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THE HORSE

IN HEALTH, ACCIDENT & DISEASE

A THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL GUIDE
FOR EVERY HORSE OWNER

BY

"DARLEY MATHESON,"

M.R.C.V.S.

AUTHOR OF " CATTLE AND SHEEP," AND NUMEROUS OTHER
VVOKKS ON LIVE STOCK, ETC.

ILLUSTRATED

London

C. Arthur Pearson, Ltd

Henrietta Street
192 1

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

STABLE AND STABLE CONSTRUCTION, HYGIENE OF THE STABLE

Housing— Sanitation— Flooring— Situation— Construction— Stable »age
fittings — Water supply — Bedding . . . . .11

CHAPTER II

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES

Grooming — Feeding — Clipping — ^Washing — Clothing and band-
ages— Watering — Wintering and Summering horses — Agist-
ment of horses — Forage — Bedding . . . . .15

CHAPTER III

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES

The Shire and Clydesdale — Percheron and Suffolk — The Packing-
ton BUnd horse and Weisman's Honest Tom — The Suffolk
— ^The farmer's horse — The vanner and the tradesman's
horse . ' \, ......... 35

CHAPTER IV

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES — AGE, SEX, COLOUR, SELECTION,
SOUNDNESS, ETC.

Selection — ^Mating — Conformation — Value of the heavy draught ■
horse — Soundness — Colour — Age — Vice — Buying a horse —
Feet — Sight and wind — Various diseases .... 47

CHAPTER V

BREEDING HEAVY HORSES AND THE SELECTION OF THE
SIRE AND THE DAM FOR THIS PURPOSE

Breeding heavy horses — Selection — Pedigree .... 56
CHAPTER VI

THE CARE OF MARE AND FOAL THEIR MANAGEMENT

FROM SPRING TO WINTER

Period of gestation — Selection — Age at which to breed from —
Registration of brood mares — Disease — FoaUng season —
Weather — Weaning — Septic laminitis . . . • 59

6 THE HORSE

CHAPTER VII

THE SADDLE HORSE OR RIDER

Hacks and hackneys — Manners — Vice — British bred horses — page
Height — Colour — Ponies — Plain and showy horses — Sound-
ness— The Cleveland Bay — The light van and tradesman's
horse — ^The hunter . . . . . . . -65

CHAPTER VIII

BUYING A LIGHT HORSE AND WHAT TO AVOID IN
SELECTING THE SAMEj

Judgment — Source of purchase — Soundness — Welsh ponies —

Points to note — ^Vice — Common afflictions •• . . -77

CHAPTER IX

THE AGE OF THE HORSE AS INDICATED BY THE
TEETH, ETC.

How to distinguish horses of different ages — Physical signs of

age — ^Teeth — Gums — Method of approximating age in horses 82

CHAPTER X

VICE

Vice . . . . . . . . . . ♦ 91

CHAPTER XI

LAMENESS IN THE HORSE

Predisposition — Acute or chronic — Searching for cause — Principal

causes — Rheumatic arthritis — Dislocations and fractures . 93

CHAPTER XII

SHOES AND SHOEING PREPARATION OF THE FOOT

Shoeing — The Farrier — Hot and cold fittings — Wear of shoes —
Machine-made shoes — Preparation of foot — Weights of shoes
— Nail holes — ^Leather soles — Frost nails — Lameness . 98

CHAPTER XIII

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Sound feet indispensable — Concussion and bad shoeing — Grading
of feet — Various features in health and disease — Structure
of the feet — Laminitis or founder — General management —
and treatment — Navicular disease — Sandcrack — False
quarter — Canker of the foot — ^Thrush — Side-bone — Cutting
or brushing — Forging — Bruised heel . . . .102

CONTENTS 7

CHAPTER XIV

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST

The pulse — The temperature — The breathing — Physicking horses page
— Administering medicine to horses — BUstering and firing —
Fomentation — Feeding sick horses — Castration of colts —
HeaUng ointment — Wound lotion — Lotion for sore backs
and saddle gall — Tonic powders — Saline fever powders . 121

CHAPTER XV

ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
HORSE

The skeleton — The muscular system — The internal structure ol
a horse — The respiratory system — The digestive system —
The urinary and genitive organs . . . . . 1 30

CHAPTER XVI

, SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES

Catarrh — Chronic catarrh — Strangles — Influenza — Epizootic
celluUtis or "pink eye" — Glanders — Farcy or cutaneous
glanders — Anthrax — Tetanus — Joint-ill or arthritis in foals —
Rheumatism — Purpura — Infectious stomatitis — Tuberculosis
— Actinomycosis . . . . . . . .146

CHAPTER XVII

AFFECTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS

Roaring — Thick wind — Broken wind — Chronic cough — Sore
throat — Pneumonia — Septic pneumonia — Formalin in pneu-
monia— Pleurisy — The heart and its functions . . .164

CHAPTER XVIII

SOME COMPLAINTS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS

Shear-mouth — The horse bee — Worms — CoHc — Diarrhoea and

scour in foals — Lymphangitis or weed . , . . i73

CHAPTER XIX

SOME AFFECTIONS OF URINARY ORGANS

Azoturia Diabetes or excessive urination . . . .180

CHAPTER XX

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SOME AFFECTIONS OF THE SAME

Stringhalt — Shivering — Epilepsy or vertigo . . . .183

8 THE HORSE

CHAPTER XXI

DISEASES OF BONES, JOINTS, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

Slipped shoulder — Splint — Causes of splint — ^treatment — Ring- page

bone — Open joint — Septic arthritis — Bursal enlargements or JJy^;
wind-galls — Bog-spavin and thoro-pin — Curb — Bone-spavin

— Sprained tendons and ligaments — Treatment of same . 185

CHAPTER XXn

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS

Epizootic lymphangitis — Ulcerative cellulitis — Psoroptic, sar-
coptic and symbiotic mange — Causes of mange — Recurrent
mange — Parasitic mange order — Treatment of mange —
Rules to be followed for the prevention and cu1"e of mange
in horses — Lice — Ringworm — Causes of ringworm — Collar
and saddle gall — Mud rash — Cracked heels — Grease — Nettle
rash .......... 196

CHAPTER XXIII

THE EYE AND SOME COMMON AFFECTIONS

Injuries to the eyehds — Ophthalmia — ^Treatment and manage-
ment of same — Recurrent or specific ophthalmia — Opacity
of the cornea — Cataract . . . , . . ,216

CHAPTER XXIV

WOUNDS, FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS

Various kinds of wounds — Broken knee — Picked-up nail —
Treatment of wounds — Fractures — Various kinds of frac-
tures .....••••• 223

CHAPTER XXV

SOMETHING CONCERNING ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POISONS

Yew poisoning — Foxglove poisoning — Deadly nightshade — The

hemlocks — Arsenic and antimony . . • . • 229

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Points of the Horse

Frontispiece

Champion Shire StalHon

facing page 34

Shire Gelding

., „ 37

Champion Clydesdale StalHon

.. ,. 38

Clydesdale Mare .

„ „ 40

Suffolk StalHon .

,. .. 42

Percheron StalHon

,. „ 42

Hunter ....

,, ., 72

Polo Pony .

„ ., 72

Hackney Stallion ,

„ „ 77

Shetland Pony

" » 77

Illustrations of the Teeth of the Horse, showing " tem-

porary " and "permanent" incisors from birth to

thirty years pages 88, 89

Pedal-bone to illustrate Side-bone . . . page 120

Skeleton of the Horse .

.. 135

THE HORSE

IN HEALTH, ACCIDENT AND DISEASE

CHAPTER I

STABLES AND STABLE CONSTRUCTION
HYGIENE OF THE STABLE

Those who study the welfare of their horses will
endeavour to see that their animals are comfortably
housed, though, unfortunately, a large proportion of
stables are anything but satisfactory. Some horse
owners seem to have an idea that any sort of hovel is
good enough to keep a horse in, but there can be no
greater mistake, and no man can ever expect an animal
to look well or perform its work satisfactorily if it is kept
in a cold or a damp stable, without drainage or sanitation
of any kind. Every well-constructed stable should have
its inlet for pure air and its outlet for impure, be eihciently
drained, and provided with proper flooring. Makeshift
floors are never any use, and prove to be the most
expensive in the long run. Existing stables, deficient in
their internal arrangements, can very often be materiaUy
improved by slight additional cost. The best site for a
stable is one on a gravel soil, with the front of the stable
facing the south or south-west. If there is a slight
natural elevation of the ground, so much the better. The
walls can be constructed of wood, corrugated iron, brick,
reinforced concrete, or stone, the last-named being the
best of all, unless exception be taken to reinforced

12 THE HORSE

concrete. All wooden stables, no matter how soundly
constructed, are cold in the winter ; and so are corru-
gated iron ones, with the additional disadvantage of
being too hot in summer. For temporary stables both
these materials may suffice. The roof, if a concrete
stable, should either be slated or tiled, preferably the
former. The best material for the floor is concrete, or
else vitrified stable paving. The latter, or something of
a similar nature, is used in all the best stables. A floor
set with this kind of paving is almost indestructible and
certainly the cleanest. Ordinary bricks, * asphalt, and
wood are not suitable for stable floors or, at any rate,
should never form permanent stable flooring. In laying
the floor, the drainage should be on the surface and slope
towards a surface drain at the foot of the stall, which
conveys the liquid into a well-trapped drain outside the
stable. The drain inside the building may either be open
or closed, with a surface grating, for preference the latter.
A great deal of care should be bestowed upon the con-
struction of the floor, otherwise it will never be satis-
factory. For instance, if there is too much of a gradient in
the stalls, fluid excreta runs away too quickly and leaves
particles of solid matter behind. If, on the other hand,
the fall is insufficient, the drainage becomes inefficient.
The author hkes to see good roomy stalls in a stable, and
not only roomy, but lengthy, say eight feet from the head
to the foot of the stall. Half the stalls one sees in stables
are much too short and too narrow, and quite incapable
of accommodating a heavy draught horse. The width of
each stall should be not less than six feet six inches.
Given these dimensions, a horse can he down comfortably
and rise properly, whereas in a narrow stall it will some-
times be cast and unable to rise. The space available will,
of course, have all the bearing upon the size and arrange-
ment of stalls, loose boxes, etc. Neither the harness room
nor the coach house should communicate directly with
the stable, as the vapour from the latter is detrimental to

STABLES AND STABLE CONSTRUCTION 13

harness and carriage appointments. A loose box or two
forms a valuable addition to any stable, detached loose
boxes being the best. Many stables are fitted with one
or more loose boxes at each end of the stable, or some-
where in the building. These are useful for the " segrega-
tion '' of a horse, but when the loose boxes are detached
from the main building a sick animal can be isolated.
The inlet for fresh air should be by means of ventilating
windows, i.e. the lower portion closed and the upper
open, so that there is a constant current of pure air
passing into the stable, and foul air passing out through
a ventilating shaft in the roof. The stable should be
neither too cold nor overheated ; a temperature of 50°
to 55° Fahr. is about right.

The best stable fittings are made of iron, but, in the case
of a temporary stable, wood answers the purpose perfectly
well. Iron mangers are by far the most durable, and we
recommend these in preference to all others. There are
quite a number of manufacturers of stable fittings, and
anyone contemplating erecting a stable could not do
better than to apply to some of these firms for their
catalogues. A plentiful supply of water should be at
hand in every stable, as cleanhness of the stable is
necessary to the well-being of the occupants of the stable.
There are quite a number of details to be worked out in
stable construction, but the space at the author's disposal
prohibits him from entering into consideration of these.
The stable floor, during the summer, should be washed
down daily, say every morning after the bedding has been
lifted, and during the time that the animal is out at
exercise, i.e. if there is sufficient help in the stable for this
purpose. Plenty of water, a stiff broom, and a large
amount of energy are the necessaries for cleansing a stable
floor. The bedding should be taken outside the stable
and exposed to the air, which should be admitted freely
to the interior of the stable. A dirty and untidy stable
is a disgrace to anyone, and certainly indicates the

14 THE HORSE

slovenly habits of its proprietor. If horses are worth
keeping, either for business or pleasure, it is surely not
too much trouble to keep them as they ought to be kept,
there being " a place for everything, and everything in its
place."

CHAPTER II

general management of horses

Introduction

In the succeeding paragraphs the author will deal with
matters such as grooming, feeding, clipping, etc.,
which appertain to the welfare of all classes of horses
working in both town and country, likewise those which
are turned out at pasture. Before, however, entering
into a brief consideration of these it may be worth while
to say a few words concerning certain minor features
■associated with those who have to look after their horses.
To begin with, it is absolutely necessary that all
horse-masters, horse-keepers, coachmen, and grooms
should be early risers, be keen observers, and be capable
of exercising a reasonable degree of intelhgence : likewise,
when necessary, to act on their own initiative. Every
horse, no matter whether in the stable or out of it, has its
own individuality ; its likes and its dislikes ; its preference
for particular kinds of forage, and its hours for drinking
and for abstaining from drinking. All horses should
drink freely, and those which do so are usually the best
thrivers. AH horses should be good resters, which is also
conducive to thriftiness. There is a special arrangement
in connection with the mechanism of the fore limbs to
enable a horse to sleep in a standing attitude, nevertheless,
those which lie down thrive the best. In the management
of horses regularity of feeding is very necessary. Animals
are able to judge when feeding time arrives almost as
well as their attendants, and this remark applies equally

15

i6 THE HORSE

to watering them. The comparatively small size of a
horse's stomach, and the short time that food remains
within it, clearly indicate that this animal requires to be
fed at fairly short intervals, but it should not be fed
whilst it is at work. The nose-bag system of feeding is a
most pernicious one as practised by the uninitiated. To
fix on the nose-bag every time a horse stops is one of the
most idiotic ideas ever estabhshed. If a horse is worked,
fed from the nose-bag, and then allowed an hour or two's
rest the matter is quite all right, so far as feeding is
concerned. Horses should not be fed on journeys when
the body is overheated, but they can always be safely
watered, provided that they are not allowed too much
water. Anything from half to one gallon will be sufficient
under these circumstances. Another fallacious notion in
the watering of sick horses is that of supplying them with
chilled water, which they hardly ever appreciate. For
the reduction of temperature, as in certain fevers, cold
water is an invaluable medium, and ought always to be
allowed. Another matter which should never be lost
sight of by attendants on horses is that of refraining from
giving an excessive amount of forage after a prolonged
fast. This is a waste of food, as the extra grub will not
compensate for the additional loss of muscular energy
through prolonged abstinence. The best forage is the
most economical, and it is far better to pay more money
for a good article than to waste it on inferior or damaged
food. A good horse-master will keep a watchful eye on
everything appertaining to the general welfare of his
charges ; in fact, it is the horse-keeper's eye which makes
the animals thrive. Whenever horses are troubled with colic
and various other ailments it is a sure sign that the stable
management is at fault, and the matter should be looked
into accordingly. Every class of the community has its
unscrupulous persons, and such unscrupulousness may
be at the expense of the animals, although they are un-
able to record it in black and white. It is impossible to

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 17

pay too much attention to all matters connected with
horses ; their grooming, their housing, and their manage-
ment in various other ways. A conscientious horse
keeper will spare neither time nor labour, within reason-
able limits, upon the animals placed under his care, and
he should always be present when horses are being fed
and watered, to see that each member of the stud receives
its proper share of forage and water. It is quite an easy
matter to see whether horses are thriving or otherwise.
Never purchase forage already mixed, i.e. corn and chaff,
bran, etc., combined, because it so often happens that the
individual components of a forage mixture are distinctly
inferior in quality, or at any rate good, bad, and in-
different materials are frequently used in this manner.

Grooming

The grooming appliances, plus the elbow grease
supplied by the strapper, plus the condition of a horse in
relationship to physical vigour, constitute the skin food
of this animal for the essentials of grooming. There are
grooms and those which call themselves grooms, but
there is a vast difference between the two. One can
make a horse look well, but the other never. It is quite
an easy matter, both by sense of touch and by eyesight,
to note whether a horse is groomed, indifferently groomed,
or not groomed at all. Want of energy and a dread of
work are the chief causes of the two last named. A
groom must be energetic and ambitious, active and
willing, conscientious and painstaking, and have a special
love for horses. Under these circumstances he is bound
to succeed and, as already stated, he is a groom, as
opposed to the fictitious article. There is a popular notion
that any man can groom a horse and can take up the
work at a moment's notice. Those who had any experi-
ence with horses in the Army during the recent war
know perfectly well how ludicrous this is. A groom must

i8 THE HORSE

be trained, and his training to be thorough must be that
under a careful master. Organisation in the stable is
just as important as it is elsewhere. An unmethodical
groom is not a desirable asset in any establishment ; in
fact, the place is better without him. The grooming
appliances comprise the body and the dandy brushes,
a wisp of straw or hay, the curry comb, the mane and the
tail combs, stable rubbers, trimming scissors, the singeing
lamp, and the foot picker, along with a stout arm, strong
hands, and plenty of energy. These appliances and their
accessories require to be kept clean and in proper order.
In the stable of the sluggard they will often be found
thrown in odd corners, filled with dirt, and wholly unfit
for use — a most unwholesome picture, and one that no
self-respecting horse keeper should for a moment tolerate.
The body and the dandy brush must be kept clean with
the curry comb, which is the use of the last named.
Directly a horse comes off work, no matter whether it is
summer or winter, wet or fine, sleet or snow, the feet
should be washed, and this without wetting the hollows
of the heels.

There is an art in even doing a simple affair like this,
and it is quite an easy matter to make a bungling mess of
the job. First of all get the pail and the water brush,
pick up the near fore foot and support it \vith the left
hand, with the brush in the right. Hold the foot so that
the toe points downwards, and proceed to use the brush
on the sole and round the wall. Treat the hind foot the
same, and repeat on the off side. Horses soon become
used to having their feet washed immediately they come
in from work and readily accept the suggestion when the
groom comes with his brush and pail.

The feet washed, if the animal is sweating freely it
should be allowed to cool by walking it about for a short
time. The majority of grooms put it straight away into
its stall and then give the body a vigorous shampooing
with a wisp — a most excellent practice. The latter also

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 19

applies when the animal has been out in the rain, but a
straw wisp will be found superior to hay for drying the
coat under these circumstances. Before using the wisp
excess of water should be removed with the body scraper
exactly in the same manner in which this appliance is
employed after a horse has been washed. The heat of the
body and that of the surrounding temperature soon helps
to dry the coat, but this process can be assisted by
putting on a rug with a packing of straw between this and
the body. Under ordinary circumstances when the coat
is wet a rug should not be put on until such time as the
animal is dry. Many horses begin to sweat after they get
into the stable, usually in the form of patches, but this
patchy sweating can generally be avoided by vigorous
shampooing with a dry wisp of straw. Some grooms
partially wash their horses in the summer immediately
they come in from work, but it is better to avoid this
whenever possible, as a sudden cooling of the skin,
especially on the shoulders and saddle, is decidedly
pernicious. All parts where the skin is thin, such as
around the nostrils, on the face, beneath the tail, etc.,
should be sponged lightly and thoroughly dried after-
wards, otherwise it is far better to avoid this portion of
the animal's toilet. As soon as the body is dry, dust and
mud should be removed from the limbs with the dandy
brush, followed by a vigorous application of the body
brush on every square inch of the body, more especially
below the belly and inside the thighs. If a horse comes
in all covered with mud the latter can either be washed
off immediately or allowed to dry on. It is a matter of
opinion which is the better method, but all things con-
sidered, the latter-named should have preference. The
mane, the fetlock, and the tail are just as important as
other portions of the body, though unfortunately these
are too often neglected. The season of the year, the
condition of the animal, and the length of the coat are all
factors to be reckoned with, and constitute part of the

20 THE HORSE

stable calendar. It is surprising what a number of men
there are up and down the country, sometimes the
masters themselves, and sometimes the hireling, who are
content to work their horses until they nearly drop,
and then after taking them out of harness or the saddle
merely let the animal go into its stall, tie it up, feed it,
and leave nature to do the rest. Honest work deserves
honest reward, but surely to treat a horse in this fashion
does not constitute the latter. A well-groomed horse
should be a constant source of pleasure, a dirty or neglected
one a continual eye-sore.

The chamois leather and the stable rubber require free
application for putting on the finishing touches. After a
horse has been thoroughly cleaned and dried the clothing
and bandages should be put on. Flannel bandages
require to be carefully adjusted, and whilst these are
intended for keeping up a good circulation in the legs
at the lower parts, and also for maintaining the tendons
in a fine condition, they, the bandages, must never be
applied tightly.

Clipping

Horses can be clipped at any season of the year, and
this without causing them any inconvenience, provided
that the body is suitably clothed afterwards. If a horse is
kept in a stable all the winter and suitably clothed it will
not require clipping, provided that the animal has not
been clipped before, but once it is clipped it will require
repeating, i.e. if the owner wishes the animal to look well.
The winter coat is much longer than the summer one,
likewise the texture of the hair coarser. Clipping by
hand machines is almost a thing of the past ; wheel
machines and those which are worked by electricity are
almost exclusively used. Two men with a hand-power
machine can clip from five to ten horses per day, and do
the work thoroughly. In exceptional instances horses
are troublesome to clip, whilst certain animals have to be

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 21

either " doped " or " thrown " before they will allow the
clipping machine to touch them. When the coat is being
shed, viz. in the spring and the autumn, it is not advisable
to clip, but to leave it for the time being. All classes of
horses are clipped, but horse owners differ in their views
as to the manner in which to clip ; moreover, there are
different views in different localities. Some prefer to
clip the v/hole of the body and the Hmbs ; others will
remove the hair only " trace-high," leaving the whole of
the hair on the limbs and lower portion of the belly,
believing that the hairy covering thus left on affords
protection against mud rash, grease, and cracked heel.
That it may do so against the last-named is a reasonable
assumption, but to leave the hair on above the fetlock is,
in the author's opinion, quite a useless procedure. There
is nothing to be gained by it, and a great deal to lose in
the economy of labour. A clipped horse can be groomed
in one fourth the time as compared with that of an un-
dipped one, excepting in the case of horses which have
never been clipped, and whose coats are in a short and
fine condition through being clothed and stabled all the
year round. When the hairy covering is long it causes a
horse to sweat too freely, and the result is that it loses
flesh. It is much more economical to forage a clipped
horse than one with a long coat. No man can properly
groom a horse Vv^ith a superabundance of hair upon it,
and nothing can be more disheartening to the groom than
seeing his labour wasted. Hand in hand with chpping
should be singeing, and the singeing lamp, when properly
applied, is an invaluable aid to the toilet. All the long
hair beneath the jaw, around the throat, the back of the
jaw, inside the forearms, on the brisket, along the floor
of the belly, between the thighs, etc., should be removed
with the aid of the singeing lamp. For the removal of
the nits of lice and the eggs of the warble fly the singeing
lamp is invaluable, and it also can be made to play a
significant part when deahng with cases of mange.

22 THE HORSE

Washing

Horses which are properly groomed seldom require
washing, but circumstances may render this operation
necessary, and it can be done at any season of the year.
It is a good plan to wash a horse after it has been clipped,
a single washing for this purpose being sufficient. In
cases of mange it is absolutely necessary to give the skin
a thorough cleansing through the use of soap and water.
If an oily dressing has been used this should be washed
off at intervals of three or four days. In the summer an
occasional bath is beneficial to the skin, and the animal
feels reinvigorated through its use.

Clothing and Bandages

All light horses, especially during the winter, require
the use of a rug, preferably a woollen one, and the ov/ner
should see that the clothing is taken proper care of and
not thrown in any odd comer of the stable, as so often
happens amongst the neghgent. There should be a
clothing box in every well-regulated stable where the rugs,
bandages, etc., can be kept. For summer a hght woollen
rug is required, and in the winter a heavier one. In a
well-appointed stable all the horses wear clothing, and it
greatly improves the appearance of the stud. One or more
sets of flannel bandages are requisite and, like the clothing,
must be taken proper care of.

Watering

It is impossible to overestimate the value of a good
supply of water for horses, as this fluid is practically food
for the horse. Whenever there is a shortage of water for
horses it will soon render itself apparent in the loss of
condition. When horses are grazing, especially in the
spring and early summer, they can do with less water than
when the herbage is dry, or the animals are fed in the

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 23

stable ; nevertheless, a liberal supply of water is essential
for the well-being of these animals. In some stables a
constant supply of fresh water is kept in front of the
horses, the manger being fitted with a water trough.
This is an excellent plan and one which should be borne
in mind by anyone contemplating building a stable. All
horses should be watered three times a day, and four
when convenient. During the winter the early morning
watering of horses, more particularly when the weather is
severe, is not necessary, as the animals will seldom drink.
If horses are watered at 8 a.m., 12 noon, and 4 p.m., being
fed one hour later, the arrangement will usually be found
satisfactory. In summer feed and water an hour earlier,
but regularity in feeding and watering is a sine qua non.
It is a bad practice to feed and water horses only twice a
day. It is considered a good plan always to water your
horses a short time before they are fed in order that their
stomachs may be given the opportunity of deahng to their
fullest extent with the corn supplied, Where several
horses are watered at the same trough it is a most impor-
tant matter not to take the animals away from the trough
until all have drank freely. Some horses will drink freely
immediately they get to the trough, whereas others
require to be given time to think the matter over, and if
those which have had their fill of water are taken away
immediately, the others usually want to follow suit,
although they may have drunk little or no water. The
result is some members of a stud are properly watered,
and the rest improperly so. A horse will drink from half
to three gallons of water at one time. If the body is over-
heated about half a gallon of water will be sufficient for
the time being. Horses which are poor drinkers never
thrive as well as those which drink freely. Drinking
water at public troughs is a most pernicious practice,
and carters and vanmen shoud be warned against the
dangers of allowing this. The greatest offenders in the
watering of horses are farmers, many of whom, and their

24 THE HORSE

carters, water their horses at the farm pond, the water in
which is usually of a most stagnant nature and totally
unfitted for drinking purposes. This offence is greatly
aggravated by the horses walking into the pond and
stirring up the mud or sand. Large quantities of sand
must necessarily be taken into the stomach and intestines,
where it acts as an irritant. Later on it will lead to the
production of sand colic and ultimately the death of the
animal. Horses which are fed off the ground are liable
to suffer in a similar manner. Greasy l^gs and cracked
heels are very liable to follow when horses are continually
going into the water of a pond. Doubtless many readers
will argue that their animals have been watered in this
way for years and never yet given any trouble, the answer
to which is that the risk still remains and the evil resulting
therefrom is bound to come sooner or later. Many of
these farm ponds contain an excess of nitrates, and these
alone may be the cause of loss of condition. The watering
pail should be kept exclusively for this purpose, and those
which are made of zinc are preferable to wooden ones.

Wintering and Summering Horses

There are some horse owners, although these are cer-
tainly in the minority, who allow their horses, excepting
when required for work, to remain out throughout the
winter and summer, both during the day and during the
night, beheving in the " open air system " of treating
horses. In the summer there is nothing better, but in the
winter it is a plan which cannot and should not be
generally adopted. With mountain and moorland ponies
the matter is quite different, but once a horse has been
stabled it is not right to allow it to remain at pasture
throughout the winter, unless it is provided with a
reasonable amount of shelter and a certain amount of
corn daily. At the end of the hunting season it is a general
custom to turn hunters out for the following four or five

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 25

months, when they usually become " grass fat," but all
this superfluous flesh has to be got rid of by about the
end of October, being substituted by hard muscles for
soft ones— i.e. by condition. Unquestionably this plan
has a beneficial effect upon the joints, tendons, and liga-
ments, and improves the general tone of the circulation.
Moreover, grass is a necessary aperient and " Dr. Green "
will often work wonders. A free supply of water should
always be kept handy when horses are turned out to
graze, especially if the grass is very dry and the herbage
scanty. As opposed to summering horses the " soihng "
system is sometimes adopted. It comprises keeping a
hunter or a thoroughbred in a roomy loose box during
the summer, and feeding it upon green food, along with
hay, with little or no corn. It is not to be compared to
the summering system in the writer's opinion, there being
so many disadvantages. When horses are turned out to
graze always remove the hind shoes and be careful to see
that the fore shoes are regularly removed, the feet
trimmed, and the shoes replaced.

The Agistment of Horses

Some owners of grazing pastures make a regular
practice of taking horses in for grazing purposes at so
much per head per week, the proprietor being known as
the Agister. All sorts and conditions of horses are
commonly turned out, more especially for the week-end,
in places of this kind. To prevent injury to or from other
horses the hind shoes should always be removed, but a
person who takes in horses does not, like an innkeeper,
insure their safety, yet he is obliged to take all reasonable
care. The Agister is liable for particular neghgence, i.e.
he must make good a horse which is lost or stolen through
reasons which he could have prevented. The fences and
the gates must be kept in proper order, and nothing must
be left about Hable to cause damage to the animals taken

26 THE HORSE

in for agistment. It is reasonable to assume that the
Agister would be liable for the death of a horse through
eating yew, provided that these shrubs form part of his
hedges, but the onus of proof, in order to recover damages,
would rest with the owner of the horse to show that the
Agister must have been aware of the deadly nature of the
shrub referred to.

Mares and foals should not be turned out to graze with
other horses, as many of the former become vicious when
they have a foal running by their side.

The Horse and its Forage

As food represents the fuel of animal mechanism it is
indispensable that regularity of supply and quality of
food constitute the basis of its existence. Domestication
has rendered it necessary to supply the horse with a liberal
amount of cornJn order that it may perform, in a satis-
factory manner, the work demanded of this animal.
Horses can live and thrive on grass, but no grass-fed
horse will continue to do hard work. Grass is a horse's
natural food, but as previously stated the domestication
of this animal has rendered supplementary feeding an
indispensable feature of its hfe. Horses, like human
beings, vary considerably in their thriftiness or otherwise
upon a given amount of food. In other words, some
horses will thrive where others will practically starve.
A voracious appetite is often associated with an un-
thrifty condition, and no amount of fodder will make an
animal of this kind look well. The amount of food
supplied should always be proportionate to the condition
of the animal and to the nature of the work which it has
to perform. Horses of soft and sluggish temperaments
are usually slow workers and get fat on a small amount of
food. It is the pace and the expenditure of energy in
various other ways which leads to loss of flesh under
ordinary conditions. It may be accepted as correct that

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 27

horses foraged on a mixed diet thrive better than when
an unmixed one is given, nevertheless, all horses will do
well on oats and hay, the latter either as hay or as chaff,
i.e. a mixture of cut straw and cut hay or either of these
grasses separately. Age, sex, breed, work to be performed,
condition of the animal are all important factors in
determining the amount and nature of the fodder to be
supplied. Elsewhere in this work we have warned horse
feeders against the purchase of mixed forage, owing to
the inferior nature of some of its constituents, and now
repeat the statement just as emphatically. The great
secret in feeding both healthy and sick horses is em-
bodied in the phrase " little and often." We have known
horse owners feed their animals five times a day, but
four times is quite sufhcent, and if the exigencies of
circumstances demand it, horses will thrive quite well on
three feeds per day, but this statement does not disturb
the maxim already laid down.

■ Forage for the horse comprises oats, maize, barley,
beans, peas, lentils, bran, gram, hay. Unseed, together
with certain auxihary feeding stuffs, such as cake, locust
beans, carrots, swedes, ensilage, etc., but the usual forage
employed consists of oats or barley, bran and hay, with
or without beans, maize, and linseed.

All the foregoing kinds of forage vary greatly in their
, quality, and it is very necessary for anyone having any-
thing to do with the foraging of horses to acquire a know-
ledge as to what constitutes good, bad, or indifferent forage
No price of forage can be quoted, as the market price
must be the price at the time of purchase. Under normal
conditions good hay can be bought for £4 los. or £5
a ton, but the last war has altered all conditions of
purchase, as well as prices. Huge quantities of forage
are brought into Great Britain from the Colonies and
United States, and nearly all the hay coming from the
United States consists of one grass only, viz. " Timothy "
{phleum pmtensa). In that country this grass attain

28 THE HORSE

three or four feet in height and grows luxuriantly. The
following resume of the various kinds of fodder employed
in the feeding of horses should prove of interest to
readers.

Hay is divisible into Enghsh, Scottish, and Irish, but
Scottish and Enghsh are by far the best. Hay should be
at least one year old before it is used, have a pleasant and
fragrant odour, and contain such grasses as rye, Timothy,
crested dog's-tail, meadow fox-tail, and sweet-scented
vernal grass, as this grass is grown chiefly for the pleasant
odour which it confers on the hay crop. Samples of hay
vary remarkably in their quahty. Two other grasses,
viz. the meadow fescue and rough cock's-foot grass are
also contained in the best samples of hay. It should
neither be mow-burned or musty, but thousands of tons
of damaged hay must have been consumed by horses in
the army during the recent war. Nevertheless, no sane
person would ever wittingly purchase forage damaged in
the manner referred to. " Weathered hay," i.e. hay
which has been repeatedly soaked and dried loses much
of its value, and if hay of this kind is bought it can be
improved as forage for horses by mixing with it, in its
cut state, a small quantity of salt. The chief difference
between good hay and bad hay commonly results from
too little or too much heat being evolved in the stack.
Overheating hay to the extent of blackening or charring
it causes it to become sour, owing to the formation of
acetic acid. It requires about 388 lb. of grass to make
100 lb. of hay, the loss in weight being chiefly due to
water. The loss of nutritious ingredients is attributable
to the process of fermentation carried on in the stack.
The sugar has been largely converted into alcohol and
carbon dioxide, through which chemical change a certain
amount of waste must take place, but there is compensa-
tion in return, as the fermentation in the stack breaks
down the woody fibres of the grass stems. Horses should
be allowed from 5 to 20 lb. of hay per diem.

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 29

After grass is cut for hay it parts with about three-
fourths of its weight by evaporation, but whilst it is
lying on the field it undergoes no chemical changes. When
it is in the stack the starch contained in the grass is, by
the action of the heat, converted into sugar. In making
hay early mowing should be practised, i.e. when the grass
is young and before the seeds have formed in the flower
heads.

If the hay is cut when it is young it is more
digestible and of higher quality. If the weather continues
to be wet when hay has been cut allow it to lie on the
ground without disturbing it, otherwise the grass stems
are very liable to be broken. The stems of all grasses are
protected by siHca, which forms a protective mantle for
them, and if this is broken by tossing the grass about wet
enters the stems and irreparable damage is done. The
most economical method of feeding hay to horses con-
sists in cutting it up, but horses require the use of a
bulky food, so that a certain amount of hay should be
given uncut. Most of the samples of Scottish hay consist
of perennial rye grass, which flowers in May and June.
The stems of this grass grow to one or two feet in height,
and either alone or in combination with other grasses it
makes a first-class hay. It differs from the Italian rye
grass by the fact that the latter has long awns to its
flower in bloom, whereas the awn is practically absent in
the perennial rye grass. One of the worst grasses, and
certainly one of the least nutritious, is that known as
Yorkshire fog, and its presence in a pasture is an indica-
tion of the poor condition of the soil. The smooth stalk
meadow grass flowers in June and early in July, and it
adds to the value of hay considerably, a remark which is
equally applicable to the cock's-foot, provided that the
latter is cut before it is allowed to grow too coarse. A
sparing amount of clover adds to the value of hay, and
horses relish it all the more when it contains this. Sain-
foin hay and clover hay are generally on the market, and

30 THE HORSE

it is alwa\^s a good plan to purchase a small quantity as
an addition to the ordinary hay.

There are many varieties of clover, but giant clovers
are much too coarse for horses unless cut up. The white,
the red, the pink, and the hybrid clovers are all excellent
forage for horses, either green or as hay, and these
animals are remarkably fond of them, a remark which
appHes with equal truth to sainfoin and vetches. No
horse should ever be allowed to graze on such succulent
herbage as clover before the dew has been evaporated
from it by the sun, otherwise the fermentative changes
which are liable to occur in the stomach may cause such
rapid hberation of gas as to produce death within a short
time. Frosted grass and frosted roots are also bad for
horses and particularly so for " in-foal " mares. To assist
the reader in recognising several of the best grasses which
should form part of a good sample of hay, it is a good
plan to obtain specimens of these from some seedsman.

Concerning oats and barley both these cereals should
be a year old at least, and whichever has the lowest
market price may be used, but oats are always preferable
to barley, provided that they are of good qualit}^ The
average weight for oats ranges from 36 to 42 ib. per
bushel, but sometim.es a few pounds more — more often,
though, a few pounds less. If so, their feeding value is
proportionately decreased. Oats constitute a food par
excellence for the horse, and many farmers rely exclusively
upon oats and hay for feeding all their horses. The
farmer is not, however, as a rule a great horse master,
and the management of his stud is commonly left in the
hands of certain of his dependents, some of whom possess
more knowledge than others, and it is fortunate for the
horse that this is so. All sorts and conditions of oats are
thrust upon the market and imported into Great Britain
from various countries. A good sample of oats will have
very httle husk but plenty of kernel, a shiny outer
shell, be free from any musty odour, and neither bleached

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 31

nor kiln dried, although it is hardly hkely that the in-
experienced would detect signs of either of these features.
The same remarks are applicable to barley. Oats and
barley ma}^ be given either whole or crushed. For old
horses they should always be given crushed, likewise
both cereals can be fed to horses either dry or moistened.
Some horses like them one way, some another. It is a
matter of indifference which way they are given. From
5 to 18 lb. of oats per day is the right amount for each
horse. Both oats and barley should be stored in a dry
place, otherwise they are liable to become musty or get
over-heated and begin to sprout, in which state they are
extremely bad for horses.

A cereal which is used in a good many stables is maize,
given in its bruised state. It is properly known as Indian
corn, and it has ingredients in it of a very fattening
nature ; therefore, if a horse is poor, maize of first-class
quality should constitute a component part of the stable
menu. As a staple fodder it is vastly inferior to either
oats or barley, though we have known some horse owners
who have used nothing else but this and hay, and who
were apparently quite satisfied with its feeding value.
Instead of being flesh-forming it is fat-forming, more
especially internally, and fat is no use for work. It helps
to keep the body warm, but this can be more satisfactorily
attained by work. From 2 to 4 lb. maize per horse daily
is quite sufficient for all purposes, provided that it is given
along with other food. If employed alone, from 5 to 14 lb.
of maize would be required daily.

Beans, peas, and lentils are given either bruised or split
up along with oats, bran, and chaff. They are aU excellent
for bringing horses into good, hard condition, and used
in this manner from 2 to 4 lb. per day will be sufficient.
They are very rich in nitrogeneous matter, and their heat-
giving quahties are considerable. They are specially
valuable during the winter. The author strongly recom-
mends all horse owners to add a proportion of beans to

32 THE HORSE

their forage, as it will certainly pay them for any additional
expense. Beans will replace an equivalent quantity of
oats, so that there need be no difficulty if beans are
procurable. Peas and lentils are a good substitute and
their properties very similar.

Bran is extensively employed ; in fact, nearly every
stable has a compartment in the corn bin for its bran.
It is the coarser offal of the wheat, but its nutritive value
is comparatively small. When given as a mash alone or
in conjunction with scalded oats it has marked laxative
properties. Horses seem to like it along with their food,
but some are fonder of it than others. Good bran should
have a pleasant odour, leave a mealy mark when rubbed
on the palm of the hand, and be in moderatel}^ large
flakes. Old bran has a brownish tint, the flakes are small,
and it loses nearly all its floury touch. It is more used for
poultices than anything else, but even for this purpose
there is a lot to be said against it, and very Httle to be said
for it. The days of the bran poultice are over, or at any
rate should be. From i to 2 lb. of bran a day is quite
enough as an addition to the forage. Linseed, on the
other hand, is a most invaluable adjunct, as its nutritive
properties stand well in the hst. It requires well cooking
so as to swell the seeds in order to obtain its mucilaginous
quahties. It is also rich in oil, and from it linseed oil is
derived. In France linseed, or flax, is grown to a consider-
able extent, but most of the linseed imported into Great
Britain used to come from Russia. A pound of linseed
may be allowed to displace 2 lb. of oats in the forage
ration, provided that the linseed is properly cooked.
It has a most beneficial effect on the coat and skin, and
horses improve greatly on this substance.

For sick horses linseed is simply invaluable, for which
purpose it is most extensively employed. It requires
careful cooking, and the best method of deahng with it is
to boil it in a steam-jacketed cooker, otherwise it is
inclined to stick to the bottom of the copper and get

GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF HORSES 33

burned. Constant stirring would prevent this. Linseed
was largely used in the army for the horses, more especially
in the veterinary hospitals, and it proved its value beyond
all question of doubt, at home, in France, and other
theatres of war.

Locust beans were a good deal used, the steamed beans
being mixed with the forage. The locust beans contain
a large amount of sugar, and the majority of horses
became very fond of them. Carrots, swedes, turnips, etc.,
form useful auxiliaries in the feeding of horses, more
especially carrots for sick animals. There are very few
horses that would refuse carrots, even when seriously ill.
It is a poor man's stable that cannot afford a sack or two
of carrots in the year. They should be washed and given
whole, and this remark apphes to turnips and swedes.
For working horses boiled food does not commend itself
to the writer as he believes that it is inchned to make
horses soft in flesh, just the very reverse of what occurs
when beans are given, to counteract the effects of which
an occasional swede or two is useful.

Bedding

The best bedding material is straw, either oat, wheat, or
rye, the last named being perhaps the best of all. There
is very little rj^e straw about, so it is hardly likely to be
used for bedding purposes. Moss litter, bracken, and no
bedding at all, excepting the hard, hard floor are the
remaining materials. There is nothing to supersede a
deep bed of clean wheat straw. To economise stable
expenditure this can be lifted in the daytime, all soiled
particles removed, and the bedding relaid between four
and six o'clock. If a horse is given a good bed it does at
least afford it the opportunity of lying down and resting.
Some horses apparently never lie down, but a well-
earned rest is always a great restorative. In some
locaUties straw is plentiful, whereas in others it can hardly

34 THE HORSE

be obtained at any price. In all the best-appointed
stables straw bedding is employed, as it looks the best,
makes the best bed, and subsequently turns into excellent
manure, but it is not supposed to have the manurial value
of moss litter. If moss litter is used it should be well
broken up, frequently raked over, and the saturated por-
tions of it removed from the stall with the shovel. It is
a very good absorbent and hasr slight antiseptic proper-
ties, but it gets into the coat and makes both horse and
stable untidy. Sawdust is a powerful absorbent, but
much too dry for horses' feet. Bracken makes a very
good bedding, provided that the animals do not put their
beds inside them through the consumption of the bracken.
It is an extremely bad plan to allow horses to lie on bare
or hard flooring, as they do considerable damage to the
fetlocks, the knees, and to the points of the hocks by
continual bruising of these particular parts. Moreover,
they get extremely dirty and are difficult to clean. A
good bed after a hard day's work, a good strapping, and a
liberal feed may be said to constitute the three ideal
factors in the daily life of a horse.

CHAPTER III

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES

Under the heading of this chapter the author has con-
sidered it advisable to place those horses which are
capable of performing the heaviest class of haulage, and
which constitute horses derived from not only the
British Isles, but from the United Sates, Canada, and
from the Continent. During the last few years huge
quantities of horses have been brought into Great Britain
from Canada and the States, many of which animals are
of a very useful type, but certainly very few indeed are
equal to the class of heavy draught horses bred in Great
Britain. The writer has examined thousands of these
horses, and it is surprising the small percentage that can
be classified as being of real good conformation, to say
nothing of their slovenly action and bad manners.

Horses which have played a significant part in making
the breeds of heavy draught horses, both in the United
States and in Canada, are the Shire and the Clydesdale,
the Percheron and the Suffolk, all of which are directly
or indirectly responsible for the heavy draught horses
im.ported into the British Isles from the United States
and Canada. A great many of the best sires have been
exported by enthusiastic breeders, but the indiscriminate
mating of animals is largely responsible for the production
of the indifferent specimens which have been brought into
Great Britain from overseas.

The Shire
This is the heaviest type of cart horse, and one that is
largely employed for the heaviest class of haulage. It is

35

36 THE HORSE

a breed which originated in the shires, having been
derived from the introduction of a Flemish sire into the
North Leicestershire and Derbyshire districts, and mating
this animal with the mares in the various districts, some-
where between 1726 to 1793.* Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley,
has always been regarded as one who did a great deal
towards the improvement or manufacture of the Shire
horse.

Two animals, viz. the Packington blind horse and
Weisman's Honest Tom are looked upon as having
played a significant part in the production of the Shire,
and it would appear that the county of Derbyshire was the
home where the best Shire horses were bred. The old
English war horse, from the days of King Henry H to the
time of Queen Elizabeth, really represents the foundation
stone of the Shire. The Shire Horse Society has, of course,
played a most prominent part in making the breed up to
its present high standard of excellence. The only serious
rival to the Shire is the Clydesdale, and whilst the latter
horse has competed with the Shire from a utiUtarian
standpoint, there always has been and will continue to be
those who favour the respective breeds. It is of interest
to note that the Shire and the Clydesdale are now mated
together for the production of the so-called Clydesdale
Shire Horse, and there is no reason why the combined
qualities of both should not be reproduced in the manu-
factured article. For a long time there was a certain
amount of prejudice against the mating of these two
breeds, but in all probability there was no valid reason
why such should not take place. It is hardly fair to
compare the respective merits of the two breeds, because
both have their good points as well their bad, but if a
critical analysis were made so far as good points are con-
cerned the probabihty is that the scale would turn in
favour of the Clydesdale.

In colour the Shire varies, but bay, brown, and grey are
frequent, though, like any other horse, a good Shire can

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 37

be almost any colour. One of the most distinctive
features of the breed is the shortness of the hmbs and
the ponderous body, the latter rather a disadvantage
than otherwise. To be tjrpical a good Shire should have
plenty of bone and substance throughout, and an abun-
dance of hair of a soft, silky texture, extending from
below the knees and hocks, and encircling the pasterns
and coronets. If the hair is coarse in the regions alluded
to and the skin thick it indicates that the animal is of
coarse breeding and predisposed to a sluggish circulation.
Some people object to a superabundance of hair at the
parts referred to, and there is no doubt that for horses
working on heavy land it does give a certain amount of
extra trouble in grooming the animal, but at the same
time this long hair is most decidedly protective to the
skin, preventing cracked heels, etc.

A well-developed crest, moderately high withers, well-
sprung ribs, a strong back and loins, and powerful quarters
•are points of importance, and as such should never be
overlooked when purchasing a horse of this class. A
good Shire should have the best of feet and be free from
both ring-bone and side-bone — two of the commonest
defects. There should be a general compactness of form,
and above all good action, and such action should mainly
come from the knees and hocks. Faulty action is quite
common, but it is always distinctly detrimental. In
buying a Shire the intending purchaser should see that
the animal is examined prior to purchase for soundness,
tried in harness, prove its suitability for the work required,
and be sure that it is representative of the breed to which
it belongs. Six years is a good age to purchase, whilst the
price may range from 80 to 250 guineas, striking the
average at 120, when horses have assumed their normal
market value. The last-named price does not, of course
include horses required for show purposes, the prices for
which range up to several thousands of pounds.

38 THE HORSE

The Clydesdale

The Scottish horse is an extremely useful type of animal
for the heaviest haulage, and it is a breed that has attained
universal popularity on account of its soundness of
constitution, ability to shift heavy weights of tonnage,
its handsome appearance, and remarkable powers of
endurance, all of which features render the Clydesdale a
valuable animal for work either in town or upon the
land. Durability is one of the combined qualities of this
breed, so that if a really good stamp of horse is purchased
say at six years old it can, with ordinary luck, be relied
upon to perform satisfactory labour for the next fifteen or
twenty years.

The only really serious rival to this breed has been the
Shire, but, as stated in the preceding paragraph, there is
plenty of room, both at home and abroad, for both
varieties. The origin of the Clydesdale, hke that of the
Shire, is somewhat speculative, but the countj^ of Lanark-
shire appears to be intimately associated with the early
history of the breed. It is reasonable to assume that the
heavy draught mares of Scotland, several centuries since,
were mated with horses imported from Flanders, animals
being specially selected for this purpose. Breeders in the
Vale of Lanark are usually credited with the production
of the Clydesdale, and records prove that the county
referred to played a significant part in the early history
of the Clydesdale.

The Clydesdale Horse Society, whose head-quarters are
in Glasgow, was founded in 1877, and its first Stud Book
was published in 1878, since which time there has been a
systematic registration of pedigrees. The average weight
of a typical Clydesdale gelding is about 1800 lb., but some
Clydesdales have weighed as much as 2000 lb., or slightly
over this weight. The Scottish horse now under con-
sideration is an extremely useful animal for crossing with
the Shire for the production of a good class of agricul-

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 39

tural horse. In fact, we should prefer to employ a
Clydesdale sire in preference to a Shire sire for the purpose
just alluded to.

All Clydesdale horses are particularly active and can
perform work of the heaviest class with more freedom of
movement than the Shire or horses derived from the Shire
cross.

The typical colours are bay, brown, or black, with a
ratch upon the face, and usually with an abundance of
white hair from below the knee and hock to the coronet.
Other colours than those referred to are not favoured by
Clydesdale breeders, but some good specimens of this
breed have been grey, chestnut, etc.

In general conformation the Clydesdale is a clean-
limbed, broad-jointed, strong-loined, stout-necked, power-
fully-quartered horse. In proportion to the size of the
animal the head is on the small side, the crest well
developed, the chest deep — great depth of chest being an
additional recommendation. The ribs should be well
sprung, the back of the loins well clothed with powerful
muscles, and of medium length. The muscles of the
quarters and first and second thighs ought to be particu-
larly well developed. Powerful arms and forearms
necessarily represent indispensable features.

In selecting a horse of this class the reader should pay
particular attention to the regions last mentioned, as
many horses are deficient in strength about this part.
As previously stated, the Clydesdale should be broad-
jointed, with great freedom of movement in these joints ;
but the Clydesdale is a hors^, as a rule, with very good
action, both at the knees and hocks, giving it a quick,
active step with the feet hfted well off the ground.
Freedom from disease, such as bone-spavin and side-bone,
is of course desirable, though there are plenty of horses,
having both the diseases named, which continue to work
without any sign of labouring.

Granting that a Clydesdale has either, or both, of the

40 THE HORSE

troubles referred to, and is five or six years old, with
good action and free from lameness, the writer would
certainly advise the purchase of such, with or without a
modification of price.

So far no mention has been made of the feet, but the
old moral, " No foot, no horse," is as applicable to
Clydesdales as to any other horse. The feet must be
proportionate, sound in the wall and sound in the sole,
with the heels well open, strong bars, and a well-developed
foot-pad, or frog. As a rule the Clydesdale has good
feet, but exceptions are by no means uncommon. Anyone
wishing to purchase a Clydesdale of good breeding should
make apphcation to a breeder of repute, or else advertise
his requirements in some agricultural journal, such as,
for instance, the North British Agriculturist , or the
Scottish Farmer. It is not at all a bad plan to visit some
of the principal Scottish agricultural shows and confer
with breeders and exhibitors as to any animals which
they may have for sale, or else purchase a colt, say a
two-year-old, which has been exhibited at the show,
not necessarily one that has been in the prize list, as the
competition at many of the Scottish shows in the Clydes-
dale classes is often very keen, and good animals may
easily be kept out of the prize list. The prices of Clydes-
dales range from loo guineas up to several thousands,
but a fairly good specimen of this breed can be bought at
the average price of 150-250 guineas.

The Suffolk

The Suffolk, formerly known as the Suffolk Punch, is a
most excellent breed, and one that has always been
popular, but its popularity has been gradually increasing
during these last twenty years, and there is every prospect
of its further increase, although it has got a closely alhed
rival in the form of the French horse — the Percheron —
to which it bears a close resemblance.

The Suffolk has been largely exported to the United

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 41

States, where, we believe, it has given every satisfaction.
As a heavy draught horse it is particularly valuable for
artillery purposes, and it has been in considerable demand
during the recent war. In a gun team the Suffolk
materially added to the utility and the appearance of the
team, and very rarely failed to satisfy the requirements.

It is an invaluable horse for working on the land. For
quick work with mioderately heavy draught in town it
has no superior, and certainly very few equals, conse-
quently we find this breed of horse taking its place in
some of the finest cart studs in England. There are many
enthusiastic breeders of Suffolk, and excellent prices
have been obtained within recent years for animals sold
at the various dispersal sales.

As the name impHes the Suffolk originated in the
county of its name several centuries since, and has always
been famious for its remarkable powers of draught,
activity, cleanness of limb, and soundness of constitution.
As a rule they are good-tempered animals, but there are
exceptions as in every other breed. The typical colour
is chestnut, with or without silver hair in the mane and
tail, but this must not be sufficient to give the animal a
roan appearance. Commonly the pasterns and lower
part of the legs are white, with blaze on the face. The
correct height is kbout i6-i. The Suffolk Horse Society
has done a great deal towards the improvement of this
breed through the registration of pedigrees, and the
various strains of Suffolks have, for many years, been
kept in a state of purity. One of the outstanding features
of the breed is the low position of the shoulders, the
highly developed muscles in this region, and the great
depth of the chest.

The Suffolk is a heavy-bodied horse, but exceptionally
clean hmbed ; in fact the latter characteristic is only
observed in the Percheron, the Boulonnaise, and the
breed now under consideration.

It is a variety of horse that commends itself to the

42 THE HORSE

majority of horse masters in search of an animal moulded
upon lines which render it specially suitable for shifting
anything up to three-quarters of a ton at a slow trot.

As an agricultural horse for working on light land the
breed is pre-eminently suitable, but on hill farms, or
especially if the land is heav}^ the Clydesdale is a much
more suitable horse.

The vSuffolk is a good thriver, durable, remains work-
ably sound under ordinary conditions as well as any other
variety, and for the lighter work of a contractor it would
be impossible to suggest the purchase of any better
breed. Select a gelding at six or seven years old, and get
the animal whenever possible direct from a good stud,
there being many of these in the county of Suffolk, from
which county most of the best specimens have been derived.

Prices of Suffolks vary, but a good one can be bought
for about 150 guineas.

The Percheron

This is a continental variety of horse and exists in three
grades, namely, the light, the medium, and the heavy,
and, as stated in the previous page, it bears a strong
resemblance to the Suffolk and the Boulonnaise.

The Percheron horse is, however, chiefly bred up to one
standard, namely, that suitable as a vanner or gunner
horse, resembling in all particulars our own Suffolk.

The French horse has received a great deal of notice
since 19 14 by British horse masters, but for generations
prior to this time the United States, Great Britain, and,
maybe, certain Colonies kept these horses, bred from
them, and used them also for mating with the native
horses of their countries. This is one reason why so
many of the hght draught horses (Army classification)
possessed a good deal of the Percheron conformation com-
bined with some of the poor qualities of the Colonial horses.

The British Percheron Horse Society was recently
founded for the purpose of introducing into the United

SUFFOLK STALLION

Photo!^ hv Parsons

PERCHERON STALLION

To face page 42

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 43

Kingdom the Percheron draught horse, a breed indigenous
to the Perche districts of France. The Society referred
to has its head-quarters in London, and anyone anxious
to become a member of it should make apphcation to its
Secretary, Mr. A. W. Hewett. Like all other horse
societies the general welfare of the breed receives every
consideration, and its interests are promoted at every
opportunity.

The typical colour for the Percheron is grey, and if the
reader will refer to the accompanying illustration he will
at once see the striking resemblance which the breed bears
to our own Suffolk. Enthusiastic breeders proclaim that
it is a better horse than the Suffolk. This is not correct ;
in fact, if it comes to a critical examination of two typical
representatives of each breed, an analysis of points will
certainly be in favour of the Suffolk horse. Those who
advocate that it is superior to the latter as regards
soundness, etc., certainly display a strange want of
knowledge upon the subject.

The Percheron is, in relationship to its size, a small-
headed horse with a very short neck, thick in all propor-
tions, heavy-shouldered, but deep in the chest and very
round in the body. It is a type of conformation that many
connoisseurs would object to, being ugly about the head
and the neck, more especially the set-on of the head.
The Percheron, like the Suffolk, has advantages over the
Shire and the Clydesdale, likewise the agricultural horse
in general, in having no long hair upon the lower parts of
the limbs, whilst in horses of good breeding the legs are
usually clean throughout and as a rule free from diseases.

Quite a number of Percheron horses have recently been
imported into Great Britain, and some extraordinary
prices — as much as 5000 guineas — ^have been paid on
one or two occasions for the best specimens. It is a
breed that ought to cross very well with the Suffolk,
though whatever advantages would be gained by such a
cross it is difficult to conceive.

44 ' THE HORSE

The Farmer's Horse

It is not necessary to say very much about the farmer's
horse, which is usually a cross-bred animal derived from,
directly or indirectly, any of the preceding breeds of
horses. Unfortunately it is commonly the product of
indiscriminate breeding, and the result is that many of
these horses are of a nondescript class, yet they are
always marketable, sometimes so much so that the price
is far beyond any intrinsic merits possessed by the animal.

There are farmers' horses and horses working on the
farm of a good, bad, and indifferent type, but the word
" indifferent " certainly answers for fully 50 per cent of
these animals. There is no reason why the agricultural
horse should not be bred up to a better standard of
excellence than it has been in the past, but recent efforts
in the selection of horses for certain districts constitutes
a solid step in the right direction. Doubtless the tractor
will limit the use of the farm horse ; nevertheless, this
animal will be required to perform its share of the farm
work.

The miajority of the farmer's horses are derived from
the Shire or Clydesdale, but on quite a number of farms
in the shires, and possibly elsewhere, many typical speci-
mens of the respective breeds do their share of the work,
excepting when required for show or stud purposes.
When a farmer is buying a horse for ploughing, carting,
etc., he can sometimes purchase an animal for the matter
of a few pounds, owing to some infirmity which renders
it unsuitable for town work. The writer has seen in pre-
war times £5 horses bought by farmers, placed on the
land and worked regularly, v/hich, after a time, have made
such remarkable improvement as to become as useful as
a horse for which ten times that amount has been paid.

There are certain diseases affecting the horse which
show considerable amehoration after the animal has been
worked on soft and moist land for a few months. It is

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 45

reasonable to assume that the average price a farmer pays
for a horse, barring war conditions, is 70 guineas, and a
fairly good type of horse should be obtained, but very often
it is quite the converse. A poorly built horse, that is
one which is flat-sided, weak in the forearm, narrow and
slack in the loins, light on the body, weedy about the neck,
and deficient in bone will never, no matter how good the
horse mastership, make up into a decent type of animal.
A badly built horse always remains so, but a horse in
poor condition, provided that Nature has been kind
enough to construct it upon good lines, will, with few
exceptions, soon repay the farmer or the owner for the
extra attention which it is necessary to bestow upon it.
It is not every farmer that knows a good horse when he
sees one, yet there are plenty who do, and it is fortunate
that this is so. The degeneracy of the farm horse has
been an ever-present drawback, but by careful selection
and an increasing interest in the general welfare of the
work horse upon the farm there is good prospect of a
steady improvement taking place.

The Vanner and the Tradesman's Horse

Van horses are divisible into those required for work in
light vans and those which are employed in the heavier
work of ordinary railway vans. Both classes of horses
should be constructed upon sound lines, stoutly built,
have fairly good action, good feet, and above all good
manners. The quahfica.tion last named is very essential,
because the majority of horses required for this work
have frequently to be left wholly unattended, a remark
which applies with equal force to the tradesman's horse.
The butcher, the baker, the corn chandler, the dairyman,
the grocer, and others delivering their goods by cart or
van require an animal which can do its work and remain
sound at any odd time, and it may be for twelve hours or
more with little or no rest meanwhile. The tradesman's
horse ranges from a pony of 12 or 13 hands up to an animal

46 THE HORSE

i6-2 or thereabouts and capable of performing its work at
a slow trot, though the butcher seems to be one of the
principal offenders in working his horse at the fastest
pace possible. There is no surer method of wearing the
animal out. It is the pace which kills, and when it does
not kill its effects are detrimental in some other way.
If tradesmen would conserve the energy of their horses
by exacting a moderate amount of work within a limited
number of hours they would find it much more economical
in the long run ; many a veterinary surgeon's bills would
be saved, to say nothing of the annoyance and in-
convenience caused through enforced idleness in conse-
quence of lameness or some other injury. A good horse
master will always take particular care that his horses
are regularly fed, regularly watered, regularly groomed,
and consistently worked ; but a bad horse master will
violate all the foregoing principles and then wonder why
the animals placed under his charge are so unsatisfactory,
both in the stable and out of it.

Both vanners and tradesmen's horses comprise Suffolks,
Percherons, Hackneys, GaUoways, Russian ponies, Welsh
ponies. Dale and Fell ponies. Highland ponies, and crosses
derived from any of the foregoing. There is just as wide
a range in the prices of these animals as there is in the
quality of them and the breeds from which they have been
derived. If a tradesman is purchasing a horse the cheapest
guinea's worth that he can obtain will be that of having
the animal examined by a qualified veterinary surgeon
as to its soundness and, if necessary, suitability for the
purpose for which it is required. But price and suitability
are matters which chiefly concern the intending purchaser.

Horses of this class can be bought at the various horse
repositories, at fairs, markets, or from private vendors,
and various other sources. A cob or a pony suitable for
a tradesman can usually be got at prices ranging from
£i5-£35 or £40, whilst a van horse will probably cost
55 or 60 guineas, sometimes more, seldom rather less.

CHAPTER IV

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES — AGE, SEX, COLOUR, SELECTION
SOUNDNESS, ETC.

According to the classification as adopted by the
British Army the heavier type of horses are divisable
into heavy draught and hght draught in accordance
with the duties assigned to these animals.

For the heaviest class of haulage, horses of the Clydes-
dale, Shire, or a cross derived from these, are those
which are usually selected, whilst for artillery work with
the lighter guns, stocky horses of the light draught or
Suffolk type are required.

Both the Percheron and the Boulonnaise make excel-
lent gunners.

The hght draught horse is merely the ordinary type of
vanner, as used by Carter Paterson, Pickford, etc.
When a large number of horses are collected together, as
in the various Remount Depots, and immediately re-
quired for service, it follows that a certain amount of
discrimination is required in selecting horses according
to the classification allocated; hence one often finds
some departure from the strictly recognised type of
animal required for the purpose. The indiscriminate
mating of stallions and mares has always been, and still
is to a great extent, one of the most baneful influences in
horse breeding.

It is astonishing to note how very few people, profess-
ing to know, and with a large amount of experience in
addition, really understand " Horse Conformation "
either at rest, or in action, and the relationship the

47

48 THE HORSE

latter bears as a predisposing factor in the production of
disease.

The heavy draught horse will always be required for
use in commercial hfe, but particularly so in the army and
in agricultural husbandry.

Motor traction has supplanted, in a great measure,
horse traction, but it can never, either efficiently or
economically, entirely supplant the latter.

The value of the heavy draught horse in warfare, as
proved in the Allies war with Germany, has been amply
demonstrated. The heavy draught horses comprise the
Clydesdale, the Shire, the Suffolk, and the two continental
breeds, viz. the Percheron and the Boulonnaise, the
larger breed of the latter being the chief draught horse
employed about Boulogne, Calais, St. Omer, etc. The
short, powerful neck and the large head are ver}^ character-
istic of the breed last named.

In the selection of a horse for the heaviest class of
haulage two breeds stand pre-eminent, viz. the Shire and
the Clydesdale. It matters very httle which is selected,
provided that a good class of animal is chosen, concern-
ing which there need be no difficulty, if the instructions
laid down in this chapter, are dihgently read and digested:
The majority of the devotees of the Scottish horse wiU
naturally prefer to select a horse of this breed, neverthe-
less when the heaviest class of work has been done, the
author thinks that the Shire takes precedence. All
things considered, the Shire is more massive in general
build, but not quite so agile as the Clydesdale. This is
due, in a great measure, to the middle piece or body of
the former being more cumbersome. In other words,
the Scottish horse has a more economical distribution of
material, in relation to working capacity, and con-
sequently is able to employ this to greater advantage.

Doubtless good horses can be produced by mating the
Shire and Clydesdale, and there is evidence that in
future this cross will be vigorously pursued by breeders.

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 49

The Shire horse of fashionable strain is an exceedingly
handsome animal, short on the legs and with abundance
of feather below the knees, over the pasterns and fetlock
joints ; but for work on the land, this is rather detri-
mental than otherwise.

Too much feather or hair about the fetlock causes a
lot of mud and wet to adhere to it, finally resulting in
cracked and greasy heels, therefore the farmer should
bear this in mind when contemplating purchase. Fully
75 per cent of the horses working as cart horses and
vanners are either half or three-quarter-bred Shires,
whilst a great many of the imported Canadian horses
have some Percheron blood in them.

Quite recently we have heard a lot of rubbish talked
about the Percheron in relationship to soundness, and
the merits of this as compared to the Suffolk. There is
plenty of room for both varieties, but when an analysis
is made of conformation and soundness, it will be found
that the Suffolk is an easy first.

The writer has examined Percheron and Boulonnaise
horses in France for this purpose, with the results as
above stated. No lay mind can appreciate these com-
parisons in relationship to soundness. The Suffolk is an
exceptionally valuable horse for all van work, for light
dray work of brewers ; for carting work on the farm — in
other words, for draught up to half a ton, either at a fast
walk, or slow trot.

The colour of the Suffolk is either chestnut or sorrel.
A half or three-quarter-bred Suffolk is distinctly inferior
to the pure-bred animal, hence in purchasing a horse of
this breed it is better to get into direct communication
with a breeder of repute. This can easily be done by
reference to the announcements in some of the Live
Stock Journals.

The best age to buy a cart horse is between 6 and 9
years, but if required for work on the land, such as
harrowing, etc., 4 or 5 years is a suitable age, so that by

D

50

THE HORSE

the time the animal reaches 7 years, the proprietor will
have had 3 years' work out of it, and an animal of in-
creased value for sale. This is a very economical method
of purchasing horses for farm work, provided that the
farmer is a good horse master, and dehvers his instruc-
tions to his dependents accordingly.

At 6 years a horse is fully matured, and its bones,
Ugaments, and tendons capable of standing a maximum
degree of strain with a minimum of liabiUty to injury. It
is perfectly ruinous to work a horse in town at 4 or 5
years, as the constant concussion on the hard roads
leads to the joints, tendons, etc., becoming prematurely
and permanently damaged. The height should range
from 16J to 17J hands.

Sellers of young horses (3, 4, and 5 years) quite com-
monly offer these as being (4 and 5 in particular) 6 years
old, therefore care should be exercised (see chapter on
age) when buying.

In one way it is better to buy a horse a little older, or
seasoned animal, than purchase one too young for
immediate work in town. Geldings are usually a little
higher in price than mares or fillies, there being more
demand for them, nevertheless the writer would not allow
sex to stand in the way, provided the animal is suitable
in other respects. Temperament is a most important
matter, and certainly should receive every consideration.
A vicious horse is always a source of danger, the latter
being proportionate to the degree and form of vice.
Some horses are vicious in the stable only, others both
in and out of the stable or in the harness.

A common vice is kicking and biting other horses,
especially during feeding time. Kicking and biting are
most dangerous, and usually finish in some kind of
trouble for the owner. Muzzhng is the only preventive
of the latter, and this is a nuisance, and often incon-
venient to both horse and proprietor.

Stamping the feet, rubbing the legs, and kicking the

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 51

stall posts, are often due to skin irritation (sjnmbiotic
mange). This annoyance leads to thickening of the skin,
capped hocks, and certain other pernicious effects gradual
in onset, but a permanent legacy when estabhshed.
Vices, objectionable habits, or whatever one chooses to
call such, are of infinite variety (see chapter on vice), and
the possibihty of the existence of these ought not to be
overlooked.

Concerning the colour of draught horses we have con-
siderable variety to choose from, such as light and dark
bay, golden chestnut, sorrel, dun, brown, grey, white,
strawberry roan, blue roan, and black.

There is an old saying that a good horse may be any
colour, which is quite true; nevertheless, bay, brown,
chestnut, and grey take precedence in the order named
in the degree of popularity, and rightly so. The majority
of Shire-bred horses are bay or brown, but other colours
are quite common.

Bay, brown, and black are the usual Clydesdale colours,
and certainly the most favoured by breeders of them.

By far the commonest colours (irrespective of breed)
are bay, either light or dark, and brown.

Both harmonise with any surroundings, look well, and
wear well.

In closing the remarks on colour, we should say that
it is not necessary to attach too much importance to it,
provided that a really good animal, proving suitable on
trial, and sound, is ofiered for sale.

In giving a candid opinion as to the , selection of a
horse, nothing short of life-long experience will enable
the amateur buyer to be certain of the quality and
qualifications of his purchase.

Horse-flesh can only be judged with advantage to the
buyer by keen observation, coupled, in a great measure,
by the aforesaid experience.

It is necessary to point out that there is considerable
difference between defects of conformation and the

52 THE HORSE

soundness or unsoundness of a horse. Defective con-
formation is very common, and may be observed either
when the animal is at rest, or, and very often is, only
noticed during its movement, viz. the walk or the trot.

Many cart horses cross their front feet when they walk
— hand over hand — and may, in this manner, easily
tread on the coronet — always a nasty injury, producing
severe lameness.

Defective action of this nature does not warrant the
author to recommend purchase, no matter how excellent
the animal in other respects. There is also another defect
of action, the converse of this, viz. feet turned outwards
— splay feet. A heavy draught horse should bend both
knees and hocks freely, and lift the feet well off the
ground both when walking and trotting, although the
former is the pace for this class of animal. It is wonderful
what differences exist in action of horses, although the
ordinary observer may not notice such.

Sometimes a cart horse has good action in front and
poor action behind ; more rarely the converse applies.
Far too httle attention is paid by breeders of heavy
draught horses towards the improvement of action.

Buyers seldom study this when selecting. The author
insists that good action is just as important in this class
of horse as in any other breed.

The intending buyer should select a horse with bone
and substance, i.e. strong and broad forearms, broad
knees with thin skin covering the short and broad cannons.
Commonly cart horses are very deficient in bone below
the knees. A great deal of importance should be attached
to this statement. A super-abundance of fine silky hair
in the latter region is indicative of good breeding, but a
moderate amount of it is preferable. Good feet are a
sine qua non — old saying, no foot, no horse, is an absolute
truism. The feet demand special attention, and the most
critical inspection is expedient.

The normal slope of the wall is from 45 to 50 or 55

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 53

degrees. We merely mention this as indicating that the
wall of the hoof should be of a moderate degree of
obliquity, free from indents and cracks, healthy in
appearance, and the heels well opened out. A concave
sole (never fiat) and sound well-developed frogs are most
essential.

Fully 25 per cent of horses have faulty feet, hence the
reason why the buyer cannot be too particular. Always
have both fore shoes removed when examining the feet,
otherwise some serious defect such as separation of the
wall and seedy toe may be hidden.

The fore feet are more liable to disease than the hind
ones. Brittle hoof, flat feet, contracted heels, sand-
crack, false quarter, corn, canker, thrust, seedy toe, and
side-bone are some of the principal troubles to be looked
for in connection with the feet, all of which are regarded
as a sufficient cause for the rejection of a horse when
examined by a veterinary surgeon.

Feet may be classified as good, bad, and indifferent.
Feet of the first category may easily be ruined through
bad shoeing, and bad feet made still worse through the
same cause, hence the expediency of attending to details
of shoeing, both in summer and winter, likewise to the
feet of unshod colts. The periodical examinations of the
feet of the last-named should be religiously insisted upon,
thereby preventing many troubles arising out of unequal
distribution of pressure.

If the feet are muddy, always wash them before pro-
ceeding to inspect them, as many defects are sometimes
hidden in this manner.

Heavy horses and vanners are very liable to be troubled
with sub-acute (sometimes acute) laminitis or foot
founder, which usually causes the sole to drop or become
more or less flattened — an irreparable defect. The wall
of the hoof also becomes malformed and irregularly
ringed (laminitic rings).

Sandcrack, usually seen at the inner quarters of the

54 THE HORSE

fore feet and toes, in the hind ones consists of a spHt in
the wall of the hoof, and is due to an imperfect secretion
of horn from the horn-forming structures at the coronary
band. It always starts from above and extends down-
wards. It may cause acute lameness, or this may be
absent. These cracks are sometimes filled in for the
purpose of deception, and their presence may easily be
overlooked.

It is equally important to have sound sight and sound
wind. The eyes require critical inspection (see diseases
of eye). The two chief defects of wind are (a) roaring,
(b) broken wind. The former is an affection (in 90 per
cent of instances at least) of the larynx and the latter one
impHcating the lungs. They are both fairly common
complaints in heavy draught horses, and materially inter-
fere with the commercial value of the affected anim.al
(see chapter dealing with these troubles), though not
necessarily rendering it less useful to the owner.

Thus detection, prior to concluding purchase, is of
vital importance to the buyer, otherwise a considerable
sum of money may be dropped.

There are quite a number of diseases affecting the
various structures of the limbs, but the chief ones of
interest to the buyer of heavy horses are :

Side-bone, shivering, ring-bone, bone-spavin, wind-
galls, and other bursal swelhngs, contraction of the
tendons, curb, thoro-pin, sprung-hock, and capped-hock
(see these diseases). In addition to the troubles already
enumerated, horses of all kinds are liable to be affected
with various obscure affections such as coHc, worms,
strangles, cramp, staggers, any of which may be easily
overlooked at the time of purchase.

Failure to detect any obscure maladies implies no
liabihty in damages against the professional examiner,
unless neglect of proper skill can be proved.

Veterinary surgeons, Hke the rest of human beings, have
no pretence to infallibility, but given a good man for the

HEAVY DRAUGHT HORSES 55

purpose, the buyer may be saved pounds for the modest
fee usually demanded of, from half to one, or two guineas.

Apart from such professional examination, the buyer
can to a great extent protect himself in various ways.

He can insist on having a warranty with the animal, a
general warranty of soundness and fitness for the work
required. A written warranty is preferable to a verbal
one, but the latter holds good when it can be substan-
tiated.

Horses purchased at certain pubHc auctions — horse
repositories — are warranted sound in particular respects,
which, if not complied with, and the animal returned
within the specified time, renders the sale void.

Buying from a private source, or a dealer of repute, is
often very satisfactory, sometimes unsatisfactory. When-
ever possible have the animal on a week or ten days' trial.
This gives one time to note most faults and the good
qualities possessed by the animal.

The majority of dealers of repute will never hesitate to
allow a responsible buyer to have a horse on trial as
above, or sometimes even longer.

CHAPTER V

BREEDING HEAVY HORSES AND THE SELECTION OF THE
SIRE AND THE DAM FOR THIS PURPOSE

The breeding of heavy horses is hkely to prove more
remunerative than that of breeding those of a hghter
class, unless it be hunters and polo ponies, both of which
are certain to be in demand for an indefinite period.
The heavy draught horse has been, still is, and is likely
to be for generations a marketable asset, provided that
the right stamp of animals are produced. The farmer's
horse has been produced without the care which should
have been bestowed upon its production. Most of the
best Clydesdales, Shires, and Suffolks produced by
breeders do not find their way into the hands of the
general farming community, but are exported or else
sold to the largest contractors. The average type of
agricultural horse, bred on the farm, and worked on the
land up to four or five years of age, is not, as a rule, of
the best type of conformation, owing to the fact that the
mare has not been bred from the right class of stock in
order to breed a good type. We have the Clydesdale,
the Shire, the Suffolk, and the Percheron to breed heavy
horses from. The two first-named are those to select for
the production of animals capable of dealing with the
heaviest class of haulage, and the work has to be done at
a walking pace. The Clydesdale can be mated with the
Clydesdale and the Shire with the Shire for the pro-
duction of pure-bred stock. A Clydesdale sire and a
Shire-bred mare makes an excellent cross, probably better
than Vv'hen this is reversed. As the Clydesdale and the

56

BREEDING HEAVY HORSES 57

Shire have so many affinities there is no reason why the
very best of stock should not be produced in the manner
named. It is quite another matter to cross the Shire
with the Suffolk or with the Percheron. The highest
market prices can be obtained for the right class of
animals belonging to the breeds named. The Percheron,
or French horse, is an animal of fine constitution, of
splendid size, power, weight, activity, and courage,
consequently for a clean-legged draught horse suitable
for either military transport, artillery, agricultural, or
commerical work, it is an invaluable breed. The United
States and Canada have bred thousands of this class of
horse, and are apparently satisfied with its introduction
into these countries ; nevertheless, as a breed the author
does not consider that it possesses the impressive, sterling
quaUties of the Suffolk. The British Percheron Horse
Society's primary and definite object is that of bringing
this breed into pre-eminence in Great Britain, although
the author fails to see any particular advantage in this
when our own breed, the Suffolk, can do everything that
the Percheron can do. Some may prefer the colour of
the Percheron to that of the Suffolk, but this is of no
particular importance. Both breeds are clean-legged and
active, deep-chested and well-hearted, and are particu-
larly good in the stoutness of neck and shoulders. The
possession of these features makes the breeding of this
class of horse desirable for the purposes already named,
and anyone establishing a stud of draught horses would
do well to consider the advisabihty of purchasing good
stock of either the Suffolk or Percheron breed. Begin by
buying two or three five or six-year-old mares and a
couple of two-year-old fillies. This will constitute the
nucleus of a good stud, provided that a judicious selection
is made and the animals selected from studs which have
built up a good reputation. To those who contemplate
crossing the Suffolk with the Percheron the author would
say dont do it. There can be no possible advantage.

58 THE HORSE

Like the Clydesdale and the Shire the breeds are alhed
in nearly every feature and of good constitution, which is
not always the case with the heavy horses, and the intro-
duction of another breed strengthens any tendency in
this direction. The initial outlay in all horse-breeding
operations do not necessarily represent either future
success as regards sale or the production of high-class
animals. Pedigree goes a long way, but it is no good
unless the animal can carry it on its back. Some of the
poorest horses ever bred have had a right royal pedigree,
but they have been as useless animals as one could possibly
conceive. To be a successful breeder of horses it is essen-
tial that a man should know a good horse when he sees
one, be able to find a better, and lastly purchase one that
is better still. This constitutes prospective judginent,
and it is the initial to success. It seems almost absurd to
say that the sire and dam should be sound — theoretically
and practically sound — under which circumstances they
may be expected to reproduce these features in their
offspring. A practical man will probably feel amused at
this statement and suggest that the author ought to
belong to a Horse Breeding Commission. There is no
answer, silence being golden. A keen eye and a tactful
hand can detect most of the good and bad points in a
horse, and unless these senses are well developed it is
better to leave horse breeding alone.

CHAPTER VI

THE CARE OF MARE AND FOAL
THEIR MANAGEMENT FROM SPRING TO WINTER

" In-foal " mares can, with advantage to them, be
worked up to within a Vv^eek or so of foahng, but during
the last month or two of gestation the work should be of
a light character. It is a great mistake to put severe
strain upon " in-foal " mares later than the period
referred to, and it is quite possible that to do so is often
accountable for many of the abnormal and difficult
presentations met with in mares. Mares w^hich have had
on-e or more foals experience less difficulty in the delivery
of the foal than in the case of a mare having a first foal.
It is wonderful what a remarkable difference there is in
brood mares for maternity purposes. Some mares look
after their foals in a most kindly manner, allowing the
little creature every facility for sucking, whereas others
manifest very little interest in their foals, and not a few
are vicious, both to their offspring and to strange atten-
dants. It is not always the best mares which produce
the best foals, but given a fairl}^ good mare and a good
sire the offspring is usually good. In the selection of a
brood mare an animal of a kindly disposition, in other
words of good temperament, is of primary consideration,
as vicious propensities are usually transmitted from
parent to progeny. A good brood mare is an invaluable
asset on any farm, as she can help to stock the farm with
horses and at the same time participate in her share of
the work on the land, or whatever other purposes she is
required for. Heavy draught horses will always be in

59

6o THE HORSE

demand for agricultural and other uses, and there is no
reason why the possession of three or four good brood
mares on a farm should not be made to pay their way.
It is the indiscriminate breeding from unsuitable mares
and sires which commonly causes failure in breeding
operations. A mare should not be bred from before she
has arrived at her fifth or sixth year, but mares at the
ages of twelve and fifteen years, or even more, are
specially suitable for breeding purposes. It is reasonable
to assume that a mare at eight or ten years old will
produce a more vigorous foal than one at eighteen or
twenty. The registration of brood mares by the various
horse societies has done a great deal of good in laying the
foundation stone towards the perpetuation of good stock
— stock which is sound and free from the so-called
hereditary afflictions. It has been and still is customary
to look upon certain equine troubles, such as roaring,
bone-spavin, ring bone, curb, splint, side-bone, stringhalt,
etc., as capable of being transmitted from either a sire or
a dam to their offspring. It is not thought that the
actual disease is transmitted, but " predisposition '* to
the development of any of the foregoing troubles directly
an exciting cause comes into operation. In all probabiHty
there is a good deal of truth in this, and practical demon-
strations are not w^anting in support of this theory.
Very few mares would be obtainable for breeding purposes,
especially of the heavier class, which were free from one
or other of the diseases enumerated. Remarks which
apply to the dam are equally applicable to the sire. A
great deal of rubbish has been written and spoken about
hereditary diseases in the horse, and an animal con-
sidered sound by one veterinary surgeon may be rejected
as unsound by another, therefore it is quite easy to
perpetuate many fallacious notions. The great thing in
selecting a mare for brood purposes, in addition to the
feature already referred to earlier on in this chapter, is
that of possessing good conformation and good action.

THE CARE OF MARE AND FOAL 6i

without which quahfications it is quite unHkely any
really good foals will be produced. The foahng season
extends from, or approximately so, February to the end
of May or early in June, but the best months for foals to
be born are March and April, so that when the grass is
just beginning to spring the mare will be able to take full
advantage of the succulent herbage, and the foal have the
opportunity of outdoor exercise, pure air, and rapid
growth. It is customary to fix the date of thoroughbred
horses from January ist, and all other horses from May
1st. The period of gestation, or the time which a mare
carries her foal, is eleven months, or within a week of this
period. Sometimes a mare will foal a few days before or
after the specified time. It is of very little importance,
under these circumstances. With some mares it is not
an easy matter to ascertain whether they are "in-foal "
or otherwise, and the only satisfactory manner of doing
this is to make a manual examination. Towards the
later phases of gestation, say the eighth or ninth month,
the abdominal dimensions increase until within a week
or so before foaling ; the udder enlarges and the teats
begin to wax, followed by milk secretion in the gland.
A mare may come into milk without being in foal, but
the supply soon passes aw^ay. Every " in-foal " mare
should be kept in a loose box for several weeks prior to
the time she is expected to foal, so that she may become
accustomed to her surroundings. Never take any risks
by tying a mare up in the stable within a couple of months
of her tim^e for foaling, the writer having seen some nasty
accidents arising from having done this. Another
" don't " is never leave a mare out at pasture at or about
foaling time. Seclusion is necessary when a mare is in
labour, and the less she is disturbed the better. If all is
going on well the foal will be delivered without any
assistance, and during dehvery the mare may be either
standing up or lying down. It makes no difference. In
every instance the birth of the foal is immediately

62 THE HORSE

preceded by the appearance of the water bladder extern-
ally, and the rupture of this should immediately be
followed by the presentation of the foal in its normal
position, viz. both fore limbs \Yith the head lying between
and the muzzle directed forwards. Deviations from
normal presentations are quite common, and when they
do occur it is absolutely essential to send for professional
assistance as speedily as possible. Delay in doing so may
mean the loss of a foal and complicate matters, whilst
interference by the uninitiated will probably lead to the
death of the mare. The author cannot too strongly
emphasise the importance of having professional assist-
ance. The owner should never allow anyone to interfere
with the mare when in this condition. The country is
overrun with empirical humbugs, i.e. unquahfied men,
who are wholly unfitted, except in imagination only, to
perform the duties of a duly qualified practitioner. If
the public would only make themselves acquainted with
a man's qualifications before employing him the general
community and the Hve stock of the country would be a
thousand-fold better off. The author has a thorough
detestation for those individuals who profess knowledge
without possessing it. It is a rank form of charlatanism
and should be dealt with in the manner it deserves.
This, however, is merely digression from the subject now
under consideration. Directly the foal is bom the cord
should be tied about two inches from the body of the foal
— a piece of sterilised catgut or twine can be used. A
double ligature about one and a half inches apart on the
cord is the best method of application, and then the cord
severed between the ligatures. (See " Specific Diseases, re
Septic Arthritis in the Foal.") The foal rapidly gains
strength after it is bom and may begin to suck right
away, but a little assistance from the attendant will
generally help the matter a good deal. Some foals^are
very stupid and are several days old before they make
any real headway in sucking. In cases of this kind the

THE CARE OF MARE AND FOAL 63

foal can be artificially fed on cow's milk or some other
substitute. A well-nourished foal should almost be seen
growing and its strength increasing from hour to hour.
The mare should be liberally fed, certainly not less than
four times per day, on corn, linseed cake, scalded bran
and oats, hay, and green food when obtainable, A strong
foal is a great drain upon the economy of the mare,
consequently the more generously she is fed the better
the growth of the foal. During fine weather it is an
excellent plan to turn both the mare and the foal out at
pasture, but grass alone is insufficient for the mare during
the first three months after the foal is bom. Sometimes
mares " pick their foals," i.e. the foal is bom prematurely,
say any time after six months. If before this period it
constitutes abortion, and there is an infectious form of
abortion liable to affect mares in a simihar manner to
that trouble amongst dairy cattle. In either case a mare
may or may not part with the " cleansing," but this is a
matter demanding urgent professional skill, and this fact
should never be overlooked, otherwise the owner may
have cause to regret it.

As already stated, when the weather is suitable both
mare and foal should be allowed out in the paddock. A
mare will, during June, July, and August, get three parts
of her own living at pasture, and she ought to give a
superabundance of good milk for nourishing the foal
during the months named. There are plenty of owners
who give their mares no corn at all when they are out
grazing, but it will be found much more satisfactory for
both mare and foal, and to the proprietor, to allow the
mare 8 lb. of oats per day and i lb. of beans in addition.
As soon as the foal is two or three months old it will
begin to nibble at the grass, and by September-October
the foal should be allowed a small quantity of crushed
oats every day. A foal should be weaned when it is six
months old, after which period the milk supply usually
decreases, and if the foal continues sucking it has a strong

64 THE HORSE

tendency to weaken the dam. Excepting when the
nights are very warm towards the latter end of June and
throughout July, both mare and foal are better housed
at night. All brood mares should be bred from regularly,
and not have one foal and then miss a couple of seasons, as
this tends towards sterility.

Septic Laminitis

This disease consists of an inflammation or congestion
of the blood vessels and sensitive laminae of both fore,
both hind, or all four feet, and it is the result of septic
infection, arising from the uterus, the result of septic
material such as a portion of cleansing or the whole of
that structure being allowed to remain in the uterus until
it has undergone decomposition. This is very liable to
happen after a mare has " picked her foal," as the cleans-
ing is commonly retained, or some portion of it. Many
a valuable mare has been lost for the want of proper
attention at this particular time. It is impossible to
leave a mare in the same disgusting condition which the
writer and others doubtless have also seen after a cow
has calved. Septic laminitis is an extremely painful and
malignant disease, usually leaving the feet with drop
soles as a sequel, and sometimes necessitating the destruc-
tion of the animal, as not only being the most merciful,
but also the most economical. Prevention is, as we all
know, better than cure, and septic laminitis is one of those
diseases which, by the exercise of ordinary care, can be
prevented.

CHAPTER VII

THE SADDLE HORSE OR RIDER

The word " hack " as opposed to " hackney " is apphed
to the saddle horse, and it may be worth while to repeat
the maxim that " a hack is a horse to ride, but a hackney
one that should not be ridden/' This is a very trite
maxim and implies a good deal more than it expresses.
The conformation and action of the hack should be
diametrically opposed to that of the hackney, though
quite a number of hackneys have been, and still are, sold
for hacking purposes. This, however, does not alter the
truth of the previous remarks.

Every saddle horse should have good manners, a light
mouth, a good temper, and be familiar with all road
nusiances, such as tractors, motors, etc. etc. Horses
that are troublesome on the road or in traffic are a nuisance
and sometimes dangerous. Vice often becomes active
when the surroundings are most unsuitable for the rider,
and many very nasty accidents have arisen in this
manner. If one can purchase manners — which can
sometimes be done — it is, in the author's opinion, far
more important than absolute soundness. This is
particularly necessary in the case of those who like myself
are of nervous temperament. Some horses — certainly the
exception rather than the rule — have very sweet tempers,
wiU pass anything on the road, and, having good manners,
it follows that a light mouth must be a complement. It
is quite a difficult matter to buy a really good hack with
manners, mouth, action, and pace. The majority dis-
close some fault — venial in some cases, rotten in others.
E 65

66 THE HORSE

Naturally what may appeal to one man is thoroughly
disliked by another one. The " Jack My t ton " type of
rider likes one of the " Hell-for-Leather Brigade," but it
is just as well that members of that fraternity are not too
prevalent.

As a saddle horse the British-bred animal has no equal,
no matter v/hether it be a pony 9 or 10 hands, or a horse
16 hands or over. The height of a hack must correspond
to the height of the rider. For instance, a man whose
height is say five feet seven inches will look much better
upon a horse 15 hands than he would upon one over
16 hands. This is a fact that should never be lost sight
of when contemplating buying a horse of this class. Sex
is unimportant, but a gelding is to be preferred when
obtainable, although this must not be allowed to stand
in the way if the animal is suitable in other respects.
Som.etimes mares are a bit of a nuisance in summer.
The best age is six or seven years old, but some prefer to
buy at four or five years. A well-seasoned hack must be
seven or eight years, and if it has been taken proper care
of, used but not abused in its youth, it should be good
for service during the next ten years — sometimes more,
sometimes less. As to colour, the author certainly
prefers bay, followed by chestnut (golden), hver ditto,
brown, grey, black, and lastly dun to nearly chestnut,
roan (red or blue). Piebalds and Skewbalds look better
in a circus ring than on the road. Mouth most important.
A hard mouth and the animal that " bores " is very
objectionable. A saddle horse for a boy of twelve to
fifteen years should be well broken and good tempered,
and not less than five or six years old. A thoroughbred
pony, say 15 hands, will suit some boys. Hacks suitable
for children can be bought as Shetland ponies, Welsh,
Exmoor and Highland ponies, but one must take particu-
lar care to ascertain that a pony required for this purpose
is free from any form of vice. High action, i.e. action
coming from the knees or hocks is not a desirable feature

THE SADDLE HORSE OR RIDER 67

in a saddle horse, but good shoulder action is indispens-
able. The ribs must not be too much bent, in fact a
shghtly flat side is the best type. It is quite impossible
to get to know what sort of a rider any particular horse
will make without trying the animal thoroughly. Some
very plain horses make superb animals for this purpose,
and some showy ones quite the reverse — a plain or even
ugly-looking animal. Quite a large proportion of hacks
are bought at the horse repositories in various parts of
the country, and many of these animals are either
warranted sound in a general sense or carry with them a
specific warranty, such as sound in wind and eyes. The
last named is quite valueless, so far as warranty is con-
cerned. Apart from soundness in the regions named a
horse may have a hundred and one defects, any of which
ma}^ render it " something more than a white elephant '*
to the purchaser. Defects of wind — roaring and broken
wind— defects of eyesight — opacity of the cornea and
catarrh, etc., as well as bone-spavin, ring-bone, splints
(badly placed), chronic sprains and bursal swelling along
with abnormal or diseased feet and vice should all debar
one, if present, from buying a horse for saddle purposes.
To be correct, the knees should be broad, the pasterns of
moderate slope, the legs clean and well placed in relation-
ship to the body, a well-moulded head and a strong back
and loins plus nice quarters, with every sign of animation
throughout are some of the chief essentials of beauty.

Prices of hacks vary considerably, but range some-
where between 15 guineas (ponies for children) and
several hundred guineas. A good all-round hack should be
bought for 70 or 80 guineas, and a boy's hack for 35 or
40 guineas, and occasionally a trifle less.

The Hackney or Harness Horse

The Hackney, or Roadster, is a very useful type of
horse, and one that, prior to the advent of the motor-car,

68 THE HORSE

was greatly sought after by those who wished to keep
either a single horse for trapping purposes or an animal
to run in double harness. Some wonderful specimens of
the breed have been produced and still are being pro-
duced, but it is a variety which can hardly be expected to
keep abreast of the times when the motor-car is making
such rapid advances all the world over. There are really
two distinct types of hackneys, viz. the Yorkshire
hackney and the one derived from the Norfolk trotter,
which for convenience ma^^ be designated the Norfolk
type of hackney. Strictly speaking, the Yorkshire type
is more alhed to the coach horse and a slightly larger
animal than the original type of hackney. Irrespective
of type the general opnion is that the hackney has been
a manufactured article and owes its origin to an Arab
horse brought into this country from Aleppo about 1706,
and the imported animal was introduced into Great
Britain by a Yorkshire gentleman — a Mr. Darley. The
Arab referred to is usually spoken of as the " Darley
Arabian." A thoroughbred horse, known as *' EcHpse,"
was foaled in 1764, which was a great grandson of Mr.
Darley's imported horse. During the year 1715 a chestnut
horse, with a white muzzle and four white stockings,
known as " Fljang Childers,'' and called after its breeder,
Mr. Childers, was foaled. The sire of this horse was the
'* Darley Arabian," and the dam, " Betty Leeds."
" Ftying Childers " was said to be of compact form, long
in the back and loins, and his height about 15 hands.
Like " Echpse " he is accredited with being a fast horse.
He was the sire of " Blaze " which was foaled in 1733,
and this horse subsequently travelled in Norfolk, where
he established the foundation stone of the hackney, then
known under the title of " Norfolk Trotter." " Blaze "
in his turn was the sire of a horse called " Shales," which
was foaled in 1755. There were several horses bearing
this name. " Blaze " was also the grandsire of " Driver,"
a horse which was foaled somewhere about 1765. This

THE HACKNEY OR HARNESS HORSE 69

was followed by the " Fireaway " family belonging to
Jenkinson, West, and Burgess. Jenkinson's " Fire-
away " was foaled in 1780, and West's " Fireaway " in
1800. The last-named was the sire of Burgess' " Fire-
away " foaled in 18 15, which in turn was the sire of a
horse called " Wildfire," foaled in 1827. Later on we
find the names of " Phenomenon/' the sire of " Per-
former," and " Performer " begat " Sir Charles " (1843).
" Sir Charles " was the sire of " Denmark," and the latter
the sire of Sir Walter Gilbey's " Danegelt," foaled in 1879.
This horse had a brilliant show and stud career, and a
considerable number of the best hackneys have the blood
of this horse in their veins. The foregoing is a brief
survey as to how the hackney was moulded, so far as
descent on the male side is concerned. The mares
indigenous to the county of Norfolk were employed for
mating to the aforesaid sires. According to authentic
information, these animals were well built, being of
compact type, durable, fast, but did not possess the
extravagant action which many of the modern hackneys
possess. The obvious deduction is that the right material
was present on the side of the miares, and that all that
was required for estabhshing the hackney was the use of
impressive sires — a condition which was duly fulfilled.
Almost anyone can recognise a hackney at a glance,
either as a 15 or 16 hands horse or as a pony between
12 and 14 hands. The compact form, the remarkable
knee and hock action, the clean limbs, the thin skin, and
the general ensemble are unmistakable signs of this
useful type of horse. As a roadster the breed has certainly
no superior and very few equals. Its manners are
usually very good, both in and out of harness, whilst for
durability, courage, and speed the breed leaves nothing
to be desired. We must not forget to mention the splendid
work done by the Hackney Horse Society, and the un-
tiring energy displayed on behalf of the breed by their
Secretary, Mr. Frank Euran. It is of interest to note

70 THE HORSE

that the Society has overcome the prohibition as formu-
lated by the Department of Agriculture in the United
States (1918), forbidding the importation on and after
January ist last of all horses except pure-bred ones, for
breeding purposes and racing, from Great Britain.
The Hackney Horse Society sent a special representative
over to the States, and the order has now been rescinded,
excepting that relating to horses from continental
Europe, which is still to remain in force. The prices of
hackneys vary according to age, sex, pedigree, etc., but
a very good horse of this class can be bought for 80 or 90
guineas, and a useful stamp of hackney pony should be
obtained, as a sound animal, for 60 guineas. The hackney
cob, when in harness, makes about as smart a turn-out
as it is possible to conceive, and if anyone prefers a horse
in single harness to that of a small car, the hackney is
the sort to buy.

The Cleveland Bay

This is a very handsome variety of horse of the coach
horse type, in the manufacture of w^hich breed the Cleve-
land Bay must have played a significant part. The Vale
of Cleveland, in Yorkshire, more especially around
Wliitby and Pickering, is the land of its nativity, and
some of the best specimens come from that district.
Somehow or another the Cleveland Bay has never
attained any particular degree of popularity, but the
reason of this is not very clear unless it be due to the
decline of coaching. It certainly deserves to occupy a
much bettei position than it has ever attained, as the
conformation is usually of the best. The typical colour
is either light or dark bay, with black legs. There is
usually a star on the forehead, but no white elsewhere,
unless sometimes in the hollow of the heel, the existence
of which breeders regard as a sign that some other blood
has been introduced into the breed. Most of these horses
have exceptionally good legs and feet, the limbs being

THE CLEVELAND BAY AND VAN HORSE 71

clean and the joints of the best. About a hundred years
ago three noted f amihes of Cleveland Bay horses are said
to have existed, viz. the ** Dart," the " Barley Harvest
Horse," and the " Hoghill Horse." The two last-named,
it is said, were foaled just before the end of the eighteenth
century, and these famiUes are usually regarded as the
foundation stone of the modern Cleveland. A Cleveland
Bay contains a good deal of thoroughbred blood in it,
and it resembles the race-horse in its configuration,
although it is a much heavier type of animal. In every
feature it re-echoes the true type of a coach horse, and
this is one reason why the demand for the breed is com-
paratively small. It is very questionable, so far as Great
Britain is concerned, whether the Cleveland Bay will ever
occupy a prominent position. In some of the Colonies
the breed has been introduced, and we believe with
satisfactory results. As regards soundness and durability,
everything is in favour of it.

The Light Van and the Tradesman's Horse

Very few words are necessary when speaking of the
light van horse and one suitable for the Hghter work of
the tradesman. As a rule a nondescript type of horse
fills the gap, it being exceptional, certainly not the rule,
to find a settled type of horse running in harness and
doing the work of the small trader. Cobs and ponies,
without any qualification beyond the possession of four
limbs and an animated body, very often represent the
type of horse now under consideration. One can hardly
expect the average tradesman to possess very much
knowledge of horse-flesh, and what little is possessed is
often more misleading than helpful. Improper treatment
and careless handling interlinked with a certain amount
of ignorance are mainly responsible for the indifferent
class of horse one so frequently sees doing their jobs in
town and country. There is no reason why the tradesman

72 THE HORSE

should not possess a well-groomed horse, a horse that is
well harnessed and looks well in harness, and one that is
able to give a fair day's return for a fair day's keep.
The author would like to see the small trader with a
totally different class of horse from those which the
majority of them now possess. The type of horse should
be a bantamised form of the Suffolk, and animals of this
type can, by judicious selection, be bred, and the correct
way to breed them will be through using a stoutly built
Highland pony sire and a Galloway mare. The small
trader requires a horse that can trot with anything up to
4 or 5 cwt. without showing undue effects of fatigue.

The reader will ask what about the soundness of the
tradesman's horse. If the animal is practically sound it
is not necessary to worry about anything else. Eyesight
and wind must be right ; the feet must be good ; the
limbs must be clean, and the joints strong and supple.
When buying a horse of this class, flex the knee joints,
the fetlock joints, and both hock joints, and if there is
any stiffness, don't purchase. Another trouble to avoid
is a navicular disease either in one or both fore feet. A
horse affected with this has generally a short, catty step,
goes groggy, and in horsey vernacular it is called a
" grog." Plenty of tradesmen's horses are sold with this
trouble, which is always progressive and incurable.
Further evidence is afforded by lameness when the
animal comes out of stable, but this usually passes
off with exercise. (See " Navicular Disease in connec-
tion with the Foot and its Diseases.") A tradesman,
when contemplating buying a horse, should never
purchase without having the animal examined by a
qualified veterinary surgeon, and the fee for such examina-
tion ranges from half to one guinea. Many a foolish
speculator might have saved himself pounds, to say
nothing of the annoyance, had he followed the advice
which the author now tenders, and which the tradesman
would do well to adopt when buying a horse.

HUNTER : TWO YEAR OLD FILLY

Pfmtos bv Piirsnns

POLO PONY

To face page 72

THE HUNTER 73

The Hunter

In the modern type of hunter, the blood horse, or
thoroughbred sire, is largely responsible for its production,
and the Hunters Improvement Society has paved the
way for the production of hunters to meet the require-
ments of those in search of these animals. All sorts and
conditions of hunters are found in stables, at horse
repositories, at fairs, at markets, and in the stables of
dealers, where they are offered for sale, bought, and not
infrequently returned to their vendor. It is reasonable
to assume that more hunters are sold at Messrs. Tatter-
sail's Horse Repository in London than in any other
sale yard in the kingdom. Some very high-class animals
are exposed for sale, and, as in every other horse repository,
the converse sometimes applies, in spite of the stringency
of the auctioneer's regulations. It is customary to
speak of a horse as " the hunter born," and the " hunter
made," both of which terms are sufficiently expressive.
It is impossible to pay too much attention, in the matter
of soundness, when about to purchase a hunter. To
judge distance a hunter's eyesight must be perfect. To
go the pace, it must have a sound heart, sound lungs, and
a sound breathing apparatus, from the top notch to the
last air space in the lungs. It must be sound in its joints
and sound in tendons, ligaments, and above all be free
from stiffness. Moreover, it must possess two very
essential features, viz. great freedom of shoulder move-
ment and free flexion of the hocks. If it is wanting in the
two last-named it never will jump clear. Condition is also
of vital importance. The muscles must be hard. To
ascertain whether the latter is present or not run the
hand along the upper border of the neck, which should
feel like a cord ; in fact, it should be as hard as iron.
Condition is seldom bought. It has to be made, and the
new owner may have to make it. If the animal is required
for immediate use this cannot be done at the beginning

74 THE HORSE

of the season. It is work that should commence m August
or September and be carried right on until November,
when the animal's work and the owner's sport may be
expected to commence. Purchase from a private source,
when reasonable facility is given for trial, can be recom-
mended. A week or two's trial is not at all an unreason-
able request, provided that the vendor is satisfied that
the animal is placed in capable hands. When a horse is
on trial, under these conditions, it rests with the intending
purchaser to take all reasonable care of the animal, other-
wise he becomes responsible in damages to the proprietor
should anything go wrong. Nothing but a trial can give
complete satisfaction, yet plenty of buyers have to take
their chances as to how the animal will turn out. Un-
made hunters are bought at three and four years old,
particularly at some of the principal fairs in Ireland.
Horses which have been regularly hunting for several
seasons, say four or five, are usually abou/^ ten years old
when offered for sale, and this is the class of animal which
frequently comes up for auction, and also for sale by
private treaty. We should not recommend the purchase
of an animal required for use as a hunter after twelve to
fifteen years old, although it must not be assumed that a
horse is no use for this purpose after the age specified, as
there are plenty of hunters doing good work when they
have reached a score of years or even more. Space forbids
us to enter into details concerning hunters, but we have
endeavoured to indicate one or two matters which may
be of some interest to the reader. In conclusion, we may
say that no hunter should do any real work before it is
five years off, otherwise it will be prematurely damaged,

Ponies

The various breeds of ponies comprise the Shetland,
Welsh, Exmoor, New Forest, Irish, Highland, Fell, and
Moorland ponies. Thoroughbred and Hackney ponies.

PONIES 75

Russian, Iceland, and Basuto ponies. All these various
types of ponies possess certain distinctive features, more
conspicuous in some than in others. The thoroughbred
or blood pony is, so far as make and shape are concerned,
the lightest built animal amongst the whole of the ponies,
and next on the list comes the hackney pony, which has,
of course, descended from the thoroughbred. The breed
first named is a saddle horse pure and simple, consequently
we find that it is usually advertised and sold as a boy's
hunter. It is practically a replica of its larger prototype,
the thoroughbred, and really represents the blood horse.
The hackney pony is essentially one employed for
harness purposes, and if the reader will trouble to refer
to our description of the hackney he wiU find this pony
therein referred to. The Arab pony is closely allied to
the thoroughbred and possesses great staying power. It
is an extremely handsome animal and commonly bright
bay or grey in colour. It makes an excellent saddle pony
and has been used both as a sire and for play in polo. All
the hill ponies are very hardy, and very sure-footed.
They are willing workers when properly broken, and
capable of a large amount of endurance. In action,
pace, and manners they vary considerably, some being
much better than others, and not a few useless for
any purpose, unless it be for removing the herbage from
some barren mountain-side. The Shetland ponies are
hardy little creatures, very suitable for children, either
for saddle or harness, and being small they are inexpensive
to keep and inexpensive to purchase. We have seen
them sold for as little as £4 apiece, but a good Shetland
pony can be bought almost anywhere for £12 or £15, at
which price it should have good manners, be five or six
years old, and thoroughly broken. Soundness in these
ponies is a mere matter of detail. The Welsh ponies are
most excellent animals, and being a little larger than the
breed last named, are really more useful for work in a
small governess car. Some of them can get over the

76 THE HORSE

ground, but of course do not, as a rule, possess the turn of
speed like the thoroughbred or the hackney. Ponies
are very handy animals, and can be kept where it would
be impossible to keep a large horse. They are easily
looked after, not costly to keep, and always a source of
pleasure to their owners. The writer is particularly fond
of them, and this, irrespective of age, sex, or breed. The
colours to be preferred are bay, brown, chestnut, and grey,
but like a good horse, a good pony may be any colour.
If an unbroken pony is purchased care must be taken to
have it properly broken, otherwise it will acquire all sorts
of objectionable habits, such as shying at trifling objects
on the road, kicking, etc. It is much more ready to adopt
vice than virtue, and whilst the former is so easily acquired
it is less easily eradicated. Anything up to 14-3 hands
may be classified as a pony. Prices range from £10 or
£12 up to several hundreds of guineas, according to
quality, but from £iS to £25 may be accepted as a fair
average for the ordinary type of pon}^

1^^

■id

HACKNEY STALLION

Photos bv Parson

SHETLAND PONY

To face pa^e yy

CHAPTER VIII

BUYING A LIGHT HORSE AND WHAT TO AVOID IN
SELECTING THE SAME

In the selection of a light horse, i.e. one required for work
in single or double harness, a good deal of judgment is
necessary, as this class of horse is much more liable to be
afflicted with diseases in connection with the tendons and
joints than in the case of the heavy draught horse. The
roadster or harness horse, the hunter, the trotter, and
the light van horse are all placed in this category for
selection, but the reader is referred to the chapters on
the various breeds for further information respecting
these. It is a much more difficult matter to obtain a
well-matched pair of horses than a single, and the prices
are generally considerably more. There is not, however,
the same demand now as formerly for pairs of carriage
horses, or even for harness horses of any kind, the motor
having largely supplanted the use of these animals.
Still, it is quite a reasonable assumption that horses will
always be employed both for business and pleasurable
occupations, though possibly it will diminish in extent.

To begin with, there are various channels through
which purchase can be made, but the dealer, the horse
repository, and the private vendor are the usual sources.
Whenever possible purchase from the breeder is desirable,
but buying in this direct manner is seldom feasible. The
horse dealer has, unfortunately, through the motor had
to abandon his business in quite a number of instances,
consequently, there are fewer dealers of repute than
formerly. The horse dealer with a good reputation can

77

7^ THE HORSE

usually be relied upon to provide the intending purchaser
with an animal suitable for his requirements, provided
that sufficient time be allowed and an adequate price
paid for the animal. Moreover, nearly every dealer will
allow a week or ten days' trial, so that the buyer has
every opportunity afforded him of judging as to the good
and bad points of the animal. In the meantime its
soundness or otherwise can be ascertained by submitting
it to examination by a qualified and experienced veterin-
ary surgeon. The writer emphasises the word " experi-
enced " because examination of horses and the relation-
ship to soundness can only be acquired after many years
of experience. Another word of advice whilst discussing
this matter is that of having every animal, prior to
purchase, professionally examined, as the modest fee
exacted by a veterinary surgeon may be the means of
saving many pounds, to say nothing of the trouble and
annoyance at some future date. In every instance it
is advisable, when purchasing from a source available
for the purpose, for the intending buyer to try the
animal as to its suitability for his requirements : at the
same time, the possibility — in the event of such existing —
of vice or some objectionable habit or habits may be
revealed. The percentage of horses which are sound,
more especially the ordinary roadster and draught horses,
is, from a legal standpoint, very small, whereas, from a
practical point of view, 75 per cent of horses are sound.
There would be very few horses at work if this were
not so, the mere fact of a horse being legally sound is no
criterion as to its utility, in fact, it may even be the
reverse. When a horse is classed as " practically " sound
the natural inference is, that the animal is capable of
performing all the duties required of it, and likely to be
required, at the present time, or at any subsequent
period within a reasonable hmit, as to age, etc. All
horses purchased at horse repositories are sold subject
to the conditions of the sale regulations, and if a horse is

BUYING A LIGHT HORSE 79

bought and afterwards found not to comply with the
catalogue description, it can and should be immediately
returned, along with the veterinary certificate, to the
auctioneers, within the prescribed period. Any mis-
representation should be treated upon these lines, but
nothing can be done after the time stipulated by the
auctioneers has expired.

Throughout London and the provinces there are numer-
ous horse repositories, and a considerable amount of
traffic in horse-flesh takes place through these channels.
All classes of horses are obtainable in this manner, but
a great deal of circumspection is necessary, otherwise the
buyer mxay become possessed of a highly undesirable
animal — as useless to the buyer as it was to the seller.

Apart from purchase from the repository, the horse
fairs in various parts of the country afford a ready means
for the bartering of horses. Many excellent animals are
bought at fairs, and with equal truth it may be said that
so are many useless ones. The number of horses offered
for sale at horse fairs within recent years has declined,
and in the future there is every probability of a further
reduction, owing to the continued progress of motor
traction. The horse fair of the future will never, so far
as quality and number of animals is concerned, reach
those of the past, no matter how optimistic one may
be as to the future v/elfare of the horse. At some of
the principal horse fairs in Ireland the highest class of
animal is bought and sold. A list of these fairs can be
obtained by reference to any of the live-stock annuals, a
remark which is equally applicable to the horse fairs and
markets periodically held throughout England and Wales.

For the purchase of Welsh ponies, the Welsh horse
fairs afford undeniable opportunities, and anyone con-
templating purchase of these will do well to pay a visit to
these fairs. In the latter case, the animals are usually
unbroken, coming into the market in droves. The
facilities for examination at the horse fairs are, of course,

8o THE HORSE

only poor, and the buyer has to rely exclusively on his
own discrimination, there being no redress in the event
of an unfortunate purchase.

Buying a horse from a private source is not always
commendable, as many useless animals are sold in this
manner, the only advantage being that the buyer may
possibly get a general warranty of soundness, or else be
given every facility for the examination of the animal.
Unless for very special reasons, owners are not willing to
part with reliable animals, as these are not easily replaced.
Horses are commonly advertised for sale in daily papers,
and the wording of the advertisements is sometimes more
interesting than the animal, when the intending purchaser
views it. It is very necessary for buyers to pay particular
attention to the wording of advertisements, no matter
whether in catalogue or in a newspaper, because these are
often guardedly worded so as to deceive the unwary
buyer. As previously stated, whenever and wherever
there is an opportunity a hght horse should always be
tried either in saddle or in harness, both in and out of
traihc. When pairs of harness horses are offered for sale
it is common knowledge that, whilst one of them may be
a very good animal, the other is frequently bad or
indifferent. Take particular notice of their ages, sex,
colour, markings, and general conformation throughout.
Action, manners and mouth are to be specially noted.
Uniformity of action greatly enhances the value in a pair
of horses, whilst a good mouth and good manners are
equally essential. If one horse has a tender mouth and
the other is hard in the mouth it is impossible to have
harmony of action. It is upon such harmony that the
beauty of a pair of horses depends. It is impossible to
pay too much attention, in both saddle and harness horses,
to mouth, manners, temperament and action, all of which
features are far more important to a buyer than absolute
regard for soundness, but unfortunately these are too
often overlooked. The number of vicious horses intro-

BUYING A LIGHT HORSE 8i

duced into the British Army through the agency of
inexperienced buyers during the recent war was consider-
able, but nevertheless, very regrettable, as animals other-
wise excellent had to be destroyed as they were useless
for either military or any other purpose.

Vicious horses are sometimes, before sale, heavily
doped, and when the effects of the dope have passed off
the vice is revealed in all its severity. Animals treated
in this manner are difficult to discover, but sometimes
reveal it by their stupidity of manner. Latent vice, i.e.
vice which remains dormant for a time and then
recurs is one of the most objectionable features that a
horse can possess, though it is by no means infrequent.
It is comparable to latent or occult disease, and either
may prove equally disastrous. If buyinig from a private
source it is a wise expedient for the buyer to obtain a
general warranty of soundness and freedom from vice, in
order to enforce liability should the exigences of circum-
stances require it.

Light horses may possess many defects, but soundness
of eyesight and wind are particularly necessary. Roaring,
broken wind, cataract, opacity of the cornea and total
blindness, interfere with or destroy the commercial value
and usefulness of the animal

There are several common diseases affecting the fore
and hind limbs, the chief of these being splint in the fore-
hmbs, also ring-bone, and in the hind limbs, bone-spavin,
whilst drop sole and navicular disease are frequently
met with in the fore limbs.

If a horse is five years old, free from lameness, and the
splint in a good position, the animal may be regarded as
practically sound. On the other hand, a horse under or
about four years of age, having splint, can hardly be re-
garded as sound, there being greater liability to develop

ameness.

For description of the other troubles alluded to the
reader is referred to the chapter dealing with these.

CHAPTER IX

THE AGE OF THE HORSE AS INDICATED BY THE
TEETH, ETC.

It is very necessary that every one interested in horses,
either for pleasurable or for business purposes should
possess a knowledge of the method adopted by experts for
ascertaining the age of any particular animal. It is not,
as a rule, a difficult matter to know, say, a colt from an
old horse, by mere casual inspection, but it is quite a
different matter to distinguish a horse five or six years
old from one of ten or twelve without referring to the
teeth. The latter affords the only reliable method of
recognising these differences, but this can only be done
by noting the appreciable changes which take place on
the cutting surfaces of the incisor teeth.

Apart from the teeth, horses do display certain indica-
tions when they become old, and by an old horse we mean
an animal ranging from sixteen to thirty years, or even a
few years beyond the latter age. A great deal does,
however, depend upon the treatment or rather the care
bestowed upon the animal in relation to the last-named.
Quite a number of horses are, through their indiscriminate
employment, prematurely worn out, consequently it
is not a difficult matter to note the physical changes thus
brought about. On the other hand, the writer has seen
quite a number of horses, approximately thirty years of
age, which show little obvious signs of wear, simply
because the owners have bestowed infinite care upon
their charges. It must be accepted that horses working
in towns wear out more quickly than those working on

82

THE AGE OF THE HORSE 83

the land, whilst lameness is much more frequent in the
forhier animals.

The physical signs of old age are chiefly denoted by
hollowness in the back and hollows above the eyes, puffy
swelling about the joints (the so-called wind-galls),
thickening of the tendons, enlargement about the pasterns,
along with a wasting of the muscles covering the quarters
and buttocks, the mark in the latter situation often being
very pronounced. It is sometimes spoken of as the
" poverty mark," though it m^ay be present in horses
which are by no means old. It is customary to speak of
a horse as being *' aged " after it is eight years old.

In connection with the dentition of the horse the words
'' rising " and ** off " are commonly employed, and imply
that the animal is within six months of its conventional
birthday, or the converse, when the word " off " is used,
meaning that it has passed its birthday by three to six
months. Thus, for instance, a horse at three years plus
three to six months is three years "off"; when about
three years nine months it is usual to speak of the animal as
* ' rising ' ' four. Nominally, thoroughbred horses have their
birthday dating from January ist, whereas harness and
heavy draught horses date from May ist. As previously
stated, the teeth referred to for ageing a horse are the
incisors, the molars being of secondary importance for
this purpose. All horses have two kinds of teeth, viz.
temporary or sucking teeth and those which subsequently
replace these — the permanent teeth. The temporary
teeth consist of 12 incisors, viz. 6 above and 6 below, and
12 molars, 3 in each jaw ; so that the temporary teeth
number 24, whereas the permanent ones are either 36
or 40. In the mare they are 36 and in the male 40. In
exceptional instances mares have rudimentary tusks,
therefore the female may have 40 teeth. The temporary
teeth are different from the permanent ones, being smaller,
whiter, and without a well-marked vertical groove on
their faces. It is expedient for the amateur to make

84 THE HORSE

himself thoroughly acquainted with the difference between
temporary and permanent incisors. There need be no
difficulty about this if visits can be paid to the horse
slaughterers, as specimens of the incisor teeth in the lower
jaw can usually be obtained from the carcases at different
times ; in fact, most horse slaughterers will, if asked,
reserve specimens for anyone wanting these. Mouths
showing the teeth at various ages can thus be obtained
for comparison. The molar teeth are, of course, not
required. An incisor tooth corflprises the following parts,
the nominal differentiation of which is essential in order
to understand the changes which take place in the teeth :
That part of the tooth which projects above the gum is
called the crown, below which is the neck of the tooth,
this being encircled by the gum. The fang fixes the tooth
in the socket and is covered by a cement substance. The
face of the crown is covered by enamel. The cutting edge
of the tooth is known as the table, and it is by the changes
through wear which take place on the table that we are
enabled to form a fairly accurate estimate of any particu-
lar animal's age, exceeded only b}^ absolute proof of date
of birth. To begin with, an incisor tooth is elongated, or
rather, elliptical on its cutting edge. The table is en-
circled by enamel, which forms the outer boundary of the
tooth. This is the " outer enamel ring.'' As the table
forms there is another enamel ring, and this is spoken of as
the " inner enamel ring," which encircles a central
" mark " or depression, known as the " infundibulum " —
a dark mark arising through particles of dirt insinuating
themselves into the small depression previousl}^ referred
to.

By horse dealers this mark is called the "bean." As
the wear of the tooth proceeds the table alters in shape,
and so does the inner enam.el ring, until the latter and the
'' mark " are finally obliterated, as happens in old age.
An incisor tooth is mainly composed of a substance known
as dentine, and it is this which forms the bulk of the table.

THE AGE OF THE HORSE 85

The area between the front of the tooth and the inner
enamel ring is referred to as the anterior edge of the table,
whilst the corresponding area behind is the posterior
portion of it. These two areas are rather important,
mainly because they are so intimately associated with
wear in relation to age. It is customary to make use of
the lower incisors only as indicators of age, excepting
when the incisors of the lower and upper jaws are in close
apposition, and then it is only the corner teeth which are
of any value as a means of judging the age.

In a young animal, or at any rate, up to the age of
eight years, the gums are circular and the teeth practically
vertical. With advance in years, the incisors gradually
lose this position until they finally become, say in a
horse thirty to thirty-five years of age, almost hori-
zontal and greatly elongated. Long teeth may at all
times be accepted as positive evidence that the animal
is an old one, and the older it becomes the more the
gums recede and the more horizontally inclined the teeth
become.

Soon after birth a pair of incisor teeth appear in the
upper and lower jaws, and as these are in the centre of
the m.outh, they are spoken of as the " centrals." The
next pair are known as the " laterals " and these are
followed by the " corners," so that by the time the foal
is twelve months old it has a complete set of temporary
incisors. These teeth continue to serve the foal until it
has turned tv/o years old, after which time they are
replaced by the permanent incisors. The shedding of the
temporary teeth is carried out with a fair degree of regu-
larity and it is accompanied by redness of the gums and
subsequent absorption of the fangs of the teeth about to
be replaced. In exceptional instances the crown of the
permanent tooth becomes entangled in the fang of the
temporary one and in this manner some irregularity is
occasionally observable.

The incisor teeth are replaced exactly in the same order

86 THE HORSE

as the temporary ones made their appearance, viz. the
centrals, the laterals and the comers.

Shortly after two years — say, two years " ofi," the
central pair of incisors are replaced, therefore, the
presence of a pair of permanent central incisors indicates
that the animal is between two and three years old.
They are half-way up about two years and a half, and their
anterior edges are in wear by the time the colt is three
years old.

At three years " off " the laterals show signs of being
replaced, and about this time, or within three months, i.e.
from three years and three months to three years and six
months, these teeth are in the mouth and grow in exactly
the same manner as the centrals, hence fully developed
laterals indicate that the animal 'has reached its fourth
birthday, or thereabout. In other words, that it is a
" four-year-old."

The comer teeth are replaced soon after four years, at
four " off," and when fully developed indicate a "five-
year-old " mouth. At four years and a half they are just
about half-way up, but the anterior edges of the teeth do
not come into wear until the animal is five years old.

At five years the mouth has a very neat appearance,
the gums being very circular, whilst the centrals and the
laterals have their tables well in wear, and stand out in
marked contrast to the recently developed comer teeth.
A critical inspection of the tables will show these differ-
ences in detail. There should be no difficulty in recognis-
ing a five-year-old mouth at a glance. It is an important
matter for the amateur to be able to do this, because the
writer has frequently seen horses sold as five-year-olds
when really only four.

The presence of the lateral incisors is the best positive
evidence one can have (apart from proof of age by date of
birth) that the colt has passed its fourth birthday. No
further changes take place in the incisors excepting those
upon their wearing surfaces or tables, barring those

THE AGE OF THE HORSE 87

resulting through old age, viz. their increase in length,
and contraction of the gums. The amateur is likely to
experience the greatest difficulty in ascertaining whether a
horse is six, seven, eight, nine or ten years old. A great
number of buyers, especially for town work, prefer to
purchase a horse at six years old, and vendors usually
adjust their description according to the requirements of
the purchaser.

Quite a large proportion of horses are sold as seven-
year-olds, whereas they are often twelve or fourteen years
old, and quite commonly ten, and it is at the latter ages
horses begin, to a certain extent, not to increase in value,
but rather to decrease. The changes which take place in
the tables of the teeth have to be mainly relied upon, but
valuable evidence is afforded by looking at the upper and
lower corner incisors when the mouth is closed. At six
year " off " the upper corner incisor projects shghtly over
the front edge of the lower corner incisor, and this becomes
more marked at seven years " off." However, as pre-
viously stated, most reliance must be placed upon the
tables. If a horse is six years old the anterior edge of the
table of the lower corner incisors are well in wear, but
fully formed tables of the last-named certainly indicate
that the animal is in its seventh year. The " mark " at
seven years old is " elliptical " in the corner incisors, and
lies close to the hinder edge of the table. Moreover, at
seven years the tables of the central teeth are more trian-
gular, and still more so at eight. At the last-named age
the inner enamel ring is also triangular in the centrals
and laterals and has lost the elongated form which it had
at seven years. This inner enamel ring finally becomes
obliterated, in fact, is almost lost from ten years onwards,
and the same applies to the " mark." The incisor teeth
at these ages are much longer than they were at six, seven
and eight, and the only alterations which take place are as
previously stated.

Many years ago, Galvayne introduced a method of

88

THE HORSE

THE AGE OF THE HORSE

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90 THE HORSE

approximating age in horses by a reference to a groove
making its appearance in the upper corner incisors at the
base of the tooth, that is, at its junction with the gum. It
makes its appearance at ten years and is about half-way
down the tooth at fifteen and extends the whole length of
the tooth at twenty-one. By the time the animal is
twenty-five years of age this groove becomes effaced
next to the gum but extends from the middle of the tooth
down to the cutting edge, whilst at thirty years it is
situated very close to the cutting edge.

With regard to the molar teeth, the first, second, and
third molars in each jaw are only temporary, whilst the
fourth, fifth, and sixth are permanent. The first-named
three teeth occupy the front position in the jaws, but none
of these are replaced before the fourth molar has made its
appearance.

The reader will receive some assistance in the foregoing
description of the teeth b}^ reference to the accompanying
illustrations, but he should in every instance supplement
this by a practical appHcation of the knowledge thus
acquired, as nothing in connection with animal dentition
could possibly be truer than the old adage, *' An ounce of
practice is worth a pound of theory" — in other words,
" Knowledge increaseth practice and practice increaseth
knowledge."

CHAPTER X

VICE

It is impossible to frame any accurate definition as to what
does or does not constitute vice in the horse. It is a
question of degree and can only be appropriately regarded
in this light. Minor vices may not in any way interfere
with the animal's health or with its usefulness, whereas
in other cases a vicious habit may render the animal
perfectly useless. Some forms of vice are disclosed in
the stable, others out of it, either whilst in harness or when
being ridden. Some horses are so vicious as to render
them unapproachable, much less employable for any
useful purpose. In this last Great War, quite a number of
horses of this description were purchased but had to be
destroyed in consequence of their dangerous proclivities.
Doubtless a good deal of the vice is acquired as the result
of bad treatment, which horses are not slow in remembering.
Minor stable vices comprise pawing in the stable and
scraping the bedding to one side, eating the bedding,
kicking at the stall-post, tearing bandages and clothing,
biting whilst being groomed, etc. Wind-sucking, weaving
and crib-biting are usually regarded as vices when
discovered of sufficient importance for the rejection of the
animal on the ground of unsoundness. A wind-sucker
certainly is unsound, whilst a weaver never remains still
when in the stable. Continual movement of the head
from side to side wears out muscular energy in front of the
body, therefore this represents unsoundness. Horses
which are kickers in harness and very often given to
bolting as well are perfectly useless, owing to the fact

91

92 THE HORSE

that they may give way to this vice on the shghtest
provocation, and endanger the hves of those in the
vehicle. Latent vice may develop at any time as many
unfortunate purchases have proved. Some hunters will
kick at hounds when near to them, and this is certainly
a vice. Kicking at other horses in the stable and at
stable attendants, also biting, represent forms of vice
of the worst kind. Some horses are troublesome to shoe
and have to be placed under restraint before this can be
done. Forge vice of this nature sometimes leads to compli-
cations. There are many other objectionable habits in
horses, but we have given an outline of some of the common
ones.

CHAPTER XI

LAMENESS IN THE HORSE

Amongst all the troubles to which the horse is liable
perhaps none are more frequent than lameness, and the
percentage of horses which are rendered either temporar-
ily or permanently useless on this account is greater than
that from all other causes.

The horse, by virtue of the work it has to perform, may
be regarded as predisposed to injuries in connection with
its locomotor apparatus, such as sprains of tendons and
ligaments, injuries to joints, bruises to the feet and various
other causes of disability which render it, for the time
being, unworkable.

Lameness may be either acute or chronic, or rather,
we ought to say, the affection giving rise to the lameness
is of this nature ; the lameness being the result or expres-
sion of pain arising out of the affliction. As previously
stated, it may be temporary or permanent. In the latter
case quite a large percentage of horses are disposed of
for work on the land, etc., where they very often continue
to work for years.

Lameness is much more frequently met with amongst
horses working in towns than in animals employed in
agricultural labour. Young horses are much more liable
to become lamiC if they are worked before their limbs
have had time to fully develop, hence the reason why it is
customary to reject a young horse, say at three or four
years of age, for some obvious defect such as splint,
spavin, etc., whereas a horse fully matured, though

93

94 THE HORSE

affected in the manner indicated would, under similar
circumstances, be passed as sound.

Lameness is more frequent in the fore than in the
hind limbs, probably because the degree of concussion is
greater, more weight being borne by the fore than the
hind limbs. One fore or both fore, or one fore and one
hind may be implicated in the lameness. Quite commonly
the seat of the lameness is in the foot, in fact the majority
of lame cases arise in the region last named. Although
experience is one of the best schoolmasters in the diag-
nosis of lam^eness, it is an everyday occurrence amongst
those who are expert at this particular kind of work to be
unable to determine the nature of the trouble, or to
locate the cause operative in the production of the lame-
ness. That some horses are lamed during the time that
they are being shod is indisputable, hut the farrier is
often blamed for that for which he is not responsible.
No skilled craftsman has been more dictated to than
the farrier as to how he should or should not shoe horses,
and the writer has known some of the most expert shoeing-
smiths instructed as to how particular animals should be
shod by those who knew nothing whatever about the
matter.

The amateur commonly finds it difficult to recognise
the limb upon which the horse is lame unless there is
obvious indication of the seat of the trouble. Greater
difficulty, however, exists when the animal is lame in
both the fore and hind limbs simultaneously. Some
horses are lame when they walk, others only when they
are trotted. Again, lameness is often most obvious
directly the animal comes out of the stable, but frequently
decreases when the horse is put to work. On the other
hand lameness may increase with exercise. If a horse
or mule is lame, say in the near fore hmb, it follows that
it will, when putting the foot to the ground, endeavour
to take off the pressure as much as possible, consequently
additional weight being thrown upon the off fore limb, the

LAMENESS IN THE HORSE 95

head and fore quarter is dropped on the sound side during
movement. In other words the animal " drops " on the
sound side.

On the other hand lameness in the hind limb is indicated
by elevation of the quarter on that side of the limb
affected. In order to deceive, an unscrupulous vendor,
having a horse to dispose of v/hich is lame in one fore limb,
will make it lame on the opposite limb in order to counter-
balance the original lam.eness. A horse lame in both fore
limbs without any obvious injury to account for this
lameness is less likely to be detected than when the lame-
ness is confined to one side.

Lameness is much more pronounced on hard than on
soft ground. It may be continuous or intermittent,
slight or severe. Intermittent lameness is that which
comes on at irregular intervals, persists for a variable
period, and then disappears.

There is a diseased condition known as thrombosis, in
which the circulation of the blood in a blood-vessel, or
some branch of it, becomes suddenly arrested with the
result that an acute paroxysm of lameness occurs, so painful
that it may cause violent sweating and other signs of
acute suffering. This may last only a few minutes and then
pass off. In every case of lameness the first thing to do,
even when the cause is obvious, is to remove the shoe and
search the foot, because, as stated elsewhere, the majority
of horses go lame through some form of foot trouble. It
is impossible to emphasise this too strongly, otherwise
all sorts of mistakes are liable to occur. The foot must be
thoroughly searched in every case, the nail holes pared out
and the sole pressed with the farrier's pincers aU around
the nail holes. Unless this is properly done even the
farrier may overlook the cause of the lameness.

A multipHcity of troubles in connection with the Hmbs
are responsible for lameness in the horse, so that having
examined the foot with negative results the remainder of
the limb or limbs should be critically examined and

96 THE HORSE

manipulated in order to assist in arriving at an opinion
as to the cause of the lameness. The writer can only
indicate some of the principal abnormahties which are
capable of causing lameness, and these are as follows :
sprained tendons, especially the flexor pedis tendon ;
the extensor pedis tendon ; sprain of the suspensory
ligament ; paralysis of the radial nerve ; sprain of the
fetlock joint ; split pastern, or fracture of the first
phalanx ; fracture of the second or third phalanx ;
navicular-arthritis ; fracture of the navicular bone ;
a bruise to the coronet ; sand-crack ; thrush (if severe) ;
canker of the foot ; over-reach ; bruised heel ; cracked
heel ; fistula of the foot ; puncture of the foot ; picked-
up nail ; laminitis, either acute or sub-acute ; periostitis ;
ring-bone ; splint ; and various other injuries to the
bones, joints, nerves and tendons, all of which are fre-
quently met with in lameness of the fore limb, and likewise
in the hind limb, but, in addition, we find the following
troubles are fairly frequent in the last named. Bone-
spavin, curb, thoro-pin, sprain of the hock joint, sprain
of the flexor-metatarsi and dislocation of the patella or
slipped stifle.

In addition to the foregoing a not uncommon cause of
lameness in the foal and of sudden development is the
so-called rheumatic- arthritis, or joint-ill — a septic infec-
tion of one or more of the joints. As already stated, the
degree of lameness varies in its intensity, its duration and
its termination. Dislocations and fractures are usually
marked by the sudden development of the lameness,
likewise by its severity. A fracture is not necessarily
accompanied by displacement of the fractured ends of the
bone, consequently a part may be broken without being
discoverable by external manipulation. Direct violence
is the usual cause of injuries of this nature, but they are
sometimes produced by sudden muscular contraction
such as sometimes results through pulling a horse up
suddenly and violently. Sprained muscles and tendons are

LAMENESS IN THE HORSE 97

very frequent causes of lameness in the horse, and these
injuries are commonly accompanied by increased heat,
pain on manipulation, swelHng ; but any or all of the
foregoing may be absent. For a description of the dis-
eases referred to the reader must turn to the chapters
dealing with these affections. If lameness is severe it
is usually accompanied by a certain amount of consti-
tutional disturbance such as loss of appetite, uneasiness,
and so forth. In every case of lameness the first principle
of treatment comprises rest in the stable for a few days, or,
if necessary, it may be for weeks. When lameness is
likely to be prolonged as in many cases of spavin and
ring-bone it is a very good plan to keep the animal in a
loose box. Many horse owners under these circumstances
turn the animal out at pasture for a few months. The
adoption of this plan is, in the author's opinion, indiscreet,
as the exercise hinders repair of whatever structures are
damaged. In concluding the remarks on lameness we
must not forget to add that the horse owners will find it
the most economical to call in a veterinary surgeon, as
expert knowledge is most certainly necessary because
sometimes " apparently " trifling injuries are followed by
the most untoward results.

CHAPTER XII

SHOES AND SHOEING — PREPARATION OF THE FOOT

The shoeing of horses is an important branch of industrial
labour, though, unfortunately for the horse, and also
the farrier, the business of the latter has been on the
decline since motor traction made its appearance, conse-
quently we find that many hitherto prosperous shoeing
forges have fewer hands working in them, v/hilst a certain
percentage have had to close down altogether. Amongst
all classes of craftsmen, perhaps none have received from
the public more instruction as to how horses should and
should not be shod than the farrier. Both stable and
farm boys have been knovv'n to issue their instructions as to
how a horse ought or ought not to be shod, and the patience
of the shoeing-smith must often be sorely tried by
their ignorance and stupidity. The author holds no brief
for the farrier, as there are quite a number of these who
could never hope to becom.e experts in their work ; still,
after a life-long apprenticeship, plus the average degree of
intelligence, it is surely reasonable to assume that a man
must have learnt the general principles of his business,
and be in a much better position to fulfil the requirements
of his craft than a wholly inexperienced person. There
are horse-shoers and horse-shoers, and the pubHc are
generally able to make their own choice, even if the forge
is not always the most convenient one. Shoes may be
fitted either hot or cold, but there is no comparison. A hot
fitting is by far the best. In the one case you fit your
shoe to the foot, whereas in the other it may be necessary
to make the foot fit the shoe. All horses require to be

98

SHOES AND SHOEING 99

shod with great regularity, irregularity in shoeing being
very bad for their feet, but what is still worse, bad for
ligaments, tendons, and joints, owing to the unequal
distribution of pressure which arises from shoes more
worn at one part than another. Moreover it is just as
easy to fix a particular date for a horse to be shod, and
for the proprietor to see that the animal is shod on the date
specified. No time can be fixed as to hov\^ long a horse will
carry its shoes, or rather when it should be shod, as horses
differ in a remarkable manner. For instance, some horses
will wear a set of shoes out in ten days, whereas others will
carry them very well for three weeks or a month or even
longer. The average time is three weeks. Again, in-
equahty on the wearing surface is another matter to be
considered. A horse may wear its shoes as thin as a
sixpence at the toe or at the heel, whilst the rest of the
shoe shows very little signs of wear. In most forges
machine-made shoes are now extensively employed,
and these can be obtained from the manufacturers in a
large variety of sizes. The old-time prejudice against
machine-made shoes is an affair of the past. New shoes
made from old are certainly more durable and may last
a week or two longer than new ones. In some forges,
especially where business is rather slow, the farrier often
makes up the old material into new shoes, but whether
it is more economical to do so is very questionable. The
preparation of the foot for the shoe is always an important
matter and, unless this is properly done, trouble will
sooner or later follow. The sole and the frog should be
left alone, unless there is any loose horn (exfohation).
If so, this should be removed. On no account must the
sole or the frog be pared except in the case just stated.
The wall grov/s at the average rate of an inch in three
months, and this growth is mainly at the toe, so that if a
shoe were left on too long, the growth of the horn would
carry the shoe with it, the result being that the animal
would be inclined to stumble during progression. The

100 THE HORSE

wall must be lowered with the knife and the rasp and a
level bearing surface obtained. In fitting the shoe the
latter should be applied d± a dull red heat and the surface
lightly charred in order to produce the requisite bearing.
It must be borne in mind that the wall and the junction
of the wall and the sole are the weight-bearing structures
of the foot, and the shoe should press upon these struc-
tures only. Opening up the heels, as it is called, i.e.
paring away the " bars " is a most objectionable practice
and should never be done. The heels of the shoe should
never be too long, otherwise they will press on the heels
and lead to bruising of these. All horses, for preference,
should be shod perfectly flat, but it is a general practice
to put calkings on the heels. If this is done, a correspond-
ing piece should be put on the toe, in order not to disturb
the balance of the various structures in the limb. It
is quite true that horses get a better grip of the ground,
especially on granite sets in towns, but both calkings
and toe pieces destroy the proper functions of the frog
and favour contraction of the heel, so that whenever they
can be done without it is so m.uch the better. The weights
of shoes vary. For instance, race-horse shoes weigh about
4 oz. ; those for hunters and hacks, i lb. ; carriage
horses, i| lb. ; heavy draught horses, 3 to 4 lb. Shoes
may be plain or fullered. For hunters and race-horses
fullered shoes are nearly always used. The number of
nail holes is usually 3 on the inner side and 4 on the outer,
but in shoes used in the army, extra holes were provided,
in case of necessity. In shoeing hunters and polo ponies,
neat and close fitting is essential, more especially in the
latter, and this remark also applies to the fitting of shoes
for the race-horse. There is one mistake a farrier often
makes, and this is rasping the wall of the hoof, whereas
all that is requisite to do is to rasp it along the line of exit
of the nails. By rasping the wall, the foot's protective
varnish, viz. the periople is removed, the loss of which
tends to brittleness of the wall. Sometimes horses are

SHOES AND SHOEING lOl

shod with pads, of which there are various kinds and
makes. They are all, more or less, bad for the feet although
they diminish concussion and some of the evil effects
arising therefrom. Leather soles are frequently used when
a horse has a thin sole, a drop sole, corn, or some other
abnormal condition of the foot or feet. During frosty
weather when the roads are icebound and sHppery,
frost cogs or frost nails are necessary. These should be
removed when the animal is in the stable. Frost nails
are quite temporary, much more so than frost cogs.
There are various patterns of these cogs, some having a
flat surface, others a pointed one. Again, some of them
screw in, others are without screws. Perhaps the screw
cog is the best of all, as it is more secure in the shoe than
cogs without screws. When a horse " casts a shoe "
it is either due to the nails breaking, the chnches giving
way, the nail heads wearing off, or the horn below the
chnches giving way. It is often a sign of inefficient work.
If so, the remedy rests with the owner. Sometimes nails are
used which are too large, other times too small, and exam-
ination of the ground surface of the shoe after it has been
fitted soon discloses this. Unless the nails are driven
well home, of the right size and tightly clinched, the
shoe will never keep its place properly. Horses with
flat sole, with corn or with sand-crack, must have the
pressure taken off the part affected, otherwise trouble
will arise. Sometimes horses will travel very lame through
corn, heace the expediency for the removal of the shoe
in every case of lameness. A corn merely represents a
bruise, and if it is a recent one, is denoted by a bright red or
pink discoloration of the horn on the sole and usually
at the inner quarter. If infection by pus organisms
occurs along with the bruise, the corn becomes a suppurat-
ing one, and sometimes this suppuration undermines the
whole of the foot, leading to separation of the homy and
sensitive sole — a most serious condition and one neces-
sitating immediate professional advice.

CHAPTER XIII

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE

Irrespective of age, sex, or breed, sound feet are in-
dispensable, and it is an absolute truism '' no foot no
horse/'

Horses' feet, more especially horses working on the
hard roads in cities and towns, are subject to a great deal
of wear and tear, consequently if an animal has any
structural defects, such weakness will soon show itself
either in one form or another. If breeders of horses
would only pay more attention to the feet during colt-
hood many of the infirmities which so commonly make
their appearance later on in hfe would be altogether
unknown.

Concussion and bad shoeing are responsible for the
majority of foot troubles, but by no means the cause of all.
A certain proportion of horses have bad feet, or a pre-
disposition to such, as an inheritance, thus showing how
essential it is to breed from sires and dams in which
soundness of feet constitutes a well-marked feature.

It is quite an easy matter to have working horses
regularly shod, and this is a matter either for the master
to supervise, or else to depute a person, on whom absolute
rehance can be placed, to do so.

No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to when a
horse should be shod, because some horses will wear out
a set of fore shoes in a week or ten days, whereas others will
carry their shoes from three to five weeks. If a horse
does not wear its shoes out in three weeks they should be
removed, the feet trimmed, and the shoes refitted.

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 103

Growth mainly takes place at the toe, and if the toes
are too long the animal is apt to stumble through this
cause. The foot growing at the toe carries the shoe with
it, and the result is that the distribution of pressure on
the wall becomes unbalanced. Foals and colts when out
at pasture should have their feet periodically inspected,
and the farrier should be instructed to do whatever is
necessary. Unequal distribution of pressure is not only
bad for the feet but for other structures in connection
with the limbs, such as the ligaments and tendons, etc.

It is quite an easy matter to grade the feet into three
categories, viz. good, bad, and indifferent. A good foot
should be of a bluish colour, free from cracks or fissures
in the wall, and the latter ought to slope at an angle of
from forty-five to fifty degrees, being concave on the sole,
well open at the heels, and having a well-developed foot-
pad, along with prominent bars. The wall at the heels
should be of medium height, and there must be no signs
of brittleness of the wall or any indication of separation
betv/een the wall and the sole, such constituting a brief
description of what a good foot should be Apart from
its structural features, it must be proportionate to the
size of the animal, and during its movement it must be
carried in a straight line with the body, and not in an
inward or outward direction. This, however, is a matter
more intimately concerned with action rather than that
appertaining to the foot.

Feet belonging to the second category, viz. bad,
comprise all those in which the wall shows some structural
defect, such as sand-crack, false quarter, contracted heels,
low heels, flat or drop sole, pumiced foot, in which the
foot becomes more or less flattened, as commonly hap-
pens after one or more attacks of founder. All brittle
feet must be classified as distinctly bad, likewise feet in
which there is any tendency towards separation of the
sole and the wall. The last-named is a most serious defect,
and it is one that is commonty concealed either by filling

104 THE HORSE

up the space or by the shoeing. Hence the necessity for
removing the fore shoes before purchase. In addition to
the foregoing there are other foot troubles associated
with bad feet, and the unwary purchaser may easily be
led astray through the existence of these defects.

The indifferent foot is one which combines some of the
essentials of a good foot with those of a bad one. Thus,
for instance, the wall of the sole may be excellent in its
construction, but the footpad may be contracted or
actually the seat of disease. In exceptional instances
the feet are odd in point of size, but not necessarily
structurally defective. If the wall or the sole are too
thin it renders the foot much more liable to injury,
although a foot of this description could hardly be
classified as bad.

In order that the amateur may appreciate, or rather,
we should say, be capable of more clearly comprehending
the various features of the feet in health and disease, it is
expedient to give a resume of the anatomical construc-
tion of the foot, and follow this up with a brief description
of the various pathological conditions associated with the
structures now under consideration.

Structure of the Foot

The foot consists of the wall, and this is divisible into
the toe, the quarters, and the heels, and it is formed of a
number of horny tubes united together by a cementing
substance. These horn fibres correspond to hair. The
wall has an upper and a lower border ; the former is
encircled by a prominent band — the coronary band —
and it is from this band that the horn fibres are secreted ;
consequently any injury to the coronet or coronary band
may lead to some permanent defect in the wall of the
hoof. The horn fibres are really secreted by papillae on
the surface of the coronary band. For the purpose of
study, the fact is regarded as comprising sensitive and

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 105

insensitive structures, the former being all parts enclosed
within the homy box, and the latter consisting of the wall
and the sole only, and being comparable to the finger-nail.
The wall is thickest at the toe, thinner at the quarters,
and thinnest of all at the heels. The outer surface of
the wall should be perfectly smooth, and it is covered by
a protective material known as the periople, which, in
reality, represents a natural varnish, and this is secreted
from the '' periopUc ring " at the upper border of the
hoof and beneath the coronary band. In the unshod foot
it forms a bluish bloom on the wall. In the shod foot it is
not often observed, as the farrier frequently, but un-
wittingly, removes it with his rasp, a thing which should
never be done. The inner surface of the wall consists of
a number of leaf-hke structures, arranged perpendicularly
with the upper and lower borders. These leaf -like struc-
tures are known as the horny or insensitive laminae, and
their use is to accommodate corresponding structures
covering the pedal-bones, and known as the sensitive
laminae. The two opposing structures are so dove-tailed
into one another as to constitute a very firm bond of union
between the two ; in fact, the weight of the horse is
mainly distributed through this channel.

The horny sole joins the lower border of the wall at the
so-called white line, which is readily discernible when the
foot is pared. The lower border of the wall and its junction
with the sole at the white line constitute the chief weight-
bearing structures of the foot, therefore the shoe should
press upon these parts only. The ground surface of the
sole is, normally, concave, but as stated earlier on may,
through disease, become flattened, constituting the so-
called " dropped sole.'' Its inner surface is convex.
The sole is formed from papillae on the lower surface of
the pedal-bone exactly in the same manner as the horn of
the wall is secreted. The footpad, or the '* frog," con-
sists of a wedge-shaped piece of elastic tissue, with the
point of the wedge directed towards the toe. It is spoken

io6 THE HORSE

of as the " insensitive frog/' in contradistinction to the
" sensitive frog," upon which the former is moulded,
and secreted by the papillae on the lower surface of the
latter. The horny frog has a central depression or
middle cleft, and on either side a lateral cleft, plainly
visible on the lower surface. The inner surface of the
frog is, as previously stated, moulded upon the sensitive
frog, and there is a backward projection or plate of horn
called the frog-stay. Normally, the frog is a well-
developed elastic pad and a very effective anti-slipping
agent, therefore it shows how very important it is for the
farrier to leave it intact as much as possible, and to shoe
the animal in such a manner that the functions of the
frog may not in any way be interfered with. Contrac-
tion of the heels immediately follows the removal of
frog pressure, which readily takes place when the heels
are raised, hence the advisability whenever practicable
of shoeing a horse perfectly fiat.

Situated on either side of the frog are the " bars,'*
which represent reflexions of the wall at the heels. The
bars give additional strength to the frog, and to sonie
extent are weight-bearing structures. Like the frog,
they should not be interfered with, although we have
seen — ^fortunately, not often — the farrier slicing them
away, and so paving the way for the future ruin of the
foot. The horn of the wall, likewise that of the sole and
the frog, is continually being renewed, therefore there is
a gradual shedding of the most superficial layer. This
is particularly well seen in the unshod foot on the sole,
in which ex-foliated portions of the horn sometimes
accumulate, which should be removed with a knife.

All the soft structures are enclosed within the hoof,
and the foot has a very rich blood supply. In order to
facilitate a free circulation of blood the veins of the foot,
unlike those of the body, are without valves, in addition
to which the vessels form a complex network. This
distribution of the blood-vessels is largely in connection

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 107

with the sensitive laminge on the pedal-bone, but the
bone itself is densely packed with minute openings for the
passage of small blood-vessels into its interior, augmented
by larger vessels of supply.

The coronet, as previously stated, consists of a dense
band of tissue encircling the top of the hoof, supplied
with blood by the coronary artery.

The sensitive structures of the foot comprise the sensi-
tive laminae, the sensitive sole, and the sensitive frog.
We have already referred to the sensitive laminae, so that
it only remains to deal with the sensitive sole and the
sensitive frog. The first-named forms a velvety tissue
spread over the lower surface of the pedal-bone, and from
which the horny sole is formed. The sensitive frog is
composed of fibro-elastic tissue, which confers upon it a
degree of expansion when the foot is on the ground.
There is no expansion of the wall at the toe, and very
little at the quarters, but at the heels it is present in a
limited degree.

Two tendons pass down the back of the foot, viz. the
flexor pedes perforans and perforates, the former being
attached to the lower surface of the pedal-bone, and the
latter to a small bone known as the navicular or shuttle-
bone, which is in juxtaposition to the pedal-bone. In
addition to this we have ligaments and nerves distributed
to the sensitive structures enclosed within the foot.

The bones of the foot are entirely enclosed by the hoof,
and occupy a very sheltered position, so that one would
expect injuries in connection with these to be excessively
rare, but such is not the case. In fact, the writer has seen
apparently trifling accidents result in fracture of either
the pedal-bone or the navicular-bone as revealed by an
after-death examination of the parts concerned. The
pedal-bone, also known as the cofhn-bone, the navicular-
bone, and the second phalanx, or the os coronce, are
the bones embedded within the hoof, and two of these
present many special interesting features, to which, in a

io8 THE HORSE

work of this description it is not necessary or advisable

to allude.

Diseases of the Feet

Having acquired an elementary knowledge of the
anatomical construction of the feet we shall now consider
some of the principal diseases affecting these structures.
There are some foot troubles which cause, or rather lead
to the production of the most severe pain and its atten-
dant lameness, and the degree of this is usually proportion-
ate to the acuteness of the affection ; but there are certain
exceptions to this rule. It is customary to speak of the
lameness as being either acute or chronic, in accordance
with the duration and severity of the trouble. Fully fifty
per cent of lameness in horses is due to trouble in the feet.
Some diseases implicate the wall, others the wall and the
sole of the insensitive foot, whilst the frog and the
sensitive structures within the hoof are commonly
affected.

In some instances permanent structural changes are
the result of either acute or chronic malady, and when,
this is the case the value of the animal as a commercial
asset is usually materially reduced, and, of course, if the
intending purchaser possesses a reasonable degree of
perspicuity he will pay the price accordingly.

One of the commonest diseases, both in its acute
and chronic manifestations, but particularly the latter,
irrespective of age, sex, and breed, is that which is
popularly known as

Laminitis or Founder

and most horsemen are more or less acquainted with
this complaint. It is a trouble which is much more
disastrous so far as perm.anent damage is concerned when
it exists in its acute form. ■ It is surprising what a number
of horses working in towns develop f oimder as^'a sub-acute
affection, and the only indication, in the majority of

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 109

instances, is that which is afforded by an inspection of
the sole, which loses its concave character and becomes
flat, or in horseman's vernacular " dropped " — dropped
sole. The lameness is not as a rule particularly well
marked, but it is always present in a variable degree, and
most pronounced when the animal is first put to work.
This abnormal condition is apparently due to the con-
tinued concussion on the hard roads and possibly favoured
by the degree of action possessed by the animal, i.e. the
higher the action and the harder the roads the greater
the liability towards the development of this disease.
Some horses seem to be, however, much more capable of
their conservancy of energy when placing their feet upon
the ground ; at least, this is the writer's experience. In
other words, some horses will batter their feet to pieces,
whereas others bring them lightly to the ground. Hard
driving is a predisposing cause. Laminitis consists of a
variable degree of inflammation or congestion of the
sensitive laminae and blood-vessels within the hoof, and
it is a most painful affection, as previously stated, when
the attack is an acute one. If the reader has digested
the paragraph relating to the elementary construction
of the foot, he will understand what a serious matter it
must be for a horse to be troubled with the disease now
under consideration. Founder, also sometimes spoken
of as fever in the feet, presumably on account of the
increased heat, so palpable when the hand is placed upon
the latter, when acute, makes its appearance quite sud-
denly, and those acquainted with the affection are at a
loss to know why the animal should have become so
suddenly unable to move. In every instance the pre-
monitory symptoms are rapidly succeeded by those of an
unmistakable character to the expert. The owner may
have been driving the animal perhaps harder than usual,
when, after returning to the stable he finds his charge
refuses its food, stands in one position, and when an
effort is made to move it or turn it round in the stall, the

no THE HORSE

pain in the feet is so acute that the horse is either unable
to do this or does so with difficulty. When the attempt
is made to back the animal it will be at once seen that the
feet are the seat of the trouble. Either the fore, hind, or
all four feet may be implicated, and there is no rule as to
those which will be affected with the malady. In the
majority of instances both fore feet are the seat of the
trouble, consequently, in order to diminish the pain by
relieving the pressure, the fore feet are thrown forwards,
and the hind ones drav/n more under the body. This
allows the animal to place the greatest weight on the
heels, and alleviate the painful toe pressure. When all
four feet are i2ȣplicated, they are bunched together under
the body.

In addition to these more purely local signs, we have
others of a constitutional nature, indicated by sv/eating,
increased temperature of the body (usually 105° or 106°
Fahr.), congestion of the eyelids, rapid and full pulse
and distressed breathing, and as the disease progresses
the patient gradually becomes riveted to the ground.
In severe attacks the symptoms are excessively urgent,
therefore the expediency of having skilful advice is at
once obvious. In the absence of this, however, the animal
should be placed in a loose box and the shoes immediately
removed.

Causes of Laminitis. — As previously stated, one of the
chief causes is concussion, but there are others, such as
an overdose of physic, feeding on green wheat, likewise
as a sequel to parturition, in which case the malady arises
from septic material such as decomposing placental
membrane, hence the expediency of the early removal of
the placenta. Laminitis sometimes is a result of a
metastatic inflamm.ation, i.e. a change of inflammatory
action from such organs as the lungs to the feet. Animals
which are overburdened with flesh, i.e. plethoric, are pre-
disposed, under the foregoing circumstances, to become
" foundered/'

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE iii

General Management and Treatment. — The author
recommends that early professional advice should be
obtained, as laminitis is one of those affections that can
be only treated upon conservative principles when the
trouble arises from some simple cause. When following
parturition, unskilled advice would probably mean the
loss of the mare, whereas with professional treatment a
valuable animal may, perhaps, be saved. Under ordinary
circumstances treatment is divisible into {gl) the local,
(&) the general. The former comprises the removal of
the shoe and the application of either hot or cold bran
poultices to the feet. It seems to make little difference
whether hot or cold water is employed, but it is absolutely
necessary that the fomentation should be of a continuous
character ; in other words, the feet must be kept con-
stantly wet.

Up to the present nothing in the way of treatment has
been introduced. to supplant, in a satisfactory manner,
the irrigation method. In every case it is essential to
commence the treatment with a dose of physic, either in
the form of Epsom salts added night and morning to the
drinking water, or in the form of an aloes or cathartic
ball. Without a shadow of doubt, a dose of purgative
medicine is the sheet-anchor in the treatment of this
disease, but considerable circumspection is necessary,
hence the advisability of early professional advice. The
temperature usually falls through the use of saline
laxative medicine, and this is materially assisted by the
discriminate use of green food. No hay should be given,
but scalded oats and bran, along with boiled linseed,
constitutes the most rational system of dieting a horse
when suffering from an acute attack of laminitis. Treat-
ment is of a less urgent character when the trouble is sub-
acute or chronic. Laminitis sometimes terminates very
unfavourably, necessitating the destruction of the animal.
This is due to the effusion — the result of the inflammatory
action — between the sensitive and the insensitive laminae,

112 THE HORSE

loosening the bond of union between the two, and favour-
ing the descent of the pedal-bone. This in some instances
becomes so far displaced as to make its exit at the toe
through the horny sole. In every case, after an attack
of this complaint, it is advisable to graze the patient on
marshy land, in order that the feet may benefit from the
moisture present. A great deal more might be said
concerning this malady, but it is only intended to serve
as an outline for the guidance of the amateur.

Navicular Disease

This is a disease which affects those structures in
juxtaposition to a small bone — the navicular bone —
implicating the cartilage covering the bone, the bone
itself, the s3movial membrane or sheath, and the tendon,
all of Vv^hich structures become, sooner or later, asso-
ciated in the diseased processes. It affects one or both
fore feet, and seems to be confined to horses of light
draught, more especially harness horses and those
employed for light van work. It is a common disease
and apparently incurable — always progressive, never
retrogressive, as far as known. Horses affected mth this
trouble are permanently lame, and an animal suffering
from this complaint is knov/n by horsemen as a " grog,"
owing to its groggy method of progression. The lameness
is m.ost marked immediately the animal comes out of the
stable, particularly if a short rest has been immediately
preceded by active work. There is nothing in the way of
positive signs indicative of navicular disease, but when
both feet are implicated the step is usually very short
and cat-like, with pointing of the toes. The heels may or
may not be contracted, but the shoes usually show more
wear at the toes than elsewhere. Pointing of the foot in
the stable is very often present, and sometimes the
animal will be continually scraping the ground when in
the stall. In advanced navicular disease the shoulders

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 113

become somewhat wasted, this being apparently due to
diminished functional power of the muscles, owing to
disease in the foot. Quite a number of horses with
navicular disease are offered for sale and find purchasers,
as it is an easy matter for the inexperienced to overlook
a trouble so obscure, for obscure it certainly is, and it
renders the animal of very little commercial value.

For the relief of the lameness, and in order to work a
horse thus affected, say, for a year or two longer, the
operation of " neurectomy," or unnerving, is practised
in some instances. It is not, however, a very commend-
able operation, and is, when performed, occasionally a
means towards fraud. Sometimes the operation is a
success, and sometimes it is not. When successful the
lameness is no longer observable, though of course the
disease pursues its slowly progressive course, and must
finally end either in the destruction of the animal or in
its becoming useless for work.

Sand-crack

This is a disease affecting the wall, and begins immedi-
ately subjacent to the coronet by making its appearance
in the form of a crack or split in the wall of the hoof. If
in the fore foot or fore feet it occurs as a rule at the inner
quarter, but to this there are exceptions, whereas in the
hind foot it occurs generally at the toe. Sand-crack may
begin on the inner or outer surface of the wall of the hoof,
and its onset may be gradual or sudden. Every class of
horse is equally liable to its development, but pre-
disposition is unquestionable in hoofs which are dry or
brittle, and those in which the integrity of the secreting
structures of the coronary band have been damaged.
Some hoofs are much thinner than others and this, along
with continued work on hard, dry roads often leads to
the production of sand-crack. A condition technically
known as " false quarter," i.e. a furrow in the wall of
^

114 THE HORSE

the hoof at the quarter naturally, when such exists,
favours the production of sand-crack. The crack in the
wall may be either partial or complete, whilst its degree
of extension may vary. When completely through the
wall it sometimes causes lameness, as the sensitive
laminae are liable during movement to be nipped in the
fissure. Under these circumstances it is cruelty to work
a horse, but not otherwise. Firing below the crack,
bolting the crack, and the appHcation of tarred string
are the commonest methods of dealing with sand-crack,
though the results are variable. Blistering the coronet
is also commonly employed.

Sand-crack is not as a rule very satisfactory to treat.
Its presence when discovered is considered as a sufficient
reason for the rejection of the animal when examined with
regard to soundness. It is quite an easy matter to over-
look the existence of sand-crack if the feet are covered
with mud, and still more to do so if the crack or cracks
have been filled in.

False Quarter

We have already alluded to false quarter as consisting
of an indentation in the wall of the hoof at the quarter.
It represents unsoundness owing to the fact that it pre-
disposes to the condition alluded to in the preceding
paragraph.

Canker of the Foot

This disease as a rule makes its appearance in the frog,
and is sometimes mistaken for a simpler trouble known as
thrush of the foot, but it is a far more serious condition
than the latter. The author has been very unsuccessful
in the treatment of canker, although many elaborate and
patient measures have been employed in order to effect
a cure. All experienced veterinary surgeons are only too
well aware of its extremely malignant nature. The
adoption of the most drastic methods have not, in the
writer's hands, ever been satisfactory, therefore the most

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 115

that can be recommended is to keep the feet clean and as
dry as possible, along with properly applied pressure over
the whole surface of the frog. This can be done by means
of a sliding iron plate and a packing of tow, along with
the application of some antiseptic powder. An animal
may continue to work for years with its foot or feet
patched up in this m^anner, which is, in the writer's
opinion, infinitely better than keeping the horse idle,
contracting a large veterinary bill, with every prospect
of failure at the end. Canker may affect one or more of
the feet, and it is easily discernible by paring the frog,
which begins to bleed when cut, and a soft, spongy,
greasy-like, foul-smelling material is observable. Lame-
ness is commonly present, being due to implication of
deeper structures.

The writer looks upon canker as a progressive and
practically incurable disease.

Thrush

This is an extremely common trouble, and in the
majority of instances it is due to negligence on the part
of the attendant. No good horse master would allow
this state of affairs to exist, although a badly drained
stable may easily lead to its production. It arises through
the irritation in the cleft of the frog caused by decomposing
organic matter, allowing this to accumulate in the feet.
The " foot picker " is the best preventative of thrush,
and no stable should be without this useful appliance,
but what is still more important is that of using it regu-
larly. The cleft of the frog, as previously stated, is the
seat of septic infection indicated by a suppurative in-
flammation and an objectionable odour. The fore or hind
feet may be affected, but particularly the hind, these
being more liable to become fouled. In nine cases out of
ten the existence of thrush in the feet may be accepted
as evidence of want of proper attention to the feet, and it

ii6 THE HORSE

is to a large extent preventable. As a rule it is not a
difficult matter to cure it, and the farrier usually puts in
a stopping of tar and tow, which may or may not be
effective, according to the stage at which the disease has
arrived. A solution of chloride of zinc or sulphate of
zinc, ten grains of either to each ounce of water, will
usually effect a cure if applied twice a day for a few days
consecutively, but it is useless to try to treat this
affection if the source of irritation is still allowed to exist.
As a dry dressing equal parts of powdered boracic acid,
calcined magnesia, and powdered starch makes an
excellent application. Thrush varies in its severity.
Sometimes it is extremely slight, whereas in other
instances the frog may be partly underrun, and lameness
even result. The cleft of the frog should always be packed,
when treating this disease, with tow.

Side-bone

The pedal-bone has, attached to its wings, two flexible
plates of cartilage which project backwards and upwards
at the heels. These are known as the lateral cartilages.
It is quite common to speak of side-bone as an
ossification of these structures. There is a considerable
amount of interest attachable to the lateral cartilages
and their relationship to limbs. The author believes
that side-bone is quite a common cause of lameness, and
the majority of veterinary surgeons are in agreement
with this. Specimens obtained and examined after death
by the writer afford positive proof as to this being the
cause of lameness. Doubtless a certain percentage of
side-bones never cause the slightest inconvenience, as
the writer has known horses to have large side-bones, yet
remain free from lameness; in fact, the majority of cart
horses working in towns have side-bone. There is a
natural tendency for the lateral cartilages to become
calcified — " ossified " — this being a degenerate change

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 117

in them, and it is rather remarkable that the trouble
should be mainly confined to animals required for heavy
draught purposes. The percentage of light horses with
side-bone is comparatively small, and when this state of
affairs does exist it is considered to be much more detri-
mental than in the case of a heavy draught horse, owing
to its greater hability to produce lameness. The writer
has, however, examined light horses with well-marked
side-bone, yet these showed no indication of lameness. As
a precautionary measure it is always expedient, apart
from legal responsibility, to look upon side-bone as
sufficient cause for the rejection of a horse in relation to
soundness. Old horses of the cart horse type have almost
always signs of this disease.

There is a preliminary stage to calcification, viz.
induration, and the cartilages are often found in this
condition. It is customary amongst veterinary surgeons
to pass horses — heavy draught horses — with side bone
as practically sound, provided that the heels are strong
and free from contraction. Unquestionably there is a
predisposition to contraction of the heels in well-marked
instances of side-bone, probably due to decreased func-
tional power in this particular region. Side-bone is
regarded by horse breeders as hereditary, and horse-
breeding societies are not supposed to make use of sires
having their lateral cartilages thus transformed. The
question is whether this is a correct view to take. It is
impossible to answer the question with any degree of
certainty, though it is equally certain that it is better to
choose a sire without side-bone than one with it, and this
is equally applicable to the dam. Perhaps the reader
will say that very few foals of the cart horse type would
be born if this rule were followed, a statement which is
undeniable. Probably one of the chief factors in the
production of this trouble is concussion, and it affects
the fore feet almost exclusively. Sometimes only one
cartilage is imphcated, at other times the inner and the

ii8 THE HORSE

outer of both fore feet are concerned. Normally, the
cartilages yield when pressed with the thumb, and any
loss in their flexibility can immediately be felt by this
pressure at the extreme back part of the upper ball of
the hoof, that is, just close to the heel.

The lateral cartilages increase the area of the wings
for ligamentous attachment, and it is possible that side-
bone sometimes starts — probably very often — in the
structures in contiguity with the lateral cartilages.

Once side-bone is established it is permanent, and little
good can be done towards the amelioration of the lame-
ness. Hoof section is really of little use, though satis-
factory results have been recorded in some instances.
The author's experience in this direction has been very
unsatisfactory, therefore he does not feel justified in
recommending the operation.

There are quite a number of other diseases affecting
the feet, all of which are important to the veterinar}^
surgeon as causes of unsoundness, lameness, or in-
efficiency, either temporary or perm.anent. Amongst
these mention must be made of bruises to the coronet,
also frost-bite of this structure. The coronet or coronary
band, as stated, when speaking of the structure of the
foot, encircles the upper border of the hoof and is a very
non-yielding structure, consequently it leads to the
production of pain and lameness when it is bruised, or
implicated in disease through any other cause. The
degree of lameness seems disproportionate to the injury,
though it is accounted for by the absence of any degree of
swelling. All affections of the coronet require very
skilful treatment, therefore professional assistance should
be obtained as soon after the injury is noticed as possible.
As a palliative measure, in the meantime, the owner
should put the foot into a pail of hot antiseptic solution
for half an hour night and morning, which is the most
conservative measure we feel justified in recommending.

THE FOOT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE 119

Cutting or Brushing

This consists of an injury on the inner side of the
fetlock, usually the hind one, and the injury is done by
the shoe of the opposite foot striking the skin and
sometimes inflicting a nasty wound. It is a form of
injury which can sometimes be remedied through the
use of a three-quarter shoe and keeping the wall of the
hoof well rasped down the inner side. All sorts of devices
are employed, and every farrier has his own ideas as to
how a horse should be shod as a preventative against
the infliction of this injury. Some horses are incurable
owing to peculiarity of conformation and action. This
trouble is sometimes spoken of as " striking " or " inter-
fering." It may cause a horse to go quite lame, and
when the animal has a habit of doing it, it leads to
thickening of the skin and permanent scarring at this
particular part. Some horses are compelled to wear a
leather shield or piece of flannel around the fetlock.
The writer cannot recommend the purchase of a horse
addicted to this habit. Sometimes by thickening the
inside branch of the shoe — making it thicker than the
outside and driving all the nails on the outside and at
the toe, one can remedy this trouble. At any rate, it is
worth while to try this and any other devices which may
be suggested, in order to mitigate the evil.

Forging

This consists of striking the inner edge of one of the
fore shoes with the toe of the hind one. The sound
produced is very annoying, and some horses have a con-
stant habit of doing it. Animals very short in the body
and a trifle long in the limbs are very liable to forge, and
so are horses which are green or not settled in action, say
after a period of rest. Try rounding off the inner edge
of the fore shoe and keep the toe of the corresponding
hind one short. . "

120

THE HORSE

Bruised Heel

The heels and the fore feet are sometimes struck with
the toes of the hind ones, either on the knee or the off side,
and if the injury is severe enough the pain inflicted may
cause a horse to fall and do still further injury to himself
or to others. Bruised heel produces lameness in many
instances, and there may be a flap of skin lacerated by
the injury. A wound in this situation heals slowly.
The animal must be kept off work, the wound cleaned,
and then dressed with some healing ointment and a
bandage until cured.

Pedal-Bone, to illustrate Side-bone at X

Corn

A corn consists of a bruise on the sole, usually on the
inner quarter. It is denoted by a red discoloration of
the horn. It often causes lameness. Remove the shoe
and the pressure on the corn.

CHAPTER XIV

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST

The Pulse

The most convenient place to ascertain the condition of a
horse's pulse is on the artery which winds round the
lower jaw, on either the near or off side. It is customary to
use the second and third fingers of the right hand, selecting
the near side of the head. The fingers are applied lightly,
just sufficient to gently press upon the wall of the artery.
The number of pulsations in an adult horse ranges from
36 to 45 beats per minute, each beat being clear and dis-
tinct. In certain diseases the pulse conveys a sensation
of being hard and a wanting in its normal fullness. Some-
times it is ver}^ rapid, 80 or 100 per minute and correspond-
ingly sm.all. These changes and the sensation imparted
to the fingers are the result of inflammatory action in
some organ or tissue. In certain diseases the pulse
becomes very slow. It is liable to great variation under
abnormal conditions, and nothing but long tuition will
enable anyone to appreciate the many significant states
of it.

The Temperature

For taking the temperature of a horse a clinical
theraiometer is employed. These small instruments can
be obtained at all chemists for a few shillings, and anyone
having anything to do with sick animals should not be
without one of these, as it is an invaluable aid for marking
the onset, progress, and decline of disease. A clinical
thermometer consists of a bulb and stem. The bulb

122 THE HORSE

contains the mercury and the stem is marked with the
figures 95, loo, no. These are degrees on the Fahrenheit
scale. All the long strokes represent degrees and the
short ones between, two-tenths of a degree, usually ex-
pressed by the decimal point in front of the denominator.
Between the bulb and the stem there is a constriction
which prevents a small detached rod of mercury from
uniting with the mercury contained in the bulb. This
rod is called the index, and it serves to register the
temperature, as it remains standing in the position it was
when the thermometer was in use. A horse is said to
have a slight degree of fever if its temperature is 103° or
104° ; a moderate degree of fever when the thermometer
registers 105° or 106° ; whilst the fever is high at 107°.
Temperatures higher than the last-named are by no means
frequent, in fact rather the reverse. It is customary to
take the temperature at the same time night and morning
in the rectum or lower end of the bowel, making a note of
it for future reference. Take the stem in the fingers of the
right hand, raise the tail with the left and then gently
insert the " bulb " into the rectum.

The Breathing

During the act of inspiration pure air is taken into the
lungs and in expiration carbon dioxide is given out.
Normally the respirations number about 14 per minute,
but during exertion they are greatly increased. Quick
breathing, or " blowing hard " as it is called, is very often
significant of lung trouble, either acute or chronic.

Physicking Horses

It is customary to speak of the administration of a ball
or bolus, composed of Barbados aloes and ginger, as
physicking a horse for the purpose of removing waste
products from its system. Physic baUs vary in their
weight from 4 drms. up to 8 drms., and their action is

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST 123

usually, though not always, in accordance with their
weight. Some horses are much more susceptible to the
action of physic than others ; moreover, a great deal will
depend whether the animal has, prior to the administra-
tion of the ball, been prepared by giving it a bran mash.
The latter makes all the difference, and no horse should
have physic unless it has been thus prepared, otherwise
the proper action of the medicament is not obtained. For
light horses a 5 drm. ball is all that is necessary and 6
drms. for heavy draught horses. In Scotland 8 drm.
balls are commonly given for heavy horses. For a cob
a 5 drm. ball is correct and for a pony 3 or 4 drms., after
being duly prepared. The effects of the phj^sic usually
pass off within 24 hours. If purgation is excessive put
the animal on dry bran, but keep it without hay for the
time being. It is not advisable to work a horse whilst the
physic is acting. Exercise increases the activity of the
ball, so does warm water, and so do bran and linseed
mashes. If there is any drug in the British Pharmacopoeia
which is universally employed in veterinary work that
drug is Barbados aloes, and in nine cases out of ten it is
given in the form of a ball. There are plenty of other
medicines capable of establishing free purgation in the
horse, but somehow or another they have never found the
popularity of the physic ball. Indisputably it is a valuable
remedy for a multiplicity of ills from which our equine
friends suffer. It should never, however, be abused,
which, unfortunately, it very often is.

Administering Medicine to Horses

Medicine can be given to the horse either in solid or
liquid form. Drenching horses with nauseating drugs
has been far too much practised, and we hope to see less of
it in future. Whenever possible give a horse its medicine
either in its food or with its drinking water. We do not
argue that drenching may not be necessary, but it should

124 THE HORSE

usually be done under professional guidance. Many
horses have died from pneumonia brought on through
the careless administration of fluid medicine. The
simplest method of doing this comprises the application
of the twitch to the nostrils and supporting .. the head
sufficiently high to enable the medicine to gradually
trickle down through the back of the throat. The great
secret is to give the medicine slowly ; otherwise the
animal either suffers or else three parts of the draught are
wasted on the stable floor. It is surprising how very few
stable attendants know how to administer a draught
properly to a horse, and still fewer know how to give a
ball. There is an art in both and a degree of manipulative
dexterity necessary which is not possessed by every one.
Salts and other soluble substances can be dissolved in a
quart of water and given the animal to drink. Horses
will seldom refuse medicine given this way. In soluble
powders it may be mixed with the food provided that
they have no unpleasant odour. Some horses will eat
anything in this line, but others will refuse it. In cases of
pneumonia it is simply madness to try to drench a
horse. Veterinary surgeons now largely employ the
hypodermic method of medication, sometimes with and
sometimes without results.

Blistering and Firing

Both these methods of dealing with injuries in connec-
tion with the limbs, bones and joints are largely practised
by the veterinary profession and by many of the empirical
humbugs found wandering about the country. Judici-
ously used both blistering and firing have their virtues. It
is their abuse which has placed them so often in disrepute.
It is impossible to lay down any rule as to when either
shall or shall not be employed. The bHster pot has been
more used upon the horse than anything known. There
are very few stables without a box of blistering ointment,

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST 125

varjdng in colour from red to green and from green to
brown, according to the irritant employed for the purpose.
Before a part is blistered the hair should be clipped off,
the skin washed with warm water and soap, dried, and the
blistering ointment then rubbed well in. Both blistering
and firing produce a variable degree of inflammatory
action in the skin and subjacent tissues depending upon
the degree of application. Firing, or the application of
the actual cautery, is more severe in its effects than that
of a bhster, but sometimes the action of both is combined ;
thus, for instance, the area involved is fired with the firing
iron and the blister then lightly smeared over the bound
surface. Deep firing, though surgical, seems to be cruel
unless the animal has been put under a general anaesthetic
in order to produce complete narcosis. Both firing and
blistering are resorted to in cases of spavin, spKnt, sprung
tendon, ring-bone, side-bone, curve and a host of other
troubles.

A part can be fired either in points or in lines. For
splint and spavin point firing is generally resorted to,
but the degree of severity or otherwise varies. After a
horse has been blistered or fired it should be tied up short
for twenty-four hours, or if turned out to graze, it is
advisable to fix a cradle on, so as to prevent the animal
biting the part and bhstering its nose. When a Hmb is
blistered or fired in any particular part, the hollow of the
fetlock should be freely smeared with lard or vaseline. It
is not a good plan to blister the flexous surface of the
joint or immediately beneath the throat, as the skin is
apt to crack and become very sore. To soothe a blistered
surface, apply the carron oil, recommended elsewhere
in this book. It consists of equal parts of lime water and
linseed oil, shaken together.

Fomentation

Fomentation comprises the application of hot or cold
water to a given area and it may be for the reduction of

126 THE HORSE

swelling, to arrest haemorrhage, or to encourage an abcess
in its formation. Both the application of hot and cold
water affords an invaluable means of deaUng with a
variety of troubles which are accessible to their applica-
tion. If water is applied too hot it will bhster the skin,
and if cold water is apphed for too long it will shut off
the circulation, or at any rate it is very liable to do so at
the part to which it is applied. Never go to extremes in
the application of either of these simple remedies, as they
can become just as harmful as they may prove useful.

Feeding Sick Horses

The special feeding of horses which are affected by
various diseases is a different branch of the horse atten-
dant's work, but it is one that every horse owner should
make himself personally acquainted with. It is surprising
how one person will often fail to coax a sick horse to eat,
whereas another will succeed. The great matter is to test
the appetite of the patient with various food materials
such as steamed carrots, steamed oats, barley, clover or
other green food when obtainable ; natural grass ;
scalded hay and treacle ; scalded oats ; bran and boiled
linseed ; linseed cake ; condensed milk and warm water ;
oatmeal gruel. When possible, select a bit of very sweet
hay from a truss. Try hand feeding in bad cases of sick-
ness. Do not leave any food in front of the patient,
Unconsumed food should be removed forthwith. The
great secret is to try the patient at frequent intervals
throughout the day.

Castration of Colts

r?' Colts are usually operated on when they are one year
old and in the spring of the year, but if the weather is very
cold it is customary to defer the operation until such
time as more propitious weather supervenes. The
operation can, however, be performed at any season of the

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST 127

year ; in fact, it commonly is in the case of adult animals
which have been kept for stud though subsequently
desired by their owners to be utilised for work. It is a
comparatively simple operation and can be performed
either in a standing or recumbent attitude. If the former,
the colts must be housed the night before and, for prefer-
ence, kept without any food until they are operated on
the following morning. When operated on in the recum-
bent posture, a straw bed should be put down or else
a piece of soft ground provided for " throwing " the colt.
As a rule, the operation only occupies a few minutes and
the fee ranges from 7s. 6d. to a guinea or 2 guineas,
according to circumstances. In the case of rigs, the fee
for the operation varies from 5 to 10 guineas. Castration
is a safe operation and ninety-five per cent of colts never
show any ill effects from it, but the remaining five per
cent may and sometimes do.

If a colt is ruptured, a special operation is needed, but
this should be discovered before the animal is operated
upon, and then dealt with according to surgical principles.
Sometimes infection occurs and the part begins to swell
extensively and suppurate. Under these circumstances it
is necessary to keep the wound open so as to give free
exit to the discharge. Normally a certain amount of
sweUing is usual, and to dispel this many operators
believe in turning their colts out to graze immediately
after they have been operated upon . Another unforeseen
accident is prolonged haemorrhage, or bleeding from the
cord, due to the artery not having been properly sealed, or
it may be that the haemorrhage is brought on through
the animal itself after the operation. There is no need
for any alarm, as the loss of three or four quarts of blood
from a horse is of very little importance. Anything
beyond this demands professional skill and can always
be dealt with. Sometimes cold irrigation will stop it,
but the owner should never interfere with the wound, as
he may quite easily, though unwittingly, infect it

128

THE HORSE

Lastly, there are two other diseases sometimes associated
with castration, viz. tetanus or lock-jaw and botrymy-
cosis, the latter disease being one which affects the cord
and is due to a species of ray fungus, similar to a corre-
sponding disease occasionally observed affecting the
tongue in cattle. This disease leaves one or more suppur-
ating points and may persist for many years. It is
accompanied by great thickening of the cord but can
be cured by operation. The author has performed a
number of operations of this kind and always very
successfully.

Healing Ointment

E/ Pure Carbolic Acid . . 40 drops
Vaseline .... 4 ounces

Wound Lotion

R/ Pure Carbolic Acid . . i drachm

Glycerine . . . . i ounce
Water . . . . i pint

Apply with tow two or three times a day.

Lotion for Sore Backs, Sore Shoulders, and
Saddle Gall

E7 Powdered Oxide of Zinc
Methylated Spirit of Wine
Oil of Eucalyptus
Water

I ounce
4 ounces
J ounce
I pint

Tonic Powders

R7 Powdered Sulphate of Iron
Powdered Gentian

1^ ounces

Mix and make 12 powders,
in food.

. 4f ounces
One night and morning

FACTS OF GENERAL INTEREST 129

Saline Fever Powders

R7 Epsom Salts ... 3 ounces
Bicarbonate of Potash . • ij ounces

Nitrate . . . • I2 ounces

Mix and divide into 6 powders. Give one night and
morning mixed with a quart of the animal's drinking
water.

Dressing for Wounds in Summer to
KEEP Flies off

R/ Oil of Turpentine ... 2 ounces
Creosote . . . . i ounce

OHve Oil .... 6 ounces

Mix by shaking well together. Apply to wound once
a day.

CHAPTER XV

ANATOMICAL OUTLINES OF THE CONSTRUCTION
OF THE HORSE

It is always an advantage for the amateur to make him-
self acquainted with the elements of the anatomical
construction of a horse, in order that he may be in a
better position to appreciate some of the simpler facts
when speaking of diseases, injuries, etc. The old maxim
that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing holds good so
far, but it is equally true that the possession of such may
be decidedly advantageous rather than otherwise.

It is customary to divide the various parts of the animal
body into different systems, such as : the muscular ;
the nervous ; the vascular ; the gestive ; the respiratory,
etc. The whole of these systems, along with others not
mentioned, are either placed within or upon a framework
of bone, which we recognize as a skeleton, the structure
of which is of a highly interesting nature, and the more it
is studied, the more complex it appears.

In an elementary work of this description it is impossible
to do anything more than mention the most rudimentary
facts relating to the matter now under consideration.

The Skeleton

The framework is made up of a number of bones of
various kinds, articulated together by ligamentous
attachments, through which a variable degree of move-
ment is allowed.

All the bones forming the skeleton are primarily laid

130

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 131

down in the form of cartilage, in which condition they
appear prior to the birth of the foal. Their transforma-
tion into bone is spoken of as ossification, a process which
commences at certain centres in each bone and gradually
extends until the whole structure becomes converted
into bone. The bones of the limbs differ from those in
the rest of the framework ; most of the former have a
medullary canal filled with red marrow, whilst the ends
of the bone have in their interior cancellated bony tissue
filled with yellow marrow. These are spoken of as long
bones in contradistinction to short, flat, and irregular
bones participating in the construction of the rest of
the skeleton.

The head is composed of a number of bones which, soon
after birth, become more or less ossified, and the only
movement, or rather, we ought to say, freedom of move-
ment, is that executed between the upper and lower jaw.

The neck is composed of seven segments. These are
the cervicle vertebrae, and the bone next to the head is
called the atlas, and the one following it the axis. The
articulation between the atlas and the head gives the
horse its nodding movement, whereas that between the
atlas and the axis confers a rotatorial one. The rest of
the vertebrae articulate amongst themselves. Each
vertebrae is hollow, forming a segment of a canal, so that
when all the vertebrae, extending from the atlas to the
bones of the tail, are united together, they form a canal
— the nural canal — which lodges the spinal cord, and from
which the spinal nerves originate, to be subsequently
distributed to various organs and tissues throughout the
body.

The spinal cord commences at the base of the brain in
a structure known as the medulla oblongata, and from
the latter numerous nerves arise. The spinal cord is an
extremely delicate structure composed of white and grey
matter, and it is invested by three membranes correspond-
ing to those covering the brain. The nural canal, in which

132 THE HORSE

it is lodged, forms a very protective shelter to it ; never-
theless, in spite of this fact, the spinal cord is occasionally
implicated in disease.

Reverting to the structure of the skeleton, the bones of
the neck are followed by eighteen dorsal vertebrae, each
of which has a well-developed spine on its upper surface, to
which ligamentous and muscular structures are attached.
The spines are longest at the withers, the summit of which
they form. Following the vertebrae last named are those
of the loins, called the lumbar vertebrae, of which there are
six or seven. Succeeding these are the five sacral vertebrae,
which assist in forming the bond of union between the
latter, the pelvis, and the hind limbs. Following the sacral
vertebrae are the bones of the tail (coccygeal vertebrae).

The whole of the vertebrae possess limited movement,
and the spinal column is a fairly flexible rod, but this
degree of flexibility is much greater in some horses than
in others owing to the special nature of the work required
of them. The ribs number eighteen pairs, eight of which
are regarded as true ribs and the remaining ten as false.
The first-named are joined on to corresponding segments
on the sternum or breast-bone. The last-named forms
the floor of the chest.

Each rib possesses a certain amount of elasticity,
consequently these structures are able to resist, without
injury, a good deal of external violence, though of course
fracture of the ribs in the horse is not in the least un-
common. The ribs form the lateral boundaries of the
chest wall and part of the roof of the cavity, being assisted
in the latter by the bodies of the dorsal vertebras.

The fore limbs are not attached to the skeleton as in
the case of the hind limbs, being m_erely slung on to the
body through the medium of muscular tissue, the skin
and sub-cutaneous tissue.

The hind limbs are attached to the spinal column by the
pelvic girdle, therefore there is a greater degree of mobility
in the fore hmbs of a horse than in the hind ones, no

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 133

matter whether the movement is backward, forward,
outwards or inwards.

Each fore Hmb is composed of the following bones :
the scapula, or shoulder-blade ; the humerus, or the arm ;
the radius and the ulna, or the forearm ; the bones of the
knee or the wrist ; the large cannon bone ; and the two
splint bones behind this. Technically, the bones last
named are the large and small metacarpals. These are
succeeded by the sessamoids — two small bones at the
lower end and the back of the large cannon bone.

We now come to the long pastern bone, the short
pastern, and the coffin or pedal-bone. Sometimes these
three bones are spoken of as the first, second, and third
phalanges. All these bones articulate with one another
so that we have the shoulder joint ; the elbow joint ;
the knee joint ; the fetlock joint ; the pastern joint ;
and the coffin or pedal joint ; the two last-named being
enclosed within the hoof.

All the bones in the fore hmb are fairly strong, and two
at least of them occupy a very sheltered position which
materially diminishes their risk of injury. These are the
shoulder-blade and the arm, though of course neither are
exempt from fracture.

Each hind limb consists of the femur, or first thigh-bone;
the tibia fibula, or second thigh-bone. The fibula is a
very slender rod of bone.

The second thigh is succeeded by the hock joint,
composed of the os calcis (heel), the astragalus, and
several other small bones. From the hock to the foot
the remainder of the bones bear exactly the same names
and occupy corresponding positions to those bones in
the fore limb. At the back of each pedal-bone there is a
small shuttle-shaped bone — the navicular.

The joints in the hind Hmb are as follows : the hip ;
the stifle ; the hock ; and those of the phalanges. At
the stifle there is the pateUa, or bone which forms the
knee-cap.

134 THE HORSE

Following the stifle joint is the hock, and this is like the-
knee composed of a number of small joints formed between
the individual bones of the hock. It is of interest to note
in passing that the point of the hock corresponds to the
heel in man, whilst the knee is comparable to the wrist,
and the stifle to the knee.

In the horse the metacarpal bones are reduced to
three (in man five), and are represented by the back of
the hand. The hind Hmbs, as previously stated, are
united to the skeleton by means of the pelvic girdle or in-
nominate bone, each half of which is composed of three
portions, namely, the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis.
These are united together by ossification and form a
sohd bond of union between the hind limbs and the trunk,
the articulation being formed by the bones of the sacrum.

In looking at the skeleton of the horse (see illustration),
the reader will notice the remarkable position which some
of the bones occupy, the angles they form, together with
the extremely rigid nature of the whole structure. All
the bones forming the skeleton present various rough-
nesses, depressions, prominences, and other marks
indicating the attachments of muscles, Ugaments, tendons,
the passage of nerves and blood-vessels, and the coverings
of the bones themselves.

The joints are of interest, as showing the various
movements that they are capable of executing, and also
the surfaces of the opposing ends of the bones are of
additional interest.

Taking the fore Hmb and commencing at the shoulder
joint we find that the lower end of the shoulder-blade, or
scapula, shows a cup-shaped depression or concavity,
whereas the upper end of the humerus, or arm, presents
a large convex surface, the whole joint being closed by
what is known as a capsular Hgament. This represents
the so-called enerthrodial, or ball-and-socket joint, and
it is obviously one which allows a considerable amount of
freedom of movement. The same remark is applicable

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136 THE HORSE

to the hip joint, which is also a ball-and-socket joint, but
it differs from the shoulder joint in one remarkable
respect, namely, that there is a short round ligament —
(the so-called round Hgament) — which passes between
the articular head of the first thigh bone and the cavity
into which it fits on the pelvis. This exercises a restrain-
ing movement by preventing abduction of the limb.
This ligament is practically absent in cattle, hence the
reason these animals are able to kick in an outward
direction as well as backwards and forwards.

The shoulder joint of the horse, as previously stated,
allows a great freedom of movement, and this is super-
added to by the manner in which the scapula or shoulder-
blade is slung on to the side of the chest wall. All joints,
in addition to being enclosed by a capsular ligament,
have the ends of the bone covered by cartilage, whilst
the capsular ligament is lined by synobial membrane,
the special functions of which are to secrete synobia, or
what is popularly known as joint-oil — an albuminous
fluid allied to the white of egg.

From what we have already said the reader will have
learned how a joint is formed. Following upon the
shoulder joint is the elbow joint, and this is quite different
from the first named. To begin with there is practically
no lateral movement, this being what is known as a hinge
joint, and is formed by the union of three bones, namely,
the lower end of the humerus, the upper end of the
radius, and the articular surface of the ulna. Extension
is the principal movement of this joint.

Succeeding the elbow joint we come to the so-called
knee, which is composed of a number of small bones, each
having several minute articular surfaces or facets for
articulation amongst themselves, and conferring upon
them a slight gliding movement. In reality the knee
joint is a complex one. Thus, for instance, there is that
formed between the lower end of the radius and the
upper row of the carpal bones, constituting the so-called

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 137

radio-carpal articulation ; then that between the in-
dividual of the carpals — the inter-carpal articulation ;
and lastly, the one between the lower row of the carpal
bones and the upper ends .of the large and small meta-
carpal— carpo-metacarpal articulation. The whole of
this complicated system of joints is completed by fibrous
tissue, capsular ligaments, and the sheaths of tendons,
plus the skin and sub-cutaneous tissue. It is rather
important for the reader to know this because he will be
in a better position to understand the degree of injury to
the structures of the knee in the so-called broken knee, or
knees, which ranges from a mere superficial abrasion to
actual fracture of the bones of the knee.

The knee is capable of a great degree of flexion, and
attains its maximum flexibility in the hackney.

The fetlock joint is the next one, and is formed by the
lower end of the large canon bone by the sessamoids and
the upper end of the first phalanx, or long pastern bone.
It is a hinged joint and allows complete flexion and a
limited amount of lateral movement. Like the knee
joint the fetlock should always be capable of being freely
flexed during manipulation, though unfortunately both
these joints are often stiff through usage, and in some
instances variable degrees of anchylosis or stiffening
exist. This naturally diminishes the value and utility
of a horse irrespective of age and breed.

The remainder of the joints in the fore Umb are of the
same hinge-like nature as that of the fetlock, modified of
course in accordance with the special functions they have
to perform.

Passing to the hind hmb we may say that the stifle
joint possesses an extreme degree of mobility and is a
complex joint, there being in reality several joints here.
First of all there is one between the lower end of the
femur or first thigh and the upper end of the tibia, or
second thigh (femoro-tibial articulation), and secondly
between the patella and front of the lower end of the

138 THE HORSE

femur (femoro-patellar articulation). To limit the degree
of concussion in this region discs of cartilage are inter-
posed between the opposing articular surfaces, the whole
being enclosed and supported by capsular and straight
ligaments.

The stifle joint is frequently the seat of various injuries,
the principal one being slipped stifle (dislocation patella),
and this is commonly met with in foals and colts, but
also in adult animals, both horses and mules, more
especially those in poor condition.

The hock joint — corresponding to the ankle in man —
is like that of the knee, composed of a number of joints
formed betw^een the lower end of the tibia and the large
and small bones of the hock, as well as the upper ends of
the large and small metatarsals ; but the principal articula-
tion is that between the lower end of the tibia and the
astragalus, or screw-bone of the hock. This is called the
true hock joint, and it allows a great degree of flexion,
and the greater this degree, the better the hock action.
The rest of the joints correspond to those in the fore limb.

The Muscular System

The muscular system of the horse is a well developed
one, and comprises the whole mass of muscle or flesh
attached to the skeleton upon which it is moulded.
Muscular tissue is divisible into two varieties, namely,
the striped or voluntary muscle, and the plain or in-
voluntary ; whilst a third variety forms the whole
substance of the heart, and is known as cardiac muscle,
in which the fibres are disposed in a special manner.

The whole of the muscles on the skeleton are of the
striped variety, whilst plain muscle is found in the walls
of the stomach, intestines, etc. All the muscles of the
skeleton have what is known as an origin and an insertion,
and those of the limbs, particularly below the knee and
the hock, have long tendinous attachments, both to the

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 139

front and back of the limb forming the flexor and extensor
tendons. It is of some importance to note that there is an
absence of flesh or muscle below the knee or hock, hence
it follows why wounds and other injuries are usually so
slow in healing.

The muscles of the neck, back, loins, and quarters are
long and well developed, whilst those in the limbs have
their tendinous prolongations gliding through lubricating
sheaths at the joints, either at the front or the back of
the limbs. Each muscle has its own particular functions
to fulfil, and it may either act in consort with other
muscles or in opposition to such in fulfilling its functions.

All the muscles are richly supplied with pure blood by
the arteries and by veins for carrying away the impure
blood. Their power of movement is regulated by their
nerve supply.

The more highly developed the muscular system, the
more speciaUsed the functions in this particular area.

Internal Structure of a Horse

The nervous system comprises the brain and spinal
cord, and the nerves issuing to and from these structures.
The brain is lodged within the cranial cavity, and it
occupies a very sheltered position, but in spite of the
protection thus afforded it, it is hable to injury, to disease,
and to participate in functional derangement. It is
composed of a right and left hemisphere, the whole con-
stituting the cerebrum, whilst there is a smaller portion
of the brain known as the cerebellum, beneath which lies
the medulla oblongata and the pons varolii, both of
which look like expanded portions of the spinal cord and
with which they are in direct continuity. From the base
of the brain twelve pairs of nerves arise, such as the nerves
of smeU, sight, taste, and so forth

The brain has three protective coverings, the outermost
of which is thick and fibrous. The blood supply to the
brain is of a very complex nature.

140 THE HORSE

The substance of the brain consists of white and grey
matter, the grey matter being disposed externally,
whereas the reverse is applicable to the spinal cord, in
which the grey matter is placed internally. 'Like the brain,
the cord has three coverings.

Highly specialised nerve cells enter largely into the
formation of the structure of the brain and the spinal
cord. Twenty-two pairs of nerves arise from the cord,
conveying afferent and efferent impulses to and from it.

The Respiratory System

In a horse the respiratory system (or respiratory organs)
is well developed, and comprises the nasal cavity, the air
sinuses, the larynx, the trachea, and the lungs, plus the
bronchial tubes. The nostrils are fairly wide and divisible
into two portions, one being known as the false nostril,
and one as the true. The nasal passage is divisible into
right and left portions, the partition between the two
being composed of a plate of cartilage known as the
septum nasi, and this, like the remainder of the passage
as well as the air sinuses, is covered by mucous membrane,
which in health is of a bright pink colour.

The air sinuses are compartments formed within the
skull, and contain a reserve supply of air. They are in
communication with one another and with the nasal
passage, and in addition confer a degree of lightness on
the head.

The horse, being an animal required for swift pro-
gression, renders it necessary that the foregoing features
should be present. The sinuses are divided into the
superior maxillary, the inferior maxillary, the frontal,
and the sphenoidal, the last named being the smallest of
the four. The sinuses are not uncommonly implicated in
various diseases.

The larynx forms the entrance to the trachea or great
air tube, and it is particularly well developed in the
horse. It is composed of cartilage, muscles, and inter-

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 141

vening connective tissue. It is commonly the seat of
disease, particularly in *' roaring/' The trachea is
composed of a number of cartilaginous rings united
together to form a single tube, which, as it enters the
chest, bifurcates into the right and left bronchial tubes,
each of which passes to the lungs, again divides and sub-
divides until, finally, its ramifications, plus blood-vessels,
fibrous tissue, etc., form the lungs.

The trachea in the horse is close to the surface of the
skin throughout a considerable portion of its course,
consequently access to its interior, in other words,
tracheotomy, is an operation comparatively easy to
perform.

The lungs are large and occupy the bulk of the cavity
of the chest ; the heart and the great vessels are suspended
between the two. Each lung is covered by a delicate
glistening membrane known as the pleural membrane,
and this is also reflected over the inner side of the ribs to
form the costal pleura in contradistinction to that cover-
ing the lungs, the pulmonary pleura. This serous mem-
brane is also reflected over the heart, forming the peri-
cardium in which the heart is enclosed.

The lungs have a very rich blood supply, and the three
principal vessels are the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary
vein, and the bronchial artery. Unlike other vessels in
the body the pulmonary artery carries impure blood,
and the pulm.onary vein arterial blood, but the nutrient
aitery of the lung is the bronchial. These features,
however, are of merely passing interest to the reader of
this book.

During the act of inspiration pure air is admitted into
the lungs by the trachea, and it passes into the pulmonary
alveoli which are encircled by the capillaries, containing
impure blood, for oxidation during the act of inspiration.
The expiratory effort comprises the discharge of carbon
dioxide from the lungs after purification of the blood in
these structures.

142 THE HORSE

The lungs are suspended in the chest through the
medium of blood-vessels and connective tissue. Like
other structures they are commonly liable to disease.

The cavity of the chest is separated from that of the
belly by a single muscle known as the midriff, or the
diaphragm, through which there are several openings for
the passage of blood-vessels, the gullet, etc.

The diaphragm is the chief muscle of inspiration.

As previously stated the heart is enclosed in a sac — the
pericardium. It is a hollow muscular organ with a right
and a left compartment below, namely, the ventricles,
and a right and a left compartment above, the auricles,
the divisions between being formed of muscle in each case,
but the right ventricle is separated from the right auricle
by a valve, a remark which applies also to the left auricle
and ventricle. These valves are of extremely delicate
construction and their integrity is absolutely indispensable
for the maintenance of perfect health. Unfortunately,
however, they are often the seat of disease, more especi-
ally in that disastrous trouble chronic rheumatism.

Impairment of the valves leads to their inefficiency,
and the result is that the circulation of the blood becomes
interfered with. As stated elsewhere in this chapter the
heart is composed of a special kind of muscle which
confers upon it its powers of contraction and expansion
for the distribution of blood throughout the body and
its subsequent return to the heart after having been
purified in the lungs.

The animal body has two circulations, namely, the
pulmonary, or lesser, which is confined to the right side
of the body, and a left, or systemic one, for the general
supply of the whole body. In order to facilitate this
distribution of blood throughout the body the left side
of the heart is a great deal thicker than the right, hence
its power of contractihty is much greater than that of
the right.

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 143

The Digestive System

The digestive system, plus the accessory organs,
comprises the tongue, the teeth, the sahvary glands, the
pharynx, the oesophagus, or gullet, the stomach, the
small and the large intestines, the liver, and the pancreas.
For a description of the teeth the reader is referred to
the chapter dealing with these structures, namely, " The
Age of the Horse."

The tongue is a muscular structure covered by mucous
membrane and numerous papillae. Its functions are to
assist in maintaining food in' the mouth, to ensure its
thorough ensalivation, and to hand it to the back part
of the mouth, that is into the pharynx, from which it
subsequently passes along the oesophagus directly into
the stomach. The tongue of the horse is relatively large,
and is maintained in its position on the floor of the mouth
through the medium of the hyoid bone and connective
tissue.

The salivary glands are placed beneath the tongue, and
also immediately behind the jaw. Their function is to
secrete a fluid — the saliva — which, as it intermingles with
the food, converts, through the medium of a ferment,
the insoluble starch into sugar. Digestion really begins
in the mouth.

The oesophagus, or gullet, passes down the neck
immediately behind or at the side of the trachea, and after
entering in the diaphragm is continued into the stomach
to form the cardiac end of the latter. Only one half of
the stomach of the horse is functional as far as digestion
is concerned, owing to the fact that the lining of the gullet
is continued as part of the lining of the stomach, forming
the cuticular portion of the last named.

The stomach of the horse is comparatively small, only
having a capacity of three or four gallons. It possesses
many features of anatomical interest to which it is not
necessary to allude. Its position in the abdominal cavity

144 THE HORSE

may bear some relation to the fact that vomission but
rarely occurs in the horse.

The spleen is attached to the stomach externally by a
ligament.

Digestion, to a large extent, takes place in the stomach,
but to a greater extent in the small intestines.

The total extent of the intestines in a horse is about
120 ft., 70 of which is comprised in the small intestine.
These extend from the outlet of the stomach to the
caecum. The large intestine is divisible into the double
colon, the single colon, and the caecum, the latter being a
blind portion of the intestine. The double colon has a
capacity of about twenty or thirty gallons, and its length
is about twenty feet, therefore in order that the abdominal
cavity may accommodate this huge structure the double
colon is flexed or bent over upon itself.

The intestines, like the stomach, are composed of three
coats, namely, an outer, or serous ; a middle, or muscular ;
and an inner, or mucous. The digestive and mucous
glands are situated in the latter.

All the digestive organs have a rich blood supply,
nerve supply, and in addition absorbent or lymphatic
glands.

The liver is large and situated on the right side of the
body on a level with the last three or four ribs. Like the
rest of the abdominal viscera it has a capsular invest-
ment or serous covering, together with ligamentous
attachments which maintain it in position in the cavity.
It is composed of liver cells, connective tissue, blood-
vessels, and bile ducts. The bile ducts open into the
duodenum, which is comprised in the first two feet of the
small intestine. The liver acts as a store-house for starch
and for the manufacture of bile, the functions of the latter
being indispensable in assisting and completing the various
digestive processes.

The pancreas, popularly known as the sweetbread, is a
secreting gland for the manufacture of the pancreatic

THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HORSE 145

fluid — a fluid intimately associated with digestion. The
duct of this gland opens into the beginning of the small
intestine and conveys the fluid secreted into the latter.
This completes the description of the digestive organs.

The Urinary and Generative Organs

The urinary apparatus comprises the right and left
kidneys plus their capsular coverings, the ureters or tubes
conveying the urine from the kidneys to the bladder, the
latter being a reservoir for the temporary storage of the
urine, from which organ the urethra conveys the fluid
outside the body. In the mare the urethra is short and
straight, but much longer in the male. The kidneys are
situated beneath the loins, and their functions are to
separate the waste products of the blood and excrete it as
urine. The whole of the urinary apparatus occupies a
very sheltered position in the anatomy, but in spite of
this portions of it are sometimes implicated in injuries to
the loins, pelvis, etc., whilst those organs are also, and
not uncommonly, affected by diseases.

The generative organs in the female comprise the
mammary gland, the external generative organ, the
fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The male organs consist of
the testicles and the spermatic cord, along with the ex-
ternal generative organ. Like a portion of the urinary
apparatus, part of the generative organs are contained
in the pelvic cavity, i.e. the area within the pelvis.
Diseases and injuries commonly affect both these systems,
and always demand professional skill in dealing with them.

CHAPTER XVI

Specific Infective Diseases

The horse is liable to suffer from quite a number of
specific diseases, that is, diseases due to micro-organisms
or germs. These organisms are of an extremely minute
size and require high powers of the microscope for their
demonstration. Some of these organisms are capable
of perpetuation outside the body by means of spores,
and may continue their lives for a prolonged period.
Nearly the whole of the specific diseases afiecting the
horse have been, during the last half-century, scientifi-
cally investigated and found to be due to the presence of
micro-organisms or bacteria. The older observers had
not the facility or requisite appliances for the proper
investigation of the maladies now under consideration.
The microscope has been the medium for the solution of
some of the most complex problems in connection with
pathological and bacteriological results. Many hitherto
undiscovered causes of disease have been satisfactorily
revealed. Moreover, microscopical research has resulted
in the production of serums and vaccines, agents which
are used both for the prevention and cure of disease, and
their value in some cases is indisputable. These diseases
are communicable from one horse to another by direct
or indirect means ; likewise some of them are transferable
to man, and in him may take a short and fatal course, as,
for example, glanders and anthrax. The specific infective
diseases are nearly all notifiable, that is, if their existence
is suspected on any premises the matter must be reported
to the local authority of the district, which in some cases,

146

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 147

in rural districts, is the police-inspector. In a small work
of this kind all the writer can do is to indicate a few of
the principal features of some of the diseases, and if the
reader wishes for other information upon the subject he
must consult some larger manual relating to this matter.

Catarrh

This is one of the commonest diseases affecting the
horse, and it is prevalent during all seasons of the year,
but more so during the spring and the autumn. Although
catarrh is a comparatively mild complaint its existence
should never be overlooked amongst a stud of horses,
because an animal that is affected should, for the time
being, be kept from work. During the recent Great War
this affection was very prevalent amongst the horses,
and it was responsible for the inefficiency of a large
percentage of animals, both at home and abroad. More-
over, there is a predisposition for catarrhal symptoms
to develop into a much more serious trouble, viz. pneu-
monia ; hence the advisability in all cases of catarrh,
amongst a small stud of horses, to take the temperature
of each affected animal daily. The clinical thermometer
is an invaluable instrument for this purpose. In all
ordinary cases of catarrh the temperature seldom exceeds
104°, in fact, it is usually below 103° Fahr., the normal
temperature of a horse being 100°, or at any rate not
more than 101°. Any rise of temperature beyond 103°
should be looked upon with suspicion and the tempera-
ture taken, not once, but twice a day, morning and
evening. It is wonderful how rapidly catarrh will extend
throughout a stud of horses, and how very persistent it
is whenever it appears in any particular district. There
is a disease known as strangles, and this is usually accom-
panied by a catarrhal discharge from the nostrils, conse-
quently the owner may think that the animal has got an
ordinary attack of catarrh, whereas in reality it is the

148 THE HORSE

trouble formerly named. Certain other diseases are also
accompanied by catarrh, though very often the discharge
is of a chronic nature — chronic catarrh. When a horse
has catarrh it is seldom that it produces much constitu-
tional disturbance, but sometimes the affected animal
goes off its food for a day or two. The leading symptom
in this trouble is a catarrhal discharge from one or both
nostrils, along with increased redness of the mucous
membrane lining the nose and eyes. The discharge is at
first thin and w^atery, but later on becomes purulent and
adheres around the margins of the nostrils, therefore it is
quite an easy matter to detect the existence of this
trouble, unless the nostrils have been previously sponged,
but immediately prior to inspection. The heightened
colour of the nasal mucous membrane should arouse
suspicion as to the probability of this disease developing.
The channels through which this disease are spread are
not very clearly understood, but the chances are in
favour of its perpetuation through the medium of the
nasal discharge, as directly and indirectly, and another
possible source of infection is the atmosphere in which
an infected animal resides. The channel of infection is
the respiratory tract. The sources of infection, in addition
to the hving animal, are the hands and clothing of atten-
dants, mangers, stall posts, private and public drinking
troughs, forage, litter, clothing, saddlery, etc. Doubtless
some horses contract the disease in railway trucks, in
which previously infected animals have travelled. The
public water trough may act as a source of contagion, as
it is not unlikely that street troughs are frequently
infected. Horses which are picketed together may
easily spread the disease from one to another by direct
contact of the nasal discharge, or through the medium
of lines and ropes. The general idea concerning catarrh,
more especially amongst the uneducated, is that it is
produced by cold or sudden changes of temperature, but
this is in all probability quite an erroneous view. The

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 149

only treatment necessary is to throw the animal off work
and allow a small dose of Epsom salts in the drinking
water, night and morning. If applicable, clothe the body
and bandage the Hmbs. Unless the weather is too cold,
all cases of catarrh should be kept in the open, as experience
proves, when horses have this trouble, they get better
much more rapidly in the open air, and are seldom
troubled with a cough, which is certainly not the case
when kept in an overheated sta,ble, m^ore especially if the
latter is none too sanitary. Two or three weeks' rest is
usually sufficient time for recovery to take place, but
exceptions to this laile are not at all uncommon. Benefit
does, unquestionably, follov/ fumigation of the nasal
passage with medicated steam. A little turpentine added
to boiling water and poured over sawdust contained in a
close-fitting bag, suspended to the head, will be found
beneficial. These inhalations can be repeated night and
morning.

Strangles

There is a disease affecting the horse which is character-
ised by swePiing below and between the jaws, usually
accompanied by a nasal discharge. This swelling may be
sufficiently extensive to press upon the upper part of the
windpipe and impede respiration. The disease is, there-
fore, spoken of as strangles. It affects horses of all ages
and of any breed, but it is one of those troubles which
are more prone to attack the young than the fully matured
animal. Some cases of strangles are of an exceedingly
mild nature, others quite the reverse, more especially
when the disease appears in connection with vital organs,
such as the brain, the heart-sac, and structures in con-
tiguity to the intestines. Under these circumstances the
disease is spoken of as " irregular " or " bastard "
strangles, the latter a vulgarism which is well understood.
Like catarrh, strangles was extremely prevalent amongst
the horses in the British Army, and had it not been for

150 THE HORSE

isolation, or segregation, there is no doubt that this
malady would have given much more trouble than it did.
The organisms, or germ, of strangles have been cultivated
outside the body of the animal, and the cultures thus
obtained, when injected into the body of an animal, have
reproduced the disease. Horses coming from dealers'
stables, markets, and fairs, particularly young animals,
seem to be very prone to the development of this trouble.
Strangles is characterised by a preliminary malaise, to
which the expression " breeding strangles " is apphed.
It is the horseman's vernacular for expressing the " dor-
mant " or " incubative " period of this disease. Follow-
ing this prehminary indisposition a swelhng can be felt or
seen and felt beneath and at the side of the jaw. It is
somewhat tender and painful, though these features are
not uncommonly absent. The swelhng increases from
day to day, until the intermaxillary space is considerable.
This is the formative stage of the abscess, and as the skin
becomes tenser every day, it finally softens at one point
and then breaks. To save time the veterinary surgeon
usually lances the abscess and keeps the wound open
for several days in order to encourage free suppuration.
Sometimes the abscess forms at the back of the jaw, just
below the ear. When this is the case the animal suffers
a great deal more, and the course of the disease is more
prolonged. Several abscesses sometimes form ; in fact,
the writer has seen them extending down the neck, ^
following the course of the windpipe. Fever may or may
not be present. Sometimes the breathing is seriously
disturbed ; in fact, so much so as to necessitate the wind-
pipe being cut open and a tube inserted (tracheotomy).
Recovery usually occurs within a month, provided that
all goes well. Very little treatment is necessary beyond
that of clipping the hair off the seat of the swelling and
rubbing in a Httle blistering ointment, but it will be
found that the best advice we can give is to call in a
quahfied veterinary surgeon and leave the case entirely

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 151

in his hands. The food in both strangles and catarrh
should consist of scalded oats, bran and hnseed, scalded
hay and green food, when such can be obtained.

Influenza

A large percentage of cases which it has been customary
to speak of as influenza are nothing but catarrh or
strangles. It would, however, be injudicious to speak of
typical cases of influenza as belonging to either of the
foregoing diseases. Influenza is one of those troubles
which are often present in horses coming from dealers,
and, like catarrh and strangles, it follows the lines of
traffic. It is customary to speak of the malady as being
a specific infective disease, accompanied by a consider-
able degree of prostration, loss of appetite, catarrh, and
a harsh and persistent cough, rendering swallowing
difficult. The internal temperature ranges up to 107°
Fahr., and it is quite common to find horses with a
temperature of 105° and ig6°. At first the nasal mucous
membrane is heightened in colour and its surface dry,
but this is soon followed by moisture, and later on by a
purulent discharge from the nose. Influenza assumes
various forms, such as the respiratory, the hepatic, the
intestinal, and the cerebral, all of which symptoms
merely represent the predominating cHnical features of
the disease. The pneumonic form accounts for the
greatest number of deaths, whilst the ordinary respiratory
one is indistinguishable from catarrh. The supervention
of pneumonia is indicated by a rise of the bodily tempera-
ture, increased respirations ; in short, the animal begins
to " blow hard," and the nostrils are dilated, becoming
more and more so as the disease in the lungs advances.
The pulse is greatly increased in number, sixty to seventy
per minute, whilst if pleurisy is an accompaniment the
animal has a short suppressed cough and very often
grunts when it moves. All horses when they have got

152 THE HORSE

lung trouble persistently stand in one position, and that
position is where they can take most advantage of the
fresh air, which is usually near to the door or window.
This fact should never be lost sight of in the treatment
of lung complaints ; in fact, fresh air is one half the
battle in deahng with lung trouble. Experience proves
that horses should be kept out in the open air as much as
possible, provided that the animal can be kept dry.
The open air treatment of pneumonia cannot be too
strongly insisted upon ; in fact, all respiratory complaints
should be dealt with after the fashion indicated. There
is a trite saying, '* Give him air and he'll straight be well."
In disease, more particularly that in connection with the
lungs, pure air represents food, and it will do more good
than all the medicine in the world. In nine cases out of
ten pleurisy accompanies pneumonia, which is not to be
wondered at, considering that this serous membrane
invests the lung structures, being reflected over the lungs
as well as lining the cavity of the chest. In the bilious
form the predominant symptom is yellowness of the skin
and visible mucous membranes. For instance, the lining
of the eyelids is yellow, the nasal passage has a yellowish "
tint, the cheeks are yellow on their inner side, the mouth
is dry and the tongue yellow, the white portion of the
eyes is yellow, whilst the pulse is full and slow, the
temperature elevated two or three degrees, and the
animal is torpid, with httle or no desire for food. Some-
times this trouble is spoken of as bilious fever, and is
due to the bile pigm^ents entering the circulation. These
bilious S3miptoms sometimes persist for several weeks
before they show any signs of abatement. The urine is
of a deep yellow colour. In the intestinal form of influenza
the animal is restless, indicating that there is a certain
amount of abdominal pain or colicky disturbance. The
stomach and the intestines are very often implicated in
the bilious form previously alluded to. When the brain
and spinal cord are participating in the disease now

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 153

under consideration the variety of nervous symptoms
become either partly or completely established. In-
fluenza as it appears in the civilian stables is a much-
dreaded disease, as the horse master knows that it is
extremely liable to extend throughout the stud, rendering
them for the time being more or less ineffective. Another
modification of influenza is found in a Canadian horse
disease known as " pink-eye," or '* epizootic " cellulitis —
a disease characterised by an oedematous or swollen con-
dition of the mucous membrane Hning the eyehd, resulting
in the eyes being partially or completely closed. Periodi-
cal invasions of this disease make their appearance in
Great Britain, and it is a very undesirable complaint to
have amongst horses, because for some reason unknown
there is habihty to sudden death of the patient, and the
percentage of deaths is higher in this trouble than in
ordinary influenza. Irrespective of the nature of the
prevailing symptoms, all influenza cases require careful
nursing, the disease being one that is disposed to run a
definite course. It is an equine distemper, and cannot be
cut short through the use of medicines or serums. The
latter have been a good deal used in the treatment of
this trouble, but the results cannot be said to be very
satisfactory ; in fact, nothing can be said to favour their
use. Influenza is a disease which must be treated in
accordance with those symptoms which are the most
striking feature of the trouble. The ' amateur should
never dabble in the treatment of a complaint of this
nature. He will find it much more to his interest to
em^ploy professional assistance, as every case must be
dealt with on its merits. The animal should be placed
under the best conditions possible, and, whenever appHc-
able, suitable clothing should be put on the body and
flannel bandages on the lim^bs. Imm.ediately a horse is
suspected of having this disease it should either be
segregated or else isolated. By segregation we mean
separation from the rest of the stud, whereas isolation

154 THE HORSE

shuts off all contact, directly or indirectly, from other
animals. Scalded food, such as oats, bran, and linseed,
scalded hay, to which a Httle treacle has been added,
carrots and green food are the usual requisites when
nursing a sick animal. A free supply of pure water is
essential, and to each pailful of this an ounce of Epsom
salts and half an ounce of powdered nitre can be added
daily. Good nursing is fully half the battle, and the
other half comprises pure air, plus the discriminate use
of medicinal agents. As weakness is so very marked in
this trouble a liberal supply of milk and some stimulant
is always beneficial. The disease usually lasts for several
weeks, but all will depend upon the nature of the attack.

Glanders

This is an extremely serious malady, as it places so
much restraint upon all animals in contact with one that
is suffering from the disease. It is due to the bacillus
malleus, which is an extremely minute organism circulat-
ing in the blood and invading the lungs, respiratory tract,
and absorbent vessels and glands in which the skin
participates. When it attacks the absorbent vessels and
skin the malady is known as farcy, or cutaneous glan-
ders. The disease is communicable to man and assumes
both acute and chronic forms, but it is comimonly observed
in its chronic state. Glanders offers a tremendous field
for investigation, and it has always been a disease which
has received a great deal of attention at the hands of
those who are interested in the study of diseases of the
horse. Its existence has been known for several centuries,
and was studied by some of the oldest observers. It is
gradually on the decline ; motor traction and legislation
have done a tremendous lot towards stamping out the
disease, but so long as the horse exists, so will glanders
and its alHed manifestations be in existence. During
this last thirty or forty years it has undergone some

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 155

modification in its severity, as there are fewer cases in
the present day of the mahgnant nature which prevailed
many years ago. It is generally accepted that the disease
commences in the lungs, and may exist for years in an
animal without the owner having the slightest suspicion
that he has this disease upon his premises. Time after
time this has happened, but since the introduction of
mallein as a test for the existence of glanders, it is possible
to diagnose the disease when it exists in its most element-
ary state. Had it not been for mallein during the Great
War there is no doubt glanders would have been very
prevalent amongst the horses, with all its evil conse-
quences. Mallein is a very rehable agent provided that
its use is respected. Plenty of horses are working in the
larger cities with this disease upon them, for the simple
reason that there may be no cHnical indications of the
disease. All horse owners are not willing to have the
mallein test apphed, fearing that unforeseen trouble may
arise. It is a notifiable disease, and if its existence is
suspected no time should be lost in reporting the matter
to the local authority, as the danger to mankind is
considerable, and numerous deaths have been caused
through glanders in the horse. Compulsory slaughter is
enforced by the Board of Agriculture and compensation
paid accordingly. It is hardly hkely that any horse
owner would recognise this disease, as there might be an
entire absence of any visible signs of its existence. In
typical cases there is ulceration of the mucous membrane
hning the nose and of a discharge from one or both
nostrils, but very often from one side only. In addition
to this, there is often a hard but painless swelling on the
inner side of the lower jaw, which, unhke that of strangles,
has very httle tendency to increase in size. In the mule
the discharge from the nose is brownish grey, often inter-
mingled with blood, and often accompanied by a peculiar
snuffling sound in the upper part of the nasal cavity.
In the disease called farcy, small bud-Hke swelHngs arise

156 THE HORSE

along the course of the absorbent vessels, and in course of
time these buds burst and discharge an unhealthy-
looking pus. A great deal will, however, depend on
whether the disease is acute or chronic. Diagnosis is
based upon reaction to the mallein test, but it is not neces-
sary to enter into any further consideration of this
disease.

Anthrax

Anthrax as it appears in the horse is by no means a
common disease in the British Isles, but in India and
various other countries it is a fairly common malady.
One of the worst features about it is that it is extremely
fatal and also communicable to man, through even the
most trifling abrasions of the skin, provided that blood
from an anthrax carcass accidentally gains admission
to a wound, which as previously stated may be ever so
slight. It is a disease of considerable antiquity, but it is
not much more than half a century since that organisms
producing it were demonstrated to exist in the blood.
Cattle, pigs, and certain other animals may contract the
disease ; in fact, in cattle it is not at all an uncommon
trouble, in which anim.als it is spoken of as splenic
apoplexy. Sheep are likewise affected, whilst pigs
occasionally contract the disease through feeding upon
the offal of an anthrax carcass. As in the case of glanders,
immediate notification of its existence or suspected
existence is required by ,the Board of Agriculture, and
upon the opinion of that body diagnosis will rest. In
the horse the course of the disease is usually very rapid,
and the animal may die within two or three hours from
the onslaught of the attack. In some cases the lungs are
the main seat of the trouble ; in others the intestines.
The pain is very acute, the temperature high, 107° or
thereabout, pulse rapid and small, the breathing quick,
along with other signs of a malady which indicates death
from the outset. Anthrax is due to minute rod-shaped

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 157

organisms — the bacillus anthracis circulating in the
blood. The spores of this disease are very resistant to
many chemical agents, consequently this malady has
often been perpetuated through the medium of an
anthrax carcass or the grave where such has been buried
many years before. In man this affection is known as
wool sorter's disease, a malignant pustule contracted
through handling infected wool, alpaca, mohair, and
hides, either dried or fresh, whilst in exceptional instances,
anthrax has been transmitted through the apparently
harmless kid glove, plus some abrasion on the finger or
hand. Flies, especially the blow-fly, have been known
to carry infection to man, with fatal results. Legislation
compels the owner of an anthrax carcass to have it
cremated, which is done by the local authorities' instruc-
tions, immediately under police supervision.

Tetanus (Lockjaw)

Tetanus is a disease due to micro-organisms, but these
do not enter the circulation as in the case of the anthrax
germs. They remain at the seat of the wound, where they
manufacture toxins of a very deadly nature. It is a fairly
common disease among horses in particular localities ;
in fact, the most trifling injuries are often followed by
the development of tetanus, the organisms of which are
found in garden soil, drift sand, etc., hence the reason
why it is always expedient, even v/ith trivial wounds, no
matter whether man or animals, to clean these thoroughly
and paint them with iodine liniment — one of the most
valuable antiseptics known, and one which should always
be kept handy in every stable and household throughout
the world. In the horse, tetanus very often follows
wounds about the feet, such as " picked-up nail," punc-
ture of the foot through a misdirected nail at the forge,
abrasions of the skin and following upon castration, the
latter in particular. The size of the wound bears no

158 THE HORSE

relationship to the development of the trouble, which
may be acute or sub-acute. In nearly every instance
acute cases of tetanus are fatal, but about 35 per cent of
sub-acute attacks are followed by recovery, which is
generally very slow. It is a most unsatisfactory disease
to deal with, and unless the owner is prepared to bestow
a large amount of professional attendance, it will be
better to destroy the animal at the outset. There is a
serum both for the prevention and treatment of tetanus,
but like certain other sera, as a cure for the disease, has
not, in the author's hands, proved of any value, whilst
there are no reliable records to support a contrary
opinion. The great principle in dealing with this disease
is to keep the animal perfectly quiet in a darkened loose
box and give it sloppj^ food and water to drink. Its
existence is denoted by a general rigid condition of the
muscles of the neck, back, loins, and tail, and by inabihty
to open the jaws (trismus), but an animal may have
tetanus without the jaws being locked, though in the
majority of cases this state of affairs does exist ; in fact,
it may be the only sign which the owner has noticed.
An early indication is afforded by making a feint to touch
the horse beneath the jaw, when the animal's head is
thrown suddenly up ; when the third eyelid or membrane
nictitans is shot across the eye. This is a very significant
sign and should always be employed as a test if this
trouble is suspected. The tail is elevated and held out in
a quivering manner; muscular spasms come on under
the slightest excitement ; temperature shghtly elevated
and the breathing distressed. Tetanus is a disease with
considerable variation in the symptoms, but sufficient
has been said to give the reader an elementary notion as
to what this malady is like.

Joint-ill or Arthritis in Foals

Unfortunately this is rather a common affection in
foals and usually makes its appearance within a few days

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 159

after birth. In certain features it is allied to rheumatic
arthritis, but it has been proved to be a septic infection
along the tract of the umbilical cord, and the infection
starts at the umbilicus or navel, hence the advisability
of taking the necessary precautionary measures to prevent
the onset of this septic process. Cleanliness is an in-
dispensable factor when tying the cord with string, etc.,
at the time of birth. By far the best treatment which
can be suggested, so far as the prevention of this trouble
is concerned, is to paint the end of the cord and round
about the navel with iodine liniment. It is only necessary
to do this once or twice and joint -ill will seldom be heard
of. There is a serum for the treatment of this affection
when developed, but this is a matter to be dealt with by
the professional adviser. Joint-ill comes on very sud-
denly and is indicated by lameness and swelling at or
around a joint, such as for instance the shoulder, hock,
or knee. These swellings are hot and painful, and the
foal refuses to suck. Those who are acquainted with
this disease think that the little creature must have been
injured, but such is not the case. It is a very fatal
disease, and the foal may be dead within a few hours ;
in fact, it usually is. As already stated, there is no need
for this disease to exist at all, provided that the simple
measures which the author has indicated are adopted.
Quite a number of foals have been lost in some studs
through this complaint, but the reduction of this loss to
a minimum always lies within the owner's grasp.

Rheumatism

Horses, like man and other animals, are liable to suffer
from rheumatism, and also to have it both as an acute
and chronic affection, although it is not a particularly
common complaint in the horse in either form. Never-
theless, it is worth while to mention the fact that it may
and does sometimes occur. Either the muscles or the

i6o THE HORSE

joints may be attacked. Sometimes typical cases of
muscular rheumatism do occur, and when this is so it is
quite an easy matter to recognise this trouble, there
being a general stiffness observed, and the patient moves
with difficulty. It is quite possible that many of the
troubles affecting the bones and joints of horses, more
especially ring-bone, are of a rheumatic nature. If the
joints are attacked there is swelling, increased heat, and
pain. There is a peculiar liability for these swellings to
shift from one joint to another and to exist for a variable
time. The causes of rheumatism never seem to have been
definitely settled, but it is usually believed that exposure
to cold and v/et are the forerunners of this disease, or at
any rate, they a.pparentty act as exciting causes in its
development. It is quite possible that it is an organismal
disease, and that whatever abnormal condition of the
blood takes place, it is brought about through chemical
changes as a result of such organisms existing in the body.
In this complaint a warm and comfortable stable is most
important, and the body must be kept clothed, the limbs
bandaged, and the affected parts freely massaged once
or twice a day with some stimulating embrocation, such as
ordinary white oil. Sahne laxative medicine should be
given internally. Epsom salts in the drinking water
along with half an ounce of bicarbonate of potash twice
a da;y will fufil all requirements. Iodide of potash is one
of the principal drugs employed in the treatment of
chronic rheumatism.

Purpura

This is a blood disease, or at any rate one in which
there is an alteration in the composition of this fluid.
It is a complaint which usually follows diseases of an
exhausting nature, such as influenza, strangles, catarrh,
and pneumonia, particularly where insanitary surround-
ings exist. It was a very common disease among army
horses coming from aboard ship, more particularly when

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES i6i

the holds were overcrowded, the trip prolonged, and
other debiHtating factors in operation. Some of the worst
cases of purpura that it was possible to conceive came
under the writer's notice, and the animals had to be
destroyed in consequence. It is not, however, an un-
common disease in some civilian studs of horses, owing,
doubtless, to the insanitary state of the stables. Its
disappearance in such cases has coincided with im-
proved sanitary arrangements. Horses of any age,
sex, or breed are liable to purpura, and it is always
a trouble which renders the patient useless for work for
several weeks and sometimes for months. It is a trouble-
some disease to treat and commonly fatal. It is denoted
by the development of swelling, more especially about
dependent parts of the body, such as along the floor of
the belly, the sheath, the breast, around the nostrils,
along the course of the neck, and also about the
limbs. These swellings are neither hot nor very
painful, but there is a strong tendency for sloughing of
the skin at the part indicated, and this along with the
oozing of watery blood still futher aggravates the affec-
tion and tends to the greater exhaustion of an already
exhausted body. The patient becomes in a very weak
condition and refuses food. The mucous membranes,
such as those of the nose and eyes, commonly show blood
spots indicative of a degraded condition of the blood.
In milder cases recovery is hopeful, but irrespective of
this fact it is always advisable to have professional
advice, on the ground that whilst there is life there is
hope ; moreover, there is always satisfaction in doing
one's utmost to save the life of an animal.

Infectious Stomatitis

This complaint was extremely common amongst the
Army horses in France, and it is very questionable
whether it was not much commoner than supposed

L

i62 THE HORSE

amongst the horses at the home depots. It is closely
allied to foot and mouth disease in cattle, and like that
trouble extremely communicable from one horse to
another, and to mules and asses. It spread amongst the
horses with extraordinary rapidity, and very few escaped
having it. The principal lesions were in the mouth,
viz. on the lips, cheeks, tongue, and sometimes around the
mouth and around the coronet. Some horses had the
disease severely, others only shghtly. An early indication
of the disease is the appearance of foam about the Hps,
or else the dribbling of saliva from the mouth. When
the mouth is examined bhsters are observed, and after
these break they leave a raw patch of variable size. One
blister may fuse with another, and in this manner the
whole of the tongue may be stripped of its superficial
layer, giving it a bright scarlet appearance. The soreness
of the mouth is unquestionably severe, and the animal
feeds with difficulty, excepting in the milder cases, where
it apparently produces very little inconvenience. Most
of the affected animals recovered v/ithin three weeks.
If the coronet was implicated slight signs of separation
of the wall of the heel was sometimes observed, but the
author is not aware of any extensive sloughing having
occurred in the region last named. The situation of the
trouble, viz. inside the mouth, necessarily favours the
spread of this complaint. It is quite possible that it was
introduced into Great Britain when the Colonial horses
began to arrive.

Tuberculosis

As this disease occasionally occurs in a horse the author
considers that it is worthy of mention, even in a small
work of this description. In cattle it is an extremely
common complaint ; in fact, one of the commonest
diseases from which these animals suffer. Tuberculosis
has only one cause, and that is the bacillus tuberculosis
or tubercle bacilli, as they are sometimes called. These

SPECIFIC INFECTIVE DISEASES 163

organisms circulate in the blood and various other
tissues of the body, but in the horse the principal lesions
are found in the spleen (melt), and in the lungs. A horse
having this disease gradually becomes emaciated, until
it is either destroyed or else succumbs. The symptoms
are usually obscure. Sometimes excessive urination
accompanies this trouble ; at other times it does not.
Tuberculin is the only reliable method of testing for the
existence of this disease.

Actinomycosis

This disease is due to the ray fungus, or actinomyces
and it sometimes attacks the tongue of the horse an
foal, whilst there is a corresponding disease not uncom-
monly affecting the spermatic cord, following castration.
The disease first named is fairly common in cattle,
being known as woody tongue. Sometimes it affects the
skin and the udder of the mare, but it is by no means a
common disease in the horse, apart from the exception
referred to. (See also Castration.)

CHAPTER XVII

AFFECTIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY AND CIRCULATORY
SYSTEMS

The horse suffers from quite a number of respiratory
troubles ; in fact, it seems to be somewhat predisposed
to complaints of this kind, some of which are of a
" chronic " nature, others " acute/' Any portion of the
respiratory system (see Anatomical Outlines of the
Horse) is liable to be affected, but the commonest trouble
of all is that implicating the upper portion of the great
air tube, the larynx, and popularly known as *' roaring.'*

This last-named affection occurs to all classes of
horses and mules, and it is customary to regard its
existence in any horse as a sufficient reason for rejecting
the animal on the ground of unsoundness. It is not always
due to a laryngeal affection, but in quite 90 per cent of
instances it is due to degenerative changes in certain
muscles of the larynx.

The trouble is usually progressive and permanent,
but sometimes this abnormal sound is only temporary as
sometimes occurs in strangles and lead poisoning, likewise
through the consumption of the Indian vetch. Some
horses, instead of making a roaring sound whilst at work,
make a whistling noise — the animal being known as a
*' whistler."

Both these sounds vary in their intensity according to
the duration of the disease and with the degree of exertion
the animal is compelled to undergo.

It is an unfortunate matter for the horse that the
disease is so common. Some of the finest thoroughbreds

164

RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 165

that have ever run on the course have had to retire from
the field owing to the development of this abnormal
condition. Many horsemen look on it as hereditary, and
consequently will not breed from any stock having this
trouble in their family history.

It is quite likely that roaring comes as an inheritance to
some horses, whilst to others it is acquired. Some horses
develop it quite early on in life. Sometimes it remains as
a legacy of strangles. All classes of horses are subject
to it, but it is most prevalent amongst hunters, hacks,
hackneys, and thoroughbreds. The heavy draught horse
and the vanner are quite commonly afflicted, which
materially detracts from their value as marketable
commodities. Judged from a utilitarian standpoint the
matter is quite different, more especially in the case of
horses required for slow work. A great deal will depend
upon circumstances. Some horses make quite a loud
noise under the most trivial exertion, whereas others only
make a slight noise even under the most severe exertion,
but there is always liability for those that are only
slightly affected to become worse.

The majority of roarers *' grunt " when a feint is made
to strike them with a whip or stick ; in fact, grunting is
generally a sign of roaring, although it can and does
exist apart from the trouble now under consideration.
Its existence is quite sufficient for a thorough trial of the
animal regarding its soundness of wind or otherwise.

There is an abnormal condition of the wind closely
allied to roaring known as " high blowing," which is
apparently due to some diminution in the calibre of the
nasal passage. Quite a number of horsemen pay very
little attention to this, and the author has examined
many horses afflicted in the manner named. However,
a ** high blower " should really be regarded as unsound,
as there are so many probabilities relating to it.

*' Thick wind " is another horsey term, practically
synonymous with either " high blowing " or mild " roar-

i66 THE HORSE

ing." As a rule, roaring comes on gradually, though it
can be developed quite suddenly, as sometimes happens
in '* intermittent roaring." This remark is of some
significance, because a horse might be passed as " sound,"
and yet immediately afterwards make a noise. This has
happened on more than one occasion, and the professional
examiner sued for damages, but without any results.
For many years advanced roarers have been kept at
work through the use of a tube in the \vindpipe — trache-
otomy— but it is very necessary to remove the tube
daily or even tv/ice a day to clean it. There is another
operation now practised by the veterinary profession
for the removal of the roaring sound, and consists of
stripping the ventricle of the larynx. In some horses it is
successful, in others not so. The disease is, of course,
still in existence in any case, even if the sound dis-
appears. This operation may, in certain instances,
prove valuable, in others it may be the means of fraud,
or it may be useless. It is impossible for the author to
recommend its adoption in view of its doubtful utility.
Many people confuse roaring with another abnormal
condition of the wind spoken of as

Broken Wind

The last-named has no connection with the larynx, but
is closely associated with changes of a chronic character
in the lungs — emphysema — although scientific investiga-
tion has, up to the present, failed to yield any satisfactory
explanation of this trouble.

A chronic cough is the most significant indication of
broken wind, but a fraudulent vendor has been known
to disguise this by the use of lard, shot, etc., given
internally immediately prior to sale. The breathing is
also abnormal, the expiratory portion of the respirations
being double — " double Hft."

" Broken wind " is often associated with lesions of the

RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 167

digestive organs, more particularly the stomach. It is a
complaint which affects all classes of horses, irrespective
of age, sex, or condition, and once established is an in-
curable affection, as nothing can restore the structural
changes which have taken place in the lungs, wall of the
stomach, and possibly the nerves supplying these regions.
The commercial value of a broken-v/inded horse, provided
that this defect is discovered, becomes comparatively
small ; nevertheless, many a broken-winded horse con-
tinues to perform its work for years. Hundreds of horses
are sold, both privately and in open market, which are
broken-winded, and yet the buyer and sometimes the
seller is unaware of its existence. It is a slowly progressive
disease, and its development is sometimes due to feeding
a horse upon dry and dusty forage, and watering it im-
mediately, then driving it or putting to work. Plenty of
horses have become broken-winded through these causes.
The moral is for horse owners to avoid this pernicious
practice.

Sore Throat

Sore throat is not at all an uncommon complaint, and
the majority of horsemen are quite familiar with it, more
especially in connection with influenza, strangles, and
catarrh, of which it forms, in some cases at any rate, one
of the principal symptoms. It consists of a variable
degree of inflammation around the larynx and pharynx
or other part of the throat. It is quite an easy matter
to note whether the throat is sore if the animal experi-
ences difficulty in swallowing, and coughs very frequently,
more especially whilst it is being fed. Sometimes this
trouble is '* acute," sometimes it is " chronic," according
to the cause of the ailment. As a rule it is an " acute "
affection. If so, it will usually dechne in a week or ten
days' time, provided that the animal is properly looked
after. The cough is hard and dry at first, but later on it
becomes of a moist character, therefore this change may

i68 THE HORSE

be looked upon as a favourable one, more especially when
it is accompanied by nasal catarrh. Sometimes, however,
the trouble will persist for weeks when associated with
influenza. The stableman's remedy for sore throat
consists of stimulating the throat through the application
of mustard paste, blistering ointment, or white oil, but it
is not advisable to do too much in this line, as the skin
becomes very sore ; in fact, blistered, and this external
soreness is very liable to become worse than the original
trouble. There can be no objection to a single application
of mustard, but it should be washed off in an hour or two
and the part throughly dried. An ounce of chlorate of
potash should be added to the drinking water night and
morning. Scalded linseed, bran, and oats is the best
fodder under these circumstances. Do not give any hay
or dry food. We must not forget to state that the
majority of cases of sore throat occur in connection with
strangles, and must be treated according to the lines
laid down under that trouble.

Pneumonia

Inflammation of the lungs and structures in close
relationship to the same has always been a fairly common
malady in the horse, and one which accounts for quite a
large percentage of deaths, more especially where a
number of horses are congregated together, under condi-
tions which are not favourable to their general welfare.
During the Great War pneumonia was the principal
scourge amongst Army horses, and the percentage of
deaths from this cause was extremely high. The disease
under consideration has always been referred to as
" septic pneumonia," probably on account of the ex-
tremely fatal nature of the malady, coupled with its rapid
dissemination amongst the animals. There can hardly be
a shadow of doubt as to the extremely virulent nature of
the malady, combined with its infective nature. If a

RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 169

horse in the latent stages of disease were put on board
ship amongst healthy horses, that animal would constitute
a centre of infection, with every probabihty of many other
horses becoming infected, and these in their turn would
become capable of infecting others. Although rigid
veterinary inspection took place on embarkation and
disembarkation it was practically impossible to avoid an
accident of this kind when dealing with thousands of
horses. Moreover, administrative inefficiency and the
indiscriminate application of knowledge — knowledge of
a very limited character — was responsible for the mis-
directed energy applied and the consequent high percent-
age of deaths amongst horses from this disease, both at
home and abroad.

Sometimes this contagious lung fever of horses occurs
in civilian studs, particularly if the ventilation and
general sanitary arrangements are defective. Unquestion-
ably the disease is due to the presence of micro-organisms
in the lungs and blood, and its appearance amongst
horses is always the result of infection from a pre-existing
case. Previous to the European war it was customary to
regard this form of pneumonia as constituting part of the
epidemics of influenza ; in fact, the majority of horse
owners, in Great Britain at any rate, usually looked upon
it as the lung form of that disease. It is very doubtful
whether this form of pneumonia should be looked upon or
regarded in this light. The method of transmission is, in
the writer's opinion, through the ingestion of infected
food, and to a less extent by direct inhalation of air
infected by the organisms of this disease. The period of
incubation is from three to eight days, but usually about
the first-named period. In the majority of instances the
pathological changes in the lungs and their coverings are
of a very acute character and nearly always accompanied
by effusion or dropsy of the chest of a very severe nature.
Commonly several gallons of fluid are found in the chest
after death, and the whole cavity is filled with feebly

170 THE HORSE

organised bands of lymph ; in fact, the latter is a very-
striking characteristic of this disease. Extension of the
inflammatory action to the heart sac and structures in
contiguity to it are commonly observed after death.
It is very insidious in its development, and one may find,
before being aware of it, that the animal is well advanced
in the disease unless special observation is kept. If this
complaint is suspected immediate isolation is one of the
best safeguards against extension of the malady. An
early indication of pneumonia developing is afforded by
using the clinical thermometer. The temperature rises
several degrees and the breathing is disturbed. The
last-named is one of the best guides for the amateur, more
especially when he is aware that the animal is out of sorts.
It suddenly becomes very dull and Hstless and probably
food is left in the manger. The mucous membranes of
the eyes and nose are intensely red as a rule. The symp-
toms rapidly increase until the breathing becomes very
laboured, when death is certain to occur. As previously
stated, this lung fever of the horse is an extremely fatal
malady, but the mortahty is considerably reduced by
the intra-venous injection of formahn which the writer
and some other Veterinary officers employed. This treat-
ment is of unquestionable value when it is appHed. As
stated elsewhere in this small manual, pure air is of the
utmost importance, consequently all pneumonia cases do
better in the open than when they are stabled, provided
that the animals are kept dry and properly clothed.

There is another form of congestion of the lungs,
technically known as acute pneumonia or acute pulmonary
apoplexy, the latter part of the title being derived from
the fact of its suddenness of onset. It sometimes occurs
in unconditioned hunters or in horses which are put to
extremely severe exertion without being previously made
fit for this extra exertion. In the vernacular of the
horseman it looks as though the animal had " bellows to
mend " — a very expressive term. Its development is so

RESPIRATORY & CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 171

sudden that the rider is amazed to see his horse in this
condition. *' Prevention is better than cure " even when
the latter is possible, but pulmonary apoplexy is a very
fatal disease, and the symptoms extremely urgent.

Pleurisy

This consists of an inflammatory state of the pleural
membranes, i.e. the coverings of the lungs and the lining
of the chest walls. As stated in the preceding paragraphs
it usually forms part of pneumonia. Sometimes it is the
result of a wound in the chest wall. It is a painful
disease, and commonly fatal, except in the case of
mild attacks. It is often accompanied by effusion,
and if this is severe the probabihty is that the animal
will die. The removal of fluid from the chest of a horse
is not, as a rule, a successful operation, and it is desirable
to avoid this whenever possible.

The Heart

The heart is enclosed in a sac — the pericardium — and
this organ, Hkewise its investing membrane, is liable to
suffer from various diseases, some of an organic nature,
others purely functional. The cavities of the heart are
lined by a very delicate membrane known as the endo-
cardium, and this membrane assists in forming the valves
of the heart. The functions of the heart are those of
distributing blood throughout the body for purification
at the lungs and thence back to the heart. Large blood-
vessels spring from the base of this organ, which help to
suspend it from the roof of the chest, with the apex
inclined towards the left side. Heart affections occur
much more frequently in the horse than may be suspected,
doubtless owing to the severe strain which is necessarily
put upon this organ under certain conditions. A sound
heart represents a measure of the animal's vigour, and it
is indispensable for the due maintenance of proper health.

172 THE HORSE

Ailments in many parts of the body owe their existence
to some defect in the functional capacity of the heart.
Normally the heart beats from 35 to 45 times per minute,
but this number usually is either greatly increased or
slightly decreased in various diseases. By placing the
ear to the left side of the chest wall, immediately behind
the elbow, the normal beat of the heart, or abnormal as
the case may be, can be distinctly heard. The number
of pulsations felt by pressure upon an artery in a given
time, say a minute, corresponds to the beats of the heart.
All affections of the circulatory apparatus are of a more
or less obscure nature, so far as the layman's knowledge
of disease is concerned, consequently it is not advisable
to enter into a consideration of any other troubles
directly or indirectly connected with this vital structure.

CHAPTER XVIII

SOME COMPLAINTS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS

The whole of the digestive apparatus in the horse is well
developed and, as the forage of this animal is Hable to
continual variation, we often find that it suffers from
various digestive disorders and also from disease in connec-
tion with the same. As a matter of fact, so far as com-
plaints are concerned, troubles arising from disordered
digestive functions are of an extremely common nature.
A great many digestive disorders are purely the outcome
of bad horsemastership, and when any particular stud of
horses is troubled with colic, one may accept it as a sign
that there is something radically wrong either with the
forage, the drinking water, or the manner in which these
are supplied to the animals. Quite a number of horse
owners seem to think that they can give a horse what they
call a good feed of oats and hay, water it and either drive
it or ride it immediately afterwards. This is simply
madness and the straight road to the ruination of the
animal. A large proportion of digestive troubles, as
previously stated, are due to bad management, therefore
preventable, but on the other hand, there are many which
are not preventable. Internal parasites or worms account
for a considerable percentage of deaths, both in colts and
adult animals. As a rule, the sources of parasitic infesta-
tion cannot be traced, so far as the horse is concerned.
Quite a number of internal lesions, which always terminate
fatally, such as twisted gut, rupture of the stomach,
rupture of the bowel, rupture of a blood-vessel, etc., would
appear to be due to over-exertion of a previously weakened

173

174 THE HORSE

part, the result of disease. Predisposition to digestive
trouble may be brought on through one or more ante-
cedent attacks. Both old and young horses are liable to
irregularities in connection with the molar or grinding
teeth. In every case when a horse is not thriving
properly, the mouth gag should be brought into requisi-
tion, the tongue grasped with the left hand, and the teeth
critically examined by illuminating the mouth with an
electric torch. Old horses sometimes have what is known
as a "shear-mouth" caused by the molar teeth wearing
away after the manner in which the blades of a pair of
shears overlap. Shear-mouth varies. The deformity
may be shght or it may be excessive. In the former case,
rasping the teeth will assist matters a little, but in the
latter the case is quite hopeless. Sometimes a molar
tooth is decayed and in other instances the fang is the
seat of disease. In colts, during the shedding of the tem-
porary molars and their replacement by permanent
teeth, it occasionally happens that the teeth become
entangled, i.e. the fang of the old tooth becomes fixed on
the crown of the new one. As a rule this is not a difficult
trouble to deal with. It is absolutely essential that the
grinding teeth be in good order. When a diseased molar
tooth is removed the cavity fills up shortly afterwards,
but sometimes the opposing tooth, or rather, what was
the opposing tooth, becomes too long and presses on the
opposite jaw. The overgrowth can be removed with the
tooth-shears, but this is a dental operation for a veterinary
surgeon to perform. The gullet is occasionally the seat
of obstruction, either owing to disease of its wall or
through some foreign body lodging in it. The stomach
may be over-distended with gas as in flatulent colic,
in which complaint the intestines are extensively im-
phcated. Worms of various kinds, more especially
sclerostomes, are not uncommonly found in its mucous
lining. When horses are affected with these parasites
they are always in a more or less debilitated condition.

COMPLAINTS OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 175

and a number of deaths amongst Army horses were
caused through this. The hning of the gullet is pro-
longed to form a portion of the lining of the stomach
— its cuticular lining — and it not uncommonly happens
that the larval form of the horse bee or bot-fly (gastro-
philus equi, as it is caUed), is found attached to this
hning. It is of interest to note that this fly lays its eggs
on the skin of the horse about hay time — July. The eggs
or nits will be found adhering to the hair, especially about
the inner side of the forearm, on the shoulders, etc. They
are very often mistaken for the nits of lice but they are
larger. Somehow or another the horse licks these parts,
probably on account of the irritation induced. The eggs
develop into the maggot stage and the tongue of the
horse must transfer them to the stomach, where they
develop into the so-called " bots," and there they remain
attached to the cuticular lining throughout the winter,
until the following spring. About this time the grass, plus
nature, causes them to pass out of the body and remain
concealed in the ground, until metamorphosis is completed
and the adult fly the result.

Starlings and various other birds must account for
the destruction of a large percentage whilst in the larval
form on the ground. The stomach of the horse provides
a very safe but temporary home. Whilst in the stomach
they are barrel-shaped and usually fixed closely to-
gether, in fact, in colonies. In exceptional instances
their presence may do harm, but not as a rule. The
position they occupy in the stomach is against this.
The chances of survival are extremely small, nevertheless
the gastrophilus equi is quite a common fly, but not as
common as the ox-warble fly. The best remedy that we
are acquainted with is turpentine and linseed oil, 2 oz.
of the former to a pint of the latter, repeated at intervals
of about a week or ten days. The commonest digestive
trouble is that known as

176 THE HORSE

Colic

This affection is also spoken of as "gripes," "fret,"
" belly-ache," the " bats," and various other appellations.
It is one of those affections which usually make their appear-
ance without any previous warning, and many horses are
attacked with colic whilst they are at work. Sometimes
the attack is slight and passes off within half an hour,
whereas at other times it is very severe and the pain so
acute that the poor animal begins to sweat all over the
body, is continually rising and lying, roUing and wandering
round about the box through the agonising pain which it
is enduring. Frequently a horse attacked with colic
will continue in pain for several days and then finally
recover, particularly if proper treatment has been adminis-
tered. Things, however, do not always go as favourably as
this, the case not being one of simple colic but due to
som.e disease, such as a twisted gut or inflammation of the
bowels, rupture of the stomach, internal haemorrhage,
or some other organic lesion. As pointed out, the
symptoms of colic vary in their severity, their course,
their duration, and their termination. In most inflamma-
tory conditions the pain is more sustained, more severe,
and the animal presents general indications of impending
dissolution. The causes of colic are as variable as its
termination, but we may say that excessive food, sudden
changes of food, drinking too much cold water when
over-heated, prolonged feeding on dry food, worms,
super-purgation, too much green food, a concretion or
concretions in the stomach or intestines, strangulated
rupture, etc., are all liable to produce it, but symptoms
allied to those of colic arise through gastro-enteritis pro-
duced by mechanical, chemical and specific causes.

Intussusception or invagination of the bowel ; strangu-
lation of it ; changes in the wall of the bowel ; in fact,
anything which leads to obstruction of it is capable of
producing violent pain in the belly, which in 99 per cent

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 177

of instances proves fatal, when arising from the last-
named causes. There is a very common round worm of
the horse known as ascaris megalocephala, which infests
the horse, and if there are only a few of these they
do no harm, but if very numerous they are capable of,
and occasionally do, set up acute inflammation of the
bowels. The favourite habitat of these worms is at the
commencement of the small intestine. The author has
found most severe inflam.mation from this cause, the in-
testine being completely blocked to the extent of several
feet.

Having enumerated the causes it only remains for the
writer to state that whilst simple cases of colic may be
dealt with b}^ the owner it will usually be found far more
satisfactory to have professional advice, as every case of
colic presents an individuality, and treatment must be
based upon this feature. An effort to try to ascertain
the cause is extremely necessary and should always be
taken into consideration, but failing this, the owner can
give a pint of linseed oil, to which 2 oz. of turpentine and
2 oz. of sweet spirits of nitre have been added. This is a
very safe and often very efficacious draught, and it can be
given pending the arrival of professional skill. Very
often colic is accompanied by a flatulent condition. If
so, the draught referred to is most suitable. In cases wherq..
there is no veterinary advice obtainable, the draught
can be repeated at intervals of three hours, until three or
four doses have been given. It is customary for many
horse owners to walk their horses about when they have
belly-ache, but there is no need for this if the animal can
be put in a loose box. It is always advisable to take all
food away for the time being and for the next two or
three days to feed the animal — unless contrarily indicated
— on bran and scalded oats, with a gradual return to hay.
Never overlook the possibility of the forage being the
cause of the trouble.

178 THE HORSE

DiARRHCEA AND ScOUR IN FOALS

Horses sometimes suffer from super-purgation, the
result of an, overdose of physic ; a change from dry food
to grass ; through the irritation produced by worms,
and other causes. Colts are frequently troubled with a
severe form of diarrhoea and they gradually become
emaciated, finally dying, unless appropriate treatment
has been adopted early on in the affection. The cause of
this trouble is usually parasitic, being due to what is
known as the four-spined strongyles, whose habitat is
in the large intestines, into the wall of which they enter,
or migrate from here into other situations. The strongyles
referred to seem to be more abundant on some grazing
land than in others, but the method of infection has not
been properly worked out. If a colt is affected in this
manner it should be housed, most liberally fed and put
on a course of iron tonic powders. Worm medicines are
useless, but arsenical preparations are invaluable. If this
trouble is suspected, send for the veterinary surgeon.
Foals frequently suffer from scour or acute diarrhoea and
they sometimes die from this trouble. Begin treatment
with a couple of ounces of castor oil to remove the source
of irritation. A drachm of chlorodyne can, with advan-
tage, be added to the oil. As in the last case, have profes-
sional advice.

Lymphangitis (Weed)

This affection seems to be closely associated with diges-
tive disturbance and congestion of the absorbent vessels
and glands. It is a very common trouble, particularly
amongst heavy draught horses, especially those of
sluggish temperament. Light horses are not exempt
from the complaint, but the proportion of sufferers
in animals under 15 hands is comparatively slight. One
attack of weed, also known in Scotland as a " shoot of
cold," predisposes the animal to subsequent attacks,

THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 179

which, if recurrent, lead to permanent enlarge-
ment of the limb, with accompanjdng stiffness. It is
spoken of by some stablemen and by farmers in cer-
tain localities as " Monday morning " disease, owing
to the fact that it often occurs after Sunday's rest. If
horses are exercised on Sundays for ten minutes or a
quarter of an hour, this complaint will not make its
appearance, or, at any rate, it will seldom be observed.
The absorbent glands on the inner and upper side of the
thigh become tender, swell, and the swelling rapidly
extends down the limb, so that the animal may be unable
to bend the leg. It usually commences in the near hind,
but may appear beneath the arm, although it is not fre-
quently met with in the latter situation, as there is suf-
ficient movement in the stable to retard its development.
But the matter is quite different in the case of the hind
Umbs. Sometimes considerable constitutional disturbance
is associated with lymphangitis and several degrees of
fever are present, with or without symptoms of coUc.
As previously stated, " prevention is better than cure,"
but if this malady does develop, the owner should obtain
veterinary advice. A 5 or 6 drm. physic ball will usually
do considerable good. It is generally several days before
the swelling and stiffness disappear. This disease must
not be confused with a much more serious malady, known
as Epizootic lymphangitis, which is a notifiable disease,
and of much more serious consequences. In the latter
affection sores and ulcers form on the skin of various
parts of the body. It is a contagious malady, and im-
mediate isolation is necessary in the disease last named.

CHAPTER XIX

SOME AFFECTIONS OF URINARY ORGANS

Any portion of the urinary apparatus is liable to become
the seat of various complaints, and the horse is by no
means exempt from the numerous troubles which involve
the urinary tract. The kidneys are fairly large and
situated beneath the loin, consequently these structures
are sometimes involved when the muscles on the inner
side of the loins are sprained. Congestion of the kidneys
is sometimes associated with other abnormal conditions,
and when a trouble of this kind is apparent the symptoms
which it produces are those of suppressed urination,
pain over the region of the kidneys, and colic. Stone in
the kidne^^s is by no means an unknown affection, and its
presence in these structures causes the animal serious
inconvenience. It takes the form of either gravel or as
a calculus placed within the pelvis of the kidney, in which
situation it obstructs the flow of urine from the kidneys
to the bladder. The bladder is sometimes inflamed and
sometimes it is in an irritable state through the existence
of gravel or a calculus, or it may be several calculi.
As a rule, bladder trouble produces painful and difficult
urination, but these symptoms are common to other
affections in connection with the urinary organs. Stric-
ture of the urethra also leads to difficult urination, the
urine being passed at very frequent intervals, but in
small quantities. In every case of urinary trouble it is
advisable to have professional aid, as abnormal conditions
of these organs can only be successfully dealt with when
skilful advice is employed. The urine is liable to contain

1 80

URINARY ORGANS i8i

various abnormal constituents, such as blood, pus, gravel,
tube-casts, etc. In a disorder known as

AZOTURIA

the urine becomes coffee-coloured. This affection, whilst
not common, is occasionally met with, especially in horses
and geldings. It comes on without any warning and in
nearly every instance whilst the animal is at work, but
usually after the latter has been kept in the stable for two
or three days, without any reduction in the amount of
oats, etc., supplied as forage. The kidneys and the
muscles seem to be primarily implicated in this disorder,
and the most significant sign is the changed colour of the
urine. Apart from this, the muscles, more especially of the
loins and quarters, become as rigid as boards and remain
in this condition until there is an abatement in the severity
of the attack. Sometimes the affection is of quite a mild
character, whereas in other instances it is severe and soon
terminates fatally. One of the worst effects of azoturia is
the wasting of the muscles which follows recovery, if
this is fortunate enough to occur. The most hopeless
cases are those in which the animals are unable to rise.
Doubtless, to place the animal in slings as early as possible
is distinctly advantageous and can be recommended.
Treatment is, however, a matter which must be left to a
veterinary surgeon — to a qualified man (M.R.C.V.S.) and
not to any of the hopeless and useless emperics scattered
throughout our own and other countries.

Diabetes or Excessive Urination

Excessive urination is not at all uncommon amongst
studs of horses, in which it is chiefly due to feeding the
animals upon damaged or musty forage. The urine is
very light-coloured and an extraordinary amount of
fluid is passed from the urinary apparatus. It appears to
be due to some disturbance of the digestive organs, which

i82 THE HORSE

the kidneys endeavour to deal with and rid the system
of the noxious material which has entered it along with
the forage. Mow-burned hay and musty oats commonly
produce the symptom, i.e. excessive urination, now under
consideration. As soon as the cause has been removed
the trouble should cease. It is only a temporary form of
diabetes, although a true form, i.e. one in which sugar
is contained in the urine, occasionally occurs in the horse.
The treatment comprises the removal of the cause and
the use of some medicine, the prescription of which con-
tains iodine and iron. Consult your veterinary surgeon
at once.

CHAPTER XX

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SOME AFFECTIONS OF THE

SAME

The brain, spinal cord and nerves arising from their struc-
tures represent the fundamental portions of the central
nervous system. The brain and spinal cord are both well-
developed structures, consequently hable to be implicated
in various ways — sometimes functionally wrong — at others
the seat of organic changes. Unfortunately many of the
diseases affecting the nerves of the horse are of a very
obscure nature. It is quite useless in a small work of
this kind to enter into a consideration of these troubles
beyond saying that

Stringhalt

is a fairly common affection and one that is liable to affect
any class of horse, but perhaps vanners and cart horses
are the most affected. Stringhalt and shivering are closely
allied troubles, and they both, naturally, detract from the
value of the animal. Very often the last-named is difficult
to detect, and no doubt many shiverers are sold, both
privately and in open market, without even the seller
being aware of its existence, much less the purchaser.

Stringhalt is less liable to be overlooked. It is denoted
by the spasmodic or involuntary jerking up of one of the
limbs, sometimes both hind, but commonly one hind
limb only, either in the stable or out of it. It is an affec-
tion which varies in its degree of severity. Sometimes
it is only observed whilst the horse is at work. It is
chronic and incurable in the author's experience. The

183

i84 THE HORSE

causes are not understood. The best test for shivering
is to back the horse, or turn it sharply round. If it is
a shiverer it may be unable to back, or else the muscles
of the limbs tremble. Both these troubles render the
animal unsound, and rightly so, because they impair its
usefulness to a greater or lesser extent, with a tendency
for the symptoms to become worse as the animal becomes
older.

Epilepsy or Vertigo

known under the popular title of megrims also occurs in
the horse, without any well understood cause. These
seizures come on at a moment's notice, paralysing the
sufferer for the time being, and if the animal is at work
when seized, very serious consequences may ensue. A
horse known to be affected with a trouble of this kind
is quite unsafe for any useful purpose and should be
destroyed.

The central nervous system is hable to various toxic
troubles (see Tetanus) and to the development of
abnormal growths, etc., in connection with it.

CHAPTER XXI

DISEASES OF BONES, JOINTS, TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS

Quite irrespective of breed and likewise age, sex, etc.,
horses are very prone to suffer from various inflammatory
conditions, either of an acute, sub-acute, or chronic
nature, in connection with the bones of the limbs, liga-
ments, tendons, joints, etc. Some of these inflammatory
conditions are commonly spoken of as hereditary, and
nearly all horsemen are acquainted with such troubles as
splint, spavin, ring-bone, curb, and so forth. Even the
boy in the stable will sometimes point out that " it is a
pity this 'ere 'orse 'as spHnt," spavin, or ring-bone, as the
case may be. For the stable hands to discover a splint
or a spavin, or to imagine they have discovered it in a
horse recently purchased by " Master," appears to be
something wonderful, and the confidences exchanged
with one another are truly astonishing. This is why the
stable lad is often regarded as the " stable oracle," with
his knowledge " wondrous and true," yet as false as it is
misleading. The horse is a wonderful piece of mechanism,
every single part of it being adjusted with a precision un-
attainable by any artificial means. The bones — their
shape and their adjustment ; the joints — their shape and
their adjustment ; the muscles — their origin and their
insertion, their specialised prolongations as tendons,
with adaptation to purpose ; the intricate system of
blood-vessels — arteries, veins, and capillaries ; the nervous
system — with its central stations and communications
to every organ and tissue in the body ; the absorbent
system and the scavenger work which it performs ; the

185

i86 THE HORSE

digestive, generative, and urinar}^ systems are all part of
the beauty of animal mechanism and animal locomotion.
Unquestionably the effects of concussion — direct or in-
direct— the unequal distribution of pressure and heredi-
tary predisposition are all factors concerned with disease
and injury in connection with the limbs of the horse, and
sometimes other portions of the anatomy. The nature of
a horse's work and its age have a direct bearing upon the
production of some of the infirmities with which we are
about to deal. It may be accepted as a truism that any
horse under the age of four years is much more liable to
become lame through some trouble than a horse of mature
development. In the fore limbs the following diseases are
some of the principal ones :

Slipped Shoulder

The reader will, from the above title, at once imagine
that the shoulder has slipped out of its proper place ; in
other words, that there has been a dislocation of the
shoulder joint. This is not so, however, as the affection is
one primarily implicating the muscles of the shoulder,
the nerve being known as the " supra scapular," and the
trouble alluded to is designated as paralysis of this nerve.
The muscles on the outer face of the shoulder lose their
proper functional power, and the result is that they begin
to waste, and this wasting is particularly obvious on the
outer face of the shoulder-blade. This affection is due to
injury of the nerve, and some horses make quite a good
recovery. Prolonged rest is essential. The muscles
should be freely massaged, at least once a day, by vigor-
ously rubbing the shoulder with the hands.

Splint

Almost every horseman is acquainted with this disease.
A splint consists of a variable-sized deposit of bone on

DISEASES OF BONES 187

the large cannon-bone, on either the near or off fore
Hmb, or both fore. The sphnt, i.e. the deposit of bone,
is the legacy or result of a circumscribed inflammation
of the bone and bone skin — possibly of the ligament as
well — or all these structures, usually appearing a short
distance below the knee. There is a ligament between
the large cannon-bone and the splint-bones, and it often
happens that splint forms just where this ligament is,
consequently some authorities have regarded splint as
an ossification of the interosseous ligament. To a certain
extent this theory is tnie, but sometimes it bears no
relation to the actual seat of the trouble. Splint may
develop in any breed of horse and at any age, but it
commonly makes its appearance in young horses, and in
such breeds as hackneys, thoroughbreds, hunters, trotters,
cobs, and ponies generally, and very often in van horses.
There are many thoroughly practical horsemen who
feel amused when you tell them that a horse has got a
spUnt and that it will be necessary to reject the animal
on the ground of unsoundness, but it must be borne in
mind that there are splints and splints. There is the
splint which is harmless and there is the spHnt which
produces irreparable damage and lameness until the
unfortunate animal finds its way into the copper,
where disease ceases to trouble, and the animal is for ever
at rest.

Sometimes there is a large splint, and in other in-
stances numerous very small ones, situated in the
channel at the back of the cannon bone, and it is splints
of this kind which often lead to an incurable lameness.
The reader must understand that the suspensory ligament
runs at the back of the cannon bone and the roughened
surfaces of the splinty growth or growths are very liable
to injure the ligament by abrading its surface. When
splints of the nature referred to have been formed, they are
sometimes situated immediately, below the knee, and very
difficult to detect ; in fact, it is impossible for an amateur

i88 THE HORSE

to discover their existence. It must be borne in mind that
there is a natural tendency for the interosseous hgament
between the sphnt-bones and the large cannon-bone to
undergo transformation in the bone. It is Nature's way
and nothing can deflect it. In obscure cases of lameness in
the fore limbs it is always advisable to make a critical
examination at the back of the leg, from the knee to the
fetlock, as the author, and doubtless others, has occa-
sionally found one or more minute splinty deposits below
the knee, or in some portion of the back of the cannon
bone. Sometimes the splinty deposit is on the front of
the bone, sometimes on its outer side, but in the majority
of instances it is on the inner side, as everything favours
its development in the situation referred to. The size of
the splint bears no relationship to the existence of lame-
ness. Under ordinary circumstances lameness, if present,
usually occurs during the time the splint is forming, i.e.
when the bone and bone skin are inflamed and Nature is
endeavouring to repair the damaged part, the splint being,
as previously stated, the product of inflammatory action ;
but the unfortunate part about it is that it does not
appear requisite, but it is reasonable to assume that
Nature knows her own requirements. Probably 60 or
70 per cent of saddle and harness horses have splint and
yet never show the slightest sign of lameness. The
position of the sphnt and the age of the animal are the
best guides. Any kind of injury is capable of producing
splint. It is a well-known fact that a spHnt will sometimes
disappear, owing to reabsorption of it, and this is the
object of blistering and firing.

Ring-bone

The term ring-bone is apphed to a deposit of new bone
on the long pastern, or else around the coronet (short
pastern). It consists of a varia.ble degree of inflammation
of the bone and bone skin {ostitis and periostitis) of the

DISEASES OF BONES 189

long and short pastern bones, and may end in anchylosis
of the joints in these regions. It is called ring-bone
because the new bony formation has often a ringlike
contour, but not always. All classes of horses are
liable to it and at any age, but light draught and heavy
draught horses are more frequently troubled with ring-
bone than riders and roadsters. The deposit of new bone,
like splint, represents the product of inflammatory action,
and it is Nature's method of repairing a damaged part.
The new bone, however, commonly leads to the produc-
tion of lameness of a very obstinate character, and treat-
ment of any kind is, in the author's experience, of little
or no practical value v/hatever. It is quite probable
that this arthritis, either in its chronic or acute state, is
largely attributable to hereditary influence, as it is so
very common amongst heavy draught horses. Manipula-
tion of the pastern joint or from the fetlock to the pastern,
during an experience of thirty-five years, especially
amongst heavy draught horses, has satisfied the author
how extremely common this trouble is. Not uncommonly
the joint is obhterated and the growth of new bone
sufhciently extensive to impair the integrity and func-
tional powers of all structures in juxtaposition to it.
One or both pasterns, either fore or aft, may be the seat
of the trouble, which is very common in the fore limbs.
A horse may have a large ring-bone and travel perfectly
sound, or it may have a smaU one and be persistently lame.
Ring-bone lameness varies considerably, and a horse
apparently sound one day may subsequently become
very lame on the following one. The effects of rest
should always be tried. Work on soft ground is best
for them, hence many ring-boned horses which have
been going very lame in town will continue to do good
work on the land for many years.

190 THE HORSE

Open Joint
The capsular ligament of a joint is sometimes pene-
trated, and this leads to a condition technically known
as open joint. The joint most frequently injured in this
manner is the hock. At the time of injury, infection with
pus organisms usually occurs, so that a septic arthritis is
set up, and this causes the animal acute sufferings The
hock joint swells and synovia (joint-oil) can be seen
issuing from the wound. In addition to the swelling and
the discharge of synovia, the animal is unable to bear
m.uch weight on the limbs ; in fact, the trouble causes
so much pain that the horse avoids putting any weight at
all upon it, the limb being in a semi-fiexed position.
Cases of this nature are usually hopeless, but they are
more hopeful when at the fetlock joint. Sometimes the
knee is the seat of the trouble. Supposing that recovery
does occur at either the knee or hock joint, permanent
stiffening is a common result of the injury. In any case,
professional assistance should be sought and the advice
tendered acted upon.

Bursal Enlargements or Wind-galls
Joints and tendons have usually lubricating pouches
and sheaths to promote the free play of the tendons and
joints. These structures are quite commonly the seat of
chronic irritation, and the result is the production of a
soft fluctuating swelling, free from pain on manipulation,
and usually unaccompanied by any degree of heat or
tenderness, unless the disease exists as an acute syno-
vitis. (See also Open Joint.) The pneumatic character
of the swellings has conferred upon them the title " wind-
galls," and the majority of horsemen are familiar with
them under this name.* If a young horse is subjected to
abuse, instead of proper use, it will very soon disclose on
manipulation a puffy feeling about the joints, more par-

* Bog-spavin.

DISEASES OF BONES 191

ticularly at the fetlocks. The part is unable to stand the
strain, and the tendons very often also give way. Bursal
swellings are very unsightly, more especially if they are
large. They seldom produce lameness, but materially
interfere with the selling price of a horse. Capped elbow,
capped knee, and sometimes capped hock, are of this
nature, but may be complicated by subjacent structures
becoming implicated in the abnormal process. "Bog-
spavin " and " thoro-pin," though not the same, are of an
allied nature, but neither of these need have much
significance attached to their existence, as they seldom
cause the animal any inconvenience, and still less often
any lameness. " Thoro-pin " appears as a bulging at the
back of the hock on its inner side — and sometimes on its
outer as well — just above the point of the hock. Bog-
spavin, on the other hand, may consist of a slight disten-
tion or a very puffy swelhng at the front and sides of the
hock, more especially on the morning following active
work, due to a hyper-secretion of the lubricating fluid
of the joint, and the significance attached to it is as
previously stated. Wind-galls and other puffy swellings
of an allied nature may either be blistered, fired, or what
is better still, smeared over with ordinary gas tar. This
produces pressure and contraction of the surrounding
tissues, whilst its action is allied to both blistering and
firing. Operative interference beyond this is seldom
advisable.

Curb

Curb consists of a sprain of one of the ligaments just
below the point of the hock, but lying in the same straight
line with it. V/hen viewed in profile it appears as a
variable-sized swelling, being sometimes nothing more
than a shght undulation, but at others as a distinct
convexity, free from either heat or pain, and usually the
animal shows no indication of lameness. Curb is sup-
posed to be associated with " over-bent " or " sickle-

192 THE HORSE

shaped " hocks, and the majority of horses with hocks of
this conformation usually show a couple of well-marked
curbs. Both light and heavy horses are liable to this
trouble, and while some veterinary surgeons look upon
it as indicative of unsoundness, there are others who
pay very little attention to it, unless the animal is lame
and the lameness ascribed to the existence of curb.
Unquestionably the " over-bent " hock is one which is
distinctly predisposed to it, although it may not always
develop. The author does not consider it of much
significance, but, judged from a legal standpoint in
relationship to the soundness of the animal, it represents
unsoundness, because it is a departure from the normal
standard, and is *' liable " at some subsequent period —
although it probably never will — to impair the usefulness
of the animal. It is customary — whether discreet or
otherwise — to fire and bhster curb, and sometimes to
adopt the same treatment with " over-bent " hocks,
although no curb is present. We think that the practice
is a commendable one for various reasons, but space
forbids us to enter into consideration of these.

Bone-spavin

There are very few horsemen, not excluding the boy
in the stable, who would appear to be unacquainted with
spavin, but this knowledge is more fictional than real, as
any man of scientific training can verify. Bone-spavin
is really a chronic arthritis affecting the lower and inner
aspect of the hock, whilst the spavin itself consists of a
deposit of new bone, the result of inflammatory action,
usually localised to a small area, just at the head of the
large cannon bone and its junction with the lower row of
the bones of the hock. Every variety of horse is hable to
spavin, but some more so than others. One or both
hocks may be the seat of the trouble, and the statement
that '' once a spavin always a spavin " is a practical

DISEASES OF BONES 193

truth. In very rare instances the inflammatory bony
product, as in splint, may disappear. Bone-spavin is of
less significance in a heavy draught horse than in one
required for Ught work. It is reasonable to assume that
very few experts would pass a horse with bone-spavin as
sound, provided the animal was under five years of age.
It must be clearly understood that spavin represents
Nature's method of repairing the damaged part, and the
inflammatory action produced and leading to the forma-
tion of the spavin very often anchyloses or seals together
the smaller bones of the hock joint. The writer is not
aware that it ever implicates the true hock joint, i.e. the
articulation between the lower end of the second thigh-
bone with that of the screw-bone of the hock. (See
Structure of Skeleton.) A horse may have one or both
hocks spavined and go absolutely sound, or it may have
a very small spavin combined with an intractable lame-
ness. Horses which are worn and degenerate — members
of the old brigade — with spavin commonly go lame, as the
disease sometimes takes on not constructive but destruc-
tive changes, in the form of ulceration of the cartilages
of the joints, etc. Bone-spavin is considered to be a
hereditary trouble ; still there are plenty of horses
employed for stud purposes, in which unmistakable signs
of spavin exist. As to how spavin is caused we have no
reliable or authoritative information, but it is probably
due to over extension of the hock, to direct injury, such
as a blow, etc. The term " Jack- spavin " is practically
synonymous with that of " bone-spavin.'' To detect
bone-spavin, stand in front of the horse and view the
inner and lower aspect of each of the hocks, noting any
difference in size. If spavin exists it should be seen as a
variable-sized bone prominence in the situation named.
Care must be taken not to confuse this with the
prominence normally present on the inner aspect of the
hock. If the hocks are compared for the existence of
spavin, a slight difference in size will be seen, and this

N

194 THE HORSE

can be supplemented by manipulation with the hand,
comparing the two hocks by the sense of touch. Both
firing and blistering are resorted to for spavin, but they
are of doubtful efficacy. If the owner has reason to
suspect that a spavin is forming, he should immediately
throw the animal off work and keep it in a stall, as rest
is of primary importance. Anything from a few days to
several months are sometimes required to assist Nature
in repairing the part. Bone-spavin always represents un-
soundness, whether detected or undetected, and whether
the animal is lame or not lame. A good deal of circum-
spection is requisite with the expert in deciding as to
whether he will or will not advise purchase of the animal.

Sprained Tendons and Ligaments

Both tendons and ligaments are very liable to be over-
stretched or strained, and some of the fibres entering into
their structure are torn or ruptured as the result of over-
extension. Ligaments in connection with joints and
tendons and tendinous prolongation of the muscles may
all be damaged in this manner, and the result is lameness,
owing to the pain brought on through the injury. In a
recent sprain the part is usually hotter than normally ;
it is swollen ; causes additional pain when manipulated,
and very often a certain amount of constitutional dis-
turbance. The tendons at the back of the limbs are very
often sprained, particularly in horses which are required
for speed. In chronic sprain of a tendon the sprained
part remains permanently thickened, and this in its turn
sometimes causes the animal to go on its toe. This is
frequently observed in one or both hind limbs, but it is by
no means uncommon in front. Treatment comprises
rest and the application of bandages, along with either
hot or cold fomentations, in accordance with the time
the sprain has existed. For the first twenty-four hours
cold compresses are the best, and after this hot-water

DISEASES OF BONES 195

fomentation and compresses, but not sufficiently hot to
scald or blister the skin. When all the acute symptoms
have subsided, the application of a bhster will sometimes
prove beneficial. As a cooling lotion, equal parts of
vinegar and water will be found serviceable. A linen
bandage neatly adjusted will serve to keep the compresses
on, and over this a flannel bandage should be applied.
Dress the injured part three or four times a day.

CHAPTER XXII

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS

The horse is liable to quite a number of skin affections,
some of which are fairly simple in their nature, others
more complex. These troubles may be of a parasitic
nature or non-parasitic. In the former case the affection
is transmissible from one horse to another by direct or by
indirect means ; in other words, parasitical skin troubles
are of an infective nature, and whenever diseases of this
kind appear amongst a stud of horses an unlimited amount
of inconvenience and annoyance may be caused.

Some skin diseases are acute, others chronic. Horses
that are kept under bad conditions, such, for instance, as
dirty stables, and with little or no grooming, are pre-
disposed to the development of skin trouble ; and if an
infective disease, such as mange, exists where such animals
are kept, the chances are that it will spread with great
rapidity. Sometimes a skin affection represents a general
infection of the whole system, as, for instance, in glanders,
a disease which primarily invades the lungs and sometimes
extends to the absorbent vessels and skin ; epizootic
lymphangitis and ulcerative cellulitis are of a similar
nature. These three diseases are spoken of as specific,
being due to micro-organisms.

The causes of skin disease in the horse are various, but
the whole of the causative agents are of mechanical,
chemical or parasitical origin ; arising in this manner we
have saddle and collar galls, burns from acids and strong
disinfectants, mange, ringworm, etc. The following brief
description of some of the commoner skin diseases
affecting the horse are of interest.

196

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 197

Mange

This is a very common skin disease and, since the war,
it has been much more prevalent than formerly. There
are several varieties of mange, but they are all parasitic,
being due to minute acari invading either the superficial
or deeper portions of the skin. These different forms of
mange are known as psor optic, sar Coptic, and symbiotic ;
all of which have been very common amongst army
horses and not uncommon in civilian stables. For
some years a vigorous campaign has been carried on
against mange in order to diminish its prevalence, and
local authorities throughout the British Isles have adopted
such legislative measures as seemed expedient under the
circumstances. In exceptional instances a fourth variety
of mange, namely folHcular, affects the horse, but it is not
of sufficient clinical importance to do anything more
than mention its existence. Sarcoptic and psoroptic
mange are both scheduled diseases, and if the owner has
reason to suspect the existence of mange amongst his
horses, the matter must be immediately reported to the
nearest local authority.

Sarcoptic mange is more troublesome to treat than the
psoroptic, for the simple reason that the sarcoptic acari
take up their abode in the skin less superficially than the
psoroptic parasites. Sarcoptic mange has a predilection
for attacking those portions of the body covered by short
and fine hair, which is exactly the converse in psoroptic
mange, whilst the symbiotic acari confine their attentions
to the limbs, especially below the hocks and knees, where
they produce a great deal of irritation, moisture on the
skin, in fact, what is popularly known as grease or
seborrhoea; but all "greasy" legs are not due to mange
acari, some being of a constitutional nature. The latter
can only be treated successfully by remedies which
improve the general health. Psoroptic mange commonly
makes its appearance beneath the mane, between the ears.

198 THE HORSE

on the back, at the set-on of the tail and on the quarters,
in which places the hair is long and the skin very often
dirty. All mange parasites are of microscopic size and
require the skilled use of the microscope for their detection.
They are"" closely allied to forage acari and very often
confused with these organisms. Forage acari would
appear to be capable of inducing a certain amount of
skin irritation. They exist in the dust of forage, hay, etc.
The commonest form of mange is the psoroptic, and it is
more communicable from horse to horse than the sar-
coptic. The three different forms of mange may co-
exist in the same animal at the same time, and, in addi-
tion, Hce may be present, materially aggravating the skin
irritation.

The earhest indication of mange is irritation of the
skin as shown by the animal rubbing or biting the part, if
accessible for the latter purpose. This leads to the loss of
hair in patches, and as the disease extends the patches
become confluent, so that in course of time, more especially
if the trouble is neglected, the body becomes more or
less denuded of hair. In advanced cases of mange the
pruritis, or irritation, is intense, and, as this leads to
exhaustion, loss of flesh follows, and the animal may
succumb in consequence.

Mange is, as previously stated, one of those troubles
which are favoured by uncleanliness, and its progress is
more rapid amongst horses which are over-crowded,
badly groomed, and neglected in various other ways.
Dirt evidently favours the perpetuation of the parasites.
It is important to know that the adult female sarcopt
lays her eggs at the end of a tunnel or gallery formed
beneath the superficial layers of the skin, and that these
eggs hatch out and produce larvae in from four to six
days. Further, that the larva form takes from eight to
ten days to develop into the adult, wliich is then ready to
perpetuate the parasites in its turn. The ova are much
more tenacious of vitality than the actual parasites, and

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 199

this fact must be borne in mind when dealing with the
trouble.

Recurrent attacks of mange are probably due to
inefficient treatment of the ova of the parasites. Although
microscopic examination is necessary for the verification
of the several distinctive forms of mange, the disease
presents certain clinical features which do to a certain
extent enable one to form a fairly reliable opinion as to
the particular variety of mange from which the animal is
suffering.

Sarcoptic mange usually makes its appearance in the
region of the withers, the face, the neck and the shoulders,
in fact whenever mange appears in front of the wethers,
excepting beneath the mane and between the ears, one
may accept its appearance in the situations referred to
as good or fairly good positive evidence that the disease
is sarcoptic mange. On the other hand the appearance
of mange on other parts of the body favours the opinion
that the trouble is of the psoroptic variety. The most
practical test for the existence of mange is to scratch the skin
on the withers, neck, etc.

Mange is spread by direct or indirect contact ; thus, for
instance, it may be carried by an infected horse coming
directly into contact with another, or through the
medium of stall posts and stable fittings, through groom-
ing appliances, the last-named being one of the commonest
channels of infection. The hands and clothing of atten-
dants may easily transmit the disease if these are infected.
The bedding may perpetuate the disease, consequently it
is very necessary that this should, after removal from the
stable, be burned. The harness and the shafts of carts
may afford a chance of re-infection.

When mange appeals amongst a stud of horses in addition
to immediate notification all the affected animals must be
isolated, and the in-contacts kept under observation for at
least three weeks. Diagnosis is based upon finding the
parasites, a search for which is made by taking one or

200 THE HORSE

more scrapings from the areas which are affected. The
material that is thus obtained is placed in a test tube,
boiled with caustic potash and then centrifugahsed,
the sediment being placed on a sHde and examined with
a lower-powered microscope. This, however, is a matter
for the expert.

The irritation which the parasites produce on the skin
leads to the formation of vesicles or minute bhsters, in
other words, to the formation of eczematous sores on the
skin aggravated by rubbing, etc.

The Parasitic Mange Order for 191 1 and 1918 is appended
as it contains information which will be useful to the
reader. In addition to it the rules to be followed for the
prevention and cure of mange in horses are also attached,
together with the treatment as recommended by the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.

All mangy horses should be clipped irrespective of the
season of the year and then singed, thorough singeing being,
in the writer's opinion, of the utmost importance, a remark
which is equall}^ applicable when horses are troubled
with Hce. After clipping and singeing and hogging
the mane and tail the animal should be washed with hot
water and soda, to which some antiseptic may, with
advantage, be added. After the horse is dry it should be
dressed with a lime and sulphur dressing prepared accord-
ing to the prescription attached, as per leaflet of the
Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Lime and sulphur lotion, as a remedy for mange, is a
very old one, and was employed by the writer more than
five and twenty years since for this purpose. Very
thorough application of the dressing is absolutely indis-
pensable, and it is equally essential that the dressing
should be applied warm. It takes about two gallons of
fluid for each horse. Lime and sulphur lotion makes the
hands very sore, so that gloves should be worn to prevent
this. Repetition of the dressing at frequent intervals is
very necessary, therefore the writer recommends that

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 201

affected horses should be dressed every fifth day. In the
army the dipping bath for mange and as a preventative
of this trouble proved valuable beyond words, and had it
not been for the hme and sulphur baths distributed
throughout the base hospitals both at home and in
France, etc., mange would, unquestionably, have become
an embarrassing problem.

There are a large number of applications useful in
mange, but some of these are, unquestionably, more
serviceable as curative agents than others. At the
commencement of the Allies' war, those horses suspected
as having mange in the British Army were clipped and
dressed with a mixture of sulphur, oil of tar and a veget-
able oil, colza, rape, etc. They were washed at regular
intervals with paraffin soap. This dressing was quite use-
ful in its way, but altogether unsatisfactory, consequently
it had to be discontinued at most of the veterinary
hospitals. Many other compositions were employed, but
the lime and sulphur dip proved to be the real "man of
business " both at home and abroad.

Parasitic Mange Order, 1911

(i) Obligations under Order and Penalties. — Under the
Parasitic Mange Order, 191 1, every person in Great
Britain having in his possession or under his charge a
horse, ass or mule affected with or suspected of parasitic
mange is required to give notice of the fact with all
practicable speed to the police. Failure to give such
notice renders a person Hable to a fine of £20, and, in
certain circumstances, to a month's imprisonment.

(2) Prevalence of Disease. — The information obtained
by the Board from enquiries made in connection with the
many outbreaks of mange reported to local authorities
shows that the disease is very prevalent at present, and,
though the disease is not of a nature which need alarm
horse owners, it is highly desirable that every possible
means should be taken to prevent animals becoming

202 THE HORSE

affected with parasitic diseases, and to cure them promptly
if found affected.

(3) Importance of Notification. — One of the objects of
requiring notification is to ensure that the affected animal
shall be treated so as to be cured as quickly as possible.
The Order of 1911 as amended hy the Order of 1918 permits
of an affected animal being worked subject to certain
conditions. An owner may also employ his own veterinary
surgeon to advise him regarding treatment.

(4) How Farmers benefit themselves by observance of
Order. — It rests mainly with an owner to keep his horses
fit and free from such parasitic diseases as mange and
lousiness. By so doing he benefits himself, for the small
extra trouble involved will pay him, since his animals
will improve in condition, will be fit for more v/ork and will
require less food than when their bodies are called upon to
supply food for thousands of parasites in addition to their
own needs. In treating the skin for one kind of parasite,
others can be got rid of. It is not a very difficult matter to
keep a horse free from parasites.

(5) When in doubt notify Police. — A farmer in his own
interests will do well in all cases of doubt to obtain advice
by notifying the police. He will then be informed whether
the ani^nal has mange or not, what form of mange if any it
is suffering from, and how to treat it and prevent it from
spreading to his other horses and those with which the affected
animal may come in contact.

(6) Horse Owners should be suspicious when symptoms
appear. — At present it is as well to regard as suspicious
every horse which shows signs of itchiness by rubbing,
and particularly when the rubbing has caused areas
where the hair is thin and broken.

Now is the time to get to work, as washing or spraying
is a simpler matter in wanner seasons. Mange and lou
ness can now be got rid of if owners give the matter
little attention. See Rules attached for " The Prevent!
and Cure of Mange in Horses."

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 203

(7) Horses belonging to the Food Production Depart-
ment are under special rules for the cure and prevention
of mange.

Rules to be followed for the Prevention and
Cure of Mange in Horses

(i) To aid in the prevention of mange, all horses
should have their manes hogged and the long hair
clipped from the feet and coronets.

(2) As far as possible each horse should habitually
occupy the same stall, and the harness of one horse
should not be used on another horse unless it has been
previously wiped over with anti-mange dressing, or
otherwise disinfected.

(3) Before another horse is put into a stall which has
been occupied by an affected or suspected horse, the
woodwork, head-rope or head-stall, and the floor
should be washed over or sprayed with anti-mange
dressing.

(4) The harness, stable tools, and cart shafts used
in connection with an affected or suspected animal
should be well dressed with, or soaked in, the dressing,
or they should, the case suiting, be placed a in small
room and submitted for several hours to strong sulphur
fumes. This should be carried out at least once every
seven days, until the disease or suspicion has been
removed.

(5) When a case of mange is found to exist on
premises, all the horses, their harness, etc., for purposes
of prevention should be regarded with suspicion, the
harness, stable tools, etc., being treated once a week
as in (4). The skins of all horses, even though the
animals show no outward symptoms of mange, should
be sponged over or sprayed once a week, say, Saturday
evenings, with anti-mange dressing, and particular
attention should be paid to the coronets, the tail, and

204 THE HORSE

the mane. These should be well soaked with the

dressing by means of a water brush or spray pump.
Particular attention should always be paid to parts
which appear to be rubbed. If the dressing be made up
with warm water the horses will take more kindly to
the spraying. After sponging or spraying of the skin
the horse should be left alone for ten munutes, and then
the skin should be wisped over to help drying.

(6) If it be found after inquiry that the disease is
sarcoptic mange an owner should get his veterinary
surgeon to see the animal from time to time, and advise
as regards treatment and progress. If it be found that
the disease is psoroptic mange, an owner can quite well,
after receiving the official instructions, apply the treat-
ment to the animal himself ; but it must be remembered
that it is no use treating merely the parts visibly
affected ; the whole skin should be sponged or sprayed
with the prescribed dressing.

(7) The litter from an affected horse should be well
moistened before removal. It should afterwards be
placed on a manure heap well removed from contact
with horses.

(8) All new purchases or borrowed horses should be
dressed or sprayed as in (5) at least three times,

(9) For the prevention of external parasitism, which
is prevalent in these times, and the infection of which
may be picked up in innumerable ways, it would be
well for owners of working horses, even when they
appear free from parasites, to make a practice of
spraying the whole bodies of their animals once a week,
say, on Saturdays, v/ith a suitable anti-parasitic dressing.
Suitable spraying machines and dressings can be
obtained through agricultural implement dealers and
chemists, but before placing their orders owners should
apply for advice to the Local War Agricultural Com-
mittee, who are in a position to recommend the most
suitable spraying apparatus and dressings.

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 205

Dressing for Mange in Horses, suggested by the

Veterinary Department of the Board of

Agriculture and Fisheries

Ingredients. — Lime, powdered sulphur and water in the
proportions indicated below.

A convenient quantity for a large establishment to
make up at a time would be 9 lb. lime and 18 lb. sulphur.

Method of Preparation. — Shake the lime and make into
a thick paste with the sulphur. Place the mixture in a
strong cloth, tie the ends and suspend in a boiler contain-
ing ten gallons of water so that the water completely
covers the contents of the cloth. The cloth must not
touch the sides or bottom of the boiler, as otherwise the
cloth may be burned and its contents escape. Boil for
two hours, then remove the cloth, taking care that none
of its contents escape into the water, and throw the solids
away. Make up to ten gallons again with additional
water and put the liquid into a tight drum or barrel.

Application

For preventive. — Dilute the fluid with ten times the
amount of water, i.e., one and a half pints of the fluid to
every two gallons of water, and apply with a spray to all
parts of the horse's body.

For affected horses. — Dilute the fluid with eight times
the amount of water, i.e. two pints of the fluid to every
two gallons of water, and apply with a spray to all parts
of the horse's body.

Quantity used. — Two gallons of the diluted fluid is
sufficient to treat one large horse..

Lice

Horses and mules, also asses, are not uncommonly
affected with lice, the horse- louse being a most troublesome
pest. The horse-louse {hcematopinus equi) has a narrow
head and long trunk-like sucking tubes, with three legs

2o6 THE HORSE

at the anterior end of the body, the latter being ovoid.
Some horses are simultaneously attacked with hce and
mange, therefore a considerable amount of care must be
exercised when dealing with skin trouble of a horse. If
lice are present a critical inspection of the skin will reveal
their existence. These pests cause a lot of irritation,
rubbing, and even loss of hair, symptoms which are equally
significant of sarcoptic and psoroptic mange, and both of
these are notifiable diseases. One lousy horse or mule is
quite capable of infecting others directly or indirectly,
so that it is impossible, for the well-being of horses, to
neglect the animal when it is in this condition. Horses
which are dirty and badly kept are those which are most
liable to be troubled with hce, but every case must be
the result of infection, as hving matter can never spring
into existence from non-hving matter. In dealing with a
trouble of this kind the first thing to be done is to cHp
the animal from head to foot, then singe it, and lastly
sterilise everything in the stable with which the animal
has been brought into contact. Rugs, grooming ap-
pliances, stable fittings, harness, the shafts of a cart,
must all be treated with boiling water, soda and some
strong disinfectant. The horse should also be thoroughly
scrubbed with warm water, carbohc soft soap and a
solution of some disinfectant, such as creoHn. If it is a
stud of horses, the trouble must be attacked in a most
thorough manner. Horses which are lousy cannot rest,
therefore cannot thrive properly. No self-respecting
owner and no horsekeeper or groom would allow his horses
to get into this condition. A decoction of tobacco — 2 oz.
strong tobacco to a pint of water, boiled together for an
hour, makes a good application for lice. This fluid should
be passed through musHn before being applied.

Ringworm
This is of common occurrence in a horse and appears
to be more prevalent at certain seasons of the year. It

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 207

is one of those skin diseases which have a tendency to
spread over the body until a particular stage is reached,
when it begins to decline. At the commencement of the
Great War, ringworm was very prevalent amongst the
horses in the British Army, and the severity of the disease
in many cases led to almost complete loss of hair over
the body, often extending to the limbs. Although ring-
worm first of all makes its appearance in patches, usually
of a circular character, it very soon assumes a confluent
form, owing to the patches fusing with one another.
Ringworm may commence at any portion of the body,
and in its early stages it is denoted by slight elevation
of the hair, accompanied by one or more red points on the
skin, with a slight degree of moisture at the part attacked.
It seems to make its appearance quite suddenly and spreads
from the centre to the circumference, consequently
whilst one part of the patch is alive the other part is more
or less dead ; hence the necessity for dressing the margin
of the ringworm freely with the application employed.
If a ringworm patch is examined it will be found that the
surface is covered with greyish scales, underneath which
the skin is red, proving that the disease is still active.
When the surface of the sore is free from scales, perfectly
dry and shows no redness when scratched with the
finger nail, especially around the margin of the patch, one
may accept this as evidence that the patch is no longer
active. Although ringworm attacks all classes of horses,
both when they are clean and when they are dirty, it is
one of those troubles which are favoured by a dirty
condition of the skin and by general insanitary environ-
ment. It is, however, an affection communicable from
horse to horse, mule to mule, and from these animals to
man. Further, ringworm is very common amongst calves,
and has a predilection in these animals for attacking
the face, especially around the eyes and muzzle. It may
spread from these animals directly to the horse or
indirectly through the medium of feeding-troughs.

2o8 THE HORSE

rubbing-posts, the hands and clothing of attendants,
by grooming appHances, through water-troughs, by
infected Utter and by various animals, such as the cat,
rats, mice, etc. As previously stated, ringworm will in
course of time exhaust itself, more especially if the
general health of the animal is improved. It is customary
to speak of ringworm as being contagious, but it is more
correct to regard it as an infective disease, as it can be
conveyed through so many extraneous agencies. For a
considerable period of the war, especially during 19 15 and
1916, ringworm caused a great deal of trouble and incon-
venience amongst the army horses, in fact it was earlier
one of the scourges of the war. Far too much attention
was paid to it, and horses which were fit for military
service were kept idle and without any just reason. There
is no doubt that one of the principal methods through
which the disease was spread, and its remarkable pre-
valence in consequence, was by means of the grooming
appHances — the body-brush, the stable-rubber and the
curry-comb plus the hands of the attendants. Treatment
comprises clipping the hair off for two or three inches
around the seat of a patch and then dressing the surface
of the sore with mild mercurial ointment ; with iodine
liniment ; with red blistering ointment ; with lime and
sulphur lotion or some other agent of an allied nature.
Ringworm is not difficult to cure, but it is essential that
the scurf be removed from the surface of the patch and
that the circumference of the latter be freely dressed
with whatever application is employed. If the trouble
is distributed over the body, the lime and sulphur dip,
recommended for the treatment of mange, is as good an
application as one can possibly need. (See Mange.)

The cleansing of all grooming appliances, stable fittings,
harness, cart shafts, saddles, bridles, etc., as well as all
other stable appointments, are of course part and parcel
of the general outline when dealing with this disease.
Thoroughness is the only royal road to success when deal-

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 209

ing with ringworm, mange, lice and other communicable
troubles affecting the skin, or for that matter, disease of
any kind.

All cases of ringworm are due to the presence of a
vegetable fungus or plant which invades the shafts of
the hair and the hair follicles. This parasite is known as
the tricophyton tonsurans and is reproduced by means
of spores derived from the parent plant.

Collar and Saddle Galls

Every horseman is well acquainted with sores resulting
from the pressure of a badly fitting saddle or a badly
fitting collar, or some other sore arising from injury
produced by the girth, etc. Horses which are in poor
condition and continuously worked in harness which is
improperly looked after, are those which are most sus-
ceptible to injuries of this kind. As a rule these skin
abrasions are the result of direct and continued pressure
of one hard substance upon another, and when they do
exist the pain inflicted upon the animal is unquestionably
very great. One's own personal experience is sufficient
evidence of the torture endured under these circum-
stances. The extent of the injury varies considerably,
and so does its course and termination. Neglected
bruises on the withers are the chief causes of fistula of
the withers, and this remark is equally applicable to the
poll when injured and neglected, ending in the so-called
poll-evil. As a preventative of saddle and shoulder galls
it is absolutely essential to see that the animal is supplied
with a properly fitting set of harness or gear, saddle, etc.
Directly a horse shows the slightest signs of skin abrasion,
it should be immediately thrown off work and the necessary
adjustment of the saddle attended to. Horse owners
pay far too little attention to the proper fitting of harness,
to the care of the same, and often overlook apparently
trifling injuries, which later on very often develop into

210 THE HORSE

those of a much more serious nature. The old motto
" A stitch in time saves nine." Doubtless many horses
are predisposed to cutaneous injuries of the kind now
under consideration, but nevertheless both saddle and
collar galls are frequently the outcome of neghgence on
the part of the owner or his attendants. Any horse
suffering in the manner indicated ought not to be worked,
or at any rate until the pain induced by the pressure has
been removed. A form of injury that has been extremely
common amongst army horses picketed out on ground
lines is the so-called '' rope " or " heel " gall, usually
resulting from the head-rope being left too long. Some-
times very severe injuries to the heels resulted in this
manner. Through negligence nasty sores were occasion-
ally found on the poll through failure when grooming to
shift the strap or halter passing over this region. Both
these injuries are the result of pure carelessness and should
be dealt with accordingly. To work a horse with either a
collar or saddle gall constitutes cruelty and is punishable
either by fine or imprisonment. Injuries to the angles of
mouth by the bit are occasionally observed, especially
in horses which are hard mouthed and strong pullers. It
is equally cruel to work a horse in this condition. A bit
covered with India-rubber will sometimes abolish a
trouble of this nature. At any rate it is always expedient
to try whether it is serviceable or otherwise. The point
of the elbow and the tissues beneath this are commonly
the seat of a bruise, very often the result of the heel of
the inner branch of the shoe pressing upon the point of
the elbow during lying and rising. This injury constitutes
what is known as " capped elbow " — an abnormal condi-
tion which may become very unsightly if neglected.
A corresponding condition is often observed as " capped
hock," usually produced by a bruise or bruises on the
point of the hock. Carters and contractors' horses
commonly suffer from collar galls, and when a horse has
been troubled in this manner there is a special liability

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 211

to its recurrence. Repeated injury leads to thickening
of the skin and sometimes to the formation of an abnormal
growth or tumour in the area imphcated. As already-
stated, the most trivial injury should always receive atten-
tion, thereby saving a great deal of annoyance. When the
skin has been nipped or bruised or abraded, a lead lotion
constitutes one of the most useful applications that can
be employed, but this, of course, is useless if the exciting
cause is not removed. Thirty grains of sugar of lead should
be added to a pint of water — distilled water for preference.
The shoulder should be bathed wdth this lotion several
times a day. A useful domestic application consists of half a
pint of vinegar and half a pint of water, apphed in a similar
manner. If the skin is very tender it is a good plan to
harden it by the application of methylated spirits of wine,
two or three times a day. All parts of the skin beneath
the harness sweat freely during work, and if the skin is
cooled too rapidly local congestion of it is liable to occur,
and in this manner saddle or collar gall may be initiated.
As a preventative, allow the collar or saddle to remain
on — say for half an hour — after the animal returns from
work. Concerning the advisability of leaving a patch of
hair, corresponding to the saddle, when the animal is
clipped, opinions are divided. The hair thus left must,
tp a large extent, regulate the rapid loss of heat and, by
logical reasoning, it should be a preventative of sore
back. There is one very common trouble arising through
a neglected injury to the skin beneath the saddle;
this is the so-called

SiTFAST

which is nothing but a dead portion of skin attached
to a living part, but which nature is apparently un-
able to cast off. The only treatment for an injury of
this kind comprises removal with the surgeon's knife,
consequently it is necessary to call in professional aid.
In every case it means three or four weeks' rest, but the

212 THE HORSE

sooner the operation is performed the better, as delay
only aggravates suffering and leads to further complica-
tions.

Mud Rash and Mud Fever

The skin of the heels and other parts of the body in
horses which are neglected as regards grooming some-
times becomes the seat of an erythematous eruption or
rash, characterised by a dry condition of the skin, on which
numerous minute blisters form, apparently due to some
irritating material contained in the mud. The skin seems
to lose all its pliancy, and the animal becomes what is
called " hide-bound " — a sure indication of unthriftiness.
This trouble is also spoken of as ''mud fever," owing to
the fact that the animal does occasionally suffer from slight
constitutional disturbance. The best treatment for
mud rash is to give the animal a physic ball and follow
this up with a liberal supply of linseed gruel along v/ith
the other forage, until the animal shows decided improve-
ment. Plenty of good strapping is essential in order to
encourage the circulation in the skin.

Cracked Heels

This abnormal condition is a very common one, more
particularly during the late autumn and winter. The
heels are most susceptible to the action of cold and wet,
more especially in horses which have been clipped and
improperly groomed. Sometimes the skin at the heels
becomes so sore and painful as to lead to lameness.
Probably one of the most fruitful causes of cracked heel
is that of washing the heels and failing to dry them pro-
perly afterwards. Many horsemen consider that one of
the best preventatives against cracked heels is to allow
the hair to grow fairly long in the region of the heels,
though of course many horse-masters object to this on
the ground of its being unsightly. When horses come in
with wet and muddy fetlocks and the hair is long at this

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 213

part, the best plan is to leave the mud to dry on and brush
if off on the following morning. Cracked heels have
already been referred to under the heading of " Saddle
and Collar Galls," where they are described as " rope
gall '' (which see). The skin at the heels is very rich in
sebaceous glands, the functions of which are to secrete
an oily fluid for the special lubrication of the heels and
to prevent the skin from being too much wetted with
water, snow, etc. Cracked heel varies in its severity.
Sometimes it consists merely of a superficial inflammation,
whilst at others it is in the form of one or more deep
fissures, and these are extremely painful. Very often
the part suppurates, the result of infection by pus organ-
isms. Whenever the heels are washed, they must be
properly dried afterwards, and if necessary, bandaged.
In some cases the author is inclined to believe that the
trouble arises through a draught from the bottom of the
door playing on the heels, more especially after the animal
comes in from work. In winter, more especially when the
thaw sets in, it is a good plan to grease the hollows of the
heels freely with som.e lubricant, such as vaseline or lard.
This is a preventative. Mild cases can be cured by the
application of a cream composed of prepared chalk and
lime-water. If the heels are badly cracked, smear them
with an ointment composed of equal parts of vaseline and
mild mercurial ointment. In the treatment of cracked
heel one can only deal successfully with it by noting
whether the skin is dry or moist. If moist, drying agents
are indicated, whereas if dry, an oily dressing usually
proves the most beneficial.

Grease (Seborrhcea)

This is a very common disease of the skin and is one
that affects the skin between the knee and pastern or hock
and the last-named. It is a most objectionable trouble,
and the smell arising is of a very disgusting nature ; in

214 THE HORSE

fact so bad, more particularly in neglected cases, that it
can easily be smelt as soon as the stable door is opened.
Grease is particularly common amongst horses of a heavier
class, and when it is once established it leads to permanent
thickening of the skin. It is a form of dermatitis, in which
the sebaceous glands actively participate. We have
already referred to grease under the heading of "Mange,''
in which we spoke of this trouble as being caused by, in
many cases, a species of acari, known as the symbiotic
mange parasite — parasites which cause dermatitis in
the regions affected with grease. Apart from the parasiti-
cal cause of this trouble, the author is inchned to believe
that a certain percentage of cases of seborrhoea are of
constitutional origin, and can only be successfully treated
by a course of internal medication ; whereas if parasitical
this disease can usually be cured by local apphcations only.
Old standing cases of grease result in permanent enlarge-
ment at the seat of disease, hence the reason why one
occasionally sees a cart horse with a huge growth round the
fetlock. A common result is the formation of numerous
wart-like or grapy growths in the hollow of the fetlock
and which in days gone by the farrier used to remove by
the application of a hot shovel, as used in the forge. This
must have been an extremely painful procedure and
seems to be a barbarous method of dealing with a trouble
of this kind. All wounds in the heels are of slow healing
capacity, chiefly owing to the movement of the part and
the small amount of reparative tissue which exists.
Grease is much worse during the wet weather, but it
exists in some horses perennially, and the damage which
it does to the part attacked is usually proportionate to its
severity or otherwise. The author considers that it is one
of those troubles Vv^hich demand professional skill for its
proper treatment, but when it is due to, or thought to be
due to mange mites, the apphcation of hme and sulphur
lotion is of unquestionable service. The sulphur in the
lotion destro^^s these parasites, so that when the irritation

SOME SKIN AFFECTIONS 215

ceases through their existence, the trouble comes to an
end. This is indicated by the moisture of the skin drying
up and the animal ceases to itch or rub the leg or legs.
A common symptom of parasitical grease or mange is that
of stamping the feet, especially the hind ones, violently ;
itching the leg with the opposite foot and the presence of
blood and scars above and round about the fetlock.
(See Mange.)

Nettle-Rash (Urticaria)

Nettle-rash is quite a common affection and affects all
classes of horses, but particularly those which are very
fat and fed upon food which is much too stimulating. It
is often spoken of under the title of " Surfeit," more
especially by some of the older writers of works upon the
horse. It is a functional disturbance, apparently inti-
mately associated \vith some derangement of the digestive
organs, possible the kidneys, liver, etc. It is a trouble
which makes its appearance very suddenly in the form of
numerous weals or elevated patches of skin upon various
parts of the body, more especially the neck, back and
thigh. The patches commonly disappear as quickly as
they come, but they sometimes persist for several days or
more. The weals vary in size from a shilhng up to a crown
or larger, and one may fuse with another to form variously-
sized elevations. The skin seldom breaks. Treatment
comiprises a dose of physic or a little Epsom salts in the
drinking water daily. A tablespoonful once a day will
be sufficient. All corn should be withheld and green
food, if accessible, given. To allay the irritation, vinegar
and water can be applied to the skin several times a day.
It is a good plan to turn the animal out to graze if the
season permits, but for the time being a non-stimulating
forage should be given.

CHAPTER XXIII

THE EYE AND SOME COMMON AFFECTIONS

The horse, like all other animals, is Uable to suffer from
various diseases and injuries of the eyes, some of which
may render it either partially or completely blind.
Perfect vision, although not essential for work, is an
indispensable feature in relationship to soundness, so
that the most venial affection of the eye does, in this
animal, materially detract from its commercial value.

A horse may be perfectly blind, yet to a casual observer
the eyes may appear quite normal. There are some
affections implicating the eyehds only ; others the globe
of the eye ; the glands in connection with the eyelid and
eye, and, in many instances, the whole of the structures
in connection with the eyelids and eye become, more or
less, implicated.

The eyes occupy a somev/hat sheltered position and are
protected and shaded by the eyelids and eyelashes ;
nevertheless, in spite of this, foreign bodies, such as a
particle of chaff, etc., frequently become lodged on the
transparent surface of the eye, setting up a variable
degree of inflammatory action.

The eyelids are lined by mucous membrane, and as this
is a highly vascular structure it follows that an injury to
the eyelid, or anything which causes irritation is ex-
tremely liable to be followed by inflammation.

In addition to the shelter afforded by the eyelids,
each eye is lodged in a complete bony cavity, the eyeball
itself being pierced at the back by a large nerve — the
optic nerve, which is derived from the base of the brain,
where the right and left optic nerves cross, and constituting

216

THE EYE & SOME COMMON AFFECTIONS 217

the second pair of cranial nerves. The optic nerve forms
the innermost hning of the eye — the retina — and through
it the impressions are carried to and from the brain.*

The eyeball itself consists of a white portion known as
the sclerotic coat, and into this the transparent portion
of the eye— the cornea — is fitted, exactly as a watch-
glass is fitted into the rim of a watch. Immediately
behind the cornea lies the iris, which is a structure com-
posed of circular muscular fibres and having a central
opening — the pupil. The iris is the pigmented portion of
the eye and confers the colour upon it. The pupil dilates
and contracts in accordance with the degree of light
admitted into the interior of the eye, so that it contracts
in strong light, and dilates in the dark. Likewise there
is the same response to various chemical agents, such as
belladonna and atropine.

Immediately behind the iris is the crystalline lens,
through which hght is transmitted on to the retina.
Between the iris and the cornea there is a small chamber
containing a highly retractile fluid — the aqueous humour.
This is called the anterior chamber in contradistinction
to a much larger, but corresponding, chamber occupying
the bulk of the interior of the eye behind the crystalHne
lens and technically known as the posterior chamber,
which contains the vitreous fluid.

When the eye is severely injured it sometimes happens
that one or both these chambers is punctured. If so,
the eye collapses. If the amateur wishes to obtain an
elementary knowledge of the anatomical construction
of the horse's eye, he can do so by obtaining a specimen
from a dead horse, subsequently placing the organ in ice
in order to freeze it, and so facilitate its proper examina-
tion, after making a vertical section through it.

The foregoing outlines may serve as a preliminary
introduction to such study.

* The horse has a third eyelid known as the membrana nictitans, and this
is a triangular piece of cartilage springing from the inner angle of the eye.

2i8 THE HORSE

Injuries to the Eyelids

Injuries to the upper or lower eyelids are fairly common
in a horse, and may involve the skin only, or the cartilages
of the eyelids, and sometimes the mucous membrane
lining them. In the latter case a variable degree of
ophthalmia is an inevitable result, and this, in its turn,
not uncommonly leads to opacity of the cornea, which
further complicates matters, and may, if neglected,
result in either partial or complete blindness.

Many of these injuries are, more or less, the result of
carelessness on the part of a stableman through leaving
a nail, or some other form of projection, in proximity to
the horse's head. A pointed hook, such as one often
sees in the farmer's stable for hanging tackle on, is an
occasional cause of an injury of this kind. In the simple
cases, that is, where the skin only is torn, the injury can
be dealt with, first of all by cleansing the part with warm
water, and after thoroughly drying it, painting it with
iodine ; afterwards, adjusting the torn edges by means
of sutures (see chapter on V/ounds), or what is much
simpler, by pins, which are particularly suitable for
injuries to the eyelids of the horse, because these can be
adjusted according to the degree of swelling, etc. The
pins are inserted through the skin about one-eighth of an
inch from the margins of the torn part, and then the skin is
drawn together by means of horsehair or silk wound round
the pins in the form of a figure of eight. The nurnxber of
pins required will vary with the extent of the wound, but
as a rule about three are usually sufficient.

Under ordinary circumstances lacerations of the eye
lids in the horse heal fairly v/ell, but all will depend upon
the precautionar}^ measures which are adopted to prevent
the animal from rubbing the wound against the manger,
etc. In every instance it is expedient to call in a veterin-
ary surgeon, but when professional advice cannot be
obtained the measures outlined should be adopted.

THE EYE & SOME COMMON AFFECTIONS 219

The treatment recommended may be supplemented by
the apphcation, night and morning, of boracic acid
ointment, and a small portion of this may, with advantage,
be placed between the eyelids. A variable degree of
swelling is necessarily an accompaniment wherever the
skin is torn, consequently if stitches are inserted these
must be so adjusted as to allow for such swelling to
occur vv^ithout producing too much tension upon the
sutures, pins, or whatever materials have been employed
for bringing the injured edges together. The injured part
must be kept clean, and if there is much swelling fomenta-
tion with warm water, night and morning, will be of
service.

Ophthalmia

Ophthalmia, or inflammation of the mucous membrane
lining the eyelids, is of common occurrence, and it arises
through various causes, such as injuries to the eyelids,
various chemical and mechanical irritants — for instance,
lime or chemical manures of various kinds inadvertently
gaining access to the eyehds. A frequent cause is through
the admission of a particle of chaff, whilst in other
instances ophthalmia is associated with catarrh and
strangles, but it also exists as recurrent or specific
ophthalmia. It is one of those eye affections which, if
neglected, implicates structures in contiguity to it.
Thus, for instance, opacity of the cornea frequently
follows through prolonged irritation.

The symptoms indicative of acute ophthalmia are :
extreme redness of the mucous membrane ; intolerance
to light ; excessive iachrymation. These symptoms vary
in their severity or otherwise, Hkewise in their duration
and termination. Sometimes there is a purulent dis-
charge from the eye, due to infection by pus organisms,
which aggravates the trouble. The treatment must be
based upon a knowledge of the causes whenever this can
be ascertained. In every instance it is of primary im-

220 THE HORSE

portance to try to ascertain the cause. If a foreign body
has lodged upon the mucous membrane an effort should
be made to remove it. In any case the mucous mem-
brane hning the eyehds must be examined, though the
painful nature of this affection commonly renders such
an inspection and examination a matter of extreme
difficulty. If a hayseed or particle of chaff has lodged
upon the cornea it sets up both ophthalmia and inflamma-
tion of the cornea unless it is removed immediately the
accidenthappens. It is impossible to remove it after it has
been on the cornea for a few hours, owing to organisation
of the inflammatory exudit which has been poured out
on the cornea. In a case of this nature the animal becomes
at least temporarily blind, and in quite a number of
instances a permanent opacity of the cornea remains as a
legacy of this pre-existing inflammation.

Treatment and Management. — It is hardly necessary to
say very much about this because the most economical
and efficient measure will be to have professional advice,
and the sooner the better.

Certain palhative means may be adopted, such as,
for instance, the application of warm, fomentations, or the
use of a lead lotion (three grains of acetate of lead to each
ounce of water), or the application of boracic acid oint-
ment, night and morning. It is often a difficult matter
to remove a particle of chaff from the eye, and various
means have been employed, but a camel-hair brush dipped
in a strong solution of gum has been employed by the
writer in some instances with success. The difficulty in
the removal of a foreign body from the eye arises through
the existence of a third eyelid — the memhrana nictitans
— the functions of which are, obviously, for the removal
of foreign bodies from the eye.

Opacity of the Cornea
We have already alluded to this in the preceding
paragraph. The degree of opacity varies considerably.

THE EYE & SOME COMMON AFFECTIONS 221

just as much as the exciting causes. It may be temporary
or permanent ; specific or non-specific ; and the degree of
bHndness varies with the position which the opacity
occupies, and also the time the trouble has been in exist-
ence. If the opacity has existed for a long time it gradu-
ally undergoes a hardening process, and nothing can ever
remove it.* Quite a common cause of this trouble is
striking the eye with a whip ; a blov/ over the eye with
the butt-end of the whip ; various irritants, etc. Horses
frequently shy at objects in the road when they have
slight opacity of the cornea, more particularly if the
cloudiness is directly over the pupil.

Cataract

This is a fairly common affection in horses and one
that may render a horse completely bhnd. It is a disease
affecting the crystalHne lens, the capsule covering the
lens, or both these structures. As a rule it is of gradual
onset, and once established it is permanent, as operations
on the horse for cataract are seldom performed. An
injury, such as a blow over the eye, may possibly be a
cause of cataract, but one of the commonest causes
during these last few years has been the so-called specific
or recurrent ophthalmia, a disease which produces so
much disorganisation within the eye and so frequently
recurs that structures in connection with the lens finally
become implicated, and cataract is the result. About
half a century since specific ophthalmia was in Gre'at
Britain a fairly common malady, and used to be known
under the title of moon bhndness. Since the Great War
recurrent ophthalmia has reappeared, principally among
the army horses, therefore it is reasonable to assume,
now that a large proportion of these animals have been
sold, that the trouble referred to will reappear some-
where.

* Sclerosing keratitis.

222 THE HORSE

It is a very hopeless disease to treat, and whatever
repair takes place is mainly due to the efforts of Nature,
and not to any medicinal value of topical applications.
As previously stated, cataract is incurable ; renders a
horse unsound, but not necessarily less useful for certain
purposes, provided that only one eye is implicated.
Sometimes, however, both are affected. Cataract may
be partial or complete, in accordance with the stage at
which the disease has arrived. Its detection is a matter
for an expert and requires the use of the ophthalmoscope
for critical inspection. But, under ordinary circumstances
cataract can be seen as a greenish discoloured area
towards the back of the eye, more especially when the
pupil is dilated, which happens when the eye is shaded.

There are many other affections of the eye, such as
amaurosis, or glass-eye, a disease characterised by the
eyes being apparently healthy yet the animal is
blind. This is not a common affliction, although it is by
no means infrequently met with, and results from
variable causes, such as excessive haemorrhage and
pressure upon the optic nerve through injury, abnormal
growths, etc.

Amongst other diseases of the eye mention must be
made of glaucoma, an evertion and inversion of the
eyehds, warty growths on the eyehds, parasites of the eye,
luxation or displacement of the eyeball, and tumours of
the orbit, all of which produce impairment of sight and
other symptoms, associated with the particular part
involved.

Before concluding this chapter it is worthy of remark
in passing that the most severe injuries to the eye are
often followed by almost complete recovery of the eyes
to its normal state, indicating what remarkable repara-
tive power is inherent in these organs.

CHAPTER XXIV

WOUNDS, FRACTURES AND DISLOCATIONS

The horse is particularly liable to both wounds and
fractures, and it is by no means exempt from dislocations,
particularly in one joint, viz. the stifle. The majority
of flesh wounds in horses heal readily, but when com-
plicated with a fracture the damage is usually irreparable,
and nearly always necessitates the immediate destruc-
tion of the animal. There are certain fractures — such as
those of the ribs and the pastern — which are capable of
repair provided that the animal is placed under favour-
able conditions for the restoration of the damaged part.
It is the absence of flesh below the knees and hocks which
either hinders or completely prevents repair. Super-
added to these features, however, we have to consider the
extreme difficulty experienced in keeping the patient in a
position favourable to repair. In the human subject it is
quite a different matter, the conditions being exactly the
converse. The horse is unquestionably capable of receiv-
ing suggestions, and not only receiving but often inter-
preting them ; still, when it comes to a question of pain
and restraint the matter is entirely different. Wounds
vary from a mere abrasion of the skin to the implication
of the flesh, blood-vessels, tendons, and hgaments, or even
injury to bone, and in some cases vital parts may be
injured, as happens when the cavities of the brain, chest,
and belly are severely penetrated. The position of a
wound and the relationship it bears to vital structures
influence its course and termination. Most of the wounds
in a horse consist of laceration of the skin and subjacent
flesh, but some are incised or clean cut, exactly as though

223

224 THE HORSE

cut with the surgeon's knife. Many of these injuries are
accompanied by a good deal of contusion, or bruising,
consequently there is a considerable amount of swelling
often accompanying the injury. This is particularly the
case in the so-called "broken knee" of a horse, usually
produced by falling on hard ground ; a kick from another
horse is sometimes of a similar nature, but very often an
injury of this kind produces a fracture, as commonly ob-
served in many of the army horses during the last Great
War. When a wound is in the nature of a stab, like that
from a bayonet or from some sharp, penetrating body,
it is spoken of as " punctured," and punctured wounds
are most frequently met v/ith in the feet of horses, through
" picked-up nail," and when the farrier pricks the foot
during shoeing.* These are among some of the worst
injuries to which horses are liable, at any rate so far as
their course and termination is concerned. Wounds about
the feet can never be treated in a spirit of levity, but
should be examined by a veterinary surgeon and dealt
with according to his instructions. The size of a wound
is no criterion as to the ultimate result, as the most
trivial abrasions are occasionally followed by the death
of the animal through some disease such as tetanus, or
lockjaw. Quite commonly we find most extensive wounds
in horses, especially about the buttocks and quarters,
on the shoulder, and sometimes on the side, but capable
of appearing in any situation. Some extraordinary
wounds in horses were met with during the Allies' war
as the result of bomb explosions, shrapnel, etc. Thou-
sands of horses were either killed or destroyed as the
result of gunfire or some other form of explosion. A
compound wound is one in which there is a fracture in
addition to the wound. This, of course, materially adds
to the treatment of the injury ; in fact, it may necessi-
tate destruction of the animal. As to fractures or
broken bones, any bone in the body, no matter how

* A common cause of " Quittor."

WOUNDS, FRACTURES & DISLOCATIONS 225

sheltered in position, is liable to be fractured, and it is
surprising how apparently trifling an accident may be,
and yet the injury out of all proportion to the latter. A
fracture can be produced by direct or by indirect violence,
and the bone may be broken across transversely, longitu-
dinally, obliquely, or comminuted, i.e. broken into a
variable number of small particles. The author has
seen both these accidents in the cannon-bone and the
long pastern produced in a very simple manner. Direct
violence consists of a kick from another horse, contact
with a shaft from a cart, or against some other hard and
unyielding body, such as a lamp-post, wall, etc., whereas
indirect violence may be sudden muscular contraction,
as when a horse is pulled to a standstill in a very violent
manner. We have seen the radius, or forearm, fractured
in this way during polo playing. The arm, forearm,
and cannon are occasionally broken by a kick from
another horse, but the commonest fracture of all is that of
the second thigh, or tibia. In nine cases out of ten it is
the result of direct violence, and the bone is usually
broken about four or five inches above the hock. The
kick is generally delivered from the opposite side to that
upon which the injury is inflicted, and nearly always on
the inner side of the lim.b. The fracture is sometimes
transverse and sometimes it is oblique, and no matter
whether transverse or oblique there is usually considerable
displacement of the fractured part. If so, the sooner the
animal is destroyed the better for all concerned. It is
not an injury where there need be any hesitation, but if
there is no displacement, yet the animal is very lame and
fracture suspected, its destruction should be deferred.
Meanwhile it should be placed in the slings and pro-
fessional assistance obtained.

There is another fairly common fracture, viz. spilt
pastern, usually produced by direct concussion. Some-
times it is quite an easy matter to ascertain whether this
injury has or has not occurred, but usually it is difficult

226 THE HORSE

to tell, especially if it is unaccompanied by any swelling.
Certainly lameness and pain, when the fetlock is manipu-
lated, is of some value in assisting one to form an opinion.
There are two bones at the back of the fetlock ; either
or both of these may be broken, but this is an uncommon
injury. A broken rib or ribs, unless accompanied by an
external wound, is not of much significance, as these
structures contain a large amount of spongy bone, and
are in a fairly favourable situation for repair to occur.
A piece of pitch plaster over the seat of the injury is
usually sufficient to keep the injured part at rest.

Probably the reader will think that fractured bone,
say in a foal, is capable of exerting a greater degree of
reparative power than an adult animal. To a certain
extent this is true, but not sufficiently so to warrant one
to treat fractures in foals. Sometimes a mare will kick
her foal and break its leg. The owner may be anxious
to preserve the life of the foal. It is seldom, however,
that any good results from surgical means. The usual
signs of fracture are sudden lameness, with inability to
place weight on the injured limb, pain on manipulation,
increased heat, swelling, and crepitus or a grating together
of the broken ends of the bone, any of which may be
absent. Most fractures are accompanied by displacement,
but in certain instances they are not, or at any rate at
the time of the injury. When displacement does not occur
at the time, it is spoken of as a " deferred fracture." The
bones of the pelvis are occasionally broken, but usually
the injury is difficult of detection. Under ordinary cir-
cumstances it takes from six to eight weeks for the union
of a fractured bone to become complete. When a bone
is dislocated the limb is rendered useless. Dislocation of
the patella, or knee-cap, which is situated at the stifle
joint, is practically the only form of dislocation that
occurs in the horse, and when it does take place it is
commonly in a foal or a colt, although there are excep-
tions. The chief sjonptom of this injury is inability to

WOUNDS, FRACTURES & DISLOCATIONS 227

draw the limb forward. Plenty of good food and a strong
blister is about the most that can be done towards
setting this trouble right . Ligaments and tendons are some-
times torn, but both these structures are capable, under
proper conditions, of repair. All wounds, no matter
whether affecting skin, flesh, tendons, ligaments, or bones,
demand one prime factor necessary for their repair, and
this is perfect rest — by no means an easy thing to obtain
in the horse. When dealing with a wound, either of the
skin or flesh, first of all clip the hair off around the seat
of the injury with a pair of sharp scissors, or else shave it
off. This done, cleanse the wound thoroughly with warm
water containing some antiseptic. Any particles of grit,
dirt, etc., must be removed. If the wound is bleeding too
freely search for the divided vessel, which when found
should be ligatured, i.e. tied up with stout silk thread or
catgut. Pressure will sometimes do instead. Cold water
is useful for the same purpose, but it must be understood
that the loss of two or three quarts of blood, or even a
gallon or more, in the horse, is of very little importance.
Having assured oneself that the wound is clean it can then
be sutured or sewn up, using silk or catgut for this purpose.
Punctured wounds must never be sewn, but syringed out
daily with antiseptic solution. As soon as the wound is
dry, certainly not before, paint it with iodine hniment
and then proceed to draw the cut edges of the wound
together, taking particular care that the stitches are not
drawn too tightly, otherwise they will tear out and still
further aggravate the injury. Deep wounds of the
muscles, such as one commonly sees on the buttocks and
quarters, do not do well when they are stitched. If there
is a flap of skin hanging down remove this and let the
wound heal in an open manner, only keep it clean and
dress daily with an antiseptic lotion — say J oz. pure
carbolic acid to a pint of water, shaking the two well
together and if necessary adding the same quantity of
glycerine as acid. This will help to dissolve the carbolic.

228 THE HORSE

The great matter when stitching wounds is to adjust
them nicely, but never tight, as swelhng bursts the
stitches. In summer flies are sometimes troublesome.
To prevent this smear the wound v/ith eucalyptus oint-
ment once a day-. The following will be found a useful
dressing for w^ounds : creosote, | oz., turpentine, 4 oz.,
ohve oil, 8 oz. Mix and make wound liniment. The
liniment to be applied twice a day, as it will help a wound
to heal rapidly. In the case of broken knees the animal
must be tied up short to prevent it from lying down,
and the knees dressed with cotton wool soaked in the
liniment and subsequently fastened on with a Hnen
bandage, and over this an ordinary stable or flannel
bandage. Keep the knees clean, but don't wash the raw
surface of the wound. There is nothing more detrimental
to a wound than to wash the granulating surface off it.
It is surprising how very few people are aware of this
significant fact.

CHAPTER XXV

SOMETHING CONCERNING ORGANIC AND INORGANIC
POISONS

Horses, like most other animals, are liable to suffer from
the effects of various organic and inorganic poisons when
these are taken into the system. If these enter by the
mouth the usual result is that inflammation is set up in
the stomach and in the intestines, and this may be the'
cause of the animal's death. Both vegetable and mineral
substances act in this m.anner if these agents are of a
poisonous nature. It is of interest to note that, while
both arsenic and antimony are such extremely poisonous
agents to man and many other animals, antimony, so far
as the horse is concerned, does not, when taken internally,
cause any irritation or symptoms of poisoning ; yet
arsenic will if the dose is excessive. Amongst the British
plants of a poisonous nature mention must be made of
the yew, the foxglove, the deadly nightshade, the hem-
lock, the dropwort, the water hemlock, the bitter-sweet,
the laburnum, the hlac, etc. Perhaps the commonest
amongst these is the yew, the leaves of which, when con-
sumed by a horse, are of a very deadly nature, and quite
a number of instances of death have been recorded
through eating this plant. The yew (taxus) is a well-
known ornamental shrub, commonly growing around
suburban villas, and sometimes in hedges ; in fact, one
occasionally meets with a whole hedge formed of yew.
There is an Enghsh and an Irish variety of this plant,
but they are both equally deadly. The plant seems to be
more active at certain seasons than others, but no risk

229

230 THE HORSE

should ever be taken whenever and wherever it is found
growing. Most people are acquainted with the yew as an
ornamental shrub and the various devices which are
fashioned out of it. The leaves are about an inch long,
dark green on the upper, but lighter on the lower side,
and when young of a very bright green, standing out in
marked contrast to the leaves of the previous year.
The poisonous properties of the yew were known to the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and have been fully estab-
lished by modem experience. Judged from a toxi-
cological standpoint, the yev/ occupies an intermediate
position between the foxglove and the savin. Death
occurs so rapidly after partaking freely of this plant that
there is very httle time to observe any symptoms. It
produces coldness of the surface of the body, rapid action
of the heart, trembling, and other urgent signs of pain
and collapse. Although a very ornamental shrub it
should never be grown in hedges, more especially at the
front of houses, as it is very liable at any time to be con-
sumed by any horses left unattended there.

Another plant which frequently grows on hedge-banks
and around pastures is that known as the foxglove, the
purple flowers of which are well known to almost every one.
This plant bears a rosette of leaves close to the ground
and these are much lighter on their under surface than
above. They have been known to be gathered in mistake
for those of the prickly comfrey, and with fatal results
when cut up and given to horses. Foxglove leaves, when
dried and powdered, have marked diuretic and sedative
properties, for which purpose they are sometimes medici-
nally employed in veterinary practice. Both the flowers
and the leaves are poisonous.

The deadly nightshade and the bitter-sweet belong to
the same natural order as the potato, and they are both
poisonous plants, but the deadly nightshade more so to the
horse than the bitter-sweet. The latter is quite a common
plant found growing in hedges. It bears bright purple

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC POISONS 231

flowers with yellow centres. It is a shrub of a trailing
character with green berries which subsequently become,
when ripe, red. The belladonna, or deadly nightshade,
also known as the common dwale, flowers in June, the
flowers being of a dusky brown. In spite of its poisonous
effects as miich as 8 lb. have been given to a horse without
any bad results. An extract prepared from the leaves is
extensively employed in veterinary practice.

The hemlocks are characterised by their hollow stems,
their compound leaves and the compound nature of their
inflorescence. They belong to the same family as the
parsley, celery, etc. The water hem.lock is fairly common
in ditches and ponds, whilst the spotted hemlock is often
found growing on banks, around woods, etc. Both the
stem and the leaves are spotted. The poisonous symp-
toms produced by these plants are variable, but usually
those indicative of colic followed by collapse. In cases of
poison by any of the foregoing plants first-aid treatment
comprises the administration of a pint of linseed oil
mixed with half a pint of gin, the whole to be adminis-
tered immediately the symptoms are observed. In every
suspected case of poisoning the earlier professional
assistance is obtained the better.

Arsenic is occasionally surreptitiously given to horses
by carters and grooms, and the doses are often sufficiently
large to kill a horse. It is used in the form of arsenious
acid or arsenic trioxide, and it is a heavy white crystalline
powder. The proper dose for the horse is from 4 to 8
grains, but horse dealers have been known to give as
much as would lie on a shilling, and this would probably
weigh 3 or 4 drams. The administration of such lethal
doses has, on numerous occasions, landed the horse-
keeper in prison, and rightly so. Even when this drug is
prescribed medicinally by a professional man, its effects
have to be watched, as it is one of those substances which
have a tendency to accumulate in the liver, from which
it may at any time be suddenly swept into the system.

23^ THE HORSE

and produce acute gastro-enteritis, followed by death.
Horse-keepers and grooms reading these remarks must
take warning and accept this as the author's timely
intervention. Arsenic is given for the purpose of im-
proving the condition of the coat and skin and also that
of the wind, on all of which it has a marked effect. Arsenic
forms a constituent of many sheep dips and some weed
killers, and it has also been employed as a dip for horses
in the treatment of certain skin diseases, such as mange,
but experience proves that it is distinctly inferior to the
ordinary lime and sulphur dip for this purpose. The
leading symptoms in arsenical poisoning are those of very
severe colic and general signs of collapse. Before con-
cluding this chapter we must not forget to mention
another drug occasionally given to horses by grooms,
and this is oil of vitriol, or strong sulphuric acid adminis-
tered by pouring it on loaf sugar, employed for a similar
purpose to arsenic, but it is extremely dangerous and its use
deserving of the most severe condemnation. The adminis-
tration of such drugs as turpentine, strong liquid ammonia
and carbohc acid to horses necessitates thorough dilution
of these corrosive agents, otherwise most serious damage
may be done to the mouth, lips, tongue, throat, gullet,
and stomach, through ignorance. We have known a
soldier administer strong hquid ammonia along with a
small quantity of water to a horse when it had colic ;
the result was appalling, and as cruel as it was possible
to conceive. No matter whether employed for internal or
external use the drug last named should always be freely
diluted with some bland agent, such as linseed or olive oil,
and then it can be used with safety.

In smelting districts horses sometimes suffer from
lead-poisoning.

INDEX

Actinomycosis, 163

Administering medicine to horses,
123, 124

Affections of the respiratory and
circulatory systems, 164-72

Age, 47

Age as indicated by teeth, 82-90

Agistment of horses, 25, 26

Anatomical outlines of the con-
struction of the horse, 130-45

Anthrax, 15 6, 157

Arthritis in foals, 158, 159

Azoturia, 181

Bedding. 33, 34

Blistering and firing, 124

Bone-spavin, 192-94

Breathing, 122

Breeding heavy horses and the

selection of sire and dam for

this purpose, 56-58
Broken wind, 166, 167
Bruised heel, 120
Bursal enlargements or wind galls,

190, 191
Buying a light horse and what to

avoid in selecting same, 77-81

Canker of the foot, 114, 115
Care of mare and foal, 59-64
Castration of colts, 126-28
Cataract, 221, 222
Catarrh, 147-49
Causes of laminitis, no
Cleveland Bay, The, 70, 71
Clipping, 20, 21
Clothing and bandages, 22
Clydesdale, The, 38-40

Colic, 176, 177

Collar and saddle galls, 209-1 1

Colour, 47-55

Common affections of the eye,
Some, 216-222

Complaints of the digestive or-
gans, Some, 1 73-1 79

Cracked heels, 212, 213

Curb, 191, 192

Cutting or brushing, 119

Dam, Selection of, 56-58
Diabetes or excessive urination,

181, 182
Diarrhoea in foals, 178
Digestive system. The, 143-45
Diseases of bones, joints, tendons

and hgaments, 185-95
Diseases of the feet, 108
Dislocations, 223-28
Dressing for mange in horses, 205

Epilepsy or vertigo, 184

Eye, Some common affections of,

216-22
Eyelids, Injuries to, 218, 219

Facts of general interest, 121-29

False quarter, 114

Farmer's horse, 44, 45

Feeding sick horses, 126

Feet, Diseases of, 108

Fever powders, 129

Fomentations, 125, 126

Forage, The horse and its, 26-33

Forging, 119

Foot in health and disease, The,

102-20
Foot, Structure of, 104-108

2Z2>

234

THE HORSE

Founder (laminitis), 108-12
Fractures, 223-28

General management of horses,

115-34
Glanders, 154-56
Grease, 213-15
Grooming, 17-20

Hackney or harness horse. The,

67-70
Healing ointment, 128
Heart, The, 171, 172
Heavy draught horses, 35-46
Heavy draught horses, age, sex,

colour, selection, soundness, etc.

56-58
Horse and its forage, The, 26-33
Hunter, The, j-}.
Hygiene of the stable, 11-14

Infectious stomatitis, i6r, 162
Infective diseases. Specific, 146-

163
Influenza, 15 1-4
Injuries to the eyelids, 218-219
Inorganic poisons, 229-32
Internal structure of a horse, 139,

140

Joint-ill or arthritis in foals, 158,
159

Lameness in the horse, 93-97
Laminitis or founder, 108-12
Laminitis, General management

and treatment of, iii, 112
Lice, 205, 206

Ligaments, Diseases of, 185-95
Light van and tradesman's horse,

71
Lockjaw (tetanus), 157, 158
Lymphangitis (weed), 178, 179

Mange, 197-201
Management of horses, 15-34
Mare and foal, their management
from summer to winter, 59-64
Mud rash, 212
Muscular System, The, 138, 139

Navicular disease, 112, 113
Nervous system. The, 183, 184
Nettle rash (urticaria), 215

Opacity of the cornea, 220, 221
Open joint, 190
Ophthalmia, 219, 220
Organic and inorganic poisons.
Something concerning, 229-32

Parasitic mange order, 191 1, 201-
203

Percheron, The, 42, 43

Physicking horses, 122, 123

Pleurisy, 171

Pneumonia, 168-71

Poisons, Something concerning
organic and inorganic, 229-32

Ponies, 74

Pulse, The, 121

Purpura, 160, 161

Preparation of the foot for shoe-
ing, 98-101

Rheumatism, 159, 160
Ring-bone, 188, 189
Ringworm, 206-g
Rules for prevention and cure of
mange in horses, 203, 204

Saddle horse or rider, The, 65-76
Saline fever powders, 129
Sandycrack, 113, 114
Scour in foals, 178
Seborrhoea (grease), 213-15
Septic laminitis, 64
Shire, The, 35-37
Shoes and shoeing, 98-101
Side-bone, 1 16-18
Sire, Selection of, 56-58
Sitfast, 211, 212
Skeleton of horse, 130-8
Skin affections, 196-215
Slipped shoulder, 186
Sore throat, 167, 168
Soundness, etc., 56-58
SpUnt, 186-8
Stable hygiene, 11-14
Stables and stable construction^
11-14

INDEX

235

stomatitis. Infectious, 161, 162
Strained tendons and ligaments,

194, 195
Strangles, 149-51
Stringhalt, 183, 184
Structure of foot, 104-8
Suffolk, The, 40-42
Summering horses, 24, 25

Temperature, 121, 122
Tetanus (lockjaw), 157, 15!
Thrush, 115, 116
Tonic powders, 128
Tuberculosis, 162, 163

Urinary and generative organs, 145

Urinary organs, Some affections

of, 180-182 • 4

tradesman's horse,

Vanner and

45. 46
Vertigo, 1 84
Vice, 91, 92

Washing, 22
Watering, 22
Wintering horses, 24, 25
Wound lotion, 128
Wounds, fractures and disloca-
tions, 223-8

pfTntedm Great Brftoln of
UJilUam Breodon & Son B?

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Read this striking testimonial and write to
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