is regulated by
the balance weight G. 2 An alternative to the method of
cutting the edge of the film by a rotary cutter consists in
heating a platinum wire to a dull red heat sufficient to burn

FIG. 262.

FIG. 263.

the edge of the film, and mounting this wire on an arm
or frame connected with the diaphragm of the sound box,
so that the vibrations of the wire may burn to a variable
depth along the edges of the film. This method may be
used to produce a film sound record of an ordinary disc
record. With the above method the gramophone must
obviously be near the camera and the projector, whereas
by the photographic or photo-electric method the gramo-
phone can be anywhere both in recording and reproducing.
It is also possible to use more than one gramophone, which
is Rosenberg's method, devised more especially to com-

286

LIVING PICTURES

pensate for the disturbing effect on the sound production
due to the movement of the source of sound say a speaker
or actor. This dependency of the sound received, upon

FIG. 264.

the movement and distance of the sound, is well instanced
by the sound of a whistle of an approaching and passing
train. To produce a more correct sound reproduction
two microphones, H 1 , H 2 (Fig. 264), are used to produce

LIVING AND SPEAKING PICTURES 287

a sound record, J, on a film running at one side of the
picture film E. For reproduction, two sound-reproducing
devices, H l , H 2 , are put on either side of the screen, A.
The films, both in the camera and projector, can be run
from the same gearing, and the synchronism can be
adjusted by having a movable gate,/), carrying the sound-
reproducing devices P 1 , P 2 . A further advantage of having
a reproducer on either side of the stage is that the sound
appears to come from the correct side of the picture.

The methods above described do not by any means
exhaust the many alternatives which might, if space
permitted, be described. For example, Mr. Von Madeler
has recently been engaged in perfecting the method of

FIG. 265.

directly coupling the projector and gramophone by inter-
mediate shafting, which may be either rigid or flexible.
In Fig. 265, which illustrates one method, the gramophone
is driven from the picture machine through the shaft i
and bevel gears o, p. The speed of the gramophone is
limited by a governor, q, which has means for setting it as
desired. The shaft i is telescopic at j, and has a ball and
socket joint, r, to allow for lateral and vertical movement ;
the bayonet caps n t n, at either end to link the shaft i with
the driving shaft s of the projector and the gramophone
shaft t.

In concluding the subject of synchronization it is not
superfluous to raise the not unimportant question, How far
is the use of the gramophone really desirable or useful ?

288 LIVING PICTURES

Although it is now being more extensively used, it has so
far been comparatively little used, and the reason is not far
to seek. The peculiar tone of even the most perfected
gramophone leaves much to be desired, and until this can
be removed, and the gramophone is so perfected as to be
a really '* musical instrument," its use will probably re-
main very limited and restricted.

CHAPTER IX

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT AND REGULATIONS

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT, 1909
[9 EDW. VII. CH. 30.]

ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS

Section.

1. Provision against cinematograph exhibition except

in licensed premises.

2. Provisions as to licences.

3. Penalties.

4. Power of entry.

5. Power of county councils to delegate.

6. Application to county boroughs.

7. Application of Act to special premises.

8. Application to Scotland.

9. Application to Ireland.

10. Short title and commencement.

CHAPTER 30.

AN Act to make better provision for securing safety at
Cinematograph and other Exhibitions.

[25th November, 1909.]

Be it enacted by the King's most Excellent Majesty, by
and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual
and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament
assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :

289 19

2QO LIVING PICTURES

1. &n exhibition of pictures or other optical effects by
means of a cinematograph, or other similar apparatus,
Provision ^ or ^ e P ur P oses f which inflammable films are
against used, shall not be given unless the regulations
tograph made by the Secretary of State for securing
exhibition sa fety are complied with, or, save as otherwise
ikerSed 11 expressly provided by this Act, elsewhere than
premises. m premises licensed for the purpose in accord-
ance with the provisions of this Act.

The Act was passed on account of the extreme inflammability of
the films used, and only applies where inflammable films are used.
There is, however, no definition in the Act of the meaning to be
attached to the word "inflammable." The Home Secretary has
power to make regulations " for securing safety," but has no power
to determine the scope of the Act by defining what is meant by the
word "inflammable." The definitions given in Murray's Dictionary
are capable of being inflamed or set on fire ; susceptible of com-
bustion ; easily set on fire." All films, if subjected to a sufficiently
high temperature, are capable of being set on fire, and are susceptible
of combustion ; but the ease with which they are set on fire, and the
susceptibility to combustion, vary considerably. Most of the " non-
flam " films now procurable are not easily set on fire, and for
practical purposes are absolutely safe. Perhaps the chief danger in
the use of celluloid films is the danger of catching fire in the gate if
the film breaks below the gate, and the safety shutter does not
intercept the light sufficiently quickly. It has been held, however,
that it is not a sufficient defence to a prosecution under the Act to
demonstrate that the film will not catch fire in the gate if it is
inflammable outside the gate (Victoria Pier [Folkestone] Syndicate,
Ltd. v. Reeve, 76, J.P. 37).* The onus of proof is on the prosecution,
who must show that a film is inflammable, and the question as to
whether a film is inflammable within the meaning of the Act so as to
bring an exhibition at which such films are used within the Act is a
question to be decided by the Court in any particular case in which
the question is raised. The uncertainty of the present position is, of
course, very unsatisfactory, and it has been suggested that one
solution of the difficulty would be for the Home Secretary to be given
power to subject any make of film submitted to him to a definite
test, and if the film satisfied the test, to certify such film as not being
inflammable within the meaning of the Act.

* In this chapter J.P. = Justice of the Peace ; T.L.R. = Times Law
Reports,

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 291

The Act does not apply to an exhibition given in a private dwelling-
house to which the public are not admitted, whether on payment or
otherwise (Sec. 7 [4]), nor does it apply to a case where film manu-
facturers or dealers, bond fide, in the exercise of their trade of selling
or renting out films, project films on to a screen in the presence of
customers (Attorney General ?'. Vitagraph Company, Ltd. [Weekly Notes,
November 28, 1914]). Special provisions are also made for premises
occasionally used for entertainments (Sec. 7 [2]), and for structures of a
movable character (Sec. 7 [3]). With these exceptions, an exhibition
where inflammable films are used cannot be given " unless the regula-
tions made by the Secretary of State for securing safety are complied
with, or elsewhere than in premises licensed for the purpose in
accordance with the provisions of this Act." The effect of the
words is that " an exhibition cannot be given unless the regulations
for securing safety, prima facie supposed to be made by the Secretary
of State, have been complied with, and in addition the performances
are to be given in a building licensed under the Act" (per Lord
Alverstone, C.J., L.C.C. v. Bermondsey Bioscope Company, Ltd.,
75, J.P. 53). In Scotland and Ireland the regulations for securing
safety are to be issued by the Secretary for Scotland and the Lord
Lieutenant respectively (Sees. 8 [i], 9 [i]).

Music Licences. Where music is provided at a cinematograph
exhibition the first question to present itself is whether the place at
which the exhibition is held becomes a " place used for music " within
the meaning of the different enactments requiring such a place to be
licensed.

The general rule is that, where the music is incidental to, and not
a principal part of, the entertainment, no licence is required. Now,
what is incidental to, and not a principal part of, an entertainment,
is a question to be decided from the facts in each particular case ;
and it may very well be that the same facts which satisfy one
tribunal that the music is incidental to the exhibition of pictures will
lead another tribunal to the opposite conclusion. The existence of
this uncertainty points to the desirability of cinematograph exhibitors
obtaining a licence where music is a feature of more than trifling
importance. (See L.C.C. v. Bermondsey Bioscope Company, Ltd.,
73 J.P., p. 458.)

The law requiring a " place used for music " to be licensed is con-
tained not in one Act of Parliament having general application
throughout the kingdom, but in different Acts, each having only
local application. It is, therefore, incumbent upon a cinematograph
exhibitor desiring to have a musical accompaniment to his exhibition
to ascertain the provisions of the Acts of Parliament applying to the
locality in which he is exhibiting.

292 LIVING PICTURES

In this work it is not possible to do more than briefly outline the
principal Acts relating to licences for music. In the cities of London
and Westminster, and within twenty miles thereof, licences for
music are granted under 25 George II., c. 36, and a place so licensed
must have affixed upon the door or entrance in a conspicuous place
an inscription in large capital letters, " Licensed pursuant to the
Act of Parliament of the twenty-fifth George the Second." These
licences, in respect of which no fees are payable, are granted by the
London County Council in accordance with the orders made by the
Council as the licensing authority under the Local Government
Act, 1888.

In the administrative county of Middlesex music licences are
granted by the Middlesex County Council by virtue of, and subject
to, the provisions of the Music and Dancing (Middlesex) Act, 1894.

Elsewhere in the United Kingdom (except Scotland) music licences
are granted by the authority duly empowered by the local Act, or,
where there is no local Act, or Part IV. of the Public Health Acts
Amendment Act, 1890, has been adopted, by the licensing justices
under the provisions of Section 51 of that Act.

Where a place is licensed under either the Music and Dancing
(Middlesex) Act or the Public Health Acts Amendment Act, there
must be affixed and kept up in some conspicuous place on the door
or entrance an inscription in large capital letters in the words
following : " Licensed in pursuance of Act of Parliament for Music."

In Scotland a licence for music may be required either under a local
Act or under Section 395 of the Burgh Police (Scotland) Act, 1892.

Where it is desired to apply for a music licence, and uncertainty
exists as to the proper licensing authority, the best course to adopt
would be for the intending applicant to communicate with the clerk
to the justices of the district in which the cinematograph exhibition
sought to be licensed for music is situate. He will be in a position
to give information as to the Act of Parliament under which applica-
tion has to be made in the district, and as to the giving of notices of
the application and the observance of any other preliminary for-
malities required by local regulations.

2. (i) A county council may grant licences to such
persons as they think fit to use the premises specified
p . in the licence for the purposes aforesaid on such

sionsasto terms and conditions and under such restrictions
as, subject to regulations of the Secretary of
State, the council may by the respective licences
determine,

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 293

The county council may delegate its licensing powers in accord-
ance with Section 5 of the Act, and where the licence is sought
within a borough council area, the borough council is the licensing
authority, and has similar powers of delegation (Sec. 6). In Scotland
and Ireland the provisions as to delegation do not apply (Sees. 8 [4]
and 9 [2]).

The Act makes no provision for an appeal from the decision of the
licensing authority where an application has been heard and deter-
mined on its merits. There is no appeal by moans of a case stated
(Huish v. Liverpool Justices, 30, T.L.R. 25). Where, however, it is
alleged that there has not been a proper hearing, or that the decision
of the authority is based on improper grounds, a rehearing may be
obtained on an application being made to the King's Bench Division
for a mandamus to hear and determine.

A limited company is a " person " within the meaning of the Act,
but if the licensing authority do not think that a company is a proper
licensee, they may, of course, refuse to grant a licence. The general
practice is to grant licences to an individual rather than to a body
corporate.

Provisional licences have been granted in respect of buildings
prior to completion.

The licensing authority may impose conditions in addition to the
regulations issued by the Secretary of State, but cannot alter or vary
the latter. Such conditions need not be solely directed to the object
of securing safety, and the powers of the licensing authority under
this section appear to be very wide. The condition requiring the
premises to be closed on Sundays, Good Friday, and Christmas Day
has been held to be a reasonable condition (L.C.C. v. Bermondsey
Bioscope Company, Ltd., 75, J.P. 63). Conditions regarding the
admission of children have also been made.

(2) A licence shall be in force for one year, or for such
shorter period as the council on the grant of the licence
may determine, unless the licence has been previously
revoked as hereinafter provided.

(3) A county council may transfer any licence granted
by them to such other person as they think fit.

(4) An applicant for a licence or transfer of a licence
shall give not less than seven days' notice in writing to the
county council and to the chief officer of police of the
police area in which the premises are situated of his inten-
tion to apply for a licence or transfer :

294

LIVING PICTURES

Provided that it shall not be necessary to give any
notice where the application is for the renewal of an
existing licence held by the applicant for the same
premises.

(5) There shall be paid in respect of the grant, renewal,
or transfer of a licence such fees as the county council
may fix, not exceeding in the case of a grant or renewal
for one year one pound, or in the case of a grant or
renewal for any less period five shillings for every
month for which it is granted or renewed, so, however,
that the aggregate of the fees payable in any year shall
not exceed one pound, or, in the case of transfer, five
shillings.

(6) For the purposes of this Act, the expressions " police
area " and " chief officer of police," as respects the city of
53 & 54 London, mean the city and the Commissioner
Vict.,c. 45. o f city Police, and elsewhere have the same
meanings as in the Police Act, 1890.

By the Police Act, 1890, Sec. 33, the expression "police area"
means one of the areas set forth in the first column, and the expres-
sion " chief officer of police " means the officer set forth in the
second column hereunder.

Police Area.

The Metropolitan Police District.

A county.

A borough.

A town not being a borough, and
maintaining a separate police
force under any local Act of
Parliament.

The River Tyne within the limit
of the Acts relating to the Tyne
Improvements Commissioners.

Chief Officer of Police.

The Commissioner of Police.

The Chief Constable.

The Chief or Head Constable.

The Head Constable or other
officer having the chief com-
mand of the police.

The Superintendent or other
officer having the chief com-
mand of the police.

The term " county " in the above means an administrative county
within the meaning of the Local Government Act, 1888, but does not
include a county borough. Such parts of any county as are within
the Metropolitan Police District, or as form part of any other police
area, are not deemed to form part of the county police area.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 295

3. If the owner of a cinematograph or other apparatus
uses the apparatus, or allows it to be used, or if the

occupier of any premises allows those premises to
be used, in contravention of the provisions of this
Act or the regulations made thereunder, or of the condi-
tions or restrictions upon or subject to which any licence
relating to the premises has been granted under this Act,
he shall be liable, on summary conviction, to a fine not
exceeding twenty pounds, and in the case of a continuing
offence to a further penalty of five pounds for each day
during which the offence continues, and the licence (if any)
shall be liable to be revoked by the county council.

Proceedings under the Act are summary, and since the Act
contains no provisions for an appeal, the general rules as to appeals
from a conviction by a court of summary jurisdiction apply, with the
result that so far as proceedings under this Act are concerned, there
is no appeal except in the two following classes of cases : (i) Where
a conviction is before a Metropolitan Police Magistrate, there is, by
virtue of the Metropolitan Police Courts Act, 1839 (2 and 3 Viet.,
c. 71), Sect. 50, a right of appeal to Quarter Sessions in those cases
in which the penalty ordered to be paid exceeds the sum of ^3
(exclusive of costs). In those cases where the fine does not exceed
that sum an appeal can only be secured if the magistrate on applica-
tion consents to increase the amount. This secures a rehearing of
the whole case at Quarter Sessions, and both fact and law are again
in issue. (2) Where any person aggrieved desires to question a con-
viction or order on the ground that it is erroneous on a point of law,
or is in excess of jurisdiction, he may apply to such Court to state a
special case for determination by the King's Bench Division of the
High Court, setting forth the facts and the grounds upon which the
proceedings are questioned ; and if the Court declines to state a case,
the applicant may apply to the High Court for an order requiring
the case to be stated.

4. A constable or any officer appointed for the purpose
by a county council may at all reasonable times enter any
Power of premises, whether licensed or not, in which he
entry. nas re ason to believe that such an exhibition
as aforesaid is being or is about to be given, with a view

296 LIVING PICTURES

to seeing whether the provisions of this Act, or any regula-
tions made thereunder, and the conditions of any licence
granted under this Act, have been complied with, and, if
any person prevents or obstructs the entry of a constable
or any officer appointed as aforesaid, he shall be liable, on
summary conviction, to a penalty not exceeding twenty
pounds.

5. Without prejudice to any other powers of delega-
tion, whether to committees of the council or to district
Power of counc il s > a county council may, with or with-
county out any restrictions or conditions as they may
to dele- 8 think fit, delegate to justices sitting in petty
8 ate - sessions any of the powers conferred on the
council by this Act.

6. The provisions of this Act shall apply in the case of
A lica a count y borough as if the borough council were
tion to a county council, and the expenses of the borough
boroughs council shall be defrayed out of the borough fund

or borough rate.

7. (i) Where the premises are premises licensed by
Applica- the Lord Chamberlain the powers of the county
tion of council under this Act shall, as respects these
special premises, be exercisable by the Lord Chamber-
premises. j a j n ms tead of by the county council.

(2) Where the premises in which it is proposed to give
such an exhibition as aforesaid are premises used occasion-
ally and exceptionally only, arid not on more than six
days in any one calendar year, for the purposes of such
an exhibition, it shall not be ilecessary to obtain a licence
for those premises under this Act if the occupier thereof
has given to the county council and to the chief officer of
police of the police area, not less than seven days before
the exhibition, notice in writing of his intention so to use

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 297

the premises, and complies with the regulations made by
the Secretary of State under this Act, and, subject to
such regulations, with any conditions imposed by the
county council, and notified to the occupier in writing.

(3) Where it is proposed to give any such exhibition as
aforesaid in any building or structure of a moveable char-
acter, it shall not be necessary to obtain a licence under
this Act from the council of the county in which the
exhibition is to be given if the owner of the building or
structure

(a) has been granted a licence in respect of that build-

ing or structure by the council of the county
in which he ordinarily resides, or by any
authority to whom that council may have dele-
gated the powers conferred on them by this Act ;
and

(b) has given to the council of the county and to the

chief officer of police of the police area in which
it is proposed to give the exhibition, not less than
two days before the exhibition, notice in writing
of his intention to give the exhibition ; and

tary of State under this Act, and, subject to such
regulations, with any conditions imposed by the
county council, and notified in writing to the
owner.

(4) This Act shall not apply to an exhibition given in
a private dwelling-house to which the public are not
admitted, whether on payment or otherwise.

8 ' This Act sha11 extend to Scotland subject to
Scotland, the following modifications :

(i) For references to the Secretary of State there shall
be substituted references to the Secretary for
Scotland :

*9$ LIVING PICTURES

(2) For the reference to the Police Act, 1890, there
53 & 54 shall be substituted a reference to the Police
ct '' c - 67 ' (Scotland) Act, 1890:

By the Police (Scotland) Act, 1890, the expression " police area
means one of the areas set forth in the first column, and the expres-
sion " chief officer " means the officer set forth in the second column
hereunder.

Police Area.

A county.

A burgh or police burgh.

Chief Officer of Police.
The Chief Constable.
The Chief Constable or Super-
intendent.

(3) The expression "county borough" means a royal,

parliamentary, or police burgh ; and the expres-
sion " borough council " means the magistrates
of the burgh ; and the expression " borough fund
or borough rate " means any rate within the
burgh leviable by the town council equally on
owners and occupiers :

(4) The provision relating to the delegation of powers

shall not apply.

" 9 * This Act sha11 extend to Ireland subject to
Ireland, the following modifications :

(1) For references to the Secretary of State there shall

be substituted references to the Lord Lieutenant:

(2) The provision of this Act relating to the delegation

of powers shall not apply :

(3) Any of the powers conferred on the county council

by this Act may be exercised by any officer of the
council authorized in writing by the council in
that behalf for such period and subject to such
restrictions as the council think fit :

(4) In any urban district other than a county borough,

and in any town, the provisions of this Act shall
apply as if the council of the district and the

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 299

commissioners of the town, as the case may be,
were a county council :

(5) The expenses incurred in the execution of this Act

shall

(a) in the case of the council of any county
other than a county borough, be defrayed out of
the poor rate and raised over so much of the
county as is not included in any urban district or
town ;

(b) in the case of the council of any county
borough or other urban district, be defrayed out
of any rate or fund applicable to the purposes of
the Public Health (Ireland) Acts, 1878 to 1907,
as if incurred for those purposes ;

(c) in the case of the commissioners of any
town, be defrayed out of the rate leviable under
section sixty of the Towns Improvement (Ireland)

& !8 Act, J ^54 : Provided that the limits im-

vict, posed upon that rate by that section may

be exceeded for the purpose of raising

the expenses incurred under this Act by not more

than one penny in the pound :

(6) The expression "town " means any town as denned

61 & 62 by the Local Government (Ireland) Act,
Viet, c. 37. jgg^ no f. being an urban district :

(7) The expressions "police area " and " chief officer of

police " mean, as respects the police district of
Dublin Metropolis, that district and the chief
commissioner of the police for that district,
and elsewhere a police district and the county
inspector of the Royal Irish Constabulary.

10. This Act may be cited as the Cinemato-

Short title , , , ,,

and com- graph Act, 1909, and shall come into operation
mence- on fae first day of January nineteen hundred

ment.

and ten.

3oo LIVING PICTURES

STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1910
No. 189

CINEMATOGRAPH, ENGLAND

REGULATIONS, DATED FEBRUARY 18, 1910, MADE BY THE
SECRETARY OF STATE UNDER THE CINEMATOGRAPH ACT,
1909 (9 EDW. VII., c. 30).

In pursuance of the power vested in me by the Cine-
matograph Act, 1909 (9 Edw. VII., c. 30), I hereby make the
following regulations :

GENERAL.

1. In these regulations the word " building " shall be
deemed to include any booth, tent, or similar structure.

2. No building shall be used for cinematograph or
other similar exhibitions to which the Act applies, unless
it be provided with an adequate number of clearly indi-
cated exits so placed and maintained as readily to afford
the audience ample means of safe egress.

The seating in the building shall be so arranged as not
to interfere with free access to the exits ; and the gang-
ways and the staircases, and the passages leading to the
exits shall, during the presence of the public in the build-
ing, be kept clear of obstructions.

3. The cinematograph operator and all persons respon-
sible for or employed in, or in connection with, the
exhibition shall take all due precautions for the pre-
vention of accidents, and shall abstain from any act
whatever which tends to cause fire and is not reasonably
necessary for the purpose of the exhibition.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 301

FIRE APPLIANCES.

4. Fire appliances adequate for the protection of the
building shall be provided, and shall include at least the
following, namely, a damp blanket, two buckets of water,
and a bucket of dry sand. In a building used habitually
for the purpose of cinematograph or other similar exhi-
bitions they shall also include a sufficient number of hand
grenades or other portable fire-extinguishers.

The fire appliances shall be so disposed that there shall
be sufficient means of dealing with fire readily available
for use within the enclosure. Before the commencement
of each performance the cinematograph operator shall
satisfy himself that the fire appliances intended for use
within the enclosure are in working order, and during the
performance such appliances shall be in the charge of
some person specially nominated for that purpose, who
shall see that they are kept constantly available for use.

ENCLOSURES.

Regulations applying in all Cases and to all Classes
of Buildings.

5. (i) (a) The cinematograph apparatus shall be
placed in an enclosure of substantial construction made
of or lined internally with fire-resisting material, and of
sufficient dimensions to allow the operator to work freely.

(b) The entrance to the enclosure shall be suitably
placed, and shall be fitted with * self-closing, close-fitting
door constructed of fire-resisting material.

(d) The openings in the front face of the enclosure
shall not be larger than is necessary for effective pro-
jection, and shall not exceed two for each lantern. Each

302 LIVING PICTURES

such opening shall be fitted with a screen of fire-resisting
material, which can be released both inside and outside
the enclosure so that it automatically closes with a close-
fitting joint.

(e) The door of the enclosure and all openings, bushes
and joints shall be so constructed and maintained as to
prevent, so far as possible, the escape of any smoke into
the auditorium. If means of ventilation are provided,
they shall not be allowed to communicate direct with the
auditorium.

(/) If the enclosure is inside the auditorium, either
a suitable barrier shall be placed round the enclosure
at a distance of not less than 2 feet from it, or other
effectual means shall be taken to prevent the public from
coming into contact with the enclosure.

(g) No unauthorized person shall go into the enclosure
or be allowed to be within the barrier.

(h) No smoking shall at any time be permitted within
the barrier or enclosure.

(1) No inflammable article shall unnecessarily be taken
into or allowed to remain in the enclosure.

Regulations applying only to Specified Classes of Buildings.

(2) In the case of buildings used habitually for cine-
matograph or other similar exhibitions, the enclosure
shall be placed outside the auditorium ; and in the case
of permanent buildings used habitually as aforesaid the
enclosure shall also be permanent.

Provided, with regard to the foregoing requirements,
that, if the licensing authority is of opinion that com-
pliance with either or both of them is impracticable or
in the circumstances unnecessary for securing safety, and
shall have stated such opinion by express words in the
licence, the requirement or requirements so specified shall
not apply.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 303

LANTERNS, PROJECTORS AND FILMS.

6. Lanterns shall be placed on firm supports con-
structed of fire-resisting material, and shall be provided
with a metal shutter which can be readily inserted between
the source of light and the film gate.

The film gate shall be of massive construction, and shall
be provided with ample heat-radiating surface. The
passage for the film shall be sufficiently narrow to prevent
flame travelling upwards or downwards from the light-
opening.

7. Cinematograph projectors shall be fitted with two
metal film boxes of substantial construction, and not more
than 14 inches in diameter, inside measurement, and to
and from these the films shall be made to travel. The
film boxes shall be made to close in such a manner, and
shall be fitted with a film slot so constructed, as to prevent
the passage of flame to the interior of the box.

8. Spools shall be chain or gear driven, and films shall
be wound upon spools so that the wound film shall not at
any time reach or project beyond the edges of the flanges
of the spool.

9. During the exhibition all films when not in use shall
be kept in closed metal boxes.

LIGHTING.

10. Where the general lighting of the auditorium and
exits can be controlled from within the enclosure, there
shall also be separate and independent means of control
outside and away from the enclosure.

11. No illuminant other than electric light or limelight
shall be used within the lantern.

Electric Light.

12. (a) Within the enclosure the insulating material of-
all electric cables, including " leads " to lamps, shall be
covered with fire-resisting material.

304 LIVING PICTURES

(b) There shall be no unnecessary slack electric cable
within the enclosure. The " leads " to the cinematograph
lamp shall, unless conveyed within a metal pipe or other
suitable casing, be kept well apart both within and without
the enclosure, and shall run so that the course of each
may be readily traced.

(c) Cables for cinematograph lamps shall be taken as
separate circuits from the source of supply, and from the
supply side of the main fuses in the general lighting cir-
cuit, and there shall be efficient switches and fuses inserted
at the point where the supply is taken, and in addition an
efficient double-pole switch shall be fitted in the cinemato-
graph lamp circuit inside the enclosure. When the
cinematograph lamp is working, the pressure of the current
across the terminals of the double-pole switch inside the
enclosure shall not exceed no volts.

(d) Resistances shall be made entirely of fire-resisting
material, and shall be so constructed and maintained that
no coil or other part shall at any time become unduly
heated.* All resistances, with the exception of a resistance
for regulating purposes, shall be placed outside the en-
closure, and, if reasonably practicable, outside the audi-
torium. If inside the auditorium, they shall be adequately
protected by a wire guard or other efficient means of
preventing accidental contact.

The operator shall satisfy himself before the commence-
ment of each performance that all cables, leads, connections,
and resistances are in proper working order. The resist-
ances, if not under constant observation, shall be inspected
at least once during each performance. If any fault
is detected, current shall be immediately switched off,
and shall remain switched off until the fault has been
remedied.

* E.g., they should not become so heated that a piece of news-
paper placed in contact with any part of the resistance would readily
ignite.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 30$

Limelight.

13. (a) If limelight be used in the lantern the gas
cylinders shall be tested and filled in conformity with the
requirements set out in the Appendix hereto. The tubing
shall be of sufficient strength to resist pressure from
without, and shall be properly connected up.

(b) No gas shall be stored or used save in containers
constructed in accordance with the requirements contained
in the Appendix.

LICENCES.

14. Every licence granted under the Act shall contain
specific conditions for the carrying out of regulations 2
and 5 (i) (a), (6), (c), (d), (e), (/), in the building for which
the licence is granted, and may, in accordance with
regulation 5 (2), contain an expression of opinion on the
matters referred to in the proviso thereto.

15. Subject to the provisions of No. 16 of these regula-
tions, every licence granted under the Act shall contain a
clause providing for its lapse, or, alternatively, for its
revocation by the licensing authority, if any alteration is
made in the building or the enclosure without the sanction
of the said authority.

16. Where a licence has been granted under the Act in
respect of a moveable building, a plan and description of
the building, certified with the approval of the licensing
authority, shall be attached to the licence. Such a licence
may provide that any of the conditions or restrictions con-
tained therein may be modified either by the licensing
authority or by the licensing authority of the district where
an exhibition is about to be given. The licence and plan
and description or any of them shall be produced on
demand to any police constable or to any person authorized
by the licensing authority or by the authority in whose

306 LIVING PICTURES

district the building is being or is about to be used for the
purpose of an exhibition.

17. The regulations dated December 2Oth, 1909, made
under the Cinematograph Act, 1909, are hereby repealed,
provided, nevertheless, that any licence granted prior to
such repeal shall remain valid for the period for which it
was granted without the imposition of any more stringent
condition than may have been imposed at the time of the
grant.

Given under my hand at Whitehall this eighteenth day

of February, 1910.

H. J. GLADSTONE,

One of His Majesty's Principal
Secretaries of State.

APPENDIX.

LIMELIGHT.

The gas cylinders shall be tested and filled in conformity
with the requirements set out below, which follow the
recommendations of the Departmental Committee of the
Home Office on the Manufacture of Compressed Gas
Cylinders [C. 7952 of 1896] :

Cylinders of Compressed Gas (Oxygen, Hydrogen, or
Coal Gas).

(a) Lap- welded Wrought Iron. Greatest working
pressure, 120 atmospheres, or 1,800 Ibs. per square
inch.

Stress due to working pressure not to exceed
6J tons per square inch. r

Proof pressure in hydraulic test, after annealing,
224 atmospheres, or 3,360 Ibs. per square inch.

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 307

Permanent stretch in hydraulic test not to exceed
10 per cent, of the elastic stretch.

One cylinder in 50 to be subjected to a statical
bending test, and to stand crushing nearly flat between
two rounded knife-edges without cracking.

(b) Lap-welded or Seamless Steel. Greatest working
pressure, 120 atmospheres, or 1,800 Ibs. per square
inch.

Stress due to working pressure not to exceed
7-J tons per square inch in lap-welded, or 8 tons per
square inch in seamless cylinders.

Carbon in steel not to exceed 0*25 per cent., or iron
to be less than 99 per cent.

Tenacity of steel not to be less than 26 or more
than 33 tons per square inch. Ultimate elongation
not less than 1*2 inches in 8 inches. Test-bar to be
cut from finished annealed cylinder.

Proof pressure in hydraulic test, after annealing,
224 atmospheres, or 3,360 Ibs. per square inch.

Permanent stretch shown by water jacket not to
exceed 10 per cent, of elastic stretch.

One cylinder in 50 to be subjected to a statical
bending test, and to stand crushing nearly flat
between rounded knife-edges without cracking.

Regulaticns applicable to all Cylinders.

Cylinders to be marked with a rotation number,
a manufacturer's or owner's mark, an annealing mark
with date, a test mark with date. The marks to be
permanent and easily visible.

Testing to be repeated at least every two years,
and annealing at least every four years.

A record to be kept of all tests.

Cylinders which fail in testing to be destroyed or
rendered useless.

308 LIVING PICTURES

Hydrogen and coal gas cylinders to have left-
handed threads for attaching connections and to be
painted red.

The compressing apparatus to have two pressure
gauges, and an automatic arrangement for preventing
overcharging. The compressing apparatus for oxygen
to be wholly distinct and unconnected with the com-
pressing apparatus for hydrogen and coal gas.

Cylinders not to be refilled till they have been
emptied.

If cylinders are sent out unpacked, the valve fittings
should be protected by a steel cap.

A minimum weight to be fixed for each size of
cylinder in accordance with its required thickness.
Cylinders of less weight to be rejected.

STATUTORY RULES AND ORDERS, 1913
No. 566

CINEMATOGRAPH, ENGLAND

REGULATIONS, DATED MAY 20, 1913, MADE BY THE SECRETARY
OF STATE UNDER THE CINEMATOGRAPH ACT, 1909
(9 EDW. VII., c. 30).

In pursuance of the power vested in me by the Cinema-
tograph Act, 1909 (9 Edw. VII., c. 30), I hereby make
the following regulations :

LIGHTING.

i. Number n of the Regulations dated February i8th,
1910, made by the Secretary of State under the Cinema-

CINEMATOGRAPH ACT 309

tograph Act, 1909, is amended so as to read as
follows :

No illuminant other than electric light, limelight or
acetylene shall be used within the lantern.

2. No acetylene shall be used unless supplied direct
from cylinders or other vessels containing a homogeneous
porous substance, with or without acetone, and unless as
regards such vessels, their contents and the degree of
compression, the following requirements of the Secretary
of State's Order of the 6th August, 1912, under the
Explosives Act, 1875, "and the Order in Council of the
26th November, 1897, are complied with, namely :

(1) The pressure shall not exceed one hundred and

fifty pounds to the square inch.

(2) The porous substance shall fill, as completely as

possible, the cylinder or other vessel into which
the acetylene is compressed, and the porosity of
the substance shall not exceed eighty per cent.

(3) Every cylinder or other vessel into which acety-

lene is to be compressed shall be thoroughly
tested to a pressure of not less than double
that to which the vessel is to be subjected in
use, and shall be fitted with a fusible plug
designed to act at or below a temperature of
212 F.

(4) Every cylinder or vessel in which acetylene is

compressed shall be permanently and con-
spicuously marked with the name of the manu-
facturer and the words " Acetylene compressed
into porous substance exempted by Order of
Secretary of State dated 6th August, 1912,"
and shall bear a label giving the date when it
was last filled together with the narrje and
address of the filler.

310 LIVING PICTURES

(5) When acetone is used for absorbing the acetylene
due precaution shall be taken that the quantity
of acetone is such that when fully charged with
acetylene it does not completely fill the porosity
of the porous substance.

Given under my hand at Whitehall, this aoth day of
May, 1913.

R. McKENNA,

One of His Majesty's Principal
Secretaries of State.

CHAPTER X

THE provisions of the Copyright Act, 1911, materially
affect those engaged in the Living Picture industry. Under
the law as it stood before the Act it was not an unknown
thing for a person who was not the author to reproduce a
film that had had a popular run and to put it on the
market, and now that the process of reproduction is so
much easier, it is very essential that film producers should
have full protection for their productions.

Nature of Copyright. This is explained in Section i of
the Act as follows : " For the purpose of this Act, * copy-
right ' means the sole right to produce or reproduce the
work, or any substantial part thereof, in any material form
whatsoever, to perform, or in the case of a lecture to
deliver, the work or any substantial part thereof in public ;
if the work is unpublished, to publish the work or any
substantial part thereof ; and shall include the sole right
(a) to produce, reproduce, perform or publish any transla-
tion of the work ; (b) in the case of a dramatic work, to
convert it into a novel or other non-dramatic work ; (c) in
the case of a literary, dramatic, or musical work, to make
any record, perforated roll, cinematograph film, or other
contrivance by means of which the work may be mechani-
cally performed or delivered, and to authorize any such
acts as aforesaid."

311

312 LIVING PICTURES

explicitly abrogated (Sec. 31 ), No registration or other for-
mality is now necessary. The only conditions precedent
for copyright protection in a work are (i) That the work
is original ; (2) that it is a work of a character entitling it
to protection ; and (3) in the case of a published work,
that it is first published in territory where the Act extends,
and in the case of an unpublished work that the author is
either resident in such territory, or is a British subject
(Sec. i [i]). The above definition of copyright is about
as wide as could possibly have been framed. Every
original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work is
protected (Sec. i [i]). Artistic works include photographs,
so that inasmuch as cinematograph films are photographs
they would appear to be subject to such provisions of the
Act as apply to photographs. Protection is also definitely
afforded to original dramatic works against cinematograph
reproduction. The protection of dramatic works against
reproduction by cinematography had hitherto been con-
fined to such works in which there was some plot or story
which could be reduced to writing. In an action (Karno
v. Pathe Freres, 99 L.T., 114, and 100 L.T., 260) brought
in 1908 by the author of a popular sketch called "The
Mumming Birds," the defendants had made a film for
which they engaged living persons whom they got up like
the actors in the original sketch. The film was in all
essentials a copy of the original sketch. It was held,
however, as in a previous decision (Tate v. Fulbrook,
98 L.T., 706), that a pantomimical sketch substantially or
mainly in dumb show, and without a definite story which
could be written, was not a " dramatic work of entertain-
ment " which was entitled to the protection given by the
Dramatic Copyright Act, 1883. The latter Act is repealed
by the present Act, and the definition of a " dramatic
work " in Section 33 of the Act leaves hardly any room
for doubt that the fullest protection is now intended to be
afforded against cinematographic piracy of any dramatic

work whatsoever. A film showing pierrots on the shore
or elsewhere would even appear to infringe the copyright
which automatically subsists in any original piece being
represented. An original piece for a dramatic film will
also be protected against a copy or reproduction of the
piece, whether produced as a film or as an acted piece ;
but the production of a film representing a story in which
no copyright exists will not presumably prevent another
person producing another film of the same story, so long
as the latter production is an independent one, and not a
mere copy of the first film. The photographer of any
public event will have copyright in his negative, but
cannot prevent the issue of a film or photos of the same
event taken by another photographer.

Publication means the issue of copies to the public,
but does not include the performance in public of a
dramatic or musical work (Sec. i [3]). The photograph
or film, or the musical record, as the case may be, must
have been purchasable, or otherwise obtainable, from the
manufacturer. It would probably be sufficient if only one
copy or record is sold, or even if only one is offered for
sale. The publication or issue must, however, be bona
fide, and not colourable only (Sec. 35 [3]), and it must
satisfy the reasonable requirements of the public. The
publication must also be with the consent of the author
or his executors or assigns (Sec. 35 [2]). Performance
includes any acoustic representation of a work, and any
visual representation of any dramatic action in a work,
including such a representation made by means of any
mechanical instrument (Sec. 35 [i]). Copyright will
still subsist even though the work is not published, pro.
vided that the author is either a British subject or resident
i.e., domiciled in territory where the Act extends. If,
however, the work is first published outside such territory,
even though the author is a British subject, copyright
will cease to exist, and cannot be revive4 in this country.

314 LIVING PICTURES

The condition as to first publication will also be complied
with if the work is published in territory where the Act
extends within fourteen days of publication elsewhere, or
such longer period as may be fixed by Order in Council
Sec. 35 [3]). In the case of an unpublished work the
condition as to residence will be satisfied if the author
is domiciled in any territory where the Act extends
(Sec. 35 [5]), and where in the case of an unpublished
work, the making of the work has extended over a con-
siderable period, the conditions are satisfied if the author
was, during any substantial part of that period, a British
subject, or resident in any territory where the Act ex-
tends (Sec. 35 [4]).

Extension of the Act. The Act extends throughout the
United Kingdom, and, with the exception of provisions
relating to summary remedies for infringement (Sees.
ii to 13) and the supply of books to libraries (Sec. 15), to
all British Possessions other than the self-governing
Dominions, (i.e., Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, and Newfoundland). Provisions are made under
which His Majesty may by Order in Council extend the
Act to the self-governing Dominions, to territories under
His Majesty's protection, to Cyprus, and to foreign
countries (Sees. 25, 26). The Act will no doubt extend to
all countries who were signatories to the articles of the
Berlin Convention, and to such self-governing Dominions
that adopt the Act. The latter have, however, a perfectly
free hand. They may adopt the Act as it stands, or with
such modifications or additions as relate exclusively to
procedure and remedies, or are necessary to adapt the Act
to the circumstances of the Dominion (Sec. 25 [i]). If a
Dominion does not adopt the Act, either as it stands or
modified as above, but confers rights substantially identical
with those of the Act upon works of British subjects or
residents in any country where the Act extends, the Secre-
tary of State may certify to this effect, and the Act will

extend to the Dominion, notwithstanding that the remedies
for enforcing the rights, or that the restriction on the
importation of copies of works manufactured in a foreign
country differ, under the law of the Dominion, from those
under the Act (Sec. 25 [2]). If alternatively the law of
the Dominion provides adequate protection for the works
of British subjects outside the Dominion, His Majesty
may, by Order in Council, for the purpose of giving
reciprocal protection, extend the whole or any part of the
Act, and subject to any conditions to be stated in the
Order, to works first published in the Dominion, and to
authors resident at the time of making the work in the
Dominion (Sec. 26). An Order in Council extending the
Act or part thereof to any foreign country as the result of
a treaty or convention will apply to British Possessions,
but not, as hitherto, to the self-governing Dominions,
unless the Governor of the Dominion makes a correspond-
ing Order in Council (Sec. 30 [2]). All British Posses-
sions to which the Act extends have the right at any time
to pass supplementary legislation with regard to (i) pro-
cedure and remedies ; (2) works of authors who were at
the time of making the work resident in the Possession ;
and (3) works first published in the Possession (Sec. 27).

Duration of Copyright and Authorship. The term for
which copyright subsists still depends upon the nature
of the work. In the case of photographs the term is fifty
years from the making of the original negative from which
the photograph was directly or indirectly derived. The
person who was the owner of the negative at the time
when such negative was made is deemed to be the author
of the work. Where such owner is a body corporate, the
body corporate is deemed for the purposes of the Act to
reside within the parts of His Majesty's Dominions to
which the Act extends, if it has established a place of
business within such parts (Sec. 21). These provisions
materially simplify the calculation previously necessary.

316 LIVING PICTURES

The prescribed date from which copyright runs is the date
on which the original negative was made, excepting where
copyright already existed at the date on which the Act
came into force viz., July i, 1912, in which case the date
of the author's death is material. It cannot be said that
the prescribed date is satisfactorily definite. The date of
taking the negative would have been definite viz., the date
of exposure. The date of " making " might, however, not
unreasonably be assumed to be the date on which the
negative was finished i.e., in a condition for actual repro-
duction. Other special provisions are made for the duration
of copyright in respect of works of joint authors (Sec. 16),
posthumous works (Sec. 17), Government publications
(Sec. 1 8), and " records," perforated rolls, and other contri-
vances by means of which sounds may be mechanically re-
produced (Sec. 19). In the latter case the term is fifty
years from the making of the original plate from which the
contrivance was directly or indirectly derived, and the person
who was the owner of such original plate at the time when
such plate was made is deemed to be the author of the work.
In all other cases the term for which copyright subsists
is the life of the author and fifty years after his death
(Sec. 3). There is, however, a proviso that at any time after
the expiration of twenty-five years, or thirty years in the
case of a work in which copyright subsists on July i, 1912,
from the death of the author of the work, copyright shall
not be deemed to be infringed by any person who repro-
duces the work for sale, if certain regulations are observed
in a manner to be prescribed by the Board of Trade.
These are (i) That the person has given notice in writing
of the intention to reproduce the work ; and (2) has paid to
or for the benefit of the owner of the copyright royalties in
respect of all copies sold and calculated at the rate of 10 per
cent, on the price at which the reproduced work is published.
This proviso would probably be of interest to the film-
producer only in the case of literary and dramatic works,

In the case of a dramatic film, when an original plot or
story is associated with the film, as it now so often is, the
copyright in the film itself, as a photographic reproduc-
tion, would appear to expire before the copyright in the
plot as a dramatic work ; but a reproduction of the film
derived directly or indirectly from the original negative
would apparently infringe the copyright in the plot, even
after the expiration of the period of fifty years from the
making of the original negative, until the copyright in the
plot has expired. The case of photographs (e.g., picture
films) in which copyright existed on July I, 1912, also is
peculiar. Prior to the Act copyright in photographs sub-
sisted until seven years after the author's death. Thus,
where an author was alive on July i, 1905, and the negative
was made within fifty years of July I, 1912 (i.e., subsequent
to July i, 1862), the copyright will continue to subsist
until fifty years from the date on which the original nega-
tive was made ; but there will apparently be no copyright
in a film the author of which died on or before July i, 1905.
The author of a photograph was, prior to the Act, and
will be, for the purposes of determining whether copyright
existed on July i, 1912, the person who is immediately
responsible for the picture as it is when it is made (Nottage
v. Jackson, [1883], n Q.B.D., 632). If copyright sub-
sisted on July i, 1912, it will continue to subsist until
the expiry of fifty years from the date on which
the original negative was made, whether it is published
or not.

The Act has made a substantial alteration in the
law as to the author of a photograph. The author
after July i, 1912, is deemed to be the owner of the
negative at the time it was made (Sec. 21). The
author will not thus be the cinematographer who is an
employee, or who parts with his ownership in the negative
before it is " made " (i.e., ready for reproduction). It is to
be noted that when copyright in any work once subsists,

318 LIVING PICTURES

it cannot be destroyed, but subsists automatically for the
period provided.

Ownership of Copyright. In the case of photographs,
films, and records, perforated rolls, and other contrivances
for mechanically reproducing sounds, the owner of the
original negative or mechanical plate or means, as the
case may be, when the same is made, is deemed to be
the author of the work (Sees. 21, 19 [i]), and is the first
owner of the copyright (Sec. 5 [i]), excepting in three
circumstances, (i) Where, in the case of a photograph,
the plate or film is ordered by some person and is made
for valuable consideration, then, in the absence of any
agreement to the contrary, the person by whom the work
was ordered is the first owner of the copyright (Sec. 5
[i] [a]). It will, no doubt, become quite an ordinary
thing for a cinematographer to be in requisition for
private and other special events, where hitherto the
photographer has been in attendance. Again, both
amateur and professional cinematographers will have
occasions to seek permission to photograph. In both
cases, unless there is a definite order for valuable con-
sideration, and the circumstances are indisputably clear,
it will be advisable to have a definite agreement in writing
(although writing would not appear to be absolutely neces-
sary) as to the copyright. Otherwise, as has previously
happened in the case of ordinary photography, it may be
a matter of difficulty to determine from the circumstances
who is the owner of the copyright. Actual payment of
consideration for the order is not, however, a condition
precedent to vest the copyright in the person ordering,
nor need the consideration be a money payment (Boucas
v. Cooke [1903] , 2 K.B., 227). Ownership of the copyright
is not the same thing as pwnership of the negative. The
person executing an order for valuable consideration will
still, subject to any agreement, have the right to retain
the possession of the negative, but will not be able to

reproduce from it unless in execution of a further order,
or by agreement with the owner of the copyright.
(2) Where the author is an employee under a contract of
service, or is an apprentice under a contract of apprentice-
ship, and the work is executed in the course of employ-
ment, the employer is the first owner of the copyright
(Sec. 5 [i] [6]). (3) The ownership of the copyright may
be a matter of agreement. The owner may assign his
copyright either wholly or partially, and subject to limi-
tations in respect of time and place, or he may grant any
interest in the right by way of licence (Sec. 5 [2]). Such
assignments and licences must be in writing, and signed
by the owner of the right, or by his duly authorized
agent (Sec. 5 [i]).

No rights can apparently pass except by means of a
written document. The sale, for example, of a film or
even of the original negative does not apparently in itself
operate to pass any property or rights in the copyright.
Where the author of a work is the first owner of the copy-
right, no grant or assignment of the copyright, or of any
interest therein made by him (otherwise than by will),
can operate to vest in the assignee or grantee any rights
in the copyright beyond the expiration of twenty- five year's
from the death of the author. The reversionary interest
after that period vests in his legal personal representatives
as part of his personal estate, and an author cannot, more-
over, contract out of this provision of the Act (Sec. 5 [2]).

Infringement of Copyright and Remedies Therefor.
"Copyright in a work is deemed to be infringed by any
person who, without the consent of the owner of the
copyright, does anything, the sole right to do which is
fey the Act conferred upon the owner of the copyright''
(Sec. 2 [i])i The nature of these rights has already
been considered. There will be infringement, whether
or no the infringement takes place knowingly or inno-
cently; but an infringer who can prove that he had no

320 LIVING PICTURES

reasonable grounds for suspecting that copyright existed
in the work, and that the infringement was innocent, is
exempted from liability in damages, and the plaintiff is
not entitled to anything more than an injunction or inter-
dict, and the possession of infringing copies and all plates
(which would presumably include negatives) used, or
intended to be used, for the production of infringing
copies (Sees. 7, 8). A person will be deemed to infringe
if he authorizes any infringement, and the ordinary rules
applicable to master and servant will apply in determining
whether there is authorization. The consent of the owner
of the copyright operates to absolve the otherwise in-
fringer from liability, and the consent need not apparently
be in writing. It might even be implied if the conduct of
the owner warranted this assumption. In addition to
direct acts of infringement, there are other acts which,
although they are not direct acts of infringement, are
deemed to be acts of infringement. They are set out in
Sec. 2 of the Act as follows :

(a) Sells or lets for hire, or by way of trade exposes

or offers for sale or hire ; or
(b} Distributes either for the purposes of trade or to

such an extent as to prejudicially affect the

owner of the copyright ; or

(d) Imports for sale or hire into any part of His

Majesty's Dominions to which this Act extends,
any work which to his knowledge infringes
copyright or would infringe copyright if it had
been made within the part of His Majesty's
Dominions in or into which the sale or hiring,
exposure, offering for sale or hire, distribution,
exhibition, or importation took place.

Copyright in a work shall also be deemed to be infringed
by any person who, for his private profit, permits a theatre
or other place of entertainment to be used for the per-
formance in public of the work without the consent of the
owner of the copyright, unless he was not aware, and had
no reasonable ground for suspecting, that the performance
would be an infringement of copyright (Sec. 2 [3]).

A performance includes any visual representation of any
dramatic action in any work (Sec. 35 [i]), and will thus
include a cinematograph performance. Unless the owner
of the copyright has consented to the performance, it is
necessary, in order to evade liability, to prove not only
innocence, but also that there was no reasonable ground
for suspecting an infringement. A " performance in
public " is one to which the public are invited as dis-
tinguished from a private performance. (Caird v. Sime
[1887], 12 App. Cases, 326). The above provisions con-
siderably modify the law as it existed before the Act came
into force, and a person selling an infringing film of a
work, knowing it to be such and intended for public per-
formance, although he does not cause the piece to be
represented, will now incur full liability. A person know-
ingly dealing with infringing copies in the manner stated
above is liable, on summary conviction, to a fine not
exceeding -2 for every copy dealt with, but not exceed-
ing 50 in respect of the same transaction. In the case
of a second or subsequent offence the penalty is a similar
fine or imprisonment for a term not exceeding two months
(Sec. ii [O.

A summary remedy is also provided against a person
who knowingly makes or has in his possession any plate
(which includes a negative) (Sec. 35 [i]) for the purpose
of making infringing copies of the copyright work, or
knowingly and for his private profit causes the work to be
performed in public without the consent of the owner of
the copyright. The penalty on conviction is a fine not

322 LIVING PICTURES

exceeding 50, and in the case of a second or subse-
quent offence, the same fine or imprisonment, with or
without hard labour, for a term not exceeding two
months (Sec. n [2]). The term '' copy " and " infringing
copy " constantly occur in the Act. No definition is given
of what a copy is, but infringing when applied to a copy
means any copy, including any colourable imitation, made
or imported in contravention to the provisions of the Act
(Sec. 35 [i]). It is in contravention to the Act '" to
reproduce the work or any substantial part of the work in
any material form whatsoever," and a copy of any sub-
stantial part of the work in which copyright subsists
would thus appear to be an "infringing copy," equally as
a copy of the whole work. A film of a literary and
dramatic work would also thus appear to be an infringing
copy. A reproduction of any one of the separate pictures
in a cinematograph film might possibly be held to be a
substantial part of the film. In a case under the old Act
of 1862 the plaintiff moved for and obtained an injunction
against the defendant who had reproduced one face from a
whole group (London Stereoscopic Company v. Kelly
[1888]; 5 T.L.R., 169). Whether or no a summary con-
viction is obtained, the court may order that all copies of
the work or all plates (including negatives or films) in the
possession of the alleged offender, which appear to it to be
infringing copies or plates for the purpose of making
infringing copies, shall be destroyed or delivered up to the
owner of the copyright, or otherwise dealt with as the
court may think fit (Sec. n [3]).

In addition to such summary remedies, which are in
the nature of criminal prosecutions, the owner of the
copyright has civil remedies against an infringer. " Where
copyright in any work has been infringed, the owner of
the copyright shall, except as otherwise provided by the
Act, be entitled to all such remedies by way of injunction
or interdict, damages, accounts, and otherwise as are or

may be conferred by law for the infringement of a right "
(Sec. 6 [i] ). " The costs of all parties in any proceedings
in respect of the infringement of copyright shall be in the
discretion of the court" (Sec. 6 [2]). " In any action for
infringement of copyright in any work, the work shall be
presumed to be a work in which copyright subsists, and
the plaintiff shall be presumed to be the owner of the
copyright, unless the defendant puts in issue the copyright,
or, as the case may be, the title of the plaintiff; and where
any such question is in issue then (a) if a name purport-
ing to be that of the author of the work is printed or
otherwise indicated thereon in the usual manner, the
person whose name is so printed or indicated shall, unless
the contrary is proved, be presumed to be the author of
the work ; (b) if no name is so printed or indicated, or if
the name so printed or indicated is not the author's true
name or the name by which he is commonly known, and
a name purporting to be that of the publisher or pro-
prietor of the work is -printed or otherwise indicated
thereon in the usual manner, the person whose name is
so printed or indicated shall, unless the contrary is proved,
be presumed to be the owner of the copyright in the work
for the purposes of proceedings in respect of the infringe-
ment of copyright therein " (Sec. 6 [2]). "All infringing
copies of any work in which copyright subsists, or of any
substantial part thereof, and all plates used or intended to
be used for the production of such infringing copies, shall
be deemed to be the property of the owner of the copy-
right, who may accordingly take proceedings for the
recovery of the possession thereof or in respect of the
conversion thereof" (Sec. 7). "Where proceedings are
taken in respect of the infringement of the copyright in
any work, and the defendant in his defence alleges that
he was not aware of the existence of the copyright in the
work, 'the plaintiff shall not be entitled to any remedy
other than an injunction or interdict in respect of the

324 LIVING PICTURES

infringement, if the defendant proves that at the date o
the infringement he was not aware, and had no reasonable
ground for suspecting, that copyright subsisted in the
work " (Sec. 8). In taking summary proceedings against
an infringer the onus is thus on the plaintiff to prove that
the offence was committed knowingly. In a civil action,
however, the onus of proof is upon the defendant to prove
not only innocence, but also that he had no reasonable
ground for suspecting that copyright subsisted in the work
at the time of infringement, otherwise he is liable to be
mulcted in damages as well as restrained by injunction.
An action in respect of infringement of copyright cannot
be commenced after the expiration of three years next
after the infringement (Sec. 10). A summary conviction
must be brought within six months after the date of
infringement.

CHAPTER XI

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

Review Cinematography for science, education, and commerce
Finis.

THE inquiry has often been made, " Who was the inventor
of the Living Picture ?" This question has usually been
answered, if answered at all, by dogmatic assertion or the
presentation of isolated facts ; there has been no attempt
towards a logical determination of the problem in its
widest sense. In the first place, some definition of terms
is required. Let us determine what a Living Picture is.
Where shall the line be drawn ? If we consider it merely
as a view presenting the illusion of motion, then we
must go back to the early years of last century and
attribute its origin to Plateau's Phenakistoscope. If we
restrict our definition to views of photographic origin,
Wenham's experiments in 1852 fulfilled our requirements
sixty-three years ago. Should it be required that the photo-
graphic record be a true analysis of motion, then nearly
fifty years have passed since Du Mont indicated the
methods of chrono-photography. Finally, if it be suggested
that the picture must last a definite and somewhat lengthy
period, the images being secured at short intervals and in
a very restricted space of time, we are compelled to admit
the Living Picture as a phenomenon of comparatively
recent growth ; but it must not be forgotten that many
views of one action, procured by photography and repeated
for as long a period as required, were prepared far earlier

325

326 LIVING PICTURES

than any date which may be termed recent. And, further,
it must not be ignored that the different stages quoted
above led insensibly one to the other ; each step was
founded on the labours of previous workers, or at least
rested on the same basis. No ! emphatically No ! There
is not, there never was, an inventor of the Living Picture.
Say that it grew from an infinitely small germ, as unlike its
present form as the butterfly is unlike the egg from which
it evolves ; say that many minds have each contributed,
and still are contributing, their mite towards the realization
of that perfection yet to be attained ; say that the Living
Picture is the work of nineteenth-century civilized man
and the statement will be as true as any generalization
can be. So far as a single inventor can be named, Plateau
must be recognized as the originator of the pictorial
method of producing an illusion of motion by means of
persistence of vision. This in a double sense ; for while
the Phenakistoscope was the forerunner of all machines
in which a rapidly moving picture was momentarily viewed
(and this definition includes machines so late in time as
Edison's Kinetoscope), yet Plateau's " Diable soufflant "
was the first step toward all those forms of apparatus in
which a picture is momentarily viewed while stationary.
True the picture was not stationary, but the principle
of differential speed between image and shutter was
established.

And to whom could this invention be attributed with
more satisfaction ? There is no name in the history of
physiological optics more worthy of honour than that of
this philosopher. Born in 1801, Joseph Antoine Ferdinand
Plateau devoted himself early in life to the study of optics,
especially in their physiological aspect. At the age of
twenty-eight, in the course of some experiments respecting
the effect of light on the retina, he exposed his eyes for a
considerable time to the full blaze of the sun. The result
was blindness, from which, however, he temporarily

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 327

recovered. During this period of recovery he invented
the Phenakistoscope, and in 1835 was appointed Professor
of Physics at Ghent. Over a period of fourteen years his
sight gradually deteriorated, and by the year 1843 he was
totally blind. Yet in 1849 he invented his ** Diable
soufflant " ; he continued his researches by the aid of
relatives, who carried out his instructions for experiments
to confirm his theories ; he pursued his investigations into
the domain of molecular physics ; he retained his pro-
fessorship, and died in harness, leaving works still
unpublished behind him, at the ripe age of eighty-three.
There is a magnificence in the idea of this blind man
carrying on his work, sowing the seeds of pleasure to
thousands in future generations by means of that sense of
which he was himself totally deprived; there is developed
a feeling of pride in human power when we think of a
man from whose eyes the light was eternally shut out
nevertheless converting the brief glimmer of passing
events into permanent embodiment, and leaving to others
an elaboration of that sense which was lost to him for ever.
Yet it must not be forgotten that Plateau's Phenakisto-
scope took its origin from investigations on Roget's
researches, which in themselves had nothing whatever to
do with Living Pictures. So also with the application of
photography. Many experimented long before the neces-
sary appliances were ready to their hand. Mr. Wenham
tells us that in 1852 he obtained (by posing) a series of
views of a man at work ; but he also records that when the
views were synthesized into motion the subject declared
"he never worked like that !" Du Mont in 1861 seems
to have first suggested chrono-photography, and Janssen
apparently first practised it in 1874 ; but neither could
work rapidly enough to obtain a series fit for recombina-
tion. The reproduction of animated scenes was thus not
possible until photographic emulsions of greater rapidity
were produced ; manifestly photographic chemists and

328 LIVING PICTURES

plate-makers must receive acknowledgment of a large
share in the invention of the Living Picture. Again, let
the most rapid emulsion be spread on glass, it is difficult
almost impossible to obtain an extended series of views.
Bands were suggested for carrying a long series of pictures
by Stampfer in 1833 an( ^ Desvignes in 1860 ; the idea
was in constant evidence from that time forward, but how
could it be applied in the taking of a photographic
record ? Negative paper, improved as it now is, pos-
sesses sufficient grain to render it practically useless as a
support for one-inch negatives destined to great enlarge-
ment ; it was still less suitable years ago. Evidently,
therefore, the inventor of celluloid should receive his meed
of praise, yet not he alone ; celluloid was not invented for
the service of the Living Picture indeed, at first it was
not suitable for photographic purposes at all. When
rendered fit for use as a photographic support, the Living
Picture in no way came into consideration ; celluloid was
applied at first in the ordinary manner as a substitute for
glass plates of ordinary sizes.

Given a celluloid film of indefinite length, the road was
opened for the inventors of mechanical appliances which
should utilize it. Thus while we find Greene and Evans
were the first to publish and produce an effective machine,
yet it must not be forgotten that others were working too ;
in fact, Messrs. Donisthorpe and Crofts were not two
months behind the previously mentioned inventors. Thus
throughout the history of the Living Picture names are
associated rather with details than with principles, which
in fact seem generally to have been pointed out long
before the means existed for carrying them to a practical
issue.

In fact, throughout the course of last century the Living
Picture was, in popular parlance, " in the air " ; similar
ideas and methods occurred independently, sometimes
simultaneously to separate individuals, and this was almost

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 329

necessarily so ; the facts of the case demanded it. Given
a series of connected facts capable of leading in combina-
tion to one or two well-defined results ; given a number
of observers equally interested and of similar capability
it is a practical certainty that several will arrive at the
same conclusion, the more so as the field of possibility
becomes more restricted. In cases of this kind one ob-
server may reach the obvious conclusion before another ;
that does not prove his right to a national memorial and
entry on the roll of fame ; there is credit due to the man
who extracts a grain of sand from the machine and so
renders it workable ; he proves his industry and application,
but certainly cannot claim recognition as a genius. In
proportion'as the elementary facts become more numerous
and complicated, so does the discovery fall inevitably to
the man of greater capability if the solution be reached
by reasoning ; if it be arrived at by accident, that is a
matter personal to the discoverer he is not bound to
mention it !

To substantiate these views several examples taken from
the history of Living Pictures can easily be quoted.
Plateau and Stampfer invented the Phenakistoscope almost
simultaneously. When we consider that the subject of
wheel-phenomena had been before the world for some
years, it is not surprising that the popular introduction of
the Thaumatrope should have caused the idea of the
Phenakistoscope to crystallize, so to speak, in the mind
of more than one man. To come to later years, a com-
parison of Acres' English invention of May, 1895, with
M tiller's German patent of August in the same year, will
show an almost similar method of dealing with the same
problem. This is probably due to the fact that the solu-
tion was a fairly obvious one. Marey had done the same
thing less perfectly in 1890 ; he clamped the film and
allowed it to be drawn onward by a spring when the clamp
was taken off; Acres and Miiller put a roller on the end

330 LIVING PICTURES

of the spring. Certainly one device was effective, the
other was not ; but still in this, as in many other in-
stances, no great natural secret was brought to light.
Take another case, this time an application of the cinema-
tograph. It was early recognized that the zoetrope
afforded a means of varying the apparent rate of move-
ment of an object ; photographs of birds in flight secured
by Marey's photographic revolver were recombined at a
slower speed in this manner, for the purpose of leisurely
inspection. Yet the subject appears to have exercised a
fascination of a wide-spread character. M. Gueroult
thought it worth while in 1896 to demand the opening of
a sealed packet, deposited with the Academic des Sciences
in 1889, in order to prove that he first evolved the idea.
Mach, Corday and others claimed to have photographed
plants at long intervals, and subsequently combined the
views rapidly; much ink was spilled, for the idea was " in
the air " it was of the obvious. If another case were
required, it might be found in the province of colour
photography.

Every step forward renders the area of known facts
wider, and attention becomes more and more confined to
detail. There exists an almost bewildering variety of
mechanical devices directed to one end by several paths.
Yet the practical stage is attained. If unquestionable
accuracy is required, photography supplies it. Therefore
the cinematograph becomes a recording instrument of
historic importance, and a library or museum of sealed
film negatives might become as important as the British
Museum. History might verily be made to " live." As
exemplifying the current aspect of history, it may be men-
tioned that a kinetogram of a Pope's promenade in the
Vatican gardens has been considered far more effective
than even an official bulletin as an antidote to rumours of
ill-health. Yet "seeing is not always believing"; and
rescues by lifeboat crews and desperate interior combats

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 331

in guerilla warfare must be taken with a proverbial grain
of salt.

In practice there is no limit to the length of scene
capable of reproduction. Indeed, one of the most impor-
tant developments for entertainment purposes has been
the production of such films as " Quo Vadis," " Hamlet,"
" Parsival," and other like productions, which are each an
ample sufficiency for one evening. If sensation is de-
manded, one may have a strictly private exhibition of an
execution per guillotine ; but surely nothing more "terrible
could be desired by the most morbid mind than a view of
a disaster at sea, the horrors of which are repeated before
an audience at a music-hall (to the strains of " Rocked in
the Cradle of the Deep " !) only thirty hours after the
breath has left the victims' bodies. The question of
"censorship" must always be a difficult one, and while,
perhaps, it is, on the whole, well that this process should
be applied from within, by a cinematograph association,
than from without, by a Government or municipal official,
yet there is still room for a more vigorous application of
this process.

While the most extensive use to which cinematography
has been put has been as a medium for entertainment, it
must not be forgotten that cinematography is a science
just as photography is a science. It is also an art, just as
photography is an art. That this has not been sufficiently
realized is only too often and painfully evident in the
films that are held out as " attractions." It is a welcome
sign of the times that Professor Herkomer and Marie
Corelli, and other artists, have interested themselves in
this sphere. It is also a welcome sign that an educational
institution such as the Polytechnic, Regent Street, has
instituted a school of cinematography. The Polytechnic
is the birthplace of the magic-lantern, and one of the
earliest cinematograph exhibitions was given there by
arrangement with Messrs. Lumiereof France. The School

332 LIVING PICTURES

of Photography, of which Professor Howard Farmer is
principal, is the oldest school of its kind in existence, and
its students are to be found all over the world occupying
some of the most important positions. It is hoped that
history may repeat itself in connection with cinema-
tography.

Science also is utilizing cinematography to the full.
The earliest use was for scientific purposes. Marey and
Muybridge's early work was in connection with the flight
of birds and the movements of persons and animals, and
Jansen's astronomical work falls in the same category.
The solar eclipse, as seen in India, was destined to re-
appear at command at a multitude of semi-scientific
soirees, and it is not to be charged against the cinema-
tograph that this pleasant anticipation was not realized
the undeveloped film was stolen on its journey home.
Nowadays it would 'be developed on or before its journey
home. Is it possible that in the future it might be
copied at home by wireless ? As another instance of the
adaptation of the cinematograph to popular science it
may be mentioned that, under M. Flammarion's direction,
a large terrestrial globe was photographed during a rota-
tion lasting two minutes. When projected, the effort, of
course, was that of the earth, as it would be seen by an
observer in space, but turning at an increased speed.
The cinematograph has been used for the investigation of
extremely rapid movements, such as occur during the flight
of birds and insects, the flight of a projectile, and in which
successive exposures at intervals of one ten-thousandth of
a second, and even more rapid than this, are required.
Such exposures have been obtained by the use of spark
discharges across the secondary terminals of an induction
coil. Such sparks emit a highly active photographic light.
With such very rapid exposures a continuously moving
film is possible, and in one apparatus (Fig. 266) by
M. Bull, of the Marey Institute in France, the sensitive

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE

333

film is on the periphery of a rotating drum, R. The axis
of the drum carries an interrupter, I, comprising a series
of contact bars, and by means of contact brushes the
primary circuit P of the induction coil A is intermittently
closed and opened. The secondary circuit of the coil
supplies a spark light, E, with corresponding intermittence
at intervals depending on the speed of rotation of the
drum. The apparatus is fitted with a suitable shutter, M,
to prevent a double set of images being taken by the con-
tinued rotation of the drum. The bird or object is enticed
to move across the front of the condenser C, and appar-
ently some little inducement is often necessary. Although
taken at such rapid intervals, the films are only projected
at the normal rate of sixteen a second, and thus a series

FIG. 266.

of exposures lasting only a few seconds may take several
minutes to exhibit. The launch of a ship, or a girder sub-
jected to breaking strain, form other subjects for this kind
of research, and both these operations have been success-
fully photographed.

Cinematography by Rontgen rays is also being largely
developed, and enormously enlarges the possibilities of the
scientific use of cinematography.

En passant it may be mentioned that leisurely inspection
of a film recording a feat by a celebrated conjuror results
in a demonstration of " how the trick is done," " the
quickness of the hand deceives the eye," but does not
delude the impartial and accurate cinematograph.

Slow speed cinematography also has been largely devel-

334 LIVING PICTURES

oped, and utilized for portraying the development of
flowers, eggs, and other slow processes of development.
In this case the taking of the 'film may extend over days,
and exposures made at intervals of several minutes. Such
films are, however, reproduced at a normal rate, and a
film which may have taken hours to produce may only
take minutes to exhibit. Perhaps the most difficult
scientific work is that of micro-cinematography, but con-
siderable results have also been achieved in this sphere.
Nature study, both in the open and in the laboratory, is a
growing province for the cinematographic scientist, and
the large stock of scientific films now available is con-
clusive evidence of the importance of this branch of the
subject.

The use of the cinematograph for scientific purposes
leads naturally to. the much-debated question of its use
for educational purposes. As in other spheres of activity,
there are generally to be found those who take extreme
views from opposite standpoints. There are some who
have attached an importance to the educational value
wholly out of proportion to the real value, and, on the
other hand, there are those whose estimate is " worse than
useless positively harmful." The same phenomenon
occurred in the early days of the magic-lantern. The
ordinary lantern has, however, become indispensable for
educational work. It has, of course, its own limitations.
The cinematograph will not supplant the lantern, but it
is undoubtedly a very great asset and advantage to be
able to portray complete scenic panoramas, or a com-
plete series of movements, or steps of a process, and espe-
cially where movement and change is of the essence of the
study. With the lantern each slide only represents a
fixed and definite view or phase of the process. It must
be possible, for educational purposes, to be able to project
any one picture of the cinematograph series, and a satis-
factory non-flam film may therefore be regarded as an

PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE 335

absolute necessity. For extensive use in schools a cellu-
loid film would be a source of danger, against which the
possible utility would be a very inadequate compensation.
The possibilities of the cinematograph for educational
purposes is well illustrated by the films secured by
Mr. Ponting on the South Polar Expedition with
Captain Scott.

Commercially, too, the cinematograph has its uses. A
series of films reproducing harvesting in Manitoba, for
example, is doubtless a valuable method of encouraging
emigration. A series of films representing the attractive-
ness of camp life might lead to a solution of the Terri-
torial problem. There is no doubt but that a military
audience finds great delight in witnessing the evolutions
of foreign troops ; but it may be doubted whether an
accurate reproduction of the horrors of a battlefield would
to any great extent facilitate recruiting ; discretion is
required in cinematography as well as in every other path
of life. For the attractive display of fashions Kinemacolor
is eminently adaptable, and for advertising generally the
cinematograph has great potentialities.

From whatever standpoint cinematography is viewed,
the future cannot safely be predicted, nor is it safe to
prophesy. And why prophesy ? Facts in the past
remain facts in the present, but the future may be left
to Fate. If a long course of actuality has had a somewhat
sedative effect, if fiction is needed to restore a somewhat
wearied brain, let us leave prophecy, which is so easily
falsified by the reality of the future, severely on one side,
and glance at a living picture of the weirdest type. In
Flammarion's " Lumen," as also in a little work intro-
duced to English readers by the late R. A. Proctor,- the
idea of persistence of light rather than persistence of
vision is elaborated. Light and other vibrations, of which
our limited perceptions afford no clue, travel from this
earth into space at a definite velocity. So a continual

336 LIVING PICTURES

record of the earth's history in its slightest details is
continually streaming off into the eternal void, and,
granted an eye capable of perceiving an object under a
minute angle, infinitely sensible also to vibrations, it will
be seen that at some point or other in space everything
that has happened is yet visible. Grant this eye, or rather
sense of vision, a capability of infinite speed of translation,
it might retreat at the same speed as light, and so keep
the same event for ever in view ; it might approach the
outward travelling events and compress a lifetime into a
moment. The whole history, not of this world alone, but
of every sphere that is or has been, is still in vibrating
existence, and one universal perception extending through
the infinity would embrace within the tremblings of the
boundless ether a consciousness of all that was or is, an
eternal and universal living picture of all past events.
Having started from persistence of vision due to the
sluggish action of our mundane eyes or nerves, having
lost ourselves in fancied possibilities of the illimitable,
what remains for human thought and pen but the simple
word

FINIS?

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APPENDIX I

PATENTS

THE development of cinematography is significantly re-
flected in the very large increase in the number of patents
relating to the subject. A digest of patents such as was
included in the first edition of the present work up to the
year 1898 would necessitate a very large space, and it is
doubtful if such a digest would be of great utility. Abridg-
ments of all British specifications are published in the
Illustrated Official Journal, and in separate volumes dealing
with classified subject-matter, both publications being
published by the Patent Office. Accordingly the subject
has been divided up into its several branches substan-
tially as dealt with in the text, and lists given of the
principal specifications dealing with each branch of the
subject.

In view of the extensive applications for Letters Patent,
a few remarks on the subject may not be out of place.
The grant of British Letters Patent is a grant from the
Crown, and gives to the patentee of a new method of
manufacture not the right to manufacture according to
his invention, but the sole right to prevent anyone else
from so doing, or from using or vending the product or
process of the invention. The grant is given in considera-
tion of the full disclosure of the invention to the general
public, and therefore the invention must be particularly
described and ascertained in the specification accompany-

339

340 LIVING PICTURES

ing the application. If the description is not a full and
clear disclosure, and if important or essential information
necessary for carrying out the invention is not disclosed,
then the patent is ipso facto invalid. The grant is, in the
first instance, for four years, after which a yearly renewal
fee is payable by which the patent may be kept in force
for fourteen years. In very rare instances, and only under
very special circumstances, will the grant be extended
beyond this fourteen years' limit. For such extension a
petition heard before a Committee of the Privy Council
is necessary.

Application for Letters Patent has to be made in the
manner prescribed by the Patents and Designs Act, 1907,
and by the Patent Rules, 1908, and has to comply with
the requirements contained therein.

In the first instance a provisional specification may be
filed with the application setting out the nature of the
invention, in which case the complete specification, " par-
ticularly describing the nature of the invention and in
what manner the same is to be performed," must be filed
within six months, unless an extra fee of 2 is paid, in
which case an extra month is allowed for filing the com-
plete specification. The above course allows an interval
for working out the details of an invention or any legiti-
mate modifications or extensions thereof. The complete
specification may, however, accompany the application.

The drafting of the specifications for a patent is in most
cases by no means a simple or easy matter, especially for
the uninitiated, and there are many pitfalls into which an
unaided applicant may fall. In the large majority of cases,
and especially where the invention is an important or
complicated one, the professional services of an agent or
expert are strongly to be advised.

The complete specification when filed is examined in
the Patent Office, not only to see that the requirements
with regard to formalities, description, and claims are

APPENDIX I 341

complied with, but a search is made through British
specifications applied for within fifty years previous to
the application to see if the same invention is wholly or
in part described or claimed in any specification within
this period. If the specification is not in order, or the
search reveals an anticipation, the specification is returned
to the applicant, and it devolves upon the applicant to
amend the specification and to remove the objections
raised. The search for novelty is not complete, and does
not extend to foreign specifications nor to books and
periodicals. When the application has been put in order
and accepted, it has to run the gauntlet of an opposition,
which must be based upon certain grounds defined in the
Patents and Designs Act, 1907, and which must be lodged
within two months after the acceptance of the specification
opposed. After running this gauntlet successfully, the
patent will be sealed in due course.

As regards initial cost, the stamp fee payable on filing an
application is i; that on filing the complete specification,
3; and that on sealing, i. Other fees payable in respect
of various processes, which may or may not be necessary in
connection with Letters Patent procedure, are scheduled in
the Patent Rules above referred to.

Foreign Patents. The development of the cinematograph
industry is eminently international. It may safely be
asserted that practically every invention referring to cine-
matography having an admitted value in Great Britain is
worth patenting abroad. The French, American, Italian,
Danish, and German patents are particularly valuable in
the case of that industry, although the extension of the
cinematograph all over the world makes every invention
connected with it of international value.

There is between the principal countries an International
Convention, or reciprocal arrangement, whereby the ap-
plicant for a patent in Great Britain has, for the period
of one year from the date of his application, the right to

342 LIVNIG PICTURES

apply for a patent in any of the countries which are parties
to the arrangement, and to obtain priority for his invention
over any other person who may have filed a competitive
application during the said period.

The applicant in this country may, therefore, defer for
one year the prosecution of his foreign patents, although
it is better to apply for them as soon as the experiments,
or the commercial results achieved, enable him to ascertain
the probable value of his invention. In some foreign
countries, such as Germany, Denmark, and America, a
patent is obtainable only in cases where a very thorough
search of the home and foreign records made by the Patent
Office fails to reveal any anticipation of the invention. In
other countries, such as France, Italy, etc., a patent is
always granted, but its validity may be affected by any
lack of novelty.

For a British applicant the prosecution of an application
abroad presents even more difficulties and intricacies than
in the case of a British application, and the professional
services of an agent or expert is therefore almost a matter
of necessity. Many agents are willing, also, to negotiate
the foreign rights, and are in touch with foreign firms and
agencies likely to be interested in the invention.

LISTS.

N.B. These lists may not be complete in respect of patents tiled
during the last three months of 1913 and in 1914.

(i) Plate, disc, and cylinder apparatus ; phenakisto-
scopes ; zoetropes ; apparatus with pictures in rows or
spiral formation on wide films ; and miscellaneous magic-
lantern slides having devices for animated movement.

1853:7ii. 1856:1245,1965. 1859:2258. 1860:
537. 1865:i588. 1867:629. 1869:745- 1877:

APPENDIX I 343

4244. 1890: 4978. 1892: 15709, 23042. 1893: 12794,
24031, 1895:9881,19331. 1896:359.18884. 1897:
2204, 4811, 23231, 27505. 1898: 6515, 17287. 1899:
3266, 17952. 1900: 311, 1643, 18364. 1901: 18324.
1903: 24231. 1904: 17347. 1905: 1517, 9406, 20570,
25973- 1906: 937> 99 8 7> m68 f 19343- 1907: 623,
13407, 14493, 20863. 1908 : 3987, 4040, 7306, 14837.
1909: 453, 4 8 3> 3443, 9262, 16441, 17021, 19833, 21801,
21891, 27520, 27642. 1910: 1140, 1546, 12574, 21828.
1911: 134- 1912: 7582, 11197, II 35i> 20058, 29417,
29478. 1913 : 13733, i3734> *3735> 20365.

(2) Book-form apparatus and other apparatus in which
the successive pictures are on separate sheets. (See
pp. 37-4 1 -)

1868: 925. 1886: 7717, 14917. 1890: 10769.
1892: 20281. 1895: 14439, 18317. 1896: 20136,
23183. 1897: 8572, 12391, 13826, 18610, 22763. 1898:
8338, 12415, 13143, 20219, 20802, 23158, 26722. 1899:
2528, 9954, 11675, 12497, 13422, 16326, 16671, 16713,
23217, 25486. 1900: 1319, 1320, 5451, 9141, 11745,
17076. 1901 : 9879, 12635, 14414, 24591. 1902 :
14602, 12612. 1904 : 21540, 22999. 1906 : 7403.
1908 : 134. 1910 : 5025. 1911 : 10265. 1912 :
3884, 5905, 7029, 14148, 15166, 19388, 17664.

(3) Film apparatus, continuously moving film type.
(See p. 107 et seq.}

1889: 2295. 1896: 4841, 11639. 1897: 12175,
12911. 1898: 4661, 11219, 16812, 20603, 22713, 24735.
1899 : 2575, 6793, 8245, 8246. 1900 : 7035, 7684, 9739,
12820, 23339. 1901 : 7650, 9291, 18324, 23564. 1902 :
846, 19254. 1903 : 3633, 12366. 1905 : 7482. 1907 :
18945, 26107. 1908 : 18783. 1911 : 8791, 18352, 28386.

344 LIVING PICTURES

1912: 8100, 16881. 1913: 8062, 15621, 16201, 29238,
29466. 1914 : 5268.

(4) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
maltese-cross and other film feed-mechanism for, having
a wheel interacting with teeth or pegs. (See p. 117
et seq.)

1888: 423. 1896: 359, 4686, 6503, 7817. 1897:
1039, 6536. 1898 : 18135, 24290. 1899 : 487, 12835,
17952. 1900: 10050, 14789. 1902: 11317. 1903:
5462. 1904 : 9441. 1907 : 14056. 1908 : 23811, 27256.
1909: 7463, 15693. 1910: 2493. 1911: 1841, 9150,
12774, 14573, 21690, 23890. 1912 : 2755, 7077, 20058,
24405. 1913: 16353, 16354, *995i> 20928. 1914: 637,
14986.

(5) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, having interaction of a pin or
pin-teeth with a worm or cam. (See p. 131.)

1896: 3777> 6731, 8418, 10778, 14455, 16080, 17049,
19446. 1897 : 22558. 1898 : 54^5, 6515, 21371. 1899 :
3274. 1900: 311 1909: 453. 1911 : 13400.

(6) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type, film
feed - mechanism for, with raising and lowering film
sprocket-rollers. (See p. 135.)

1889: 12921. 1896: 15603, 17224, 21381.

(7) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, having ratchet, clutch, friction,
and like gearing. (See p. 137.)

1889: 10131. 1895: 17930. 1896: 7809, 10006,
11836, 12128, 17881, 21382, 26765. 1897: 212, 7635,
10603, 19278, 19805. 1898 : 441. 1900 : 13883. 1902 :
19481, 20773. 1903 : 23474. 1904 : 17347. 1905 :
9406. 1908: 7414. 1913: 10282.

APPENDIX I 345

(8) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, comprising rollers periodically
gripping the film. (See p. 139.)

1896: 15603, 17848. 1897: 5995, 16388, 27038.
1898: 18643. 1899: 21754, 21755, 21756. 1902:
20773. 1903: 26579. 1904: 11821. 1907: 7277.
1910 : 15550. 1911 : 14550. 1912 : 11600, 14771, 25137,
25650. 1913: 16941.

(9) F'ilm apparatus, intermittently moved film type, film
feed-mechanism for, of " claw " type. (See p. 142.)

1895 : 7187, 12458. 1896 : 7801, 12128, 13642,
I 56o3, 17848, 19181, 22627, 22707, 27585, 28799. 1897 :
1216, 5026, 6202, 17248, 18014, 25625, 27542. 1898 :
8362, 13162, 14965, 17831, 23591. 1900: 2133, 2283,
18364. 1902: 11317. 1906: 12072, 18962. 1907:
14058. 1908 : 3798, H55I, 21787. 1909 : 4534, 8548,
12571, 21217. 1910 : 7073, 9898. 1911 : 26947. 1912 :
16688, 24859. 1913: 3019, 27359- 1914: 552.

(10) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, having a revolving dog or
eccentric. (See p. 147.)

1893 : 24457. 1896 : 359, 22627, 22928. 1897 : 886,
12785. 1898: 9738, 12939, 15195. 1905: 10602,
1908 : 5336, 8758. 1910 : 25074. 1911 : 15542,
1913 : 10519,

(n) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, having a reciprocating arm
acting on the film. (See p. 148.)

1890: 4704. 1893: 22954. 1895: 10474, 18695.
1896: 13284, 17224, 17505, 22928. 1897: 1216, 14861,
24273. 1898 : 681, 10685. 1902 : 22423. 1908 : 20191.
1909 : 11546, i33-

346 LIVING PICTURES

(12) Film apparatus, intermittently moved film type,
film feed-mechanism for, having film gripping-blocks and
other miscellaneous mechanisms not included in the above
lists. (See p. 150.)

1896: 15603, 22627. 1897: 5995, 11273. 1898:
8362, 18643, 22976. 1901: 22042. 1905: 11622.
1910:5025. 1918:15150. 1914:3214.

(13) Films, the base; perforating systems for; special
arrangements of pictures on (other than rows or spiral
formations on plates or wide films) ; films of special photo-
graphic character or having other peculiar characteristics,
not including arrangements and devices for colour, pan-
oramic, stereoscopic, or synchronizing purposes. (See
p. 155 et seq.)

1888 : 16785. 1893 : 22954. 1896 : 7801, 7817, 10006,
13642, 17224. 1897 : 7635. 1898 : 12939, 22976,
24735. 1899: 620, 12152, 17164, 17165. 1900: 18364.
1901 : 9291. 1902 : 11317, 12818. 1903 : 5462. 1906 :
11762. 1907 : 3119, 9391, 20836, 24225, 25165, 26107.
1908 : 8542, 16114. 1909 : 13328, 14039, 14343, 14407,
14743, 14824, 14950, 19028, 19319, 20770, 20965, 21467,
21801, 21891, 24556, 27520, 27642. 1910 : 3603, 5025,
17872, 18851, 23688, 27482. 1911 : 493, 2500, 10138,
13400, 21608, 23386, 27173, 29163. 1912: 2004, 3047,
3385, 4043, 444> 445, 49 l8 > 5087, 6289, 8866, 14133,
14665, 16808, 17385, 17891, 18098, 18431, 19854, 23995,
25084, 29112, 29113, 29616. 1913: 810, 1339, 2992,
4096, 4603, 4957, 5551, 6727, 7522, 9916, 10282, 10401,
13088, 17978, 22430, 25066, 20640. 1914 : 3214.

(14) Cameras, specially fitted for intermittently moved
films, including arrangements for focussing, etc., and lens
copying apparatus. (See p. 166.)

1893 : 10474, 12458, 17930, 22954. 1895 : 18659.
1896: 10006, 16060. 1897: 5995, 12052, 12785. 1898:

APPENDIX I 347

12939, 18643, 22976, 23591. 1899: 21754, 21755,
21756. 1903 : 26579. 1904 : 22954. 1905 : 6436.
1908 : 3798, 5336. 1909 : 7463, 12571, 21217. 1910 :
6023, 11312, 22286, 23032. 1911: 12538, 14550, 15542,
19644, 22985, 23505, 24751, 24859, 26949, 28754.
1912: 3048, 8858, 9829, 10273, 11600, 14771, 15542,
17483, 24859, 29478. 1913 : 4 96, 11183, 15219, 16353,
16354-

(15) Developing, fixing, washing, toning, cleaning, re-
novating, and other like treatments for films, and including
film examiners. (See pp. 176-181 and 189 et seq.)

1886: 16327. 1894: 6866. 1896: 19726. 1897:
19039, 21679, 23897, 25933. 1898 : 13315- 1899 :
22614. 1901 : 21873. 1902 : 1846, 9842, 11596. 1907 :
5413- 1908: 2076, 16115. 1909: 2954, 14472, 14743,
14824, 15841, 20965. 1910: 2494, 11822, 11935, 16480,
23553- 1911 : 20015, 27173, 28366. 1912 : 4392, 12231,
14433, 18098, 24138, 28875. 1913 : 8581, 10401, 10909,
17290, 18852, 26263, 26787, 26788. 1914: 2326, 2622,
9968, 9973-

(16) Printing apparatus for printing on long bands,
continuously moving film type (not including continuously
moving film cameras or projectors stated to be applicable
for printing and universal purposes). (See pp. 182-185.)

1881:i88i. 1895:i33i7- 1896:21383. 1897:
17633, 17634. 18699. 1898: 13315- 1899: 20024.
1900: 10282. 1901: 21248. 1902: 4780, 22941.
1903: 3765, 55> 8lI 3, 12677, 25048. 1904: 3382,
20386, 21367. 1905 : 1753, 1757, 17605, 26740. 1906 :
8239, 9764, 15574, 16390, 24851. 1907: 8817, 10358,
19408. 1908 : 2076, 5810, 11745. "1910 : 28926. 1911 :
10701, 10702, 19743, 21834, 26997. 1912 : 3384, 5278,
14433, 14957, 18230, 18728, 29514, 29515. 1913: 9865,
18341, 25703.

348 LIVING PICTURES

(17) Printing apparatus for printing from film negatives,
intermittently moved film and other types (not including
film cameras or projectors stated to be applicable for
printing and universal purposes). (See pp, 185-189.)

1898: 13315- 1899: 1795. 1900: 2283, 16958.

1901: 20388. 1904: 29051. 1909: 25724, 29594.

1910 : 23553. 1912 : 7182, 26173, 29512, 29700. 1913 :
6886.

(18) Film apparatus (chiefly projectors having an inter-
mittently fed film, cf. pp. 198-203) : driving mechanisms
and gearing arrangements in (other than film feed-
mechanisms) ; spooling, threading, and take-up devices
for (including endless film systems and apparatus, and
apparatus in which no rewinding is necessary ) ; including
also film spools and reels ; spool-boxes (other than con-
structions for preventing and minimizing fire) ; and winders
and rewinders.

1889: 10131, 12921. 1890: 4704. 1896: 359, 4686,
4841, 7801, 13284, 14455, 16080, 17224, 17505, 17881,
19181, 19446, 22627, 22707, 22928. 1897 : 1039, I:C 923,
14861, 16388, 17747, 18014, 19278, 24273, 27038,
27542. 1898 : 681, 10685, 11219, 15195, 17805, 18135,
18643, 20603, 24290. 1899: 1382, 3274, 21754, 21755,
21756, 22954. 1900 : 2133, 10050, 12820, 13883, 15226.
1901 : 15083. 1902 : 20773, 22423, 27240, (?) 27440.
1903 : 26579. 1904 : 9441, 11821. 1905 : 24426. 1907 :
7277, 23008, 24120. 1908 : 7620, 8758, 11998, 27256.
1909: 3048, 8338, 11546, 27675, 29684. 1910: 1876,
4384, 6812, 8058, 11312, 19148, 20516, 22286, 23032,
25074, 25252. 1911 : 1841, 4643, 13564, I49 l6 > 20675,
21690, 24992, 27173, '27793, 28754. 1912 : 2004, 2755,
3048, 6104, 8858, 10273, 13492, 13920, 18684, 20058,
23964, 24138, 25650, 28917, 29417, 29478, 29746.
1913: 4416, 4603, 4957, 10519, 12513, 14237, 15151,

APPENDIX I 349

15220, 15863, 16047, 16382, 17289, 18360, 20928, 21142,
23209, 27759.

(19) Film apparatus (chiefly projectors having an inter-
mittently fed film): film gates and guides in, and picture
and optical centering devices for. (See p. 213.)

1896 : 11639, 16080, 17224, 17881, 22928. 1897 :
12785, 27038. 1898 : 681, 17805. 1899: 6793. 1900 :
1467, 5292, 7668, 12820, 13883, 15226, 13339. 1902 :
19254, 22423. 1904: 9441, 11821. 1905: 10602, 16925.
1906 : 16771, 22429, 23904. 1907 : 15459, 19892,
22109, 24157. 1908: 11968, 23274, 23275, 23811.
1909: 9864, 27675. 1910: 2493, 4863, 7073, 7816,
10779, 11312, 18555, 25252, 27784. 1911 : 1841, 3629,
9150, 25868. 1912 : 9829, 10273, 10475, 11600, 13006,
13492, 16881, 16888, 20058, 25137, 25161, 26820, 28917,
29417, 29478. 1913 : 4362, 5535, 6061, 8581, 16201,
16353, 16914, 17289, 21570, 21948, 21969, 23994, 26452
27358, 29238. 1914: 10951.

(20) Shutters and intermittent illumination arrange-
ments, including devices for switching the projecting light
off and on, and for maintaining a constant illumination
on the screen. (See pp. 229-236.)

1889: 12921. 1893: 22954. 1895: 12458. 1896:
3777, 7801, 10006, 10778, 15603, 17224, 17848, 22627,
26765, 28799. 1897 : 888, 1216, 6536, 10603, 12785,
14851, 17248, 19805. 1898: 681, 12939, 17805, 18135,
20603, 21371, 22976, 24290. 1900 : 12820, 13883, 18364.
1902: 11317, 19481. 1904: 11821, 22954, 29051.
1908 : 7414, 12059, 13027, 20191, 22117. 1909 : 11546,
27675, 1910: 7815, 24822, 29832. 1911: 1841, 9552,
12774, 23195, 23890. 1912: 2338, 8858, 13492, I477 1 '
14880, 17483, 18771, 25142, 28917. 1913 : 359> 544o>
10519, 12411, 16010, 16047, *694i, 20928, 21142, 22430,
29436. 1914 : 273, 2490, 9043.

350 LIVING PICTURES

(21) Screens. (See p. 213.)

1886: 1980. 1896: 21269. 1897: 12774. 1898:
1835. 1899: 9005. 1903: 9869. 1908: 17285, 27376.
1909 : 3762, 18093, 30059. 1910 : 12037, 15661, 16104,
27069. 1911 : 17771, 20836, 24917, 28081, 28823, 28838.
1912 : 15008, 17276, 24547. 1913 : 4263, 6064, 16989,
17871, 26452, 28701, 28702. 1914: 4679, 8805.

(22) Fire preventing and minimizing devices for pro-
jectors. (See p. 236.)

1884: 14951. 1896: 16080. 1897: 11923. 1898:
9374, 10047, 17805, 23099. 1900: 7668, 21545. 1902:
22423. 1904: 1211, 11821. 1905: 15003, 24426.
1906 : 5626, 24953, 25798. 1907 : 10078, 15459, 15902,
22874, 44525- 1908 : 563, 9711, 11395, 13663, 16420,
21308, 25666, 27120, 27256. 1909 : 147, 3048, 7184,
9876, 14322, 22494, 29117. 1910 : 2168, 8058, 9911,
14650, 15550, 18851, 18928. 1911: 1841, 2444, 4514,
19078, 25636, 27723. 1912 : 4639, 10273, 13492, 14880,
18771, 19042, 20059, 23085, 23206, 28917. 1913 : 629,
5437, 5884, 7325, 10519, J 2334, 16047, 16201, 16941,
27 6 45> 27759. 1914: 11969.

(23) Panoramic and stereoscopic cinematography, and
miscellaneous screen and scenic arrangements for pro-
ducing relief or other special effects. (See pp. 244, et seq.)

1886 : 15192. 1894 : 16326, 22990. 1897 : 886, 17565,
24804. 1898 : 1835, 3477, 13036, 13644, 24290. 1899 :
1382, 3274, 6 794- 1900: 7035, 13883, 21985. 1901:
4309, 10695, 18324, 20173. 1902: 10695. 1903: 1483,
9896, 10277, 12997, I 34 IO > 1904: 1090. 1905: 3998,
4423. 1907: 1969, 15726, 17710, 17955, 23396, 25741.
1908: 2584, 4829, 7897, 8963. 1909: 14834, 30059.
1910 : 12037, 23163, 27069. 1911 : 839, 840, 3552, 8752,
12891, 19823, 22910. 1912 : 10870, 12797, 15008, 20507,

APPENDIX I 351

24945, 26820, 29495, 30666. 1913 : 971, 1339, 49 2 5, 6557,
7344, 11048, 11950, 19929, 20888, 26452, 29875. 1914:
4679, 5212, 12249.

(24) Colour cinematography. (See Chap. VII.)

1898 : 21649. 1899 : 6202, 17514, 23863. 1900 :
7035, 10000, 13883. 1902: 249, 13468. 1904: 7179.
1905: 9465, 16104, 20600. 1906: 20834, 25908, 26671.
1907: 15726. 1908: 453, 75*4, "79 1 . *73<>9* 18750.
1909: 1154, 5945, 99 I2 > Io6ll > l6 3i3, 18340, 27675.
1910 : 1717, 5025, 8761, 10892, 17872, 24779, 25869,
26927, 27207. 1911 : 1642, 6279, 9532, 12891, 15775,
18352, 20251, 21261, 23221, 23386, 23497, 23499* 23551,
23645, 24645, 24646, 24809, 26786, 27389, 28081. 1912 :
1489, 1900, 2218, 3034, 3220, 4045, 4774, 7477, 7756,
8207, 8626, 9313, 9324, 10150, 10639, ^229, 13510,
14133, 14340, 15027, I547 8 , ^385, 18098, 18431, 20555,
20556, 21271, 21623, 23289, 24159, 24161, 24534, 24948,
25084, 25142, 26292, 26827, 26828, 26976, 27207, 27708,
28365, 30108. 1913: 1607, 2538, 2786, 2787, 3509,
5440, 6061, 6565, 6894, 6903, 7368, 8062, 8063, 8144,
9610, 11496, 11873, 12577, I 4 I 42, 15098, 16201, 16353,
16354, I 723, 19175* 20928, 22796, 22965, 27796.
1914: 636.

(25) Living and speaking pictures and synchronizing
(See Chap. VIII.)

1892: 15709. 1896: 21382. 1898: 13143, 21371.
1899 : 9200, 12036. 1900 : 6138, 13421, 21495. 1901 :
14479, 18015, 18426. 1902 : 8359, 26187. 1903 : 1093,
12612, 14427, 22563, 22564, 22566. 1904 : 7337, 7345,
7346, 15708. 1905 : 413, 26440, 26522. 1906 : 2157,
18057, 22888. 1907 : 206, 4429, 9391, 12969, 19713.
1908: 327, 4145, 6194, 8496, 8865, 9370, 9371, 9372,
9445, 10396, 11333, 1514, 16611, 16728, 22415, 23153,

352 LIVING PICTURES

23276, 27717, 27766. 1909 : 453, 4^99, 7426, 8838,
9419, 15981, 16941, 21675. 1910: 3512, 7831, 21817,
24563, 29185. 1911 : 5840, 6390, 9622, 10158, 12732,
14072, 22458, 23620, 24091, 27911. 1912: 2239, 3384,
4185, 4918, 7789, 10526, i37 OI > 14880, 15166, 18072,
' 19593, 21195, 29746. 1913: 810, 1036, 1278, 4290
6727, 8694, 10519, 16941, 16942, 19764.

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APPENDIX II

BIBLIOGRAPHY

THE present bibliography is divided into three parts.

A. The annotated bibliography which appeared in the
first edition of the present work, and which extends up to
1898.

B. A further list of works of reference from 1898, wholly
or mainly devoted to the subject.

C. A list of British and foreign magazines and period-
icals wholly or mainly devoted to the subject.

The bibliography does not extend to works of reference
or periodicals which from time to time have articles or
supplements relating to cinematography, such, for example,
as photographic works and periodicals. To have in-
cluded such would necessitate a bibliography of works
and periodicals devoted to photography, mechanics, elec-
tricity and electrical engineering, mechanics, theatrical
subjects, and other auxiliary arts and sciences which are
utilized in the science and art of cinematography.

A. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY TO 1898.

NOTE. Roman figures indicate the number of the volume, Arabic
figures the page. Figures in round brackets indicate a series.
Author's notes, etc., are placed in square brackets. Only a
limited number of articles are here noticed ; reprints, translations,
and purely trade notices are excluded.

1825. ROGET. Explanation of an optical deception in
the appearance of the spokes of a wheel seen through

357

358 LIVING PICTURES

vertical apertures. [Spokes appear curved, anortho
scopic phenomena.] Phil. Trans. 131.

1827. The Thaumatrope. [Editorial ? by Brewster,
see p. 5. Invention attributed to Dr. Paris.] Edinb. Jl.
iv. 87.

1828. PLATEAU. Sur les apparences que presentent
deux lignes qui tournent autour d'un point avec un
mouvement angulaire uniforme. [Wheel phenomena.]
Corresp. math, de Quetelet, iv. 373.

1829. LE FRANCOIS. Courbes d'intersection apparente
de deux lignes qui tournent avec rapidite autour de deux
points fixes. Ibid. v. 120, 379.

PLATEAU. Lettre relative a differentes experi-
ences d'optique. [Wheel phenomena.] Ibid. vi. 121.

1831. AIME. Phnomenes qui arrivent quand on met
deux roues en mouvement 1'une devant 1'autre. Bull, de
Ferussac, xv. 103-107.

FARADAY. On a peculiar class of optical decep-
tions. [Wheel phenomena ; very interesting paper.]
Jl. R. Inst. [N.S.], i. 205.

PLATEAU. Lettre sur une illusion d'optique,
[Wheel phenomena.] Ann. de chimie et de phys. (2),
xlviii. 281.

1833. PLATEAU. Sur un nouveau genre d'illusion
d'optique. [Phenakistoscope.] Corresp.Obs.de Bruxelles,
vii. 365.

PLATEAU. Des illusions sur lesquelles se fonde

le petit appareil appele recemment Phenakistiscope.
[English name quoted as Fantascope.] Ann. de chimie
et de phys. (2), liii. 304.

1834. HORNER. On the properties of the Daedaleum,
a new instrument of optical illusion. [See p. 22. Paper
also contains full discussion of theory of distortion caused
by moving slots.] Phil. Mag. (3), iv. 36.

STAMPFER. Ueber die optischen Tauschungs-

Phanomene welche durch die stroboskopischen Scheiben

APPENDIX II 359

(optischen Zauberscheiben) hervorgebracht werden.
[Description of Stroboscope ; suggestion of band.] K.K.
polytech. Institut, Wien. Jahrbiicher, xviii. 237.

1834. Stroboskopische Scheiben, Phanakistiskop, Phan-
tasmaskop. Pogg. Annalen, xxxii. 636.

1835. SNELL. Description of an instrument for ex-
hibiting a certain optical deception. [Phenakistoscope
and wheel distortions. Stroboscope called Phantascope
or Kaleidorama.] Sill. Jl. (i), xxvii. 310.

1836. PLATEAU. Notice sur 1'anorthoscope. Bull.
Acad. Bruxelles (i), iii. 7.

1846. MULLER. Anwendung der stroboskopischen
Scheibe zur Versinnlichung der Grundgesetze der Wellen-
Lehre. Pogg. Ann. Ixvii. 271.

PLATEAU. Sur de nouvelles applications curi-

euses de la persistence des impressions de la retine.
[Illusive motion from modified anorthoscope.] Bull. Acad.
Bruxelles (i), xvi. pt. i. 424, 588 ; pt. ii. 30, 254.

1850. TYNDALL. Phenomena of water-jet. [Momen-
tary illumination by electric spark.] Phil. Mag. (4),
i. 105.

1852. MOIGNO. Stereo-fantascope ou Bioscope de
M. J. Duboscq. [Combination of ordinary phenakisto-
scope with stereoscopic eyepieces.] Cosmos, i. 703.

PLATEAU. Sur le passage de Lucrece ou 1'on a
vu une description du fantoscope. Ibid. i. 307.

1853. POPPE. Das verbesserte Interferenzoscop [for
exhibiting wave-motion.] Pogg. Ann. Ixxxviii. 229.

ROLLMANN. Ueber eine neue Anwendung der

stroboskopischen Scheiben. [Discussion of relation
between number of slots and images.] Ibid. Ixxxix. 246.

UCHATIUS. Apparat zur Darstellung beweg-

licher Bilder an der Wand. Wiener Akad. Sitz.-Ber. x. 482.

1858. ALMEIDA. Nouvel appareil stereoscopique.
[Alternate vision, projection or inspection, by eclipse or
use of coloured screens.] Comptes rendus. xlv ii. 61.

360 LIVING PICTURES

1861. SHAW. Description of a new optical instrument
called the " Stereotrope." [Double cylinder zoetrope
working on its side.] Phil. Mag. (4) xxii. 537.

1864. BABBAGE. Passages from the life of a phil-
osopher. [Thaumatrope invented by Herschel and
Fitton.] London.

1865. CLAUDET. On moving photographic figures,
illustrating some phenomena of vision connected with the
combination of the stereoscope and phenakistoscope by
means of photography. [Views on rotating drums,
alternate vision.] Brit. Assn. Kept. 1865, pt. ii. 9.

LAING. Combination of Stereoscope and Phena-
kistoscope. [Called the Motoroscope.] Mech. Mag.
(2), xiii. 190.

1867. CLAUDET. New fact relating to binocular
vision. [Stereo-thaumatrope, see p. 7.] Phil. Mag. (4),
xxxiii. 549.

TOPLER and RADAU. Stroboscope ou Vibro-

scope universel [used to render the regular cyclic motion of
a body slower in appearance by intermittent illumination.]
Les Mondes, xv. 206.

WEBER. Theorie des Anorthoscops und der
anorthoscopischen Figuren. Zeit. Math. u. Physik.
xii. 133.

1868. CARPENTER. On the Zoetrope and its ante-
cedents. Student, i. 427 ; ii. 24.

CARPENTER. The Anorthoscope. Ibid. ii. no.
JEFFRIES. Remarks upon the principles of the
Thaumatrope. Am/Opth.' Soc. Trans. 1869, 8.

LANGLOIS and ANGIERS. Kinescope. [Alterna-
tion of two microscopic views.] Les Mondes, xvii. 96.

1869. MAXWELL. Zootrope perfectionee. [Concave
lenses used instead of slots.] Ibid. xx. 585.

1871. ZIZMANN. Die Bilder der stroboskopischen
Scheibe objectivirt. [Description vague. No light inter-
rupter shown.] Dingler's Jl. cxcix. 231.

APPENDIX II 361

1875. FLAMMARION. Le Passage de Venus. [Janssen's
Revolver photographique.] La Nature, 1875, part i.,
356.

1876. JANSSEN. Presentation du revolver photo-
graphique. Bull. Soc. fran9. Phot. xxii. 100.

1878. DONISTHORPE. Talking photographs. [Ap-
paratus called Kinesigraph (band illuminated by electric
spark) combined with Phonograph.] Nature, xvii. 242.

TISSANDIER. Le Praxinoscope [de M. Reynaudj.

La Nature, 1879, pt. i. 133.

TISSANDIER. Les Allures du Cheval. [Muy-
bridge's early work.] Ibid. 23.

1880. TISSANDIER. Le Praxinoscope Theatre [de M.
Reynaud.] Ibid. pt. i. 147.

1881. LOMMEL. Einfaches Verfahren, die strobo-
skopischen Erscheinungen fur Viele gleichzeitig sichtbar
zu machen. [See p. 15.] Carl's Rept. xvii. pt. 7, 463.

REYNAUD. La Toupie-fantoche. La Nature,

1882, pt. i. 73.

1882. MAREY. Le fusil photographique. Ibid. 1882,
pt. i. 326.

MOLTENI. Le Phenakistiscope de projection.

[Lantern Wheel-of-Life.] Ibid. pt. ii. 64.

TISSANDIER. Le Praxinoscope de projection [de

M. Reynaud]. Ibid. 357.

1883. MUYBRIDGE. The attitudes of animals in motion.
[Account of apparatus and methods.] Jl. Franklin Inst.
(3), Ixxxv. 260.

1888. CARBUTT. A perfect substitute for glass . . .
for use in photography. [History of flexible supports for
photographic images.] Ibid. xcvi. 478.

MAREY. Photo - chronographie. [Slight de-
scription of first band-form apparatus.] Comptes rendus,
cvii. 607, 643, 677.

1889. ANSCHUTZ. Electrical Tachyscope. Sci. Am.
Ixi. 303.

362 LIVING PICTURES

1889. MUYBRIDGE. Lecture at the Royal Institu-
tion. [Account of Zoopraxiscope.] Brit. Jl. Phot.
xxxvi. 826.

1890. LONDE. La Chronophotographie. [Good sum-
mary and description of Sebert's experiments.] La
Nature, 1890, pt. i. 97, 151.

MAREY. La locomotion dans 1'eau. [Illustra-
tion of first pellicular apparatus.] Ibid. pt. ii. 375.

Le Cinetographe d'Edison. [First notice. Illus-
tration of film with one row of perforations.] Cosmos
[N.S.], xix. 456.

Machine camera taking ten photographs a

second. [First publication of Greene and Evans' ap-
paratus.] Phot. News, xxxiv. 157.

Remarkable novelties in photographic instru-
ments. [Greene's double projection apparatus made by
Rudge.] Ibid. 421.

1891. EDISON. Kinetograph. Engineering, li. 678.

MAREY. Le Chronophotographie. [Good review

of subject to date.] Rev. gen. des Sciences, ii. 689.

1892. DEMENY. Les photographies parlantes. [Phono-
scope.] La Nature, 1892, pt. i. 311.

TISSANDIER. Le Theatre optique [de M. Rey-
naud. With long band.] Ibid. pt. ii. 127.

Mechanical Toys. [Various means of sectional

change over whole surface.] Optician, iv. 82.

Novel application for Zoetropes. [Deeply corru-
gated surfaces of rotating cards as a means for the
synthesis of natural colour, by means of primaries seen at
different angles.] Ibid iv. no.

Universal panoramic camera. [Kinetoscopy by

continual revolution of ordinary panoramic camera.]
Ibid. iii. 450.

1893. LONDE. La Photochronographieappliquee aux
sciences medicales. [Electrically controlled apparatus.]
Bull. Soc. fran9. Phot (2), ix 572,

APPENDIX II 363

1893. Panoramic photography. [Moving sensitive
surface formed of portion of spiral rendered optically
stationary by cyclostat] Optician, v. 786.

Zoetrope exposures. [Vibrating flames for
intermittent lighting.] Ibid. v. 696.

1894. DICKSON. History of the Kinetograph, Kineto-
scope, and Kineto - phonograph. London and New
York.

EDISON. Kineto-phonograph. Electrical World,
xxiii. 799.

EDISON. Kinetoscope. La Nature, 1894,
pt. ii. 323.

JENKINS. Photochronographic camera. [Ex-
terior view only.] Phot. Times, xxv. 2.

MARESCHAL. Lachronophotographie d'amateur
et le portrait vivant. [Demeny's Chronophotographe
d'amateur or Biographe.] La Nature, 1894, pt. ii. 279.

MAI\EY. Le Mouvement. Paris.

THOMPSON. Life and Works of T. A. Edison.

[Review ; states that machines similar to Kinetoscope
(? Anschtitz') were shown at Frankfort Electrical Exhibi-
tion, 1891.] Electrician, xxxiv. 187.

An application of Optics. [Optical means for
intermittent kinetoscopy.] Optician, vii. 164.

Are Lantern Stereotropes possible ? [History
of the Stereo-phenakistoscope.] O.M. Lantern Jl. v. 23.

1895. IREX. The Lantern Stroboscope [for moment-
ary illumination of moving objects]. Ibid. vi. 112.

LATHAM. The Eidoloscope. [Apparently on
system of Reynaud's praxinoscope de projection, but no
details given.] Phot. Times, xxvii. 173.

LuMifcRE. Le Cinematographic. [Description
and account of exhibition, July n, 1895.] La Nature,

1895, Pt- " 2I 5-

STORY. Who is the inventor of the Kineto-
scope ? [Greene claimed.] Brit. Jl. Phot. xlii. 772.

364

LIVING PICTURES

1895. WENHAM. The Kinetoscope. [Letter on ex-
periments in 1852.] Eng. Mech. Ixi. 352.

La Chronophotographie pratique. [Demeny's

dog-motion.] Inventions nouvelles, viii. pt. ii. 390^

Photochronographic apparatus for amateurs.

[Demeny's eccentric spool.] Phot. Times, xxvi. 39.

Projicirte Bewegungsbilder von Anschiitz. [Ex-
hibited November 15, 1894 ; no description of details.]
Phot. Archiv. xxxvi. TO.

1896. ACRES. Animated photography. [History and
dates.] Amateur Phot. xxiv. 298.

DEMENY. Chronophotographe. [Final form.]

Vie Scien. 1896, pt. ii. 267.

EAMES. The Animatoscope. Phot. Times,

xxviii. 330.

GUEROULT. Sur un application nouvelle de la

Photographic et du Phenakistoscope. Deposited 1889.
[Photographs taken at long intervals rapidly combined or
shown backwards. Instrument called photo-cinegraphe.]
Comptes rendus, cxxii. 404.

JENKINS. Development of Chrono-photography.

[Review ; own apparatus ; life-size coin-freed peep-show.]
Phot. Times, xxviii. 449.

JENKINS. The Phantoscope. [First description
of details.] Ibid, xxviii. 222.

J LY - Kinetoscope a vues multiples. La Nature,

1896, pt. i. 337.

LOMAX. Kinetoscope and lantern. [Summary
of position of Kinetograph.] O.M. Lantern Jl. vii. 132.

MARESCHAL. Chronophotographe construit par

Demeny. [Projecting and reversing arrangement.] La
Nature, 1896, pt. ii. 391.

POPLAWSKI. Neuer Apparat [von Poplawski
und Lebiedzinski]. Phot. Mitth. xxxii. 329.

VITOUX. Photographie du mouvement. Chrono-
photographie. Kinetoscope. Cinematographic. Paris.

APPENDIX II 365

1896. VOLKMER. Die Rotations-Photographic undder
Kinematographe, oder " die lebende Photographic."
[Lumiere's apparatus and suggestions for applications ;
scenery, etc.] Zeit. Oest. Ing. Vereins, xlviii. 369, 377.

Continuous revolution Kinetoscopy. Optician,

x - 34 T

- Le Folioscope. [Double - book form.] La
Nature, 1896, pt. i. 256.

- Kinetoscope stereopticon. [Jenkins' Phanto-
scope and Kinetoscopic Camera, also Edison's Vitascope.]
Sci. Am. Ixxv. 325.

Viviscope. Ibid. Ixxiv. 395-

1897. ACRES. Letter on the invention of the Cinema-
tograph. Am. Phot. xxvi. 277.

- ACRES. Making and exhibiting living pictures.
[Contains dates of his invention.] Jl. Camera Club,
xi. 65.

BEDDING. Animated Photography [History of].
B. J. Phot. Almanac, 1898, 643.

BRUNEL. La Photographic et la Projection du
Mouvement. Paris.

- DONISTHORPE. Letter on the Kinesigraph [and
his subsequent patents]. Brit. Jl. Phot. xliv. 175, 207.

- FRITSCH. Reminiscenzen iiber . . . den Kinema-
tographen. [Correspondence between Uchatius and
Prokesch.] C. Z. f. Optik, u.s.w. xviii. 211.

GASTINE. La Chronophotographie sur plaque
fixe et sur pellicule mobile. Paris.

GAUMONT. La Grille. [Perforated fan for
viewing screen.] Bull. Soc. franc. Phot. (2), xiii. 295.

HANAU and MONTSERRET. Le development des
pellicules kinetographiques. Vie scient. 1897, pt. ii. 532.

HEPWORTH. The Cinematograph. [History.]
Am. Phot. xxvi. 262.

-- JENKINS. Films [Development of]. Phot,
Times, xxix. 127,

366 LIVING PICTURES

1897. JENKINS. The picture-ribbons used in chrono-
photography. [Perforating, printing, developing.] Ibid.

259-

JENKINS. Improved Kinetoscopic camera and
printing apparatus. Sci. Am. Ixxvi. 281.

LUMIERF. Development and projection of kine-

matograph films. Brit. Jl. Phot. xlvi. suppt. 91.

LUMIERE. Sur les dangers du cinematographe.
[Safety condenser.] Bull. Soc. franc. Phot. (2), xiii. 361.

MAKESCHAL. Les erreurs du Cinematographe.

Suppression du scintillement. La Nature, 1897, pt. i.
368.

MAREY. Nouvelles modifications du Chrono-
photographe. [Camera, projector, printing and develop-
ing apparatus.] Bull. Soc. fran. Phot. (2), xiii. 217.

RAE. Development of kinetograph films. Phot.
News, xli. 265.

REYNER. Les origines de la photographic
animee. [Reville's double-disc and stereoscopic appara-
tus, 1857.] Vie scientifique, 1897, pt. ii. 451.

ROBINS. Animated Pictures. O.M. Lantern
Jl. viii. 99.

ROBINS. Hints on exhibiting Cinematographs.
Ibid. 129.

ROBINS. Development of Kinetograph films.
Ibid. 102.

ST. CLAIR. The Watkins Micromotoscope.

Sc. Am. Ixxvii. 75.

WARD. Kinetography. The production of
living pictures. Knowledge, xx. 216.

WRENCH. The Cinematograph for attaching to

the lantern. [History; own apparatus; discussion.]
Jl. Camera Club, xi. 36.

Animated photographs and projecting machines.
O.M. Lantern Jl. viii. 103.

Biograph and Mutograph. Sci. Am. Ixxvi. 248,

APPENDIX II 367

1897. Chronophotographie. [Review and description
of modern machines.] Rev. scient. et industr. 1897,
i. 179.

Cinematographic de 19 sous. [Revival of Kine-
scope, see p. 33.] La Nature, 1897, pt. i. no.

Folioscope mecanique. [Radial form.] Ibid.

1897, pt. i. suppt. 23.

New Kinematograph. [Continuous rotary

action.] Optician, xiii. 212.

1898. BELLINGHAM and HOLT. Glycerine a heat
absorbent in lantern projection. Brit. Jl. Phot. xlv.
suppt. 28.

EDER and VALENTA. Ueberdie Fortschritte der

Photographic (Serienapparate). Dingler's Jl. cccviii. QO.

HEPWORTH. Animated Photography : the ABC
of the Cinematograph. [Practical operator's handbook.]
London.

HEYL. Contribution to the history of the art
of photographing living subjects in motion and repro-
ducing the natural movements by the lantern. Jl.
Franklin Inst. (3), cxv. 310.

HUGHES. A little information about the Cine-
matograph. [Discussion of principles.] O.M. Lantern
Jl. ix. q, 24, 44.

JENKINS. Animated Pictures. Phot. Times,
xxx. 289.

JENKINS. Patentable priority in chronophoto-
graphic apparatus. Ibid. 152.

JENKINS. The Perforations [of Kineto-films].
Ibid. 113.

Le Cinematographic applique a 1'astronomie.

[Flammarion's terrestrial globe.] Vie scientifique, 1898,
pt. i. 160.

Le Cinematographe pour tous. [Monnard's
invention ; minute photos, in spiral on disc ; invented word
used, the telecinematographe.] La Nature, 1898, pt. i. 90.

368 LIVING PICTURES

1898. Neue Formen des Kinematographen und ver-
wandter Apparate. Eder's Jahrbuch, 1898, 188.

Viewing film transparencies in the Cinemato-
graph without projection. O.M. Lantern Jl. ix. 3.

LONDE. L'Alethorama [de MM. Mortier et

Cheri-Rousseau] . La Nature, 1898, pt. ii. 253.

B. WORKS OF REFERENCE SUBSEQUENT
TO 1898.

1898. JENKINS, C. F. Animated pictures. Washing-
ton. 134 pp. 9 pi.

1899. MAREY, J. E. La Chronophotographie. Paris.
Gauthier-Villars. 40 pp.

TRUTAT, E. La Photographie animee. Paris.

Gauthier-Villars. 198 pp. i pi.

1907. URBAN, C. The Cinematograph in science,
education, and matters of state. London. Urban
Trading Company. 56 pp.

1908. KITE, M. H. Lessons in how to become a
successful moving operator. Harrisburg, Pa. (Author).
140 pp.

LIESEGANG, F. P. Handbuch der praktischen

Kinematographie. Leipzig. Liesegang's Verlag. 302 pp.

i pi.

WoLF-CzAPEK, K. W. Die Kinematographie :
W r esen, Entstehung, und Ziele des lebenden Bildes.
Berlin. Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft. 120 pp.

1909. DEMENY, G. Les origines du Cinematographe.
Paris. Paulin. 64 pp.

1910. LEHMANN, H. Zur Theorie der kinemato-
graphischen Synthese. Zeit fiir Instrumentenkunde.
1910. Pp. 265-74.

MARBE, K. Theorie der kinematographischen
Projektionen, Leipzig. Barth. 80 pp.

APPENDIX II 369

1910. Modern Bioscope operator (The). London.
Ganes, Ltd. 176 pp.

1911. BENNETT, C. N. Handbook of Kinematography :
History, theory, and practice of motion photography and
projection. London. Kinematograph Weekly. 278 pp.

HULFISH, D. S. Cyclopedia of motion picture

work. Chicago. American School of Correspondence. 2vols.

LIESEGANG, F. P. Handbuch der praktischen

Kinematographie. 2te. Aufl. Leipzig. 330 pp.

LOBEL, L. La technique cinematographique.
Projection, fabrication des films. Paris. Dunod et Pinat.
340 pp.

ROSEN, J. Le Cinematographe, son passe, son

avenir, et ses applications. Paris. Soc. d'Editions Tech-
niques. 142 pp.

WOLF-CZAPEK, K. W. Die Kinematographie :

Wesen, Enstehung, und Ziele des lebenden Bildes. 2te.
Aufl. Berlin. Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft. 136 pp.

1912. KRESS, E. Conferences sur Cinematographic.
Paris. Cinema Revue. 220 pp.

LIESEGANG, F. P. Handbuch der praktischen
Kinematographie. 3te. Aufl. Dlisseldorf. 474 pp. (Biblio-
graphy, pp. 457-64.)

TALBOT, F. A. Moving pictures, how they are

made and worked. London. Heinemann. 356 pp.

1913. FORCH, C. Der Kinematograph und das sich
bewegende Bild. Geschichte und tech. Wien. Hartleben.
248 pp.

HULFISH, D. S. Motion picture work. London.
Lockwood.

MAURIN, L. Notes pratiques du Cinema-

tographiste. Paris. Cinema Revue. 56 pp.

RICHARDSON, F. H. Motion picture handbook.
London. Lockwood.

1914. HALLBERG, J. H. Motion picture electricity.

300 pp. N.Y. Motion Picture World.

370 LIVING PICTURES

C. BRITISH AND FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

Bild und Film. Monthly, M. 2.40. Volksvereins-
Verlag. Gladbach.

Bioscope (The). Weekly, 2d. (London). Games, Ltd.,
Shaftesbury Avenue, W.C.

Cinema (Le). Weekly, 5 c. (Paris.)

Cinema-Revue. Monthly, 15 c. (Paris).

Film und Lichtbild. 10 hefte yearly. M 2. Franck-
h'sche Verlagsh., Stuttgart.

Helios. Fachblatt fur Kinematographen-Theater und
Industrie. Buda-Pest.

Kinematograph (Der) Weekly. M. 2.10 quarterly. Ed.
Lintz, Diisseldorf.

Kinematograph and Lantern Weekly. 2d. 9-11, Tot-
tenham Street, W.

Kinematograph Monthly Film Record. 2d. Kine-
matograph and Lantern Weekly, Ltd., 9-11, Tottenham
Street, W.

Lichtbildkunst in Schule, Wissenschaft u. Volksleben.
M 6. per annum. Schultechnik-Verlag, Storkow (Mark).

Motography. Fortnightly. $2 per annum. Electricity
Magazine Corporation, Chicago.

Moving Picture News. Weekly. $2. Cinematograph
Publishing Company, 30, West I3th Street, New York.

Moving Picture World. Weekly. $2 per annum.
American Photographic Publishing Company, Broadway,
New York.

Moving Picture World. Weekly. Chalmers Publish-
ing Company, 17, Madison Avenue, New York. 10 c.

Official Moving Picture Guide Directory* Weekly.
Fredericksburg, Va. $2.

Revue Scientifique et Technique de 1'Industrie Cine-
matographique. Monthly, 2 fr.

La Vita Cinematografica. Turin.

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Telegrams: "CHRONOPHON, LONDON." Telephone: GERRARD, 5966 (4 lines).

INDEX

All the references are to pages in the book

ACETYLENE light, 212, 213, 309

Acres, 100, 156, 230, 329, 362, 363

Adams, 69

Aeroscope camera, 172

Aime, 12, 356

Alethorama, 366

Alhazen, 4

Almeida, 357

Angiers, 35, 358

Animate-graph, 102

Animatoscope, 95, 362

Anorthoscope, n, 18, 357, 358

Anschiitz, 26, 54, 79, 107, 359,

362

Aphengescope, 73
Arc lamps, 210
Autexophone, 277
Autochromes, 260

Babbage, 5, 358

Barr, 115

Beale, 21

Beard, 228

Bedding, 363

Bellingham, 365

Bennett, 367

Bibliography, 355

Bichromate printing, 184

Biographe, or Biograph, 87, 361,

364

Bio-Pictorescope, 150, 220, 242
Blair, 129, 142, 148, 149
Book-form moving pictures, 37,

343

Boyle, 4
Bradley, 25
Brewster, 5, 356
Britain, 114

Brown, 22, 51, 132, 247, 250
Brunei, 363
Bull, 332

Butcher's Empire projector, 128,
220, 239

Cameras :

Aeroscope, 172
Debrie's, 170
lenses for, 174
Newman-Sinclair, 169
Proszynski, 172
spool boxes, 1 68, 173
stands for, 173
typical, 167
Campbell, 113
Carbutt, 359
Carpenter, 5, 358
Casler, 37, 38
Cavallo, 4

Celluloid, 69, 155, 290
Cellulose, 156
! Choreutoscope, 22, 132
! Christensen, 271
Chrono-chrome, 270, 272
Chronophone, 277
Chronophotographe, or Chrono-
photographie, 76, 86, 88, 360,
361, 362, 364, 366
Chrono-photography, 47, 362, 364
Chrono projector, 198
Cinelife, 250
Cinematograph Act, 158, 236, 237,

289-299
Cinematographe, 97, 142
I Cinematoscope, 102
I Cineopse lens, 208
Cinephone, 281
Cinephonium, 274
Clair, St., 364
Claudet, 7, 42, 358
Claw feed, 142, 345
Cleaning films, 194
Clerk-Maxwell, 27, 109, 253, 254

255, 256, 257, 270, 272
Coin-freed apparatus, 55
Colour cinematography :

additive processes, 254,
259, 270, 272

373

374

LIVING PICTURES

Colour cinematography :

chronochrome, 270, 272
kinemacolour, 262, 265, 267
multi-colour screen pro-
cesses, 259
patents, 351
persistence of vision

methods, 262
subtractive processes, 255
Colouring films, 192
Colour vision, 254
Commercial uses for cinemato-
graphy, 335
Condensers, 204
Copyright :

artistic works, 312

assignment of, 319

authorship, 315, 317

civil remedies, 322

date from which copyright

runs, 317
duration of, 315
extension of Act, 314
infringement of, 319
infringing copy, 322
innocent infringer of, 323
nature of, 311
ownership of, 318
performance, 313, 321
publication, 313
summary proceedings, 321, 324
Corday, 330
Corelli, Marie, 331
Crofts, 72, 109, 328
Cyclostat, 89

Daedallum, 24, 356

Dallmeyer, 175

Dancing Skeleton, 21

d'Arcy, 4

Davidson, 270

Debrie, 164, 165, 170, 186. 195

Demeny, 65, 67, 86, 147, 160, 275,
360, 361, 362, 366

Desvignes, 23, 48, 55, 68, 328

Developing :

frames, drums, etc., for, 177
continuous processes for, 179,

180, 189, 190
positives, 189

Diable soufflant, 107, 326

Dickson, 361

Disc, Slotted, and Mirror experi-
ment, 13

Dog feed, 147, 345

Donisthorpe, 55, 56, 64, 68, 69, 72,
106, 109, 328, 359, 363

Duboscq, 357
Ducos du Hauron, 49
Du Mont, 49, 64, 325, 327

Eames, 95, 362

Eastman, 156

Eder, 365

Edison, 56, 78, 107, 131, 156, 157,
159, 160, 275, 326, 360, 361

Education, use of cinematography
in, 334, 366

Edwards, 51

Eidoloscope, 361

Electric wonder, 55, 107

Entry, Power of, under Cinemato-
graph Act, 295

Ernemann projector, 222

Evans, 59, 70, 139, 148, 152, 328,
360

Fantascope, 356

Faraday, 12, 356

Farmer, 332

Feed movements, classified, 106,

343

Film centring, 217
Film-gates and guides, 163, 215,

349
Films :

celluloid, 155, 290

cleaning, 194

colouring, 192

developing, etc., 176, 347, 363,

364

drying, 178, 191
history of, 359
joining, 193, 244
manufacture of, 156
patents for, 346
perforating, 159, 189, 190, 346,

364. 365

printing, 181, 347, 348, 364

protecting, 193, 347

regulations for, 303

renovating, 194, 347

repairing, 193

rewinding, 243, 348

threading up, 243, 348

trick, 242

Film-steadying devices, 216
Filoscope, 38

Fire-preventing devices and ap-
pliances, 236, 301, 350
Fitton, 6, 358

Flammarion, 332, 335, 359, 365
Flicker, 215, 229, 349
Folioscope, 37, 363. 364

INDEX

375

Forch, 367

Foreign patents, 341

Fox-Talbot, 47

Francois, Le, 356

Friese-Greene, .8, 152, 231, 262,

270 / 1

Fritsch, 19, 363

Gastine, 363

Gaumont, 193, 198, 236, 270, 272,

276, 363
Geroult, 362
Goodwin, 156
Gray, 92, 114, 140
Greene, 59, 70, 328, 360, 361
" Grip " feed, 139
Guerault, 330
Guilbert, 129, 208

Hallberg, 368

Hanau, 363

Hauron, Ducos du, 257

Heliocinegraphe, 17

Helmholz, 256

Hepworth, 179, 180, 226, 241, 279,

363. 364
Herkomer, 331
Herschel, 5, 358
Heyl, 22, 52, 365
Kite, 366
Holt, 365

Home cinematographs, 251
Horner, 23, 356
Hughes, 22, 220, 229, 242, 365
Hulfish, 367
Hyatt, 156

Illuminants, 209

Illusion of motion by diagrams, n

Interferenzoscop, 357

Intermittence mechanisms :
classified, 106, 343
compared, 151

Intermittent feed devices, 116

Inventor of the cinematograph, 325,
361, 363, 365

Ireland, application of Cinemato-
graph Act to, 298

Irex, 361

Janssen, 62, 327, 359

Jeffries, 358

Jenkins, 90, 109, 361, 362, 363, 364

365, 3^6

Joining films, 193
Joly, 182, 183, 260, 362

Kaleidorama, 16, 357

Kalotrope, n

Kamm, 129, 148, 217, 223, 229, 235,

239

Kater, 6
Kelvin, 159

Kinemacolour, 262, 265, 268
Kineograph, 37, 69
Kineopticon, 102
Kinescope, 35, 358
Kinesigraph, 55, 359, 363
Kinetic Lantern, 102
Kinetograph, 79, 360, 361, 362
Kinetophone, 79, 275
Kinetophonograph, 361
Kineto projector, 145
Kinetoscope, 56, 78, 107, 157, 250,

326, 361, 362
Kinoplasticon, 247
Kinora, 41
Kress, 367

Laing, 358
Langlois, 35, 358
Lanterns, regulations for, 303
Lantern Wheel of Life, 107, 359
Latham, 109, 361
Lauste, 282
Lee, 262

Lenses, 49, 50, 174
Leonardo da Vinci, 4
Le Prince, 56, 57, 84
Licenses, 290-294, 305
Licensing authority, 294, 296, 298
Liesegang, 366, 367
Light, adjustment of, 207
Lighting in buildings, 303
Limelight, 212, 305, 306
Lincoln, 23
Linnett, 37

Lists, Classified, of patents, 342
Lobel , 367
Lomax, 362

Lommel, 16, 67, 109, 359
Londe, 58, 360, 366
Lucretius, 3

Lumiere, 41, 97, 115, 142, 156, 159,
160, 237, 260, 331, 361, 364

Mach, 330

Madeler, von, 284, 287

Maltese-cross feed mechanism, 120,

344

Maltheser projector, 140
Marbe, 366
Mareschal, 361. 362, 364

376

LIVING PICTURES

Marey, 53, 59, 65, 76, 86, 182, 330,
332, 359, 3 6 o. 361, 364- 366

Marionette-top, 33

Martin, 60

Maskelyne, 109, 224

Maurin, 367

Maxwell, 50, 358

Mayer, 85

Mees, 268

Mester, 276

Micro -photographs, 78

Moigno, 357

Molteni, 359

Monnard, 365

Montserrat, 363

Motion, study of, 53, 58, 59, 65, 76,
86, 182, 359, 365

Motoroscope, 358

Moving pictures, 244

Miiller, 1 6, 329, 357

Music licenses, 291

Mutograph, 109, 224, 364

Mutoscope, 38 /

Muybridge, 53, 54, 56, 332, 359, 31

Newman, 165, 238
Newman-Sinclair camera, 169
Newton, 4. 208, 253
Nollet, Abbe, 4

Onimus, 60

Optical system, projecting, 203
Optician and Photographic Trades
Review, 89, 360, 361

Panoramic effects, 247, 350, 360,

361

Paris, Dr. , 5, 356
Patents, 339
Pathe, 193
Pathescope, 160, 252
Paul, 102, 157
Pedemascope, 34
Penalties under Cinematograph

Act, 295

Pepper's Ghost, 247
Perforating films, 161, 189
Periodicals, 368
Persistence of vision, i, 233
Petit, 131

Phantascope, 16, 357
Phantasmaskop, 357
Phantoscope, 90, 106, 109, 362, 363
Phasmatrope, 52
Phenakistoscope, 3, 107, 325, 326,

327 329, 342, 35 6 , 357, 358,359, 362
Phonokinetograph, 275

Phonoscope, 66, 107, 360
Photochronographe, or photo-

chronographie, 76, 86, 359, 360
Photochronographic camera, 361
.Photo-cinegraphe, 362
Photophone, 66, 275
Photoscope, 35
Photozootrope, 251
Picture, size of, 206
Pilkington, 34
Plateau, 3, 48, 107, 325, 326, 327,

329, 356, 357
Polytechnic, 331
Poplawski, 362
Poppe, 16, 357
Potter, 69

Power projector, 134, 222
Praxinoscope, 28, 30, 113, 359
Prestwich, 136, 160, 238
Printing films :

continuous - moving - film

apparatus, 182
intermittently -moving- film

apparatus, 185
Proctor, 335

Projectors, regulations for, 303
Prokesch, 19, 363
Proszynski, 144, 172, 217, 233, 34,

281

Protecting films, 193, 347
Ptolemy, 3

' Quetelet, 16

I Radau, 358

! Rae, 364

i Regulations under Cinematograph

Act, 1909, 242, 300, 308
i Relief effects, producing, 244, 350

Renovating films, 194, 347

Repairing films, 193

Retouching films, 192

Revolver, Photographic, 62, 330

Reynaud, 28, 31, 112, 359, 360
I Reyner, 364
| Richardson, 367
; Robins, 364

Roget, ii, 327, 355
! Rollmann, 357

Rontgen-ray cinematography, 333

Rose, ii

Rosen, 367

Rosenberg, 133, 285

Rudge, 71

Savart, 16

Scala theatre, 249

INDEX

377

Scientific uses of cinematography,

332, 3^6

Scotland, Application of Cinemato-
graph Act to, 297
Scott, Captain, 169
Screens, 213, 214, 350
Seabourne film-cleaning machine,

196

Sebert, 58, 360
Segner, 4

Selenium cells, use of, 284
Shaw. 358
Short, 38

Shutters, 202, 229, 232, 349
Sinsteden, 3
Smith, 265
Snell, 1 6, 357
Sounds recorded photographically,

282

Speaking pictures, 274, 351
Spools and spool-holders, 240, 303,

348

Stampfer, 15, 68, 328, 329, 357
Stands :

camera, 173
projector, 214

Stereo-phenakistoscope, 361
Stereoscopic effects, 244. 350, 358,

36i

Stereo-thaumatrope, 7, 358
Stereotrope, 358
Stereo-Zootrope, 27
Story, 361
Stroboscope, 16, 68, 357, 358,

361

Stroboskopische Scheiben, 357
Stroud, no
Synchronization, 275, 351

Tachyscope, 26, 54, 79, 359
Telecinematographe, 365
Telephoto lens, 175
Thaumatrope, 5, 33, 329, 356, 358

Theatriaxinoscope, 32

Thomassin, 278

Thompson, 361

Thornton, 165, 180, 181, 184, 191

Tissandier, 359, 360

Topler, 358

Toupee-fantoche, La, 33, 359

Trutat, 366

Turner, 262

Tyndall, 47, 357

Uchatius, 18, 91, 357, 363
Ulysse, 272
Urban, 265, 366

Valetta, 365
Varley, 75, 88, 148
Vaughan, 264
Venus, Transit of, 62
Vibrating flames, 361
Vibroscope, 358
Vitoux, 362
Vivaphone, 279
Viviscope, 43
Volkmer, 363

Ward, 364

Watilliaux, 37

Weber, 358

Wenham, 49, 325, 327, 362

Wheatstone, 17, 132, 231

Wheel of Life, 19, 20, 23

Williamson, 145, 162, 186

Wolf-Cyapek, 366, 367

Wollaston, 5

Wrench, 128, 220, 364

Young, 254

Zigmann, 358

Zoetropes, 23, 342, 358, 360, 361
Zoopraxiscope, 56, 107, 360
Zootrope, 23, 358

BILLING AND SONS, LTD., I'KINTERS, GUJLDKORD, ENGLAND

SH-

o <;

H S

H
<

PATENTEES ATTORNEYS, LTD.,

INTERNATIONAL PATENT EXPERTS,

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MADRICE F. HUMMEL

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OPTICAL LENSES FOR KINEMAS

"GLORIA

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best results of any known Lens,

combining finest materials and

high-class workmanship

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Write also for the following Lists :

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PHOTOGRAPHIC OPTICS AND COLOUR
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KAMM'S 1914 MODEL
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Price,

with Motor
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53 IDS.

Without
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47 IDS.

THE ONLY flickerless Projector. BRITISH made throughout

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Come and witness demonstration in our private theatre

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