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FOR THE PEOPLE

FOR EDVCATION

FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

NATURAL HISTORY

THE HOESE

THE HORSE

ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT COMBINED
WITH STABLE PRACTICE

COLONEL R. F. MEYSEY-THOMPSON

AUTHOR OF "A HUNTING CATECHISM," "REMINISCENCES OF CAMP,
COURSE AND CHASE," ETC.

ILLUSTRATED

LONDON

EDWARD ARNOLD
191 1

f^-

PREFACE

THE scheme of this work is to trace the history of
the horse from the earHest Ages ; to continue its
evohition to modern times, when the various breeds in Great
Britain have been brought to a high state of perfection by
the careful supervision and skill of enthusiastic breeders ;
and also to give in detail the methods of stable practice
and training in vogue at present, as practised in my own
stable.

There are many races of horses, admirable in their way,
that have therefore not been touched upon, since they
have had no part in the development of British horses.
How hardy and useful some of these native breeds are
may be gathered from a letter, October 23, 1910, from
Mr. J. Tagg, F.E.C.V.S., who had a very prolonged
experience in managing an immense Stud in the Tirhoot
district of Bengal.

Eeferring to the Khirgiz, and the Manchurian ponies, and
others of that breed, which are common from the Volga
to China, he remarks : " What ripping ponies the Khirgisen
are! When I was at Simbirsh, on the Volga — the town
is between Kasan and Samara — I used to drive a Troika.
The middle pony, about 13'3, was a dun Khirgis stallion,
and the two outspanners were geldings, with a dash of
Arab in them. The outspanners, or ' outriggers,' used
to gallop as hard as they could pelt on the frozen snow,
but the Kirgis would never break. The hardiness of the
little brutes was marvellous ! On one occasion night over-
took me, and I stayed in a village called Astradam, on the
Kama River, and I gave my Ivooschick an extra rouble.

vi PREFACE

My man, a Kalmuck Tartar, and a blackguard personified
but faithful to me, went and got drunk promptly. In the
night I went out into the yard — there were then about
50 degrees Fahrenheit of frost — and there stood my three
ponies, one icicle from the tips of their ears to their heel
sockets, comfortably eating rough hay from a crib of
sorts."

Stories of hardiness that may even vie with the above
have been often told from time to time of Indian ponies,
Argentine, Norwegian, Basuto, and those of many other
countries, showing the innate toughness of various national
breeds, and that England has no monopoly of hard-working
ponies. They take no part, however, in the composition
of British horses or their descendants, and reference to
them is unnecessary for the present purpose.

My best thanks are gratefully offered to the kind friends
who have given me much valuable assistance in compiling
this work, and bringing it to a successful conclusion : to Mr.
James E. Piatt, the former eminent breeder of thorough-
bred yearlings, and owner of the great Kendal in his days
at the English Stud, who has given me most welcome
help in preparing the chapters on Thoroughbreds, and on
American Trotters; to Mr. Walter Winans, famous in
many different spheres, but especially in the art of breeding
and successfully showing horses, who has kindly revised
the mention of American Trotters ; to Lady Anne Blunt,
who has unstintedly given me the great advantage of her
unique knowledge of the Arabian horse, in preparing the
description of her favourite breed ; to Miss Daphne Darley
for obtaining the most valuable letter concerning the
purchase of the Darley Arabian ; to Mr. Alfred Withers,
the world-famous manager of the great establishments
in Oxford Street and Edgware Road, for his hints with
regard to carriage-horses ; to Kaid Sir Harry Maclean,
whose prolonged period of captivity by Raisuli thrilled
the whole of Europe, and whose long service in the
Councils of the late Sultan of Morocco, dating from 1876
till 1908, was the theme of wonder and admiration in all
the Foreign Offices of Europe, who has now kindly

PREFACE vii

revised the chapter on Barbs ; to Mr. Hermon Biddell,
whose intimate knowledge of the Suffolk Punch enabled
him to write that most interesting account of them in
the first volume of their Stud Book, and whose aid has
been invaluable to me in writing about the merits of the
breed ; and to Mr. Eobert Thornton, so well known in con-
nection with Lord Middleton's Stud Farm at Birdsall,
who has supervised the remarks on Breeding. To all
these kind friends, and also to those who have granted
permission to embellish the work with the likenesses of
their favourites, some even personally unknown to me,
and to every one who has assisted in bringing this
book to a happy conclusion, I now tend my hearty and

grateful thanks.

R. F. MEYSEY-THOMPSON.
November, 1911.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

PAGE

INTRODUCTION . , . . , . .1

CHAPTER II
FOREIGN HORSES ..... 10

CHAPTER III

THOROUGHBRED HORSES . . . . .33

CHAPTER IV

CARRIAGE-HORSES ...... 105

CHAPTER V

CART-HORSES ..... . 116

CHAPTER VI

ORIGIN OP AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES . . . 128

CHAPTER VII

CONFORMATION ....... 153

CHAPTER VIII

BREEDING ...... 182

X CONTENTS

CHAPTER IX

PAGE

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES ..... 201

CHAPTER X

STABLE MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER XI

SIMPLE AILMENTS

CHAPTER XII

DISINFECTANTS

212

. 276

329

CHAPTER XIII

ALCOHOL ....... 333

CHAPTER XIV

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS . . . 340

CHAPTER XV

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT TO POINT, ETC. . . 361

CHAPTER XVI

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING . . . 382

CHAPTER XVII

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS .... 412

INDEX ....... 429

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Darley Arabian

Frontispiece

Berk . . . . .

To face page 10

Carnival . . . . .

St. Simon . . . .

• >)

Sceptre ....

• >»

Maid of the Mint

»f

Spearmint

La Fleche

John o' Gaunt .

»>

Berrill ....

• • >)

Kettleholder

Comaraich

Shetland ....

Marquis ....

i»

100

Measuring- stone on York Eace-cours

103

Cleveland Bay .

• • )>

106

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Two Hackneys ....

To face page 110

Hackney Trotting

112

Cream .....

114

Shire .....

116

Clydesdale ....

lib

Suffolk Punch ....

124

American Trotter

132

Gimcrack ....

138

Prince Alert ....

148

Blink Bonny's Skeleton

178

Arabian from Lady Anne Blunt's Stud

188

Manifesto ....

362

Carnival Jumping

390

Carnival Cantering

390

THE HOESE

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

OAVING to the careful researches that have continuously
taken place during the last fifty years, our know-
ledo^e of the early history of the horse has been
enormously increased. We now possess a comprehen-
sive view of its evolution from prehistoric ancestors, the
earliest date of which goes back to a period whose remote-
ness was little suspected a few years ago. Our knowledge
has been gained through the finding of bones and teeth
in the various deposits termed the Tertiaries ; for the
skeletons of mammals, like those of birds, reptiles, and
osseous fishes, being composed of calcareous earth
pervading an organic base, have withstood the passage
of incalculable Ages, provided they were kept out of the
reach of the solvent action of water, in almost a
similar manner to the soil itself. Our knowledge thus
gained has been further immensely increased by the dis-
covery of marvellous drawings left by the Cave-dwellers
(usually known as the Reindeer Men), which were carved
in a most artistic, as well as realistic, manner on the
tusks of the mammoth, and on various other bones, and
depict both the pursuits of the human beings of that
epoch, and the animals with whom they were acquainted.
Though we do not know when the Tertiaries commenced
to form, they have taken millions of years to do so ; and
as they consist of well-defined series of clay and sand,
superimposed above each other, the finding of the

2 THE HORSE

remains of animals in the respective strata affords a
reliable guide to the sequence of their evolution, and
shows the different stages they have passed through to
attain their modern form ; while their total absence in
the early geologic formations is conclusive proof that they
must have evolved from the primitive forms, which then
alone peopled the earth.

To commence at the beginning, there was first the
Pre-Cambrian Age, that of the Torridonian Sandstone
and various igneous rocks. No undoubted fossils in this
formation have yet been found, but life most probably
existed, as we find all the chief genera of invertebrates
in the succeeding Cambrian period. Following in
sequence came the Primary, or Palaeozoic epoch,
commencing with the Cambrian formation, when
Trilobites were in existence. Later was included the
formation of the Silurian, when there were plant-like
animals, and small fish ; the Devonian, when Ganoid
fishes and true sharks first appeared ; the Carboniferous,
when (as the coal measures show) there were great
forests, and plant-life was on a profuse scale ; and lastly,
the Permian — a formation of the limestone, slate, and
sandstone, when reptiles first began to crawl.

Following this epoch came the Secondary, or Mesozoic
Age. This included the Triassic ; the Jurassic, (the
flourishing period of Ammonites and reptiles, such as the
Icthyosaurus, Deinosaurus, and Plesiosaurus, and when
the first bird made its appearance) ; and lastly, the
Cretaceous, or Chalk Age, when the remains have been
found in America of birds possessing teeth ! Whether
mammals evolved from such birds or from reptiles yet
remains to be proved. The evolution of fish into land-
animals may possibly be traced through the curious- cat-
fish of Africa, and the climbing perch of India, both of
which can live out of water for a considerable time. In
the former this power is due to vascular structures above
the gills, enabling them to breathe atmospheric air. One
form is almost amphibious, and when the marshes are
dried up can spend the dry season in burrows, which it

INTRODUCTION 3

leaves at night to seek for food. The transformation,
too, of tadpoles into air-breathing frogs and toads, is an
example familiar to everybody who frequents the country
ditches in the summer-time, and is too common an
occurrence to excite remark ; whilst the breathing of
atmospheric air by inhabitants of the ocean, which never
leave it, is another case in point, exhibited by the whales
and porpoises.

At the bottom of the chalk sea were deposited
myriads of fossils, shells, and fish, which are marked
features of the formation at the present day ; but there
are no traces of mammals. The few that have been
discovered during the Secondary Period appear to have
been of a small marsupial animal, and also a small
insectivorous one.

Although the actual genesis of the horse is thus
veiled in obscurity, like that of other mammals, warm-
blooded animals which suckle their young, its evolution is
clearly traced in the Old World from the Hyracotherium,
a horse-like animal not larger than a fox. It was only
about eleven inches high, existing in the Lower Eocene
Period, the first, and lowest, of the Tertiary deposits, and
possessing four toes on each fore-foot, with rudiments of
another, and three on each hind-foot. In the New
World the earliest direct ancestor was the Eo-hippus,
which had the same characteristics as the Hyracotherium.
Another small animal existed about the same period which
possessed five toes on each foot, had the same charac-
teristics as the Hyracotherium, and there is little doubt
was a still more remote ancestor of the horse. It is
termed the Phrenacodus, the first specimen being found
by Professor Cope, who dug it up from the Eocene marl
on Bear River, in Wyoming. All mammals, even
elephants, are descended from similar five-toed ancestors
(no larger than a fox), and there are no fossil remains
(excepting those of which mention has been made
above) of any of them earlier than the sands and clays
forming the Tertiary deposits. These are divided into
Lower, Middle, and Upper, as far as this country is

4 THE HORSE

concerned; or Eocene (the first and lowest), Oligocene,
and Pliocene ; while on the Continent there is a
fourth, the Miocene, intermediate between the Oligocene
and Pliocene. Then comes the Pleistocene or Quater-
nary epoch, divided into three periods : No. 1, the
Upper, or Post-Glacial Pleistocene, the Age of the Rein-
deer, and the extremely artistic race known as the Eein-
deer Men ; No. 2, the Middle Pleistocene, or Last Glacial
Age, when another race existed known as the Neander
Men ; and lastly. No. 3, the Lower Pleistocene, when
man must have lived, as flint implements have been
found in the gravels of England and France, though
no human remains have yet been discovered.

It was not until the Quaternary Period, millions of
years after the epoch of the early Hyracotherium, that
amongst its gravel and cave-deposits the weapons, imple-
ments, and carvings were found of the Cave-dwelling Men
who flourished from 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. They
had for company the lion, bear, mammoth, rhinoceros, and
horse, whom they slew for food in vast numbers, with the
assistance only of such poor tools as flint knives and bone
javelins, at a time when the British Islands were still a
solid part of the Continent.

Gradually the habits of the early horse changed ;
speed became of prime importance in the struggle for
existence, both to escape from enemies and also to flee
from arid districts to places where water could be found ;
and as the stature increased so also did the toes become
shorter from disuse. In the Middle Tertiary the four
toes (Fig. 1) had become only three (Fig. 2), still of
equal dimensions, and the size of the animal had
increased to that of a fair-sized donkey.

The form beginning to resemble that of the modern
wild Mongolian horse, the Hipparion as it is thence
called, continued to develop. Eventually the central
digit became unduly elongated, the toe became rounded
into hoof-like form (Fig. 3), and the lateral digits
resolved themselves into well-developed pettitoes, such
as we are familiar with in the domestic pig, and of

INTRODUCTION 5

which the splint-bones of the modern horse are an
interesting survival.

From the carvings left by the Cave-dvi^ellers, the
Hipparion had already assumed a horse-like form ; but
even then there appears to have been a cleavage into
two types, the one resembling the modern wild horse of
the Gobi Desert, coarse in its head, inelegant in its neck,
with a low-carried tail ; while the other was of a more
slender make, with a narrower, more tapering head,
which undoubtedly signified " quality," as understood by
horsemen at the present time. It is more than probable
that this was the " old original " of the Arabian horse
and the Barb, which conclusion is strengthened by the
hollow depression in the skull, in front of the orbit,
being common to both Hipparion and Arabian horses, and

Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3.

their descendants, even when crossed with other breeds.
Moreover, it is entirely wanting in the skulls of the wild
Mongolian horse, as well as in those of the horses of
Northern Europe, such as the Iceland and Norwegian
ponies, and the coarse-bred horse of the common type
(the Shire horse alone excepted), more especially in those
breeds where a dun colour prevails. This cavity is pre-
sumed to have contained a gland, such as is possessed
by antelopes and deer, which secretes a fluid that is
supposed to give out a special odour, by which indi-
viduals of a tribe may track each other if they happen
to be separated and scattered. Sach cavities in front of
the eye can be traced in our thoroughbred horses, due
to the introduction of the blood of Eastern horses into
our indigenous racing stock. Professor Cosser Ewart
has stated his opinion that in the Early Eocene Period

6 THE HORSE

horses may have been of a uniform colour, "a foxy -red"
in hue ; while the Miocene horses were either striped
or spotted. No doubt at that period horses were
dwelling in vastly different areas, some inhabiting bush
and some open plains, and their colouring would assimilate
to their surroundings. Stripes appeared first on the legs,
as are sometimes still seen in dun horses, and then a
dorsal band and shoulder stripes followed, though the
markings were faint and ill-defined, until, as time ran
its course, the zebras developed their characteristic coat.

Caves containing vast quantities of fossil remains of
early quadrupeds have been discovered and investigated
in many parts of the world ; and it is likely that our
own limestone ranges, whose vast fissures and caverns
underground give no external indication of their exist-
ence, may reward future investigators with rich dis-
coveries which will throw more light on prehistoric
ages.

In England, " Kent's Cavern " at Torquay, the
Creswell Cave and the " Kirkdale Cave," in Yorkshire,
have been prolific of fossil treasures. North America has
provided remains of the " Protohippus " in the Later
Eocene, in which the splint-bones are fully developed,
terminating inferiorly in small though perfect toes, a
contemporary of the Hipparion ; the Miocene " Anchi-
therium," the crowns of whose teeth are quite short
and free from cement ; and the " Pliohippus " in the
Upper Pliocene, with shorter cheek teeth ; while South
America has the " Onohippidium Munizi," found in the
superficial deposits of Argentina, and characterised by the
great length of the nasal slit, which extends as far as
the eye-socket. In the light of these fossil remains, it
is curious that when America was discovered no living
horses existed on that continent. It is the great
caverns in the Pyrenees, and the Landes, and the cele-
brated cavern of La Madeleine in the Dordogne, which
have yielded the great wealth of carvings and other
evidences of the Cave-men. It has been stated that in
one locahty in France alone — Solutre, near Macon — the

INTRODUCTION 7

bones of 100,000 horses have been collected, which had
been cooked and eaten ; while an immense amount of
carvings, some in line-engraving and some in relief,
have been recovered and placed in the great Museum of
St. Germain, near Paris, and also figure in private
collections, largely through the indefatigable exertions of
the late Vicomte de Lastic and the recently deceased
M. Piette.

In common with other mammals the evolution of the horse
may therefore be summed up in the following table (see p. 8),
millions of years being consumed in the process of ascend-
ing from the lowest epoch to the date of the most recent
winner of the Epsom Derby, or the First Prize Shire Horse
at the Koyal Agriculture Show ; though undoubtedly all are
links in one progressive chain of development from a
lower to a higher form. The table should be studied
from the bottom, working up from the Pre-Cambrian Age,
the period of the Torridonian Sandstone, to the Palaeo-
lithic or Upper Glacial epoch, the links of which are
superimposed upon each other, like the different layers of
a sandwich.

The use of the horse by the Cave-dwellers was assuredly
for food. It was probably a long time before they made any
endeavour to utilise its services, but that they eventually
did so is clearly indicated on some of the carvings discovered
by M. Piette. Twisted thongs were placed round the head
and muzzle in the fashion of a bridle, or halter, but whether
any sort of bit was used is uncertain. In all probability
the horse was primarily controlled by pressure with the
nose-band, which latter may have been supplemented by a
hard material such as bone, or wood, similar to the metal
cavessons frequently employed instead of bits, in the
Peninsula, at the present day. When man takes any
species of animal in hand he invariably contrives to modify
some of its characteristics to suit his wants, and it is likely
the Cave-dwellers asserted their influence, and the horse as
used by them changed somewhat in type from what Nature,
free and unfettered, would have continued to produce ; but
it has been left to very modern times to originate and

THE HORSE

Age.
Palaeolithic

or
Post-Tertiary

or
Quaternary or
Pleistocene

Period.

{Upper, or Post-Glacial
Pleistocene

( Middle, or Last Glacial

\ Pleistocene

Lower Pleistocene

Age of the Reindeer, and the
artistic Reindeer Men.

Hipparion assumed complete
form of horse.

Age of the Neander Men.

Mild climate. Age of the
Hippopotamus in England,
and other European rivers.

Pliocene

r Upper

Lower

(Tertiaries. Miocene ...
Advent of Oligocene . . .
Mammals Eocene

Plio-hippus, extra digits en-
tirely rudimentary.

Hipparion three-toed. About
the size of a Shetland pony.

American " Anchitherium."

Stripes and spots appear.

Eo-hippus, New World.

Hyracotherium, Old World,
four-toed, probably foxy-
red in hue, and about
eleven inches high.

Phrenacodus, the five-toed,
earliest hoofed mammal
yet discovered.

Chalk Age

C Secondary Jurassic

or
•< Mesozoic.
I Age of
1^ Reptiles

Triassic

Fossil shells, and birds found
in America possessing
teeth.

Advent of first bird. Flourish-
ing period of Ammonites,
and Reptiles, such as the
Icthyosaurus, Deinosaurus,
Pleisiosaurus.

Primary

Age of Fishes
and MoUusks

Permian

Carboniferous (Coal Mea-
sures)

Devonian

Silurian

Cambrian

Formation of Limestone,

Slate and Sandstone.

Reptiles began to crawl.
Great Forests, and profuse

plant-life.
True sharks, and Ganoid

fishes.
Plant-like animals, and small

fishes.
Age of trilobites.

A. Pre-Cambrian Torridonian Sandstone
and various igneous
rocks

No undoubted fossils yet
found, but probably existed,
as the chief genera of inver-
tebrates are found in the
Cambrian.

develop the numerous groups that now exist, specialised
for the particular duties for which they are required. In
this the breeders in the British Islands have taken a fore-

INTRODUCTION 9

most place, and the success they have achieved has been
recognised by ahnost every civihsed country, nearly all
of which have repeatedly sought our best breeding stock,
to raise the character of their own home produce. More-
over, up to now, other countries do not seem able to
maintain the same high standard through their own efforts,
and owing to some peculiarity in the climate of these Isles
it is found necessary to return again for fresh supplies from
British breeders, after every few generations, to prevent
deterioration setting in.

Whether the first use of the horse was for riding or
driving is hardly likely to be ever known for certain, though
to get upon a horse's back necessarily requires less prepara-
tion than to provide means for draught, even of the simplest
construction. On the other hand, although the Cave-dweller
may have surmounted the initial difficulty when he had
got on the animal's back, he had to manage to remain there,
which is not such a very simple matter if the steed
disapproves of such liberties being taken, and resents them
accordingly ! It is not to be supposed that these early men
would be troubled with very refined feelings, and their
methods of reducing a rebellious steed to subjection would
be likely to be efficacious, if somewhat unpleasantly drastic ;
but then comes in also the question of whether they were
troubled with nerves ! Probably at that remote date they
did not know what fear was, though by the time the
Biomans appeared on the scene Horace tells in a familiar
passage how " atra cura'' sits "post equitem,'' which the
schoolboy felicitously translated, " He was in a blue funk."
As the size of the animal was so diminutive it seems
probable that it would be used for traction rather than
riding, at the earliest period of its subjugation by man.

CHAPTEE II
FOEEIGN HOESES

Arabians.

IN buildinw up our horses to the magnificent standard
to which they have attained, it may well be asked
where we should be now without the assistance of
Eastern sires, and more especially of the Arabian. Our
indigenous stock appears to have been a wiry, small
horse — the type, no doubt, of our present mountain
ponies — and on that foundation has been superimposed
the blood of Arabians and Barbs, and frequently also
that of the Spanish genet. Eastern blood has certainly
been imported continually since the arrival of the
Romans, who are credited with holding race-meetings
in Yorkshire. Baron von Oettingen states in " Horse
Breeding in Theory and Practice," p. 11 : " Horse-racing
as a popular amusement was indulged in even in the
times of the Romans, and during the four years which
King Severus passed at York (206-210 a.d.) the Roman
soldiers arranged races with Arabians at Wetherby, near
York." Such a race-course would be conveniently
situated within reach of their great stations at York,
Aldborough, and Tadcaster, though it is not to be
supposed they would make any fine distinction between
Barbs and Arabians, but would probably include all
Eastern horses under one designation. No doubt the
steeds remained, and died, in Britain, and never
returned to Rome ; and since they would almost certainly
eventually be used for breeding, they must have exerted
a considerable influence on the common stock of the

I I

he u

FOREIGN HORSES 11

district around them.* We know, again, that numerous
horses were brought back from Palestine in the train of
the Crusaders, which would of a surety be Arabian in
character ; so the improvement of our horses through the
admixture of Eastern blood must have commenced at a
very early period in our national story. Whether the
Arabian horse of that epoch was identical with the
animal of to-day, it is impossible to know for certain ;
but in all probability it was similar in all important
respects, for the Eastern world changes very slowly, and
the habits of the desert are now akin to the customs
described in the Old Testament. The well-known
description of a war-horse in the 39th chapter of the
Book of Job is that of a spirited, courageous charger,
befitting the present denizen of the desert.

The characteristic qualities of the high-caste Arabian,
his endurance, hardihood, generous temper, and sound-
ness, enable him to impart lasting benefit to any breed
with which he is crossed. Like a foxhound he is a
model of symmetry and power, and though his stature
may be small the strength in that compact form is
simply marvellous. As a war-horse his strong constitu-
tion, enabling him to withstand heat and cold, hunger
and thirst, and the fatigues of the long, and often forced,
marches day after day, renders him invaluable ; for he

'•'■ Lady Anne Blunt in a letter dated 25th of September, 1910, perti-
nently I'emarks : " As to the Crusader's importations, what are the
records '? Query — May not Eastern horses, other than Arabian, have
been the majority of these, for the fighting was against Turks, and the
like, who had probably Turcoman and other Asiatic horses ; and not
against Beduin Nomads of Central Arabia, unless in very limited numbers.
At that date the actual Nomads must have ceased pouring out of Arabia
in a torrent, as they did at the beginning, being no longer driven out in
haste by the hard conditions of life. The surplus, for whom there was
not enough pasture, must have already cleared off for the time being. In
the true Nomad tribes of Arabia the horse held the same position
as now — witness the pre-Islamic poetry, in which are many descrip-
tions of it in hunting and in war. The supply was always limited, as
now. It is historical that in the early raids extra plunder was allotted to
owners of pure-bred mares and stallions. So I wonder whether the
Crusaders met with any considerable numbers of Arabian horses ? "

12 THE HORSE

can live on rations on which an ordinary horse would
starve, and fling himself into camp with undaunted
courage after such toil that most other horses would
have succumbed by the way. His pluck is such that
he will face cheerfully any danger when he under-
stands what is required, to which generations of pig-
stickers will willingly bear witness, as well as the
participators in many a gallant fight. One thing is
essential, however. He must be left entire, as Nature
made him, for when subjected to a humiliating opera-
tion, as our War Office have sometimes been ill-advised
enough to order, his spirit departs, and he is no longer
the same gallant animal he was. His is a chivalrous
nature. Treat him like a friend, be kind but firm, and
never treat him harshly or ill-temperedly, and he will
respond to the utmost, and give up his life to save yours if
you have to ask him for his last effort, in your dire need.

English judges are frequently at a loss when they
first meet with Arabians, as they expect to find the
high wither they are accustomed to associate with
" shoulders " ; and when they see the broad, rounded
wither usual in Arabians they at once exclaim, " What
wretched shoulders ! " It is really nothing of the kind !
The shoulder-blade may be, and commonly is, well
sloped with the utmost freedom of action, although the
withers are rounded, and comparatively low ; and this
latter formation, with corresponding muscular develop-
ment, is actually a sign of weight-carrying capacity.
The Englishman, too, is taught by the ordinary artist to
expect to see delicate, gazelle-like legs, and does not
always appreciate at their true worth the great back-
sinews — the ropes which move the leg-bones — which the
Arabians as a race are remarkable for possessing. The
artist, also, is apt to sketch the head in repose termi-
nating in a square muzzle, and reduced to the elegant
proportion necessary " to drink out of a pint-pot,"
which tradition holds an Arabian should be able to do ;
and therefore, when the long tapering muzzle of a stallion
is seen, with nostrils resembling those of a camel, and

FOREIGN HORSES 13

which are not so " becoming " as a square and narrow
muzzle would be, the Englishman is apt to feel dis-
appointed, and to show it by stigmatising the Arab's
head as coarse. This idea is also helped by the enlarge-
ment of the skull on each side of the nasal bone, giving
the appearance that a swelling has been caused by a
severe blow, when the head is viewed from the front ;
so until the observer's eye has been educated, and
his judgment matured, he is quite at a loss when deal-
ing with Arabian stallions, and does not do sufficient
justice to them. The head of a mare, however,
more nearly approaches the popular ideal in its elegant
proportions.

Much romance has gathered around the Arab and
his steed, and not without good reason. There is
a glamour wrapped round the life of both and their
sharing of the same tent and food, which has more
than a spark of truth in it, though it may not be their
everyday portion. But the wild roving habits of the
tribes, compelling such close intercourse with the animals
in their possession, and the natural sympathy of the
Arab for so responsive a nature, combine to bring out
the best qualities of each, and make them the closest
friends.

Having been bred for countless generations with one
fixed ideal in view, that of carrying his master on raids
and expeditions in an arid climate, exposed to extremes
of heat and cold — for snow and frost are not unknown
in the desert in winter — the qualities most required for
such a task have naturally been kept steadily in view,
until they have become ingrained in the nature of the
animal. The constant close companionship with man in
which he lives has also had its usual effect, and
developed the intelligence to a very high degree, and the
Arabian horse is the very reverse of being dull-witted.

He shows his lineage in his aspect, and, as with a
gamecock, the first glance tells you he is a gentleman
of high descent. The fine head, the broad forehead,
and large intelligent eyes, all speak of high breeding, and

14 THE HORSE

no one would accuse him of being tainted with base-born
blood. AVith his head and tail carried well up he gazes
fearlessly on the world, giving evidence of his noble
nature in his gallant bearing, and he it is who has given
us our thoroughbred horse, the envy and admiration of
the world. It is curious that on the majority of Arabians
of high-caste, somewhere or other, often on the neck or
quarters, there is a little indentation in the flesh known
as " the mark of the Prophet's thumb," which is fre-
quently present in our own thoroughbreds.

In that most interesting work by Lady Anne Blunt,
" A Pilgrimage to Nejd," describing her journey thither
with her husband, and their visit to the Emir's stables,
the proper points of a horse's head are given, as esteemed
by the Arabs, and I venture to quote them here.

" First of all, the head should be large, not small. A
little head the Arabs particularly dislike, but the size
should be all in the upper regions of the skull. There
should be a great distance from the ears to the eyes,
and a great distance from one eye to the other, though
not from ear to ear. The forehead, moreover, and the
whole region between and just below the eyes should be
convex, the eyes themselves standing rather a fleur de
Ute. But there should be nothing fleshy about their
prominence, and each bone should be sharply edged. A
flat forehead is disliked. The space round the eyes
should be free of all hair in summer, so as to show the
black skin underneath, and this just round the eyes
should be especially black and lustrous. The cheek-
bone should be deep and lean, and the jaw-bone clearly
marked. Then the face should narrow suddenly and run
down almost to a point, not, however, to such a point as
one sees in the English race-horse, whose profile seems
to terminate with the nostril, but to the tip of the lip.
The nostril when in repose should lie flat with the face,
appearing in it little more than a slit, and pinched and
puckered up, as also should the mouth, which should
have the under-lip longer than the upper, ' like the
camel's,' the Beduins say. The ears, especially in the

FOREIGN HORSES 15

mare, should be long, but fine and delicately cut, like
the ears of a gazelle.

"It must be remarked that the head and tail are the
two points especially regarded by Arabs in judging of a
horse, as in them they think they can discover the surest
signs of his breeding. The tails of the Nejd horses are
as pecuHar as their heads, and are as essential to their
beauty. However other points might differ, every horse
at Hail had its tail set on in the same fashion, in
repose something like the tail of a rocking-horse, and
not as has been described ' thrown out in a perfect
arch.' In motion the tail was held high in the air, and
looked as if it could not under any circumstances be
carried low. . . .

"With regard to colour, of the hundred animals in the
Ha'il stables there were about forty greys or rather
whites, thirty bays, twenty chestnuts, and the rest
brown. We did not see a real black, and of course there
are no roans or piebalds, or duns, for these are not Arab
colours. The Emir one day asked us what colours we
preferred in England, and when we told him bay or
chestnut he quite agreed with us. Nearly all Arabs
prefer bay with black points, though pure white with a
very black skin and hoofs is also liked. In a bay or
chestnut, three white feet, the off fore-foot being dark,
are not objected to. But, as a rule, colour is not much
regarded at Hail, for there, as elsewhere in Arabia, a
fashionable strain is all in all."

In the desert no written pedigrees are kept, and the foal
takes rank according to the family of his dam ; but then the
greatest care is taken that she visits only a stallion of the
highest caste. In a way this accords with the teaching of
Bruce Lowe, to follow the lineage of the dam, in reckoning
the descent of a horse. The " mark of the Prophet's
thumb," above alluded to, refers to the ancient legend that
Mahomet put his seal upon five favourite mares by imprint-
ing his thumb upon them, and their families are frequently
said to form the select " upper classes " of the desert under
the distinguished title of " El Khamsa."

16 THE HORSE

It must, however, be pointed out that though Oasis-
dwellers in Nejd, and tribes that have migrated north to the
edge of Ottoman territory, accept the ordinary Moslem
traditions, it is not so with the Nomad tribes, to whom there
is no Khamsa. On this point Lady Anne Blunt emphati-
cally remarks : " What I have heard said is ' Ah ! those are
things the Northern folk (Ahl es Shemal), believe.' As to
any of the equine race being descended from one of the
Prophet's mares (a favourite dealer's phrase), the view
expressed by my Muteyre informant is that ' Any one who
talks thus is fit to be shut up as a lunatic ! ' Moreover, of
those Arabs, Northern or Oasis, who have adopted the
Khamsa, hardly any two (as far as I know), quote the same
list of five. My chief authority is never tired of impressing
upon me that everything pure-bred (mazbute), goes back to
Kehilan Ajuz, therefore I now in the printed list" (i.e.,
of Lady Anne Blunt's Crabbet Park and Egyptian, Arabian
studs), "place that first, as the original generic term for
pure-bred." The talk of " outside breeds" as reported in
"Beduins of the Euphrates," on Skene's authority, is a
mistake ; it is either all or nothing, as to breeding, although
from certain strains having made themselves famous, they
have acquired and kept a reputation of superiority.

" A strain, if it can be so called, with only one name means
that one parent, or ancestor, was not noble, and in Beduin
eyes such a stain endures for ever. Strains mentioned as
'outside,' such as Dahman Shahwan, Dahman Nejib,
Shueyman Sbah, Wadnan Hursan, are especially Nejd
strains, and very hard to find.

" The general view I take of the Arabian horse's present
position is that although the Northern tribes, i.e., the
Anezeh group and some Shammar, originally possessed
strains identical with the present Nejd ones, the fact of their
intercourse with the 'Dowla,' or Ottoman Government, has
tended to corrupt their horses. Those late migrations were
in search of pasture, and I think about two hundred or
three hundred years ago. Even so late as thirty-two
years ago, when we went, they were still very indepen-
dent of the Dowla; but the policy of Abd el Hamid was

FOREIGN HORSES 17

successful in getting them very much in its grip, and
now no Nejdean beheves in the purity of blood amongst
them, except in such families as Ibn Sbeyni, Ibn ed
Derri, the Debbe, Ibn Bodan, and some others, who keep
aloof both from wars and from the Turks. As to getting
anything direct from Nejd, it is very difficult, even if one can
hold direct communication. It is the getting across which
is so risky, first from the central plateau to somewhere near
the Persian Gulf, and then coming up by the Euphrates
and westward. Hundreds of camels come, but they are
afraid to bring valuable horses for the dangers of the way.

" I cannot discover any ground for the statement, also
Skene's theory, of strains having certain particular
characteristics ; there is no distinction drawn between
them, as he imagined, and no Beduin would dream of
keeping them separately. As an example, the Abeyans
being supposed to be small. Queen of Sheba was just the
reverse. Nor is it true the Seglawi Jedran are not generally
handsome — they vary like every other strain."

This testimony of Lady Anne Blunt is invaluable, for her
knowledge of the desert and its inhabitants, and especially
of the families of Arabian horses, is everywhere recognised
as the highest out of Arabia. Her acquaintance with them
is, moreover, at first hand, for not only has she sought them
in their own home, and has brought them from thence to
Crabbet Park and there raised a breeding stud renowned
hroughout the world, but at the death of Ali Pasha
Sherif she also practically purchased the whole remnant
of the magnificent stud, formed at vast expense by
Abbas Pacha I., Viceroy of Egypt, 1848-1854, and has
established them near Cairo, where she has a further
breeding establishment at the Sheykh Obeyd stud.

Subject to the above criticism, to which the greatest
weight must be attached, the five families held to constitute
the Khamsa are usually arranged as follows : —

El Khamsa

1. Kehilan. 2. Seglawi. 3. Abeyan. 4. Hamdani. 5. Hadban.

these being divided into many substrains.

18 THE HORSE

The real test, however, in a Beduin's eyes, is whether a
strain has only one name, for if so it can never be accepted
as pure-bred, and stalHons are only used as sires from those
strains which possess double names.

The reputation of the Kehilan and the Seglawi Jedran
for speed received singular confirmation in 1884, when
Hadramaut, the property of the writer, but bred by Mr.
Wilfrid Blunt at Crabbet Park, won the Oriental Stakes,
at Sandown Park, beating the winner of a similar race
at Newmarket a fortnight previously, while Haifa, an
own sister to Hadramaut, ran third. These two were
by Kars, a Seglawi Jedran of Ibn Sbeni, who was
purchased by Mr. Blunt at Aleppo, from Mahmud Aga,
a Kurdish Chief of Irregulars, who obtained him as
a two-year-old from the Fedaan Anezeh, and when he
was three years old rode him to the war in Armenia,
when nearly every other horse perished. The dam of the
pair was Hagar, a Kehilet Ajuz, and so the best strains
of the desert were commingled, with satisfactory results.
Moreover, the horse which divided the brother and sister,
and was second, bore such plain indications of having
English blood in his veins that when in the paddock at
Newmarket, the late Major G. B. Luxford and the late
Colonel G. Hutton, two friends of the writer, as well as
himself, all having had experience in training and riding
Arabians, and the Arabian-English cross, at once exclaimed,
when Asil made his appearance, " That's not a pure-bred
Arabian, but half-English." Nobody used to the two kinds
can easily make a mistake, for there are very essential
differences ; and in this case it is not difficult to trace the
probable source whence the English blood was derived.
Captain Tryon purchased the mare, Belkis, at Aleppo in
1881, in foal with Asil to an Abeyan Sherik horse ; but he
probably was quite unaware that about twenty years
previously the late Mr. John Johnstone, of Heath Hall,
Annandale, had carried out a series of experiments at Aleppo
crossing Arabian mares with English thoroughbred sires,
and also English thoroughbred mares with Arabian stallions,
the results of which he published in the Spurting Magazine

FOREIGN HORSES 19

in 1864. Many of the produce were parted with at Aleppo,
so a cross of English thoroughbred blood is easily
accounted for.

In the account published by Mr. William Palgrave
of his visit to Nejd, disguised as an Oriental, he
remarks : —

"Nejd horses are especially esteemed for great speed
and endurance of fatigue ; indeed in this latter quality
none come up to them. To pass twenty-four hours on
the road without drink and without flagging is certainly
something, but to keep up the same abstinence and labour
conjoined, under the burning Arabian sky for forty-eight
hours at a stretch, is, I believe, peculiar to the animals
of the breed ! "

It is this spirit and endurance that give Arabians
their chief value, which is appreciated far more by
almost every foreign nation than by our own, for we
perhaps set undue store by actual size. We forget the
old saw, that it is "symmetry and action that carry
weight " ; to which must be added courage and resolution
to bear fatigue and go through with the allotted task.
We are afraid of losing bulk by reintroducing Arabian
blood, though this seldom extends beyond the first cross ;
and on one occasion the winner of the first prize in the
four-year-old class for weight-carrying hunters, at the
Dublin Horse Show, was the son of a little Arabian sire,
said to be barely 14 hands.

In testimony of the worth of Arabian horses for
campaigning purposes, reference may be made to a memo-
randum drawn up by the late Colonel Barrow, of the
19th Hussars, who was so well known as one of the chief
organisers of mounted infantry. The memorandum re-
ferred to the Arabians, on whom the 19th Hussars were
mounted during the campaign on the Nile for the relief
of Khartoum. They were stallions of 14 hands,
between eight and nine years old, and were bought in
Syria and Lower Egypt at about ^18 per head. Colonel
Barrow calls attention to the fact, as being very remark-
able, that out of 350 horses during nine months in a hard

20 THE HORSE

campaign, only twelve died from disease, and this he
attributes, firstly, to the climate of the Soudan being most
suitable for horses ; and, secondly, to the Arabian horse
having a wonderful constitution, and being admirably
suited for warfare in an Eastern climate. The distance
marched, irrespective of reconnaissances, &c., was over
1,500 miles, and the weight carried averaged over 14
stone. The weather during the last four months was
very trying, food was often very limited, and during the
desert march water was very scarce. When General
Stewart's column made its final advance on Metammeh
the 155 horses the 19th had with them marched to the
Nile without having received a drop of water for fifty-five
hours and having had only 1 lb. of grain, while some fifteen
or twenty had no water for seventy hours. At the end of
the campaign, and after a week's rest, the animals were
handed over to the 20th Hussars at Assouan in as good
order as when they left Wady Haifa nine months
previously.

Such a record compares very favourably with the
experience of the mounted troops during the South
African War !

Professor H. F. 0 shorn, of the American Museum of
Natural History, has formulated the distinctive features
of the Arabian horse as having a relatively short skull,
very wide between the eye-sockets, which are high and
prominent, giving the eyes a wide range of vision ; while
the profile of the face is concave, due to a relatively large
brain.

There is a slight depression in front of the eye-socket.
The lower jaw is slender in front, and deep and wide-set
behind. The chest is rounded ; the back and loins well
ribbed up, due to the fact that there are only five, instead
of the normal six, lumbar or ribless vertebrg&. The pelvis
has a nearly horizontal position — a characteristic connected
with great speed. The croup, or tail region, is com-
paratively high, while the tail has only sixteen instead of
eighteen vertebrae.

In the limbs the shaft of the ulna, or small bone of

FOREIGN HORSES 21

the fore-le^s, is complete, the same feature being also
observed in a skeleton of Grevy's zebra. The cannon bones
are elongated and slender, and the pasterns are long and
sloping, while the bones are denser than in ordinary
horses.

It was not until the seventeenth century, especially after
the Restoration, that Eastern horses were imported in
such numbers as greatly to influence our home stock.
From some one or more of such sires all our best race-
horses of those and modern times have been descended ;
and all the winners of the great three-year-old races may
be invariably traced to one of the three celebrated
sires of the eighteenth century, the Darley Arabian, the
Godolphin Arabian, and the Byerley Turk, as chronicled
in Weatherby's Stud-book.

The leading position must be assigned to the first
named, and by the kindness of Miss Darley I am enabled
to give the exact account of the purchase of this horse,
the most famous in the world, from a letter forwarded
by Mr. Darley from Aleppo to his brother at Aldby Park.
This letter Miss Darley discovered when looking through
old family documents, and has most kindly furnished an

exact copy.

Aleppo,
Y" 21" December, 1703.
Dear Brother,

Your obliging favour of the 7 Aprill came to my hands the 16'^
October, by our convoj^ and by whom I assygne these, w'^ hope
will have better success in arriving safe than the many letters wrote
you, besydes I have never been favoured with any letters from you
but that I immediately answered y'' first conveyance that succeeded
after receipt thereof, being very desirous of maintaining a punctual!
correspondence, for nothing is more gratefull to me than to hear the
welfare of my Relations & friends, and more particularly your good
Self. I take notice what discourse you have had with my Father
& its very true he has ordered my returning, w'=^' I should gladly
obey would my affaires permit, therefore hope he will be pleased to
excuse my delay untill a more propper season, for I assure I am not
in Love with this place to stay an hour longer than is absolutely
necessary. Since my Father expects I sh''' send him a stallion I
esteem myself happy in a colt I bought about a year and a half agoe,
with a desygne indeed to send him y*^ first good opportunity. He
comes four the latter end of March or the beginning of Aprill next ;

22 THE HORSE

his colour is Bay & his near foot before with both his hind feet
have white upon them, he has a blaze downe his face something of
the largest. He is about 15 hands high, of the most esteemed race
amongst the Arabs both by Syre & Dam, and the name of the said
race is called Mannicka. The only fear I have at present about
him is that I shall not be able to get him aboard this war time, though
I have the promise of a very good & intimate friend the Hon'''*^ &
Eev°'^ Henry Bridges, son to L'^ Chandoes, who embarks on the
Ipswich, Captain William Waklin, who presume will not refuse taking
in a horse for him since his brother is one of y^ Lords of y*' Admiralty ;
besides I desygne to go to Scand" to assist in getting him off. W'^'^if
I can accomplish & he arrives in safety, I believe he will not be dis-
liked, for he is esteemed here where could have sold him at a con-
siderable price if I had not designed him for England. I have desired
Bridges to deliver him to my brother John or Cozen Charles who
he can find first & they are to follow my Father's orders in
sending him into y'' country. For y^ ffreight & all charges to his
landing I will order payment of, tho' am not certain w' it may
amount to. Am told by a friend who sent home a horse last year,
it cost him inc^'' 100 £ Stg. When you see Coz Peirson pray tender him
my humble salutes, & since his Daughter is ready I shall endeavour
with all speed to prepare myself. With Mr. Brailsford I am acquainted
& were he not of too ficle a humour it w'' be happyer for him ; yet
I wish him success in his voyage to Portug'. I am sorry for the
death of Lawrence, as of all ffriends. I have given my friend Mr.
Bridges 2 chequuens to drink with you (in case you are in towne) &
Brother John, & Coz Charles, w'' I w'' call to mind is a present worth
y"^ notice.

I heartily wish you health and prosperity (& as the season invites)
amerry Xmas with many succeeding.

I respectfully remain dear brother,
Your most affec* Brother

Thomas Darley.

The statements that have from time to time been
made, that the Darley Arabian belonged to the Kehilan
Eas el Fedawi family, are therefore now shown to be
incorrect, and also that he was foaled in 1700, and not
in 1702, as has also been published.

With war risks added to the usual ones inseparable
from so long a voyage, especially before the days of steam
transport, the anxiety must have been great until the colt
was safely arrived at his future Yorkshire home ; but
if it had only been known at the time that the horse was
the most valuable one ever known, how intensified would

FOREIGN HORSES 23

have been the anxious moments regarding him ! Race-
horses of the highest class, hunters, coach-horses, hackneys,
trotters, and ponies, all claim descent in every civilised
nation from that bay colt with " a blaze downe his face,
something of the largest." If any mishap had happened
to him on the voyage, or if Mr. Thomas Darley, tempted
by "a considerable price," had resold him at Aleppo,
England would have known no Flying Childers, no
Eclipse, and might never have assumed that commanding
position in manufaeturing the race of thoroughbreds, which
has since been hers. It is true that the other two great
Eastern horses already mentioned would have effected
much, and the services of the three were necessary to
achieve the magnificent result we can now boast of ; but
undoubtedly the greatest of the three was the Darley
Arabian, and his blood now predominates over the other
two combined. A full-length portrait in oils still hangs
on the walls at Aldby Park, and is evidently an excellent
likeness of the horse, with the precise markings mentioned
by the consul at Aleppo.

Of the other two famous progenitors of our present
thoroughbreds little is known of the Byerley Turk, beyond
that he was ridden by his owner. Captain Byerley, as
a charger during King William's campaign in Ireland
(1689) ; and had been obtained by him as a prize of
warfare, when its then rider, an Emir, had been slain in
a battle with the Turks.

The Godolphin Arabian was imported in 1726, stood
14.2, and was a Jilfan Stam el Bulad. His story is a
romance of the Turf. The legend runs that the horse
was sent as a present by the Emperor of Morocco to
Louis XIV. ; and the black groom in charge of him was
given orders never to lose sight of him, so long as the
horse lived. Such were the spirits of the animal that he
proved too great a handful for the royal grooms, and in
order to tame him he was handed over to the chief of the
kitchen, to be employed daily in fetching the requirements
of the king's household. Even the hard work he then
went through could not subdue his spirit, and so it befell

24 THE HORSE

he was sold to a water-carrier, and descended to the
meanest servitude. Through all his misfortunes, however, he
was attended by the faithful Moor, who scrupulously carried
out the orders he had received. One fine morning it befell
that the wife of a well-to-do Quaker living in Paris pre-
sented her husband with a little son. In gratitude the
happy father registered a resolve to do some kind action
that day, and taking his hat sallied forth into the streets.
There had been a sharp frost, and the roads were slippery,
and presently Mr. Coke was witness to a horse falling with
a water-cart to which he was harnessed. The man in
charge commenced to beat the horse without mercy,
whereupon Mr. Coke, mindful of the purpose for which
he had come out, remonstrated with the driver for his
cruelty, and eventually purchased the animal for £3.
Mr. Coke then found himself in a dilemma as to the dis-
posal of his newly-acquired property ; but the Moor, who
was as usual watching his charge, came up to him, and
unfolding the whole history of the horse offered his services
in looking after the animal, which Mr. Coke was only too
glad to accept ; and thus he learned the undoubted value
of the animal he had so strangely acquired.

The horse was imported to England, was resold to Earl
Godolphin, the heir to the Dukedom of Leeds, and was
then sent to Gog and Magog, an estate of the Duke's
about four miles from Cambridge, where the Duke main-
tained a breeding stud ; and there the horse remained for
three years in the humble and unsatisfying position of
" teasing " the lord of the harem, Hobgoblin, into carrying
out his duties. Each year a mare, Roxana by name, had
been brought into the presence of the two, but in 1781 the
Godolphin's passions overcame him ; he broke loose from
the groom, and fought Hobgoblin with such fury he
killed him before they could be separated. Fortunately for
the Godolphin, and still more fortunately for the Turf,
it was decided to promote him to be sultan in the place
of the vanquished Hobgoblin, no doubt on the principle
that " the brave deserve the fair." Directly his first produce
made their appearance on the race-course they justified the

FOREIGN HORSES 25

honour which had befallen to their sire by sweeping every-
thing before them, and a host of his sons and daughters
took rank amongst the great stud celebrities of their day.
It is rather remarkable, however, that his descendent in
tail-male, the famous and undefeated Barcaldine, and also
his sire Solon, should be possessed of that fury which
carried their great ancestor victorously through the duel
with Hobgoblin, for they were two of the vilest-tempered
horses of their own or any other day. Yet honour should
be paid where honour is due, and the Godolphin established
a great line, which has been adorned by the mighty deeds
of some of our most famous horses. Although sent as
a present by the Emperor of Morocco, and Syria is a
long way from Morocco, Lady Anne Blunt gives in
a letter these cogent reasons for giving credit to the
statement that the horse was an Arabian, and not
a Barb : —

" Then, as to the Emperor of Morocco, if he wished to
make a present to the King of France, he would certainly
have preferred to give a stallion brought from Arabia,
rather than a local one. To this day it is, and has been
for centuries, customary in North Africa to send to Arabia
for anything wanted to be specially good. At least, I have
heard instances of this and been informed that it is so.

"His personal stable name being 'Sham' — the Arabic
word for Syria — implies importation via Syria. I say
via Syria, as I should imagine he must have been from
a desert tribe, since his portrait is not a bit like any
of the many Barbs I saw in Algeria ; nor is it like the
Syrian country-breds, so-called Arabs (with much Arab
blood in them, but nothing pure remaining) which one sees
brought from Syria (and sometimes entered in the G.S.B.,
some that one knows cannot be real). In 1881 I saw a
beautiful bay four-year-old mare in Ali Pasha Sherif's
stud in Cairo, with a crest the image of the Godolphin
Arabian's, and otherwise resembling him."

Before taking leave of this subject, honourable mention
must be made of the magnificent stud of Arabians at the
Grabbet Park stud. There, gathered together by the un-

26 THE HORSE

remitting trouble and vast expense of Lady Anne Blunt
and Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, may be seen magnificent specimens
of the bluest blood of the desert ; and the judicious care
and rearing of these Eastern treasures has built up a
reputation renowned throughout the world. From all
quarters of the globe eager purchasers make long journeys
to acquire some of the invaluable blood, to enrich that of
their own home-bred stock, while the only nation apathetic
in this respect, it must be allowed, is our own. England,
it must be confessed, has not learned to appreciate the
Arabian as he deserves. With the rapid growth of
mechanical transport, and the consequent serious dimi-
nution in horse-breeding by the nation, it seems scarcely
probable she will ever wake up to the opportunity she now
possesses, that will only too surely slip away from her grasp
altogether.

Barbs.

We are accustomed to look upon the Barb horse as the
first cousin of the Arabian, though some persons claim
that he is the elder brother. The Libyan horses were
famous from very early times, and King Solomon showed
his appreciation of them by sending into Egypt to buy
horses, for which he paid an hundred and fifty shekels of
silver (1 Kings x.), though the value is somewhat discounted
when we are told in verse 21 that silver "was nothing
accounted for in the days of King Solomon." He could
only have sent so far to purchase horses for either, or both,
of two reasons : that he could not buy sufficient horses at
home, or that Libyan horses were the best that could be
procured.

The Barb and the Arabian differ so much in appearance
that the cleavage between them must have taken place many
ages ago, presuming both are descended from the slender
Hipparion, the one with the hollow depression in front
of the orbit.

In evolving the thoroughbred horse the Barb has taken
as large a share as the Arabian, and certainly resembles
it more in general appearance. Many Barbs are perfect

FOREIGN HORSES 27

likenesses of small thoroughbreds, especially in the manner
of carrying the tail, which is not held in the pronounced
arch so characteristic of the Arabian. In the point of
endurance the Barb is little inferior to the other, if, indeed,
it is not the equal ; but in point of racing ability as a rule
there is a considerable difference, the ordinary allowance
the Barb receives being 14 lbs. But in one important
respect it certainly is superior, being a capital hack, rarely
stumbling, an advantage which, unfortunately, cannot be
claimed for its rival. This no doubt is the result of the
different conditions prevailing in the respective countries, for
Morocco is a rough, mountainous one, where the paces
chiefly required are the trot and the walk. The Arabian,
on the contrary, is not called upon to trot, only to walk,
canter, and gallop, and long centuries have developed the
special paces which are most desired.

The purest Barbs are found in the western portion of
Morocco ; for the invasion of Sidi-Okba into Africa, and still
later the invasions of the fifth and sixth centuries after
the Hegira, must have caused much mingling of blood in
the eastern part of the country, through the Arabian
horses the invaders brought with them. The Western
Barbs have little or no trace of Arabian blood in their
appearance or general characteristics.*

In the neighbourhood of Algiers the Barbs are much
intermingled with Arabian blood, introduced by the French ;
and the dwellers in the desert also possess some good
Arabian strains. Throughout Morocco, however, a vitia-
ting influence has long been at work, and has made great
inroads into the purity of the breed in recent years — the
pernicious practice of almost universal mule-breeding.

* "A prevailing drawback to the improvement of the breed is men-
tioned by Kaid Sir Harry Maclean as follows : ' There is an old
custom all over Morocco, except in Tafelet, that Governors can seize
all exceptional good horses for the Sultan, and this is greatly the reason
that the breed has deteriorated so much. Only Moors who have
Foreign protection are able to breed good horses, and most of them
have a good deal of English and French blood. In Tafelet the
Governors have not the same power, and the tribes there would not
submit to this.' " (Drimnin House, Tangier, October 8, 1911.)

28 THE HORSE

However much scientists may teach the doctrine that the
subsequent offspring are not affected by any influence
resulting from a former alliance, practical horsemen will
not endorse their teaching. The Moors themselves univer-
sally admit, and deplore, the custom, but— the prices
for a good mule are so tempting they cannot refrain from
breeding as many as they can. In only very few instances
are animals to be now found free from the taint of the
donkey amongst their female ancestors. Too often it can
be detected by the shape of the foot, and there is also often
a faint list on the back, sometimes stripes inside the fore-
legs, and very occasionally a faint marking at the withers,
in the subsequent foals of a mare which has bred a mule.

Barbs must have been imported into England in very
early days ; and it is on record that Alexander I. of Scot-
land imported two in the reign of Henry I. of England,
presenting one to that king and the other to the Church
of St. Andrew's.

Of the Barbs there are three chief breeds, Mogador being
the nearest port to their natural home.

1. Ahda.

These are fine-bred, rather narrow-girthed, light-fleshed
horses, showing great quality, and in general appearance
like an English race-horse — in fact, it is impossible to discern
at the first glance that they are not thoroughbreds. In
height they are about 15 hands, though they are frequently
taller, and occasionally reach 15.3. They are bred near the
coast of Mogador.

2. Shaioya.

A strong, powerful, deep-bodied race, with great girth,
and short-legged. The general type is that of the English
Galloway, but with more appearance of breeding. In height,
about 15 hands to 15-1^. These are excellent horses for
work, strong constitutioned, with big bone. They are fast,
and stay well, and are bred in the interior, behind Mogador.
At Welbeck the Duke of Portland has a breed of Lippasano

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FOREIGN HORSES 29

horses, which are so like the Shawya Barbs it seems
probable they derive from this source. At Copgrove Hall,
in Yorkshire, Admiral Sir Francis Bridgeman has a Barb
stallion, Carnival, a winner at Islington, who has sired
some excellent stock, and is an undoubted Shawya from
his appearance. His colour, too, is typical of the breed,
white being a prevailing colour amongst animals of this
strain.

3. Ducal la.
An intermediate type between the other two, combining
the characteristics of both. It is bred near the coast.

Besides these distinct breeds is the ordinary hack, termed
" Kedar," with high knee action, and carrying the head
well up ; very suitable for its purpose, and a docile riding
horse.

Nearly forty years ago Captain Parker Gilhnore wrote
his experiences of three years' sojourn in the East, and
gave as his opinion that the chief cause which tends to pro-
duce dissimilarity in the action between Arabians and Barb
horses is the different character of the districts in which
each is reared. Where the high-caste Arabian is brought
up the country is undulating, sandy, and sparsely covered
with vegetation, and there the mare and colt can gallop
without danger. But in Barbary it is rough, rocky, and
mountainous, intersected with ravines, and in many por-
tions thickly covered with shrubs. On such ground no
horse can gallop with safety, and at any great pace would
be sure to come to grief. He therefore trots, keeping his
legs well under him, and is thus able to turn on one side
or the other with great facility. The nature of the ground
also causes him to raise his feet high at each step. And
thus is produced a signal example of the survival of the
fittest.

Spanish Hokses, The " Genet."

When considering the foreign elements in our present
horses, the share the Spanish genet has had in the making
of them must not be lost sight of. They are a hardy.

30 THE HORSE

docile, good-constitutioned race ; but, like Eastern horses in
general, nature must not be interfered with, for geldings
are only too prone to lose their natural characteristics.
When subjected to a surgeon's knife they become timid
creatures, apt to shy whether there is reason or no.
Amongst many good qualities they have splendid bone, with
excellent hocks and knees ; and when I first lived in Spain
nothing struck me more than the splendid limbs almost
every animal had. They are capital hacks, bend the knees,
and flex the hocks well, and seldom make a false step ; they
walk and trot well, but galloping is not one of their paces,
unless they are crossed with Eastern or English blood.
They are low in stature, especially in Andalusia, but still
they are lengthy, and are "horses," not " ponies," and the
want of size is chiefly attributable to the arid nature of
their country during the long summer, when no rain falls
for months, and food is therefore diflicult to obtain. Their
sure-footedness is remarkable, over ground worse even than
the most rugged parts of Dartmoor, as any one hunting
with the Calpe Hunt, either in the cork-woods or amongst
the "craigs," will cordially endorse. When stabled their
food is barley and chopped straw, and on this they thrive
and do well. It used to be an interesting sight to watch an
Andalusian farmer winnowing his grain. Some hard
ground having been selected, droves of mares, many in foal,
were tied in a long line by their necks, as many as thirty
sometimes being in one string, and then they were driven
round and round, hour after hour, over piles of barley straw
laid on the ground. Often the mares had sharp shoes on
their fore-feet to assist in breaking up the straw into little
bits and treading out the grain, and this was the only use
the mares were generally ever put to. At other times they
ran in large droves, and in the spring of the year stallions
were turned out amongst them.

As soon as the straw was adjudged to have been broken
up sufficiently, and all the grain had been detached, the
mares were withdrawn ; and the next process was to cast
the dusty mass high into the air with shovels when a brisk
breeze was blowing, which quickly blew away the dust

FOREIGN HORSES 31

in clouds, while the straw was carried a short distance
away, collecting together in a huge mass, and the heavier
grain fell in a large heap close by. It was a primitive way
of threshing, but it was cheap and effected its purpose, and
no doubt had been carried on in the same way for countless
ages. The grain was then collected and the straw put in
the barn, and this was the everyday provender throughout
the country.

The Spanish horse has need of first-rate legs and feet, for
he is subjected to tests which would make an English job-
master quickly protest. There was nothing an ambitious
young caballero loved more than when, got up in his very
best, and mounted on his favourite steed, he galloped for
about fifty or a hundred yards as hard as ever he could go,
on the ill-paved street, and then with one jerk of his cruelly
powerful bit stopped the animal dead in one stride, before
an admiring crowd. Then he would turn round and gallop
back in the same way, and repeat the performance several
times. With an English horse one would expect to find
a curb sprung or very swollen legs and joints the next
morning, but I never knew a Spanish horse any the worse
for such a performance. When trotting the exceeding
suppleness of the limbs is remarkable, especially the knees
and fetlocks which are most elastic, but the action is not
always true, for dishing, such an eyesore to an Englishman,
is rather admired in Spain if the horse lifts his knees well
up. As a rule they are not handsome horses, but have
big back-ribs ; and owing to their vicinity to Morocco,
and the long period of rule of the Moors in the South
of Spain — they held Andalusia eight hundred years —
there is a great deal of Barb blood even in the
commonest horses. They are wonderful pack animals,
carrying enormous loads for hours over very rough moun-
tainous paths, and probably very much resemble the old
pack-horse of England. There is no cart-horse blood in
them, and therefore they respond at once when crossed with
Eastern or thoroughbred blood, so that in a couple of
generations they look almost hke thoroughbreds. It was
the palmy days of Spanish racing when I was there, and

32 THE HORSE

breeders were vieing with one another to produce animals
to win races, many of which were valuable, for country-
bred horses. What was found to be the best system was to
cross the country mare with an Arabian, and then follow on
with the thoroughbred horse. The Arabian at once knocked
out the ungainly points, the very low croup and long back,
and put a fashion into the progeny which remained for
generations, and this was seldom effected by using an
English sire in the first instance. No doubt good horses
were occasionally bred by so doing, but then in all prob-
ability the mare was an exceptionally shapely animal, and
most likely had some Barb breeding" in the background
which was not known. I have also seen good horses bred
by using the English horse first, and then an Arabian.
For the general run of mares, however, experience seemed
to teach that it was preferable to use an Arabian sire first,
and then to continue with English thoroughbred ones for
subsequent generations.

It should be added that roaring and whistling are quite
unknown amongst them, possibly due to the very dry
climate. I even remember an English thoroughbred mare
being taken out there " that made a noise," which in the
course of twelve months became so perfectly clear in her
respiratory organs she would have passed any veterinary
examination, and have received a certificate of being
" sound in wind."

CHAPTEE III
THOROUGHBEED HORSES

EVOLVED from the original sources of Eastern blood,
and our own native racing stock, are our present
thoroughbred horses, which have so often been the theme of
brilliant writers that it seems difficult to approach the subject
from a fresh standpoint. " Good wine needs no bush,"
however, while long familiarity has not in my case induced
the contempt it is usually supposed to instil ; for, on the
contrary, my admiration for the intelligence, the usefulness,
the courage, and the enduring capacity of the breed remains
just as great as time goes on. Excepting possibly where
ponderous weight is the chief attribute, there is no race
which is not improved by a dash of thoroughbred blood, and
without it there is apt to be lacking the metal and fire which
are so necessary for the completion of arduous tasks. Ask a
horse without breeding to gallop through two or three deep
fields, and long before the end is reached the animal
is reduced to a walk, and has no energy to surmount a
stiff fence without a rest ; yet a well-bred animal,
apparently not equal to carrying half the weight, will
gallantly gallop on, carrying quite as heavy a weight as the
other, and take the fence without a pause. Though many
an active under-bred horse is gifted with a surprising burst
of speed for a short distance, it cannot sustain the effort,
and is soon done up, and it is in the power of maintaining
pace and strength when blown that the thoroughbred horse
excels all others. Moreover, a good-tempered, docile blood-
horse can scarcely be put to any description of work in
which he will not beat the low-bred animal, in proportion to
the powers of the individual. Even in moving heavy

4 33

34 THE HORSE

weights it is astounding what a Hght-looking thoroughbred
horse can achieve, as may often be seen in cabs, omnibuses,
and tram-cars — though mechanical traction is so rapidly
usurping the place hitherto held by horses, that such spectacles
must inevitably become much scarcer in the future. There
is on record a match which took place at Dycer's Reposi-
tory in Stephen's Green, Dublin, about sixty years ago
(often related to me by my old friend, the late Mr. Joseph
Studholme, of Ballyeighan, King's County, who was well
cognisant of all the details, his neighbour, the late Mr. J.
Bennet, of Grange, having been chosen the umpire). The
question which was to be solved was whether a thoroughbred
could stand up under as great a weight as a low-bred horse.
Unfortunately I cannot give the actual details, through
having mislaid my notes of the occurrence, but substantially
what happened was this. Only two-year-olds could be
obtained at such short notice to champion each race, and
weight was piled up until the cart-bred animal lay down.
The thoroughbred not only stood up under the same burthen,
but also actually walked out of the yard with the weight on
its back, which amounted to nearly 24 stone. The pure-
bred horse is not, however, intended by nature for contests
of this description, nor is his active temperament adapted to
a long-sustained dead pull, for though his high courage may
induce him to do his best, the more phlegmatic nature of the
Shire, or Clydesdale, or Suffolk Punch, is better suited to
jobs of this description.

The metier of the thoroughbred horse is speed, activity,
and a high state of nervous energy, and this especially
adapts him for the race-course, which is the most effective
test that could possibly be conceived ; while the animals
which pass this ordeal with credit are invaluable as pro-
genitors of the various light breeds of horses, whether
hunters, hacks, cavalry remounts, or light harness horses.
The training for a race searches out any weak spot in limb
or constitution, while the actual contest exposes the working
of the mechanism, and tests the courage to the last degree.
It is in this respect that the showyard system is weak, for a
great winner of prizes may never have done a day's work in

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THOROUGHBRED HORSES 35

his life, and possess a soft spot which is sure to be trans-
mitted to its half-bred progeny. Moreover, quahties allowed
to lie dormant are very apt to wither from inanition and
disappear in the course of time, and the progeny of the
indolent and luxurious are inclined to become even more
so than the parents.

The world-famous Oberlandstallmeister, H.E. Count
Lehndorff, who for a great number of years has been
entrusted by the German Government to apply, at his
discretion, the annual sum of money voted by the Govern-
ment for the purchase of stallions and brood-mares for their
different studs, has placed on record in his " Horse-breeding
Eecollections " his views about the English thoroughbred
horse, and they are so applicable to the present subject,
that I venture to quote them here : —

*' The principal requisite in a good race-horse is sound-
ness, again soundness and nothing but soundness ; and the
object of the thoroughbred is to imbue the limbs, the
constitution, and the nerves of the half-bred horse with that
essential quality, and thereby enhance its capabilities.

" The thoroughbred can, however, fulfil its mission only
provided the yearly produce be continually subjected to
severe trials in public. The only appropriate test, proved
by the experience of two centuries, is the race-course. The
last struggle for victory, in which culminates the exertion of
the racer, results from the co-operation of the intellectual,
the physical, and the mechanical qualities of the horse, the
development of which combined power is higher and more
reliable than any that can be obtained in the same animal by
other means. The combination of those three qualities
forms the value of the horse destined for fast work : the
mechanical, in respect to the outward shape and con-
struction ; the physical, as regards the soundness and normal
development of the digestive organs and motive power ; the
intellectual, or the will and the energy to put the other two
into motion and persevere to the utmost. The attained
speed is not the aim but only the gauge of the per-
formance.

" The grand ideal principle which places this test so

36 THE HORSE

incomparably higher than any other, based on the individual
opinion of one or more judges, is the absolute and blind
justice, personified in the inflexible winning-post, which
alone decides on the race-course ; and the irrefutable
certainty that neither fashion nor fancy, neither favour
nor hatred, neither personal prejudice nor time-serving —
frequently observable in the awards at horse-shows —
have biased the decision of hotly contested struggles as
recorded in the Eacing Calendar for the space of 170 years.
This it is that gives the English thoroughbred horse a value
for breeding purposes unequalled and looked for in vain in
any other species of animal creation.

" In the production of our half-breds it has become
an absolute necessity to use thoroughbred stallions not only
with performances of a high order, but also that our cavalry
horses may answer certain conditions and forms about
make and shape laid down in order to prevent their
deterioration."

Fanatics who would put an end to racing, looking only
from the one-sided view that an opportunity for gambling is
thereby supplied, and quite ignoring the fact, only too
notorious, that in these days the chief wagering which takes
place amongst the middle and lower classes is upon football
matches, and even cricket matches, would inflict such a
crushing blow on all the different breeds of light horses as
they can be little aware of, and which, if long continued,
would reduce horses again to almost " prairie " value.

If further witness is required as to the great value of
thoroughbred blood in improving other breeds, the very
thoughtful chapter should be studied on the " Value of the
Thoroughbred for other Breeds," by Baron Burchard von
Oettingen, in his invaluable work, " Horse Breeding in
Theory and Practice," the fruit of his many years of
observation whilst holding the post of Landstallmeister and
Director of the Eoyal Stud at Trakehnen. On p. 50 he
remarks : " All half-bred horses of the old and new world,
even the Trotters, have by mingling with the Thoroughbred,
produced the required steel in their breeds, which otherwise
could not have been produced as well and as quickly. Even

THOROUGHBRED HORSES 87

the breeds of the Steppes of Kussia, America, and Australia,
have, with the aid of the Thoroughbred stallions (often
unfortunately of very low character quality), influenced the
capabilities of their horses. When the celebrated Cossack
officer, Hetman Platoff (the celebrated stallion, Hetman
Platoff, born 1836, was called after him), about a hundred
years ago, during the fight for liberty against Napoleon in
the West of Europe, learned to know and to esteem the
Thoroughbred and other fine breeds derived from the same,
he caused to be imported many Thoroughbred stallions of
good and of the best class, into the Cossack breeding stables
near the Don, and the neighbouring Steppe breeding-
places. The consequence was that Russian cavalry soon
after, in fact up to the middle of the last century, were
mounted on the best horses an army ever possessed."

A study of the earliest tap-roots of the various famihes
which constitute the thoroughbred of to-day, about fifty
in number, discloses the fact that a number of them were
Barb mares, and some of them so-called Royal mares ;
but in no case, as far as is known, were any of them
pure Arabian mares ; and since the Arabian is fleeter,
and in many respects superior, to the Barb, the tap-roots
might have commenced from superior sources than was
the case. The Royal mares may, indeed, have included
a pure Arabian among their number, for what their
breeding was can now never be known, Charles II.
received as part of the dowry of his Portuguese wife,
Catherine of Braganza, Tangiers in Morocco, and subse-
quently dispatched his Master of the Horse in quest of
horses for the royal stables, and the mares brought
over by him have since been called Royal mares ; but it
must not be forgotten that long before that date there
was racing in England, and Gervase Markham, writing
in the reign of King James I., bears testimony to the
excellence of the English race-horse of that period. He
writes : —

" Again, for swiftness, what nation hath brought
forth that horse which hath exceeded the English — when
the best Barbaries that ever were in their prime, I saw

38 THE HORSE

them overrunne by a black hobbie at Salisbury ; yet
that hobbie was more overrunne by a horse called Valen-
tine, which Valentine neither in hunting nor running
was ever equalled, yet was a plain-bred English horse
both by syre and dam ? Again for infinite labour and
long endurance, which is to be desired in our hunting
matches, I have not seen a horse to compare with the
English. He is of tolerable shape, strong, valiant, and
durable."

One hundred and fifty years later the opinion of
Gervase Markham as to the superiority of English horses
on the race-course, was not shared by another very close
observer which possibly may be accounted for by the
frequent importations that had been made of high-class
Arabians during the intervening years, as well as the
natural result of stock being bred from imported Barbs and
reared in the favourable climate and rich pastures of
England. In " A Dissertation on Horses," published in
1756, William Osmer makes the assertion, " Now as
nothing is more certain than that no Horses but those of
blood can race in our days ... I do here lay it down
as a certain truth, that no Horses but such as come from
foreign countries, or which are of extraction totally
foreign, can race. In this opinion every man will readily
join me, and this opinion will be confirmed by every
man's experience and observation. . . . Such horses who
have the finest texture, elegance of shape, and most pro-
portion, are the best racers, let their blood be of what
kind it will, always supposing it to be totally foreign."

It is by working on the lines thus indicated that the present
magnificent specimens of thoroughbred horses of the highest
class have been evolved, but in breeding for speed alone,
necessitated chiefly by the prevalence of very short-distance
races, and especially the excess of two-year-old contests,
many most serviceable qualities are overlooked, to the detri-
ment of the breed in general. Before the development
of railways, with their easy transit of competitors from
their training grounds to the scene of contest, the mere
fact of having to travel long distances by road necessitated
the employment of hardy, good-constitutioned animals,

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not easily upset by the constant change of stables or
by the various incidents met with en route, which
could be depended upon to feed with a hearty appetite
at the end of each day's journey, a washy, bad feeder
standing little chance of success in the race itself.
Moreover, it required a capital constitution and the
soundest of limbs to run a succession of long-distance
heats, which then were the fashionable races of the
time. The type of animal required was, therefore, a
short-legged, round-barrelled animal, eminently adapted
to improve the half-bred horses in the district in which
he might be located, whenever his services were required
in another sphere. It is no longer a necessity to employ
such true-shaped animals to gain success in modern
racing ; and no matter how leggy or malformed a horse
may be, provided he only possesses the gift of speed he
is eagerly sought, and also used as a sire, the glamour of
success causing breeders to overlook his imperfections.
Any one whose mission it is to select a stallion for breed-
ing hunters knows only too well the extreme difficulty
there is in finding a true-shaped stallion, and may visit
many training stables and look over scores of animals
before his wants can be satisfied, even though he may
be prepared to pay a considerable price. He will, more-
over, see large numbers of horses who do not come up
to his ideal, who have won races in their heyday, and
would willingly be sold at a much less figure than he is
ready to give for the sort required.

Baron Burchard von Oettingen has some trenchant
observations on the present deterioration of the thorough-
bred which afford much food for reflection, and which
he traces to the prevalence of running horses at two
years old, and, moreover, gives very carefully worked-out
figures in support of his contention. Admitting that
two-year-olds and three-year-olds have improved in com-
parison with older horses, he points out that while the
weight-for-age scale has remained the same, as between
them, for over one hundred years, thus showing that
each of the two ages has corresponded with the other, either

40 THE HORSE

advancing or otherwise, yet the scale of weight has con-
tinually been lowered between three-year-olds and older
horses, showing they have not participated in the
improvement claimed for the younger animals. He
mentions further : —

" From these weight differences it can be seen that
the abilities of four, five, and six-j'-ear-olds changed very
little up to 1850. An improvement of horses, on the
other hand, after six years old gradually ceases
altogether. . . . Therefrom it follows that the present four
and five-year-old race-horses are each 3J lbs. worse than
those in the middle of the last century. ... In breeding,
where only two-year-olds improve, one can hardly speak
of a general progress. . . . Taken altogether, these
observations justify us in assuming that, considered from
the standpoint of the altered weight differences, the
improvement of race-horses took place up to about the
middle of the nineteenth century, and also specially that
a favourable development of four-year-old and older
horses up to the sixth year existed. Furthermore, that
simultaneously with the frequent occurrence of races for
two-year-olds partly in the beginning of the year, and
with the existence of the many short handicaps, a retro-
gression of the development of race-horses after their
third year began soon after the second half of the
nineteenth century. The time in which the number of
two-year-old race-horses began to exceed the number of
three-year-olds denotes the turning-point."

This statement is quite in accord with the apt remark, so
frequently made, that modern race-horses are nearly always
at the summit of their powers in the autumn of their three-
year-old season.

But the Baron has other serious statements to make
on the evil influence of early racing, to which he ascribes
the increasing lack of fertility among thoroughbred mares,
which he proves by taking the statistics from 1851 to the
year 1908 :—

" On the basis of physiological observations and practical
experience, we must assume that the present over-exertion,

THOROUGHBRED HORSES 41

especially of the younger thoroughbred stock, for many
consecutive generations, has an unfavourable influence on
the constitution. These unfavourable effects, which are an
especial consequence of the many early races of two-year-
olds, are distinctly recognisable, also outside the course, by
many retrogressive signs. The most conspicuous of these
consists in the fairly regular decrease of the percentage of
pregnant mares, from about 80 per cent, in the year 1851 to
70 per cent, in recent years.

" It may further be pointed out that the length of life of
stallions is slowly decreasing, which is all the more remark-
able, as the progress of hygiene, improved stabling, and
other conditions, as well as the more reasonable training of
horses, would lead one to expect longer lives. . . . The
number of stallions which have attained twenty-five years
and more has been in no decade greater than in that of 1850
to 1859, namely, thirty. Already in the following two
decades a distinct decrease is recognisable : 1860 to 1869,
twenty-four stallions ; and 1870 to 1879, twenty stallions."

Other practical men testify also to the alteration in the
physique of the modern race-horse. John Osborne, the
celebrated jockey, who rode his first race in 184:6, and is
still engaged in training horses, states in " Ashgill and
Eadcliffe," p. 428 : " Horses are very much lighter now ;
they have neither the bone nor the substance that thorough-
breds had fifty years ago. Of course in the old times they
were sweated a good deal. Heavy cloths were put on them,
and they were galloped three and four miles in them. That
plan has been discontinued for many years. I don't know
that sweating is weakening to a horse. Old John Scott was a
great believer in bleeding and sweating. I am certain that
the constitution of horses of the present day would not
stand such work ; the modern breed is neither so robust nor
so strong. Formerly it was quite a common thing for
horses to run three- and four-mile heats. If they were sub-
jected to that now they wouldn't be able to come out of the
stable for a month after. ... I am fully convinced the
constitution of horses of the present day is not as strong as
it was forty or fifty years ago."

42 THE HORSE

There is no doubt the successful animal of to-day is a
slimmer, more elongated animal than in the old road-
travelling, heat-racing days, and this is well shown in
comparing the admirable series of photographs of the two
typical horses of their day, Eclipse and Persimmon, pub-
lished by the Field journal. The skeleton of the former
shows a round-barrelled animal, with remarkably well-
sprung ribs, who must have had a back like a ram, possess-
ing a first-rate constitution. The front and side views of
his skull also corroborate this, while the width between the
eyes gives evidence of a large brain within. Except that
his withers are so low, the inference is that he would be
likely to be a more useful sire for getting hardy stock than
the other, who does not appear in so favourable a light in
these respects. All my early acquaintances held the same
opinion of the alteration in conformation of the thorough-
bred horse during the nineteenth century, and were
unanimous that the race-horses of their youth were shorter-
legged and more hunter-like ; and while they were probably
not so speedy, they were undoubtedly much hardier and
stouter than those we have now. Johnny Doyle, the crack
jockey of Ireland in his day, who commenced his career at
a race meeting held in Sharavogue Park in 1803, was
emphatic on this point, especially stating to me in 1873
that the horses of his early days were much deeper-bodied
than now. The owner of Sharavogue Park, Colonel Hon.
J. Westenra, held the same opinion, and he was the breeder
of Whim, by Drone, the dam of Chanticleer ; her portrait,
which hung in his dining-room, fully bore out his state-
ments. He also bred the great Freney, by Roller, the
celebrated four-miler of his day. Lastly, the famous old
racing judge, Mr. Richard Johnston, who could remember
seeing Blacklock win at York in 1819, and who lived almost
to the end of the century, therefore being especially
qualified to form an opinion, once stated to me that the race-
horses of his early days "were much stouter and hardier,
though undoubtedly not so speedy. Sixteen-hand horses
were quite common then, and I do not see much difference
in actual height. The shape and appearance, though, has

THOROUGHBRED HORSES 43

changed very much, and the older horses were, as a rule,
much deeper- bodied and shorter-legged and more hunter-like
than they are now."

While no one disputes that the best horses of to-day are
in advance of their ancestors, such animals are not available
to sire the ordinary utility horse, whose fathers must be
sought in a much lower class. It is these which are held to
be less truly shaped and of a less hardy nature than a
century ago ; and while heat-racing and travelling by road
have been swept away for ever, it may be well to consider
whether any causes exist for the present state of things, and
whether it could be altered for the better. To begin with, the
improvement of the breed is scarcely likely to be furthered
by the racing of immature two-year-olds, generation after
generation ; nor is the vast prevalence of races under a
mile likely to be of much assistance. It is true the sharp,
quick horse is better adapted for crossing a country, and is a
decidedly more useful animal as a sire, than the slow, plod-
ding animal which may be a stayer, but has no pace or
activity; but there is "reason in roasting eggs," and the
horse which dies away after five furlongs is scarcely likely
to produce stout stock. A mile is a fair criterion of combined
speed and stoutness, and races under that distance should
not be given much encouragement. Another probable
reason for want of stamina is the very close inbreeding
which is the fashion of the day, and many persons seem to
imagine that so long as an animal can trace several lines
of descent from a recent famous ancestor, nothing better
can be desired. They overlook the probability of undesir-
able points being inherited, as well as good ones, and, indeed,
in practice it is found that such is usually the case, while
often the good ones seem to be swamped by the bad ones.
Though in all animals a very near affinity between the
parents seems almost necessary as a starting-point to fix a
breed, it cannot be continued with advantage, and if
persevered in the offspring may be comely to gaze upon, but
will surely lack hardiness of constitution, while the mental
faculties will either be feeble, almost to idiocy, or else the
temperament will be nervous and excitable and hot-
tempered in the extreme.

44 THE HORSE

Another regrettable cause for the lack of big bony sires,
suitable for country stallions, is the prevalent practice of
putting aside such animals for cross-country work if they
have not sufficient pace for racing on the flat, and previous
to teaching them to jump rendering them incapable of
propagating their species. There is an idea now that
stallions are more cunning and less to be depended on than
geldings, and also are more difficult to train, requiring a
greater amount of work through the extra development of
crest, and being generally more lusty in habit. This used
not to be a bagbear in the days when sweating in clothing
was the general practice, and an extra hood or two soon had
the desired effect of reducing too large a crest. Any one
visiting our steeplechase courses may note numbers of fine,
powerful, weight-carrying thoroughbreds, which would have
been invaluable as sires in country districts, had they not
been ruthlessly denied the pleasures of paternity.

In breeding race-horses it is imperative to choose mares of
"running" blood, but it is not absolutely necessary they
should have been great winners themselves, although this is
very desirable if they have not been subjected too long
to the ordeal of severe training, especially as two-year-olds.
The late Lord Falmouth frequently expressed the opinion
that mares should be sent to the stud after their three-yeax-
old season on the Turf, and his wonderful success entitles
his opinion to be considered of the greatest weight. The
famous Sir Charles Knightley held as an article of faith that
two-year-old racing was most pernicious, stating his con-
viction that at a time when the young animal ought to be
making its frame — it is most striking how a two-year-
old suddenly seems to change into a " horse " in the
middle of the summer — and especially developing its internal
organs with future hopes of maternity, it is unreasonable
to expect it to be able to do so to advantage when every
effort is being made in its training to denude it of fat,
and to increase its muscles to the greatest extent. The
system cannot be trusted to stand a dual strain, and the
development of one quality must be at the expense of an-
other. It is therefore not a matter for wonder that in

o _^S
2 '^^

THOROUGHBRED HORSES 45

visiting stud farms mares should be pointed out as most
successful dams, which for some reason have either never
been trained — as instances taken at random may be men-
tioned Auchnafree, the dam of Kobbie Burns, who could
not be trained owing to a club-foot, and Suicide, the dam of
Amphion, who had a crippled hind-leg — or who have been
early sent to the stud, such as Mint Sauce, the dam of the
great Minting. Though these instances could be multiplied
to a large extent, it is still preferable that the dam should
have been in training, for by this means alone can be tested
the qualities of docility and gameness, both attributes of a
race-horse of the highest value, which the dam may be
expected to transmit to her offspring.

The Bruce Lowe Figure System.

Before quitting this part of the subject it may be
as well to revert to the theory of the Figure System,
as devised by the late Mr. Bruce Lowe and extended
by his friend, Mr. WiUiam Allison, M.A., which is so
freely commented on and often derided. We Britishers
are a stubborn race, slow to assimilate new ideas,
and the great value of Mr. Bruce Lowe's researches were
much more quickly grasped by foreign breeders than
by our own. "What nonsense," said the latter, "to
imagine a mare, who lived perhaps one hundred and
fifty years ago, can now influence her descendants ! Of
course we all know the importance of breeding back to a
good mare of recent date, but the idea of setting any value
upon a mare who lived all that time ago ! Well, I am not
going to believe it at any rate ! " Pace, Mr. Breeder !
Facts, as the Highlander remarked, " are chiels that winna
ding." There have been great mares, of what our "high
priest" terms "outside families," in plenty, but they
have left no descendants of any renown, though they have
been mated again and again with famous sires. It is a
complete verification of the survival of the fittest, and it
never was sought to force any family to the front, at the
expense of others, except through the test of accomplished

46 THE HORSE

facts. What Mr. Bruce Lowe did was this : taking certain
of the highest class three-year-old races as his standing-
point, he worked out the number of the descendants of each
of the original mares who had won these races, and the
family which had won the most he placed No. 1 ; and the
other families in due order according to their number of
wins. Any thinking man, wishing to breed the winner
of a great race, would surely choose for his matron a mare
which belonged to a family that had been frequently
successful, and not select one from a family which had
never won one at all ! Both mares might be equally good-
looking and truly shaped, and there might be nothing
to choose between them as far as the eye could judge,
and yet it would be a not very intelligent act to proceed
to breed from the mare of the unsuccessful family, in
preference to the one that came from the winning strain !
Moreover, if any other important weight-for-age races are
taken, and in any of the chief foreign racing countries, the
same winning families come invariably to the front, though
abroad their order sometimes changes a little, generally
owing to the prevalence, or otherwise, of mares of any
particular family in that particular country.

In order to show how Mr. Bruce Lowe's system works out,
some tables of the different families are here appended for
sixty years — ^1850-1909 — which have won any of the classic
races he took as a test. Although in this limited period
the placing of the families does not quite accord with that
of the fuller tale of years, up to the time of his death, it is
strikingly shown how prolific of winners his leading families
have been, and what a falling off there is towards the end of
the list, which is a very strong proof of the truth of his
contention. Though other of the original mares bring
the number up to fifty, none of their descendants have won
a classic race during this period : —

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It is a noteworthy fact that the great Hnes of blood are
very generally carried on by the winners of the Derby and
St. Leger, who take, as a rule, the highest places amongst the
successful stallions of their generation, though occasionally
their immediate runners-up also make Turf history ; but
handicap winners, however meritorious their performances
may have been, seldom figure conspicuously in the pedigrees
of famous horses, and in a few years their names are totally
forgotten. There could be no more convincing proof of the
value of these great three-year-old races in providing such a
test for the selection of the best animals of their year.

A general summary of the above list gives the amount of
wins gained by each family as follows, though it must not be
overlooked that in some instances the same animal has
gained two, and occasionally three, of the races, so that
though the family is credited with the full number of wins,
it does not follow it possesses an equal tale of individual
winners. In the case of the dead-heat for the Derby,
between Harvester and St. Gatien, each of their respective
families is credited with a win, and therefore there appear
to be sixty-one winners of the Derby during the period of
sixty years ; and the same with the dead-heat for the Oaks
between Governess and Gildermire, which, therefore, also
shows 61 winners.

Family.
No. 1
2
3
4
5
6
I

8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Derby.
8

Oak;

St. Leger.
9
6
6
9
3
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2
2

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0
0
0

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15
17
28
13

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13

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No. 18

Derby.
1

Oaks.
3

St. Leger

—

Total.

61 61 60 182

The remaining families have never won any of these three classic races.

To arrive at the true value of this table it is necessary to
take into consideration the number of individual horses
from different mares which have been instrumental in
crediting their families with the respective wins.

The strength of a family in general is more apparent by
the winning of animals not closely related, than by the
same number of wins gained by brothers and sisters, who
only represent one unit through their dam.

Mr. Bruce Lowe further selected from the leading
families certain ones which had the most success in winning
races, which he termed " Eunning Families " ; and others
which were conspicuous chiefly for the merit transmissible
by the stallions, which he designated " Sire Families" ; and
it is noteworthy that the only one which combined both gifts
was the one placed No. 3. He laid down the rule that unless
the Running Families were strongly imbued with the blood
of the Sire Families they did not transmit their great merit;
nor has there been any great horse of recent years, of any
family, without at least some of the Running and Sire
blood amongst his immediate ancestors in the three nearest
lines of his pedigree.

The classification was as follows : —

Running Families
Sire Families

Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Nos. 3, 8, 11, 12, 14.

It is instructive to note how such has worked out during:
last Season's Racing, 1910.

The winner of the Derby, Lemberg, belongs to No. 10

THE HORSE

family, his sire Cyllene being No 9, his paternal grandsire
Bona Vista No. 4, and his great-grandsires Bend Or,
No. 1, and Isonomy, No. 19. On the maternal side the
sire of Galicia was Galopin, No. 3, who was the son of
Vedette, No. 19, while Isonomy, No. 19, was also the sire
of his maternal grandam, Isoletta. This No. 19 was a
strong sire line, though not in itself very successful in
producing winners of the classical races, and it is note-
worthy how much inbred Lemberg was to this family.

The requirements of Bruce Lowe's doctrine were, how-
ever, amply fulfilled, there being plenty of Running and
Sire blood within the last three generations of Lemberg's
ancestors. Success in transmitting his own excellence will,
however, probably depend upon the careful selection of
his mates. While he is likely to sire winners from good
mares of the first five families, he may prove a failure with
equally good mares low down in the list of family figures.
His half-brother, Bayardo, being by a No. 3 horse, Bay
Ronald, in theory should prove a more successful stallion
than the Derby winner ; but then comes in the all-powerful
" personal equation," and no one can predicate that this or
that horse will be a success until he is actually tried and
proves his worth. Moreover, though an inbred mare may
breed excellent foals, an inbred sire is seldom a stud-success,
and requires mates without any of the closely related strains
of his blood.

Bend Or Vista
1 4

Isonomy
19

Distant

Shore

Vedette
19

Flying

Duchess

Isonomy
19

Lady

Muncaster

Bona Vista 4

Arcadia 9

Galopin 3

Isoletta 10

Cyllene 9

Gallicia 10

Lemberg 10

Coming now to the Oaks, the winner, Rosedrop, is of the
No. 2 family, but her sire, St. Frusquin, is only No. 22.
Clearly he required a mate of the best Running blood to
expect a signal success. The sire of St. Frusquin, however,
was St. Simon, No. 11, his paternal grandsire, Galopin,

THOROUGHBRED HORSES

No. 3, and his maternal grandsire, Plebian, No. 11, so here
again there is plenty of the right sort in evidence. And
this is further strengthened by the great-grandsires of
Eosedrop, Bend Or, who brought No. 1 blood into the
pedigree, and the famous Musket, No. 3, although that is
somewhat discounted by the grandsire, Trenton, being a
scion of the No. 18 family.

Galopin
3

St. Angela
11

Plebeian
11

Parma
22

Musket
3

Frailty
18

Bend Or

Eosa May

St. Simon 11

Isabel 22

Trenton 18

Eosalys 2

St. Frusquin 22

Eosaline 2

Eosedrop 2

Swynford won the last of the classic races, the St. Leger,
and he belonged to No. 1. His sire, John o' Gaunt, is
No. 3, and his sire again. Isinglass, belonged to the same
No. 3 family. The dam of John o' Gaunt, by the way, the
great La Fleche, was by St. Simon, No. 11, and grand-
daughter of Galopin 3, and Toxophilite, No. 3, so there is
small wonder John o' Gaunt should sire a classic winner in
his first season at the stud, and he should get winners
from mares of every family.

The dam of Swynford, Canterbury Pilgrim, was a scion
of the No. 1 family, while her sire, Tristan, belonged to
No. 10, being a descendant of the wonderful family of
Queen Mary, which chiefly contributed to the success of
their number in the figure grouping. Canterbury Pilgrim
could also point to two Nos. 5 in her immediate
ancestry, for both her grandsires. Hermit and The Palmer,
belonged to this, so that Swynford lacked nothing on the
score of breeding as a classic winner, according to the theory
of Bruce Lowe.

Isonomy
19

Deadlock
3

St. Simon
11

Quiver
3

Hermit
5

Thrift
10

The Earl, or

The Palmer

Lady Audley

Isinglass 3

La Fleche 3

Tristan 10

Pilgrimage 1

John 0' Gaunt 3

Canterbury Pilgrim 1

Swynford

THR HORSE

Successful Families, 1910.

If the figures of these horses, which won over £6,000
during 1910, are examined, the figure system is again
triumphant. They are as follows : —

Family.

Won.

Lemberg

... ^23,839

Winkipop ...

11,439 15 0

Neil Gow ...

11,080

Swynford ...

10,694

Bayardo

6,698 10 0

Rosedrop ...

6,363

n 1 l^ p J _

The Running famihes again came well to the front, while
the half-brothers, Bayardo and Lemberg, had much of the
blood in the three immediate preceding generations, as has
already been shown above.

If the sires of these same horses are taken into considera-
tion the weight of the scales is again in favour of Bruce

Lemberg
Winkipop
Neil Gow

Sire.
... Cyllene
... William III.
... Marco

Fami

Swynford

Bayardo

Rosedrop

... John o' Gaunt

... Bay Ronald

St. Frusquin

The especial value of the No. 3 family as sires is here
emphatically shown.

A very important point in favour of our breeders is that
foreign countries do not seem able to maintain the vigour of
the breed without frequently revivifying it by fresh importa-
tions from the British Islands, and thus a constant market
is maintained for our surplus stock, even if they do help
themselves rather plentifully to our choicest specimens.
As an example may be quoted the list of winning stallions
in the United States, during the past year, 1910. Of the
first twenty, nine were imported from Britain ; and one was
of English blood, though imported from France. The dams
of six more had been brought from England ; and one of
these stallions was by an imported English sire. The

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THOROUGHBRED HORSES 65

remainder had English blood within the three immediate
preceding generations. From the length of time America
has been breeding thoroughbred horses, it might have been
expected she could now depend upon her own resources,
without having further recourse to the parent stock.

It must not, however, be overlooked that sometimes
England herself reaps the benefit by the readmission of
lines of blood which have become scarce, or even extinct
in this country; and which afford an excellent outcross
to our own blood, that is sadly in need of such in far too
many cases. The continued inbreeding which has been
pursued has resulted in a delicacy of constitution, and a
waywardness and irritability of temperament, that is now
a constant source of trouble to both owners and trainers,
and mars the racing career of many an animal which was
full of promise at the commencement.

HUNTEES.

If ever an illustration was required for the old adage,
"what is one man's meat is another man's poison," no
better could be found than the different type of hunter
which each individual considers the perfect one. On this
he is prepared to stake — not his reputation as a judge, for
that, in his own mind, he considers absolutely assured, but
his opinion, about which he believes there can be no mistake.
If other people do not agree with him, so much the worse
for them, it only shows what bad judges they are. It is
when he comes to test that opinion in public, at an auction
sale such as Tattersalls, or a great Show such as the Dublin
one, that he may find the public will not put down money
for his very perfect piece of horseflesh. The reason is
simple. People hunt with very different motives, and in
very different countries, and consequently can get along
with a type of animal in the one country which would be
unsuitable in the other. When, however, a real judge
speaks of "a high-class hunter," he has but one animal in
his mind — a lengthy, well-built, and well-bred horse, which,
if possessed of manners and docility, generous in dis-

66 THE HORSE

position and gifted with intelligence, is equally at home
over the broad pastures and flying fences of Leicestershire,
the cramped fences of Devonshire, or the intricate banks
of Wexford, Kildare, or Westmeath. In countries where
the enclosures are of considerable size, and scent lies well,
it is of the utmost importance that a hunter should possess
great pace, if his rider intends to be carried right up to the
hounds ; and if the horse can both gallop and jump, other
faults, if not too pronounced, may be overlooked by a first-
class rider, who means "to be there." But in cramped,
awkward countries, where it is often necessary to pull up
and take a look at a fence before jumping, and then
perhaps to crawl leisurely down, pace is not of such
primary importance as docility and cleverness. Such a
country, in fact, as one in which a youthful sportsman
one day, when perched on the top of a high bank bordering
the lane along which the huntsman was passing below
with the pack, called out in tones of agonised entreaty,
"Matthews! Matthews! Will I shther, or lep ? " The
rider who has hunted all his life in this latter country,
does not therefore understand the value placed upon pace
in the flying countries, where rivalry is keenest, as Whyte-
Melville so inimitably portrayed in the character of Mr.
Sawyer when he visited Market Harborough ; and he cannot
comprehend why his own clever, stiff-built little nag,
which has carried him without a mistake over the creepy-
crawly fences in his own country, should fetch sixty to
eighty guineas at Tattersalls, whilst his neighbour's gallop-
ing hunter, which in his heart of hearts he considers quite
inferior to his own, is eagerly competed for, far into three
figures.

It is not, also, always the case that a hunter fetches
a long figure on account of his performances, for looks
play a great part, and hundreds of riders go out hunting
who have no intention whatever of going straight, at any
rate in England. In Ireland it is quite different, for the
paucity of gates, and the almost certainty that if there
is one to be seen it will be fastened to a stone gatepost
with a strong chain and a stout padlock, makes it a sine qua

HUNTERS • 67

71071 for any one going out with the hounds that they must
jump what comes in their way. The well-to-do, portly
equestrian, with a good balance at his bank, a good cook,
and a well-stocked cellar, is not so familiar a figure in an
Irish hunting-field as in an English one. Such a rider
usually comes out for the sake of his digestion, and to
hear the last gossip or amusing tale, and has no intention
whatever of taking unnecessary risks ; but he likes his
steed to be of good appearance and of as stout proportions
as himself, with perfect manners, and he is willing to pay
a really high price for one on which he will look noble at
the Meet. Nor is he unwilling that the price he has paid
for his steed should be on the tip of every one's tongue.
Still, whatever the notions of the rider may be and whatever
the character of the country he hunts in, there are some
points his steed must possess or he cannot act his due
part in the play. Good sound wearing legs and feet are
among the first essentials, and cannot be overlooked ; well-
sloping shoulders he must possess, or he will be unable to
extend himself, and be liable to fall. There must be
strength, too, in the muscles of the shoulders, for a horse
which is thin in this region and weak in that important
point, cannot carry weight, and will soon tire in deep
ground. Very essential are the muscles of the neck, for
they have to sustain the whole weight of the head, situated
as it is at the end of a long lever. Badly put on it may be,
and without beauty, but if the muscles are strong the horse
may yet be able to perform its task, which with a weak neck
it is incapable of doing. The back must be powerful, and
if so a little extra length, though far from being desirable,
does not at once put the animal out of court. He may
still be able to gallop and jump, though not equal to carry-
ing as much weight as he otherwise would. And now we
come to one of the chief essentials, the development of the
thighs, and those great glutei muscles, which are, together
with the triceps and biceps, known under the generic term
of quarters. A hunter cannot have too great development
in this region. When viewed from behind a horse must
show "a good pair of breeches," the thighs meeting each

68 THE HORSE

other, and the whole presenting a good broad aspect. From
a spectacular point of view, too, this is desirable, for it
gives a bad impression to ride behind a rider whose
rotundity of form is not equalled by that of his steed!
In addition to being broad the thighs must be long, for
on the length of a muscle rather than its breadth depends
its retractability and its power. It is extremely important
that the thighs should continue almost imperceptibly into the
second thighs when viewed sideways, nearly forming the
shape of a " V " with the hock. If the thigh should appear
to terminate suddenly, and then the second thigh be all
of one breadth, forming an additional piece, as it were,
have nothing to do with that animal and do not let it find
a place in your stable, however taking in other respects,
for no really good hunter was ever built in that way. The
action must be free and elastic, the hind-foot at the walk
covering the print made by the fore-foot by at least 6 or
7 inches. It is the freedom thus indicated which saves
many a fall, when accompanied by a strong back, more so
even than the shoulders, and many a time has the writer
been thankful, when a mistake had been made, and a fall
seemed inevitable, to see a hind-foot come sweeping past
his leg, and with a brave heave of the back the good steed
has saved the situation — and a cropper.

Amongst other necessary requirements are large well-
developed joints, especially hocks and knees; while the arms
must be long, with plenty of muscle, the tendinous ter-
mination of which should be markedly shown immediately
above the knee itself. This part should appear broad from
whatever side it is regarded, and on this very much depends
the power of the leg, for any weakness here will result in
the animal speedily tiring.

A most essential point in a hunter is that the bone
should be very strong immediately below the hock-joint,
which should run into it gradually and not give the
appearance of a little bit having been scooped out in front,
as is so often the case. When this is seen it is odds on the
horse springing a curb in deep ground, and a lack of power
in the limb generally is thus indicated. A hunter should

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HUNTERS 69

possess a big barrel — a good " spur place " it is often
termed — for this denotes a strong constitution, and the
horse is likely to be a good feeder after hard work ; but while
the ribs should be well-hooped, and the larger they are the
better, the actual length is not so important as that they
should spring from the spine with a good arch. Many a
comparatively short-ribbed horse is hardier and a better
feeder when his ribs spring well from the back, than another
with a much longer length of rib which has a drooping,
rather than an arched curve, at the commencement. More-
over, the hinder rib must not approach the prominent part
of the hip too closely, but leave sufficient room, so that
when the hand is placed in the hollow between the last rib
and the hip, and the fist is closed except the thumb and
little finger, these last can just touch, when fully extended,
the respective bones on each side. Without such room the
horse can neither gallop nor jump, as he has not liberty to
bring forward his hind-legs with sufficient swing. People
with a little knowledge are apt to imagine a horse must be
tightly ribbed up — with almost no hollow between the
rib and the hip — to be a good feeder, but such is not
the least necessary ; though horses so fashioned have
necessarily good constitutions, since they must possess both
large and well-hooped ribs, or they could not cover up the
hollow. There are plenty of horses to be found with well-
shaped ribs which do not suffer from the defect of being
tightly ribbed-up and yet are always ready for their food.
Hunters should bend their knees when trotting, and lift
their feet well, but without any of the extravagant style
of the hackney, which is quite unsuitable for a riding-horse,
required to travel fast and far. Preferable indeed to showy
action is the daisy-cutting, straight-kneed mode, at one
time so prevalent amongst thoroughbred horses when
Touchstone was a power in the land, for it was very
characteristic of his progeny. Yet at any rate his stock
possessed the merit of going fast, which no hackney
ever yet succeeded in accomplishing at a gallop. When
the fore-foot is extended, close attention must be given
to see that the foot is placed level on the ground, neither

70 THE HORSE

digging the toe in nor putting too much stress upon the
heel, and, moreover, the foot must come to the ground at the
full stretch of the stride, and not be drawn back an inch or
two, as is not unfrequently the case. Horses thus tight-
shouldered cannot gallop in proper form, or extend them-
selves for just those few extra inches, when a ditch is
suddenly found to be unsuspectedly wide. Some riders
never appear to grasp this, and one acquaintance seemed
always to buy horses with this defect. Dealers used to
lay themselves out for him, and bring him good-looking
horses which they could not get a good price for on account
of this fault, and he cheerfully bought them, priding himself
on his acumen. During many seasons he never owned a
horse that could go, though in the stable they looked
superb. It never seemed to cross his mind that his own
judgment might be in error !

A fault that may sometimes be excused in a first-rate
performer is when the trotting action is not absolutely true
and the horse dishes more or less. Many a good horse does
this — an eyesore no doubt, but still it does not interfere with
his going well, though the undue strain thrown on certain
parts may provoke a splint to form. The famous hunter
sire in Ireland, Haymaker, whose stock was eagerly sought
and purchased, seldom sired an animal that was quite true
in its action, but he scarcely ever got one that was not a
superior performer. A horse which brushes must be an
unusually good hunter to retain its place in the stable, for
though various kinds of boots may minimise the trouble,
brushing gives rise to much extra care and attention,
though it may not incapacitate the animal from work.
Careful shoeing may often prevent it, and young animals may
grow out of the habit as they get older; it is generally
caused by the foot, and fetlock, being turned from the true
line of the cannon bone. A pigeon-toed horse — one
with its toes turned in — seldom hits itself, though the
contrary might be expected, but whilst this is an indication
of want of speed, turning out the toes is just the reverse.

"When trotting a hunter should flex the hocks well, and
sharply, and bring the hind-legs under its body with energy,

HUNTERS 71

thus showing promise of power in propelHng itself forward,
either in the gallop or when leaping. A slovenly mover,
which drags its hind-legs with little bending of the hock,
should be passed over at once.

Character and Appearance.

Much of the character of a horse may be learned by
studying its countenance, and watching the motion of its
ears. Small ears invariably denote temper of some sort, and
should be studied for a few moments. If restless the horse
will probably be hot-tempered and fidgety, never keeping
still, wearying itself and its rider, and far from being a
comfort to ride. If the small ears are seen to be constantly
pricked forward, look out for shying ; or if laid back,
especially if the eye is small and sullen, be very sure that the
animal has a sulky temper, is ungenerous in its work, and not
to be depended on. The ear to be desired is a large and full
one, and kept frequently in motion, without any tendency
to restlessness. This is a sign of intelligence, and a quick
brain, while a horse which seldom moves its ears is too apt
to be lazy, and given to making blunders. A large lop ear,
often in motion, is an invariable indication of a docile,
sweet-tempered horse, ready to put forth its utmost powers
at the call of its rider. While on the subject of the ear, let it
be clearly laid down that on no account should the groom be
allowed to cut out the thick covering of hair Nature places
at the entrance, for mischief may ensue if this is done. It
is placed there to keep out dust, rain-drops, and insects, and
if either of the latter gain access to the interior the
horse may get almost out of control for the time, shaking
its head and trying to rid itself of the intruder.

The head should be long, and on this depends the length
of the animal, for in a well-proportioned one, 2^ heads equal
the length from the point of the chest to the remotest part
of the haunch. A long head, with plenty of width in the
forehead, is sure to belong to an intelligent horse, while a
small, pretty head, too often indicates what children term
" a silly." Especially is this the case with a gelding. The

character of the head should befit the sex, the male having a

72 THE HORSE

larger, more bony head, not so pretty as that of a mare.
Either sex, with a head which by rights ought to grace the
other, is apt to be of abnormal temperament. The nostrils
when at rest should be long, and resemble a widish slit,
and when dilated expand into a large circular orifice.
Especially is this the attribute of high-born Eastern horses,
and their descendants our race of thoroughbreds ; but it
may be looked for in vain amongst cart-horses, and their
progeny for several generations after the introduction of
thoroughbred blood. There is no more sure sign or hall-
mark of caste.

The neck should be light when viewed sideways, but
thick through when observed from the saddle, especially in
the muscles just behind the setting on of the head, for on
the development of this region largely depends the power of
staying. The neck should be strong, too, where it is set into
the shoulders, and this will probably correspond with the
general muscular development of the body. Though the
neck should be light and curved gracefully, when seen from
the side, it should not be too small in circumference just
behind the head, for unless there is plenty of room for the
windpipe the misfortune of roaring may be experienced.
There is one form of neck which must especially be avoided,
known as " a roarer's neck," since a horse thus built almost
invariably contracts that malady sooner or later. In this
instance the neck is held on high, and is in most respects a
powerful neck, but in the middle the throat is enlarged, and
there is a noticeable outward curve, somewhat resembling
the shape of a stag's throat. Why this should result in
roaring seems to be that the nerve of the larynx is kept
constantly stretched, and in time the strain becomes too
much for it, causing it to become partially paralysed, when
roaring follows. A friend used to admire these necks, and
nearly every horse in his well-filled stables was so framed,
but probably no man ever had so many horses which
became roarers. He gave long prices for them, and con-
stantly bewailed his bad fortune, but to the day of his death
he would not learn the lesson that his judgment was in fault
rather than his luck.

HUNTERS 73

That a hunter should bridle well and give freely to his
bit goes without saying, for it adds immensely to the
comfort of the rider as well as to the appearance of the
horse ; but unless there is sufficient width in the angle of
the jaws, the animal may not be able to bend the neck
sufficiently to do so with ease. Many a good hunter pokes
his nose out, and is yet a safe conveyance. The width is
desirable also in another way, for a jaw may be too close
together to give sufficient room for the windpipe, and all
first-rate stayers are wide in this region. There should
be space enough for the outstretched forefinger to be
inserted between the jaws, from the knuckle-joint to the
tip of the finger, and less than this should cause the steed
to be rejected.

The shoulders should be long and well sloped, and the
withers sufficiently high and defined to make the saddle
fit its proper place ; but there must be plenty of muscle as
well, or the horse cannot save itself in a bad scramble with
a weight upon its back. Though a round wither makes
it difficult to keep the saddle in its place, if there is plenty
of liberty in the shoulder it is preferable to a high, thin,
knifey wither, for this means weakness, while the other
means strength. Whether the saddle keeps in its place
depends much upon the depth of the heart-ribs underneath,
for if these are not well developed and a straight line can
be drawn parallel to the ground, under the chest, the girths
will ever have a tendency to work forward. When this
is the case they are apt to create a sore behind the elbow,
which often happens with an undeveloped four-year-old.
An excellent remedy for this is to tie an old bootlace tightly
round the girth, bending back the front edge, so that it
no longer comes in contact with the abrasion. While the
chest itself should be of such width that the fore-legs are well
apart, it should terminate in an arch when viewed from the
front, for if it appears square there will be a falling off
in speed. If the space between the legs is too narrow,
there will be a tendency to hit the opposite limb when tired,
in deep ground.

74 THE HORSE

Docking and Hogging.

Mercifully the silly practice of docking hunters seems
going out of fashion ; it was a dealer's dodge to make the
quarters appear broader than they naturally are, and
unthinking sportsmen tumbled into the trap, and were led
to believe it looked smart. When it is urged that " it does
no harm," the answer is, "Look at horses who have been
docked, after a sharp gallop, and compare their appearance
with those untouched with the docking knife." If only an
inch or two are taken off the bone of the tail no injury
may be done, but all horses with short docks will show
by the excessive shaking of the stumps that the nerves of
the part have been seriously affected. Now that the tails
are left long another absurd practice has come into vogue
amongst grooms, who must be ever meddling with Nature,
which is far more clever than they are, and they pull out
all the upper hairs till they make the tail look little more
than a rope. A full tail has a beauty of its own, and
swings with a charming swagger to the stride of a well-bred
horse, but the thing that is now the cherished object of the
groom has neither meaning nor beauty. Still the poor
horse may be thankful that for the nonce he is not deprived
of his tail, and that he has some switch left to defend
himself with from the attacks of the flies, when he is
allowed the luxury of a run at grass. It is a pitiful sight
to watch a horse deprived of his tail tormented with flies
in the heat of summer, and obliged to stamp incessantly
to obtain the briefest respite from the worrying pests.
There is no rest for him, and the constant concussion has
a bad effect upon his legs, which is attributed by the groom
to the being at grass, and not traced to the real cause, that
he has been deprived of his natural weapon and means of
defence. When a mare comes to fulfil the first law of
nature, and goes to the stud, how much unnecessary misery
is she not caused, if she has been docked short in the days
of her youth. Besides its office as a defence against flies,
the tail is intended to protect very delicate parts from the
vicissitudes of weather, and it may easily be observed that

HUNTERS 75

horses invariably turn their backs to the storm, relying on
the shelter afforded by a flowing tail, down which the
rain-drops harmlessly drip. How is the short-docked horse
able to help himself under the same adverse circumstances ?
Moreover, the tail is again a protection when the animal
is lying on damp ground, and acts as a para-pluie, or a para-
soleil, according to circumstances. The animal provided
as Nature intended, with a bushy tail, should be much envied
by the one subjected to amputation, for when flies bother
a whisk or two soon settles them, and when storms
threaten it has plenty of thatch to protect itself also against
them. From an artistic point of view the removal of the
tail betrays a sad lack of culture, since the symmetry of
the animal is at once destroyed. Nature is a consummate
artist, and every detail is carefully thought out. The trunk
of an animal may be regarded as a table, balanced on four
supports, and then when a prolongation is added to one end,
to obviate a top-heavy appearance something must be
designed to add to the other end to balance the whole.
Thus, when the head and neck are appended, the tail is also
required for symmetry's sake; and a docked horse resembles
nothing so much as a teapot, with the spout intact but
with the handle broken off short ! The opponents of
vivisection are numerous, when most invaluable knowledge
for the benefit of the human race can only be thus gained,
but here are animals vivisected by the thousand for no
earthly reason except a silly fashion, bringing discomfort
and often misery to the victim for the remainder of its life.*

* In July, 1911, before Mr. Cecil Chapman, at Tower Bridge
Police Court, a person was summoned for causing two horses
to be ill-treated, by docking them ; and his horsekeeper was also
summoned for ill-treating them by performing the operation. He
stated it was done to smarten their appearance, and to strengthen their
backs. Mr. Chapman said the docking of horses was founded upon
ignorance, and having become a custom it prevailed long after the
ignorance had been exposed. A horse that was docked might fetch
more money at a sale, but to enhance its value by inflicting pain was
not justifiable. In order to mark the importance of the case, the
owner would be fined £3, and £3 3s. costs, while the horsekeeper would
have to pay 2s. costs.

76 THE HORSE

Though the fashion of docking appears to be waning,
another thoughtlesss one is still in vogae, though fortunately
the animal suffers no pain, nor any permanent injury,
through having its mane removed, or " hogged." While
an artist, and Nature, dehght in flowing hues, it is a
curious trait in so-called civilised peoples that the mass of
them seem to lose all artistic instinct, so prominent amongst
savages in general, and rejoice in crude colours and rigid
straight lines. This accords with their notions of smart-
ness, and to this everything must be subservient, whether
suitable or not. Cutting all the hair off the mane, and
leaving a bare straight line instead of a picturesque flowing
one, just accords with their ideas, and they never stop to
think whether Nature had any especial reason for decorating
the upper part of the neck with long hair. It does not
occur to them that this covering was intended as a thatch,
to ward off the powerful rays of the sun from the vertebrae
of the neck, and to keep the rain from lodging there, and
much discomfort is caused to hog-maned horses from the
wet soaking down to the roots of the clipped hair, instead
of running harmlessly off as it would otherwise do. If
moorland ponies were treated in such barbarous ways, they
would soon succumb to the vicissitudes of weather they are
constantly exposed to, which they now defy, owing to their
shaggy manes and tails.

If the broad lines Nature has laid down are inteUigently
followed it would be a gain in comfort to the animals and
also to the artistic eye. Tails and manes may be trimmed,
without doing away with them altogether. The old rule
used to be that a hunter's tail should just reach the bottom
of the thigh, in a state of rest. It is then short enough to
be well out of the mud, while it is long enough to look
handsome, if only the upper hairs are left intact ; but a thin
rope-like tail is a positive eyesore. A mane may be thinned
judiciously, and curtailed in length, but plenty should be
left ; and it has its uses too in helping the rider to mount,
. while many a fall is saved by him, in bad scrambles, when
enough mane has been left to catch hold of in an
emergency.

HUNTERS 77

One of the not-always-acknowledged reasons for removing
the mane is to give a fictitious appearance of breeding, and
so help the sale of an under-bred animal, really incapable of
carrying itself to hounds, let alone the rider as well.
Therein lies the crux, perhaps, of the whole matter, the
vendor hoping to persuade the purchaser that the animal is
better bred than is the case, by the help of a fictitious air of
" quahty " through the medium of a hogged mane, for, as is
frequently remarked by dealers, " hogging a horse gives it
another cross of blood." This does not avail it, however,
when the " Kun of many Seasons " is taking place, and the
rider finds his steed dropping away hopelessly into the rear.
Of air soul- vexing trials there is perhaps nothing more
heart-breaking than to get a good start in a rideable
country, with the hounds racing on a breast-high scent, and
yet to find your steed getting further and further behind;
you are overtaken and passed by one horse after another,
till you are reduced to following some red coat in front, who
is perhaps only following some one else who is as far before
him again, and yet is not really with the hounds. As
Whyte-Melville so truly sings in "Drink, Puppy, Drink,"
it is the "Pace that puts life into the Chase"; but what
is the good of pace to you, when you are mounted on
an animal that cannot gallop " as fast as you can kick
your hat" ! When a would-be authority on hunter-breeding
advocates as a quite sufficient cross for a hunter to be
by a thoroughbred horse out of a cart-mare — or even
with two or three such crosses — it is conclusive evidence
that either he was never a first-flight man to hounds ; or else
that he has hunted all his days in a very slow-going
country. Certainly a really fast hunter may have but one
known cross of thoroughbred blood, and his dam may have
worked in a cart, but there must have been several good
crosses of blood amongst her maternal dams, although
unknown to the owner of the steed. Many a well-bred
animal finds its way occasionally into a cart. Unless the
animal has proved itself capable of going to the front in a
good thing, it is not wise to purchase a horse about whose
ancestry there is any doubt. Although pure-bred horses,

78 THE HORSE

suitably made and of docile and generous disposition, make
the finest hunters in any country, there is a strange anti-
pathy to them on the part of many riders, and I have been
told by large dealers that they dare not admit to the gene-
rality of their customers that a horse they are admiring is in
the Stud Book. " Almost thoroughbred, my lord — in fact as
good as if he was so," sells many a horse, when if the truth
were admitted it would cause the customer to turn away at
once. Such is the power of prejudice ! And yet, looking
back over half a century of hunting, the great gallops which
remain in memory were all on horses of blue blood, or so
nearly thoroughbred that they were capable of winning
races on the flat or between the flags.

Some Good Gallops.

First-hand evidence is ever held in the highest esti-
mation in our Law Courts, and therefore proofs of the
value of high descent will be shown by the narration
of the following runs in totally different kinds of countries,
not one of which would have been seen if mounted
on an animal with but one or two crosses of blood.
One great gallop was seen on Redbourne, then coming
five years old, who had run as a three-year-old in the
Derby won by Hermit twenty months previously, and who
was half-brother to Wolsey who ran a dead-heat for the
Cambridgeshire with Lozenge ; while yet another brother
was third for the Derby, in Lord Falmouth's colours,
running as The Repentance colt. Getting rather a bad
start from Goldsborough Moor, and with hounds racing at
their topmost speed, Redbourne soon made up the lost
ground, and in a short time we were absolutely alone with
the pack. Just before the fox saved his brush for the
moment, in a drain under a gateway in the road close to
Scriven, I saw him in the last field not fifty yards before the
leading hounds, who caught sight of their quarry before he
reached the hedge, and raced him down the road till he was
glad to squeeze into any refuge ; and when Sir Charles
Slingsby came up, it was a great satisfaction to be able to

HUNTERS 79

point out the spot where the fox had been seen to slip in.
That was one of the fastest runs I ever saw, and all through
deep-ploughed fields. There were plenty of well-bred
horses out which got better away with the hounds, but
could not live with them at that racing pace, and it needed a
Derby horse to reach the pack, and live with them to the
end. What would be my recollections now, if I had been
mounted on the vaunted animal with one cross of blood !
I fear the memory of that run would not have remained so
vivid for forty-one years.

Four years later the scene was changed to Galway, in the
heyday of that prince of huntsmen, the late Burton Persse
of Moyode. The Meet of the far-famed Blazers was that
day at Clonfert, the seat of Archdeacon Butson, and a large
field was assembled there, for in addition to the usual
members of the Galway Hunt there were many strangers
from the Westmeath, King's County, and Ormonde Hunts,
who gladly seized the opportunity of a hunt with the
Blazers, when for once they met within reach. We quickly
found, and it was immediately evident that there was a tearing
scent, as the hounds flew over some large grass fields, girt
with stone walls. I was riding Kettleholder, then seven years
old, who as a three-year-old was heavily backed both for the
Cambridgeshire and the Koyal Hunt Cup at Ascot. He was
half-brother to Elland, who won the Ascot Vase, and his
sire was Kettledrum, winner of the Derby. His dam was
the famous Ellermire, one of that wonderful family bred by
Admiral Harcourt from Ellerdale of whom Ellington won
the Derby, Summerside won the Oaks, while Gildermire ran
a dead-heat for the Oaks ; and a few years later, in 1868,
the daughter of her own sister Eller, the beautiful Formosa
ran a dead-heat with Moslem for the Two Thousand Guineas
and further won the One Thousand, The Oaks, and also
the St. Leger. Ellermire herself was a notable winner, and
her most memorable race was thus described, many years
after the event took place at York : —

" A couple of seasons later the County Plate supplied one
of the most stirring contests of its kind that I can remember.
The stake was of 15 sovs. each, 5 sovs. forfeit, and the added

80 THE HORSE

money but 100 sovs. The subscribers were forty-three, and
the quality of eight out of the nine runners remarkable.
One of them was Virago, then at the height of the reputa-
tion that was fully warranted by her remarkable per-
formances during the earlier part of that season of 1854.
Up to the time of her appearance on Knavesmire she had,
within a few months, carried off the City and Suburban and
Great Metropolitan Stakes (on the same day) ; the Great
Northern Handicap and the Flying Dutchman's Handicap
at York ; the One Thousand Guineas ; The Goodwood Cup
and the Nassau Stakes ; and the Yorkshire Oaks. Amongst
her opponents for the County Plate were older horses of
remarkable speed. One was Ephesus, a winner of the Earl
Spencer's Plate, under 9 st. 7 lb. ; another, Orestes, the
property of Baron Kothschild ; a third, Vindex, who had
done smart things under the white, scarlet, and black of Sir
Charles Monck ; and another, Kmg of Trumps, a good horse,
but, on the whole, not a lucky one. Another competitor
was the light-hearted Kingston, whose death caused the
founder of the Middle Park Plate so much sorrow ; a very
fast Hetman Platoff three-year-old called Hospodar, the
property of Lord Zetland ; and Ellermire, by Chanticleer
out of Ellerdale, a brown two-year-old filly, owned by
Admiral Harcourt, and ridden by Aldcroft at 6 st. 9 lb,

"Although Virago had been trained for long-distance
races, she was believed to be such a wonder that few doubted
her ability to win over the T.Y.C. even when opposed by
' fliers.' Odds of 2 to 1 were betted on her, next in
demand being Orestes at 6 to 1. Of Virago it may be
stated that she was to all intents and purposes never in the
race, and after Orestes, King of Trumps, and Ephesus had
looked dangerous, the two-year-old won a most stirring race
from King of Trumps by a head, Ephesus being beaten half
a length from the second, and finishing a head in advance of
Hospodar, who only had a slight advantage over Orestes ! "
Kettleholder was 16.1 in height, and a splendid fencer,
and used to jump the walls in his stride as if he was
steeplechasing. Though we did not get away with the
very first, it did not take long before we were up with

O >. I o

HUNTERS 81

the leaders, which were reduced to two, for the hounds were
running at a glorious pace. Burton Persse being on the right,
and a local farmer on the left. An extremely high wall
bounding a large grass field was taken by the three of us
almost abreast, but while Burton Persse got over with
difficulty, and the farmer, taking a lot of stones off, had a
great scramble, Kettleholder took it in his stride, and raced
on after the pack without hesitation. Though from that
moment I lost sight of my companions I half thought I saw
Burton Persse pulling off to the right, but there was no time
to notice what he was doing, for the hounds were flying as
fast as ever in front, and another huge wall was looming
before me. If anything it was bigger than the previous one,
standing well up above the horse's ears as he galloped at it,
but he treated it in the same way as the other, and never
touched a stone as he flew into the next field. I was new to
Ireland, and to Galway, but this was the sort of thing I had
expected to find, and it seemed to fit in with one's highest
expectations. At the end of that field another immense
wall had to be jumped, probably a continuation of the same
we had just crossed, and I verily believe it was the highest
of the three, but after jumping it the hounds did not carry
on much further before they threw up, not far from a
farmhouse. It was only then, whilst the pack was making
its cast, that I had time to look round, and found I was
alone, nor did any one else turn up for such a long time that
I began to wonder what I should do. Then a clattering was
heard, and several of the field, with Burton Persse at the
head, came galloping down a lane leading to the house.
Burton Persse proceeded to try to hit off the line, but the
others galloped back to the last wall without drawing rein,
and a sentence just reached me from their midst, " Did he
jump that wall?" After satisfying themselves they
returned, but the run was over, for though the line was
eventually touched upon too much time had elapsed, and the
fox had to be given up. I never realised that no one had been
able to follow Kettleholder, and when at the meet of the
King's County Harriers the next day, at Kilmaine, the
Master, the late Mr. Joseph Studholme, rode up and said,

82 THE HORSE

" So I hear you cut down all the Blazers yesterday ! " I at
once replied, "Oh no, I didn't." "Oh yes, but you did
though," he answered, as he turned his horse away ; and
then one of my brother-oflScers came up, the Hon. Algernon
Grosvenor, and exclaimed, " I would gladly give a thousand
pounds to do what you did yesterday with the Blazers."
But even yet I was not convinced, and thought they
intended kindly, but were mistaken in what they had
heard about the run. It was not indeed till I stayed with
my old friend, Mr. Studholme, in 1903, just thirty-one
years afterwards, whom I had not seen for twenty-two
years, that I at last grasped the full significance of their
remarks. When chatting over the old times, all of a
sudden he remarked, " Do you remember the day when
you cut down the Blazers on Kettleholder ? What a horse
he must have been! " And then I learned that his feat was
still remembered, and had long been a local tradition. A
further tribute to the memory of that gallant horse was
paid only two years ago from a most unexpected quarter.
Correspondence in connection with the letting of a grouse
moor renewed a friendship begun on that very day, the
outcome of that exhilarating run. The late Johnny Eyre,
of Eyrecourt Castle, as popular and daring a comrade as
ever lived, was one of the field, and when the hounds
moved on to draw the Eyrecourt coverts, he invited me to
ride up to the Castle to snatch a hasty lunch, and introduced
me to his sister, Miss Alice Eyre, the acknowledged belle
of Galway, a favourite partner at balls of our late lamented
King, then Prince of Wales. Our paths in life had lain in
very different directions since those days, but the grouse
moor led to a happy renewal of our old friendship, and in
one of the first letters was this sentence : "Do you re-
member that famous run, when you were quartered at Birr?
Poor Johnny used to rave about it, and was never tired
of talking about it." Kettleholder, it may be remarked,
remained an inmate of my stable for seven years, and
performed many a gallant deed, well worthy of his high
lineage.

It has been shown what a high-class thoroughbred horse

HUNTERS 83

can do in a deep plough country, and what he can do in
one of the most famous Irish countries ; and now let me
give an instance of what one can do in a rough moorland
run. On this occasion the pack hunted by Captain, Hon.
Francis Johnstone, near Scarborough, met at Ayton, and
found a fox almost immediately, at the very beginning of
Forge Valley. From the commencement the hounds settled
down to run with a breast-high scent, crossed the River
Derwent, and went up the hill and over the farm of the late
Mr. Thomas Darrell. I was on a young mare, Chariberta,
by Charibert out of Tita, who had won twenty-two races on
the flat for the late Mr. Harry Hall. At first the hounds
had the best of it, for we had to follow as best we could
through the wood on the side of a steep hill, then ford
a rocky stream, and afterwards clamber up a steep ascent ;
but when I got to the top I just saw the tail hounds jump
a fence about two fields off, and therefore knew in which
direction to gallop, instead of losing time in finding out
where they had gone. From time to time I saw a hound
here, and another there, and when after a little time we
swung past the end of a plantation the whole pack was in
sight, racing at top speed over the open moor. Gradually
Chariberta gained upon them, and at length got up to them,
the fox keeping either to a sheep track, or sometimes a
cart-way, as they almost always do in a prolonged moorland
run. Thus we skirted the head of the Crosscliff Valley,
leaving it to our right, and held on for Saltersgate, but
before reaching i^the descent the fox found his strength
failing, and, coming round to the right, endeavoured to get
back to the shelter of the Crosscliff woods. I now got a
view of him, and soon afterwards the hounds did also,
finally running into him on the moor, about a quarter of
a mile above the Crosscliff shooting lodge. The distance
the hounds had traversed was measured on the map to be
about twelve miles, and there had scarcely been a check
the whole way, though hounds do not travel so fast over
heather, as they do when running over level grass fields.
This was far the best moorland run I have ever seen in any
country, but it needed a good thoroughbred horse to carry

84 THE HORSE

its rider in touch with the pack, and it is needless to
speculate on the part the half-bred animal could take in
such a gallop.

One more example of endurance, and this subject will
be finished. This time I will select an animal not in
the Stud Book, for though her dam, Kitty, an Irish-bred
mare, was a winner of steeplechases, her pedigree was
unknown. Kittiwake herself was by Speculum, and was
sired by him the second year he was at the stud ; and
besides running second in 1879 she won the Light-weight
Grand Military at Punchestown the following year by
several lengths, ridden by that excellent jockey, the late
Captain W. B. Morris, of the 7th Hussars. She also ran
third for a two-mile hunters' race at the Curragh,
in a large field, ridden by myself when carrying the
prohibitive weight of 13 st. 4 lbs. I possessed but two
horses at that time, both of which I rode as my chargers,
and Kittiwake being the stouter of the twain was usually
selected for riding with the Ward Union Staghounds,
then at the summit of their renown, under the guidance
of the late Leonard Morrogh. It was the period when
the late Empress of Austria hunted in Meath, who was
ever close to the pack, being splendidly mounted, and one
of the best riders that ever graced a hunting-field. At
that time a famous deer tenanted the paddocks at the
Ashbourne kennels, of whom it used to be said she never
was taken under fifteen miles ; and on two occasions she
far exceeded this distance, when I happened to have the
luck to be out, and riding Kittiwake. It was in 1879, and
on the first occasion we met at the " Black Bull," eleven
and a half English miles from Dublin. The Enfield Doe
led us very straight, and after crossing the well-known
Bush Farm with its formidable fences she left Dun-
shaughlin about a mile to the left, went past Gerrards-
town, and was taken near Boyne View, about a mile from
Navan, a distance of nineteen miles in a straight line on
the map, and, of course, much further as the hounds ran.

On the other occasion, on March 5th, the Enfield Doe
was turned out at I^orman's Grove, ten English miles from

HUNTERS 85

Dublin. After crossing the Fairyhouse race-course, the
gallant deer left Katoath some two miles to the right, and
then, swinging round by Tobergregan House, she passed
over Garristown Hill, and leaving Bellewstown race-course
to the right, was taken within two miles of Duleek. This
run was slightly over fourteen miles in a straight line on
the map, but was a twisting run, so that a good many more
miles were traversed. In neither run was there any check
to speak of, we were galloping all the way, and I assisted
to take the deer on both occasions. We had twenty miles to
ride home, but Kittiwake showed no symptoms of being
tired, and it was only a month afterwards that she ran
second at Punchestown. The next year, when she won,
she had been out with the Ward Hounds sixteen times that
season. The insistence, therefore, of the absolute necessity
of a hunter being highly bred, if you are to be carried up
to hounds on those occasions which we are always talking
about, and looking out for, when the run is both fast and
far, has surely received ample justification. In many
countries, however, such runs are never even dreamed of,
and the necessity for blood-horses is not therefore such a
vital requirement, and yet occasions must arise when little
of the run will be seen, owing to being thrown out, unless
a horse can rapidly make up the ground that has been
lost ; while few persons used to riding well-bred horses
feel really at home when mounted on a low-bred animal.
Although the value of blood is thus strongly urged, it must
not be forgotten, when breeding hunters, that certain lines
are pre-eminent for producing clever cross-country per-
formers, while others are just the reverse, and their stock
are seldom natural jumpers. Moreover, much depends upon
the individual sire, apart from the family to which he
belongs. To a few stallions is vouchsafed an especial
faculty for begetting natural jumpers, as is speedily noted
in their own neighbourhood, and to a certain extent is
proclaimed to the world when they gain honour also
between the flags. Some stallions, however, are famous
hunter sires, when, for some reason or other, their stock
do not contrive to show prominently amongst the winners

S6 THE HORSE

of steeplechases, either from want of stamina, or of speed,
or perhaps both. A staUion which has won over compara-
tively short distances is usually a sharp, quick horse, and
is more likely to sire good hunters than a slow, plodding
race-horse, which has never come to the front except over
long distances. A horse that has shown winning form at both
short and long distances is the animal required, but is not
always to be found ; and if a choice had to be made between
two animals, I would personally select the animal that had
shown speed and dash rather than one which had been slow,
though a stayer. Speedy horses are often big powerful
animals, with excellent shoulders and free action; but
their very weight causes them to tire in a race more
rapidly than a light, wiry horse. If the latter has been
unablt, to show speed, it may be taken for granted that the
machinery does not work with the due mechanical smooth-
ness which probably will be inherited by its more plebeian
offspring.

Some Celebeated Sires.

It has been mentioned above how certain individual
sires have been a conspicuous success in siring hunters,
and if within reach of such it is well worth a breeder's
while to pay an extra fee for the services of such an animal,
whose reputation stands on a well-established footing. To
mention but a few whose names have been "household
words," there were Old President, and Bay President,
MacOrville, and Perion, in Yorkshire, in years now long
past, and Gainsborough, Lifeboat, and Gunboat, in Devon-
shire. In Ireland, Sir Hercules was a mighty name, and
afterwards his son, Birdcatcher, and his many descendants.
The Stockwells could all jump, and so could the Melbournes,
while the Beadsmans, the Flying Dutchmen, and the sons
of Artillery were all constantly distinguishing themselves
between the flags, and were eagerly sought for by trainers
of steeplechasers. Of later years the Cedrics were re-
nowned in Yorkshire, and then the Gordons, and Eed
Eagles, while Ireland boasted of her Arthurs, and Victors,
and then, greatest of all, the incomparable Ascetic. It is

HUNTERS 87

very possible that a great part of the success of Ascetic was
more due to the elements of Melbourne in his composition
than to his descent from Hermit, for in their day the Touch-
stones and the Newminsters were by no means remarkable
as natural jumpers, while the Melbournes were especially
apt pupils. In the same way Gordon, who was a successful
hunter sire, was very closely related to Ascetic, the one
being by Hermit out of a mare by Young Melbourne, and
the other by Hermit out of Lady Alicia, by Melbourne. The
Voltigeurs were not noted as cross-country experts until
Speculum took up the line, but he had a near strain of
Birdcatcher, and such is invaluable for animals intended
for crossing a country. The great tap-root. Sir Hercules,
is a fine example of hereditary aptitude. If anything had
occurred to prevent his arriving at maturity, and procreat-
ing his kind, the loss to Ireland alone would be quite
incalculable, as well as to the world in general, for his
flat-racing descendants have been as distinguished as his
jumpers. There are few families which have not been
strengthened by an admixture of his blood, though in
direct descent the innate gift of jumping has been more
strongly developed in some of his sons and their offspring
than in others, notably Birdcatcher, Lifeboat, and Gunboat.
The badge of the family, "the Sir Hercules crest" as it
used to be known, the grey hairs at the root of the tail and
scattered over the body, has latterly become more associated
with Birdcatcher in the minds of the public, though it was
formerly properly attributed to his sire, in whose progeny
it was a very characteristic distinction. These " birth-
marks" are very curious as well as interesting. The black
patches in the chestnut coats of the Pantaloon tribe, and
the "hammer marks" on the quarters of the bay "New-
minsters," continually show themselves, generation after
generation ; while the " marks of the Prophet's thumb " are
generally to be found somewhere in thoroughbred horses,
relics of their descent from Arabian ancestors.

It is often remarked that hunters are chance-bred animals ;
but is not this the result of many persons leaving the mating
of their animals, and the selection of the dam, to chance,

88 THE HORSE

and taking very little trouble about it? Most individuals —
certainly in England — breed from a mare because she
has carried them to hounds for a certain period, to
their own satisfaction, and they therefore think they
would like to have a foal out of her as a matter of senti-
ment, and generally put off the attempt to realise their
desire until the mare is well stricken in years. They
probably know nothing whatever about her breeding, or
whether she comes of a family which has been hunted for
generations, and they have no intention of founding a line
and carrying on the breed from mother to daughter. That
the colt or filly which is thus bred should be a disappoint-
ment, and throw back to some former undesirable ancestor,
is only in accord with experience and the teaching of
present-day science ; but having bred two or three foals, the
owner quite believes he knows all about the question, poses
as an authority, and impresses upon such as will believe
him, "It is all a matter of chance, my dear fellow; why
I HAVE TRIED IT MYSELF ! " In his own mind this
disposes of the matter ! And, moreover, even if he does
succeed in breeding a useful animal, it is more than likely
he is far too indifferent a horseman to undertake the
training of a high-spirited young horse himself ; while there
is no groom in the stable fitted to act the rdle of a breaker,
so that the young one either ends in gaining its own way, if
it is masterful, or gets spoiled, and never takes its place
in the hunting stable. This is not so much the case,
however, in Ireland, which is one reason for the vast
superiority, in general, of the Irish hunter. The dam has
very frequently been well ridden to hounds, and shown her
aptitude for crossing a country ; and also is no chance-bred
animal, her ancestors having belonged to the same family,
or been in the neighbourhood, for many generations, and
the capabilities of each scion having been well known
to everybody. Since hke begets like if the foal throws
back to a female ancestor the type is a good one ; and
though it is impossible to breed what you like whenever
you wish to do so, still a start is made with the elements in
your favour. A certain amount of disappointment must be

HUNTERS 89

looked for, accidents will occur, and own brothers and
sisters differ as much from each other in temperament
and sagacity as they do in the human race. But a man
must have more than his fair share of bad luck if he
does not breed some good hunters, if he starts with a
well-bred mare of a good, well-established strain of hunters,
and is careful to select a sire whose progeny are famed for
good looks and performances in the hunting-field. It is
for this end that that most useful body was established, the
Hunter's Improvement Society, and breeders who are un-
successful have only to thank themselves if they have not
availed themselves of the opportunities placed in their way
of obtaining mares of authenticated pedigree. Blood must
tell, whether in man or in the animal kingdom. A striking
example of what can be accomplished in establishing families
of hunters is shown at Birdsall, where Lord Middleton, and
his father before him, has for a long series of years bred
almost all the horses required for his vast hunting establish-
ment, and it may safely be said that no Hunt servants any-
where else are mounted on such superb hunters as those at
Birdsall. Many of them are thoroughbred, and all the
others have so many crosses of blood that virtually they are
thoroughbred also, the pedigrees in many cases going back
for seventy years. All are of the same stamp of short-
legged, short-backed, but lengthy horses, with plenty of
bone, very much the type of the race-horse of former days
when heat-racing was still in vogue. Perhaps the hardiest
family of all, the one that is especially bred and kept for the
whippers-in to ride during the severe and exhausting days
on the Wolds, possessed as its foundation a well-bred
Welsh pony, about the middle of the last century. This
breed is almost tireless, and is especially valued and
treasured, and with seven or eight crosses of pure blood
added to the original pony cross they are now very well
bred indeed. The Wold country somewhat resembles the
Downs of the Southern counties, only it is almost all plough,
and the fields, though large, sometimes extending to two
hundred acres, are divided by very strong growing white-
thorn fences, with a large amount of "timber" of various

90 THE HORSE

patterns and strengths. As the hounds fairly race up the
steep hills and down the sharp declivities, whenever there
is a scent, and the Meets are often very distant from
the kennels, as well as the termination of the day's pro-
ceedings, necessitating long weary rides each way, no
low-bred horse can be expected to carry its rider with
credit or even safety. The very first hill will settle its
pretensions, and the rider will be wise if he cautiously
avoids the first strong fence he meets, timber or otherwise,
when he has been galloping a few minutes up a steep incline.
The Wolds, like all hill countries, are best suited by a
compactly built horse, and a leggy or long-backed animal is
not so handy there, though it may be accounted a good
performer in a flatter district. This should be borne in
mind by the Koyal Commission when awarding premiums
to stallions at the Spring Show, for an animal is often sent
to a locality for which his conformation is not suitable,
when he is not likely to beget the sort the district
requires.

The Points of a Hunter.

To sum up the points of a hunter generally, suitable
for almost every country, he should be 15. 3| or 16 hands
in height, a long, deep-barrelled horse, with short legs, good
shoulders, a well-developed wither, and a good blood head
and neck, properly put on so as to bend nicely to the bit.
His quarters must be strong and well let down, with a
good back. His elbows must be at liberty, and not
touch his ribs ; his hocks must be large ; and he should
move with true hunting action, with full control of his
hind-legs, and carry himself well balanced. When you are
on his back his knees should show well in front. He
should be free from all rush, easy to ride, and easy to
guide, with plenty of sense : one that will steady himself
when you require him, while you take a look at a fence, and
then make a big jump at short notice, but who will gallop
on and take the fence in his stride without any dwelling, if
you ask him to do so. Of course pace comes first, but he
must bend his knees, and get up at timber, and also creep

HUNTERS 91

through an awkward place when it is necessary to do so.
The dictum of the late Mr. George Lane-Fox, Master
of the Bramham Moor Hounds, that no horse is a hunter till
he will walk through a gap, has very much truth in it, and
common sense.

As a last word on the subject of hunters, mention may be
made of the vast amount of money put in circulation
through the chase alone, and I venture to refer to the
statistics given by Mr. Orde in the first edition of his " Vade
Mecum." In this carefully compiled work he estimates
that 9,000 couples of foxhounds are in kennel during the
hunting season, which at a low estimate require £550,000
per annum for their keep, and, in addition, 3,500 couples of
harriers and beagles cost £100,000 more.

Two hundred thousand hunters are kept for the purpose
of hunting with these hounds, which will have cost their
purchasers £12,000,000, and whose keep will amount to
£8,000,000 per annum — figures which have been worked out
by experts and checked by them. As the average life of
a hunter is reckoned at " probably less than four seasons,"
a view which I thoroughly endorse, it follows that the large
sum of £12,000,000 has to be expended every four years
in renewing the stud ; though it is to be feared that the
blighting incidence of the Budget will largely reduce these
figures in the near future, through the inability of an ever-
increasing number of persons to meet its demands, and
to continue to follow field sports of any description. Wages
for grooms and labourers are calculated as being required
for 60,000 to 70,000 men, but these also will have to
be largely discounted, for the same financial reasons
as those given above. When the families of these
men are further taken into consideration, together with
the saddlers and shoeing-smiths, and the various small shop-
keepers, the butchers, the bakers, the shoemakers, the
grocers, and the drapers, who supply their wants, and again
the many more persons who act as purveyors to these latter,
it will be seen at once what an army of people are depen-
dent on the welfare of the hunting ; what widespread
destitution would be caused if anything interfered with its

92 THE HORSE

prosperity, and what an increase there would be to the
ranks of the unemployed. The writer was living in Ireland
during the disastrous days of the Land League, when it was
so ill-advised as to order the stoppage of the various Hunts,
and he has good cause to remember the distress and ruin
caused by the edict in the county of Kildare, and how
the evil blighted with its withering touch such different
sections of the community whose intimate dependence on
hunting had never before been suspected. History has a
way of repeating itself, and when there is no market for
hay, straw, oats, or bran, the farmer will also realise how
valuable an asset hunting is to him, which is likely to
become even greater since so few horses are being reared
owing to the advent of mechanical traction.

Ponies.

In addition to thoroughbreds and hunters, our saddle-
horses comprise invaluable native breeds of ponies, so sure-
footed, hardy, and sagacious, which afford an invaluable
starting-point for crossing with other breeds. The one
drawback to the dash of pony blood, when a considerable
increase of height has been obtained in the course of gene-
rations, is the difficulty of obtaining length at the same time,
for the short, compact form of the pony does not accord well
in appearance with the stature of a 16-hands' horse.
Though the Eastern horses are ponies in height, they are
true horses in that when crossed with large animals the
length is there, and the progeny show no trace of the pony
in this respect. In every other way ponies cannot be too
much praised, and when crossed with thoroughbred blood,
if the height is not unduly increased, they make the best
riding-horses in the world.

In general type the ponies of the North of England and
Scotland are of a much more powerful build than the
Welsh, Dartmoor, or Exmoor mountain ponies, or those
bred in the New Forest, while the Irish ponies are rather
intermediate between the others. But all seem to possess
the same soundness of constitution, and do their work with

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PONIES 93

courage and generous temper. Unless crossed with the
thoroughbred the Northern ponies are not adepts at
galloping, their paces being the walk and the trot, but they
are very sure-footed, can carry great weight, and are docile
in the extreme. It is very rare to see a galloway from the
dale country either kick, rear, or shy, while they can live on
the roughest fare, and withstand the rigours of a very wet
and very cold climate. In the neighbourhood of the old-
established training stables at Middleham, Eichmond, and
Penrith, the fell galloways have often some good blood in
them, which is seen at once m their improved quality, and
many of these can gallop in good form. It is on these
limestone hills, where the native pony averages about
14.1 or 14.2, and very seldom reaches 15 hands, that
the weight-carrying polo pony should be bred from this
foundation stock, and kept and reared till he is three or
four years old. The stock was sadly diminished during the
Boer War, for from these mountains I purchased for the
War Office, and sent to Africa, many hundreds of the best of
the ponies ; the stock has never recovered the drain upon
it, and the great increase of cycling and motoring has so
restricted the demand for this class, that now compara-
tively few are being bred. The great annual fair for these
ponies is at Brough Hill, in Westmorland, in the autumn,
and they are also sold in considerable numbers at Kirby
Stephen, in the near vicinity, which fair precedes the other
by a few days.

The Welsh ponies are of two distinct types. Those bred in
the low country do not show the quality of the mountain
ponies, but are much more powerful, rather cobby in
character, resembhng to a great extent the North Country
galloway. It is the mountain pony that Wales is more
especially famous for, small in stature so that it is difficult
to find one of pure blood 13 hands in height, but full of
fire, with pace, action, and good constitution. The feed-
ing on their own ranges is not sufficiently good to encourage
growth, but taken down to good pasturage they increase
rapidly in height in succeeding generations. The Conway
Show in the northern division, and the Welsh National Show,

94 THE HORSE

do good work in encouraging the breeds ; whilst the Welsh
Cob and Pony Stud Book is laying a foundation which
should prove of very great value in the near future.

The Dartmoor ponies are wonderfully improved since I first
knew them nearly fifty years ago. Then they were coarse,
big-headed, and cow-hocked, larger than the Exmoors, but
not held of nearly so much account. Now thej'^ are quite
altered in character, and I purchased numbers for South
Africa, during the war, of as beautiful ponies as could be
desired ; too good, indeed, for the work for which they were
required. Their tors are very rugged, and covered with
granite boulders, but the ponies are very sure-footed, and
can carry great weights over long distances. The chief
Show for them is the Brenton and Lydford Show, and the
great fair for them and the Exmoors is Bampton Fair at the
end of October.

The Exmoor ponies are little aristocrats — though they
have not improved as fast as the Dartmoors — for they
were taken in hand enthusiastically by Sir Thomas
Acland and Mr. Frederick Knight long years previous to
any attention being paid to the improvement of the Dart-
moors. Katerfelto, the equine hero of Whyte-Melville's
thrilling romance, was a famous pony stallion in his day.
" The Druid" tells us in his fascinating work, " Scott and
Sebright," how Katerfelto's dam was stolen by gipsies, and
recovered in foal with him to an Arab. He relates, too,
how Mr. Kobert Smith, of Emmett's Grange, took a great
hand in improving the breed of ponies, using Old Port —
that famous sire of Devonshire hunters — for his pony
mares, which he afterwards supplemented with other good
blood. Old Port was the firstborn of the great Beeswing,
through her alliance with Sir Hercules, and she, it will be
remembered, was subsequently the dam of Newminster,
Later the renowned Bobby was lord of the harem, " who
could trace his descent through two degrees on his dam's
side to Borack, who beat all the best horses, under high
weights, at Madras"; and then an Arab succeeded Bobby,
so there is little wonder Mr. Smith's ponies were full of
quality, but they had not to rough it through the winter on

PONIES 95

the moor like those of the original stock. Bobby was bred by
Mr. Kamsay, of Barnton, his sire being Kobin, a son of Dr.
Syntax, and a mare by Cotton, whose dam was by Borack.
The method of rearing the young animals, according to
" The Druid," was as follows : " Three parts of the year
these mares live on the mountain land, while the farm is
making beef and mutton below. . . . Their foals are care-
fully wintered in paddocks with the yearlings, and if the
weather is very severe the two-year-olds have hay as well.
The paddocks are principally four acres in extent ; little
open sheds, neatly thatched, nestle in cunning nooks, to
shelter the young stock, and when its whole array is mar-
shalled on to the lowlands the stud is about 120 strong."

In these days of breeding extensively for polo it is well to
know methods which have been proved to be successful.

Sir Thomas Acland maintained his original breed un-
crossed, but Mr. Frederick Knight went in for improved
blood, and commenced with two sires and three mares,
concerning the importation of which from Dongala (the
kingdom of King Solomon's visitor, the Queen of Sheba)
" The Druid " relates a most interesting anecdote. The
Dongala stallions were followed by Pandarus, a 15-hand son
of Whalebone, and he in turn was succeeded by Canopus,
a grandson of Velocipede, but again it was found the better-
bred animals could not stand the rough climate in winter.
"While the experiment was in progress the colts were
wintered on limed land, which enabled them to bear up
pretty well against the climate. When, however, the farms
were let by the present Mr. Knight, they had to go back e?i
masse to the naked moor, and then it was found that even if
the mares with the first cross could put up with the fare
and climate, they grew far too thin to give any milk, while
those of the old stock stood it well with their foals."

While 12.2 hands is about the outside height at which the
Dartmoor and Exmoor ponies can live all the year round on
their own hills, they soon increase in height on lower ground
with more generous treatment in winter ; and yet, small as
they are, it is perfectly marvellous what weight they can
carry for extreme distances, and many hours at a stretch.

96 THE HOESE

They are better saddle-ponies, as a rule, than those bred in
the New Forest, which are more sought after with a view to
harness than the saddle, though good riding-ponies can be
and are raised every year in the Forest and neighbourhood.

The New Forest pony is of a larger size than the Dart-
moor and Exmoor, and those up to 13 hands can live and
do well in the open. The Burley Association is doing
excellent work in untiring efforts to improve the breed, but
since stallions and mares run at large there is great difficulty
in controlling the choice of sires, since three hundred persons
enjoy the right of pasturage, and can turn out the animal
which pleases their fancy. Each bunch of mares, with its
reigning stallion, has its favourite haunts, and may be found
there morning and evening. The New Forest pony has
many crosses of outside blood, Arab, Welsh, Highland,
Exmoor, and the North Country galloway all being repre-
sented in its lineage, and with its admirable distinguishing
character for courage, docility, hardihood, and fine temper,
it makes an excellent harness animal, and is in much request
for this purpose. At the Burley Show there is a capital
opportunity for any one who is desirous of seeing them at
their best to note the standard these ponies are capable of
attaining. All through the heaths of Dorsetshire this same
type of pony is bred ; and especially in the Isle of Purbeck,
beyond Wareham, some excellent ponies may be seen,
earning their living where even sheep cannot thrive.

The Burley and District New Forest Pony and Cattle
Society was formed in 1906, and is affiliated to the Polo
and Kiding Pony Society. It not only holds an annual
Show at Burley on August Bank Holiday, but has also
recently started a New Forest Stud Book, of which the first
volume has just been published, and contains the entries of
118 stallions and 356 mares. This should prove to be a
valuable scheme for improving the local breed of ponies,
and should have far-reaching consequences in the near
future.

There is one little fellow that mention must be made of —
the tiny Sheltie so beloved by children, hardly larger than a
big dog. In the Shetland Isles the soil and climate make it

H 0

PONIES 97

impossible to rear any animal of a large size, whether sheep,
cow, or pony, but when one under 12 hands is required
nothing is more suitable than a Shetland pony, with the
exception it is too broad in the back to be safe for a little
boy to bestride. At one time an Arab cross was tried with
a few mares, and the produce was sufficiently narrow to
carry a little boy, but they could not stand the rough
weather, and had to be wintered elsewhere, so the experi-
ment was soon abandoned. If well kept they may reach
11 hands, but the average is from 9h to lOJ hands, and
their chief use is for work in the mines underground.

As riding-ponies those from the sister island are, or
perhaps used to be, quite super-excellent, for a mistaken
zeal on the part of the Congested Districts Board induced
that body to introduce hackney sires into Connemara and
the wild district of mountainous Mayo, the very home of
well-bred ponies. There are numerous animals of pony
height in Ireland, very good in their way, but which are
only undersized horses, and the true pony must be sought
in the mountain regions, very possibly descendants of the
early hobbies, which Strongbow and other English leaders
found so difficult to cope with ; and which, in the West,
were undoubtedly afterwards much improved by the Barb
sires which escaped from the ships of the Spanish Armada
that were wrecked on that coast. Before the advent of the
above Board a Connemara pony was a name to conjure
with, a well-bred, active, fast galloper, and a rival of the
Arab in the way of carrying weight. Indeed, Arab blood
had largely found its way into the district, and had the
Board been well advised it would have worked on the lines
already proved successful. Hackneys were entirely out of
place, but Eastern sires, either Arabians or Barbs, would
haveraised up a breed of ponies which there would surelyhave
been a great demand for. The Andalusian would also have
been a useful cross, for it is very hardy, with excellent legs,
the bone of the cannons, and the hocks and knees, being
extremely well developed. There is already a considerable
amount of breeding in them, for their native land being so
contiguous to Morocco, and having been so long under the

98 THE HORSE

dominion of the Moors, no doubt Barb blood has continually
flowed into it. The ordinary animal of the country, the
common "jaca" (pronounced " haca," and evidently the
ancestor of our word "hack "), is a capital riding animal,
never stumbling or making a mistake. The first cross with
an Arab at once puts fashion into the produce, which con-
tinues for many generations, and if this cross is followed by
mating with aij English thoroughbred horse the result is a
very elegant and excellent riding-horse. Many very fair
race-horses have been bred by following these lines. The
haca has good knee action, but it also has the length which
is wanting in the hackney, and therefore its descendants
possess a frame suitable for riding, in contradistinction to
the other.

Polo Ponies.

With the advent of polo, and the consequent great
demand for galloping ponies up to weight, the merits of
the various breeds of ponies are eagerly discussed, and their
suitability considered for becoming the foundation for
building up a type so much desired. It must be kept in
mind that the diiferent players in a team do not necessarily
require exactly the same sort of animal to do brilliant work,
and that it is easier to mount some of the posts than the
others. No. 1 is the hardest to find ponies for, since so
many good qualities must be combined. The strokes at
goal come oftenest to him, and therefore the pony must be
easy to ride, or he may miss them. It must be fast or the
rider cannot keep his place, and withal be handy or the
opposing back will slip him, but so long as it is up to its
rider's weight it does not need the bulk so essential in a
pony for No. 3.

A very intelligent pony is needed for No. 2, one that will
follow the ball and alter its course without losing its stride,
changing its legs, or propping. The ball seldom continues
quite straight, especially as it loses its momentum, and as it
twists to one side or the other the pony must follow
smoothly in its track. Moreover, a fast-galloping pony is
needed, and one from whose back a stroke can be made

PONIES 99

on either side as the circumstances of the moment
require.

The pony for No. 3 will get most of the bumps, especially
in a hustling game, and as, too, it will probably be ridden
by the heaviest rider, it must be well up to weight and have
plenty of substance. And yet it needs pace and a lengthy
stride if it is to hold its own, though at the same time it
must be very steady and clever. Probably no better No. 3
pony ever existed than the one-time celebrated Fritz, a
portrait of whom and his then owner, the late Mr. John
Watson, appeared in Baily's Magazine. Fritz was
originally bought out of a Connemara drove by the writer,
and beyond the fact that he was said to be by Kinsman, dam
by Tom Steele, nothing further was known about him. He
was a most powerfully built pony, and really was a weight-
carrying hunter on very short legs, and being blessed with a
placid and generous temper he became a celebrated polo
pony under the tuition of Mr. Watson. He had one pecu-
liarity— he stood much higher at the croup than at the
withers, and whereas he only just passed the standard in
front he could not nearly have done so behind, and yet he
was not an uncomfortable pony to ride, having great length.
His pace was such that he won two flat races at Baldoyle
the same afternoon, ridden by the writer.

No. 4 needs to be a compactly built pony, for he must be
able to jump off quickly to save a goal. He needs pace,
too, for he must be able to race after the ball while the
other players ride off their opponents. An active, quick
pony is needed here, one that can turn sharply as well as
gallop.

One thing is essential to all polo ponies : they must not
pull or they are useless, and they must be docile and
generous in their work. When the right pony has been
found, and the skill to train it is not wanting, its value
represents almost a small fortune. This very season
Swallow has been sold for 650 gs. ; and so also have those
splendid ponies of Mr. Buckmaster, Play Actor, Jack,
and Lottery. Whilst the average of i*557 15s. made by
Mr. Buckmaster' s stud, and of £443 2s. 6d. made by the

100 THE HORSE

ponies of Mr. Freake, are convincing proofs indeed that there
is money to be made at the game, by skilled players who are
good judges of a pony. The problem to be solved is how to
breed the animal desired. So many of the qualities required
in polo ponies are inherent in Eastern sires, Arabians
and Barbs, that a first cross of such blood seems a wise
commencement, though the Barb is a taller animal in its
own country than the Arab, and specimens occur up to 15.3.
The docility of both breeds is of the highest order, and it
must be borne in mind that the Arabian has been bred for
centuries with one object — to carry his master in raids against
his enemy, and make good his escape if his plans "gang
agley." The latter supposition involves speed and activity
in dodging the pursuing lance — qualities much required in
playing polo. Since the Arab warrior, excepting in battle,
invariably rides with only one rein, his steed must be both
well trained and intelligent, to turn right or left at a critical
moment, and to understand and obey its rider's wishes
conveyed only by a halter and rope.

The Eastern cross should be followed up with a thorough-
bred one, a sire being chosen from one of the many families
that always run small ; while if the produce are reared for
three parts of the year on limestone hills there will be little
danger of the polo limit, the bugbear to the breeder, 14.2
in height, being exceeded.

The efforts of the Polo and Riding Society to fix a type
must, in the course of time, exert considerable influence in
assisting breeders to produce the required pony, and it
already can point to the fact that two ponies bred on the
lines it advocates were chosen to play for England in
International matches. Tubby being out of Silvertail
(No 121), and Marquis out of Lady Polo (973). Moreover,
the breeding of Marquis gives point to the hope that the
polo pony of the future may to a large extent be pro-
duced by the mating of animals registered in their Stud
Book, without recourse to assistance from the outside ;
and thus a true-bred breed may be formed of thorough polo
type, in a similar manner that other British breeds have
been established. Just as the race-course is the all-essential

PONIES 101

test of the merit of the race-horse, so may the polo-ground
be looked upon as the test of the polo pony, and if polo-
bred stallions can continue to beget animals of the standard
of Marquis, assuredly nothing better can be desired. It
may be long ere the services of thoroughbred stallions can
be dispensed with, for there can, in all probability, be no
great number of polo sires, since many animals are prevented
from continuing their species through the early application
of the surgeon's knife. Sufticient has already been accom-
plished, however, to prove that polo-bred stallions can be
depended upon to reproduce their like, but it should be
looked upon as an axiom that the sires must be themselves
tested on the polo ground, as race-horses are on the race-
course, or softness, and other undesirable qualities, are
eventually bound to creep in.

Marquis is by Sir John Barker's celebrated sire Sandiway,
and his dam, Lady Polo, by Sir Walter Gilbey's famous
Rosewater, who was by Sir Joseph Hawley's great race-
horse, Rosicrucian. As Sandiway was also by Eosewater,
the inbreeding of Marquis was very close, and if care is not
taken to guard against continued alliances of this de-
scription, the eventual result will assuredly be a delicate,
irritable race, such as our thoroughbred horses have so
largely become. The dam of Sandiway was Cuddington,
whose dam was a AVelsh pony, while Lady Polo (dam of
Marquis) had Exmoor blood in her veins, so these outside
strains may have had some effect in preventing any de-
terioration in Marquis himself.

Amongst other polo-bred stallions should be mentioned
the winner of the polo-bred class at Islington, 1910, White
Wings by White Mask, by Whitehall, by Hermit, whose
dam was First Flight, a winner of hurdle-races, while
his grandam. Oh My, won over i;2,000 in jumping prizes.
White Wings is the property of the Keynsham Stud, and
should beget polo ponies of the right stamp, if as good as his
breeding warrants.

In conclusion, it may be suggested that foundation mares
for breeding fast-galloping ponies of lighter description may
be found amongst the Exmoor, Dartmoor, Welsh, and

102 THE HORSE

New Forest breeds ; but that for weight-carrying ponies,
especially suitable for No. 3, the mares should rather be
sought in the North Yorkshire and Westmorland mountains,
in the vicinity of the training stables ; or else in the West
of Ireland, where in Connemara, and Mayo, some of the
original famous ponies may yet be found.

A few words as to measuring polo ponies may perhaps
be considered not out of season, since the writer has had
much to do with this, having at one time officially
measured the ponies for the All Ireland Polo Kace
Meetings ; and, in the capacity of Purchasing Officer, during
the South African War, measured nearly thirteen thousand
horses. To be perfectly accurate in measuring an animal
when standing still, the measuring-stick should have a spirit-
level in the extended arm ; and there should be also a little
extension of the arm to the back of the stick, from which a
little plumb-line should depend, thus showing when the
stick is absolutely perpendicular. The animal must stand
upon a hard, smooth, level surface, and to obtain the true
height the stick must be placed at the rear of the elbow, so
that its arm rests exactly on the top of the withers. The
horse's head should be pulled down a little till the ears are
on a level with the withers, which gives a sharp definition
to them ; but the head must be kept in a straight line,
neither inclined to the right or to the left, which would
otherwise tend to reduce the height. The animal should be
measured immediately it comes to a standstill, for if allowed
to remain standing for some moments it will begin to sink
on its pasterns, and some horses will drop more than an inch
in a very brief space of time. If this should be noticed the
animal should be backed a step or two, and then brought up
again, when a quick operator should be able to measure the
exact height. To induce a horse to sink down many plans
are resorted to, such as galloping it for some time ; keeping
it standing many hours in a stall ; or keeping it standing
with a very heavy weight on its back ; the object of all such
manoeuvres being to thoroughly tire it, and so induce it
to sink down the moment it is brought to a standstill,
though such designs should not meet with success if the

Photo by Algar Meysey-Tliompson.

The Ancient Measurin(j Stone on York Race-course.

PONIES

103

measurer knows his business. To shave the withers so
as to remove all possible hair, and to pare the heels down
closely cannot be objected to, though if this last process
is carried too far the soles may get bruised, and the
horse become lame, so self-interest may be relied upon
to prevent this being carried to extremes.

But another mode of getting round the measurer is also
attempted — that of teaching the horse to stretch itself out
with its legs far apart, in the style beloved of hackney
grooms, when showing off their charges. This also troubled
our ancestors, in the old days of Give and Take Plates ; and
the old stone on which the competitors were measured
on York race-course is even now in existence, in the paddock
of York race-stand, and may be seen at any time by any one
interested in memorials of the past. It is believed to be the
only one now remaining, and provides a valuable object-
lesson of the ingenuity of our forefathers in defeating the
wily trainers of their time. It was in use till the early part
of the last century.

The stone itself is 6 ft. 4 in. long by 3 ft. 3 in. broad, and has
two lines cut on it, '2 feet in length, and 5 feet distant from
each other. The stone itself is perfectly flat.

The length from one line to the other is the extreme
distance the animal was allowed to extend its forefeet from
its hind ones ; and the length of the short lines ('2 feet)
was the distance allowed between the two fore-feet and
hind-feet.

In Give and Take Plates horses carried weight for age,
and weight for inches.

The usual scale was : 13 hands carried 7 stone, with

104 THE HORSE

an addition of 14 oz. for each extra eighth of an inch,
which works out —

Each additional J inch 14 oz. extra

„ „ inch 7 lbs. „

„ ,, hand 2 stone ,,

so that —

13 hands carried 7 stone

14 ,, ,, 9 stone

15 ,, „ 11 stone

These were the weights for aged horses, with an allow-
ance of —

4 lbs. for 6-year-olds.
12 lbs. for 5-year-olds.

CHAPTEE IV

CAEEIAGE-HOESES

Cleveland Bays.

ACARRIAGE-HOKSE must look well in harness, and an
important point is the position in which he stands,
his fore-legs and hind-legs being well apart. Many a good
hunter has slightly bent knees, or has his hind-legs bent
too much under him ; but this will not do for a carriage-
horse, and is fatal to making a handsome show when drawn
up for parade. The neck must be long and carried well
up, and be able to bend in a graceful curve ; the mane
should be plentiful and fall well ; and the tail should be
full and well carried. Such are the general characteristics
of a handsome carriage-horse in a full-sized carriage, which
requires length in the animals which draw it to match
itself, for there is a want of symmetry when a pair of short
horses are seen attached to a long carriage.

In colour they should be bays with black legs, browns
with tan muzzles, dark chestnuts, or greys. The action
must be smart, knees well bent, the hocks sharply flexed,
and the feet lifted high off the ground ; and the lighter
the carriage the more active should be the horses, with a
corresponding degree of pace.

When shorter and lighter vehicles are used the fashion
of the day tends towards the employment of the hackney,
with its showy action, hogged mane, and short-docked tail,
but in a long carriage such seem wanting in the requisite
length for harmony in appearance. All harness-horses
must have strong loins, quarters, and hocks, that they
may be able to turn sharply, hold back a carriage down-
hill, or stop it quickly when required.

105

106 THE HORSE

For the big, lengthy carriage-horse the Cleveland Bay and
the Yorkshire Coach-horse fulfil all requirements — the former
when a massive animal is required for a heavy load,
more especially for artillerj^ and transport service, and
the latter when more pace is desired in a somewhat
lighter vehicle. The Cleveland Bay originated in the
Cleveland district of Yorkshire — celebrated for its iron-
stone mines, which caused the rapid growth of the town
of Middlesbrough, with its smelting furnaces and other
works. The Cleveland Bays were the horses of the district,
available alike for the saddle or the carriage, and doing
the ordinary daily work of the farm. They crossed well
with thoroughbred horses, and in that way many superior
weight-carrying hunters were bred, while they often made
an excellent foundation on which to raise generations of
hunters, by the continued use of well-bred sires. They
were a hardy breed, full of courage and endurance, and
very docile. The " Yorkshire Coach-horse Stud Book,"
vol. i. p. 9, states : " It is claimed these Cleveland horses
are a pure breed, clear of both blood and black."

To be eligible for the Cleveland Bay Stud Book, the
standard required is 16 hands to 16.2, and bay colour
without white. The address of the Secretary is Field
House, Marton, S.O., Yorkshire.

Yorkshire Coach-horse.

There were many persons, however, who came to the
conclusion that the Cleveland Bay was too heavily built, and,
with the old coach-horses in their mind, desired to form
a society for breeding a higher-bred type, the outcome being
the formation of the Yorkshire Coach-horse Society. It
was then ordained that the first volume of their Stud Book
should " contain the pedigree of stallions foaled previously
to the 1st of January, 1883, such pedigrees being satis-
factory to the Council," while Rule 33 ordained: "No
horse shall be registered in the Stud Book unless bred in
the United Kingdom"; and Rule 34: "The expression
'horse' includes stallion and mare."

■5
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CARRIAGE-HORSES 107

Resolutions passed by the Council at a meeting held in
York, on April 17, 1888, laid down : " It is hereby agreed to
admit as eligible for the Stud Book, any horse or mare
showing three crosses of Coaching, or two crosses of
Coaching and one of Blood, such horse or mare to be
light or dark bay. No horse with direct Hackney or
Carting Blood allowed to enter."

The result has been the establishment of a fine type of
powerful large-boned horse, with a considerable amount
of breeding, since a cross of thoroughbred blood is allow-
able every third generation. Though the level croup, a
very characteristic point, is apt to give riding-horses rather
a peacocky appearance, it is admirable for carriage work,
involving a good carriage of the tail. A cross of coach-
horse blood has frequently proved invaluable for light
mares, reintroducing size and bone, when a resort to a
thoroughbred horse might have produced a weed, useless
for general purposes. Whenever a mare throws small, light
foals, it is wise to try the effect of an alliance with a
Yorkshire Coach-horse before turning her out of the stud
altogether. In the writer's experience several good hunters
have been thus bred.

The first volume of the Yorkshire Coach-horse Stud
Book was published in 1887, and in the Preface the remarks
of various writers are stated, showing that the animal the
Society had in view was more blood-like than the old Cleve-
land Bay, and capable of travelling at a faster pace. Thus
an extract is quoted from an article by Willoughby Wood
in 1854 with evident approval : —

" As to the antique ' coach-horse,' that gaunt animal with
his red legs is now scarcely to be met with in his pristine
purity. His legs have been shortened and turned from bay
to black, his crest lowered, his head has been lessened in
more directions than one ; while evident crosses of blood,
which he shows, have imparted to him a decidedly more
modern and aristocratic appearance. His frame is deeper,
his body shorter, he can get his hind-legs under him,
and as to his pace, twelve miles an hour are easier to him
than eight would have been to his venerable maternal

108 THE HORSE

ancestors. Such are the beneficial effects of blood, that
is of a superior race judiciously engrafted on an inferior."

" It cannot then be claimed for the Yorkshire Coach-
horse that he is a pure-bred animal, but that on the con-
trary, by the judicious crossing of large-sized good-coloured
mares with stallions altogether, or nearly thoroughbred, a
class of horses has been produced suited to the wants and
circumstances of the times.

" Certain characteristics have been carefully cultivated
— by universal consent the colours should be bay or
brown with black legs, mane and tail abundant but not
curly, in height from 16 hands to 16 hands 2 inches,
with fine head, sloping shoulders, strong loins, and lengthy
quarters, high-stepping action, good sound feet, flat legs,
and abundance of bone and muscle for any effort that may
be required of them."

Several celebrated coach-horses are mentioned in vol. i.
that were sold for very high prices.

" Bainbow, afterwards called King George IV., sold to
Robert Thomas, of Eryholme, Darlington, when seventeen
years old, for ^300.

"Landmark (belonging to Mr. G. Holmes), foaled 1870,
whose dam was by a thoroughbred sire, this horse was sold
to the King of Bavaria for 400 guineas.

"Mr. Thompson's Necromancer was the progenitor of
some high-priced animals. He was the sire of Sir Edmund,
sold for iJ600 to go abroad ; of Don Quixote, and another
sold to Mr. Alders for i;500 ; also of Burton's Ebor, which
was sold for 500 guineas.

" Of the speed, power, and endurance of these horses we
have recorded that Dreadnought, by Old Clothier, won a
trotting match for ^£100, carrying 16 stone 16 miles, within
the hour; Wonderful, a horse that obtained a high premium
at Bipon Show in 1819, had a brother, Peirson's Plato, that
trotted 18 miles within the hour, carrying 18 stone ; and
Bevas Pullen's King William trotted a mile in 3 minutes
at Selby, carrying 14 stone.

"In conclusion, we can confidently recommend the
Yorkshire Coach-horse as an animal that has been a source

CARRIAGE-HORSES 109

of great profit to the Yorkshire breeder, an animal that needs
only to be seen to be admired, to be used to be appreciated."

Hackneys.

Hackneys, the third great source from which the supply
of carriage-horses is drawn, seem to be an endless bone of
contention in the horsey world, dividing it into two camps,
the one almost worshipping the animal, whilst the other
will not have it at any price; the chief reason probably being
that while the best of the breed are fine animals, there is a
terrible tailing off amongst the inferior sort, which, as most
breeders know to their sorrow, are much easier produced
than the prize-winners. There is also a flashiness about the
hackney, which is in fact the very essence of its being, and
appeals more to the foreigner than to the average Englishman,
for there is no doubt that as a race we do not like to attract
notice to ourselves, and prefer to slip quietly along, attending
to our own business, if possible unnoticed by the passer-by.
But the hackney will not permit of our so doing. He, at
any rate, means to be looked at and admired ! And so it
comes to pass that the hackney is valued by the admiration-
loving foreigner and many Englishmen, while others sneer
at it and give it a wide berth. The hackney has been
evolved out of the old roadster, and appears to have had his
origin in Lincolnshire, and spread from there to Norfolk
and Yorkshire ; but in the last county they have been much
localised, seldom spreading far from the neighbourhood of
Market Weighton, in the East Riding. The best of them
have a good deal of thoroughbred blood in their veins, and
the great progenitor of all, the famous Old Shales, was got
by Blaze, a pure-bred son of Flying Childers, out of a
strong common-bred mare in Lincolnshire. There is a
beHef in the Yorkshire Wolds that the hackneys owe their
high-stepping action entirely to the cross of cart-horse
blood in their pedigree, and probably the compact form,
wide chest, and round buttocks were derived from the same
source. Crossing with pony blood produced that shortness
which is one of their great characteristics, and which is so

110

THE HORSE

difficult to get rid of in any breed where it is introduced,
for cross as you may it is sure to assert itself generation
after generation.

Within the last three decades two of the most famous
stallions have been Danegelt and his son Ganymede, and
their stock and descendants have enriched their owners with
immense sums of money. It may be of interest to
trace back their pedigree, showing what famous names in
the trotting world are blazoned on it, and how it is crowned
at the beginning with the famous Darley Arabian, the most
potent ancestor of the best race-horses, all the world over.

Darley Arabian

Flying Childers

Blaze

Old Shales

Driver

Fireaway (Jenkinson's)

Fireaway (West's)

Fireaway (Burgess's)

Wildfire ...

Phenomenon

Performer

Sir Charles

Denmark ...

Danegelt ...

Ganymede

1702
1715
1733
1755
1765
1780
1800
1815
1827
1835
1840
1843
1862
1879
1887

Phenomenon was brought into Yorkshire by Mr. Eobert
Bamsdale, of Market Weighton, and it may be said that it was
through him the great improvement in the Yorkshire hack-
neys took place ; while the mares who were his consorts,
having a good deal of thoroughbred blood in them, produced
progeny with more quality than the Norfolk trotters, which
were apt to be rather coarse about the head. A great merit
in the race is its soundness of legs and feet, and for showy
action it cannot be surpassed. The best type should not
exceed 15.2, and should be well balanced and well coupled.
The Hackney Stud Book Society dates from a public
meeting held at Norwich June 30, 1883, and the good work
it has done since that day is amply proved every year by the
animals shown at its annual Show each spring at Islington.

< c

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CARRIAGE-HORSES 111

What the future has in store for the hackney is difficult to
forecast in these days of mechanical traction, which is ever
becoming more and more popular. The foreigners have
always been the best purchasers of the breed, and may
continue their custom. France especially, it is said, utilises
them for breeding artillery horses, while the Argentine has
consistently been a good buyer ; but a considerable trade,
which used to be done with rich young business men in
provincial towns, has almost entirely fallen off, for, instead
of driving a smart turnout from their homes to their places
of business, they now prefer a motor-car. Still, as those
persons who yet continue to drive in London mostly require
quality, refinement, and style, and there is no other pure
breed which can compare with the hackney in its showy
action, it is probable that it may yet be in demand when the
Cleveland Bay and the Yorkshire Coach-horse remain but a
memory, "improved " out of existence by the motor-car, or
possibly the flying machine.

The difference in the action of hackneys, the wrong way
and the right, may be well exemplified by the following
anecdote concerning two well-known stallions of their day,
whose names crop up now in many a pedigree. On June
19, 1906, Mr. James Melrose, the veteran chairman of the
York Race Committee, related these interesting personal
reminiscences : —

" I remember the hackney stallion, Prickwillow, very
well ; he had high pumping action, but never got on, putting
his feet down where he took them up from. I think it
would be about 183*2 that his owner, C. Hart, v/ho thought
a deal of him, brought him to York, and a match was made
for him to trot against a local horse on Knavesmire. A
crowd came to see it, and Hart rode in his shirt- sleeves,
rolling them over his arms. The local horse, however, had
different action, and went clean away from the start, leaving
the other far behind. It was no race at all. Market
Weighton was always a famous place for hackneys, and it
was there I saw Fireaway trot. He had splendid action,
and shot his legs out with tremendous force. He belonged
to Mr. Ramsden. Flying Childers is said to have been put

112 THE HORSE

to a pony mare, and that Fireaway came from that alliance."
(This is not quite correct, for it was Blaze, the son of Flying
Childers, who was mated with a pony, the progeny being
Old Shales.)

The origin of the fashion of hog-maning horses so
universal with hackneys, no doubt may be traced to a
desire to copy the horses figuring in antique friezes. These,
however, may have owed their short manes to nature, and
not to the hand of man, for Dr. Conrad Keller, professor of
zoology at the Zurich Polytechnicum, has just pubhshed
an account of a breed he has discovered in the Island
of Majorca. These are naturally hog-maned, and closely
resemble in appearance the horses depicted on ancient
Greek vases.

Ameeican Horses.

Besides these three pure breeds already mentioned,
which have arrived at the dignity of possessing a Stud Book
to conserve their interests, there are horses of various
nationalities employed in harness work in England, of
which before the days of mechanical traction there were very
large numbers indeed. Though they cannot be classed
amongst " foreigners," great numbers of powerful Irish
hunter-bred horses were, and are still, bought for this
purpose, especially by the great London dealers and job-
masters, and when Mackintosh was filling the vicinity of
Limerick with beautiful black-browns, Messrs. East bought
.vast numbers of them, many of which seemed much too
good to pass their lives in harness.

American horses, too, have been greatly valued, for the
great attention which has been paid to the perfecting of the
trotter has had an immense influence on the general horse-
stock of the country, besides the direct infusion of our own
race-horses, originally imported from England. The old
black harness horse of Canada, too, whatever his real origin,
was an animal of transcendant merit, honest, hard-working,
hardy, and a fast trotter, and the American trotters and
pacers owe much to the blood of the famous old Canadian
black horse. Pilot. The blood of which he was the most

-M

CARRIAGE-HORSES 113

famous representative contained elements of the greatest
value for w^ork-horses of every description. In a letter,
which must carry great weight, Mr. Alfred AVithers, the
head of the world-renowned establishments in Oxford Street
and Edgware Eoad, has most kindly summed up the results
of his long experience of the working qualities of the
different classes of harness-horses, of which tens of thousands
have passed through his hands : —

"There are two breeds of horses which, to my mind,
absolutely eclipse the Cleveland, Yorkshire Coach-horses and
hackneys, for carriage purposes. These are, firstly, the Irish
horses of the 14 to 15 stone hunter type, with too much
knee action in the trot to gallop fast enough for hunting ;
and, secondly, the American carriage-horses.

" Of the first class, for years and years, up to the time
they gave up business, Messrs. East bought, and at the
present time Messrs. Wimbush buy, three-year-old horses
of this class in Ireland in large numbers ; and we ourselves
take every opportunity of buying such horses at any age we
can get them, over four years old. The great charm of
them, to my thinking, is that the natural courage of the
breed enables them to keep up their knee action, and general
stylish appearance when moving, so long after the time of
life when the other breeds mentioned have lost those quali-
ties. I believe their wearing qualities to be infinitely
superior to either of them.

"With regard to the American carriage-horses, we have
been very large importers of this class, having had two
buyers in the States some years ago for a considerable
period, besides which we have taken every opportunity of
buying good American horses brought over to this country.
I unhesitatingly say, from my experience, they are the best
type of carriage-horse I have ever known, and I attribute
this result very much to their having been bred for genera-
tions for road work, to draw weight, and for speed. The
best American carriage-horses have a large dash of the best
trotting blood in their veins, and this it is that gives them
the courage and speed that is wanting in the Cleveland and
hackney, and makes them so valuable for harness.

114 THE HORSE

" My opinion of this class of horse has been borne out in
many ways. I distinctly remember talking to Mons. Arthur
Marx, who died about ten years ago (and who was the lead-
ing dealer in Paris for about twenty-five to thirty years,
dealing exclusively in the highest class of carriage-horses),
and he confirmed my opmion, and told me at that time
the best carriage-horses in Paris were American horses ;
moreover, he stated that the best pair of carriage-horses he
had ever known were a pair of American horses in the
English Ambassador's stables in Paris.

" Another great reason for the superiority of the American
horses is the fact that until recent years Clydesdale and
Cart blood was hardly known in the States, or Canada, and
farmers did all their farm work with horses of the carriage-
horse type. I remember buying in Canada twenty-five
years ago a pair of splendid carriage-horses, black-brown,
16 hands, full of courage, good action, five and six years old,
own brothers. I bought them from a farmer who bred
them, and had worked them regularly on his farm ever since
they were old enough to pull a load.

" Of course a great deal of rubbish has been imported to this
country, but I have had such a number of good American
horses in my business, and compared them with English,
French, German, Russian, Dutch, and Hungarian horses
for this particular purpose that I can speak with confidence
in their favour.

" The one drawback to Irish carriage-horses is that they
are occasionally inclined to canter in harness. The American
horses, on the other hand, have been bred for generations
to trot, and to trot only with a load, and they very seldom
fail in this respect."

It is "money" which invariably "speaks," and the
conclusions of a veteran professional at any game are worth
all the ideas of enthusiastic amateurs put together. Mr.
Withers draws his conclusions from actual experience of
what answers, and has no fad to bias him in favour of one
breed over another, except for what pays him the best.
His testimony, therefore, in praise of Irish and American
horses for high-class carriage work cannot be over-

< X

7 «

CARRIAGE-HORSES 115

estimated ; whilst he points out a way for recruiting our
harness horses when our home stock fails, which at present
there seems every chance of it speedily doing. The small-
holder, so much in favour in certain quarters at the present
time, will be of no assistance in rearing high-class stock of
any description.

CHAPTEK V

CAET-HORSES

rj^HE sheet-anchor of a farmer in breeding horses is
-L undoubtedly the cart-colt, whether it be Shire, or
Clydesdale, or Suffolk Punch. In our cities and towns
mechanical traction may entirely supersede the horse, but on
a farm it can never altogether do so, for there must ever be
various jobs in the country which can only be performed by
the help of an animal — and at least it is not likely that
our farmers will revert to using oxen for draught.
The ponderous dray-horse will probably disappear, since
heavy vans and brewers' drays are now depending chiefly
upon motor traction ; though there may still be a small
demand for huge animals, as they are almost indispensable
for shunters' work at large railway stations, which they so
efficiently perform ; but apart from that there seems little
opening for their services. The cart-horse of the future
seems likely to be a quick, active animal, that can walk at
a good pace, and a pair of which can plough an acre of
strong land in a day.

Though the cart-horse and the blood-horse have un-
doubtedly evolved from the same little animal of the Lower
Eocene Period, the Hyracotherium, who possessed four toes
on each fore-foot, and three on each hind-foot, the cleavage
of their ways must have taken place ages ago, and certain
characteristic differences have long existed between them.
An essential one is the hollow depression in front of the
orbit, invariably present in Eastern horses and their
descendants for many generations, but ever absent from the
coarse breeds of Northern Europe with but one exception
to be presently mentioned. Large, too, as the bone of the

116

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CART-HORSES 117

cart-horse appears to be in comparison with that of the
thoroughbred, it is not entirely in favour of the former, for
not only is the grain far more porous, but the cavity inside
for containing the marrow is also disproportionately large,
and therefore the actual bone it not so massive as at first
sight it appears to be.

To a great extent the power of a cart-horse depends upon
his weight, especially in a dead pull ; and he requires
considerable courage to continue to pull again and again at
an inert mass until it moves, and then to draw it, perhaps
for miles. Horses used in country work for drawing
brewers' drays and such-like heavy vehicles, travel from
twenty-five to thirty miles a day, the weight in a four-wheel
van being from 6 to 6^ tons, which is a full load for three
or sometimes four horses. Cart-horses require docile
tempers, and a placid, though generous disposition ; and
must also possess the best of constitutions to withstand the
changes of our variable climate. In breeding them a saving
point in their favour is the early age at which they can begin
to do something towards earning their keep ; while the dam
also can work through almost the whole period of gestation,
and again very shortly after the foal is born, so that the total
cost is small compared with breeding well-bred horses. A
young cart-horse can do light jobs when it is two years old
without detriment to its growth or general well-being,
whilst the well-bred hunting colt is of little use until it
is at least four years old.

The Lincolnshire Black Cart-horse.

There was a famous breed of black cart-horses in Lincoln-
shire which existed as a class till the middle of the last
century, which are traced to the times when the Dutch
came over and drained the Eastern fens during the reign of
William III., bringing their horses over with them. They
spread into Yorkshire, where occasional specimens still
crop up, throwing back to their Dutch ancestors. They are
set much store by, being invariably active hard workers, and
in their lean, game-looking heads they show evidence of
superior blood m their ancestral pedigree.

118 THE HORSE

The bane of the cart-horse a few years ago was its
tendency to put out ring-bones and side-bones, and also
spavins ; but there has been an extraordinary change for the
better since the estabHshment of the great Shows and the
enroUing of dams and sires in the respective Stud Books.
The rigid rules, and careful administration of them, have
gone far towards eliminating these serious ailments, and
have certainly succeeded in establishing a much sounder race
of horses in every breed ; and the aims of the Shire Horse
Society in 1877 " to improve the old English breed of
cart-horses " have certainly been fulfilled with regard to
their especial proteges.

The Shike Horse.

A Shire horse must be massive, with strength in the back
and thighs, and deep in the ribs, with plenty of long,
straight, silky hair on the legs, well covering the fetlocks,
while a rosette of hair at the knee is much prized. The
feet themselves should be big and solid, with sloping pasterns,
and good razor-shaped bone. The body should be squarely
built, with muscular arms and thighs ; and there should be
force as well as fire in the movements. A sluggish goer
hanging back from his bridle is one to be avoided for work
or for showing. Above all he must walk well, with plenty
of liberty, and quite straight in his action, not rolling in his
gait or turning out his hocks. In height he should be
about 17 hands ; and in colour dark grey, brown, bay,
black, and chestnut-black. The Shire Horse is no doubt
the descendant of the old English Great Horse used by the
knights when heavy armour was worn ; and so heavy was
the knight and his accoutrements that the warrior seems
only to have mounted his war-horse when actually required
for the tournament or the battle-field. At other times the
knight was mounted on a palfrey, whilst a squire led the
Great Horse carrying the armour ; and the necessity
for this is easily understood when it is considered that
the knight and his armour together weighed about
32 stone !

CART-HORSES 119

It is curious to reflect that there is an aflinity between the
massive Bhire and the elegant Eastern horse in that the
distinct depression in front of the eye-sockets, for the face-
gland, appears in each. It is, however, accounted for by
remembering that the Great Horse at one time was crossed
with Neapolitan and Flanders horses, who had Barb blood
in their veins, and to this no doubt the Shires owe this
unique distinction amongst coarse-bred horses.

The Shire Horse Society has this year (1911) issued from
its office, ll2, Hanover Square, London, the thirty-second
volume of its Stud Book, which shows 4,676 new entries,
comprising 1,090 stallions and 3,586 mares — surely con-
clusive evidence of its vitality and practical use. And a
good sign is that many of the entries are made by tenant
farmers ; though future prospects under recent legislation
may well give rise to anxiety, with the break-up of so many
great estates, and the consequent withdrawal of the help
and assistance of the hereditary landlords, which have been
so invaluable in the times that have passed. The total
number of registered stallions is now 28,954, and of mares
65,530, a most gratifying record, testifying to the wisdom
of the original founders of the Society, and the ability of
those who have looked after its interests since its formation.

Clydesdales.

Clydesdales, which emanate from the valley of the Clyde
in Lanarkshire in Scotland, represent a lighter type of cart-
horse than the massive Shire, and should be altogether more
active in appearance, being able to trot when occasion
requires. It is partly from a cross between blood-horses
and mares of the stamp of Clydesdales that the animal
is produced which is in request for drawing that form of
torture to the nerves of the town-dweller, the tradesman's
spring-lorry, which, when empty and drawn at a trot, seems
to shake loose every tooth in the head of the unfortunate
passer-by. The Clydesdale, however, is not answerable for
this, only the driver, who forgets that oil and cart grease
are cheap, that leather washers are easily obtained, and that

120 THE HORSE

the rattle he makes and seems to enjoy is very trying to
other folk.

The origin of the Clydesdales is ascribed to the action of
the Duke of Hamilton in crossing six Dutch stallions
imported by him on the draught mares of the country,
more especially those belonging to John Paterson, of
Lochy Lock, whose stock, however, died out about thirty-
five years ago. These mares were either black or brown,
and had a distinguishing patch of white hair on the belly.
The foundation appears very similar to that of the famous
black horses of Lincolnshire, and there must have been
great merit in these Dutch cart-horses to have produced two
such excellent types. There is, however, another possible
source from which they inherit good breeding, similarly to
the ponies of the Isle of Rum, and those of Connemara,
and Mayo, in Ireland ; in that many of the ships of the
Spanish Armada were wrecked within reach of the valley
of the Clyde.

The Spaniards had intended not only to conquer but to
colonise the British Isles, and therefore brought with them
their families, and also large quantities of farming stock,
including stallions. All along the West Coasts of Scotland
and Ireland, the unfortunate vessels were wrecked, but
many of those on board were saved besides their live stock,
and colonies of Spaniards were thus formed. They remained
where they were, and traces of them may be seen in the
native population at the present day ; and in a similar way
the influence of their well-bred stallions still remains
amongst the horses and ponies of the districts where they
settled.

The Clydesdale stallions have been much sought after
by farmers' clubs in England, even as far as Cornwall ;
while the Messrs. Morris, with their wonderful team of
six bay Clydesdales, at the Olympia Show of 1909, caused
general admiration, and proved to what a pitch of per-
fection it was possible to bring the breed.

It is not only in the British Isles that the merits of the
Clydesdales are duly appreciated, for in all our great corn-
growing colonies they are much valued, and in Canada,

CART-HORSES 121

Australia, and New Zealand they are largely engaged in
agricultural operations. They have been exported to South
Africa and largely into the Argentine. Everywhere they
prove themselves the farmer's friend, and their world-wide
reputation has been honestly earned.

The Clydesdale Horse Society was founded in 1877. The
best height is fixed at 16.2 to 17 hands. In colour they
should be dark brown with dappling, or black. Mares may
be grey, but not stallions. White on the legs is admissible,
with plenty of silky feather from the very hocks, and knees,
while " Ratch " on the face is held to be a sign of purity
of blood.

Suffolk Punch.

A breed with an extraordinary reputation in its own
district, always admired whenever seen, is the Suffolk
Punch, with its beautiful, shining chestnut coat. It is an
excellent walker, with a smart, quick step, and can trot
in a railway van, moving well up to seven or eight miles
an hour. It is one of our oldest established breeds, and that
great authority on the agriculture of his day, Arthur Young,
speaks of it as " an old breed," and he himself was born in
1741. Since that time they have been continually improved
in general form, ungainly or weak points have l)een bred out,
and soundness of wind and limb have been established ;
but their chief attribute, and most valuable distinction,
gameness in the collar, was as fully developed then as it
is now, even if it still exists in its former pre-eminence.
The test of the sand-bag was peculiar to Suffolk and was
a great test of merit in the old breed, whatever might be
thought now of the hardship inflicted on the willing
teams.

Sir Thomas Gery CuUum, in a note to the second edition
of his brother's work, "The History and Antiquities of
Flamstead and Hardwick, in the County of Suffolk," by
the Eev. Sir John Cullum, Bart., F.R.S., F.S.A., explains
the conditions of the test : —

" The trial is made with a waggon loaded with sand, the

122 THE HORSE

wheels sunk a little in the ground with blocks of wood laid
before them to increase the difficulty. The first efforts are
made with the reins fastened as usual to the collars, but
the animals cannot, when so confined, put out their full
strength ; the reins are therefore afterwards thrown loose
on their necks, when they can exert their utmost powers,
which they usually do by falling on their knees and drawing
in that attitude. That they may not break their knees by
this operation, the area on which they draw is strewn with
soft sand."

The Suffolk Mercury, June 22, 1724, thus advertises the
first match that took place : —

" On Thursday, July 9, 1724, there will be a drawing at
Ixworth Pickarel, for a piece of plate of 45s. value ; and
they that will bring five horses or mares may put in for it :
and they that draw twenty the best and fairest pulls with
their reins up, and then, they that can carry the greatest
weight over the block with fewest lifts, and fewest pulls,
shall have the said plate ; by such judges as the masters of
the teams shall choose. You are to meet at twelve o'clock,
and put in your names (or else be debarred from drawing
for it), and subscribe half a crown apiece to be paid to the
second best team."

Such contests, fortunately for humanity's sake, have long
died out, but that they ever should have been common as
trials of strength is a convincing proof of the gameness of
the breed. The first volume of the Suffolk Stud Book,
p. 41, quotes an advertisement of a drawing-match in 17(36,
thirty-eight years after the one mentioned at Ixworth
Pickarel, and many are known to have taken place between
these dates.

"Harleston, Norfolk. This is to give notice, that on the
18th of this instant March, there will be a drawing for
stallions at the house of John Hamblem, called the Magpie,
for a silver cup value five guineas : no more than seven to
enter, and not less than five. Each horse to draw single,
to raise the most weight. The best of twenty pulls, and
for every blank, to have a bushel of sand laid on the
waggon."

CART-HORSES 123

Youatt adds his testimony to the docile temper of the
Suffolks :—

" Many a good draught horse knows well what he can
effect ; and after he has attempted it and failed, no torture
of the whip can induce him to strain his powers beyond
their natural extent. The Suffolk, however, would tug at
a dead pull till he dropped. It was beautiful to see a
team of true Suffolks, at a signal from the driver, and
without whip, down on their knees in a moment and drag
everything before them. Brutal wagers were frequently
laid as to their power in this respect, and many a good team
was injured and ruined. The immense power of the Suffolk
is accounted for by the low position of the shoulder, which
enables him to throw so much of his weight into the
collar."

The original type, as given in the first volume of the
Stud Book, p. 42, was " rather small, barely 16 hands ;
low in the forehand ; upright on the shoulder ; ' sorrel ' or
chestnut, with the occasional flaxen mane and tail ; short-
legged ; not over-handsome, but with the deep ribs, hardy
constitution, and the aptitude to ' draw ' well, which was
the pride of the Suffolk farmer at that time." While
Suckling, in his work on the " History and Antiquities of
the County of Suffolk," describes them as " active in their
paces, and on the lighter lands of the county will draw a
plough at the rate of three miles an hour."

The first volume of the Stud Book, quoting from the
Live Stock Journal Almanac for 1878 with much approval,
states : —

" The deep back ribs, short legs, and close joints are
rarely absent in an animal of the Suffolk breed good enough
to go to London. The evenly turned quarters, the round
barrel, and good chest mark the county of his birth ; " and
this description holds as good to-day as at the period
when it was written. The Stud Book then proceeds to give
the points of the breed, which are so clearly stated, that
I cannot do better than repeat what is there laid down.

" So far as a leading feature in his character, colour
stands first. . . . The recognised colour is chestnut. Bays

124 THE HORSE

were very prevalent some years ago, but the presence of
that colour can, in nearly every case, be traced to the
introduction of extraneous blood. Of the chestnut there
are seven shades . . . the dark, at times approaching a
brown-black, mahogany, or liver colour ; the dull dark
chestnut ; the light mealy chestnut ; the red ; the golden ;
the lemon; and the bright chestnut. The most popular,
the most common, and the most standing colour is the
last named. The bright chestnut is a lively shade, with
a little gradation of lighter colour at the flanks and at the
extremities — but not much. It is in most cases attended
with a star on the forehead, or thin 'reach,' 'blaze,' or
' shim ' down the face. The flaxen mane and tail pre-
valent 100 years ago, and occasionally found at the
present day, are usually seen on the bright chestnut. This
shade is also not unfrequently shot with white or silver
hairs, hereditarily distinctive of certain strains.

" The golden is a beautiful colour, not many removes
from the bright chestnut, but is not unfrequently faced up
with a white heel behind. The lemon is a very light golden
shade, known sometimes as the ' yellow ' chestnut.

"The red chestnut is a very popular colour; and a red
chestnut is almost sure to be a whole-coloured horse.
There is no variation of shade in it, not even at the flanks,
quarters, or extremities. It is said to come of a taint of
bay origin, especially the lighter variety — the cherry red.

" The light mealy chestnut is condemned by all ; it is
indicative of a weak constitution, soft legs, and a slow
phlegmatic temperament. Commencing with a dull chest-
nut body, the flanks and under-line are a mottled ash
colour, gradually shading off to a dirty white at the
extremities, which are usually covered with soft hair of
the same hue.

" The dark chestnut is a favourite with some breeders,
but is mostly a changing colour, varying with the season of
the year, from almost a black to a dark cherry red. ... It
is said to be a hardy colour, but there can be no doubt that
a first-class mare is considerably depreciated in value, if
a dark instead of a bright or golden chestnut. The dull-

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CART-HORSES 125

dark chestnut is only one remove above the light mealy
chestnut, and is held in little better repute. . . . Sorrel was
the name by which the chestnut was known many years
ago. Black, white, grey, or dun is never mentioned in
connection with the colour of a Suffolk horse.

"Next to colour comes that indescribable, but equally
unmistakable, element in his composition, which is known
by the term of * quality.' ... It is not necessary that a
horse of a great deal of quality should be totally free from
hair on his legs ; it has no connection with a light bone —
some of the heaviest-boned Suffolks show the most quality ;
... it would perhaps be best described as a thin skin, with
soft hair, and tightly fitted, and especially over the bones
and joints of the legs. ... As regards the head of a Suffolk
horse, no doubt many of the most valuable specimens of
the breed have had the head described by Mr. Garrett
(' Head rather large, thick through the gullet — not coarse.
Eyes small, not prominent ; ears small and pointing towards
each other at the tips'), and Mr. Wilton ('Not too hand-
some, broad forehead, with a little thickness in the throat-
band ; ear not large, but should look small on a masculine
head ; eyes fairly prominent ; nostril rather thick, but
open ; chaps deep and a little heavy in appearance ') ; and
as such, these small ears and non-prominent eyes and thick
throat-band have been associated with the breed, not only
in years gone by, but in more recent times. Manchester
Boxer 298, French's Captain 541, some more of the sons
of Catlin's Duke 296, and still more of the progeny of
Crisp's Cupbearer 416, had more or less of these dis-
tinguishing points. . . . The big bold head, long and thin
— perhaps the best of all, and as indicative of pure blood
as any yet noticed — may be traced in the descendants of
Edward's Briton 490. Liverpool Captain 422, Crisp's old
high-necked horse 408, and Cottingham's Captain 376 had
such heads, and the mares left by them were nmch in the
same character.

" An arched crest, with a fine silky mane, no doubt belongs
to the Suffolk horse. Some prefer a more muscular neck,
while others are inclined to a liner crest, all agreeing that

126 THE HORSE

it should be deep in the collar, tapering gracefully towards
the setting on of the head. The straight ewe neck is rarely
seen in a Suffolk horse, and is always rejected as a serious
detriment. The enormously heavy neck and crest runs in
certain families . . . and is mostly accompanied by a hollow
back.

" The sons of Catlin's Duke 296 were all short in the
neck — a formation which is mostly accompanied by a hardy
constitution. It was so in this case. The Newcastle Cap-
tains 89 were very thin in the crest, had beautiful hair, but
were a little deficient in muscle. . . .

" Whatever the shoulders of the Suffolk horse might have
been in years gone by, there can be little doubt that a mus-
cular shoulder, well thrown back at the top, prevails in the
present race, and much of the comely appearance of the
best Suffolks now in existence is the result of such a forma-
tion. The smart step came in with the oblique shoulder,
but the power of lifting, the facility for going from end to
end on the plough in a stiff' clay twenty-acre field was not
increased by the ' improved ' fore-end.

" The well-rounded rib, deep all the way from shoulder
to flank, is a decided point in the build of a Suffolk horse.
The inordinately deep mid-rib and light girth behind the
shoulder, which in years past disfigured the breed, has been
gradually worked out, and a better, rounder middle sub-
stituted. The deep carcase is, or should be, a sine qua non
with a Suffolk horse. The long hours without food, which
seems a rooted practice all over the county, render a roomy
carcase a positive necessity. A Clydesdale or Shire-bred
with a hght middle and short rib may do in London, where
the nose-bag is always at hand, but the long day and the
short rations, from 6.30 to 3 o'clock on the plough, in
Suffolk, would soon reduce a horse of this form to a
skeleton. The graceful outline of the back, loin, and
hindquarter is rarely absent in a Suffolk horse. . . .

" The bone of the Suffolk horse is not large; it is more
of the texture of the blood-horse, and does not require to be
heavy to the eye. K girth of 10^ inches below the knee
is ample for any Suffolk horse, nor is his value increased by

CART-HORSES 127

a larger bone. The height of a Suffolk horse varies from
15f to 17 hands, but 16^ is all that a good one ought
to be. . . .

" The girth of a Suffolk horse behind the shoulders
should be about 8 feet. Two inches short of this would
not be looked upon as a light fore-rib, but anything further
that way would begin to attract notice. ... In temper
they are docile in the extreme. . . . For the first three-and-
twenty years of the Koyal Society existence the prize was
offered for ' the best horse for agricultural purposes,' and
the various breeds took their chances among specimens
representing every variety (1839-1861). Of these twenty-
three first prizes fourteen went to Suffolk horses, and the
remaining nine represented the united success of all the
other breeds which competed. ... In addition to these,
more than half the second prizes awarded during the same
period went to Suffolk horses."

It should be added this breed weighs well for its height,
ranging from 1,900 lbs. to 2,240 lbs. (1 ton).

Since that time the Society has thought it wiser to
separate the breeds, and prizes have been given for the
best Shire, Clydesdale, &c., most certainly a preferable
plan. But in all that constitutes a farmer's horse, a
hardy, strong-constitutioned, docile, staunch, active animal,
a Suffolk horse is very bad to beat, be the others what they
may. As a Suffolk breeder the reputation of Sir Cuthbert
Quilter is now world-wide, and Mr. Smith of Wood-
bridge, Mr. Clark of Sudbourne, and Mr. Arthur Pratt
of Morston Hall, Trimley, stand forth as champions of
the breed at the present day ; amongst their staunch
friends of the past the late Duke of Hamilton, the late
Earl of Stradroke, and the late Sir Edward Kerrison did
a great deal for the Suffolks, but without the arduous labour
of Mr. Hermon Biddell in compiling the Stud Book of the
Society, which brought him such renown, the history of the
Suffolk horse might still be incomplete, and to his researches
much of the present fame and success of the breed is due.

CHAPTER VI

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES

rriHE hold that trotting horses have over the inhabitants
J- of America is difficult for Europeans to understand.
Although the great founders of this race came from the Old
World, the populace there has rarely been enthusiastic about
the trotter, and his especial excellence is due to the genius
of the Americans themselves. It is, moreover, within the
last forty years or so that the great improvement in the
breed has taken place, for in the year 1872 only 96 horses
made a public record of a mile in '2.80 or better, though
live years afterwards, in 1877, 284 horses attained the same
distinction, and now many thousands of trotters and pacers
have reached the recognised standard of merit.

In his interesting work, "American Roadsters and
Trotting Horses," Mr. H. T. Helm lays down as an
axiom in breeding trotting horses : " The sire should have
the trotting qualities desired in high degree, and they
should be derived from both inheritance and instruction.
The dam, if possessed of endurance and pluck, and enough
of what we call blood, may be lacking in the inherited
trotting quality, yet be capable of producing a trotter of
the highest excellence." He then proceeds to illustrate
his argument by citing the example of Lady Thorn, who
was by Mambrino Chief, a natural trotter, but who never
raced in public, while her dam was by Cano, a thorough-
bred race-horse, and her grandam by Sir William, also a
thoroughbred race-horse. Lady Thorn was bred in 1856.
Her greatness as a trotter was shown by the illustrious
competitors she beat, amongst others being the famous
Dexter (2.174), Mountain Boy, Goldsmith Maid (2.14),

128

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 129

American Girl (2.16J), Lucy, and George Palmer. Her
career ended through falling when being boxed at a rail-
way station, when she got a hip down through striking an
iron rail with it, the accident happening in 1870, and she
then retired to the stud with a record of 2.18J.

Undoubtedly it was an event of the greatest national
importance when the grey thoroughbred horse Messenger
first trod American soil, for most of the fastest trotters
of to-day inherit his blood. He was bred at Newmarket
in England by John Pratt, Esq., in 1780, and stood
15.3 high.

Mr. Helm devotes some pages of his book to endeavouring
to prove a supposition that Sampson, the great grand-sire
of Messenger, was not by Blaze, as stated in the English
Stud Book, but by a coarse-bred horse, and that it was due to
this parentage that Messenger owed his phenomenal powers
of transmitting trotting qualities. The chief arguments of
Mr. Helm are that Sampson was black in colour, very coarse
in appearance, with great strength, and he further states :
" All persons acquainted with the character of the English
race-horses descended from the pure Arab know that they
possessed no such instincts {i.e., trotting). What they did
not possess they could not transmit." Now in this reason-
ing he is certainly in error, for many thoroughbred horses
are extremely fast trotters when put to that gait ; fre-
quently also the same may be said of Arabians at the
present day, and Barb horses, some of which breed appear
in the pedigree of Mambrino, the sire of Messenger. Again,
though black is a rare colour amongst pure-bred Arabians,
this does not apply to Barb horses, wherefore Sampson
may have inherited his colour from his African ancestors.
Some strains of Barbs, too, show great strength, especially
the Shawya tribe, which are built after the fashion of the
Fell galloways of the North of England, though at the
same time they are possessed of great speed. Many Barb
horses reach 15.3 in height and are frequently fast trotters,
though the Moors themselves prefer the pacing gait, and
take much pains to develop this by careful training. Mr.
Walter Winans has pointed out an interesting fact in con-

130 THE HORSE

nection with this: "If you look at the Egyptian wall
sculpture sand paintings you will notice that the Egyptian
chariot horses are represented either galloping or pacing,
never trotting."

An extremely fast trotter was Hadramaut, a pure Arabian,
bred by Mr. Wilfrid Scawen Blunt at Crabbet Park in 1880,
and it was claimed for him he could trot sixteen miles
within the hour in an ordinary dog-cart when the property
of Mr. H. Stephens, of Cholderton, near Salisbury. More-
over he won the Oriental Stakes on the flat, at Sandown
Park in 1884, for his then owner Major K. F. Meysey-
Thompson, carrying the top- weight 10 st. 4 lbs., and
though only a four-year-old he gave weight away to aged
horses. He was ridden by Tom Cannon, and was by Kars,
a Seglawi Jedran, out of Hagar, a Kehilet Ajuz, a cele-
brated mare in the desert of Arabia, very powerful, and
15 hands in height. Mail Train, who came from Smyrna,
was another fast trotter, also the property of the writer.
Amongst many very fast trotting thoroughbreds may be
mentioned Camaltha, by Camballo out of Violet by Janus,
out of Kick-up-the-Dust, winner of eight races on the fiat,
yet who never broke from her trot when used as a hack.
In the course of one winter the writer often had occasion
to visit a relative who had met with an accident and
lived fourteen miles away. Although there were some
streets to traverse, when perforce the mare was obliged
somewhat to restrain her ardour, also three, or sometimes
four, gates to open, besides being compelled to walk for a
short distance once or twice during the journey for the sake
of resting, the longest time ever taken between the two
houses was one hour and ten minutes. The mare used
never to break from her trot, and such was her courage that
it was impossible to make her go slower than her top speed.
After she had walked about a hundred yards she would start
off again at her best pace, though the rider would have pre-
ferred to take things easier. Almost if not quite as fast a
trotter was Chariberta, by Charibert out of Tita, the latter
the winner of twenty-two races on the flat. Again, another
very fast trotter was Lady Bo-Peep, by Hagioscope out of

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 131

the sister to Syrian, Baroness, by Mentmore. Numbers
of other examples could easily be given, but enough has
been said to show that Mr. Helm was mistaken in
thinking English race-horses and pure-bred Arabians never
possess the gift of trotting, for on the contrary many are
very fast trotters indeed, and consequently are quite likely
to transmit their gifts to their descendants.

When, therefore, Mr. Helm mentions " that Lord Gros-
venor, the owner of the horse, offered to match Mambrino
to trot fourteen miles in an hour for one thousand guineas,"
and attributes his trotting powers to his being " one degree
closer to the coach-horse," he is scarcely treading on sure
ground.

Other points that Mr. Helm relies on for proving coarse
blood in Sampson are that he was 15.2 at a period when
the thoroughbred horse rarely reached 15 hands, and also
that his withers were round and flat ; but this last charac-
teristic is by no means uncommon amongst pure-bred
Arabians, and both Hadramaut and Mail Train, mentioned
above, were remarkably round in their withers, though they
had great liberty of action and won many races. Lackland
also, bred at Middle Park by Mr. T. Blenkiron, by King
John out of Gaiety by Touchstone, the dam of Gamester,
winner of the St. Leger, a winner of fourteen races on the
flat, was as round in his withers as any mountain galloway,
so this certainly cannot be relied upon as a certain proof of
coarse breeding. As for the unusual height, Hagar, already
mentioned, a desert-born Arabian mare, was 15 hands, and
of her progeny, bred at Crabbet Park, Hadramaut grew
to 15.1 in the first generation reared in England. As
Sampson's ancestors had been brought up in this country
for some generations, the good keep may easily have sufficed
to grow a horse of Sampson's size. He was, moreover, a
racehorse of great excellence, having won all his races of
four miles and under, except his last race, when he won his
first heat. Surely therefore the convenient Scotch verdict
of "not proven" may be applied to Mr. Helm's arguments
as to the parentage of Sampson's sire.

i:52 THE HORSE

The Points of a Trotteb.

Mr. Helm's work is so full of information, especially in
regard to the characteristics of the early trotting stock, that
when a seeming error is noticed it is well to draw attention
to it, lest silence should be deemed to give consent. His
description of the conformation of the trotter as being
diametrically opposed to that of the race-horse may perhaps
be accepted in America, but is certainly not so in England.
He states : " Any one who has closely studied the crossing
of the trotter with the blood of Diomed, Sir Archy, and
other pure-bred horses in this country, has seen that the
effect is a gradual shortening of the line from hip to hock,
and also a lengthening of the distance of the hock from the
ground . . . longer hind cannons. This is the galloping
leverage; the reverse is the trotting leverage." Whatever
may be the case in America, the same conformation Mr,
Helm mentions as being necessary for the ideal trotter
is in England also sought for as essential to the high-
class race-horse.

In other respects, indeed in this very instance just men-
tioned, his description of the requirements of a trotter is
very sound. " A trotter should go level and steady before
and behind, and he should not be a sprawler," is true of
other breeds besides trotters, for unless the machinery
works perfectly smooth there must be undue excess of
motion and consequent loss of power. " A colt must not
trot too high nor too low in front, and he must not do all
his trotting with his fore-legs " is most excellent advice. It
is the hind action which is the chief propelling force, and
an animal which goes too close to the ground in front
usually does so from a want of development of the flexor
muscles of the leg. This the ordinary horseman, without
any pretensions to veterinary lore, can easily see for himself
by noticing whether the leg just above the knee looks broad,
when viewed sideways, and the muscles prominent, with an
appearance of strength. Any weakness here is a sure sign
that the animal will quickly tire when called upon for a
severe effort.

RIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 133

For fast trotting a far-reaching even gait is required, and
this necessitates a long forearm with a short cannon-bone
below the knee. A horse possessing the contrary shape is
almost sure to Hft his knee too high and bang his feet on
the ground unduly hard, with the result that he is unable
to continue the effort over a long distance or for any length
of time, though from being endowed with great energy he
may even show superior speed for short distances. For
trotting purposes there may be too little bending of the
knee, but a far more likely evil, and one more frequently
met with, is that there is too much.

Mr. Helm gives some interesting measurements of various
horses which should be valuable as indicating what the
breeder should aim at. The forearm of Volunteer measured
21 inches and his cannon 11:^. Almont measured 21 and
11, " and the common objection against his stock was that
they lacked in knee action, while Thorndale, with his 11|
and 20J, has far-reaching yet rounding action of his front
legs, lifting his knees and slightly bending them — about as
pleasing in that respect as the most fastidious eye could
demand."

Again he observes : "In those descended from St.
Lawrence, measuring about 11| and 21, I have found, with
unvarying uniformity, a far-reaching, gently curving, but
never hard-pounding action of the front feet, that can hardly
be surpassed."

Of course no absolute rule can be laid down as to exact
measurements required, but it would appear that approxi-
mately a cannon of 11^ inches and a forearm of 21 is very
near perfection.

Special families have had their own peculiarities of action.
For instance, the Messengers were noted for little knee-
action, a consequence of their long forearms and short
cannon-bones ; while the Morgans, on the contrary, were
remarkable for high action. Smuggler too, had very high
knee action, and his front cannon-bone measured 12 inches,
while his forearm was 20 J. Mr. Helm states : " He lifts his
knees, apparently, higher than his elbow . . . and the vio-
lence with which he brings them to the ground is shown in

134 THE HORSE

his hammering off two shoes in one race . , . and such shoes
as he wears ! They began with thirty-two ounce shoes in
front and eight-ounce shoes behind. Does any one ask why
they put such an enormous weight on his forefeet ? It is be-
cause such weight is requisite to keep him level and perfectly
balanced, otherwise he would break, would not hold to the
trot, would gallop or trot unsteadily." The result of this
conformation of the fore-legs and the mechanical means
adopted to modify a faulty construction was only what
might be expected. Though the winner of a notable race at
the Cleveland Meeting in 1876, and able to trot below 2.16
when everything went right, it was more often that things
went wrong, and he was distanced in consequence. Nor
was he able to stand the constant training requisite to keep
him in balance, and he therefore was early withdrawn to the
stud from the trotting-track.

To measure the length of the forearm it is usual to take
a line from the top of the elbow to the notch in the middle
of the knee, though this really includes the upper series of
carpal bones also. It is, however, a convenient point to
measure to. From this latter to the centre of the ankle-
joint will give the length of the cannon-bone.

In considering the framework of the trotter, the hind-legs
are necessarily one of the first points to be considered, for
they are the chief propelling power, and on their leverage
and length must depend the distance of each stride and the
rapidity of its repetition. A low hock and a short hind
cannon are as important as a long forearm and a short fore
cannon, for thereby the length from hip to hock is increased,
enabling the horse to cover more ground at each stroke
than if the hock was situated higher, with consequently a
shorter line from the hip. It is necessary also that the thigh
should be lengthy from the stifle to the hock ; and fully as
important is the muscular development of this region.
Muscles owe their chief force to length, and without long
bones there cannot be long muscles. The chief ones
concerned in the retraction of the leg are the glutaei,
situated in the region of the hip ; while those that straighten
the leg and propel the horse forward are the triceps and

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 135

the biceps, the latter forming the posterior border of the
haunch. If the quarters are long, broad, and well developed
generally, the owner of the animal may feel well satisfied
that the power needed is sufficiently supplied by nature ;
though it is to a great extent due to the extra development
in individuals of the especial muscles mentioned, that
superiority in speed is shown over their rivals. In this
respect attention should also be directed to the projecting
bone at the back of the hock, the os calcis or "point of
the hock," which acts as a lever to straighten the leg,
and is moved by the tendon Achilles and other tendons
arising from the muscles which clothe the upper part of the
limb. An increase in the length of the lever adds consider-
ably to the force of the spring.

According to Mr. Helm, the Messengers "had a thigh,
and a length from hip to hock, that was exceedingly
uniform in its ratio — being a thigh of about 23 inches, and a
measure of 39 inches from hip to hock, in a horse of
15.2 or 15.3; but when the cross of the Clay and Bell-
founder horse — known as Sayer's Harry Clay — came in,
the length of thigh was slightly increased, while the other
line was extended to 40 and even 42 inches, with wonderful
uniformity."

Hambletonian was 24 and 41 ; Lady Thorn, with a thigh
only 23 inches, was 42 inches from hip to hock. Smuggler
was 40 inches, and so also was Volunteer. " It will be
found, in a study of the trotters of the various families, that
those members of each family respectively generally excelled
which showed the greatest length in this line. ... I like
a thigh of fair, but not excessive length — 23 to 24 inches,
but no longer — and if a long one, then I want the hock well
let down — a long line from hip to hock, 24 and 40, or even
41 — but the long reach in this direction may also amount to
a dwelling action. Until it approaches that, I want to see
a horse's hock low down and far out behind when extended.
I don't like one that lifts his hock and strikes the cross-bar
of a sulky. Such fellows will display an excess of motion,
and trotters that show excessive motion in any respect have
a conformation that is unnecessarily exposed to wear

136 THE HORSE

and tear. The smooth easy-going fellows, that go much
faster than they appear to go, are the ones for a long race.
Such will be found to possess the middle ground of con-
formation, front and rear." These remarks practically sum
up what is to be learned in this direction.

To obtain the accurate length, measure from the centre of
the hip-joint to the outer point of the hock ; and from the
knuckle of the stifle-joint to the same place for the length
of the thigh. In conclusion Mr. Helm may be again quoted :
" The tape-line is no direct measure of speed, but it is an
indicator of the adaptation of part to part — the speed and
capacity for endurance at that way of going."

Other necessary attributes are good sound open feet,
to stand the wear and tear of training and racing ; large
knees and hocks, with consequent well-developed carpal and
tarsal bones, designed to minimise the shock of concussion,
and long well-sloped shoulders that have the same end
in view. There must also be ample room for the play
of lungs and heart, wherefore the chest must be deep
and the ribs well sprung ; while to afford space for the wind-
pipe, and give ease in breathing when at full speed, the
angle of the jaws must be set wide apart, and the neck must
not be so thick as to restrict the throat by the mass of
muscular surroundings.

When the form of the horse is such that he is physically
adapted to cover a length of ground at each stride, whilst his
poise is so perfect he does not need artificial appliances
to maintain his balance, with a free-and-easy passage of air
to meet the demands of an increasing circulation, whilst his
temperament is so generous that he is ever desirous to obey
the wishes of his master, yet of such high courage that
he is ready to summon forth his utmost power when called
upon to do so, then every element is there which is requisite
for the highest class of trotter, and to enable him to obtain
a niche amongst the noted champions of the track.

The Beeeding of Teottees.

A careful study of the pedigrees of early famous trotting
horses shows that while they had much thoroughbred blood

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 137

in their veins, some of them having two or three crosses, it
nearly always came through sires ; and the produce of a
thoroughbred mare by a trotting stallion seldom trained on
after two or three years old, although it might display great
speed at first. Blue blood, however, was a necessity in the
family tree — for that alone has the capacity for imparting
a high state of nervous vigour and action to the produce
of a low-born animal. Many of the dams of the old-time
champions were great road mares, capable of doing very
fast performances in the course of their ordinary work, and
when these came to be mated with a thoroughbred horse,
which had the gift of getting animals which took naturally
to trotting, the produce frequently became a star in the
trotting world. As breeding progressed, however, thorough-
bred mares came to play a great part as dams and gran-
dams of famous horses.

When there was a sufficiency of blood in an animal
to enable him to continue to travel at a very high rate
of speed, he was well-bred enough to mate with mares that
also possessed some " blood." This was very early shown
by the success of the famous Bellfounder, who had a great
deal of the best racing blood in his composition. His sire.
Old Bellfounder, was a descendant of the Fireaways,
who descended in tail male from Flying Childers. His dam
Velocity was by Haphazard, a grandson of Eclipse, and
must have had other good strains, since it is recorded of her
that she trotted sixteen miles in one hour on the Norwich road
in 1806, and won her match — which she had done her best
to lose, since she broke into a gallop fifteen times, and
had as often to be turned round in consequence. When the
daughter of Bellfounder was mated with Abdallah, who was
so closely inbred to Messenger, the produce was the mighty
sire Hambletonian, whose descendants enrolled in the
coveted 2.30 register may now be said to be legions. As Mr.
Hamilton Busbey remarks in " The Trotting and the
Pacing Horse in America " : "It was not so much the
speed of his sons and daughters as their ability to transmit
speed which placed Hambletonian on the summit of the
mountam."

138 THE HORSE

The pedigree of Messenger betrays many ancestors
through whom the trotting instinct may have descended,
for both Turks and Barbs are much more frequently ridden
at a trotting gait than are Arabians, whose masters do not
appreciate this gait.

Messenger's pedigree is as follows : —

Breeding of Dams.

First dam, by Turf, by Matchem, by Cade, by Godolphin Arabian.

Second dam, by Regulus, by Godolphin Arabian.

Third dam, by Bolton Starling.

Fourth dam, by Fox.

Fifth dam, Gipsey, by Bay Bolton.

Sixth dam, by Newcastle Turk.

Seventh dam, by Byerly Turk.

Eighth dam, by Taffolet Barb.

Ninth dam, by Place's White Turk, out of a natural Barb mare.

Breeding of Sires.

First sire, Mambrino.

Second sire. Engineer, dam by Young Greyhound — mare by Curwen's
bay Barb.

Third sire, Sampson, dam by Hip, son of Curwen's bay Barb.

Fourth sire. Blaze.

Fifth sire. Flying Childers.

Sixth sire, Darley Arabian.

Thus out of the ancestors of nine dams mentioned, three
are Turks and two Barbs, while the Godolphin Arabian
figures twice. Moreover, it is well known that the Byerly
Turk was ridden as a charger by his owner, when
trotting would be a gait constantly required from him,
probably more so than galloping. Amongst the forefathers
of Mambrino may be noted Curwen's bay Barb, who appears
twice, thus bringing in still more strains of horses accus-
tomed to the trotting gait. No surprise need then be felt
that Messenger was able to leave a line of great trotters
when crossed with mares accustomed to the road.

The portrait of Mambrino at Eaton Hall, by George
Stubbs, shows him to have been a compactly built, powerful
horse, with a great deal of Arab character about him, but at

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ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 139

the same time taking more after the type of the Barb in his
forehand, carrying his head well up, with a well arched
neck and a considerable crest. He appears an active, well
poised horse, likely to have been an excellent saddle-horse,
but from his short forearms and long cannons he would
apparently bend his knee too much for great pace, although
as a matter of fact he was credited with trotting very fast
indeed.

An important element in the American trotter is the
blood of Duroc, who was a large and powerful chestnut
horse, by imported Diomed, the first winner of the Epsom
Derby. Duroc was foaled in 1806 in Virginia, and the
breeding of his dam, Amanda, is especially interesting to
Englishmen in general and to Yorkshiremen in particular,
for she was by Grey Diomed (no relation to imported
Diomed), son of imported Medley, who was by the renowned
Gimcrack, in whose honour the celebrated Gimcrack Club
at York give an annual dinner (the last was the one hundred
and forty-second in direct succession), when a large number
of the most prominent turfites in England are their guests.
It is at this banquet that any great innovations in the Rules
of Racing, or other important coming events, are fore-
shadowed in the speech of the principal guest of the evening,
a member of the Jockey Club, and usually one of the three
Stewards.

The chief features of the Duroc family were a large and
powerful frame, long powerful thighs and gaskins, with
good bone. The American Star and Mambrino Chief
families all inherit the blood of Duroc, and with it the
characteristic long thigh, 24 inches in horses of 15.2. In
England the blood of Gimcrack has almost if not quite died
out, but it shows much vitality in America, chiefly by aid of
the great trotting strains. It was, however, also inherited
by Ogden's Messenger, a thoroughbred horse, by Messenger
out of Katy Fisher, by imported Highflyer, who was by
Highflyer out of a mare by Gimcrack. Ogden's Messenger
was the reputed sire of Tipoo, who through his son Black
Warrior founded the family of Royal Georges. A further
thoroughbred line from the celebrated little grey horse can

140 THE HORSE

be traced through Komp, by imported Messenger out of
the imported Pot-8-os mare, who was out of a mare by
Gimcrack.

A notable Hne of trotters was founded by the Barb horse
Grand Bashaw, who was moreover jet-black, and was
imported from Tripoli in 1820. Through his famous
grandson, Andrew Jackson, he became the founder of the
Clays, though some of these had an unenviable reputation for
want of courage in a closely contested race. This unfor-
tunate trait is generally admitted to have been introduced
by the dam of Henry Clay, a Canadian mare named Surry,
who was herself a trotting mare. Andrew Jackson, however,
was also sire of Long Island Black-Hawk, who, distinguished
both as a trotter and a sire, left a long line of descendants
sa7is peiir et sans reproche.

Beside Messenger and Bellfounder must be placed Justin
Morgan as a most illustrious ancestor of trotting horses,
and here again the value of thoroughbred blood is shown,
for there is little doubt his sire, True Briton, or, as he is
sometimes called, Beautiful Bay, was thoroughbred, while
his dam was said to be of the Wildair breed, and undoubtedly
possessed a large share of good blood. Justin Morgan was
foaled in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1793, and was bought
when two years old by the gentleman, Mr. Justin Morgan,
after whom he was named. Though the horse himself and
his immediate descendants in the first generation had no
great speed, they had many admirable qualities which they
have transmitted to their progeny, and their blood has been
valuable for crossing with the other strains. It is through
three sons of the old horse — Woodbury Morgan, foaled in
1816, Bulrush Morgan, and Sherman — that lineal descent
can now be chiefly traced.

A renowned animal, with undoubted good blood in his
veins, that appeared later upon the scene was old Black
Pilot, the Canadian pacer, who introduced a hardy and
invaluable strain and was a most impressive sire. He could
pace a mile in 2.26 carrying 11 st. 11 lbs. on his back, although
he was under 15 hands in height, and thus proved himself
an admirable weight-carrier. He was purchased from a

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 141

pedlar at New Orleans, about 1832, but was soon after-
wards sold to Mr. Heinshon, of Louisville, Kentucky, where
many of the best-bred saddle-horses of America were to be
found, and in such he infused his own vigour and hardiness,
a fortunate boon for the country in general. He not only
produced fast performers himself, but was able to transmit
the same power to his sons, who have been noted sires,
such as Pilot Junior, Tom Crowder, Ole Bull, and numerous
others.

A great-great-grandson of Messenger, destined to become
one of the most famous of the foundation sires, was Mam-
brino Chief, bred by Mr. Richard Eldridge, of New York, in
1844. Although he but sired six sons and daughters able to
trot in 2.30, or under, his descendants able to do so are almost
countless, while the famous Lady Thorn alone, who trotted
106 heats inside the standard, was sufficient to make the
reputation of any stallion.

The earliest trotting races were usually under the saddle,
for, roads being primitive, riding was more general than
driving, while the race-tracks were far from being in the
state of perfection they are to-day. The wagons in use,
too, were very different to the pneumatic-tyred, ball-bearing
sulkies now in use, and it was difficult then to find an
animal capable of trotting in harness a mile in three minutes,
the first authentic record of such a performance being that
of the black gelding Boston Blue, at Jamaica, New York,
in 1818. By degrees, as the tracks and wagons improved,
so also did the time records, though but slowly, and it was
not till 1845 that the modern standard time was reached,
when Lady Suffolk trotted the mile, in 2.29^ on the Beacon
Course, at Hoboken, New Jersey. Four years afterwards,
on July 2, 1849, she reached 2.28, at Centreville, Long
Island, a performance that had already been attained by a
bay gelding, Pelham. Flora Temple first got inside 2.20,
her record being 2.19f, in 1859, at Kalamazoo, Michigan,
and then Jay-eye-see reached 2.10 in 1884. Finally Lou
Dillon, with the help of a pace-maker with a dirt-shield in
front of her, trotted in 1.58^, at Memphis, October 24, 1903.
The bicycle sulky came into use in 1882, and Maud S. still

142 THE HORSE

holds the record for a high wheel on an oval track, when
she trotted in 2.08f , at Cleveland, in 1885. On a kite track
the bay mare Sunol beat the record of Maud S. by half a
second, trotting at Stockton in 2.08^, in 1891, but the one
long turn of such a configuration had a great advantage in
point of speed over the ordinary track with two turns. Kite
tracks were not popular with the spectators and soon went
out of use.

It is estimated that a bicycle sulky is five seconds faster
for a mile than the old high wheel. When comparing the
respective merits of present horses with those of an earlier
date these conditions, and also the constant improvement
of the tracks, must be borne in mind, as they are all to the
disadvantage of the older horses. The art of balancing
horses by shoeing has been also brought to greater perfec-
tion. Smuggler used to trot at first with shoes weighing 32 oz.
on each fore-foot, which were afterwards reduced to 25 oz.,
and when trotting a great race against Goldsmith Maid, at
Cleveland, July 27, 1876, he had the misfortune to cast one
of his shoes more than a quarter mile from home, which
must have caused him much loss of balance. Even then he
was only beaten by a length, Goldsmith Maid winning the
race in 2.15|. It is a remarkable fact in connection with
this celebrated mare, who was the first to reach 2.17, that
she was seventeen years of age when she made her best
record, 2.14, at Mystic Park, Boston, on September 2, 1874.
Such shoes as were deemed necessary for Smuggler are,
however, very exceptional burthens, and when Lou Dillon
made the record for wagon 2.0 at Readville, Massachusetts,
in 1903, she wore 4J oz. shoes on her fore-feet and only 2f oz.
shoes behind.

Lou Dillon was foaled in 1898, and so was five years old
when she made her great record, 1.58^, at Memphis,
October 24, 1903, driven by Millard Sanders. Her great
rival. Major Delmar, a gelding, also made his record the
same year, trotting at Memphis in 1.59f , when six years old,
under the guidance of E. E. Smathers, but he had the help
of a pace-maker in front with a dirt-shield. The record for
stallions is held by Cresceus, who, driven by his owner and

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 143

breeder, Mr. G. H. Ketcham, of Toledo, trotted as a seven-
year-old in 2.2^, at Columbus, Ohio, August 2, 1901, gaining
thereby the then record of the world, and placing his owner
on the highest pinnacle of fame as combining in his own
person the owner, breeder, and driver of the champion.

It is noteworthy that these three record-holders all trace
back in tail male to Hambletonian, and so from Messenger,
and, with many other famous names in their pedigrees, afford
convincing proof of the rewards to be gained by careful
selection in breeding, and the truth of the old proverb that
" like begets like."

There is need, however, to guard against too close
inbreeding to any animal, however illustrious, though such
method is frequently unavoidable at the beginning, when
there are few distinguished sires at the disposal of breeders ;
but, while it fixes a type and also often produces exception-
ally brilliant individuals, it is yet apt to sacrifice sterling
qualities, and result in the decadence of a race, by occasion-
ing weak constitutions and nervous, excitable temperaments.
Such has to a large extent been frequently the portion of
breeders of British race-horses, carried away by the glamour
of a great name. In a critical examination of the pedigree
of Lou Dillon it will be seen how frequently the lines run
back to Hambletonian, though in her case there has been
safety in the extreme out-crosses of her two grandams,
Venus and Fly. Others who seek to follow on the same
lines may, perhaps, be less careful, and be disappointed in
their expectations, through breeding in too closely to one
famous animal. It is a principle that requires the utmost
care to bring to a successful issue, so as to carry on the
excellence through successive generations.

144 THE HORSE

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When compiling the American Trotting Kegister, Mr. J. H.
Wallace wrote these interesting remarks, vol. i., 1871: —

" /s there a particular breed that trotsi — Elaborate
opinions have been given to the world from time to time,
holding substantially that the English race-horse was as
good a trotter as could be produced if trained to that
gait. . . . However much may have been written, and
however finely spun the theories that the true way is to go
indiscriminately into thoroughbred families, no sane man
will attach a particle of value to them till it has shown that
such breeding has produced trotters. While the trotting
gait is partly the result of education and training, there is
no fact in the experience of at least a generation more
clearly and fully established than that there must be a
natural tendency to trot, or all efforts to make a trotter by
training will signally fail. I do not wish to be understood
as opening a crusade against the thoroughbred horse for the
experience of two hundred years has shown him on the
course, in the chase, on the march, and in the battle-charge
to be vastly superior to all others, and when we get to the
best trotting horse the world will produce, he must have
the courage, the will, the speed and the endurance of the
four-mile thoroughbred ; which qualities he can only obtain
by partaking largely of his blood.

"But notwithstanding the fallacy of the indiscriminate
use of the thoroughbred to produce trotters, we are indebted
to the thoroughbred after all for the trotter; but this debt is
substantially limited to a single family of thoroughbreds or
the descendants of one single horse ' Sampson ' bred by
Mr. Preston 1745, and trained by Eobinson of Malton, from
whom Mambrino was descended. Eysdyk's Hambletonian
and Mambrmo Chief were a fourth remove from the
Enghsh Mambrino. It is true Eysdyk's Hambletonian is
in a manner inbred to Messenger, and can thus trace to
Mambrino through some different lines ; but Mambrino
Chief has but a single line."

Since these remarks were penned the value of thorough-
bred blood in the trotting horse has been constantly
emphasised, and so imbued is Mr. Walter Winans — whose

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 147

successes at the International Horse Shows have been
so great — with this fact that he has gone to the very
highest source, and bred from a winner of the Derby, in
confident hope of still further improving the type of trotter.
The result of the alliance of the standard-bred Chiquito
(by Almonarch 3234 out of Corona), with Common (by
Isonomy out of Thistle), has been Gosudar, whose good
looks are worthy of his distinguished parentage, and who
should have a great future before him. With regard to
Mr. Wallace's remarks it should be kept in mind that dis-
crimination must be used in selecting thoroughbred horses
to cross on trotting mares, for many families of race-horses
have neither the aptitude nor the inclination for this gait,
and it is only courting failure to resort to these. When
wisely selected the magnificent qualities referred to by
Mr. Wallace are of inestimable value to any breed for
whatever purpose it may be required.*

The first volume of Wallace's Trotting Register was
issued in 1871, and The National Association of Trotting
Horse Breeders was formed in 1876. A rival Stud Book
arose in 1881, under the editorship of J. H. Sanders, The
Breeders Trotting Stud Book. The American Trotting
Register Association eventually bought up the older interests
of Mr. Wallace, The National Association of Trotting
Horse Breeders passed away, and The Breeders Trotting
Stud Book was also amalgamated in a more com-
prehensive scheme.

In 1870 began the nucleus of the National Trotting
Association, and in 1887 the American Trotting Associ-
ation sprang up, which two bodies now control the sport
and race under the same rules, while the American Trotting

'•' This principle was well kept in mind by Mr. Winans when choosing
a mate for Chiquito, for he mentions in a letter, July 12, 1909 : " The
reason I bred Chiquito to Common was because the late Sir Blundell
Maple kindly let me send the mare to Common, as he "said, " Common is a
very fast trotter, and inclined to continue trotting when urged to go
faster, instead of at once breaking into a canter like most thorough-
breds." With such a foundation to build upon, the fruit of that union
may prove to have a very far-reaching effect in the trotting world in
years to come.

148 THE HORSE

Register Association watches over all other matters, closely
in touch with the two other organisations. Its Rules for
the Trotting Standard are now as follows : —

The Trotting Standard.

When an animal meets these requirements, and is duly
registered it shall be accepted as a standard-bred trotter.

1. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
and a registered standard trotting mare.

2. A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered
standard trotting horses, and he himself has a trotting
record of 2.80, and is the sire of three trotters with records
of 2.30 from different mares.

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting
horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by
registered standard trotting horses, provided she herself
has a trotting record of 2.30, or is the dam of one trotter
with a record of 2.30.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2.30.

5. A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired
by a registered standard trotting horse.

American Pacing Horses.

The origin of American pacing horses is wrapped in
obscurity, though, as mentioned earlier in this work, it is
a common gait amongst the Barb horses of Morocco,
through whose influence it is occasionally seen amongst
Spanish horses. It is by no means uncommon in England,
though it is not prized there, and no pains are ever taken
to develop it. The famous family of pacers in Rhode
Island, the Narragansetts, are supposed to have originated
from stock brought from Andalusia, and it is very probable
such may have been the case, and that they inherited the
gait from their Barbary ancestors. At first the pacing
horse was generally used under the saddle, but as roads
improved they began to be sought for harness; for many

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ORIGIN OF AMERICAN TROTTING HORSES 149

years, however, owners and trainers did not care to race
them at their natural gait, and sought instead, by the use
of toe-weights, hobbles, and other appliances, to convert
them into trotters, a conspicuous example of which was
Smuggler. Even when the chestnut mare, Pocahontas, had
paced a mile in 2.17^ at Long Island in 1855, at a time
when the trotting record was but 2.27, achieved by High-
land Maid, trainers were not converted, and made little
attempt to train their animals to a gait which was unfashion-
able. Many of the greatest sires, however, have produced
both pacers as well as trotters, and with more valuable
prizes offered for competition the list of fast pacers has
grown. The present record-holders are Dan Patch, 1.55:^,
who holds the record for stallions. Prince Alert that for geld-
ings, 1.59 J, and Dariel the one for mares, 2. 00 J. Prince
Alert is now in England, and in a letter, June 25, 1909, Mr.
Walter Winans mentions: "My brother, Louis Winans
owns Prince Alert, and drives him at Brighton every day."

Sentiment has been the main factor in the marvellous
evolution of the American trotting and pacing horse, and
the enthusiasm thus engendered has encouraged the strain-
ing of every nerve to possess an animal capable not only
of defeating great rivals on the track, but also of acomplish-
ing the still harder task of beating the common enemy.
Time itself. As each record has been broken a thrill has
permeated thousands of eager watchers in a fashion
unknown to dwellers in more matter-of-fact Europe, and
thus the magic names of Flora Temple and Dexter, Gold-
smith Maid, George Wilkes, Jay-Eye-See, Maud S, Sunol,
Nancy Hanks, and others have, in turn, swayed the passions
of the nation, and been household words, as they flitted their
hour upon the stage, in a way that the mere winning even
large money prizes would have failed to effect. Whether any
further development of actual speed is practicable it is
impossible to forecast, but America may well be proud of
having established such a remarkable breed of horses, which
must have a far-reaching influence upon all their harness-
horses in general use, and is therefore of the greatest
national importance.

150 THE HORSE

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Subjoined are the Kules for the registration of pacers : —

The Pacing Standard.

When an animal meets these requirements and is duly
registered, it shall be accepted as a standard-bred pacer.

1. The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse and
a registered standard pacing mare.

2. A stallion sired by a registered pacing horse, provided
his dam and grandam were sired by registered standard
pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record of 2.25,
and is the sire of three pacers with records of 2.25 from
different mares.

3. A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing horse,
and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered
standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing
record of 2.25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record
of 2.25.

4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided she is the dam of two pacers with a record of 2.25.

5. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired
by a registered standard pacing horse.

6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered
standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting
mare.

CHAPTEE VII
CONFOEMATION

IN considering the conformation of the horse, before deahng
with the external characteristics — the muscles and
general appearance — attention must be paid to the
skeleton, the framework to which the muscles are attached,
and on which the body is built up. Bone consists of phos-
phate and carbonate of lime in the proportion of 56 of the
former, to 13 of the latter, the remainder being a kind of
gelatine. These proportions differ somewhat in old and
young animals, the latter having a larger proportion of
gelatine, about one-half, whilst in older animals it does not
amount to more than one-third. The series of bones
composing the skeleton may be divided into two groups, the
one comprehending those of the trunk, and the other those
of the limbs.
In the first group are the —

Head, or Cranium.

Neck, or Cervical vertebrae.

Back, or Dorsal vertebrte (these are the only ones bearing the

ribs) .
Eibs.
Loins, or Lumbar vertebrae (between those bearing the ribs and

the haunch-bones).
The Croup, or Sacral vertebrae (also termed the pelvic arch).
The Dock or Tail, or Caudal vertebrae.
Breastbone, or Sternum.
Haunch, or Pelvis.

153

154 THE HORSE

In the second group are : —

PLATE II.
Bones of the Fore-leg.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

1 Shoulder-blade, or Scapula.

2 Lower bone of the shoulder, or Humerus.
3, 4 Arm, or Uhia and Radius.

5 Elbow, or Point of Ulna.

6 Knee, or Carpus.

7, 8 Cannon-bones and Splint-bones, or Metacarpals.
9 Sesamoids (behind the fetlock).
10, 11 Upper and Lower Pasterns.

12 Cofldn-bone.
Navicular-bone (not shown).

13 Withers.

CONFORMATION

The bones of the Hind-leg are as follows

155

PLATE III.
Bones of the Hind-leg.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

E True thigh, or Femur (This bone is so hidden under the mass
of muscle, the ordinary horseman scarcely knows of its
existence).

F Stifle joint, or Junction of the Femur and Tibia, in front of
which is placed the knee-cap, or patella (F).

G Thigh, or Tibia.

II Fibula.
I Hock, or Tarsus.

K Shank, or Metatarsus.

L Splint.

M Sesamoids.

Q \ Uppe

r and Lower Pasterns.

P Coffin bone.

R Navicular bone.

156

THE HORSE

The bones of the skeleton may now be considered in
detail, commencing with those of the head and neck.

At (m) (Plate IV.) is an indentation where the artery
passes over the lower jaw, and the pulse can be felt,
and a tourniquet applied in an urgent case. At (n)
another small artery branches, and there also a tourniquet
is often useful when a severe bleeding at the nose occurs.

They may be divided into two groups, those of the
cranium and of the face. The cranial include all those

PLATE IV.
Head.

a Frontal.

b Parietal.

c Occipital.

d Temporal.

e Malar.

/ Lachrymal.

g Nasal.

h Superiormaxil-
lary.

* Pre-maxillary.

A: Inferior maxil-
laries, or
lower jaw.

I Orbit.

which enclose the brain, and though they are for the most
part arranged in pairs, one on each side of the mesial line,
it is more convenient to speak of them as single bones.

The frontal bone (a) is the bone of the forehead, forming
the broad flat surface between the eyes and extending
towards the top of the head. This bone differs considerably
in width, and is generally developed in the highest degree
in the Arabian horse, being a mark of high breeding and
superior intelligence.

The parietal (6) extends backward from the frontal to the

CONFORMATION 157

poll. It is mainly concerned in the protection of the brain,
and has a ridge of great strength along the upper surface,
from which the bone slopes down like a roof on each
side.

Covering the entire back of the head, and immediately
behind the parietal, comes the occipital (c), whose position
exposes it to great strain, since it has to support the whole
weight of the head, the back of which it covers. It is
articulated to the first vertebra of the neck, the atlas, by two
rounded protuberances, termed condyles, which lie at the
base of the bone. It is either at the junction of this bone
with the atlas, or at the junction of the atlas with the
second vertebra, the dentata, that the Spanish bull-fighters
give the death-stroke to the wretched maimed horses in the
bull-ring; and the matador frequently despatches the bull.
It is the usual method of killing employed by the butchers
in Spain, and a merciful one, for death is instantaneous.
The head must be drawn downwards, and the neck some-
what bent, thus separating the vertebrae to the utmost,
when a sharp thrust transfixes the spinal cord, and the
animal often dies without a struggle. On the outer
sides of the occipital are two pointed projections for the
attachment of some of the muscles of the neck which assist
in supporting the head. They are termed styliform
processes.

The temporal bone {d) contains the internal parts of the ear,
has a depression or hollow underneath for the articulation
of the lower jaw, and forms the greater part of the orbit by
joining with the extremity of the frontal bone, and also with
the malar, or cheek-bone, thus forming the " zygomatic arch."
The orbit is completed by the lachrymal (/), a small facial
bone at the inner corner of the eye. Above the temporal
bone unites with the parietal, and behind with the occipital.

Immediately below the frontal is the nasal bone {g),
covering the delicate membranes of the nose, and one of the
principal bones of the face. The superior maxillary (/?) is a
large bone occupying the side of the face, and carrying the
molar teeth, or grinders, and the tusk of the upper jaw.
The nippers, or incisor teeth, are inserted in the pre-

158 THE HORSE

maxillary {i), which, uniting with the nasal bone and the
pre-maxillary, completes the framework of the nose. The
lower jaw consists of only two bones, the inferior maxillaries,
which are rounded at the hinder extremity of the jaw, and
terminate in two processes directed upwards. One, the
condyloid process, articulating with the temporal bone,
forms the hinge on which the whole lower jaw moves. The
other, the coronoid, passes under the zygomatic arch, and
receives the lower end of the large temporal muscle, which
arises from the parietal bone and is principally concerned
in moving the jaw when masticating food.

There are two small bones not visible externally, the
sphenoid and ethmoid, under the parietal in the lower part
of the cranium, which serve to connect the principal
bones of the skull.

The Vertebra.

The vertebrae of the neck are seven in number, and
comprise (Plate IV.) —

1. Atlas

2. Dentata

3. Third

4. Fourth ^ Cervical vertebrae.

5. Fifth

6. Sixth

7. Seventh

The atlas is a ring-shaped bone, articulating with the
skull. It moves freely on the dentata, and on the peculiar
articulation of these two vertebrae largely depends the
power of turning the head. The remaining five bones,
resembling one another, call for no comment. They have
various processes to which the muscles and ligaments of
the neck are attached.

The dorsal vertebrae, those of the back, are eighteen in
number, and support the ribs ; whilst those of the loins, the
lumbar, which are situated between the ribs and the haunch-
bones, are six, the whole amounting to twenty-four, which
are invariable. The normal number of ribs is eighteen,
though sometimes nineteen occur, and occasionally even

CONFORMATION 159

twenty, but in no case is there any increase in the number
of vertebrae, so that if there is any excess of ribs the
vertebrae supporting them are taken from the lumbar group
and added to the dorsal series. Thin discs of cartilage are
placed between each to serve as buffers, and the spinal cord
traverses the whole through a canal in each segment.
When an unfortunate accident occurs and a poor horse's
back is broken, it is often the case that a vertebra is only
cracked across, interfering with the spinal cord. This fre-
quently happens when the animal is taking-off at a jump,
the muscles, for some reason, making an extra effort to that
which had been foreseen and telegraphed from the brain
along the nerves ; and the system therefore being unpre-
pared for the unexpected exertion, the unlooked-for force of
the muscles snaps the vertebra. It may be only a small
place which causes the mishap. A tiny ditch will do it if its
presence has been concealed, and the horse is galloping at a
great pace. To a certain extent it resembles the jar when
missing a step on going downstairs in the dark, and we have
most of us experienced that unpleasant feeling. In this case
we are going, literally, at a foot's pace, and there is no great
momentum to add to the mishap, otherwise much greater
injury would result than usually ensues.

The sacral vertebrae, which form the croup, are anchy-
losed, that is, are united together in one mass, and form a
kind of wedge to the arch, formed by the approximation of
the haunch-bones. They are five in number. The pelvic
arch, as the united bones of the arch are termed, needs to
be very strong and solid, for it is the pivot on which the
hind limbs turn, and throw forward the whole weight of the
animal.

The caudal vertebrae are usually fifteen in number, but
often vary to the extent of two or three above or below the
norma] ; and horsemen are well acquainted with the fact that
there are short and long docks in Nature, without recourse
to the veterinary surgeon's amputating knife. In these the
spinal cord ends as a thread, and there is not much danger
in docking a horse, though tetanus (lockjaw) occasionally
follows. Still it is always impolitic to interfere with

160

THE HORSE

Nature's arrangements, if it can be helped, especially with
regard to such delicate parts of the machinery as the spinal
cord and the nervous system ; and to amputate the tail very
short is certainly nearly approaching a possible peril.

The chief feature in each dorsal vertebra is the spinous
process, or projection, along its upper surface, especially in
the region of the shoulders, where is produced the eleva-
tion known as the withers. These are of considerable
importance, as they afford a large surface for the attach-
ment of the great ligament which supports the head and
neck. There is no advantage, however, in their being
excessively developed, for then the withers are apt to be
thin and " knifey," and so become an indication of weak-
ness, which is undesirable.

To recapitulate the number of each series of vertebrae
there are —

Cervical ...

Dorsal

Lumbar ...

Sacral

Caudal

Total

The ribs are eighteen in number, and are distinguished
as the true and the false ribs, the former being attached to
the breast-bone at their extremities, and the latter having
no immediate connection with it. The true ribs are
either seven or eight, for the number sometimes varies,
and to provide for the necessary elasticity the attachment
to the breast-bone is composed of cartilage. All the
ribs are jointed above to the transverse processes of the
vertebrae. Though the individual false ribs have no direct
connection with the breast-bone, they are united together
by cartilages, and this cartilaginous union eventually
terminates in the sternum, so that the whole of the ribs
are able to act in unison when expanding and contract-
ing. The sternum itself consists of six bones in the
young horse, which gradually become united into a single
piece.

CONFORMATION 161

The Pelvis, or haunch, is in reality made up of six
bones, three on each side, the whole united firmly into
one. These are (Plate III.) —

B The Ilium.
C The Ischium.
D The Pubis.

The Ilium is strongly secured to the sacral vertebrae,
which form the keystone of the pelvic arch, and has a very
large, and often very conspicuous, prominence on each
side, just above and in front of the hind-quarters, which
stablemen recognise as the hips. When these are
abnormally developed the horse is said to be " ragged
hipped," and when the head of a prominence is broken
off, as not infrequently happens through striking a side-
post when entering a stable, the animal is said to have
a "hip down." As a portion of an important muscle, the
glutoeus medius, is attached to this prominence, an injury to
the bone means a considerable reduction in the power of
the muscle, and therefore in the capabilities of the horse.

The Ischium is the true hip-bone, and is a backward
continuation of the ilium. It terminates in two pro-
minences, which project on each side a little below the tail,
and, though well covered with flesh, are easily recognised.

The Pubis is connected with the above, and forms the
completion of the pelvic arch.

We now turn to the bones of the second group, and,
commencing with the fore-limbs, note that the shoulder-
blade, or scapula (Fig. 1, Plate II.), consists of a single
bone, of a long triangular form, and is divided into two
portions by a ridge running nearly the length of the
blade. This ridge of bone gives additional firmness
to the shoulder-blade, and affords a surface for the
attachment of some very important muscles. The object
of the shoulder-blade is to connect the fore-leg with the
trunk, just as the haunch-bone performs a similar office
for the hind-leg ; but there is this difference between the
two ; the shoulder-blade has only a muscular attachment
to the trunk, while the haunch-bones are firmly united

1(52 THE HORSE

to the sacral portion of the backbone. A Httle con-
sideration will show an important reason for this differ-
ence. The weight of the horse has to be sustained by
the shoulder, and, especially when landing over a fence,
a jar would be given to the spine, and possibly injury
might be inflicted on the contents of the chest and the
viscera if the shoulder was affixed to the spine by an
unyielding attachment. The hind-legs, however, require,
on the contrary, a very firm point, to use for their
powerful leverage, and so by a skilful arrangement each
is provided with what it needs.

At the lower extremity of the shoulder-blade is a cup-
shaped hollow, the glenoid cavity, with which the rounded
head of the humerus, the lower bone of the shoulder,
articulates. This humerus is so hidden by muscle as not
to be visible externally as a distinct bone. It is short
and strong, at almost right angles with the shoulder-blade,
and its direction is backwards, and terminates in two
heads, between which the upper end of the radius, or
arm-bone, is received. The insertion of the humerus
between the shoulder-blade and the forearm in such a
manner that two angles are formed, makes splendid
provision for minimising a shock, by the free bending of
both joints. On the backward sloping of the shoulder-
blade greatly depends the freedom of the motion of the
fore limb, and the consequent length of stride and ability
to recover from the effect of a stumble, either in ordi-
nary paces or when leaping ; and it is the correct adjust-
ment of the upper and lower shoulder-bones which
ensures true action in walking and trotting, the elbow
neither being turned out too much nor pinned in. When
seated on the animal the working of the upper part of
the shoulder-blade should not be visible under the skin if
the bone is correctly laid, and such being the case affords
an excellent indication of a good shoulder. With this the
height of the withers has nothing to do, for that depends,
as shown above, entirely on the development of the upper
processes of the anterior portion of the dorsal vertebrae.
Beginners are too apt to have a confused notion that a

CONFORMATION

ig;^

high wither (Fig. 13, Plate III., Fig. 2) must mean a good
shoulder.

The upper portion of the fore-leg, the radius, commonly
called the arm, which joins the lower bone of the shoulder,
is composed of two bones, a long one in front termed the
radius, which reaches to the knee, and a short one behind
called the ulna. In old horses these two bones become
firmly united into one. The ulna has a long projection
above and behind the upper joint, and forms the point of

PLATE V.

The Bones of the Knee.

a Radius.

h Trapezium, or pisi-

forme.
c Cuneiforme.
d Lunare.
e Scaphoides.
/ Trapezoides.
g Magnum.
li Unciforme.
h Cannon-bone.
j, I Splint-bones.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 1.

the elbow, to which some powerful muscles are attached
for extending the forearm. The ulna rapidly diminishes
size, and terminates in a point before reaching the
knee, behind the middle of the radius.

The knee, the carpus, is composed of six small bones,
and is therefore a very complicated joint, and exposed to
many shocks and jars, but it is arranged so that these
shall be distributed over a number of bones, each pro-
tected by a covering of cartilage, resting on a kind of
semi-fluid cushion, and all united together by ligaments.

164 THE HORSE

These are interposed between the lower end of the
radius (a) and the upper part of the cannon-bone {k)
and the splint-bones (j, I), six being placed in front, and
the seventh, the trapezium, behind. It will be seen on
examining Fig. 2, Plate V., that when the knee is bent there
would be a very large opening between the radius and the
cannon-bone were it not for the interpolation of the six
small bones, which reduces the wide opening to three
narrow ones ; these are, moreover, well protected with a
capsular ligament, extending from the radius to the shank-
bone, and therefore danger to the joint is very largely
minimised by this ingenious arrangement.

The Cannon, or shank-bone (k), and the Splint bones (j, I),
which have just been mentioned, form the leg-bone, and
are termed the metacarpals, and all three articulate with
the lower row of the bones of the knee. The two splint-
bones are situated behind, and a little on one side of the
cannon-bone, and are probably the relics of the early period
in the history of the horse when it possessed three toes.
An interesting example of reversion to the primitive type
was that of a mare which was racing in 1822-23, and
ran in nine races, two of which she won. She was first
named Pincushion, which was afterwards changed to
Creeping Jenny. She suddenly commenced to throw out
a new set of limbs, which began half-way below the
hocks, on the hind legs, and from just above the fetlock
on the near fore-leg. The cannon-bone is very subject to
throwing out nodules of bone, especially in young horses,
though old horses are also subject to this annoyance, and
the writer has had cases when animals of fourteen and
sixteen years have thrown them out, who had never
previously suffered from them. These are termed splints,
and frequently become absorbed, and disappear as age
creeps on. During their formation they are very painful,
and make the animal lame, which is chiefly due to their
stretching the periosteum, a membrane that covers the
bones very closely, and is inelastic, and also to the in-
flammation inseparable from the growth of the exostosis.

The splint-bones, which have nothing to do with the

CONFORMATION

165

above-mentioned splints, do not extend the whole length
of the cannon-bone, but diminish to a point before reaching
the fetlock. The cannon-bone articulates at its lower
extremity with the upper pastern (Plate VI., o), and
together they form the fetlock-joint (n) ; and at the back
of it are situated two small supplementary bones, termed
sessamoids (m), which serve to protect the joint, and also
some important ligaments which pass over it.

PLATE VI.

Bones connected with the Foot.

Pig. 1.

Fig. 2.

k Cannon, or Shank.
m Sesamoids.
71 Fetlock-joint,
o Upper pastern.
2} CofiSn-bone.
q Lower pastern.
r Navicular-bone.

The toe is formed by the coffin-bone (p), which is so
surrounded by the horny covering of the hoof that it is
never visible externally. Another little bone entirely hidden
in a like manner is the navicular-bone (r), which lies behind
and partly within the junction of the lower pastern and
coffin-bone. A very important tendon passes over it,
previous to being attached to the coffin-bone, and an injury
to the tendon not infrequently affects the navicular-bone
also from the accompanying inflammation. Immediately
below the navicular-bone is situated the sensible portion of
the frog, which again is protected by the horny frog.

166 THE HORSE

The bones composing the haunch, or hind-quarters, have
already been mentioned, and together with those of the
hind-leg may be recapitulated (Plate III.) : —

A Sacrum

B Ilium

C Ischium (

(

Pelvis.

D Pubis

E Femur, or Upper bone of the thigh.
F Patella, or Knee-cap.
G Tibia, or Thigh.
H Fibula.
I Tarsus, or Hock.
K L Metatarsus, or Shank and SpUnt-bones.
M Sesamoids.

while the upper and lower pasterns, (o) and {q) the coffin-
bone (P), and the navicular-bone (R), resemble those of the
fore-limbs.

Beginning at the upper extremity of the hind-leg, the
first bone to be noticed is the femur, or true thigh, or, as it
is usually termed, the upper bone of the thigh. It is
entirely hidden by the various muscles of the haunch, and
is therefore not easily recognised. It is short, but
exceedingly strong and stout, and at the upper extremity
has a distinctly rounded head on the inner side, fitting into
and articulating with the acetabulum, or bony cup formed
at the junction of the three pelvic bones. The lower end
of the bone has two prominences which fit into corresponding
depressions in the next bone, and in front of which is placed
the patella, or knee-cap (F) , which together form the stifle-
joint. The tibia, the bone of which is known as the second
thigh, extends from the stifle-joint, which it helps to form,
to the hock, or tarsus ; and placed behind on the outer side
is the fibula, extending from its upper extremity to about
one-third of its length, and attached to the larger bone by
cartilage. In general character it agrees with the ulna, or
small bone of the elbow, in the fore-leg.

The hock (tarsus) is an important and complicated joint,
and from its nature is frequently the seat of injury,
especially from shock or of strain. Like the knee, it consists

CONFORMATION

ir,7

of several small bones interposed between the long bones of
the lower part of the limb, and these are six in number and
of various shapes.

From an inspection of the view presented by the hock, it
will be at once seen how important it is all the bones
composing it should be very well developed, and a large
" bony " hock be much desired. The point of the hock acts
as a lever to straighten the leg, and is moved by the tendon
Achilles and other tendons, arising from the muscles which

PLATE VII.

The Bones of the Hock.

G Tibia.

J Outer Cuneiforme.

K Cannon, or Shank.

L Splint.

N Naviculare.

P Middle Cuneiforme.

E Os calcis, or Point of the Hock.

S Astragalus.

T Cuboides.

spring from the upper part of the limb. The flexor pedis
(g, Plate IX.) one of the principal muscles for bending the
foot, becomes tendinous before it reaches the hock, when it
passes as a large round cord through a groove at the back
of that joint, and after descending behind the shank-bone is
inserted in the two pasterns. The ligaments that are attached
to it are very apt to become strained, resulting in a " curb "
(Plate IX.) about four inches below the point of the hock, and
this is more especially the case when the head of the shank-
bone is weak, having, as it were, a piece cut away from the

168 THE HORSE

front of it, jast below the outer cuneiforme bone. A horse
with such malformation is ever likely to spring a curb.

Exostosis frequently occurs from inflammation of the
hock, on the inside of the joint, and is termed a spavin.
When this only occurs on the shank itself no real harm is
done, for, like any form of splint, when once it has fully
formed Nature gradually adapts herself to the altered
conditions, and the lameness which occurred whilst the
exostosis was forming gradually disappears. It is different,
however, when the spavin is situated on the small bones of
the hock (true spavin), for even if it does not anchylose the
joint, the delicate machinery is interfered with, and stiffness
in working is the inevitable result. Sometimes the small
bones, the naviculare, and the cuneiforme bones, are extra
developed, giving the impression to a casual observer that
some exostosis has taken place ; but the touch should at once
dispel that idea, and also the fact that both hocks are
exactly alike. Such are termed "rough" or "strong"
hocks, and are really a source of strength, instead of being
spavins.

Flesh and Muscle.

The bony framework having been disposed of, the next
point of consideration must be its covering, that tissue of
muscles we term flesh; but important as the muscles all are,
it is not necessary for the ordinary horseman to take notice of
more than a few, those chiefly concerned in locomotion, and
these alone will now be considered. It is the due estimate
of such which constitutes generally the difference between
a good and a moderate judge of a horse's capabilities.

It will be patent to everyone that the head, which in
itself is a great weight, as any one can test for himself by
lifting one after it has been detached from the carcase in a
knacker's yard, must require very powerful muscles to
support it at the end of a long pole, such as the cervical
vertebrae represent, and therefore the neck must be
sufficiently strong. But the strength must lie in the
proper muscles, or else the neck becomes too heavily clothed
with flesh, some of which is not required and is a hindrance

CONFORMATION 169

rather than a help to the animal. The late Charley Wise,
of Eton, the eminent dealer in the " fifties " and " sixties "
of the last century, than whom no better judge existed, was
wont to point out that the neck was the first place where a
horse began to tire ; and he used to insist upon the muscles
just behind the poll being very well developed (which can be
particularly well observed when seated on the animal), but
that when seen sideways the neck should appear light and
elegant. Long subsequent experience has shown that he was
very right, and it will be noticed on the Turf that no horse
ever stays well in long-distance races unless he possesses
such a conformation.

It may be mentioned, however, that independently of the
muscles for supporting the head and neck, there is a simple
arrangement by which these parts are kept in an easy and
natural position when the animal is at rest. A strong and
elastic ligament, the ligamentum nuchse, arises from the back
of the occipital bone (Plate IV., c) to which it is attached
immediately behind the crest. In order to allow full freedom
of motion to the head, it passes over the atlas (1), or first
joint of the neck, in the form of a stout round cord, but is
strongly adherent to the dentata (2), on which the principal
strain from the weight of the head is thrown. It then pro-
ceeds backwards, terminating in the withers, the elevated
spinous processes of the first dorsal vertebrae, which thus
support the weight of the head and neck when in their
ordinary position.

Along the upper part of the neck are two muscles, the
splenius and the levator anguli scapulae, and to the develop-
ment of these two the appearance and beauty of the crest
is chiefly due. The former is a large muscle, especially
employed in raising the head. It arises from the entire
length of the ligamentum nuchas, and when overloaded with
cellular substance or fat is apt to give an appearance of
clumsiness to the massive crest and thick neck of an entire
horse. The other muscle is a small narrow one, extending
above the splenius, along the superior margin of the neck,
and after passing behind it, descends to the shoulder, where
it is not visible externally. At its origin it is inserted into

170 THE HORSE

the back of the head, and is attached to the first four
bones of the neck, as well as to the great ligament already
mentioned. It has a reciprocal action on the neck and
shoulder, according to which is the fixed point at the time.

A muscle which also assists the two mentioned in their
office is the complexus major, which forms the principal
portion of the lower part of the neck. It arises from the
transverse processes of the withers, and also from the five
lower bones of the neck, the fibres from which unite to form
one large muscle. It diminishes in size in the direction of
the head, finally terminating in a tendon inserted in the
occipital bone.

Immediately below the splenius, and following the course
of the vein of the neck which is utilised for the operation
of bleeding, and which lies immediately below, is a most
important muscle, the levator humeri, or deltoides. It
extends from the back of the head and upper part of
the neck, and proceeds along the front of the shoulder
to the top of the fore-leg, and on the development and
power of this muscle many of the capabilities of the
horse depend. When the head is kept up by its own
proper muscles it becomes a fixed point from which the
levator humeri is enabled to raise the shoulder, so that
on the development of the four muscles, the splenius, the
levator anguli scapulae, the complexus major, and the levator
humeri, everything else must necessarily hinge. Any weak-
ness in any of these will absolutely prevent a horse from
sustaining prolonged exertion, however much he may excel
in other directions.

Adjoining the levator humeri, but below it, and following
also the course of the vein which lies between the two
muscles, is the principal depressor of the head, the sterno-
maxillaris.

It arises from the upper end of the sternum, or point of
the breast, covers the lower front of the neck, and is
inserted by a flat tendon into the posterior angle of the
lower jaw. It is not a very large muscle, for, when those
supporting the head and neck are relaxed, but little force
is required to pull the head down.

CONFORMATION

171

PLATE VIII.

The muscles of the shoulder need hardly be described in
detail, it being sufficient for the ordinary observer that that
part should be muscular and generally well developed,
special attention, however, being bestowed on two, the
anconoBus longus and the anconoeus externus, which arise
from the lower bone of the shoulder and are inserted into
the point of the elbow, above which they form a prominent
swelling. Their office is to straighten and extend the arm,
and therefore need to be powerfully de-
veloped. Nor do the muscles of the back
require any lengthened comment, for the
latissimus dorsi covers the whole, ex-
tending from the shoulder to the haunch ;
it is the principal one employed in raising
the fore- or hind-quarters in rearing or
kicking, and also in leaping. It is strongly
attached to the processes of the vertebrae
and ribs, and when the latter are well
arched and the muscle is correspondingly
well developed, the general appearance
should present "a good flat back," that
well-known desideratum. A perfect back
should be of this description, with the
shoulders and withers sloping so far back,
and the arch formed by the lumbar
vertebrae coming so far forward, that there
is barely room for the saddle between the
two. Such a formation is very powerful,
and the best for carrying weight ; and it
should also ensure the fore-legs being well
away from the hind ones, showing plenty of length under-
neath. If the horse has a long back it is a source of
weakness unless it is of the shape known as a "roach-back."
Such horses are usually good jumpers, the typical little
arch being frequently alluded to as "the jumping bump."
Long-backed horses are almost invariably easy in their
paces, and are in request by some persons for this reason.

Seen from the outside of the "arm" are three very import-
ant muscles (Plate VIII.), which together give it its typical

172

THE HORSE

appearance, and terminate in the powerful tendons which,
in conjunction with lesser ones not so easily seen, raise and
bend the leg and foot. The posterior muscle (e) is the
external flexor, the middle (i) being the extensor digitorum

PLATE IX.

Muscles of the Hind-quarters.

Seat of curb

I Glutoeus Externus.
m Glutoeus Medius.
n Triceps femoris.
o Biceps.
p Gastrocnemi.

q Flexor Pedis.

V Extensor Pedis.
w Peronseus.
X Vastus Externus.
y Musculus fasciae latse.

z Rectus.

longior, and the front one Qi) the extensor carpi radiahs.
Provided these are of good volume, the remainder will be
also well developed, and as the retractile force of a muscle
depends chiefly upon its length, the desirability is evident
of the arm being long as well as large.

The prolongation of the muscles, in the form of tendons,
below the knee are generally spoken of as " the back
sinews," referring to those at the back of the leg, which are

CONFORMATION 173

much more in evidence than the extensor tendon which
passes in front. They should stand well out, appearing like
hard wiry cords, which should feel clean to the touch with-
out any suspicion of gumminess. Though to the casual
observer there appear to be only two, in reality there are
four separate tendons and ligaments in the upper portion,
though in the lower part it may be said there are but two,
since the metacarpal ligament becomes attached to the
flexor perforans, and the latter is then enveloped by the
flexor perforatus.

Ligaments differ from tendons in one very important
point, they are inelastic.

The muscles of the hind-quarters are for the most part
strongly marked, and the situation of the principal ones
easily recognised. Arising from the processes of several
of the vertebrae of the loins and from the prominent parts
of the ilium, or hip, is a very important one, the glutoeus
medius (Plate IX., w), often termed the "kicking muscle,"
which terminates at its insertion in the projection on the
upper bone of the thigh (femur), and acts with con-
siderable power in bringing the latter forward. Attached
to this muscle and interposed between it and the
next great muscle, is a little slender one, the glutoeus
externus (l), which has generally a similar origin and
function. The next, the one just referred to, the triceps
femoris (n), is the most important of all, for on it develops
the duty of drawing back the stifle-joint and straightening
the leg, in which function it is also assisted by the biceps
(o), which lies parallel with it and immediately behind.
The glutoei muscles bend the leg, preparatory to making the
spring, while the triceps acts in the opposite direction,
straightening the limb and propelling the body forward. It
is the division between the triceps and the biceps which
makes so marked a line in the quarters of high-bred horses,
sometimes designated as " cuts and slashes." Another flexor
of the leg is the semi-membranosus, which forms the inner
posterior border of the haunch, and unites under the tail,
along the mesial line, with its fellow-muscle on the
other side. When these two do not meet, and a clear space

174

THE HORSE

can be seen between them, the horse is said to be " spHt up
behind," an indication of want of power, and a conformation
to be avoided. Such horses are also sometimes termed
" turkey-thighed."

Passing over lesser muscles, which, however important,
are not easily recognised by the ordinary horseman, notice
must be drawn to the extensor pedis (v) and the peronoeus
(lo), which lift the foot forward, and are very important.
The former arises behind the stifle, from the extremities of

PLATE X.

Tendo7is of the Fore-leg.

k Cannon or Shank.
I Splint bones.
n Fetlock joint.
0 Upper pastern.
q Lower pastern.
2) Coffin bone,
r Extensor tendon.
s Flexor perforatus.
t Flexor perforans.
u Metacarpal ligament.
V Superior sesamoidal ligament.
w Bifurcation of sesamoidal ligament.
X Continuation of branch of sesamoidal

ligament.
y Continuation of flexor perforans, which is

afterwards inserted into the os pedis,

ofter passing over the navicular bone

(not shown).

the two thigh-bones, and passing in front of the hock, where
a sheath confines it to its place, after it has become
attentuated into a tendon, it continues its course to the
foot, and is inserted into the front of the cofiin-bone. The
peronoeus arises from the fibula (Plate III., H) and taking a
more lateral direction than the extensor pedis, the tendon
passes on the outside of the hock, and then descends to
the foot with the extensor pedis. On the other margin of
the " second thigh," and just under the thigh (tibia), are the
extremities of the gastrocnemi, and on their development,
or the want of it, depends whether the second thigh appears

CONFORMATION 175

V-shaped, with the hock forming the apex. The thigh
should appear to graduall}'' merge into the second thigh,
instead of so abruptly terminating that the second thigh
seems of equal breadth throughout its length. The latter
formation is a grave fault, for the united tendons of the
gastrocnemi form the tendon Achilles, and are strongly
inserted in the point of the hock (os calcis) ; and unless the
muscles themselves are very robust, the tendon Achilles must
likewise be feeble. One more great muscle in the second
thigh remains to be noticed, the flexor pedis {q), which is
one of the principal muscles for bending the foot. It arises
from the upper part of the tibia, and becoming tendinous,
passes as a large round cord through a groove at the back of
the hock, and then descending behind the shank-bone is
inserted into the two pasterns.

The Hoof.

The hoof, which is a horny case covering sensitive parts,
is renewed by growing downwards from the coronet, where
it is secreted, and the fibres composing it should be hard
and tough. These fibres run perpendicularly downwards,
and at first only appear as toughened skin, but rapidly
assume the appearance of horn. The crust thus formed
joins the horny sole, forming a rim around it, but while
this rim, in nature, is continually worn .away by contact
with the ground, to prevent which shoeing was invented,
the sole pares itself by detaching thin flakes of horn, if left
to fend for itself. With a thin-soled horse the knife of the
shoeing-smith should do nothing more than remove such
flakes as are about to be cast off, for if more is removed so
little protection will be left to the sensitive sole that the
animal will lose its action, even if it does not become
positively lame.

Brittle feet are often very troublesome, as they break
away so much there is difficulty in obtaining a sufficiency
of hold for the nails. A mild stimulant applied to the
coronary band will frequently induce a firmer secretion of
horn ; and as this condition of hoof often results from the

176 THE HORSE

horn being of too dry a nature, beneficial results may be
looked for by standing the animal in wet swabs at night.
Horses turned out in a field generally have horn of tough
texture, and they are usually subjected to moisture from
evening dews, in the absence of rain, to be followed on the
succeeding day by the drying action of the sun. The rings
on the hoof at the end of a summer's run give a plain
indication of what the weather has been, the horn having
grown with increased rapidity in spells of wet weather,
while there has been a corresponding diminution of growth
during periods of prolonged drought.

Under the heel of the foot is situated the frog, an elastic
cushion designed to obviate the shock of concussion, when
the foot is placed upon the ground. It serves another
purpose also — that of keeping the bars apart, and preventing
thereby the foot becoming contracted. Every effort should
be made to preserve a full, well-developed frog; and it
should not be pared with the shoeing-smith's knife, beyond
trimming away any portions which have become ragged.
These, however, should be cleared away, since they would
otherwise become pockets for the reception of mud and
dirt, and when this gets saturated with ammonia, as it is
sure to do in the stable from the horse treading upon its
own evacuations, diseased horn will sooner or later make
its appearance. It was with a view to prevent such occur-
rences that the old-fashioned practice arose of stopping the
feet with a mixture of clay and cow-dung, the latter being
mild in its action compared to horse manure, as all gardeners
know full well. The worst effects arise, however, from the
feet getting soaked by urine, from standing on thoroughly
saturated straw, through deficient drainage.

Inside the hoof the arrangements are complicated, several
objects having to be kept in view. The weight of the horse
has to be sustained ; the extensor tendon must have a firm
attachment to be able to bring the foot forward ; and the
flexor must similarly be arranged for to withdraw the foot ;
whilst all must be protected from injury by concussion. To
provide for the first requirement the lower pastern is
supported by two bones, the chief being the bone of the

CONFORMATION 177

foot, or coffin-bone, which runs into the toe ; and the other,
a small one, situated at the posterior part of the pastern,
immediately over the tongue of the frog. The extensor
tendon is fixed into the upper front portion of the coffin-
bone ; while the flexor perforans passes underneath the
navicular- bone and is attached to nearly the centre of the
underneath part of the coffin-bone. Immediately below
the last tendon, and the navicular-bone, is the sensible frog
interposed between them and the horny frog, consisting of
a fatty substance, comprising oil, elastic cellular membrane,
and cartilage. The further protection of the under portion
of the coffin-bone is provided by a sensible sole, thickest at
the toe, attached to the bone above and the horny sole
below ; and its upper surface is guarded by sensible, and
horny laminse, interposed between it and the horny outside,
and which bear a superficial resemblance to the gills of
an ordinary mushroom. Unless a shoeing-smith is well
acquainted with the anatomy of the foot, and merely looks
upon it as a horny box, there is an excellent chance of his
driving a nail into at least the horny laminse, if not into
still more tender parts !

The Points of a Horse.

The mechanism of the horse having now been considered
in detail, which applies alike to the thoroughbred horse and
the cart-horse, a summing-up of the general points will be
appropriate, though these will refer more especially to the
well-bred animal. The head should have length, and be
lean, and unmistakably indicate the sex, for a small, pretty
head for a male animal, or a masculine-looking head for a
female, are never to be desired, and are apt to be only too
true indications of contrary tempers. The forehead should
be wide, giving promise of sense. The eye is an especial
indicator of the mental attributes, a clear large full eye
nearly always indicating a generous disposition, while a
sullen-looking small "pig-eye," gives equal warning of a sulky
character, one not to be depended on when the moment
demands an extra exertion. The ears should be long, and

178 THE HORSE

show alertness by being frequently in motion, especially if
first one and then the other is moved forwards and back-
wards ; but there should be no restlessness about the
movement, or the animal will probably turn out fidgety
and excitable, and such do not make brilliant performers.
They are too apt to dash uncontrollably forward, not looking
where they are going, and then when the pinch comes they
are found to have exhausted their powers prematurely. A
lop-eared animal is most usually a placid-tempered one,
often a good stayer, usually of a generous disposition, but
sometimes a little bit inclined to be sluggish. A horse with
a little small prick-ear has invariably a "temper" of some
description. It may be only that it pulls tremendously
hard, but it may be vice. Such horses are apt to be
ungenerous in their work, to shy, refuse, or shut up in a
race when collared. If the animal is pig-eyed as well it is
better to look the other way when the horse is up for
auction, and the auctioneer endeavours to tempt you
into a bid !

The angle of the jaws must be wide, to admit of freedom
for the windpipe, and to allow the horse to bend his neck
properly to the bit. The upper lip should be rather long,
with a correspondingly long slit for the nostril when in
repose, which will dilate into a large bold orifice when
the horse is excited by a gallop, and the blood-vessels glisten
scarlet under the skin. The neck should be carried well up,
with a becoming arch, the withers be well defined. The
shoulders should have a well-marked slope, and be deep ;
while the points should not show through the skin when
the horse is in motion, though at the same time they should
be thick through, giving promise of sustaining weight.
Apropos of this subject, William Osmer, who wrote an
admirable treatise on the horse in 1756, remarks : —

"Add to this there is another advantage obtained to the
Horse besides velocity, by the declivity of the shoulders,
for his weight is removed farther back, and placed more in
the centre of his body, by which an equilibrium is acquired,
and every muscle bears a more equal share of weight and
action ; so that the nearer the articulation of the quarters

CONFORMATION 179

approaches to the superior part of the shoulders, so much
shorter will the back be ... in any given and proportioned
length from the bosom of the horse to the setting on of
the dock, the nearer the superior points of the shoulders
approach to the quarters, so much better will the carcase
be to sustain and bring through the weight ; and as much
as the shoulders themselves prevail in depth, and the thighs
and quarters in length, so much greater will be the velocity
of the horse, because a greater purchase of ground is hereby
obtained at every stride."

Certainly the most essential points of a horse were well
understood a hundred and fifty years ago ! They had
nothing to learn in this respect.

A short, powerful back is to be looked for, but it should be
combined with well-developed quarters, for there must be
length somewhere and it should be found in them. A long-
backed horse frequently has short quarters. The horse must
also " stand over a great deal of ground," as the saying is,
there being plenty between the fore and hind limbs when the
horse is set properly on his legs, and not made to stand in
that ridiculous fashion beloved of grooms when displaying
their charges, with the fore-legs stretched out in front, and
the hind-legs straggling away behind, the idea being to give
a fictitious air of length. It cannot deceive anybody but
the very ignorant, whilst it gives the horse the appearance
of possessing one of the worst of faults, that of having his
hocks away from him. A horse should stand as fair and
true on his limbs as a table on its legs, and the more the
perpendicular is departed from the greater must be the
strain on some part or other, with every probability of it
giving way when much stress is put upon it. The forearm
must be long and muscular, and the elbow well clear of
the body. When the fore-foot is lifted up, and the knee
bent, the hoof should just clear the elbow. The knees must
be large, and neither arched nor bent back, but of the two
the former is to be preferred when the formation is natural,
since there is less stress caused to the back tendons, though
it may be a sign of weakness if the arching of the knees is
very much pronounced. The back tendons should be well

180 THE HORSE

defined and wiry, and with this proviso cannot be too large.
A wiry leg is always to be preferred to a larger one which
is round and gummy, as it will stand twice the amount of
work. The eye is apt to be deceived as to the size of a leg,
according as there is harsh or silky hair, and even amongst
thoroughbreds the tape often tells a different tale to what
is expected. The tape is, however, a rock on which many
persons get wrecked who pin their faith on so many inches
below the knee, for the reasons already stated, the practical
man requiring a leg likely to do its work, irrespective of
how much it will measure. Moreover, the correct measure-
ment of a leg is not so easily made as may be imagined.
If taken too close to the knee a portion of the latter may
be included ; or if the tape is not drawn sufficiently tight
an increase of half an inch, or more, may easily be added
to the real amount. If the tape is placed about two inches
below the knee, and drawn fairly tight, the statements of
owners, and interested helpers, have a way of not tallying
with the measurement by a person whose only object is to
get at the truth. One often hears of a horse having so
many inches of bone, but almost all bone is of sufficient
bulk to sustain the weight, and it is the size of the sinews
which is important, they being the ropes which move the
bones. The cannon, or shank-bone, should, however, be
of fair dimensions, and though round in front of the shin
should be almost flat at the sides narrowing somewhat
towards the back, after the fashion of a razor.

The fetlocks should be clean, and without windgalls,
which betray a soft condition, although they are not often
very troublesome except to an animal in training, for then
they cause more or less stiffness, and prevent the horse
striding out to his full capacity. The pasterns should
neither be plumb upright nor too sloping, the former
formation soon causing the animal to become stilty in its
action, especially when the ground is hard ; and in deep
ground they are most unsuitable, it being found by
experience that horses with upright pasterns cannot " get
through dirt." Pasterns sloping too much are also unsuited
to deep going, though their very elasticity is a recommenda-

CONFORMATION 181

tion when the ground is hard. Such pasterns afford dehght-
fully easy paces, when the animal is required as a hack.

The curious callosities known respectively as chestnuts
and ergots must not be overlooked. The former are
universal, and are placed on each limb, being of a tough,
leather-like substance, the use of which is not definitely
known ; though it has been suggested they have formerly
been glands which secreted an odour, by which animals
separated from their comrades were enabled to track one
another. They are very rarely absent, and the writer has
only known one case. This was in a chestnut colt, bred by
himself in 1898 by Queen's Counsel out of Lunette by
Napsbury, who was born without chestnuts on his front
limbs. Ergots are hard protuberances growing from tufts
of hair behind the fetlocks, and are of identical material
with the horn of the sole. There is nothing to indicate
what their original function may have been. Both chestnuts
and ergots are liable to grow sufficiently large to become
unsightly, when they should be trimmed down with the
blacksmith's knife to reasonable dimensions.

A few horses develop bony excrescences on the forehead,
which are looked upon as horns, but they have no true core,
and do not penetrate the skin. It is a curious circumstance
that a colt who was the playmate of the colt " Crown
Glass," mentioned above, and foaled in the same year, also
made himself conspicuous by developing horns when he
was six years old. This was Shepherd Lord, a brown, by
Wellington, out of Lady Bo-Peep by Hagioscope. As both
were subjected to an operation there was no chance of
seeing whether they would have perpetuated their abnormal
characteristics.

CHAPTEK VIII
BEEEDING

ACCORDING to the highest scientific authorities the
mammalian ovum is but a minute speck of animal
matter, possessing no individuality. The diameter is less
than xooth of an inch. A membrane surrounding an
albuminous mass forms a simple cell containing a germinal
spot, and this constitutes the ovum. That germ in the
"egg" can only be seen under the highest powers of the
microscope ; and it only requires to be fertilised by coming
in contact with the male sperm to develop into a mammal —
a man, an elephant, a wee mouse, or any other member of
the vast order which includes all mammals under its wing,
each after its kind. The final development of that impreg-
nation is as astonishing as the fact that an oak-tree is the
outcome of a tiny acorn ; or that luscious fruit should
result from a similar fertilisation of the ovule of a flower
by contact with the male pollen. Nor does it require the
course of ages to produce such marvels, only a few months,
or in some cases only a few weeks, being quite sufficient.
When such astonishing results are duly considered it does
not seem so incomprehensible that mammals have evolved
from birds and fish, in the course of many millions of
years.

The principles of heredity are very strange and perplexing,
and though certain facts have been grasped by man, and
turned to his own purpose, only the fringe of the subject
has yet been touched upon. That " like produces like " is
generally acknowledged, and is so far true that the union of
two race-horses cannot produce a Shire horse ; nor can two
Shetland ponies become the parents of a Suffolk Punch.

182

BREEDING 183

But at any rate the offspring will be "horses," and not
dogs, or cattle, or some other branch of the mammalian
order. Though what is known amongst florists as " sports "
continually occur in all organic life, such departures as the
above from an established " race " are quite impossible.
Even the children of two white parents can never be
negroes ; nor those of Orientals have the features of
Europeans.

Particular traits are frequently fixed in certain families,
in which such are pre-eminent, and are most certainly
inherited, though different members vary to a considerable
extent in their possession of them. These may even lie
dormant for a generation owing perhaps to disuse from want
of opportunity for their exercise, or some other cause, but
unless they are not called for during several generations, they
are sure to crop up at the first favourable opportunity. If
the same care was taken to join in matrimony human beings
of like proclivities for many generations, as man takes with
regard to animals under his care, such tendencies would
in all probability become even more fixed than they
are at present. In breeding horses of any description the
same principle must be kept in mind, and individuals should
be selected, as parents, from such families as have much
merit in the particular direction desired. Then if well-
developed animals are chosen, without hereditary ailments,
whose immediate ancestors, moreover, have also been true-
shaped and adapted to the special work required, the
foundation should be laid for a successful progeny.

The further building up of the produce must largely
depend on due care and judicious feeding, both during the
pregnancy of the dam, the period of suckling, and
the first years of youthful development, but especially
during the first winter. A young animal must always be
kept growing, and should never be allowed to be checked
in its growth. If the " calf-flesh " is once lost, it is both
difficult and takes a long time to get the tender young one
started again ; and it will never be quite as good as it might
have been if there had been no drawback. A very frequent
cause of trouble is the time of weaning, when a foal always

184 THE HORSE

requires some extra addition to its ordinary food, to make
up for the loss of its mother's milk ; and also the anxiety
of mind it necessarily experiences when it first loses her
society. To meet the latter case it is an excellent method,
1 have long followed, to do the weaning gradually, extending
the process over two or three days, or more if the foal takes
its dam's absence much to heart. Thus the mare at first
is only kept absent a couple of hours, and is then brought
back and left with her foal. The next day she is not brought
back till after double the period of time has elapsed, and
usually the foal does not take very much notice this time
of her absence, expecting she will return as she did before.
If the foal seems to settle down while the mare is away,
on the third day she is not brought back at all ; but this can
be left to the discretion of the attendant in charge. It is most
advisable that the foal should have a companion to whom
it is accustomed to run along with it, though this need not
be one of the same age. Almost any sort of animal will
prove a comfort to it, more especially a donkey or a goat,
with whom a firm comradeship is frequently cemented.
The future companion should be put in the same paddock
with the mare and foal before weaning takes place, if pos-
sible, and it is a further assistance if they occupy adjoining
boxes at night, so that the sense of loneliness is not so
pronounced when the fateful day arrives for the mare to
be parted from her offspring. A little care in this respect
is never time thrown away, for if the foal should fret much
it will lose flesh considerably, and perhaps refuse to feed for
a day or two, when the ground lost will take some time
before it can be made good. It should have acquired the
taste for crushed oats while still running with the dam, and
to these can be added a little linseed, and some patent food,
than which nothing seems to answer better than the well-
known " Valenta." If there is any tendency to constipation
when the foal is deprived of its mother's milk, some linseed
gruel added to a small bran mash will act as an efficient
corrective. A foal can be accustomed to eat corn whilst in
the paddock by following the capital plan of Mr. Kobert
Thornton, the experienced stud-groom at Lord Middleton's

BREEDING 185

stud-farm at Birdsall in Yorkshire. An enclosure 10 yards
square is formed, with a rail 4 ft. 6 in. from the top of the
rail to the ground, and inside a feeding-trough is placed, in
which crushed oats are put. The foals pass underneath the
rail to feed, whilst the mares are obliged to remain outside.
The foals very soon take the hint, and come galloping into the
enclosure as soon as the attendant is descried approaching
with the oats. A quart or two of cow's milk, if it can be spared,
will be a welcome addition to the bill of fare, and skim milk
will do quite well for this purpose ; if it can be given till
after Christmas it will help considerably in building up a
bony frame, for on the way the foal gets through its first
winter will very much depend its future well-being. It
should be out in a paddock for several hours every day, only
being kept at home in very wet weather, when rain or snow
are actually falling. The paddocks should be of consider-
able size, at least five or six acres, and preferably more,
for in very tiny ones the animals soon get tired of the
small place in which they are confined, and then drift into
a habit of standing about, listening at the door and waiting
to be summoned home. In a sufficiently large enclosure
they find enough to interest them in moving from one part
to another, especially if there is any broken ground in it, or
any plantation which hides the view so that some part is
always hidden, thus promoting curiosity to go and see if
anything is going on in that direction. It is one of the
chief, and most fatal, defects in very small enclosures that
the whole can be seen from any spot in them by merely
raising the head, and so there is no impulse felt to go in
search of something fresh. The late Mr. Leonard Morrogh
first drew my attention to this about thirty years ago,
having adopted the principle at the deer-paddocks, at the
kennels of the Ward Union Stag-hounds. The deer were
kept in some very small yards, with sheds to go into ; but it
was found they stood listlessly about, and when required for
the chase were far from fit, and soon tired. By adopting
the simple plan of putting up some detached wooden bar-
riers to break the view in the yards, and also to hide the
entrance into the sheds, and, moreover, by giving access

186 THE HORSE

from one paddock into another, the deer were always on the
go, being seized with an insatiable curiosity to know " what
the other fellow " was doing, whom they could not see ; and
so they wandered from this barrier to that, then into a
house and out again, and finally made a visit of inspection
into the next paddock, only to be seized with a sudden
panic lest something should after all be happening in the
one they had just left — true disciples of " the wandering
Jew." The result was that the deer improved so much in
condition that great runs took place, which were a feature
during the visits of that splendid horsewoman, the late
lamented Empress of Austria.

The further requirements of the foal will be plenty of
good sound hay, a little rock salt, and an airy box free from
draughts. If the animal is found to have little flesh on its
ribs, especially if it is somewhat pot-bellied, one may at once
suspect that it is troubled with internal parasites, and give
a vermifuge, than which nothing is more effective than the
old-fashioned one, which has stood the test of time —
turpentine, linseed oil, and camphor. For a foal on the
mare, or just weaned : —

Turpentine J tablespoon

Camphor ... ... ... ... ... J oz.

Linseed oil ... ... ... ... ^ pint

The camphor should be put in the oil in the evening, and
will be dissolved in the morning.

The Effects of Hereditx".

Scientists teach that the body is built up of cells, con-
tinually reproduced and added to, but it is curious to reflect
how hereditary tendencies can thus be transmitted. How are
these cells influenced in the making by ancestors of long
ago? And why should the influence of one parent, and
through it that of ancestors on its side of the house, prevail
more and be more impressive than that of the other parent ?
We know, from observation, that the progeny often resembles
a grandfather or grandmother, or some one even further

BREEDING 187

remote, more than it does its own parents; still, other
things being equal, both dam and sire are equally liable
to transmit some of their own particular peculiarities to
their offspring, and stamp their impress upon it.

In certain of the lowest forms of life it is found that an
ancestor reproduces itself with the greatest regularity in the
third or fourth generation, but as there is no such guide
to assist us in breeding horses the utmost we can do is to
select none but true-shaped animals of unimpeachable per-
formances to mate together, and then if there is a tendency
to throw back on the part of the progeny it must be to a
good type. Other qualities, the intellectual and the nervous
organisation, are also to some extent hereditary, but seem
to be rather dependent upon the immediate sire and dam,
especially if they are very closely related to each other, than
upon more remote forbears. The doctrine of heredity,
however, admits of a simple explanation. The cells which
are concerned with the building up of a future creature are
termed " Gametes," and when a Gametes cell from each
parent meets and fuses with the other, they henceforward
form a single cell, the germ of the future body. This new
cell, the product of both parents, never afterwards changes
in character, and contains only such qualities of each parent
as may happen to be stored in the respective cells at the
moment of uniting — much as the elements of each exist in
the compound when whiskey and soda-water are mixed
together.

The new cell is in future known as a "Zygote," and is
not fresh matter, but a continuation of former material.
The influence of each parent, thus bestowed, remains
constant, being neither subtracted from, nor added to
afterwards : and it only remains for environment and
education to develop the various traits thus inherited to
their fullest extent ; or to allow them to lie dormant if
circumstances are not favourable for their development,
though they can still be further transmitted to another
generation.

Gregor Mendel, that painstaking, hard-working Austro-
Silesian monk, who died in 1884, proved by an exhaustive

188 THE HORSE

series of experiments that plants and animals are com-
pounds of various distinct units, inherited on definite
principles, and that by rearrangement of the characters
of each group new varieties could be produced. He
proved that by mating blue Andalusian fowls together
the chickens came of three colours, either blue, black,
or white spotted with black, and that the proportions
of each were 1, 2, 1. If, however, the black-and-white
chickens were mated with each other they produced blue
Andalusians only. The colours of horses no doubt follow
the same law, and it has long been observed that a chestnut
sire mated with a chestnut dam invariably produces a chest-
nut foal. Baron Von Oettingen gives some remarkable
statistics from the Koyal Stud at Trakehnen, which has
existed over a hundred years, blacks, browns, and chestnuts
being kept apart in three special studs, while in a fourth
the colours are mixed ; and he proves how regularly certain
colours followed the respective matings ; while he further
remarks that a distinct atavism is often evident in the
transmission of white marks and particular spots.

With reference to white markings Sir Jonathan Hutchin-
son, F.R.S., F.K.C.S., for a long period consulting surgeon
to the London Hospital, contributed a most interesting
paper on the subject to the British Medical Journal,
June 18, 1910. The substance of his communication is
that the upward extension of white stockings on the legs
will be in ratio with the size of the star, or blaze, on the
forehead. " If it occurs, as is unusual, that the forehead
patch is not placed in the middle line there will probably
be want of bilateral symmetry in the markings of the feet.
... I attach much importance to any conspicuous devia-
tion from symmetry in these matters. If, for instance, the
face patch is on one side only, and the two feet on one side
show stockings while those on the other retain colour, it
may, I believe, be suspected that the animal is not developed
with perfect bilateral symmetry in other respects. He may
differ from his fellows as a left-handed man differs from a
right-handed. He may be a sinistral (left-handed) horse,
and if so, although he may be strong and efficient for work,

BREEDINO

189

he will move more or less awkwardly, and not be pleasant
to ride."

Sir Jonathan further remarks that the hind feet are
almost always more involved than the fore ones, and that
if one fore-foot only is white it is nearly always the left (or
near) one.

Sir Jonathan has indeed put forward an interesting and
totally new subject, and there is such force in his remarks
that a prolonged study of the subject may result in some
singular and important discoveries.

On taking at random several famous stallions of the past,
I find that every one of them which had a white mark on
the forehead had it placed on the middle line, and that not
one of them had a white off fore-foot with the other legs
coloured. Still a much more extensive search needs to be
made before a universal rule can be established.

Darley Arabian ... Straight blaze

Flying Childers ... Small central star

Godolphin Arabian

Eclipse

Highflyer

Blacklock

Sir Hercules

Touchstone

Irish Birdcatcher

Voltigeur

Stockwell

Hermit

St. Simon

Straight blaze

Narrow straight blaze
Grey hairs all through

root of the tail.
Large white star and

straight race

Straight blaze

No white on forehead
Straight blaze

Narrow star and race.
No white on forehead

White stockings on both
hind - legs. Near fore
coronet white. White
spots on left wither and
left ribs.

White reach into both
nostrils. All four fet-
locks white.

Both hind coronets white.

Off hind-leg white, to hock.

Near hind pastern, and off
hind heel white.

Near hind fetlock white.

the coat, especially at the

Near hind-leg white.
Near hind-leg white.
Off hind heel white.
Near hind-leg and off hind
fetlock white.

Near hind heel white on
outside.

According to the ruling of Sir Jonathan none of these could
be suspected of being a sinistral animal ; but those who had

190 THE HORSE

much white on the legs also had a large blaze on the face,
whilst the others contented themselves with having only
the fetlocks, or heels, white.

Bkood Maees.

The very first and most essential thing in breeding stock
of any description is to see that the matrons are of such
form that they can produce well-developed offspring, and so
far back as the early days of Eome Virgil drew especial
notice to this point. In the 3rd chapter of the Georgics
and the 49th verse he says : —

" Seu quis olympiaco niiratus proemia palmo
Pascit equos, Seu quis fortes ad aratra juvencos,
Corpora praecipue matrum legat."

If this is neglected breeding must eventually result in failure.

A brood mare should be roomy in body, with plenty of
length underneath to provide ample room for the growth
of the foetus, for a short mare with fore and hind limbs
close together, seldom produces a good foal ; and, moreover,
one whose genital development is unusually small is to
be avoided, unless there is a special desire to have a foal
from that particular mare. In addition to being of true
conformation a long low mare should be chosen in pre-
ference to one that is high on the leg, and a wiry animal
rather than a big coarse one. Besides the actual make and
shape, any deficiencies in which should, if possible, be
counteracted by the stallion being particularly good in those
points, other qualities must be duly considered, such as
hardiness, good temper, and courage, and most especially
that the mare is generous in her work. Hot-tempered,
lazy, cowardly, and bad-tempered mares should be avoided,
and also such as are bad feeders. All these qualities, good
or bad, are very apt indeed to be inherited by the oft'sprmg,
and are equally important in every breed and for every class
of work.

Maiden mares, which have never been covered, should be
invariably examined by the stud-groom, as frequently the

BREEDING 191

development of the vagina is so contracted that the stallion
is made sore in consequence, thus hindering him in his sub-
sequent duties. The mare is also unduly irritated, and
resents the attentions of the male on after-occasions through
fear of being hurt. Many owners of valuable stallions w^ill
not allow them to serve maiden mares, and it is often so
stated in the published advertisements. A stud-groom,
when he finds the passage unduly small, should insert his
hand and arm, after well oiling them, and, besides opening
the vagina, should smear the part well with vaseline or
some other lubricating ointment.

The actual first service is the most important one of the
mare's life. Though science deprecates the notion, practical
experience proves that the impressions then formed more or
less dominate all subsequent offspring. At that moment the
maiden knows not what is about to take place, and she
closely observes everything she sees, and follows each move-
ment of those about her. Everything is photographed in
her marvellous memory, and it is of supreme importance
that on this occasion she should not gaze upon any ill-
formed horse ; and if the sire has defects it is better that the
mare should not see him, but be blindfolded until he has
come and gone. In the thirtieth chapter of Genesis the
importance of the surroundings is well emphasised, and
evidently well understood at that far-off date. On sub-
sequent occasions, though such precautions are still
desirable, they are not of the same importance as at the
very first time of covering.

Quietness should ever be sought, and in all well-managed
establishments a special yard for such performances is an
invariable rule, surrounded with such high walls that the
occupants cannot see outside, and with no possibility of any
disturbance from the external world. For the reasons given
it is evident the use of the twitch is not to be recommended
as an invariable rule, although the two interests involved
may differ as to this, the owner of the stallion thinking
chiefly about the safety of his horse, whilst the owner of
the mare is concerned about the success of the progeny.
When the mare is known to be a difficult and irritable

192 THE HORSE

animal to serve, the safety of the horse must be the first
consideration ; but with a docile, generous mare it is better
to act without it. Some horses are so savage in their lust it
is most necessary to protect the necks of the mares from
injury; they receive serious bites, and may even be killed
if the stallion seizes them where the gaping of the atlas
exposes the spinal cord to external injury. A cover for the
neck, of sacking or leather, which cannot be torn by the
teeth, is therefore a wise precaution.

Apropos of this an anecdote has been related to me, my
informant having been told the tale by the owner of the
animals, who witnessed the scene, when a donkey-
stallion succeeded in killing a full-grown stallion horse.
That it was a fight to a finish never crossed the mind of
the spectator, who only thought it would make for peace if
he allowed the two to settle the matter for themselves.

The horse commenced proceedings by assaulting the
donkey, and battered his sides with kicks to the utmost of
his power. These the donkey bore for some time without
any flinching, but he gradually edged along the horse's flank
till he could get within reach of the forearm, when he sud-
denly seized the horse just above the knee with a powerful
grip and held on hke a bulldog, despite all the struggles of
the other. At length the horse could stand the pain no
longer and came down upon his knees, when, being at last
within his reach, the donkey instantly quitted his hold upon
the forearm, and seizing the horse behind the ears, where
the atlas exposes the pith, he killed the horse almost
immediately.

The choice of ground for breeding stock needs to be care-
fully made, for some parts of the country are just as suit-
able as others are the reverse. Upland districts are usually
the best, and limestone, new red sandstone, gravel, and
chalk are generally excellent. Black soil — not peat
soil, but the kind which grows excellent crops, and which
is beloved by pheasants and partridges — is first rate as
a change, but should be well drained, and stock in general
seems to thrive apace in such localities. On clay soils
horses often do well, provided they have access to light land

BREEDING 193

close at hand, to which they can resort when they please,
but otherwise clay is apt to be too cold in wet weather to
suit well-bred animals with thin skins. As a general rule
land which grows fine beech-trees is good also for horses,
beech-trees disliking damp, while though oaks thrive in
many soils they also do so in damp situations, and therefore
are not such valuable indicators as fine beech-trees.

Foaling.

Some mares show unmistakably when they are in season,
but others never give any sign unless tried by a stallion,
and if there is not one on the premises and the mare has
to be sent some distance to meet one, it is often a difficult
matter to know when she is in use. A telling sign is when
she is seen smelling the droppings of other mares, and in
the case of a shy mare such a sign should not be neglected.
If the halter of the mare is taken hold of and the other
hand placed on her flank it can generally be seen if she
is in use, for if not she will lay back her ears and kick.
Mares remain a few days in season, but individuals vary
in the length of time ; a colt foal usually results from the
mare conceiving at the beginning of the period, and a filly
at the end of it. The mare having been covered need not
be brought to the stallion for fourteen days, but every suc-
ceeding seventh day she must again be tried. After seven
weeks from the date of the last service, during which time
she has refused the horse, it may be safely concluded she
is in foal. If, however, the mare does not conceive to the
service, she will come again into season probably in three or
four weeks' time.

After foaling the mare usually comes again into use seven
days after, and should be covered on the ninth day, begin-
ning the count on the day she foaled, when she is more
likely to conceive than at any other time. When she
is in season the foal is sure to give signs of a harmless
diarrhcea, which being the natural course need cause no
alarm ; but it may be relieved by giving the dam a handful
of dry barley twice during the first day the foal's condition

194 THE HORSE

is observed, and afterwards once a day, until the foal is
dried up again.

Mares in foal should have a run out every day, except
in very stormy or frosty weather, when there is a danger
of slipping up and injuring themselves ; but at least within
a month of foaling she should be brought under cover
at night, and the appearance of her udder should be
observed before going out in the morning, and when she
returns to her stable. Usually the udder begins to increase
about a fortnight before foaling, though some are a little
earlier and some later ; and then wax, a yellow substance,
appears on the teats and remains about a day. If this drops
off, and is followed by milk dropping away, the mare will
probably foal in about ten hours ; but if the wax falls ofif and
is not followed by milk, she may go for some days before she
waxes again.

The box in which a mare foals should always have
two doors to it, or else the door should open outwards, lest
she should go down against the door, and if it opens
inwardly there is no getting into the box without disturbing
the mare. As soon as the foal is born a string should be
tied round the navel-string, about an inch from the foal's
belly. If it is tied too close, and stretches the skin of
the belly in consequence, it will probably bring on inflam-
mation ; and if it is tied three or four inches away it will
sway about when the colt is gambolling, and this again
will bring on inflammation ; from whatever cause this
results, it will very probably prove fatal. The navel-string,
after being tied, should be cut off close to the ligature. One
of the chief reasons for tying the string is that thereby
microbes are prevented from entering the wound, which
is again a frequent cause of losing a foal, especially from
Joint Evil. The raw place, and the whole of the remainder
of the navel-string as far as the belly, should be lightly
touched with a camel's-hair brush, or a clean feather,
dipped in Chinosol lotion, or other antiseptic ; but caution
must be exercised in choosing an antiseptic for such a
delicate subject as a newly born foal. Chinosol is perfectly
safe, and so is carbolised collodion.

BREEDING 195

If the mare should jump up immediately after foaling ,
and so break the navel-string before it has been tied, just
slit the latter and twist it, which will at once stop the
bleeding, and then proceed to apply a ligature in the
usual manner.

After the string has been tied the foal should be drawn
up to the mare's head, that she may smell and lick it ;
and then a little oatmeal gruel may be offered to her — as
she lies, if she has not risen. In half an hour's time a
warm mash should be given to her, and while she is eating
it the foal should be taught to suck by holding its head
to the teats, and placing one in its mouth. If it does
not readily attempt to suck, it may be induced to do so
by drawing off a few drops of milk from the mare, and
rubbing the teat with it just as it is being put into the foal's
mouth. If it still makes no attempt to suck, the middle
finger, after it has been dipped into the milk, should be
introduced into the foal's mouth, when it will at once
suck it, and thus acquiring the taste of the milk it is
almost certain to make use of the teat if placed at once
again to its lips.

New cow's milk may be given at first, if the dam
yields too little milk, but should soon be replaced with
skim milk, which possesses a large proportion of casein,
or flesh-forming food, and phosphate of lime, and so is
exactly adapted to the growth of muscle and bone. Cow's
milk is richer both in casein and butter fat than that of the
mare, though it is deficient in sugar. If new milk is
continued in use it should have one-third of water added
to it, but skim milk is preferable.

The first milk of the mare contains a substance, colustrum,
which is of especial service in assisting the foal to pass
the foecal matter, the myconium, with which it is
burdened at birth. The mare should never be milked
therefore, except to get the few drops necessary to induce
the foal to take to the teat, until the foal has sucked. The
myconium should pass away naturally in the first twelve
to twenty-four hours after birth, and if this has not taken
place within that period treatment should at once be

196 THE HORSE

adopted. The simplest, and usually most effective, plan
is to dissolve thoroughly a small piece of soft soap (about
the size of a walnut) in a teacupful of warm water, and
administer it as an enema. If this does not at once
produce the desired effect give two tablespoonfuls of
castor oil, or linseed oil, to the foal.

Some mares foal standing up, and in the case of valuable
stock it is advisable for two assistants to hold a horse-
rug in which to receive the foal, as it otherwise may be
seriously injured, especially if the mare should kick at
the infant when it drops on to the straw. A close watch
without attractmg the mare's attention should always
be kept, but if it is seen that the process is normal, the head
and fore-legs appearing first, it is better to leave Nature
to herself. If, however, a wrong presentation is made
assistance must be given at once, or both mare and foal
may be lost. If the under-jaw can be seized a leverage
is obtained, whereby the position of the foal can be
greatly altered.

Foals should be encouraged to eat crushed oats as soon
as possible, and if they cannot reach the manger a small
one should be put up close by, which need only be a
temporary arrangement. They will then miss the dam
much less at weaning-time in consequence ; and they
must be well fed during the first winter, which is the
most important time of their lives. If they begin to look
pot-bellied, with rough coats, suspect worms, and give
linseed oil and turpentine, according to the directions
already given. Dalwood's Worm Powders are also very
good, and have stood the test of long experience. These
should be followed up by a dose of linseed oil, and after-
wards by the tonic powders containing sulphate of iron,
the amount given being reduced in proportion to the age
of the animal.

Stallions need plenty of exercise, and should be in hard
condition to be fruitful. It is frequently noticed how
successful travelling stalHons are, with all the dis-
advantages of unskilled assistants, and excited spectators
amongst the farm-hands where they visit, compared to

BREEDING 197

stallions who remain at home to receive their consorts but
do not receive sufficient exercise. The impressiveness
shown by certain individuals, usually the male, is well
recognised, and when a stallion is endowed with this
supreme gift there is a general run upon his services.
A good stallion may " make " a district for years, filling
the country with good horses, and the pockets of the
breeders with money, while a bad stallion may poison
the neighbourhood in a similar way. And yet the breeding
of the one may be equal to that of the other, while between
the conformation of the two there may be nothing to
choose ! A very necessary point in a sire is nervous energy,
and unless he possesses a full share he cannot impart it
to his offspring. Without steam an engine is useless ! The
Spanish proverb that " a stallion, a lover, and a gamecock
must have fire," contains a great deal of shrewd common
sense !

Statistics show that every year a very large number of
mares do not produce living offspring, and the same appears
true of all countries. A stallion which can show 52 or
53 per cent, of foals must be reckoned good, and any
increase is very good, although some extraordinarily
vigorous and prepotent stallions may get practically all
their mares in foal, if none but those giving milk are
selected for their mates ; but it is claimed for the practice
of artificial insemination that quite 90 per cent, prove in
foal — and certainly with shy breeders it is well worth
a trial. It is not recommended to interfere with Nature
until a mare has been twice unsuccessfully to the stallion ;
but when a third visit is paid it is prudent to supple-
ment the service with an artificial insemination imme-
diately after the stallion has performed his part of the
ceremony.

Many mares are barren owing to an acid condition of the
vaginal mucus, which proves fatal to the spermatozoa sup-
plied by the stallion. It is well therefore when a mare does
not hold after the first two services to give her 1 oz. of
bicarbonate of potash daily in the drinking water for a week
prior to the expected service ; and half an hour before the

198 THE HORSE

leap to inject into the vagina a solution of 1 oz. of the same,
in a quart of tepid water.

The famous summing up of the standard points of a stallion
by Dame Juliana Berners, so skilled and observant in all
country matters, may here be quoted. They are fifteen
in number, and were laid down in 1481.

Standard Points Desirable in a Stallion.

Of a man, bolde prowde and hardy ;

Of a woman, fayr-brested, fair of heere, and easy to leap upon ;

Of a fox, a fayr taylle, short eeres, with a good trotte ;

Of a haare, a grete eye, a dry hede, and well runnynge ;

Of an asse, a bygge chyn, a flatte legge, and a good hoof.

"With regard to inbreeding, it has been noted that while a
very inbred mare frequently gives birth to excellent stock,
when mated with a stallion which bring in a further strain
of the same family, though not inbred himself, the converse
does not hold good.

An inbred sire should not consort with a mare which
inherits the same strains as himself.

Aboetion, and Joint Evil.

From whatever cause abortion may occur it is as
necessary to prevent the mare from catching cold, as
it is after foaling, and especial care must be taken
that the stable is free from draught, as well as being warm.
Plenty of clothing, according to the state of the temperature
at the time, is also requisite. A weak solution of Chinosol,
1 to 1,000, should also be injected twice daily into the vagina
for a week to wash the uterus thoroughly before it is again
closed, and thus destroy any harmful microbes which may be
lurking therein. The mare should not be covered again, if
the abortion takes place in the autumn or winter, until the
ordinary time for foaling has passed in the following spring.
If, however, the mare aborts soon after pregnancy, and
having been covered early there is yet sufficient time, she
may be treated the same as after foaling, and after being
duly disinfected with the antiseptic solution, be covered the
next time she comes into use, probably about the ninth day.

BREEDING 199

Advisable as it is at all times to disinfect the penis of the
stallion immediately after covering, it is most important to
do so after serving a mare who has recently aborted, lest he
carries infection with him to succeeding mares. For this
purpose it is not sufficient to inject the disinfectant into the
sheath with a syringe. The penis itself must be carefully
drawn out by hand to its full length, and then washed with
wadding soaked in j,h,o solution of Chinosol.

Though the stallion may show irritation at first, he very
soon becomes accustomed to the operation, and takes no
notice of it.

Joint Evil, till quite recently, has been looked upon as
so serious a complaint there was but scant hope of success-
fully combating it, for even when the foal lived it was quite
a wreck. Now, thanks to increase of knowledge regarding
microbes and antiseptics, it no longer inspires the dread
it formerly did. A mare, whose foal shows symptoms of
Joint Evil, should have her uterus cleansed at once with the
Chinosol solution, and instead of being covered when she
comes into use (about the seventh day) she should have the
solution injected daily throughout the period, and not go to
the stallion until the next oestrum occurs.

Joint Evil is the term applied to a lameness, which usually
occurs with a foal or calf between the fifth and twenty-first
day after birth. Since a joint (or joints) becomes greatly
swollen and inflamed, the appropriateness of the designa-
tion will be conceded. At first the attendant is apt to think
the dam has trodden upon her offspring, if he has had no
experience of the disease ; but the high fever which is a con-
comitant of Joint Evil will speedily enlighten him as to the
true diagnosis of the attack. It is a dirt disease, and in the
vast majority of cases the microbes effect their entrance
through the lacerated end of the umbilical cord when severed
after birth. It is to prevent their intrusion that the necessity
arises of applying a ligature to the navel-string immediately
after birth, and of dressing the raw surface with some
suitable antiseptic, than which nothing is more useful than
the Chinosol solution or carbolised collodion. This should
be applied to the whole of the remainder of the cord up to
the belly, besides the raw surface of the wound.

200

THE HORSE

If the malignant organisms effect an entrance the line
of inflammation they set up travels to the liver, and thence
enters into the general circulation, and so produces an effect
upon a joint or joints.

The symptoms of the attack develop rapidly. At first the
little patient appears dull, and then a joint begins to swell,
becoming hot and painful to the touch. Points then form
and discharge pus, high fever sets in, and death generally
occurs between the fourth and eight day.

The treatment consists of attacking the original seat of
disease with external antiseptics, and injecting others into
the localised place of lodgment, the swollen joint, by means
of the hypodermic syringe. To carry out the former wrap
the umbilical cord in medicated cotton-wool steeped in
Chinosol solution, keeping it constantly wet ; or paint it
repeatedly with tincture of Iodine or Vasogen, the latter
being an excellent preparation, not affecting prejudicially
the most delicate surface. For injection into the swelling
a 4 per cent, solution of FormaHn may be employed,
using the syringe at a number of different points ; or
Acetozone may be used instead, with a dilution of 1 in
500, which is also recommended as a draught, one table-
spoonful being given every four hours, day and night. The
strength must be kept up by offering milk from the mare in
a baby's bottle, having a teat attached similar to those in use
for calves. When able to stand again and suck the dam it
will need no further treatment ; but a little tonic, such
as Parish's Food, will be a great assistance in regaining
strength.

exteact from the fourteenth report of the royal commission on
Horse Breeding, Oct. 11, 1911.

1909
1910

Average per-
centage of Foals
left by the
28 Stallions.

57
56

Total Number
of Mares
Served.

Highest per-
centage of Foals
left by any
Stallion.

1,630
1,551

78
76

Lowest per

centage of Foals

left by any

Stallion.

30
36

CHAPTEE IX

BEEAKING YOUNG HOESES

ON the mouth of the horse largely depends his value, and
the early lessons he receives are of the utmost
importance, for he will recollect them all his life. Breaking
a young horse should therefore be a continuous series of
progressive lessons, and nothing should ever be done which
he will afterwards have to unlearn. The management of
the animal should from the very beginning be entrusted
to an experienced, capable man, who has control over his
own temper ; for a person who has to learn what to do, or
who is subject to fits of ill-temper, may in a moment put
ideas of rebellion into the mind of a high-couraged animal
which are never totally forgotten, to combat and to conquer
which may cause infinite trouble.

If a foal is judiciously handled from the day of birth
there will be little trouble in training it afterwards to do
anything that is wanted, and it should be accustomed from
the very first day to subject its own will to the wishes of its
master. A supple foal's head-collar should be put on at
once, so that the little animal can be held by the head
whilst the hand is passed over its body, head, neck, and
limbs, when it is still too weak and feeble to resist. By
this simple means it learns to be groomed and touched in
any part without resistance ; for though it may kick for a
time or two, its blows are of no account, and it quickly learns
that it is not going to be harmed, and therefore passively
submits to the treatment. This should be done on almost
every occasion of going into the stable, and all the feet
should be picked up in turn and patted with the hand,
in imitation of being shod, when the smith will have no

202 THE HORSE

trouble when the first shoes have to be put on. A small
surcingle may be buckled on occasionally, to accustom the
young animal to the pressure of girths, and a rubber tied
on, and left awhile, so that when training is commenced
in real earnest there will be nothing to cause alarm or to
which it has not already been accustomed. The head-collar
affords a means of teaching the foal to back, and this should
frequently be practised, besides leading it behind the mare
when going to and from the pasture, for which purpose the
help of an additional man is required for a few minutes
daily. But very few lessons should be required before the
foal will lead as quietly as a well-broken horse. It should
also be taught to stand quietly when tied to the manger,
and this is preferably carried out when it is engaged in
eating a few crushed oats. The lesson need not be pro-
longed beyond a few minutes, for it is soon learned and
recognised by the foal as being part of life in the stable.
Before the first six weeks have passed all the above
should have become fixed in the foal's mind as ordinary
habits.

When the young animal is taken in hand for breaking,
it is usual to lunge it in a circle for some little time, either
in a cavesson, or with a rope fastened to a circular bit ;
and this latter method is the one most usually employed
with thoroughbred yearlings, since it gives more control
than the simple cavesson. The latter is said to be the
invention of Prince Pignatelli of Naples in the sixteenth
century, and, as still used in Spain, is capable of being
made a most severe instrument. In that country the
iron band which passes over the front of the face is used
in all its nakedness, and ofttimes has the lower part shaped
into teeth, Hke those of an ordinary rat-trap. It frequently
has reins attached, to fit it for use as a bridle in riding and
driving, besides its ordinary employment as a lunge with a
single rope. In more humane countries the encircling steel-
band is well padded and covered with wash-leather, and
used solely for the lunge or for leading horses. It is of
great value for the former purpose, enabHng the teacher
to prove to his pupil that it is really mastered, however

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES 203

refractory it may be at the beginning ; but it should be
used with discretion, and not abused. A horse should never
be kept circling too long in one direction without being
allowed to have a spell in the opposite direction ; and much
caution should be observed in allowing it to canter, which
may easily become a gallop, when there is considerable
danger of the animal slipping up and straining itself.
Thoughtless grooms are too fond of urging the animal on,
without thinking of possible consequences — but then
they are not risking their own property ! When horses
are too fresh, or are given to plunging when first mounted,
a few rounds in the cavesson, before being ridden, is an
excellent safety-valve for exuberant spirits. When a young
horse is commencing his tuition in the ring he should have
a special surcingle strapped on, provided with a crupper,
and also with side buckles to which reins can be fastened
which are made for the purpose and which buckle also
to the bit. To the surcingle all kinds of things may be
fastened, varying them from day to day — stable rubbers,
coloured handkerchiefs, a hunting-whip, or light poles
fastened securely alongside, or anything else which may
strike the fancy, and which soon accustoms the pupil to have
such things flapping about. It is then little likely to be
scared in after-life by anything which may happen to it.
Now also is the time to let the young one get used to all
kinds of noises, and sights — the beating of drums, the
blowing of horns, or boys playing at football, or cricket,
or other fearsome games. An ox's bladder full of peas
makes an excellent rattle, and an accompaniment of a
poker and shovel makes uncouth music, not to be despised
as a lesson.

Part of the training of the colt should consist of leading
it in the cavesson into crowded streets, where it will see
all kinds of road nuisances, and taking it to any kind of
gathering, or market, where strange sights can be seen,
but at the same time where the animal can be kept out of the
reach of doing or receiving any injury. It should be well
accustomed to all such sights before training under the
saddle is begun. Time spent in this manner is never

204 THE HORSE

thrown away, and as no weight has to be carried the youth
of the animal does not matter, and it may be thus led
about as soon as weaned.

After a few days' practice with the cavesson the head-
piece and rope may be removed, and a pair of long reins sub-
stituted, by aid of which the breaker can drive the animal
in front of him instead of leading it, and it thus learns
to face the dangers by itself. For this purpose there should
be a ring sewn on each side of the surcingle, about the
height of ordinary stirrups, through which the long reins
are passed. This contrivance adds greatly to the power
of the breaker, enabling him to lunge the animal with
as much ease as if it was guided by the ordinary cavesson
rope ; and amongst other advantages it prevents the horse
from getting one rein over his back when kicking, and
so getting both reins on one side. Some horses soon learn
that trick, if there are no rings to keep the reins down.
It has also another advantage. A restive horse sometimes
gets the reins into confusion, but if one rein is slipped
over its back, and the horse is then allowed to run back-
wards until it faces you, a purchase is got against the
rings of the surcingle by pulling at both reins, and the
horse is compelled to keep on backing, to its great be-
wilderment. A great leverage is obtained on the bit in
this manner, and the breaker can keep the horse backing
as long as he thinks fit, following after it all the time.
If there are no rings, however, on the surcingle, in such a
situation the horse assumes the control of the breaker,
which increases the confusion ! This is a useful way also
of forcing a horse to back when it refuses to do so on the
reins being pulled from behind. If the pupil proves very
stubborn, and refuses to budge, the trainer should walk
in front of it, reversing the reins from the surcingle rings,
and then proceed to pull at them with considerable force.
If the horse still will not move, the reins should be kept
tight with one hand while a whip is flicked at the fore-
legs with the other, until the horse makes a step angrily
backwards, probably snorting and shaking its head as it
does so. The process must be repeated until the animal

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES 205

will back readily on pressure from the reins, and then it
must be made to back by pulling from the rear in the
ordinary way. If this is practised daily the horse will
soon back cheerfully on the smallest indication.

When young horses have been allowed to run wild until
they are three or four years old, and have never been
handled at all, they often give considerable trouble at first,
and then it is that the system introduced into England by
Mr. Sydney Galvayne is of the greatest use. Until his
advent Mr. Karey's method had been the last resort of the
breaker, but the disadvantage of his plan was that the
breaker had to work as hard as the horse, and was also often
in considerable danger. But with Mr. Galvayne's system
the horse does everything after being once tied up, and the
breaker has nothing to do but look on until the animal has
given in. Both methods owe their success to the fact that
when a horse is once thoroughly beaten he will, whilst in
that state, offer but faint resistance to anything whatever.
Both aim, therefore, at the complete exhaustion of the horse,
and then at once insisting upon its doing the very thing it
fought against at first. The animal submits because it is
too fatigued at the time to fight any more, and thus acknow-
ledging itself beaten by the breaker, thereafter looks upon
him as its master and does his bidding. Mr. Galvayne's
plan is to tie the horse's head to its tail, bending the neck
round till the body forms a segment of a circle, and then
leaving it to its own devices. As it cannot straighten itself
it is obliged to travel in a circle, spinning round and round,
exhausting its strength, and getting more or less giddy. As
soon as it halts it should be encouraged to recommence its
gyrations, and this is a grand opportunity for cracking whips
in its face, firing off pistols, and making every possible
noise ingenuity can suggest. Whenever it stops to rest a
long pole should be rubbed against its legs, its head, and
every part of it until the horse will bear being touched any-
where with equanimity ; and then a saddle may be put on
and girthed, and, if so desired, the rope can be untied, a
rider get into the saddle, and the horse led about without
any remonstrance on its part. As an addition to the ordinary

206 THE HORSE

plan it is excellent training for any animal, whilst with a
vicious or an unruly horse it is invaluable.

When a long-tailed colt is the subject it is an easy thing
to tie the halter rope to the long tail, and so make the
animal fast ; but with a short-docked horse it is not by any
means an easy matter to fasten a rope securely. The
simplest way is to attach a small rope to the few hairs which
are left on the tail, and then to tie this rope to the halter
rope. But no novice will be able to affix a rope to the hair
on his own initiative, and very few professed grooms know
in these days how to do it either. First of all the short
hairs must be made into a plait, and to do this requires
especial knowledge, for horsehair is so stiff and slippery it
is difficult to get it to remain in a plait. It will only do so
when mingled with something else— moistened straw will
do, or string, or like material ; and hence arose the custom
of parading horses for sale at fairs with straw standing out
from their plaited tails in ornamental patterns, since they
had been brought to the fair attached to side-lines.

To plait the tail the hair must be divided into three locks,
the centre one, if possible, containing the most and longest
hairs. With each lock two or three straws should be
mingled, and then grasping the two outsides with either
hand cross first one and then the other underneath the
centre one, and then plait in the usual way. When the
plait is finished the straw will enable the end to be finished
off in a knot, if it is long enough, or else it may be bound
with string.

The next thing is to attach the rope to the plait. Place
the plait over the rope at least half-way up (Plate XI.,
Fig. 1), and turning it towards the ground double it back-
wards so that it secures the rope (Fig. 2) ; then grasp the
doubled plait with the right hand, and taking the left end
of the rope, bring it underneath the plait (Fig. 3) and make
at least four turns round it, working upwards and drawing
tight each lap. To finish off bring the top end of the rope
downwards and insert it under the first lap which was
made, the end pointing towards the ground (Fig. 4).
The long end, C, is then fastened to the halter-rope.

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES 207

When the rope is tightened by the animal pulling at it after
it has been fastened to the halter, it will be seen that the
harder the pull the more secure will be the loose end, while
it can be undone in a moment in case of need directly the
strain is relaxed. The knowledge how to attach a rope
to a short-tailed horse may be of great use at other times,
especially when a horse is needed to pull another out of
a ditch, for a horse can pull an immense weight by his tail,
and there is no fear of his thus being injured.

PLATE XI.
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Fig. 3. Fig. 4.

Another excellent plan introduced by Mr. Galvayne is the
teaching a horse to stand quiet when tied up, without
endeavouring to break the rope which holds it, by running
back. Many a cunning horse learns this trick, but it
remained for Mr. Galvayne to show us the remedy. It is
simple enough. The head-rope must be arranged so that it
communicates with another rope passing under the tail, and
then when the horse endeavours to back its whole weight is
thrown upon the tender skin under the tail, which it finds
unbearable, and therefore at once steps forward again.
After one or two tries nothing will prevail upon the horse to
step back again, and in defiance of cracking whips, or squibs
let off under its nose, the educated horse remains still and

208 THE HORSE

passive. A hair rope should be used for the tail, as such a
one will not injure the skin as a hempen one does, the
latter producing a sore, like the after-effect of a burn, when
it fraj's the skin. After forming a loop round the tail the
hair rope is twisted a few times along the top of the
back to make it secure, and then one end, which has a small
loop, is adjusted to reach as far as the girth-place on the
near side. The long end is next passed round the chest, and
brought back to and passed through the loop of the short
end, when it is secured with a simple knot ; it is then taken
under the chest, forming a belly-band, and tied securely to
the rope on the other side of the horse. If the rope is
adjusted with a little care it forms a sort of harness, which
cannot be moved by any exertions of the horse from its
place however much it struggles. A second rope, having
also a small loop, must now be secured to something solid — a
strong post, or the trunk of a stout tree, being very suitable.
The last process is to pass the halter rope through the loop of
rope No. 2, and then to make it fast to the hair rope in front
of the chest. The moment the horse runs back the strain of
tugging at the stump falls both upon the halter and the hair
rope under the tail, but chiefly upon the latter, and as the skin
is very tender it is soon borne upon the horse that it is wise
to stand still. One lesson is generally sufficient to impress
upon any animal, not a confirmed halter-breaker, that when
it is tied up it is powerless to resist. As soon as the horse
ceases to pull at the stump the rope may be untied from the
latter, and then the horse may be led about anywhere, even
if it has only just been caught up for the first time, for a
sharp tug at the hair rope, and consequently upon the tail,
brings home at once to the animal that it is prudent to
obey.

To Stand Still in a Field.

All young horses should be taught to stand still, when
loose in a field, when approached for the purpose of being
caught by a person thej'' know, and the following simple
rules will be found quite practical. For the purpose it is
necessary that the horse should wear a bridle.

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES 209

1. Fasten the bridle to the stirrup.

2. Fasten a long leather rope to the bridle.

3. Allow the horse to go loose in the field to graze.

4. Walk up quietly and get alongside the rope.

5. If the horse walks away put your foot firmly on the
rope so that he gives himself a sharp " chuck " in the mouth.
Bepeat this till he will not move when you go up to him,
and when he stands still for you to approach him reward
him with a carrot.

6. When he stands quite quiet with the rope fastened
to the bridle remove the latter, substitute a head-collar, and
fasten the rope to this, and thus gradually proceed till he
will stand still with nothing on but a head-collar.

Having proceeded so far the colt should be taught to stay
where he is, after being dismounted, by the mere act of
throwing the reins over its head. All their horses are
taught this by the Boers in South Africa. It is an ac-
complishment soon learned, and may be of much assistance
in the case of a fall out hunting. The Boers attach a raw-
hide rope to the bit, doubling a portion of it to form reins,
and then throw it over the horse's head and allow it to trail
on the ground. The horse soon steps on it, thereby giving
a chuck to his mouth ; and if the rope is a long one the
teacher often quietly takes hold of it, and at the instant
the horse treads upon it he adds an additional emphasis
with the end he holds. The horse is then left to graze by
himself, and speedily learns to be very chary of moving
about when reins are trailing on the ground. Sometimes
a sack is added to the reins, which is still more difficult for
the horse to avoid treading upon ; and the horse also learns
the additional lesson not to tread upon his rider after a fall.

Another plan, which can be adopted with any horse
though untrained to stand still, is to pass the reins, both
being on the same side, first under the throat-lash, then
under the near fore-leg, and afterwards to fasten them
securely to the stirrup, the length being adjusted so that
the neck and body are bent into a slight curve. The
animal can reach down to graze, yet cannot tread upon
the reins, which are protected by the throat-lash ; but it

210 THE HORSE

cannot raise its head higher than the fore-leg will permit,
and is obliged to move in a circle, owing to the curve in
which it is bound. It may therefore safely be left where it
is for hours if need be, as the writer frequently has done
in the middle of the great bustard plains of Spain.

How TO Knot Eeins.

It is very important to know how to make a knot in reins
so that they will not become untied, and there is only one
knot which can be depended upon to stand any amount of
friction. When the right length has been arrived at two
turns of the reins must be taken around two fingers, and
then the end of the reins passed through the double loop
and drawn as tight as possible the buckle end being
toward the rider. Nothing can disturb this knot if well
made, and this is the right way to knot the reins when
riding a very hard puller in a race.

Side-lines.

By the help of side-lines twelve to fifteen horses can be
travelled by one man, thus saving labour and expense, and
formerly, before the days of railways, it was the invariable
method of taking dealers' lots from one fair to another.
It might have been of much use during the Boer War — but
the War Oftice officials knew not what side-lines were, and
did not care to learn. Every cavalry soldier should be
taught the method, for the amount of men required to
exercise or move horses on a campaign can be reduced
to a minimum.

Side-lines consist of hempen loops, made for the purpose,
with long ropes attached to them. A loop is passed over the
neck of a horse, resting upon its shoulders, while the rope
is fastened to the plaited tail in the manner already de-
scribed, the length being first adjusted so as to allow for a
certain amount of play from the loop round the neck ; and
enough laps are then made round the tail to use up the rest
of the rope. The halter of each horse is fastened near the
middle of the side-line of the horse in front of it, so that its

BREAKING YOUNG HORSES 211

nose cannot reach further than about a foot in front of its
leader's hip. The length of rope allowed to the halter is
about a foot and a half, which gives sufficient freedom to
step over inequalities in rough ground, while it does not
allow the horse to drop behind the other's tail. Fastened
together like this the horses give the appearance of a living
chain, and can travel over the roughest moorlands just as
well as over smooth roads, and are compelled to follow in
turn the footsteps of the leader. The man in charge rides
the horse in front, who should be the most unruly animal of
the team, while the quietest animal is placed last of all.
Horses hardly ever try to kick in side-lines, and are, as a
rule, very quiet.

CHAPTER X
STABLE MANAGEMENT

Food and AVatee.

THE first necessity, after having obtained a horse, is to
look after its wants in the way of food and water.
Here, at the very outset, the tyro may easily go wrong,
with mischievous results, if left entirely to his own
devices. It will probably never occur to him that it can
matter in the least whether the animal takes food or water
first, and it is far from improbable that in mistaken
kindness, if he thinks on the matter at all, he will suppose
since hay and corn must be such dry food to eat, it will be
pleasanter to have the water afterwards, to give the meal
" a good wash down." It is what he would, no doubt, treat
himself to if placed in a similar predicament, and yet he
could not do a worse thing, or one more likely to bring on
colic, or similar internal trouble. The horse having such
a very small arrangement for a stomach, it is necessary that
the digestion should be proceeded with after it has passed on
into the intestines, and for this reason it must not be unduly
hastened during its passage downwards ; but if a big draught
of water is suddenly poured into the masticated mass this
is hurried onwards before it is sufficiently ready, and then
Nature resents the undue interference with her arrange-
ments.

It is different if water is always present, and the animal
can help itself when it pleases, and this is far the preferable
plan — though not always convenient to carry out, besides
being opposed to the prejudices of untutored stable-helpers.
"When a horse can drink at any moment it likes it never

212

STABLE MANAGEMENT 2i:i

takes more than a few swallows at a time ; nor does it, as
a rule, imbibe so much liquid in the twenty-four hours
as when water is only supplied in a bucket twice or thrice
a day. Some animals also take strange fancies when the
water is always there, and one horse in the writer's pos-
session would never begin to eat his corn until he had set
it all floating in water, which he used to swill out of the
water-trough into the adjoining manger with repeated
sweeps of his muzzle ; whilst another, a mare, was accus-
tomed to take large mouthfuls of corn and drop it into
the water-trough, and then to pick it out again and munch
it at leisure, in evident enjoyment. The small amount
of fluid thus taken never did any harm, nor caused any
trouble, so the animals were allowed to gratify their
fancies as often as they pleased.

The next question the new-fledged owner must ask him-
self is whether the water should be warmed or cold ; and
what kind should be given — stored up rain-water, or from a
pond, or water from a well or tap. The answer to the first
is that the water should have the chill off if given to a horse
in a state of rest, as in a stable, or when very tired. It
should be borne in mind that there is more risk in giving very
cold water to horses in such conditions than when the
circulation is still excited from exercise, the extra heat
apparently raising the temperature of the water to that of
the body, though the risk of a chill is still present. Even
when engaged in hunting it does no harm if a horse is
allowed to just wash his mouth out from any pond which
may be handy, although it may be almost at the point of
freezing, but the amount allowed must be very limited, and
the writer for quite forty years has never permitted an
animal under such circumstances to drink more than half a
dozen swallows, carefully counted. As no evil results have
followed in any single instance with this strictly limited
regime, and the relief to the horse is very great, especially
in the case of animals who suffer from excessive secretion
of saliva, which after severe exertion is apt to become very
saline, the practice of allowing a horse to wash his mouth
out can with confidence be recommended. A valuable hint

214 THE HORSE

may also be added, which the writer learned when living in
Spain in the early " seventies," and this is never to allow a
horse to drink at once when crossing a ford, but, regardless
of how thirsty he may be, and his strenuous efforts to drink,
to force him onwards until he has nearly arrived at the other
side. The reason is that many a horse will lie down and
roll in the water, to the peril of the rider, if allowed to put
his nose down on first entering the stream, and will make
no effort to drink until he has had his roll. If, however, he
is made to travel on without halting almost to the other
side, he is so afraid he is not going to be allowed an oppor-
tunity of quenching his thirst that he will begin to drink
the moment he at last has the chance, and will then never
attempt to roll at all.

In hot weather, when the water is almost warm, a horse
may be allowed a good drink if he is only going to proceed
at a walking pace ; and also when nearing the end of a
march or approaching a camping ground it may be
convenient to water the horses before reaching the halting-
place ; but under such circumstances, if the water is cold, the
horses should be kept moving for at least half a mile after-
wards, and a short trot at a slow pace will also assist in
preventing any sudden stagnation of the circulation, through
the chill caused by the cold liquid admitted into the system.
It is a common plan when water is drawn from a pump or
tap, and is very cold, to fill the staible buckets some hours
before the drinking-time, and allow them to stand in some
warm place to attain the temperature of the surrounding
atmosphere. Very frequently they are placed in the stable
itself, and if each bucket has a light close-fitting covering
thrown over it, such as a clean stable duster, there is no
harm in the custom. Without this precaution many
deleterious germs and microbes may be attracted by the
water, for there is always dust floating in the air of a
stable, which may be germ-laden, and there are often also
noxious exhalations.

When water is suddenly required, and the source is known
to be very cold, it is generally possible to arrange for a
small supply of hot water from a kettle or hot- water tap,

STABLE MANAGEMENT 215

and enough may be added to take off the extreme coldness
of the water. In this manner ahnost any cottage can
supply a drink to a tired and thirsty horse after a severe
run, when no gruel can be obtained for its refreshment.

As to the kind of water for permanent use, it should be
soft rather than hard, and this so accords with the tastes of
the horse that he will drink indifferent soft water in
preference to good hard water ; but if the choice is to be
made between good and bad soft water, he is sufficiently a
connoisseur to prefer the former. Hard water contains a
number of mineral salts, some of which may be prejudicial,
and when no other supply can be obtained these con-
stituents may be somewhat precipitated by boiling. Water
drawn from tanks or reservoirs, which are fed by the rain-
fall accumulated on roofs, should never be used unless
boiled and filtered, especially if the roofs happen to be of
thatch. In dry weather birds are certain to sit about on
such places, and contaminate them accordingly, and when
the first flush of rain occurs much deleterious matter is
swept into the receptacles used for conserving the rainfall.
The writer has known a very serious outbreak of fever occur
in a large racing establishment from this cause, since the
water from the roofs had found its way into a well which
supplied the water for a particular set of stabling ; and it
was the animals there domiciled who alone were stricken
with the illness which broke out at the end of a prolonged
drought.

Since horses are susceptible to a change of water, more
especially if it is to hard water after being accustomed to
drinking soft, they should be closely observed whenever a
change of locality takes place. When their charges are
engaged in a very important race some very careful trainers
bring a sufficient supply from their own stables, if they are
not satisfied with what they are likely to obtain in the
neighbourhood of the race-course ; and if water was not
such a bulky article, perhaps this would be a still commoner
practice than it is now. Moreover, water requires to be
very pure not to suffer ill-effects from the shaking on a
long journey, especially if it has to stand for two or three

21G THE HORSE

days before being required, and the safest plan undoubtedly
is to boil it after arrival, and thus destroy the power to do
harm which any germs lurking in it may possess. My
attention to the possible deleterious qualities of water was
aroused very early in boyhood, for when my father moved
his establishment to the moors for grouse-shooting, the
carriage-horses which went with us were much upset.
Being of an inquiring turn of mind, I wanted to know
what was the matter with them, and though this occurred
more than fifty years ago, I well remember the very capable
groom in charge telling me it was the hard water they had
to drink which was temporarily affecting the health of the
horses. Since those far-off days there have been very many
opportunities of noticing similar little outbreaks.

A much more serious illness used to attack horses when
they first arrived on the Eock of Gibraltar, when I was
quartered there with the Kifle Brigade during the
" seventies," and some animals took many months before
they became inured to the evil. The symptoms consisted
of violent attacks of colic, with a very quick pulse and a
high temperature, and an utter inability to pass any urine,
though constantly straining to thus relieve themselves. At
first I used local remedies, of which the most popular was
the administration of a strong decoction of camomile
flowers ; but before long it occurred to me to test the efficacy
of aconite, and this proved so successful that it soon came to
be my sole remedy, and never had I cause to repent of ray
reliance upon it. Frequently within twenty minutes of the
first administration a horse would get relief, and the moment
Nature was relieved the animal recovered so fast it could
resume its ordinary routine of work almost immediately. I
do not think any animal continued to suffer more than two
hours after the first dose of aconite, whilst under the usual
treatment it was no uncommon occurrence for the spasms
to last for one or two days. Other remedies may have been
found since those distant days even better than this, but as
it certainly had an excellent effect, it is well worthy to have
its merits recorded here. There was then no veterinary
surgeon at Gibraltar, so we all had to rely upon ourselves,

STABLE MANAGEMENT 217

and requests for advice, by strangers as well as acquaintances,
were pretty frequently made to me. One that gave some
amusement afterwards, when I came to know the "ins
and outs," may be related. The Surgeon-General, who
stood very high in his profession, but who had only lately
come to Gibraltar, and whom I had not then met, one day
sent a polite little note saying that his horse was so ill he was
afraid it must die ; but as it was a favourite, he would be
very much obliged if I could suggest any treatment. As I
had little doubt in my mind as to what the nature of the
illness was likely to be, I put a small bottle of aconite into
my pocket, and proceeded in quest of the sick animal. On
arriving at the stables the owner was present with one or
two friends, anxiously awaiting my arrival, and I at once
proceeded to examine the patient, who appeared to have got
over the worst, and in this opinion I was confirmed by
the groom, who was indeed rather unwilling for me to
intervene, as he wished to prove that his own remedies were
fully sufficient. However, the pulse was still high, and my
favourite remedy would at any rate expedite matters, so
I turned to the Surgeon-General and requested permission
to give a dose to the horse. He at once acquiesced,
though it struck me he did so rather unwillingly, and I
could see by the covert smiles on the faces of the bystanders
that some mystery was behind the scenes of which I was
ignorant. Now, for convenience chiefly, I generally used
the homoeopathic tincture, so taking the little bottle out
of my waistcoat pocket I stepped up to the horse, opened
his lips, and poured ten drops on to his tongue out of a tiny
minim measuring-glass. After keeping my finger almost
constantly on the animal's pulse for the next ten minutes I
gave it a second dose, and soon noted the beats were
becoming nearly normal. " He is better," I then remarked,
leaving the patient, and going up to the group who were
watching the proceedings, "and will soon be all right."
" How do you know that? " exclaimed his owner in a tone
of great surprise. In reply I stated I had noticed the
symptoms were improving ; that a mash should be given to
the horse as soon as he would take it, which would probably

218 THE HORSE

be before very long ; and that another dose, which I would
leave, should be administered in case there should be any
return of the complaint ; and having ended the directions I
began to prepare to take my leave. " But surely you are
not going to leave the horse yet ! " exclaimed the owner,
much perturbed in his manner, and evidently thinking he was
going to be left in the lurch. " Oh," I replied, " I will not
go before I have seen the horse stale, which he will do
directly, and then there will be no more trouble to be
feared ; " and hardly were the words out of my mouth
than the horse stretched himself out, and there was no need

left for me to remain. Surgeon-General literally

gasped with astonishment, and seemed quite nonplussed,
so after shaking hands with him and congratulating him on
the improved condition of his favourite, I was just about to
depart when he suddenly ejaculated, " But you have not
told us what the horse is to have to-morrow! " " Give him
his ordinary food," I repHed, "and let him do his work as
usual, unless there is any return of sickness, which is not
the least likely," and then I went away. On inquiring at
the stables the next morning I found that everything had
gone on satisfactorily, the horse being then out at exercise ;
and the Surgeon-General spread everywhere the (to him)
marvellous cure which had been wrought so speedily.

A few days afterwards came an amusing enlightenment
of what had taken place previous to the request being made
to me to advise as to the treatment of the horse. It
appeared, from the statement of a friend high up in
authority, who had been the counsellor who had advised
apphcation being made to me, that the owner of the horse
was most prejudiced against homoeopathy in any form,
declaring it utterly indefensible, and had set his face
against it all his life in every possible way ; and when he
was told that I should almost certainly rely upon the
detested practice, he at first refused to listen to his
adviser. Fear of losing his favourite, however, at length
prevailed, and conquering his prejudice he had eventually
been persuaded to seek my advice. "You must not be
surprised," our mutual friend had then mischievously

STABLE MANAGEMENT 219

added, "if he produces his remedy out of his waistcoat
pocket!" And so when his words proved only too
prophetic the Surgeon-General had winced in the manner
I had noted, and the others in the secret were highly
amused.

Whilst water in general is often the vehicle for conveying
unwelcome internal parasites, pond water is frequently
responsible for the introduction of leeches into the mouth,
especially in hot climates. They ensconce themselves
mostly under the tongue, and if not removed cause great
discomfort to the animal, though their presence is not
always suspected by an unobservant groom. They also
insinuate themselves into the nostrils, and in either locality
frequently only betray themselves by the trickling down of
a thin stream of blood, which issues after they have gorged
themselves with a meal. Persons unaccustomed to such
visitations are apt to think a blood-vessel has been broken,
but on any such occurrence taking place it is well to insti-
tute a close search, when a black-looking body may be
detected. Often this is minute, if the leech has not lately
been indulging itself, though when gorged with blood it is
easily seen. The simplest way of removing the pest is to
enwrap the fingers in a handkerchief, or something similar,
which enables the operator to obtain a firm grasp of the
intruder, and then a sudden twitch should be effective in
ejecting it from its hiding-place. Caution and skill, how-
ever, are very necessary for the due accomplishment of this
apparently simple process, for if the leech should be in the
least alarmed it will bury its head in the roots of the tongue
and offer such resistance that its expulsion can only be effected
with difficulty, while the tearing it away from its hold may
result in a sore place being made in the horse's mouth.
Occasionally it is even advisable to defer the operation and
to endeavour to take the leech unawares on a subsequent
occasion. When no hitch occurs the leech can be
removed with ease, and the writer has thus extracted
these pests on many occasions, sometimes in the stable,
but more often in the course of a ride ; and it may be men-
tioned that it is frequently a person riding alongside another

220 THE HORSE

who gives the first notice of the presence of a leech, as he it
is who is in a position to notice the stain of blood in the
mouth of the horse of his companion.

Leeches are more difdcult to remove from the nostrils of
a horse, as they are troublesome to reach if they are located
some distance up ; but fortunately it is not so common for
the intruders to locate themselves there as in the mouth,
and it is more usual to find them in the nostrils of cattle
than of horses. Indeed, the writer has never personally
met with a case of a horse having a leech in its nostril, and
therefore he never had an opportunity of testing a native
plan for extracting them. This is to keep the animal for a
considerable time without water, and then to place a saucer-
fui close to its nose but not allowing it actually to touch
it, when it is said the leech, being in want of sufficient
moisture, will partly emerge from the nostril in an endea-
vour to reach the water, and may then be suddenly plucked
away. Whether this is the case or not, if the emergency
arose, it would be a remedy at any rate worth trying.

The principal points, then, in watering horses may be
summed up in the following :—

Water horses before feeding them.

Give soft water in preference to hard.

Take the chill off if the water is very cold.

Let water always be present if it can be arranged without
inconvenience.

Forage.

The next item to consider is the forage, and in this is
included not merely hay and corn, but also the extra
adjuncts of linseed, bran, carrots, and sundries, which not
only tempt the appetite but also tend largely to the pro-
motion of health. Although straw has considerable feeding
value it is comparatively little used in this country, and
when it is given it is generally chopped fine and mixed with
hay treated in a similar fashion ; but in Southern countries
it is used almost entirely, the reason probably being that
hay is seldom made, for grass is too precious a commodity
for grazing stock to be preserved in the form of hay.

STABLE MANAGEMENT 221

Wherever hay is a common article it is generally used
instead of straw, a very excellent provender being
thereby neglected. In Spain barley straw is commonly
given, being the most easily obtained, and though when
the writer first began to train English thoroughbreds in that
country he went to the expense of importing hay for them
from England, he soon found that they throve as well upon
chopped straw when once they became accustomed to the
change of diet. How fond horses are of eating straw every
one is well aware who has ever had to do with a stable, and
it is rather a curious fact that they generally seem to prefer
dirty straw to perfectly clean litter. Whether this comes to
pass from a craving for salt, which they thus appease by
eating urine-stained straw, has frequently crossed the writer's
mind, for it seems very probable.

Although it was really impossible to decide the question
for certain, it was generally believed that horses throve
better on wheat straw than on barley straw when doing
fast work, and an effort was always made to obtain the
former whenever practicable.

It must not be forgotten that a certain degree of bulk is
necessary in all food, in order that the digestive organs may
work properly, and this is one reason for giving hay or
straw, in addition to the nutritive qualities they possess.
During working hours food of less bulk may be given, such
as corn of some description, as it interferes less with the
breathing organs, but a certain amount of bulk the horse
must have at some time or other, and the best time for
giving this to hard-working animals is at night, when
complete rest is afterwards assured.

Ahorse should never be fed or watered just before working
it, but if a choice must perforce be made between a steed
which has just been watered, or one which has just been fed,
it would be likely to cause less injury to the animal to take
the former than the latter. The water will soon pass out of
the stomach and be absorbed into the system, whereas the
food will remain undigested for a length of time and press
injuriously upon the breathing apparatus, culminating
probably in broken wind.

222 THE HORSE

Careful investigators have established the fact that all
food does not take the same time in going through the
different stages of digestion, and it is stated that hay and
straw pass out of the stomach quicker than corn at the
beginning of the process, though towards the end it is just
the contrary ; it is, moreover, also asserted that if a mixture
is given of oats and hay chaff the one which contains the
most moisture will pass into the bowels first, carrying the
remainder along with it, although the latter is not sufficiently
ready, and this is a fruitful source of derangement of the
system, even if it does not go so far as to cause actual
indigestion. The soundness of the ordinary stable routine
of giving the oats first, and then the hay, is thus borne out
by the dictum of scientific observers, since the former
requires a longer period for digestion than the latter, so
that both should be ready to pass on at the same time
in an equal state of preparation.

At least an hour should intervene after feeding before
a horse is called upon to work, and if this is likely to be
severe the food given should be of a concentrated nature,
and not bulky. When an animal returns to its stable very
tired it must be remembered that the organs of digestion
are as fatigued as the rest of the body, and a light, easily
digested meal should be at first given to him. This prin-
ciple should be kept in mind, for it is not possible always to
have at hand the carefully prepared gruel and bran mash
which await the tired steed in all well-ordered hunting
stables on its return home from its labours.

Whatever the system adopted, whether three feeds or
four feeds of corn are given in the day, it is most essential
that regular hours should be kept, unless, of course, actual
work prevents the ordinary routine from being carried out.
Whether it is advisable to divide the allowance into three,
or four, feeds depends much upon the constitution, appetite,
and ability to digest one feed before the next is due.
Delicate horses will probably benefit by being fed at shorter
intervals, with a less quantity at a time, so as not to over-
load the stomach, whilst hearty feeders can do with more
grain at each feed, and a corresponding longer wait between

STABLE MANAGEMENT 223

meals. The desired point is that the manger should be quickly
cleared out, and it should be an inflexible rule that during
the daytime any corn left, after a reasonable time for con-
suming it has passed, should be removed, for nothing is
more prejudicial to a delicate appetite than the presence
of undesired food constantly staring it in the face. There
are some horses, however, who eat but sparingly during the
daytime, but make up for it in the night, if given the chance.
Such animals may be so far humoured as to have an extra
quantity of corn given to them at the evening feed, and
if this is all eaten up by the morning it is a guide to follow
in their particular case.

When three feeds of oats are the rule the daily routine in
a hunting stable is as follows, with, maybe, slight variations
to suit different conditions in individual stables : —

Daily Routine for Hoeses going out early to Exercise.

A sup of water the first thing, but only a few mouthfuls.
6 a.m. A feed of oats.

Whilst the horses are consuming this the men do various odd jobs
about the stables and get their breakfast.

Exercise, but not before an hour has elapsed after the feed of corn.

Water the horses immediately on their return ; and then

Dress them over. Immediately this is finished give them

Hay.

12 noon. Feed of corn.

5.30 p.m. Evening stables.

Water.

Feed of corn.

Hay.

If it is more convenient to exercise the horses late in the
day they receive their full amount of water at 6 a.m., and
then the feed of corn and their hay. At 11.30 a.m. the
second feed of corn is given them, and at evening stable-
time they get water, corn, and hay the same as the others.

On hunting mornings those going to take part in the day's
proceedings should only be given the early sup of water, and,
of course, no hay until their return in the evening. If they
finish up quickly the early feed of corn, a small quantity
more may be offered them at 8 o'clock.

224 THE HORSE

On return from hunting horses are naturally very thirsty,
and should have a bucket of gruel given to them made with
linseed, wheat flour, or oatmeal. Animals which are apt to
be loose in their bowels need gruel made with wheat flour,
which is something of a binding nature ; but as a rule the
reverse is the case after severe exertion, and consequently
the need for linseed or oatmeal gruel is thereby indicated,
preferably the former. Whenever oatmeal is used for gruel
care should be taken that it is made from old oats, and par-
ticularly that it has been well scalded with boiling water, if
there is not time for it to be actually boiled. Neglect of
such precaution may set up violent diarrhoea, and for this
reason it is always wise to have some wheat flour added to a
drink of water, when obtained at a cottage on the road home
after a severe run, and eschew oatmeal for the purpose. It
may be pointed out that when wheat flour is employed it is
necessary to mix it first with a little cold water, and then
add hot water afterwards, for if the latter is poured upon
the flour it makes it into paste, which will not mix properly
or become gruel.

After the gruel has been given, and whilst the horse is
being dressed, a lock of dry hay may be allowed, the mas-
tication of which will promote a flow of saliva ; whereas if
the hay was given wet, or even damped, it would probably
be swallowed after a twist or two with the tongue, and
scarcely be chewed at all ; but just one carrot in addition
to the hay is very much appreciated, tends to quench any
undue thirst, and also has a slight influence on the action
of the kidneys. As soon as the body has been dressed a
bran mash should be given, the hay placed in the rack, and
then the horse should be shut up and left to rest in peace.

By the term "corn" it is universally understood in the
British Islands that reference is made to oats, when the
provender of horses is under mention. In other countries
this is not necessarily the case, for in the greater part of the
world oats, though undoubtedly the best grain for horses,
are difficult to obtain, and maize, or barley, gram, or lentils
form the corn diet of horses in those regions. Lentils are
especially valuable for young growing stock as well as for

STABLE MANAGEMENT 225

working horses, Sir William Koberts, the great authority on
food, pointing out that they contain twice as much proteid
(flesh-forming) matter as wheat or oats, and nearly twice as
much lime, so their use in promoting the formation of bone
is of great value. They are also very rich in iron. There
is a prejudice in England against giving any grain but oats,
beans, and peas to animals engaged in fast work, but this is
not altogether justified, and many a horse might benefit in
his health if allowed a change in this respect. Horses which
are not thriving may well have the experiment tried, and
many seasons ago a stud of six horses belonging to a hunt-
ing and hard-riding doctor, with a large country practice, did
particularly well when their owner substituted maize for
their provender instead of oats. It was at first given to an
unthrifty animal, which was also in a weak state and unfit
for the work required of it, but in a short time there was
such a marvellous change in appearance and spirits, and also
in the capacity for work, that the doctor at once tried the
same diet for the remainder of the stud. One and all
throve upon it, though, since they had been in good
working order before, there was little alteration in their
appearance.

Both maize and barley are more fattening than oats, but,
especially the latter, are more heatmg, and therefore more
easily upset the digestion, so that it is not advisable to give
a similar quantity of either, as of oats. Whatever the allow-
ance may be it should be at once reduced and a bran mash
given, with a little sulphur added to it, directly a disagree-
able flatulence is noticed, or worse results may ensue.
Animals daily doing hard work can consume with benefit a
larger quantity of corn than when comparatively idle, as is
well shov/n by the Government rations for troop horses,
which are usually 10 lbs. of oats, 12 lbs. of hay, and 8 lbs. of
straw per diem (the last being used for bedding only) ; but
when the duty is severe, or when the horses are in camp,
from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. additional oats are allowed. Even this is
frequently not enough under the extra work they are called
upon to perform, as a captain of a troop often knows only
too well. It is not an unknown practice, when field opera-

226 THE HORSE

tions are in sight, to reduce the ration of oats whilst the
horses are doing very Httle work, the amount saved being
kept as a special reserve to be added to the rations, when
the hard work requires more than the Government serve out.

The amount a hunter will consume does not depend
entirely upon the size of the animal, but rather upon its
constitution and appetite. As a general guide, it will
consume about 14 lbs. of oats and 12 lbs. of hay, the real
measure being what it will eat, and few will continue to
consume 16 lbs. of oats. It is a good plan to chop up about
4 lbs. of the hay and mix it with the corn, as this causes the
animal to masticate the grain more completely, if the oats
are not crushed. When horses grind their corn thoroughly
it is better to give the oats whole, as the promotion of saHva
is thereby encouraged, but the droppings should be closely
observed, and if undigested oats are seen in them they
should be crushed accordingly. When taking their turn
regularly in the hunting-field a double handful of old beans
or peas, which should be split, may be given daily, either in
addition to the usual allowance of corn or in substitution for
about 2 lbs. of oats. Carrots should be given, a daily allow-
ance of IJ lbs. being not at all too much, and twice a week a
bran mash with linseed gruel added to it.

For carriage-horses doing light work 10 lbs. of corn and
12 lbs. of hay should suffice ; in some cases 8 lbs. of corn and
14 lbs. of hay might be found sufficient, in which case it
should not be exceeded. Dray-horses, which work hard
every day for a number of hours and have a very large bulk
to maintain, can consume 18 lbs. of oats, a pound or two of
beans or peas, and 18 lbs. of hay ; whilst smaller horses, such
as tramway horses, should have 15 lbs. of oats, 1 lb. of beans,
and 15 lbs. of hay. When maize was cheap in comparison
with oats, as was the case some years ago, tramway horses
were chiefly fed upon it instead of oats, but with either
grain a total of 16 lbs., including 1 lb. of beans, was the
usual ration. Wheat is unsuitable for horses, the germ
being of an oily, viscid nature, which appears to interfere
with the digestion of the animal. It contains the gluten, of
such inestimable benefit to children, and mankind in general,

STABLE MANAGEMENT 227

vyhen the flour is cooked before it is eaten, this process
rendering it capable of being digested. Parching the grain
appears to have a similar effect, and this should always be
done if necessity obliges horses to be fed upon wheat. It is
this viscid property which renders wheat flour so useful in
making paste, and is also the reason why such flour must
first be mixed with cold water, and the hot water added
afterwards, when making it into gruel. Such, however, is
not the case with oatmeal, which should be scalded with
water as near boiling as can be procured, if there is no time
actually to simmer it in a pot.

When a change is made from oats to maize or barley, and
the horses have never previously been accustomed to the new
grain, it is well to make the change rather gradually and to
mix the maize or barley with oats for a few days. More-
over, particularly with barley, it is prudent to soak the grain
at first and let it swell before giving it to the horse, gradually
adding dry grain as the animal becomes accustomed to the
change, for the swelling of the grain inside the animal is very
upsettmg to the digestion when not used to it.

In Spain the race-horses were always fed upon barley,
and seemed to get as fit upon that as when fed on hay and
oats. They put on flesh more rapidly than when fed in the
usual fashion, and some horses certainly carried much more
than we had ever been able to get them to do before when
fed upon oats.

Hay.

The quality of hay is most important, especially as this
forms such a large proportion of the food. Not only must it
be well saved, but the locality in which it is grown has a
great deal to do with the herbage of which it is composed ;
and so also has the kind of top dressing that is used, and
hence the condition of the land. The formation of the bony
skeleton, and also the production of milk, make large demands
upon the land when grazed by young stock of any descrip-
tion, by dams who are suckling, and by milch cows, for little
of the lime contained in the grasses is returned in the animal
wastage, but is retained instead for their interior economy.

228 THE HORSE

It is most important, therefore, that this should be artificially
replenished, either by manuring with some form of lime
itself or with some substance largely containing it, of which
an economical and favourite vehicle is basic slag; while
ordinary farm-yard manure can also supply a small quantity,
which is contamed in the straw when ordinary litter has
been used. Hay grown on land deficient in lime is wanting
in one of the most essential elements it should possess.

The best hay is known by the fineness of the stalks and
leaves composing the herbage. It should be of a green colour,
and contain clover, the meadow grasses (Poas), rye grasses
(Lolium perenne), sweet vernal (Anthoxanthum odoratum),
crested dogstail (Cynosaurus cristatus), meadow fescue (Fes-
tuca pratensis), foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), and some
rib-grass (Digraphis arundinacea) . When such grasses are
recognised it is at once known that they have been grown on
the uplands, and they are also certain indications of the
presence of lime. The cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata) is a
valuable grass, in that it is always growing during the winter-
time in the large tussocks it produces, thus afi'ording a
precious bite of young grass when all others are at a stand-
still ; but it makes coarse hay, more suitable for cattle than
for horses doing fast work, as there is a large bulk of woody
fibre in its composition ; and since it gradually diminishes,
and even dies out, when pastures are well limed, the presence
of a large quantity in hay points to the probability of there
being a deficiency of lime. The meadow catstail (Phleum
pratense), an excellent grass in itself, and often sown in
conjunction with clover and Italian rye-grass as a farm crop,
likewise disappears when the fields are well limed.

The presence of meadow soft grass (Holcus mollis) and of
Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) are most undesirable, and
although occasionally occurring in upland pastures, show a
want of condition in the land and a lack of drainage.

Lowland hay, from swampy ground, is known by the
coarseness of the stalks and the absence of herbage charac-
teristic of the uplands. It should not be used for horses,
but given to the cattle.

Hay may be composed of the finest grasses, and gathered in

STABLE MANAGEMENT 229

brilliant sunshine, but may still be of little feeding value, and
horses will not eat it unless forced by hunger. The reason is
that it was so withered by the sun that there was not sufficient
juice left in it to make it sweat properly, and it will feel
quite soft to the touch instead of being crisp. To " make
hay while the sun shines " is one of the wisest saws in
farming, but in this, as in everything else, one may have
too much of a good thing.

This is the more likely to occur when the grass is left so
long before it is cut that it has ceased flowering, and the
process of forming woody fibre has commenced, when the
hay is practically half spoiled before it is even cut. Ill-
advised farmers sometimes do this, thinking thereby to
increase the quantity, not realising that grass, like
ordinary plants, grows no more as soon as it flowers.
Others do it to save labour, for it does not take so much
time and trouble as when the grasses are full of sap ; but it
is in this latter condition that the primest hay is made, for
all the sappy portions then properly ferment, the saccharine
matter is formed, and hay gains that sweet perfume so
characteristic of it when first-rate.

All the different grasses flower in due succession, it
making no difference whether the season is early or late.
The time to catch the grasses at their best is when the early
ones have ceased flowering but have not yet turned into
woody fibre, while the bulk of the rest are in flower, and
therefore will not grow any more, and only very few remain
which have not yet bloomed. The most favourable time to
cut the grass is when the crested dogstail is in full flower,
and as a kind of "patent indicator" it is of the utmost
value to the farmer. If the weather is then settled, the
glass rising, and the wind from a favourable quarter, he
may set about hay-making with a light heart, knowing
he should secure the crop at its very best. The dogstail is
one of the later grasses in flowering ; the foxtail, the
cocksfoot and the sweet vernal are already almost over,
but their stalks are still full of sap, and have not yet com-
menced resolving themselves into woody fibre ; the meadow
grasses, the rye-grass, and the fescues are now in full flower,

230 THE HORSE

the bulk of the undergrowth is ah'eady fully developed, and
the only essential required is that it should be hay-making
weather ! Unless that important condition is fairly assured
it is very unwise to try to make hay, for badly-gotten hay
is fit only for bedding. If there is a prolonged spell of
fine weather before the dogstail blooms it is wise to take
advantage of the opportunity, for though the quantity of
hay may be less, the quality will be first-rate. Also if
there is a period of wet weather when the best time for
cutting has arrived, hay-making should be put off till fine
weather once more sets in, for though the quality of the hay
may not be as good as it might have been, well-got hay
has a high feeding value, even though there is a considerable
amount of woody fibre amongst it, but ill-made it has no value
at all. Hay should never be put into stack when wet, for
this invariably develops mould, which, even if horses can
be induced to eat it with the help of an addition of spice, is
very prejudicial to their wind. In fine weather there is often
too great an anxiety to get the hay into stack, and it is put
up too green before it is properly saved, and therefore sweats
too much, which is known by its dark appearance and
peculiar smell. Horses are fond of it in this state, but they
should not be allowed to gratify their taste, for it has a
a powerful and bad effect upon the kidneys.

The presence of the flowers of the grasses in their natural
colour is very desirable in new hay, though this is slightly
lost in sweating, as they show that the hay was cut at the
right time, and if the hay itself is green, with an agreeable
odour, and is crisp to handle, it maj^ be bought with perfect
confidence.

Many people prefer hay made of red clover and Italian
rye-grass, and, if first-rate upland meadow hay cannot be
procured, it is very good and certainly to be preferred to
second-rate hay ; but the advantage of the mixture of fine
grasses contained in the best meadow hay can never be
equalled by clover hay when both are of the best quality.
Clover hay makes an excellent change, and is of especial
value in tempting the appetite in the case of illness.

In some of the colonies hay is made from oats just before

STABLE MANAGEMENT 231

they ripen, and is fed to horses and cattle, straw and grain
together as if they were ordinary hay. There is much
feeding vahie in this mixture. The time to cut the crop is
when there is still a suspicion of milkiness in the middle of
the grain when it is squeezed, just before the stems have
begun to change colour. It is made into hay in the
ordinary way.

Bean Mashes.

Bran mashes are an essential item, especially after hard
work and for sick horses, and in the former case may be given
with advantage twice a week, cooling the blood, keeping the
bowels open, and counteracting the constipating effect of
highly concentrated food. Bran mashes are best prepared
by well mixing the feed of oats with the bran in a bucket,
stirring the mass with a thick stick, which should be kept
for the purpose. Linseed gruel should then be added which
has been kept simmering for at least two hours, and has
become a thick gruel, and the whole must be again well
stirred. As soon as the mash is thoroughly mixed, either a
cloth should be thrown over the bucket or a handful or two
of dry bran spread on the surface, either of which will
serve the purpose of keeping the heat in, so that the oats
swell and burst, and are thus more easily digested.

MiNEKALS.

Salt is so important to the well-being of every animal *
that it ranks with lime as a necessity, and should be either
given in the form of rock salt, and placed in the manger for
the horse to help itself as it pleases, or a small quantity
should be added from time to time to the bran mash. Salt is
a constituent of the serum of the blood, preventing it from
decomposing ; and from it also is derived the muriatic acid
required in the digestive process.

Iron is required by the red corpuscules of the blood, and

sulphate of iron is a very valuable tonic. Iron is largely

contained in plants, especially in watercress, and as horses

are particularly fond of this dainty it is a convenient way of

•'■ Except dogs and pigs, to whom it is prejudicial.

232 THE HORSE

administering iron where watercress is abundant, as it fre-
quently is. Old race-goers may remember how his trainer
made quite a transformation in Kaleidoscope, converting
him into a robust, thriving animal, instead of being the
reverse, and so won with him the Lincolnshire Handicap,
and this success he largely attributed to the free and daily
use of watercress.

Other minerals which help to build up the body are
phosphorus, needed for the bones, the brain, and the nervous
system generally ; and a small quantity of sulphur, than which
there is no more valuable drug in the whole of the pharma-
copoeia or one more neglected. " No doubt," once remarked
an eminent veterinary surgeon to me, " if sulphur was a
guinea an ounce, instead of being as cheap as it is, it would
be held in proper esteem and valued accordingly, and then
we should use a lot of it." Sulphur purifies the blood, and
is a valuable aid when the digestive process is not in
thorough working order, and it also soon shows its effect
upon the skin by the silkiness of the coat when it is used.
A tablespoonful, once a month or so, is good for all horses,
but as it has a tendency to open the pores of the skin it
should only be given at the evening feed.

Green Food.

Some form of green food, which term includes carrots
and other roots, should be provided for all horses habitually
fed on dry, stimulating food. In Great Britain much useful
greenstuff is thrown on the manure-heap, or otherwise
wasted, which in hot countries is carefully garnered and
made use of for the animals. Beyond vetches, and the
different families of clover, or a little cut grass, we do not
avail ourselves of what is at hand, and the outer leaves of
cabbages and cauliflowers, and the green tops of celery, are
all allowed to go to waste, though much appreciated by stall-
fed cattle or horses in the stable. In Spain the green tops
of chicory, and of celery, used to be sold in the markets at
3d. for a very small parcel, and were eagerly bought ; and the
writer has ridden many a long journey to procure young

STABLE MANAGEMENT 233

dandelions, and even groundsel, for the horses in training,
when other green food could not be procured. Horses are
exceedingly fond of celery, and when once accustomed to it
will usually select it in preference to carrots if offered the
choice. In Spain barley was often sown for the sole purpose
of feeding horses, being cut when quite young, as clover is
here.

For some reason, which is rather obscure, it seems
necessary for horses to take a certain amount of earth into
their stomachs, and the craving for it on the part of horses
entirely stable-fed is not very generally recognised. When
such animals obtain a rare chance of a nibble at grass, it
will generally be observed that instead of at once seizing
the opportunity of eating the herbage they tear up mouth-
fuls of earth, and munch it in evident enjoyment, until a
muddy trickle escapes down their chins. After their desire
has been gratified for a few minutes they will then begin
to graze with satisfaction, and if frequently allowed a bite
of grass they do not take any notice of earth. Probably in
the ordinary course of grazing some earth is unconsciously
gathered up with the roots of grass, for a horse bites very
close to the ground, and this is missed when a horse is fed
only in the stable.

EOUTINE AFTEE HUNTING.

When attending to the legs and feet the latter should
be carefully washed out, especial attention being paid that
every particle of dirt is removed from the frogs, and also
between the web of the shoe and the sole of the foot, but
the less water that touches the former the better. Experi-
ence has proved over and over again that when the legs
are washed after return from hunting, or indeed at any time
when covered with mud, they are much more likely to suffer
from cracked heels, or mud fever, than if the bulk of the
mud is removed with a wisp of straw, the legs rubbed fairly
dry, and then serge or flannel bandages wrapped loosely
round the legs until the next morning, when any dry mud
which remains can easily be brushed out without trouble.

234 THE HORSE

An important part of the routine should be a search for
thorns, which can usually be detected by slowly passing
a light touch down the legs, paying especial attention to the
front of the knees, for a thorn in the knee will make its
presence most painfully known the next morning if it is not
discovered. When anything unusual is felt the character
is more surely determined by applying the nail to it, instead
of only feeling with the finger, and still further insight can
often be gained by damping the hair and skin with a wet
sponge. If it is certain the intruder is a thorn every
effort should be made to extract it at once ; but if this is
impossible a linseed poultice should be applied until the
next morning, when a renewed attack should be made
upon the thorn if it has not been drawn out by the poultice
in the meantime. When it is situated in such an awkward
place that a poultice cannot be well applied it may be
practicable to employ a water dressing instead, which
simply consists of wet folds of linen with a waterproof
covering outside, such as oiled silk, to retard the evaporation,
if spongio-piline is not available. It is preferable that the
linen should be steeped in water to which some antiseptic has
been added ; and it is obvious that if a plug of cotton-wool
or something similar be embedded within the folds, it will
act as a reservoir of moisture, and maintain the linen damp
for a longer period than would otherwise be the case.
Thorns frequently give serious trouble in the spring, when
the sap has begun to rise, for if this gets into the wound
a form of blood-poisoning, more or less severe, may ensue.

When the feet are being washed notice should be taken
whether any over-reach has occurred, or other cuts are
evident ; and if any such are not so severe as to call for a
poultice, they should at least be touched with some anti-
septic. A simple and effective way of automatically doing
this is to mix a little soft soap in the water before begin-
ning to wash the feet, for soft soap is an active destroyer
of minute organisms, as witness the effect of an application
of it on the common green-fiy, when the gardener syringes
the rose-trees.

Unless the animal should break out into heavy sweating

STABLE MANAGEMENT 235

a tired horse does not need much dressing down, and should
be comfortably clothed and left to rest as soon as possible ;
but often a horse will break out, some animals being much
more prone to this than others, and then hand-rubbing
must be resorted to, until the horse is fairly dry. Only
in very obstinate cases should it be left before it has become
dry, but when, as sometimes happens, it appears impossible
to get the animal to cease sweating, and it has to be left
awhile, care should be taken to remove the damp rug and
substitute a dry one, as soon as the sweating has at length
ceased. It should be borne in mind that as w^eakness is
often at the root of the matter, the administration of a
stimulant will frequently act like magic, and the coat dry up
as soon as the cordial begins to operate.

Horses with long coats are always a long time in drying,
and it is most important, though strangely enough most
commonly neglected, that the animal should be put into
a loarm stable during the process of drying. Evaporation
always involves cold, and if the surroundings are also cold
there is grave risk of a serious chill. In a stable warmed
by the presence of others and with no draughts present,
a long-coated horse can be placed in a loose box till he gets
dry, without much cause for anxiety; but if placed in a
cold stable, particularly if he is by himself in a place
where he cannot move about, and the thermometer is low,
a light rug should be thrown over him until his coat has
dried. After that takes place he can go into a cold stable
with impunity, or even be turned out if used to being so,
and will take no harm.

Though tired hunters need not receive much dressing
down on their return to their stables, it js a different
matter altogether after ordinary exercise, for then they
should be dressed with vigour, but at the same time without
violence or abuse, which high-coaraged horses are apt to
resent, and frequently become vicious in consequence. It
is no uncommon thing to meet with an animal which one
man can do anything with, whilst with another it is savage
to a degree. After the dressing is concluded the legs claim
attention, and if they have been bandaged the bandages

236 THE HORSE

must be removed, and in either case the legs require to be
thoroughly brushed and hand-rubbed. After the legs are
finished the feet should have any attention they require,
and whatever application, such as tar ointment, applied
that may be deemed necessary. Formerly they were
invariably stopped with a mixture of clay and cow-dung
now very seldom seen ; and yet there was much to be said
in favour of the practice. All hoofs require a certain
amount of moisture, more especially when they are of
brittle texture, and this was afforded by the wet clay, which
remained moist a long time ; whilst cow-dung, as the
mushroom-grower can testify, is of a cooling nature, the
very reverse of horse-droppings, which alone are suitable
for his purpose. But the qualities which suit the gardener
are prejudicial to the horn of a hoof, and therefore a main
object of the stopping with the mixture mentioned was to
prevent the horse filling his hoof with his own droppings
when he stepped into them, as he is sure to do at times in
the stable. It must, however, not be forgotten that it was
the custom — even so late as my boyhood — for the smith
to pare away the sole until it would " spring to the thumb,"
a most pernicious practice, and therefore the small amount
of horn which was left was more likely to be affected by the
lack of moisture, and the evils engendered by standing in
the dung, than under present conditions. The practice of
stopping the feet went out of fashion when the smiths
treated the feet on more rational principles.

Tkoublesome Tricks.

Some horses contract troublesome habits, or tricks, which
are annoying even when not absolutely dangerous, and
ingenuity must be exercised in counteracting them. A
common occurrence is that of capping an elbow, by lying in
such a position that the elbow rests on the fore-foot. The
swelling is composed of bloody fluid and thickened skin, and
it must be noted as very dangerous ever to fire a capped
elbow, or hock ; the inflammation which ensues may cause
suppuration, and so affect the joint as to necessitate the

STABLE MANAGEMENT 237

animal being destroyed. In this warning the writer is
speaking from actual experience. A remedy may be sought
by somewhat altering the shoeing, and it is advisable to try
the Charlier, or Rational, system of shoeing, if a smith can
be found who knows how to do it. One method of com-
bating the evil, which frequently answers, is to buckle
a large circular pad made of soft leather round the fetlock,
which either compels the horse to alter its usual resting
position, or, if it still adheres to it, prevents the hoof from
coming in contact with the elbow, from the size of the roll.

A very frequent habit is to tear the clothing, which can
be checked either by attaching a "sword" to the roller,
or by buckling a strong leather shield to the headstall,
and passing it behind the chin, which entirely prevents the
horse from gripping the clothing when he turns his head
for the purpose. It should be very stiff, and should be of
such length that it will project a full inch below the chin
when the horse turns his head round towards his side.
The sword is a staff reaching from the headstall to the
roller, to each of which it is fastened with a strap or a snap-
hook ; it may be of the thickness of the handle of a hayrake,
and though the animal can lie down and get up with it on,
it cannot turn its head. It is very effective, but does not
allow a horse so much freedom of movement as the leather
shield does. It may be further noted that a horse cannot
tear a rug made of strong canvas, and therefore such a one
should be placed on the outside.

A horse that is vicious in the stable, who will seize
any opportunity of biting, or even worrying his attendant,
should never be dressed without the lad having a switch
handy, the knowledge of the presence of which will frequently
prove a sufficient caution without it being necessary actually
to make use of it. Some thoroughbred horses are of such a
savage nature that great caution has to be exercised in attend-
ing to them, and the lad who looks after such must be of
determined character, quick to observe, though at the same
time quiet in his movements. Ofttimes one man can do any-
thing with such a horse, whilst another would be attacked
by the animal without a moment's hesitation. Such animals.

238 THE HORSE

besides being racked up, may be muzzled whilst being
dressed, or wear a sword attached to a roller ; or the old
gipsy plan may be used of making a slip-knot in a
length of whip-cord, and passing this over the jaw, care
being taken that it goes under the tongue, which otherwise
might be almost cut in two by the cord. The other end
must then be brought round the neck, and either held in the
hand or fastened to the loop with a slip-bow, thus making
two reins. This contrivance is very severe when pulled
upon, and in former days was often used by gipsies at a fair,
who w'ould not hesitate to jump on a bare-backed horse and
ride it away, their only bridle being a piece of cord thus
placed in the steed's mouth ; but as a rule it will generally
be found after a very short time that the lad will find it
quite sufficient if he carries a switch in his disengaged
hand, or even hangs it up within sight of the animal and
within easy reach.

Sometimes an animal takes to violently knocking with
his fore-foot against the manger or door, or gets his leg over
the head-rope — a common trick if the ring through which it
works is too near the ground — but an efficient remedy for all
these cases is to buckle padded leather straps round each
fetlock, connected together by a chain about a foot long,
having a swivel in the centre. Though he can get up and
lie down, and move about with ease under such circum-
stances, he can no longer indulge in his tricks, and after
a while will very probably cease to attempt them
altogether.

There are many plans for endeavouring to stop the habit of
kicking in the stable, but it can hardly be said that there is
one sovereign remedy, for what will answer with one horse
may fail with another, and though a plan may be found which
seems to have a due effect, after a time the horse may
recommence the malpractice. A short chain is often
strapped to one or both hind-legs, which inflicts a sharp
blow when kicking is indulged in, and thus the animal
punishes itself ; and with the same idea in view a bundle
of gorse is tied up behind the stall ; or a sheaf of straw,
occasionally soaked thoroughly wet to give it greater

STABLE MANAGEMENT 231)

emphasis, is hung in such a manner that when it is kicked
it swings back upon the offender. With a view to making
it impossible for the horse to kick, a fore- and hind-leg are
sometimes strapped together ; and a modified form is that
of connecting both hind-legs with a strap after the manner of
hobbles, but this does not prevent the horse from kicking
with both heels at once if it is inclined to do so. A plan at
one time much advocated, but with which the writer never
had any success, was to strap a block of wood round the
fetlock, which was fashioned to fit exactly into the hollow of
the heel, the idea being that when the horse bent the leg to
kick the block would hurt him and make him desist.

Crib-biting, and its twin-brother wind-sucking, are annoy-
ing tricks, the former habit often degenerating into the
latter, which is apt to cause stomach derangement, besides
flatulence and colic. Crib-biting by itself is objectionable
as it wears away the front teeth, and occasionally loosens
them so that one or more teeth may drop out, both
conditions interfering with the animal when turned out
to graze. Far the most efficient treatment of a confirmed
wind-sucker, especially one that is so addicted to the habit
that it can effectively suck in wind without fixing its teeth
against anything, is to make it wear constantly a hollow bit
open at both ends, and punctured in front with a row of
holes similar to a flute, so that as fast as the air is drawn in
it passes into the tube through the holes, and escapes at the
ends without being taken into the stomach at all. The bit
should be worn day and night, never being taken off except
at feeding-time, and the attendant should be on the alert to
replace the instrument the moment the feed is finished.
The writer had one horse thus treated for quite a dozen
years, with the best effect. Constant care is needed to
keep the bit clean, and it must daily be well washed out and
the holes cleared, for they continually get blocked up by the
remnants of the food.

Weaving is a habit contracted by some nervous horses
when in a stall, and is a constant oscillation of the head
from side to side, with a corresponding change of the
balance of the forepart from one fore-leg to the other. The

240 THE HORSE

remedy is to remove the animal into a loose box, or, if
this is not possible, to have two bars made to fit across
the end of the stall so that the horse need not be tied
up, forming the stall practically into a small box. Some
contrivance, some kind of v^ings to the side-posts, will
be necessary to prevent the horse from annoying its
neighbours, if they happen to stand in stalls adjoining.
Other restless animals occasionally will not rest in a
loose box, but keep ever on the move, tramping round
and round without ceasing, and they may be successfully
dealt with by transferring them into stalls. Frequently
such changes as the above are a complete success.

The habit, which is occasionally met with, of sleeping
standing, and never lying down, is very undesirable, and
most likely arises from the horse having been cast at some
period or another, and being afraid of the same thing
happening again. A horse which sleeps standing is very
likely to fall down in its sleep, and may injure itself
when so doing ; and since the weight of a horse is very
considerable — a well-bred 13- stone hunter will weigh about
13 cwt., while a three-year-old Shire often weighs over a
ton — it is very desirable that the legs should be freed from
sustaining such burden during a portion of the twenty-four
hours. No method is more efficacious in forcing a horse
into lying down than attaching a weight to his tail,
which sooner or later will make him think better of it,
and lie down to relieve himself from the unwelcome
imposition. When once relief is found by so doing there
will most probably be no further trouble on that account. A
7-lb. weight may be used at first, and increased if necessary
even up to 14 lbs., though if the original weight proves
successful it may be altered with advantage to 3 lbs. the
next day, and left off altogether as soon as it seems to
be no longer required.

Gkooming.

It may be asked why a horse in the stable requires groom-
ing, whilst the same animal turned out in a field does well

STABLE MANAGEMENT 241

enough without it ; but in this, as in everything else,
" circumstances alter cases." No doubt the artificial
manner in which horses are kept renders the perfect
working of the pores of the skin a necessity, and the health
of the horse depends largely upon the condition of his in-
tegument. Horses much exposed to the weather, though
brought under a roof at night, should neither receive nor
need such grooming, as they require a certain amount of
grease in their coats to be able to withstand the vicissitudes
to which they are exposed ; whilst a horse living in a field
depends entirely on the same grease, or he would speedily
succumb to the cold and wet which he must necessarily
meet with. By work, especially fast work, entailing more
or less sweating, the secretions of the glands of the skin
are enormously increased, while the pores of the skin
become clogged, and the object of grooming is to remove
these secretions, and get rid of dirt, dust, and scurf, which
must constantly accumulate. Furthermore, the highly
nutritious food upon which a hard-working horse is fed
also assists to increase the secretions of the skin, and
all these conditions can only be successfully met by a
thorough daily dressing of the skin.

To be effectual the groom should add his weight to his
muscular power, and in fact thoroughly massage the horse,
thus stimulating the sebaceous glands of the skin, which by
their oily secretion produce a glossy appearance on the coat,
and give it a silky feel to the touch. Standing well
away from the horse the groom should lean his weight
on the brush, which thus used will penetrate the coat
effectually to the skin, the use of the curry-comb being
to clean the brush, and no other. After being well groomed
the hand should not be soiled if passed over the coat against
the hair. Washing horses has sometimes been advocated
as more thoroughly cleansing the coat than the ordinary
method, but the above remarks must emphasise that this
practice is utterly unsuitable, and in fact does more harm
than good by removing the oily secretion, and thereby
increasing the liability to take a chill.

It is essential that a horse should be groomed immediately

242 THE HORSE

after exercise, as all the pores of the skin are then open,
and the brush will more effectually clean the skin before the
circulation is allowed to subside, for then the pores close, and
the dried perspiration cakes over them. It is far better not
to wash the legs. If the weather is dry, they may be
brushed and then hand-rubbed ; but if there is much wet
mud upon them, the bulk of it should be removed with a
wisp of straw, the legs afterwards being loosely bandaged
with woollen or serge bandages and left until they are dry,
even if they have to wait until the next morning, when
the dust can be brushed out in the ordinary manner.
Experience everywhere proves that this treatment is a
certain prophylactic against mud fever, which is a result of
the washing and not of the nmd. There would be no ill-
effects from the washing if the legs were thoroughly dried
afterwards, but this is usually not the case, and they are
left in a damp condition, which causes the mischief.

The heels require especial attention, and should be
rubbed thoroughly dry with rubber and hand before the
bandages are put on.

On returning from exercise the first thing to attend to is
washing the feet, and clearing out every particle of mud
and grit from the web of the shoe, the cleft of the frog,
and the bars of the hoof adjoining the frog. This latter is
too often carelessly done, and a close examination will show
that the mud has not been entirely removed, which, if
habitually overlooked, will assuredly result in disease of the
frog. The mud which is left soon becomes impregnated
with ammonia from the soiled litter, and in course of time
this will contaminate the frog, working into any ragged
portions, and so cause suppuration to ensue.

The thorough cleaning of the mane and tail are important
points, and require careful attention, and the brush must be
applied with considerable force to eradicate all the dust.
The eyes, nostrils, and anus must always be sponged out,
and the sheath needs cleansing from time to time, soap and
water being frequently required to cleanse away the
accumulated secretions.

STABLE MANAGEMENT 243

Shoeing.

Shoeing, alas ! is in this country a necessary evil, for the
horn of the hoof is not sufficiently adamantine to stand the
friction of the King's highway. In other countries, in wild,
rather desolate regions, it is no doubt possible for horses to
work unshod, but from very remote ages it has been found
absolutely necessary in some way to protect the feet of the
bard-working horse. Nor has any practical method ever
been discovered to keep the shoes on without nailing them
to the foot, during the thousands of years during which
mankind has shod the horse. Therein hes the difficulty, for
even when horses stand quietly to be shod from time to
time they get pricked in shoeing, a nail penetrating the
sensitive portion of the foot ; whilst the difficulty is
immensely increased when horses of violent temper have
to be dealt with, or young animals unaccustomed to the
process. Some smiths are more careless than others, and a
man accustomed only to shoe the heavy breeds, with large
feet and abundant thickness of horn outside the sensitive
parts, is very apt to make a mistake when on occasion he is
called upon to shoe the small foot of a well-bred horse. It
IS often the case that the nail is not driven very far before
the horse flinches, and then the smith immediately with-
draws the nail, drives it in a fresh direction, and satisfies
himself that it is all right. Or perhaps the nail has not
actually passed into the sensitive laminae, only into the soft,
cheese-like portion of the horn immediately surrounding it ;
and so when the horse goes out to exercise, the pressure and
concussion after a time have their due effect, and the
offending nail causes more and more soreness, making the
animal go "feeling" and "pottery," even if it is not
actually lame. There is only one thing to do under such
circumstances, and if a horse is lame or has suddenly
become faulty in his action after being recently shod, take
no notice of the solemn protestation of the smith that he
is prepared to swear he never pricked the animal, have the
shoe removed at once, and put a poultice on the foot. If
the smith has not pricked the foot such a proceeding will

244 THE HORSE

do no harm, and will probably do good; but if, as is almost
certain to be the case, a nail has been misdirected, the
poultice will soothe the pain, and prevent any inflammation
which may have arisen from extending, and after a day or
two's rest the shoe may be put on again, when the animal
will most likely be found to be quite sound. If a horse,
however, is continued to be worked when lame from a prick
suppuration may follow, and possibly a considerable time
may elapse before the horse recovers from what has become
a serious injury from unwise treatment.

It is well to consider what function a shoe has to perform
and what latitude can be allowed the smith when driving in
the nails. Briefly the outer horny covering may be looked
upon as an open box, the sides being termed the crust, or
wall, and the bottom the sole ; other items being the bars
and the frog, whilst inside the box are contained the bones
and sensitive portions of the foot. The sides, or wall, are
composed of a number of fibres, running longitudinally
downwards from the coronet, which secretes them, the outer
fibres being tough and hard, of about the thickness of half
an inch, whilst interiorly softer fibres of a quarter of an
inch interlace with the sensitive laminae of the foot. The
nails of the smith must be driven upwards, within that
half-inch of toughened fibres, a slight bend being given to
them to make them incline to the outside, there to be
clinched and made secure. When the horse is unshod the
rim of fibres forming the wall is continually rasped down by
contact with the ground, and is as constantly renewed from
above. For a considerable distance from the coronet,
perhaps two-thirds of the way down, the newly secreted
horn is chiefly composed of soft cellular material, with a
hard glazed waterproof surface, and into this region the
nails must not reach, but must make their exit in the lower
third of the wall where the fibres have become sufficiently
hard and tough.

The object of a shoe is to interpose between the rim of
the wall and the ground, and thus protect it from undue
wear and tear, under natural conditions the longitudinal
fibres of the wall being gradually worn away, much as a

STABLE MANAGEMENT 245

tool is ground down on a grindstone. The thin rim
composing the wall, it must be remembered, has to sustain
the entire weight of the horse, and resist all concussion in
galloping and jumping ; so the necessity of retaining its
entire substance, and not weakening it in any way whatever,
will be obvious.

The sole of the foot, except at its junction with the
wall, has little weight to sustain, and instead of being
formed in long fibres like the wall, is secreted by the
sensitive sole inside in such a manner that it does not
grind away from contact with the ground like the crust,
but exfoliates instead as each layer is no longer needed.
Coming away in large flakes as it does, there is not only no
necessity for the smith to remove any of the horn from beneath
the sole, but he is actually doing harm by so doing ; and yet
such is the perversity of human nature that it is almost im-
possible, unless a master stands over the smith at the time,
to prevent his removing the flakes, which would naturally
slough away as soon as the layer beneath was ready to
take their place. The one thing the sole needs is
simply to be let alone. There is then such a thickness of
hard material underneath the sensitive sole that the
shallowest-footed horse can travel over newly broken stones,
without being inconvenienced by treading on them in the
least. The rim of the wall, however, of necessity requires
different treatment, for being protected by the shoe the
fibres are no longer reduced by being worn away, and
therefore the knife of the smith is necessary to trim them
down to proper dimensions.

When the smith cannot stay his hand from paring out the
sole, which to his fancy gives it a nice open appearance, he
can hardly help interfering with the bars, those important
structures designed by Nature to prevent the heels con-
tracting, and which office they efficiently perform. Especially
must the angle be left alone, which is formed by their
junction with the crust ; for if that is removed the heels
will in most cases incline inwards towards the frog, impeding
its expansion and gradually squeezing it almost out of
existence. Especially is this the case with those high.

246 THE HORSE

narrow hoofs, which have a natural tendency to contract, and
are frequently referred to as donkey or mule's feet. These
are very apt to have ill-developed frogs, while those with
open and broad but possibly thin soles, have the frogs very
well developed indeed.

The outer frog is an elastic wedge-shaped pad, whose
chief function is to minimise concussion and jar, when
the whole weight of the horse is thrown violently upon
the foot, and it also acts as a drag in preventing slipping,
more especially when travelling on rocky or slippery
ground. It likewise is reduced naturally by exfoliation, and
therefore should not be cut away with the knife ; but since
it is apt to become ragged and torn in the course of work,
these frayed portions should be trimmed off by the smith, for
they otherwise form receptacles for dirt, which is certain to
absorb moisture from the soiled litter in the stable, when
these pockets become originators of disease. The decaying
tissue of the frog has an offensive odour peculiar to itself,
and on this being perceived close investigation should im-
mediately follow, and the affected part be at once removed.

One other caution must be given. On no account should
the smith rasp away the outer portion of the crust, for by so
doing he not only reduces the thickness of the sustaining
wall, which is narrow enough to begin with, but he also
removes the glazed waterproof surface, which has a valuable
service to perform in preventing the escape of the inner
moisture of the foot, and without which the horn becomes
so dry as to encourage sand-crack and other evils. It is
necessary, however, for the smith to use the rasp to file off
the ends of the nails after they have been clinched, and
to smooth down the projecting portions level with the crust,
but if this is carefully done there need be no weakening
of the wall itself.

How long a time shoes should last depends much upon
the ground on which the work is done, for it is plain that a
horse travelling entirely on the road will wear his shoes out
quicker than one who is scarcely ever out of the field. The
character of the ground also has much to say to it, for if it is
hilly the shoes are more quickly worn at the toes than

STABLE MANAGEMENT 247

in a flat country, especially when the horse has to draw
a load. There is a considerable difference, too, in individual
horses, one animal wearing his shoes out quicker than
another ; but generally speaking shoes should last a month,
and if they last longer the shoes ought to be taken off,
the extra growth of the horn removed, and the shoes
replaced, and with many animals this remove is preferably
carried out every three weeks. It is a frequent cause of
animals going short in their action, or becoming afflicted
with corns, when the shoes have not been removed soon
enough, and they have become embedded in the hoof.

The shoe must be as long as the crust, both being of
precisely the same length, for if the shoe of the fore-foot
is longer than the heels the hind-foot is liable to tread on it
and pull it off ; whilst if it is shorter it will be likely
to press on the seat of corns, and so produce that malady.
But a three-quarter tip, which is often of great use in
certain cases, is quite safe to employ, since it does not
extend so far back as the seat of corn, and so no evil
can be caused b}'^ the shortness of this shoe.

A good workman fits the shoe so that its outer edge
is neither smaller than the crust nor overlaps it, just
corresponding exactly with the curve of the hoof after
he has lowered the crust and rounded it off, chiefly by
using the rasp. A second-rate man does not take the
trouble to do this, and putting on a shoe slightly smaller
than the crust, proceeds to fit the foot to his shoe, rasping
down the crast until the fit is at length accomplished.

The number of nails, and the situation of the nail-holes,
are both matters for careful consideration. Six nails are
quite sufficient for the fore shoes of hunters, though for
hacks or carriage-horses five are usually sufticient ; and in
this case these should be round the toe, and on the outside
of the foot, the reason being that the outer crust is slightly
thicker than the inner, especially towards the heels. For the
hind-feet six nails are necessary, for greater stress is thrown
upon the hind shoes in galloping, leaping, or kicking, and
therefore they are more likely to get twisted out of their
position than the fore shoes. No nails should on any account

248 THE HORSE

be permitted to be driven nearer the heels than the widest
part or centre of the foot, since the rim of the crust narrows
after this is passed. It is of great importance that the foot
surface of the shoe should present a perfectly even plane for
the crust to rest upon, for if it is uneven the prominent
parts will receive an undue portion of the weight of the
horse when standing in the stable, which before long will
make itself unpleasantly felt.

When shoes are an inch in breadth, the usual width, the
nail-holes may be punched rather nearer the outside than
the inside of the web of the shoe, but care must be
taken that they are sufficiently far from the edge, or the iron
may be caused to bulge in consequence. They must also
be made exactly parallel with the sides of the shoe, and
not allowed to slant across it. The punch may, however,
be driven rather obliquely towards the surface, so that
a slight cant is given to the direction of the nail, causing
it to incline to the outside independently of the slight
bend given to the point, and thus the risk of pricking
the sensitive laminae will be diminished.

Bar shoes are very useful in cases of injury or disease,
when it is necessary to prevent any weight being borne
by the heels or some portion of the crust. They are made
by connecting the heels of the shoe with a bar of iron-
completing an oval, in point of fact. Some horses stumble
very badly when ridden, who may yet be ridden in safety and
comfort if shod with shoes turned up at the toes, in the same
manner as the toes of the hoof would be worn away by
friction with the ground if unshod. Many years ago the
writer obtained a pattern of a French shoe of this description,
which has proved itself at times most useful and efficient in
preventing certain animals from catching their toes and
stumbling, the one slight drawback being that the shoes
do not last so long as ordinary ones, owing to the metal
being somewhat thinned out to turn up the toe. Sufficient
breadth must be allowed for the turning up, commencing at
the sides, and the same width of seating must be maintained
as heretofore, sufficient horn being removed from the toe to
fit m with the new shape.

STABLE MANAGEMENT

249

Of late years a great boon to all horse-owners has been
obtained by the placing of frost-studs on the market,
which can be fitted into holes made in the heels of the
shoes to receive them, and are an absolute protection
against slipping in frosty weather. Their removal, too,
is just as easily effected when the animal returns to his
stable and they are no longer required, either operation
being the work of but a few seconds. Riding or driving
in frosty weather, when the roads are one sheet of ice,
no longer inspires the terror that it used to occasion.
The studs known as " Dudleys " can be particularly
recommended, and are made of steel, triangular in shape,
terminating in a sharp edge, while the length and breadth,
apart from the neck, measure respectively ^ of an inch.
They are knocked in and removed by a few gentle taps
from a hammer.

A shoe which was invented half a century ago by
Monsieur Charlier, and which is known by his name,
though of late years it is perhaps better known as the
" Rational," deserves to be more used than it is, for it
fulfils all the requirements of a shoe, is very light, and
improves the feet of horses by throwing the weight on
the natural cushion, the frog, thereby stimulating its
development. Almost all horses are benefited by it, the
few which it does not suit being those with such shallow feet
that there is not sufficient horn to stand the necessary groove
being cut. Smiths do not give it a whole-hearted reception,
however, as the shoes require very careful fitting, and there-
fore take much time and skill in putting them on ; and in
addition, as they are very narrow they have to be made out
of special steel bars, require nails made on purpose, and the

250 THE HORSE

old shoes cannot be worked up again into new shoes. All
this extra labour means also more time, so that fewer shoes
can be put on in a given time than under the usual system.
The action of the horse is also somewhat altered, for with
such very light shoes a horse does not step so high as with
heavier ones, and this does not always please dealers, nor
also some grooms and owners. This mode of shoeing,
however, possesses many advantages besides those already
mentioned. An animal which brushes, either before or
behind, seldom does so with Charlier shoes, and at any rate
the evil is much lessened in degree ; and it is rare for a shoe
to be pulled off in deep ground. On the other hand, if
the nail-holes are punched askew, or a shoe is worn too
thin, the shoe may sometimes break, though if this should
happen no harm, as a rule, is done. Over-reaches also
seldom occur, and if they do they are very trivial, while the
lightness of the shoes demands less labour from the horse.

In 1872 the writer was quartered in Ireland, and found
Charlier shoes extensively used, all the Galway Hunt horses,
amongst others, being shod with them, that famous pack, the
Blazers, being then under the Mastership of the celebrated
Mr. Burton Persse. The writer at once adopted the system,
and for many years used them exclusively on hunters,
chargers, and race-horses, and for these latter especially they
were very suitable, since there was no occasion to plate
them when they were going to run. In 1874, owing to
a difficulty in finding smiths skilled in putting on the
shoes, the writer started a shop of his own, which he
continued for three years, and the demand for the shoes
became so great there were soon three smiths in constant
work. From the very commencement the three-quarter
Charlier was adopted, which, in the writer's opinion, is
the proper one to use.

The principle of the Charlier shoe is that it is needless for
a shoe to be wider than the rim of the crust, which is
all that needs protecting ; and secondly, if a groove is
cut in the rim sufficiently deep to embed the iron the horse
will stand naturally, as Nature intended him to do, thus
making full use of the frog. When this process is carefully

STABLE MANAGEMENT 251

and skilfully done nothing can be better ; but if at all slurred
a horse may readily be lamed, or at an}'^ rate he will lose
his action to such an extent as to go like " a cat on hot
bricks." No smith the writer has ever yet come across
is content to continue treading the path which has been
pointed out as the true one. When he is told that
every smith invariably after a time is certain to ignore
the plain directions, and will not beHeve it to be absolutely
necessary to follow them strictly, a covert ineffable smile
curls his lips, and he hints that he at least is superior
to such weakness. Young, old, and middle-aged, I have
found them always the same, and they follow in the
footsteps of those who have gone before them ! At first
the man takes great pains to do as he is told, believing
all the time in his heart of hearts that the animal he is
experimenting upon will never be able to walk out of
the forge. To his unconcealed astonishment the horse
proceeds on his way, with as free action as when he arrived,
and then the smith becomes inflated with his own cleverness,
and thinks nothing can happen when such skill as his is
treating the case. The next stage is that he begins to
imagine the simple rules laid down for his guidance are
but foolish fads, entailing considerable trouble, and therefore
he neglects them ; nor can his carelessness be detected until
the shoe is taken off. In a da}^ or two the groom begins
to notice that the horse is going very short, and tells all his
cronies that " he knew all along it would never do." Very
possibly he persuades his master to revert to the old style,
when all concerned combine to find fault with Charlier
shoes, and tell their friends not to try them, or they will
assuredly lame their horses. But possibly the owner
may have sufficient faith to appeal to an expert for advice,
who will promptly summon the smith, have the shoes
removed, and the careless errors of the man will then most
certainly stand revealed. Every smith follows this same
routine — it seems quite impossible for them to avoid doing so ;
but the able, clever man, having once realised that there is
much more in it than he ever believed, will thenceforward
scrupulously attend to the instructions, and thereby reap

252 THE HORSE

his reward ; while unskilful and self-opinionated men
soon give up trying to perform what is not within their
province, and if they do not do so on their own account
their customers will very soon afford them no opportunity
of practising on the horses in their studs.

The rules which are important, and really must be
attended to, are but few and simple — but unless strictly
adhered to the horse is sure to go lame, sooner or later.

Eule 1. Cutting the groove. Great care must be taken
to obtain a level surface.

Eule 2. At the junction of the wall and the sole a well-
defined "corner" must be left.

Rule 3. The inner portion of the shoe at the toe must
have its sharp edge taken off, for about three inches.

Rule 4. The shoe must fit the groove accurately.

A
A. Groove. X. Sharp edge taken off.

It has previously been stated that the tough outer fibres
of the crust are but half an inch in thickness, while the
soft, cheese-like substance of the inner fibres extends
inwards for another quarter of an inch. Into this latter
region the shoe must not trespass, so the width of the shoe
must not exceed half an inch. The groove should not be
cut too deep, for there is no great amount of material
between the inner edge of the shoe and the sensitive portion
of the foot. Twice it has happened in the writer's expe-
rience that, in the anxiety to get the shoe level with the
sole, the smith has cut the groove just a little too deep,
and though no accident was apparent at the time in each
case the horse quickly went lame. On removing the shoe
the sole was found to have cracked all round the " corner,"
and in one instance the sole came completely off, leaving the
sensitive portion as bare as the pahn of one's hand. After

STABLE MANAGEMENT 253

these lessons we never sank the shoes more than half the
depth of the iron, and many years of subsequent experience
have proved this to be quite sufficient.

The most practical way of testing whether the surface
is level (Rule 1) is, after roughly cutting the groove, to apply
the shoe sufficiently hot to slightly burn the horn in every
direction ; all the burned part must then be removed with
the rasp, and then the hot shoe applied again for a moment.
Any part requiring a further use of the rasp is thus easily
seen, and so long as any discolouration occurs the rasp
must be used, though the hot shoe must only be momen-
tarily applied, or the heat may have an undue effect upon
the soft, yielding fibres. Very often a slight burnt crust
extends for a very short space from the corner, which
the smith may think of no consequence, but if this is
left the shoe will press upon it and cause the animal to
go short after a little time.

One of the commonest causes of a horse losing its
action is non-observance of Rules 2 and 3, for if the
weight of the horse presses the sharp inner edge of the
shoe against the soft part of the horn a tender place
is soon created in the sensitive foot. But by keeping the
corner of the groove quite sharp, while the edge of the
shoe is rounded off, there is sufficient room between the two
to prevent them coming into actual contact. The edge of
the shoe is quickly taken off by a few blows of the hammer
when the iron is hot, and it can afterwards be finished
smooth with the rasp.

If the shoe does not fit the groove accurately (Rule 4),
sand and gravel may work in, and then there will be
trouble. The groove should not be cut with the knife quite
the required size, for when the hot shoe is applied it is easy
to enlarge the groove to the required dimensions, with the
rasp. If the maxim to leave the sole untouched is
important in the case of ordinary shoes, it is doubly so
with Charliers, for then the horse has to rely entirely
on the thickness of the horn for protection when treading
on broken road-metal. It is the same with the frog, which
must only have the ragged parts trimmed off; but the

254 THE HORSE

development which soon takes place in this structure can
only be believed when seen. One example affords the
writer especial satisfaction to recall. In the summer of
1874 an especially handsome horse came up for sale at
Tattersalls, which a relative was anxious to purchase, but
the near fore-foot was so contracted it was almost a club
foot ; there was not so much space between the angles
of the bars as the first joint of a man's thumb, whilst the
frog was only conspicuous by its absence. Still, the horse
trotted quite sound on the stones, and was only five years
old, and therefore the opinion was vouchsafed that the foot
would improve if shod with Charlier shoes. Nearly all
would-be buyers w^ere chary of risking such an awkward-
looking foot, and the horse was purchased for 120 guineas.
He was at once shod with the proposed shoes, and when
the stud was removed to Melton in November the foot
had considerably improved, while he had not lost his
action in any way whatever. He turned out a brilliant
hunter, and when the stud was sent up for sale the following
June there was not much difference between the two feet
and he was bought in for 420 guineas. Three years
afterwards he once more accompanied some other hunters
to the sale-yard, and was again bought in for 350
guineas, there being then no difference in the width
of the two feet, while both frogs were about the same size.
Belmont was another notable instance of the Charlier
system of shoeing. At the time he was purchased by
the writer, one ankle was so weak from being constantly
struck by the opposite foot that he could scarcely stand long
enough on that leg to have the other foot shod. Charlier
shoes soon put an end to the brushing, and, after winning
several small races, he was only just beaten for the Grand
Military Gold Cup at Sandown, and the following year
won the Dunboyne Plate at Fairyhouse, and the Conyngham
Cup at Punchestown, and finished up by winning the
MetropoUtan Plate at Baldoyle, in which races he competed
against some of the best steeplechasers then in training.
He practically owed all these races to the benefit received
from wearing Charlier shoes, which enabled his weak leg

STABLE MANAGEMENT 255

to stand the wear and tear of training by altering the
action sufficiently to avoid the constant brushing, which
previously had been such a cause of trouble.

Such examples afford ample proof of how valuable the
system can be, when practised by a competent and skilful
smith.

In contrast to the Charlier shoes are the very weighty
ones commonly employed for the heavy breeds of horses,
and for training hackneys for Show purposes, one of the
well-known ways for teaching them to step high being
to run them with light plates, and then to change them
for loaded shoes. It is rather a curious circumstance that
the Americans should find the addition of toe-weights
enables them to improve the speed of their famous trotters
by causing them to lengthen their strides, while the
Englishman employs weight to make his animals shorten
theirs and step into the air !

In 1890 a scheme was inaugurated at the Mansion House
in London under the auspices of the Lord Mayor, Sir
Joseph Savory, for the " National Registration of Farriers
as Shoeing Smiths and Doormen." The objects of the
Society are : —

1. To examine farriers by practical test in making,
fitting, and putting on shoes and preparing the foot ; and
by an oral examination on the construction of the horse's
foot.

2. To register those that pass.

8. To encourage technical education and apprenticeship.

All candidates must pass in these subjects at the exa-
minations which are held in various parts of the country,
chiefly in conjunction with the Agricultural Societies at
their annual Shows ; but also through County Councils
and Technical Colleges. The Farriers' Company has also
followed suit, and in 1908 started an additional scheme
for the higher examination and registration of shoeing
smiths.

These are steps in the right direction, and can but result
in increased benefit to such animals as may be left to
us under the stress of competition with motor traction.

256 THE HORSE

Clothing.

Clothing must be regulated according to the requirements
of the animal, one rug in summer and two in winter
sujfficing in ordinary cases. But at any time of the year
if an animal's coat is seen to be staring, and it appears
chilly to the hand, something additional should be thrown
over the rest of the clothing, or the horse is certain to
suffer from a "chill." A careful groom, who studies the
wants of his charges, can thus prevent many a cold, for the
proverbial "stitch in time" is extremely important when
dealing with horses. Often an ordinary hood placed over
the quarters and loins will afford just that additional
warmth which is needed at the moment to keep the circula-
tion up to the necessary point. The ends of all rugs should
be so shaped as to come together in front, and be there
secured with a broad strap and buckle, and if, as is now
frequently done, the rugs do not meet underneath, and be
there fastened with a buckle, they will need to be made
secure with a roller round the body. Eugs must be well
hollowed out over the withers, and need careful attention
in this respect, it being noted whether the rug presses upon
the withers when the roller is fastened in its place. If the
rug should appear to be drawn tight over the withers it
must at once have an additional piece added by the saddler,
or a sore place will be engendered, which may eventually
suppurate if the cause is not at once removed.

In very hot weather, in siimmer, a linen sheet should
be used instead of a rug, merely to prevent flies from
settling on the horse and causing annoyance.

There should be different sets of clothing for day and
night, and when expense is no object, another set for
exercise also. But when extra luxury cannot be afforded,
the underneath night rug can be used for exercising in, as
there should be time to dry it before the evening if it has
rained during the time the horse was out of the stable.

At race-meetings the American rug, which is now a
familiar sight, has an advantage over the ordinary hood
and rug, in affording more complete protection from the

STABLE MANAGEMENT 257

weather, for an ordinary hood is apt to be displaced by the
wind, and thus the rain can be troublesome on a tempes-
tuous day. The American sheet is made all in one piece,
completely covering the horse from the ears to the tail, and
is kept in its place at the head by a browband, being also
fastened underneath with a strap and buckle, and so requir-
ing no roller ; and it has another fastening in rear, at
the tail. If it is quaint in appearance it certainly has
the merit of shielding the animal from all vicissitudes of
weather, and thus fulfils the purpose for which it is
required.

Bandages.

Without a supply of bandages a groom would indeed be
at a loss, for they afford him invaluable assistance in the
treatment of horses' legs. They should be 3 yards in
length, those in ordinary use being made of serge or of
flannel, and also of linen. The former are required for
warmth, especially when horses become aged, or from other
causes have a feeble circulation, resulting in puffy fetlock
joints and filled legs, and for this purpose should be
wrapped quite loosely. They are also employed for
fomentations, being wrung out of hot water and imme-
diately put on, and it is an excellent method to put
another dry one outside, which serves to keep up the heat
and prevent evaporation. Linen bandages are used when
evaporating lotions are employed to produce cold ; but for
this purpose chamois leather is often substituted instead,
as it has the advantage of retaining the moisture longer.
When a sweating bandage is required, a linen one is the
proper material to use, being applied wet, with oilskin
outside, and kept continuously on until the skin becomes
scurfy, this being the usual plan for reducing enlargements.
Nowadays spongio-piline is perhaps more commonly
employed instead of the above, being a handier way of
attaining the same result.

Worn and puffy legs are frequently treated by another
process, thick layers of cotton-wool being used to envelope
the legs, and then either serge or linen bandages put on

258 THE HORSE

and drawn as tightly as possible, the object being to exert
much pressure equally all round. An improvement upon
this has been brought out by the Sandown Company, whose
Fleecy bandages supply a thick material, which can be used
either wet or dry, and adapts itself easily to the contour
of the limbs. These bandages retain their fleeciness for a
considerable time, and have the advantage of being always
ready when wanted.

Saddlery.

Saddles should be carefully fitted to every horse, or a sore
back is the inevitable result. In a small stable, where
economy has to be very much considered, a good-sized
saddle, with plenty of width in the tree, can be made to
fit all horses with normal backs, with the help of numnahs,
and knitted pads ; but numbers of horses have some special
peculiarity which cannot be thus treated, and then a saddle
should be set apart for a particular animal, and especially
stuffed to suit his formation. It is false economy to have
the animal perpetually laid up with a sore back, and unable
to do its work in consequence. Especial attention should
be paid to see that the saddle does not press on the withers
when the rider is in the saddle, for a heavy man may
cause a saddle to sink sufficiently to bring it down upon
the withers, although there appeared plenty of room
before mounting ; and if a sore place should be formed
it is very difficult to cure, as there is almost no flesh in
that region and little power of healing. When the rider
is mounted there should be sufficient room to insert at
least two fingers, one over the other, under the pommel,
to be on the safe side, and more space is very desirable.
If the tree is too narrow it will pinch the withers, and
this also will produce a painful state, which, if continued,
may bring on an abscess and cause much trouble ; nor is
it safe to have too much width in the saddle, for then it
will roll about, and mischief will ensue. In this latter
case, however, a remedy is easily found, for a numnah,
or one or two pads, can be placed over the withers to make
the saddle fit sufficiently close. Ladies' saddles require

STABLE MANAGEMENT 259

even more care in this respect than men's saddles, owing
to the cramped position in which a lady has to sit.

It is equally necessary to guard against the rear part
of the saddle resting on the backbone, for if a lump
should be raised there it is seldom ever completely reduced
again, and so remains a constant nucleus of future trouble.
Animals with good flat backs are seldom affected in this
manner, but where the backbone forms a prominent ridge
the danger is ever present. The stuffing of the saddle
at this part should never be allowed to get flat ; and have
a well-marked division between the two cushions to provide
against the evil mentioned. The stuffing of saddles requires
constant watching, for it always settles down when con-
stantly used, and though it may be all right at first, in a
few weeks may present a very different aspect.

Another source of trouble, often unsuspected, arises from
the arms of the tree being too short, thereby not getting
a sufficient grip of the sides of the horse, and allowing the
saddle to shift about on its back. This again is a more
essential point in side-saddles than in those of men. The
stuffing must not be allowed to work into hard lumps, for
these soon hurt the back, particularly if the horse has
a thin skin ; and when the condition is noticed the saddler
should take out the stuffing, re-shred it, and then replace
it, with the addition of some more. The ordinary lining
also gets threadbare with use, and holes will wear in it if
neglected, and these also will make a back sore. Another
cause of sore back is from a rider sitting in such a cramped
position that all his weight rests on one place instead of
being fairly distributed — a very common occurrence when
fatigue sets in after a long ride. Many kinds of lining are
in use, and sometimes one sort suits a particular animal
better than another, such as a lining of leather or of linen ;
the former needs to be kept very supple by constant
greasing ; and the latter must be kept very taut, or it will
form wrinkles, when it will prove instead to be a cause
and not a remedy of the evil.

Numnahs play an important part in the economy of the
saddle-room, and are of various sorts, but the best the

260 THE HORSE

writer has ever used have been thick white ones, known as
Scriven's Patent Wilson Numnah. These do not shrink
as the ordinary felt ones are apt to do, and an experience
of them for many years has proved their value and suit-
ability. Leather numnahs can be also recommended, but
like the similar lining for saddles they need to be kept very
supple and frequently greased.

All saddles should have the lining sponged over to remove
the accumulated sweat, when taken to the saddle-room
after being used ; they should then be dried at a distance
from the fire, being afterwards gently beaten with a light
stick, to get rid of any impurities which the lining has
absorbed. The leather part should have any mud washed
off and then have a damp sponge passed all over it, w^hich
has been previously rubbed on ordinary yellow bar soap.
This is an excellent preservative of leather, and keeps it
supple, while there is nothing in it to soil or stain white
breeches when riding in rain, which is so often the case
with ordinary saddle-pastes. Soft soap is not good for
leather, for though it softens it at first it causes it after-
wards to become hard, and possibly crack.

GlETHS.

Girths are of great variety, and when the ordinary kind
are used broad ones are much easier for the horse than
narrow ones, although they have a greater tendency to
make the horse sweat underneath them. Still, the pressure
being distributed over a wider area more than makes up
for this slight drawback. Young horses with a low fore-
hand are very subject to sores behind the elbow, from the
saddle working forward, so that the edge of the girth comes
in contact with the thin skin immediately behind the elbow,
when the friction soon breaks the skin. A very simple
remedy for this state of things is to tie something soft
round the girths, bending the edge outwards, and well
back, and then no friction can result. Nothing answers
better for this purpose than an old silk boot-lace, as it lies
flat and is quite soft. Perhaps the best girths of all are the

STABLE MANAGEMENT 261

well-known plaited leather ones, in several pieces parallel to
each other, for they fulfil every requirement, except that
some people rather object to their appearance. They do
not heat the horse, and, taking a better grip than the
ordinary ones, do not need to be drawn quite as tight.

Stirrups.

Stirrups should have good broad foot-plates, which do
not tire the soles of the feet as do narrow ones ; and,
moreover, they keep the stirrup well forward by pressing
against the heel of the boot, when there will be no risk of
getting a sore lump at the junction of the shin and the foot,
which so often happens when the foot is thrust too far into
the stirrup. To assist in this the heel of the riding-boot
should always be brought so far forward that a plummet
dropped in front of the shin should just meet the fore-end
of the heel. The sides of the stirrups should be flattened
at their junction with the foot-plates, to obviate any soreness
arising in the sides of the feet when pressing against them,
which is likely to happen if this precaution is not taken.
The slight increase in weight between large and small
stirrups is a matter of no account when extra comfort is
thereby attained, for no one can balance his weight on
a horse to the same advantage if he is uncomfortable.
Moreover, small stirrups are more likely to increase the risk
of the feet getting fast in the case of an accident — a danger
that should be minimised by any means it is possible to
employ. Another advantage stirrups of a certain weight
have over light ones is that they do not sway about so
much after being lost from the feet when jumping a
fence, and are therefore more easily recovered, which also
makes for a saving of time. Saddles should be large and
roomy, as well as stirrups, for if "the joint is too big for
the dish " there can be no ease either for the horse or
the rider ; and, moreover, dangerous, and even fatal, acci-
dents have frequently occurred through the rider coming
down on the pommel or the cantle when taking a fence,
owing to riding in a saddle too small for him, with

262 THE HORSE

the mistaken idea of saving two or three pounds in
weight.

A horse necessarily sweats very considerably underneath
a saddle, and any practical contrivance to minimise this is
worthy of notice. A saddle which certainly fulfils this
condition has been largely used of late years in Yorkshire
hunting-fields, which admits air into the tree through several
apertures, and it should therefore be an important aid in
keeping the skin dry, and thereby lessen the liability to
a sore back. It is on the market as Kobson's Patent
Ventilated Saddle.

Bridles.

Of bridles there is an endless variety : they differ as much
as the hands of the rider and his capacity for making
the best use of the " key to the horse's mouth." It is
absolutely necessary that full control should be possessed by
the rider, but so long as this is attained humanity urges
that no severer bit should be used than is necessary to
achieve that object ; and the easier the bit the more
pleasantly will the animal carry itself and its rider, when
a better mutual understanding will be established between
them. Bits should always be sewn on to the bridles, for
buckles and straps are less neat in appearance, and if a
martingale is necessary — and in many cases it is — the rings
are apt to catch on the buckles, and the rider may have an
awkward moment or two until they are released.

The reins should be broad, as then they are more
comfortable to hold, and the leather should be thin enough
to be pliable, but not so thin that the reins double up in the
hand ; at the same time if they are very stiff they do not
afford the same delicacy of touch — although this may not
make much difference to those who are heavy-handed, or, as
frequently designated, mutton-fisted. Various contrivances
have been tried to afford a better grasp in wet weather, when
a hard-pulling horse causes the reins to be continually
slipping through the fingers, and an excellent plan is to
have the forepart of the rein made quite narrow, till it nears
the point where the rider is accustomed to take hold when

STABLE MANAGEMENT 263

the horse is at speed; then for about 18 inches the
breadth should be continually increased, so that it is always
a little wider behind the fingers than where they are holding
the reins at the moment. After a sufficient space has been
so tapered, the width may at once revert to the original
dimensions, by which method any appearance of clumsiness
will be obviated. Another very practical plan is to have
small bars of leather sewn across the reins about 8 or 4
inches apart, where the reins are usually grasped, to act
as stops, which no horse can easily drag through the
fingers, however wet and slippery the reins may become.
These stops are more comfortable if a thin piece of leather
is sewn over them as a cover, which also makes them less
conspicuous, the one slight drawback to them being that
they give at first rather a clumsy feel to the reins ; but
those whose lot it is to ride headstrong, awkward horses
do not mind a trifle like this when it enables them to
keep the control which they would otherwise lose.

A third method is to have the reins plaited, which affords
a capital hold, though it is rather more clumsy, necessarily
making a very full handful.

Stabling.

It is not proposed to give any general plan of stabling", for
it must almost necessarily vary in form in every instance, and
when about to be built a competent architect will no doubt
be employed ; but mention may be made of a few details,
applicable everywhere, which, as experience has proved,
answer the purpose of keeping horses in the highest health
and vigour. Whether boxes or stalls are used there should
be a broad ample gangway in the rear, to allow space
for horses moving in and out, and also to afford
extra cubical capacity. Six feet six inches is the least
which should be allowed for this purpose, and 7 feet is
a preferable width. The cubical space allowed for each
horse should be 1,500 feet, unless the arrangements for
ventilation are very good, and it should seldom be below
1,200 cubic feet. Some arrangement is advisable for

264 THE HORSE

providing ventilation independently of the windows, a
small ingress near the floor in the gangway, and an egress
for the warm used-up air, high up in the wall near the
ceiling, both easy to open or close by a sliding
shutter, being the guiding principle. In this way fresh
air in graduated quantity can be admitted without any
draught, which is so apt to cause colds and coughs if not
carefully guarded against. Fresh air is one thing, but a
draught is most pernicious, and the ancient Spanish proverb
that " death comes in with the wind through a hole" has
more than an element of truth in its teaching.

Stalls.

It is well to have both stalls and loose boxes, but if the
stalls are also provided with doors they can be utilised as
boxes, which adds so much to the comfort and health of the
occupants that such an arrangement is well worth the extra
cost. Many years ago the writer thus provided six stalls
with doors, which he has never since regretted doing, and
for horses not exceeding 16 hands they have answered
extremely well. They are only 6 ft. 6 in. in width,
and would have been better if they had been 7 feet, the
usual width for large horses ; but still the animals which
have occupied them, chiefly thoroughbred horses, have
thriven in them ; and certainly they possess one advan-
tage, they require far less straw for bedding — an economy
not to be despised under the stress of present legislation.

It is not intended for one moment to suggest that such
boxes should take the place of those of the usual dimensions,
but merely to point out how much more comfortable stalls
can be made if they can be turned into temporary boxes.
The same attempt is often made by placing bars across the
stalls, but this plan is not nearly so satisfactory as when
proper doors are used. The privacy of a box is undoubtedly
welcome to a tired animal which is desirous of resting, and
the prevention of draughts is another very great point in
favour of closing the stall behind.

For all ordinary purposes such a stall remains as if

STABLE MANAGEMENT 265

it did not differ from the usual ones, and the pillar reins are
left in situ — so necessary for fastening up a horse after the
bridle has been put on, for if it is racked up to the manger
it soon rubs the bridle to pieces. Pillar reins are also most
useful when breaking in a young horse, for when they are
fastened to the bit the colt can play with the latter, and
thus learn to stand still when held by some one on foot. Of
course the pillar reins must be fixed sufficiently far away
from the door to hinder the horse from reaching it and
rubbing the bridle against it.

One of the great, if not the chief, advantages of a box is
that the horse is able to move about, and so continually
shift the weight off one foot on to the other. The poor
animal tied up in a stall can only ease one limb by
throwing all his weight on to the other, standing still
all the time. Then he again changes the burden, but all
that time there has been an immense weight compressing
the structures of the foot, and the hoof being simply a
horny box, it cannot allow expansion; thus the blood-
vessels are constricted, and the circulation suffers. We all
have experienced the unpleasant sensations engendered by
standing in tight boots for any length of time, and the rehef
experienced when one is able to move on, and it is the same
with a horse when racked up in a stall. Minor evils,
resulting from deficient circulation, follow from this cause,
filled fetlock joints and so forth ; and all this discomfort can
be obviated by allowing the horse the luxury of a box. If a
horse is watched in a field or in a box it will be seen that he
is always moving, at one moment nibbling something here
and the next moment something there, raising and lowering
his head to do so, and stretching his neck from side to side.
He is never in the same position for long together, and
all that time the weight is constantly being sustained by
the different feet, those at temporary rest allowing perfect
freedom to the circulation to run its course; then when
there is a dry bed to lie upon, free from a cold wind or
draughts, the animal lies down when he wants to rest ; and
that such conditions are at all times within his reach the
careful horse-master will endeavour to arrange.

2()6 THE HORSE

All doorways should be high and wide, to prevent the
danger of knocking the top of the head or the hips when
passing through them ; and the side-posts must never be
left with a sharp edge, being carefully rounded off to mini-
mise any possible accident ; when practicable it is better to
have the posts protected with a small roller, which will turn
round if the horse catches against it. A groom leading a
horse into a stable should never pull at the bridle, if it hangs
back, for then it is certain to elevate the head, and knock it
against the top of the doorway if it is low. There is no
surer method of teaching a horse to be afraid of entering a
stable than this, and the habit of going in and out with a
rush is soon learned if a horse has once been thus hurt. If
the man allows the horse a slack rein he will carry his head
low, and there will then be no fear of his hitting it however
low the doorway may be. The provision of light is an
important one, as, though horses may rest better in the dark,
their eyesight will soon suffer if they are kept habitually
without sufficient light. But the windows must be placed
sufficiently high up that the light does not strike directly
upon the eyes, or evil consequences may be the result. This
is the one objection to highly glazed bricks being employed
for lining the walls of stalls, especially when white enamelled
bricks are used, for they reflect many points of light,
which cannot be good for the optic nerves when subjected
incessantly to the strain thus imposed. Although not orna-
mental, nothing is better for coating all woodwork than
black varnish, since it is healthy and can be renewed at any
time, and horses do not gnaw it. Some animals have such
a fancy for gnawing woodwork that they are with difficulty
restrained from doing so, and the most effective plan is to
cover all wood with zinc wherever it is needed. As a tem-
porary measure horses can generally be stopped for a time
from this annoying" habit by rubbing aloes over any place
which they have commenced upon ; and another excellent
remedy is to dab on Pilcher's Stop-rot, the taste of which is
objectionable to them.

STABLE MANAGEMENT 267

Mangers.

Mangers should be made of iron, with a compartment for
hay, and another for water, and the whole should be boarded
down to the floor. One advantage iron mangers possess is
that horses are not tempted to catch hold of them when
being dressed, and so learn the trick of crib-biting ; and they
are also easily cleansed. Their disadvantage is they are
necessarily small, and excitable horses which constantly lift
up their heads whilst they are eating are apt to drop some
oats each time they do so. When the bedding is straw they
often pick up the scattered grain afterwards, scraping away
the straw to do so ; but if the bedding is of other material —
peat-moss or sawdust — they cannot recover much of what
they have dropped.

Iron mangers should always have a " lip " round the
inside, to prevent a common trick amongst horses of shoving
some of the corn out with their muzzle when a manger is
small ; and to stop this practice when the mangers are
wooden they should be of considerable length, so that an
animal can spread the feed along them without pushing it
out altogether.

If hay-racks are placed overhead there is always a danger
of hay-seeds getting into a horse's eyes when pulling out the
hay, and it is better therefore to have them placed low, the
same height as the manger.

In boxes the corners can be utilised for building small
brick places, one to hold an iron pot for the oats, and another
to be fitted with a zinc pail for the water, both of which
should be sunk deep enough for the upper part to be level
with the masonry. The vessels should be movable so that
they can be easily removed for cleansing purposes. The
bricks should be built in the form of a cone, broad at the
base and contracting to almost the width of the pot at
the top, the object being to prevent a horse from standing
so close to it when eating or drinking, that there will be no
room for it to jerk a knee up without touching the brick-
work, when irritated by flies. The outside should be coated
with cement so as to leave the surface quite smooth.

268 THE HORSE

Boxes.

For horses in hard work a box 9 feet wide by 14 feet long
is quite large enough, and this particular width is just the
length of an ordinary railway sleeper, which may come in
useful on some occasion when additional flooring is required.
Sick horses, and idle ones, require more room, since it is
their only chance of taking exercise, and for them boxes
should be provided 12 feet by 14 feet, or even 14 feet square.
Brood mares with foals require large boxes, and so do
stallions, and for them they may be of any size up to 18 feet
square.

Deainage.

Perhaps the best system of drainage is some form of
surface drainage which can be easily cleansed, and does not
permit liquids to sink into the flooring; and this can be
carried out by having the flooring made with blue, or red,
specially prepared bricks that are channelled sufficiently to
carry off all liquids, while at the same time they afford good
foothold to a horse. They should be laid to have a slight
fall. Another method is to have the flooring of concrete
largely composed of small pebbles. A third way is to have a
concrete bed, with a layer of cement above in which cobble-
stones are embedded, a grouting of cement being finally
added. When properly done this makes a capital floor and
never gets slippery under any circumstances. The concrete
should be formed of rough, broken bricks, or something
similar, to a depth of about a foot, and then overlaid with
cement for about 9 inches, the proper fall being now
attended to. When the cement has become fairly stiff the
cobbles should be embedded to rather more than half their
depth, only a narrow breadth being done at a time, so that a
man can easily reach to fit the stones properly in their places ;
and these should not be set too close together, to afford
facility for sweeping away any accumulation that may lodge
between them. When all are set a little liquid grouting can
be added to obtain the necessary level between the stones.
A channel leading from the stall or box should conduct all

STABLE MANAGEMENT 269

liquid to the outside through a hole in the wall, and then
arrangements must be made for its removal, either by drains,
or some other plan, such as an iron pot which can be daily
emptied.

Underground drains should only be employed when there
is ample water-supply to keep them constantly flushed, and
then they have many advantages. In the first place the
floor can be flatter, since the necessary fall is underneath,
and therefore a horse can stand more comfortably, as he is
not always on an inclined plane. A horse fastened up in a
stall with a sharp slope will always be seen to stand across
it, if allowed to do so, to ease the strain on his legs as far as
possible. The whole length of the drain in the stable should
be easily accessible and capable of being cleansed every day.
There should be as few angles as possible, for these arrest
any solid matter which may get into the drain ; and where-
ever one is absolutely necessary it should be as obtuse as the
ground permits. There must also be some simple trap at
the inflow in each separate stall. A good system of under-
ground drainage effects a considerable saving in straw.

Accommodation must be found for housing the fodder,
such as hay, straw, corn, carrots, and bran ; and also a com-
modious saddle-room for cleaning and storing saddles, bridles,
clothing, and all the minor paraphernalia connected with a
stable. A glass case should not be forgotten, in which spare
bits and stirrups can be stowed away and kept free from
dust. There must, too, be provision for an ample supply of
both hot and cold water, the former of which should be
independent of the domestic arrangements, and is best pro-
vided by a boiler fitted to the saddle-room fire.

Artificial Light.

Where no gas or electric light is available, and lamps have
to be employed instead, they should be hung upon strong
nails fixed in convenient positions, out of possible reach of
the horses ; while gas and electric burners should never be
placed where a horse can gain access to them if it should
happen to get loose from its box. A gas bracket with a

270 THE HORSE

movable arm can often be hidden away in a recess in the
wall, and the opening so secured that no animal can get at
it when it is not in use.

Exercise.

Nothing is more important for the well-being of a horse
than daily exercise, the amount of which must depend upon
the work it is likely to be called upon to perform, and the
condition in which it is in. The object sought is to get the
muscles and tendons firm, and to keep them so, and also to
have the lungs able to undergo long and possibly violent
exertion without evil consequences ensuing, for which pur-
pose trotting and walking for two hours should as a rule be
the means employed. When horses are taken up after the
summer, and have not had a weight on their backs for some
months, an hour is quite long enough for the first week,
increasing to two hours in the second week, and only trot-
ting for very short periods at a time. In a month the animal
should be capable of doing much longer work, and at least
twice a week should be kept out from three to four hours,
with an occasional short canter. But every case must be
studied by itself, a gross, heavy horse requiring a longer
period before commencing fast work than will a wiry, light-
bodied one. Physic is a necessity on recommencing work
after a long period of idleness, and at the end of a fortnight
a second dose will probably be required, the symptoms call-
ing for it being the filling of all the legs; and at any time
when such is observed to be a daily occurrence, the adminis-
tration of a dose of physic is usually followed by satisfactory
results.

Condition can only be attained by long-continued exercise,
and herein lies the supreme objection against summering
horses in loose boxes. When put into work again the muscles
are in such a flabby condition, and have so lost tone, that it
takes weeks longer to get horses from loose boxes ready for
hunting than when they have been turned out to grass. It
has been reckoned that a horse at grass travels about twenty
miles daily, and it will be noticed that when they have

STABLE MANAGEMENT 271

finished feeding for the day, just before sunset, they usually
begin a game of romps and often take a sharp canter before
settling down for the night. When turned out they should
not be put into a meadow knee-deep in herbage, where they
will rapidly fill their stomachs with succulent grass ; instead
they should have the run of a bare field, where they will
have to work for their living, and it is often advisable to
let them succeed a herd of cattle who have eaten the
pasture nearly bare. The grass that springs up will then
be short and sweet, full of small clover and the finer grasses.
The objections urged against turning horses out are that they
batter their legs from stamping on the ground when teased
by flies, but this to a great extent is from the pernicious
habit of docking the tails of the poor animals, depriving
them of their natural means of defence. Horses with long,
flowing tails do not stamp, but simply switch away the
insect pests with a sweep of their tails.* If the weather
happens to be very hot, and the flies are very troublesome,
the horses may be brought into the stables in the early
morning and turned out again in the cool of the evening ;
but if they have long tails such precaution is not required.
They, Hke most other mammals, derive much benefit from
having the sun on their backs, and thrive in consequence.
One important thing to be on the look-out for is to see they
do not become infested with internal parasites, and if an
animal begins to look staring in its coat it is always wise to
take it into the stable for a day or two, and give it a vermi-
fuge. To guard against this evil, pastures where horses are

■■'- On September 11, 1911, I watched two horses m close proximity in
a grass paddock near my house. One had but a very short dock, and
timing it by my watch I noted the animal averaged 28 stamps per
minute, besides constantly throwing back its head to its flanks, to drive
away the flies. The other animal had a long flowing tail down to its
heels, and during the whole time I was observing them it never made a
single stamp, nor did it lift up its head from grazing, although it had
a far thinner skin than the other. But the long tail was kept constantly
in motion, and it was entirely due to this that the animal was able to
graze in peace and comfort.

It need, perhaps, hardly be added, the animal which had been docked
had not been mutilated whilst in my possession, but had been thus
barbarously treated by a former owner, before it became my property

272 THE HORSE

to be grazed should have a dressing of lime in the spring,
and subsequently during the summer have a liberal sprink-
ling of salt, which helps to destroy the eggs of all worms.
When July comes in, and during August and September, all
horses at grass should be daily examined, especially towards
the evening, to note whether the bot-fly has laid its eggs on
their coats ; these should be looked for especially on the
forelegs, inside the knees, along the mane, and behind the
shoulders along the ribs. Every egg should be scraped off
with a knife lest the horse should lick itself, or another
perform the same kind office for it ; if the egg is swallowed
it will turn into a large grub and live in the stomach, where
it buries its head in the mucous membrane. The effect on
its host is not at once apparent, but about Christmas it
will be noticed that the horse is falling off in condition,
and in spite of pampering with drugs and tonics the
animal will get thinner and thinner, and all the blame is
then laid upon the horse having been turned out to grass
the summer before. It never dawns upon the groom or his
master that it was to the neglect of the former, either through
ignorance or apathy, that the present forlorn state of the horse
is due. So matters go on, the victim getting thinner and
thinner, if it is harbouring a number of the parasites, until
about July, when the grubs attain maturity, let go their
hold, and pass away to undergo the next stage of their cycle
of existence, and, eventually becoming large flies, in their
turn lay their eggs on another unfortunate animal. No
medicine seems to have any effect on these parasites, and
the writer has kept them alive for more than a week in
spirits of turpentine, and they might indeed have gone on
so living, only the experiment was regarded as fully proved,
so they were thrown out and summarily despatched.
Occasionally they bore holes through the mucous membrane
and thus cause the death of the horse. Very large numbers
are sometimes present, and the writer once noted eighty-four
pass away from an animal in his possession which had been
bought at auction the previous autumn. When once clear
of the parasites the horse quickly picked up flesh, and became
quite a different-lookmg animal in a short time. The bots

STABLE MANAGEMENT 273

themselves are about as large as blackberries. A course ot
sulphate of iron will expedite their departure when they are
nearly ready to leave of their own accord ; and a decoction of
the ordinary stone-crop used to be looked upon as a remedy
in some parts of Ireland.

The bot-fly is nearly as large as a honey-bee, and hovers
close to the place it has selected for laying its eggs, main-
taining the while a perpendicular position. It remains
perfectly motionless in the air, except for extremely rapid
vibration of its wings, which do not emit the slightest
hum, or any other sound, and therefore the doomed victim
remains quite unconscious of the vicinity of its enemy.
When the critical moment arrives the fly darts forward,
and suddenly elongating a wondrous ovidepositor, which
it curls round in front of it, it just touches the horse and
leaves an egg adhering firmly to the hair. It then resumes
its former position and continues the process, if undisturbed,
until that batch is laid, often depositing thirty or forty eggs
at one laying. On subsequent days it will lay as many
more. It appears to have a preference for dark-coated
horses, if several are feeding together of different colours,
and then selects bays and chestnuts, but greys the least
of all.

These drawbacks, however, do not affect the principle of
turning horses out to grass, which affords them the great
advantage of keeping their muscles employed, and their cir-
culation in order, by the daily exercise they take in the
course of each twenty-four hours when wandering in
quest of food.

Almost, if not quite, as important as the quality of the
herbage is the supply of water, which should always be
available, and should be pure and sweet. The germs of
parasites may be imbibed with water, as well as taken
up with the grass. Shelter from boisterous weather, and
shade from the sun when required, are also very desirable,
and these may be provided by plantations and belts of trees,
which horses seem mostly to prefer to open sheds. Planta-
tions help, too, to diversify the ground, which is another
advantage, and break the view, thus preventing the bare

274 THE HORSE

and bleak appearance which an open field often presents ;
they give also an object to the horse to go round them out
of a spirit of curiosity, to find out if anything of interest is
happening on the other side.

Pastures should always be provided with a lump of rock
salt, which is much appreciated, and is most conducive to
the health of the animals grazing.

Memoranda.

Some useful memoranda are as follows, but the calcula-
tions are only approximate and intended as a rough guide : —

One ton of hay lasts a horse six months.

One sack of oats lasts a horse 14 days at 12 lbs. per diem.

One truss of hay lasts a horse 5 days.

Two trusses of straw last a horse 5 days.

One sack of oats weighs 12 stone.

One quarter of oats = 2 sacks =: 24 stone = 3 cwt. = 336 lbs.

One ton = 20 cwt. = 160 stone = 2,240 lbs.

One truss of old meadow hay = 56 lbs.

One truss of straw = 28 lbs.

One quarter of oats ^ 24 stone.

„ ,, barley = 32 stone.

,, ,, maize = 34 ,,

,, ,, wheat = 36 ,,

One ton of oats = 6 qrs. 2 cwt. = 13^ sacks.

New oats are ready for use when they have become crisp
enough to be bitten in two sharply and cleanly — usually
about the beginning of the New Year. It is advisable to
mix them at first with old oats and thus make the change
to them gradual.

To Find the Quantity in a Stack of Hay.

By multiplying the height, breadth, and length together
the number of cubic yards are found contained in the stack.

From 11 to 14 cubic yards of hay = a ton, accordmg as
the hay is light or heavy. The average is about 1'2 cubic
yards.

STABLE MANAGEMENT 275

Hay that has been much rained upon in making, turns to
dust in the stack, and weighs very light.

The breadth and the length should be measured about
the height of a man from the ground, to obtain the mean.

The height should be measured from the ground to the
eaves of the thatch, and then one-third of the distance from
the eaves to the top should be added, to obtain the true
height for purposes of calculation.

New hay weighs very much lighter than old hay.

CHAPTEE XI

SIMPLE AILMENTS

THE stitch in time is of the utmost importance in con-
ducting the affairs of a stable, when it is a question of
applying a timely remedy and preventing a simple ailment
from developing into a serious illness. It is not necessary
to call in the assistance of the veterinary surgeon every
time, although it is not well to allow a disease to run on
until it becomes almost incurable before seeking profes-
sional advice ; and if a change for the better does not
speedily occur, when the illness is serious, the sooner the
veterinary surgeon is called in the better.

The two great guides as to the progress of an inflam-
matory attack are the pulse, and the temperature chart,
and every horse-owner should know the mode of procedure
with both. The most convenient place for feeling the pulse
is towards the posterior part of the jaw-bone, where the
artery passes over a little groove. It should be noted
whether the pulse is soft or hard, full or feeble, regular
or irregular in beats and strength, and the number of beats
that occur in a minute. A strong, full pulse, or a soft and
full pulse, indicate health if they do not exceed forty-two
beats per minute, the normal range being from thirty-four
to forty-two beats, depending on the age of the animal, the
state of the atmosphere, and also whether any condition is
present which may cause undue excitement of the system.
When the beats are irregular, when three or four follow
each other with regular rhythm and afterwards an inter-
mittent stage occurs for the space of about two beats, while
still the ordinary number is not exceeded per minute, heart
disease may be suspected. A weak, small pulse indicates
debility. A rapid, wiry, hard pulse, the artery feeling tense

SIMPLE AILMENTS 277

as a wire, tells of fever ; but not, as a rule, of congestion of
the lungs, which is usually accompanied by a full pulse the
beat of which is indistinct. Injury to the brain, or spinal
cord, is shown by a particularly slow pulse.

The temperature of the horse is taken by inserting a
thermometer in the rectum, and in a state of health is
about 99J° to 101° Fahrenheit. It is a surer guide than
the pulse, and taken in conjunction with it affords clear
indication of the condition of the patient. Anything above
102° indicates sickness, 103° shght fever, whilst 106° means
very high fever indeed.

When the patient is very feeble the pulse can sometimes
be felt on the right side when it can no longer be discerned
on the left. In a state of ordinary rest, standing quietly in
the open air, the normal rate of breathing is about twelve
times per minute.

The other indications denoting good health are a bright-
looking, smooth coat, clear eyes, and the legs clean and
fine with well-defined sinews ; then, if the appetite is also
good, the man in command need feel no apprehension about
the state of his charges. One of the surest indicators of
health is the condition of the dung, which should be not too
dark in colour ; in good large balls sufficiently soft ; and,
when first dropped, with a distinct glisten on their surface.
If, on the contrary, the balls are small, hard, and very
dark, the digestion is not as it should be, and often the tem-
perature will be found to be above the normal, and a bran
mash and linseed gruel should at once be substituted for
hard corn. Another indication that the liver is out of order
is shown when the dung is not formed into balls, but is a
light-coloured mass with a dull surface, somewhat resem-
bling yellowish clay. This may arise from too much heating
food, but also from many other causes. Bran mashes are
again indicated, and often a little sulphur and nitre, or
sulphate of magnesia, with nitrate of potash, will put the
annnal right in a few days. Of course, it should have
a holiday from work, except of very light description, and
should not be taken out in rain.

More important than drugs in illness is what is known as

278 THE HORSE

" ^ood nursing," and therein lies more than half the battle
in a serious attack.

If possible a quiet, comfortable loose box should be pro-
vided, well ventilated, but free from draughts; for, especially
in the earliest stages of fever, the patient is very susceptible
to a draught, v^hich may easily bring on a fit of shivering,
ever a dire portent. When the fever has fully established
itself the animal is not nearly so sensitive to draughts, until
the weakness of the convalescent stage is reached, when
again every precaution must be taken against catching cold.
Unless the horse has to be tied up to prevent interference
with a blister, or some wound, it is better to be loose, free to
wander about at will. In all diseases of the respiratory
organs, and in certain others, it is most essential that the
skin should perform its proper functions, and on this account
warmth is especially necessary; but whilst the patient must
be kept warm and draughts must be avoided, fresh air is of
the greatest importance, and this should be supplied by open
windows and doors. By some means a supply of fresh air
must be arranged for without any draught. If the weather
is cold the temperature of the box can be artificially raised,
for it is better not to overload a weak patient with too much
clothing ; and endeavour should instead be made to bring
the fresh air within the region of a heating apparatus before
entering the sick box, which may be effected by the employ-
ment of large cylinders connecting with the window, and
heated in some manner, whilst the rest of the aperture is
blocked with cloths.

All clothing should be loose, as thereby more comfort is
obtained, and more warmth. A sick animal should have its
clothing changed twice a day, two sets being in use ; but if
this is not feasible, the clothing should at least be taken off
for a few seconds, and well shaken and beaten before being
replaced, care being taken that the animal does not get a
chill while this is being done. The momentary admission
of fresh air to the skin is frequently very grateful, and often
seems to revivify the patient.

In cases of serious illness, especially if it is likely to be
prolonged, it is well to remove the shoes at once lest they
become embedded in the hoofs.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 279

When the circulation is poor, and the extremities are
cold, flannel or serge bandages are called for, which must be
put on quite loosely, for tight bandages would diminish the
already weak circulation. If the legs still remain cold
layers of cotton- wool placed under the bandages will be an
additional help in promoting warmth. The bandages should
be removed at least twice a day, when the legs should
receive gentle hand-rubbing.

A sick animal does not require much grooming, if any at
all ; but a wisp and a rubber just passed lightly over the
coat will help to remove some of the dust with which the
coat is apt to become overcharged. It is, however, always
advisable to sponge daily the eyes, nostrils, and dock with
lukewarm water, to which a little vinegar has been added.
The sheath should always be carefully cleaned at the
commencement of any serious illness.

The box must be kept perfectly clean, with an ample
supply of bedding, though in most illnesses a horse will not
lie down unless absolutely compelled to do so by growing
weakness ; and it is generally a sign, especially with well-
bred horses, that the patient is either much better, or much
worse, when it is seen to lie down.

When the appetite fails the horse should be tempted
to eat by offering it a small handful of special dainties,
frequently repeated. As long as they are eaten bran
mashes form the staple food, together with oats and
linseed gruel. To make "boiled" or "scalded" oats a
double-handful of bran should be placed at the bottom of
a bucket, next a layer of two double-handfuls of oats
(crushed if possible), and then alternate layers of bran and
oats until the requisite quantity for the feed is in the bucket.
Add linseed gruel which is actually boiling, or hot water, stir
with a stick, and cover with a cloth for an hour, when it
will be ready for use. Anything which is left should be
thrown away, and the bucket or manger thoroughly washed
out after each meal, for the smell of sour bran is very likely
to increase any distaste for food. Hay on which the animal
has breathed should also be thrown away, and not used as
food. Green food is most invaluable for tempting the

280 THE HOKSE

appetite, and as a laxative, grass, carrots, turnips, water-
cress, apples, the tops of celery, dandelion leaves, and
lettuce leaves. Care should be taken that the grass is cut
when dry, or it will soon begin to ferment. Carrots should
always be sliced lengthways, for if given whole or cut
across into chunks, a horse may swallow the carrot
without chewing it, and get choked in consequence.

Milk is a very valuable food, and if a horse will take one
or two gallons of it daily, given on four occasions, it may
struggle on for a long time and wear the fever out in the
end. It is when the fever has left that especial care is
required, on account of the great weakness which follows,
and for the first two or three days the animal should receive
nourishment every three or four hours. Especially does it
require attention in the early hours of the morning, and the
groom who does not come to see after the invalid till seven
or eight o'clock, need not be surprised if he fails to save the
patient. One or two eggs beaten up and added to the milk
increase its nutritive powers considerably ; and if the horse
does not take kindly to the milk, a little added sugar may
make it more palatable.

If stimulants have to be administered during con-
valescence, it is usual to give beer, stout, whiskey, or brandy,
all of which act as food as well as stimulants ; and a
convenient mode of administering them is to mix them with
oatmeal gruel, and drench the horse with it from a bottle,
one or two wineglasses of spirit being given, or a pint to a
quart of beer or stout.

To rouse and stimulate the circulation, and for immediate
effect such as in a case of shivering, or when there is great
depression and prostration, diffusible stimulants are of the
highest value, such as —

Spirits of Nitric Ether H oz.

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia ... ... ^ oz.

or
Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia ... ... ... 1 oz.

Tincture of Gentian 1 oz.

Water 1 pint

To be given as a drench, as above.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 281

Other medicines that should always be at hand, if there
is no surgery or chemist's shop within reach, are Sedatives,
Narcotics, Antispasmodics, and Tonics, besides drugs in
common use.

Of sedatives the groom does not require anything more
than aconite, which acts promptly in cases of severe fever ;
and if the allopathic tincture is used, it should be given in
doses of 10 to 20 drops, which may be frequently renewed
until the action of the heart is lowered, as shown by the
falling pulse.

Narcotics are called for when great pain is present, and
either belladonna may be given, or opium. In severe cases
of colic Indian hemp {Cinnahis Indica) is a most valuable
remedy, and may be completely relied upon.

Belladonna

Nitrate Potassse

Idr.

1 M

or
Opium
Camphor

... 1 to 2 drs.
... lto2 „

For Colic.

Tincture of Cinnabis Indica

Mucilag. Acacia

Aqua Menth. Piperta

2 oz,

4 „

8 „

Administer the latter as a drench, and if the pain does
not subside give another half-dose in half an hour.
If this remedy is not available give —

Bicarbonate of Soda ... ... ... ... 2 drs.

Tincture of Ginger li oz.

Mixed in a pint of water.

In cases of great pain add —

Tincture of Opium ... ... 1 oz.

Another prescription for colic is —

LinseediOil 8 oz.

Turpentine ... ••• ••• 1 ,;

Camphor i ,»

282 THE HORSE

The camphor should be placed in the oil in the evenin.s^, and
will be dissolved in the morning.

Since Antispasmodics act upon the brain and nerves, and
through them on the muscular system, they are required in
cases of spasm, and opium is one of the most powerful of
them all.

Oil of Turpentine 2 to 3 oz.

Tincture of Opium ... ... ... ... 2 oz.

Linseed Oil ... 1 pint

Tonics are powerful agents in restoring a convalescent to
complete health, or at any time when anaemic conditions
are seen to be present. Two of the most useful are the
following, the arsenic being especially required after, or
during, any eruption of the skin, such as so-called mud-
fever ; while the iron is most necessary when the gums
appear too pale, or when great calls are being made upon
the muscular system, such as during the last fortnight
before a great race : —

Fowler's Solution of Arsenic (Liquor

Arsenicalis) ... ... ... ... 30 drops

To be dropped on a little dry bran and mixed with the feed
of corn, when it is readily taken, for though it smells
strongly with a peculiar odour, neither horses nor dogs ever
seem to object to this. The dose may be given twice a da}^
if thought advisable, for the first few days ; but it must
be kept in mind that arsenic is an accumulative poison, being
stored up in the system, and only slowly eliminated, and
therefore if continued for too long a time the accustomed
dose proves some day just too much, like a teacup running
over which is being filled up drop by drop. It is for this
reason that cart-horses get occasionally poisoned by their
carters, who give them condition powders containing arsenic
to improve the sleekness of their coats, and one day the
usual dose proves to be a fatal one. It would be perfectly
safe to give a horse a teaspoonful of Fowler's Solution daily
for six weeks, and therefore a similar dose for only a fortnight
is well within the bounds of caution. It will usually be found

SIMPLE AILMENTS 283

that a fortnight's course of the medicine is amply siiiticient
to start the horse well on its way to renewed vigour, and
then an interregnum may be allowed, and afterwards a
second course begun in about ten days' time. Another hint
may be added, that aperient medicine should not be
administered at the same time as arsenic, and if an occasion
should arise for an opening dose, tlie arsenic should be
stopped for a couple of days beforehand. One of the
first symptoms of poisoning by arsenic is an attack of
diarrhoea.

There is no danger in giving an iron tonic, but it will
usually be found that further benefit does not follow after a
course has lasted about a fortnight. It is better then to
stop it for a few days, and recommence it when thought
desirable.

Finely powdered Sulphate of Iron ... ... 2 drs.

Powdered Gentian ... ... ... ... 1 dr.

Powdered Camomile ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

Powdered Ginger ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

To be given daily, mixed with a feed of oats, for a week or
a fortnight.

Sometimes it is necessary to apply Electricity to a horse —
a valuable aid for rousing the liver and kidneys to activity,
when the current is applied to the loins. It must be
remembered that it is necessary to thoroughly wet the hair
before applying the battery, for dry hair is a non-conductor.
Electricity has a marked effect in the case of a snapped
muscle, encouraging growth between the two broken ends ;
but it is necessary for this purpose to be familiar with the
course of the muscle, so that the negative and positive
currents may be adjusted in the right position to travel
along the muscle. They must therefore be placed at each
end of it. When the two conductors are applied to an
ordinary muscle, at some distance apart, a curious effect is
produced when the current is turned on, the muscle
jumping about between the two points as if it was itself
a living thing.

284 THE HORSE

Catarrh.

The commonest illness which an ordinary groom has to
treat is a simple catarrh, consisting of a slight inflam-
mation of the nose, and back part of the throat. It is nearly-
allied to bronchitis, the difference between them being that
a common cold is confined to the nose and throat, while
bronchitis is seated lower, in the bronchial tubes or air-
passages to the lungs. The horse coughs and sneezes, eats
little or no food, whilst a watery discharge flows from
one or both nostrils, and also from the eyes, which are red
and swollen.

The animal should be given a linseed mash instead of
its ordinary feed of corn, and if the throat is sore the hay
should be slightly damped before it is offered to the
patient.

The following powders should be given in the drinking-
water three times a day : —

Sulphate of Magnesia ... ... ... ... 3 oz.

Pulveris Potassse Nitrate ... ... ... ... 3 clrs.

If the attack is a severe one, give twice or three times
a day in addition —

Tincture of Belladonna ... ... ... 30 drops

The glands under the jaws, and at the top of the throat,
may be rubbed with mustard, which should be sponged off
in about ten minutes ; or the following liniment may be
used instead : —

Saponis Mollis ... ... ... ... ... 4 drs.

Camphor ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 ,,

Liquor Ammonis Fortis 3 ,,

Spirits of Vini Rect. ... ... ... ... 16 „

Another useful liniment, which can be obtained in almost
any place, however much out of the way, is—

Acetic Acid or Vinegar ... ... 1 pint

Spirits of Turpentine ... 1 ,,

Beaten up with four eggs, including the shells.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 285

When recovery commences a thick white or yellowish
discharge sets in, flowing from both nostrils, and to assist
the getting rid of it all food should be placed on the ground,
so that the head must be lowered. It is usually a sign
that the inflammation has abated, and the strength of the
patient should be got up as soon as possible by nourishing
food and tonics. For the latter Fowler's Solution of Arsenic
is especially to be recommended, to be followed after four
or five days by the sulphate of iron tonic, combined with
gentian, camomile, and ginger, which has already been
described.

Influenza.

Largely resembling a common cold in its symptoms, and
yet differing from it in many respects, influenza usually has
more serious effects, and the patient is much longer in
recovering from its ravages. With it there is a sudden
attack of fever, more or less severe, great weakness comes
on soon after the attack, and the illness is of a very
contagious character. It usually occurs in the spring
and autumn, and the symptoms vary in several respects
from one year to another. Drastic purges or strong
sedatives should never be given. Saline draughts should be
administered, and the prescription mentioned for a catarrh,
of sulphate magnesia, and nitrate of potash, is very good.

Acetate Ammonia... ... ... ... ... 4 oz.

Nitric Ether 1 ,,

should be given once or twice a day to lower the fever,
and to maintain the fluidity of the blood, and if there is
much fever add to the above —

Tartarised Antimony ... ... ... ... 1 dr.

dissolved in water.

If much prostration sets in give extra doses every four
hours of —

Nitric Ether ... 1 to 2 oz.

286 THE HORSE

and if the prostration increases give in addition every twelve
hours —

Nitrate Potassa; 2 drs.

Gentian ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 .,

Ginger ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 .,

leaving out a dose of nitric ether, if the two happen to clash.
The horse must have the best food which can be got, such
as malt mashes, boiled oats, linseed gruel, and green food, if
it can be tempted to eat at all.

Pneumonia, or InflamMxVtion of the Lungs.

This is far too serious an illness to be treated by the
ordinary groom, if the services of a veterinary surgeon
can possibly be obtained. The first symptoms are fits
of shivering, the legs, ears, and skin cold, the hair rough,
the nose pale and dry, the eyes have a yellowish colour, and
the horse is uneasy and restless. The pulse is quick, and
becomes soon afterwards frequent and full. The tempera-
ture is high, and there is a constant short cough, the animal
never filling the lungs with sufficient air to emit a full, deep
cough. Subsequently the horse remains standing in one
place, with the fore-legs fixed and separated from each other ;
the legs and ears become very cold, the former being fine
and the hair upon them glossy ; the nose gets a bluish look,
the blood not being sufficiently aerated ; the nose and head
are held out, and the breathing becomes shorter and more
difficult. Little can be done until the veterinary surgeon
arrives, except bandaging the legs, keeping the skin warm
by clothing, and administering a dose of —

Carbonate of Ammonia ... ... ... ... 1 dr.

Water ... ... ... ... 1 pint

while the sulphate of magnesia powders recommended for a
cold should be given in the drinking-water three times a
day for three days.

Inflammation, or congestion of the lungs, occasionally

SIMPLE AILMENTS 287

follows too great exertion in the hunting-field, especially if
the horse has been allowed to stand about after a severe
run, and has thereby contracted a chill. If the animal after
reaching its stable takes a little food and water, and is
disposed to lie down, it may be considered all right ; but if
the breathing increases in frequency, and the animal grows
restless, it may be concluded that the lungs are distressed,
and the sooner a dose of carbonate of ammonia is
administered, and the veterinary surgeon sent for, the
better.

If, instead of being restless, the animal appears thoroughly
exhausted, unable to eat, with rather rapid breathing, further
trouble may be warded off by administering as a drench the
sulphate of magnesia powders, mixed in a pint of water,
with the addition of two sherry-glasses of gin or whisky.

Pleurisy, or Inflammation of the Pleura.

This is also too serious a disease for any one buL a
qualified professional practitioner to take in hand.

The pleura is the membrane which lines the inside of the
chest, and which covers the lungs, and hence any inflam-
mation in this region interferes with the due working of
the lungs, and causes pain in breathing.

The horse stands in a crouching manner, and seems
uneasy, but does not move on its own initative. The pulse
is hard, quick, and wiry, and the temperature high. The act
of drawing air into the lungs soon causes pain to be felt,
when there is a short catch in the breath, and then the
air is expelled as slowly as possible in a drawn-out effort.
There is a short, hard cough, which makes the pain worse,
as also does the act of taking a full breath, which the animal
will only do if moved suddenly, or frightened unawares.

The internal remedies consist of giving the sulphate
of magnesia powders in the water ; and if the fever is
severe, by administering 80 drops of aconite in a wine-
glassful of water twice, or three times, at an interval of
two or more hours.

288 THE HORSE

Broken Wind.

Some cases of broken wind cannot be cured, since the air-
cells in the lungs have been ruptured ; but what frequently
passes as such is the result of a disordered stomach, with
spasm of the muscular fibres which lie on the inside of the
small branches of the windpipe in the lungs. This latter
form is usually termed in stable language a " stomach
cough." The expiration of the air is more difiicult, and
takes a longer time than the inspiration, the flanks are
slowly drawn up and then suddenly fall down with a sort of
double action, which is very characteristic. There is a short,
harsh cough, with difficult breathing, especially when going
uphill, and the animal becomes speedily distressed when
asked to go out of a walk. In these cases of chronic cough
much relief may be given, and a cure frequently effected, by
paying especial attention to the feeding, and taking care the
animal is not put to work for two hours after partaking
of food, so as to free the lungs from unnecessary pressure.
Bulky food must be avoided on days when the animal is
required for work, only corn and chaff, with a handful
of crushed linseed, forming the feed, while on days of
idleness a little damped hay may be allowed. For treat-
ment nothing in the writer's experience can compare
with a course of Harvey's Aconite Powders, which greatly
lessen the tendency to cough, and not infrequently effect
a complete cure.

KOARING.

So many horses, especially the largest, fall victims to
roaring, that any cure which can be relied upon will
be a boon indeed. Many methods have been tried, and
the most successful one so far has been the well-known
practice of inserting a tube, which certainly affords
great relief, and enables many a horse to continue at
fast work, and even to win races, which would have been
quite impossible if Nature had been left to herself. At
present much is hoped for from the recently introduced
operation of stripping the membrane of the ventricles of

SIMPLE AILMENTS 289

the larynx, but time has yet to show whether the improve-
ment can be maintained, though the value of the immediate
effect is undoubted. As the operation is performed under
chloroform no pain is felt by the patient, and no one
who can afford to pay the fee need hesitate, on humane
grounds, to have the operation performed on a favourite
animal.

The noise made by a roarer is usually due to the obstruc-
tion of the air-passage by the vocal chord, consequent on
paralysis of one side of the larynx, following the failure
of the left recurrent nerve. Anything which causes undue
strain to the nerve makes for roaring, and so horses with
long or abnormally curved necks are more prone to be thus
afflicted than those with short and straight necks. There
is one type of neck which so constantly results in
roaring that it is known in Yorkshire as a "roarer's neck,"
and sooner or later the horse which is so shaped is
almost certain to fall a victim to the complaint. The
neck in question is a strong thick one, with the head carried
high, but there is a peculiar outward curve in front, some-
what resembling that of a fallow deer, with an unusually
thick thropple, the formation of which, no doubt, sustains a
constant strain on the nerve, which eventually fails in
consequence. A very delicate operation has occasionally
been tried with success, as Mr. J. Tagg, F.K.C.Y.S., has
informed me that he has proved in his practice, when the
ailing nerve has been excised and a healthy one grafted in its
place ; and in this direction there seems a promise for the
future, if the stripping of the ventricle should not turn out a
permanent cure on further trial.

Steangles.

Strangles attack most young horses between the first and
fifth year, generally in the spring or autumn, and — like dis-
temper in dogs — it is seldom a horse ever has them a second
time. In most cases the early symptoms resemble an ordinary
catarrh, with slight fever, a hot mouth, red nostrils and
eyes, and a watery discharge from the eyes and nose, which

290 THE HORSE

becomes thicker as the disease advances. Cough, too, is
generally present. But soon there is a disinclination to
bend the neck and head, and the latter is held in a strained
position. The glands under the throat begin to swell
and form abscesses, and no further doubt can exist as to
the character of the ailment. The general treatment
consists of good nursing, tempting the horse to eat mashed
carrots, boiled oats, and damped hay, and keeping it
comfortably warm with clothing and bandages. In the
drinking water may be dissolved —

Nitre ^ oz.

while —

Belladonna 30 drops

may be given daily with good results.

If constipation occurs, 4 oz. of linseed oil may be mixed
with the food, or ^ lb. of treacle.

Poultices should be applied to the swelling under the jaw,
to bring it to a head as soon as possible, and as soon as the
abscess points it should be opened with a lancet, for if left
to burst the sides of the wound will be irregular, and
take longer to heal. A little tow should be introduced into
the opening to prevent it closing up, so that the matter can
drain freely away, and should be renewed at least once
a day. As the disease is very contagious among young
horses, the invalid should be isolated as much as possible,
and care taken to prevent the spread of the disease. Occa-
sionally the abscesses form in other parts of the body, when
the disease is termed irregular strangles, and becomes much
more serious. But in ordinary cases as soon as the abscess
is punctured or bursts, and the pus is discharged, the patient
commences to improve and soon recovers.

Indigestion.

In this disease the digestion is at fault in consequence of
the stomach, liver, or bowels being deranged. The skin
adheres tightly to the flesh, in the condition known as hide-

SIMPLE AILMENTS 291

bound, the hair is rough and unthrifty-looking, the gums
pale or yellowish, and the animal is thin and weak. An
excellent remedy is the following : —

Flowers of Sulphur ... ... ... ... 4 oz.

White Resin ... ... ... ... ... 4 ,,

Nitre 4 „

Black Antimony ... ... ... ... ... 4 ,,

Well mix.

Give every night a tablespoonful of the above in a bran
mash, for twenty-one days ; and every fourth morning, for
three doses, a wine-bottle of —

Clear Linseed Oil.

In all cases of the blood being out of order, Flowers of
Sulphur is an invaluable remedy, not nearly so much used
as it deserves to be. If it did but cost a guinea an ounce it
would be held in much higher estimation ! A tablespoonful
in a mash, with another of common salt, will often have a
most beneficial effect, even though a horse is not actually
ailing but only not thriving" quite so well as usual.

If the gums and eyes are strongly tinged with yellow
commence with —

Magnesii Sulphate ... ... ... ... - 4 oz.

Pulveris Potassse Nitrate ... ... ... ... 5 drs.

every night and morning in the drinking-water for four
days ; and then follow with the prescription mentioned
above.

DiARRHCEA.

Too much green food, especially if grown on swampy
land ; new hay ; worms ; a chill ; and over-purging from
large doses of aloes, will all produce an attack of diarrhoea.

All water should be removed, and no oats, hay, or bran
mashes should be allowed ; but a little dry bran may be
given at first, and afterwards bran, just made damp.

Gruel made from wheat flour should be given (in a drench
if necessary), a teacupful of flour being well mixed in cold

292 THE HORSE

water, taking care that no nodules are left, and then fiUing
up the bucket with boiling water, and allowing it to stand
till it is lukewarm.

If the attack continues give a drench of one teacupful of
starch well dissolved in a quart of warm water, with 60
drops of laudanum. If great weakness sets in give a bottle
of port wine.

Or instead of the starch and laudanum —

Prepared Chalk ... ... ... ... ... 2 drs.

Ginger 2 „

Oil Peppermint 10 to 15 drops

Linseed Tea 1 pint

Give three to four times per day.
If there is much pain add —

Tincture of Opium ... 1 oz.

Theush of the Mouth.

Occurs fairly frequently, although it is not always
recognised, and it is probably thought the animal has
picked up something poisonous.

Blisters occur on the tongue, inside the cheeks, and on
the roof of the mouth, and there is a constant and copious
flow of saliva which hangs from the mouth in long strings.

When a foal is attacked smear a teaspoonful of borax
and honey three or four times daily inside the mouth, and
place on the tongue —

Grey Powder 10 grs.

Bicarbonate Potash ... ... ... ... 1 dr.

and give to the dam —

Bicarbonate Soda ^ oz.

For older horses place in the drinking-water night and
morning —

Chloride Ammonia 2 dr.

Carbonate Soda 2 ,,

Hyposulphite Soda 2 ,,

SIMPLE AILMENTS 293

Enteeitis, or Inflammation of the Bowels,

As the general symptoms much resemble those of colic,
it is well to be able to distinguish between them, for in a
case of enteritis a veterinary surgeon should be sent for
at once. Colic commences suddenly, and there are intervals
between the attacks, when pain is not felt, while enteritis
generally comes on by degrees, and the pain never ceases
for a moment. Hand-rubbing the belly relieves the pain in
cases of colic, but increases it in enteritis ; and whilst a
little gentle exercise is sometimes efficacious in colic, it has
the opposite effect in enteritis. Until the advent of the
veterinary surgeon, if the case is believed to be one of
enteritis, the wisest course to pursue is to give every hour,
until the practitioner's arrival —

Bicarbonate of Soda ... ... ... 2 teaspoonfuls

Common Salt ... ... ... ... 1 tablespoonful

in a pint of warm water.

Since the faeces will necessarily become very hard if they
remain in the intestine, and difficult to pass, it will be well
at the commencement to inject two or three clysters of
soap and warm water, to clear the bowel as far as possible,
and if this does not have the desired effect, linseed, or castor
oil, may be employed as well.

The intestines are divided into small and large, and
extend in length to about 90 feet. Though the lines of
demarcation are imaginary, for convenience of description
they are subdivided into three small and three large ones,
the small ones being situated nearest to the stomach. The
first receives the secretions formed by two important glands,
which cause a change to take place in the food after
quitting the stomach, which then passes quickly through
the second into the third, whence it passes on into the
first large intestine, the coecum. The entrance to this
is guarded by a valve which prevents any attempt at
regurgitation. When any substance, fluid or solid, once
passes the valve it makes its way to the terminal portion,
but in the course of time it turns backwards towards the
valvular opening again, only to be there stopped, and turned

294 THE HORSE

into the second, which is the largest of the intestines. As
the ingesta passes onward, a set of vessels suck up the
nutritious portion, which is always a liquid, and this passes
through certain glands, and thence into a receptacle, and
finally into the heart. It is now that the faeces begin to
harden, and assume the appearance of dung-balls ; but
absorption of liquid is always going on, as they pass
through the remaining portion of the second and the third
bowel, which explains how constipation arises, and in the
case of fever this is greatly enhanced. It is to relieve this
condition that the employment of enemas is so beneficial,
by removing the obstructing mass and leaving a free
passage in its stead.

Hepatitis, or Inflammation of the Liver.

In this affection the animal appears sleepy and unwilling
to move, and eats little or nothing ; the urine is scanty ;
the dung dark-coloured and in lumps. The membrane of
the nose, and the eyes become yellow, and so also are the
inside of the lips and tongue, owing to the presence of bile
in the blood. The horse may frequently be observed to
turn his head round to look at his right side, and when this
is pressed it causes pain ; while a derangement of the liver
is often a cause of slight lameness in the off fore-leg.
Whenever any yellowish tinge is observed about the eyes
or mouth at once give sulphate of magnesia powders in
the drinking-water, continuing them for four days, night
and morning; these are generally all the drugs that are
required. If further treatment is necessary give —

Calomel 2 drs.

Nitre i oz.

for three successive mornings.

Costiveness, and when a Dose of Physic is required.

When a horse's bowels are bound, without any other
disease existing, little corn should be allowed, and no beans,

SIMPLE AILMENTS 295

some green food being given, and bran either dry or in a
mash, with a little hay. Subsequently a wineglassful of
Hnseed oil should be mixed, or rubbed into the oats, twice
a day. A tablespoonful of sulphur may also be put into
the mash; and if the rectum is full of hardened duns,
an injection of warm water should be thrown up, as
required.

When a dose of physic is necessary, which is generally
indicated by all the legs filling when at rest, a bottle of
clear linseed oil may be given, or —

Aloes 3 to 5 drs.

Gentian 2 drs.

Ginger 1 dr.

made into a ball.

If a horse does not feed well after the physic is " set "
{i.e., after the dung has begun to ball again) give —

Nitric Ether | oz.

Gentian \ ,,

in a draught.

Physic should be given in the morning, when the horse
is still fasting, and he should get bran mashes for at least
two nights previously. As soon as a horse has had physic
administered he must have no hay or corn, and should be
muzzled, or racked up, until the appetite begins to fail from
the medicine, lest he should eat his bedding. If this pre-
caution is not taken a stoppage of the bowels may ensue,
with serious inflammation. Balls are now done up in gelatine
capsules, which make them far easier to administer than
when done up in a paper covering, while the drugs maintain
their strength for a much longer period.

An excellent purge, and one very simply given, is Edos,
a gum soluble in liquids, so that it can be administered in
gruel, from a soda-water bottle, if the horse refuses its food.
Being quite tasteless the usual plan is to give this medicine
in a bran mash, which makes it an especially valuable
remedy when the groom in charge is not skilled in

296 THE HORSE

administering a ball, or if the horse is an awkward one to
deal with. It should be remembered that medicine should
never be mixed with a bran mash till it is stone cold, as
a warm one will extract the utmost taste from a drug, and
then a horse soon becomes suspicious and refuses to eat.
A bran mash should be made with boiling water, and then
allowed to get cold before adding anything the taste of
which may be repugnant ; and all powders should first be
mixed in a cup with a little dry bran, or oatmeal, and then
afterwards be thoroughly stirred into the cold mash.

Profuse Staling.

This frequently is caused by improper food, such as over-
heated hay or kiln-dried oats ; and it also frequently follows
from the action of the skin being checked by standing in a
draughty stable, or from the administration of an overdose
of turpentine ; or from the turpentine being given in too
raw a state, and not sufficiently incorporated with the oil
which should accompany it. In any case the cause should
be sought for and removed, and if the food is in fault none
but the best must be given ; anyway it is wise to make a
change in the forage.

It is advisable also to give no water to drink for some
time, but instead to keep a bucket constantly present, filled
with linseed tea, for supplying the necessary liquid. When
making it suf&cient linseed should be put in the bucket, and
then enough boiling water poured over it to cover it well ;
and after a short time the bucket should be filled up with
cold water and then left to stand all night. In the morning
the liquid portion should be poured off and given to the
horse, while some more linseed, with hot and then cold
water, is added to the first bucket, which must be thus
filled up as required and always kept going ; and as the
horse empties the supply left with it, that bucket must be
replenished from the other. This is an excellent method
with any delicate, non-thriving horse, being continued for
months if necessary, and is of especial value for horses in
training who may be delicate and do not thrive.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 297

Ketention of Ueine.

Many animals have a difficulty in staling after a long
day's hunting, especially if they have never relieved them-
selves since they left the stable in the morning. A remedy
which almost never fails is to place part of an onion, freshly
cut and about the size of a walnut, inside the sheath of a
horse, or the vagina of a mare, and leave it there, when it is
seldom more than a few minutes before the desired result is
obtained. Should this not prove successful, give 10 drops
of tincture of aconite every 15 minutes for three or four
doses.

Yew Poisoning.

This, unfortunately, frequently occurs where animals can
gain unrestricted access to yew-trees, and though sometimes
they appear to eat it with impunity it far too often has a
fatal effect. It appears to be more dangerous in a half-dried
state, such as clippings left lying about for two or three
days, and also when the growing leaves are scorched by a
brilliant sun after a sharp frost the night before. This,
indeed, seems to be the most deadly time, whilst the late
autumn and the early spring appear the most fatal seasons.
At any time of the year, however, poisoning may occur from
the consumption of yew leaves, even when they are quite
fresh on the growing tree.

The symptoms described by medical observers are giddi-
ness, sudden prostration, vomiting, coldness of the surface,
spasms, convulsions, diarrhoea, and irregular action of
the heart. Horses and cattle are almost invariably
greatly distended with wind, but though instant relief can
be given to the latter by puncturing the rumen with a
trocar, or even a sharp penknife, when the accumulated gas
rushes out, the operation is not so successful with horses
with whom the large gut must be penetrated, and is seldom
attempted. The spot where the puncture is made in cattle,
is about half-way between the last rib and the hip-bone, the
thrust being directed inwards and downwards. As great
prostration is present, a stimulant should be administered

298 THE HORSE

without loss of time, any spirit being used which is
promptly available ; but if at hand, give —

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia ... ... ... ^ oz.

Nitric Ether 1 „

Tincture of Opium ... ... ... ... ... 1 „

Brandy i pint

in a pint of linseed gruel, or added to coffee, to be followed
with an oleaginous purgative, such as —

Linseed Oil or Castor Oil 1 quart

Lampas.

Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the bars behind
the front teeth of the upper jaw, which is attended with a
certain amount of inflammation and soreness, making the
animal flinch when eating, and so inducing it only to pick at
its food. It usually goes away of its own accord in a few
days, but in the meantime occasions some loss of condition,
especially in the case of a horse in training. With young
horses the usual cause is shedding the teeth, but with older
ones it is most likely that the stomach is slightly deranged ;
in either case two or three sulphate of magnesia powders, or
a tablespoonful of Flowers of Sulphur in a bran mash, will cool
the blood and restore the tone. It is advisable, though not
absolutely necessary, to lance the bars with a lancet or sharp
knife and let a few drops of blood flow, which gives instant
relief and often causes the sweUing to disappear in the course
of the next twenty-four hours. In hot countries lampas is
very prevalent, especially with horses in high condition, but
the above simple remedies give complete control over it, and
enable many a horse to come to the starting-post without
any real loss of condition.

Eczema, oe Mud-fever.

The reason for the eruption, a form of which is known as
mud-fever, is very commonly a sudden chill when the animal

SIMPLE AILMENTS 299

is in a state of perspiration. Other causes, upsetting the
stomach, will also cause local irritation of the skin, but a
sudden check to the action of the skin is the most usual
reason.

If the spots become irritable or sore they may be treated
with —

Glycerine 1 part

Water 15 to 20 parts

or some Zinc Ointment applied.

Also should be given —

Epsom Salts 2 oz.

Common Salt ... ... ... ... ... ^ ,,

in a mash for two or three nights, or —

Sulphate of Magnesia powders in the drinking-water
for four days.

As soon as the powders have been finished give —

Liquor Arsenicalis ... ... ... ... 30 drops

twice a day for ten days or a fortnight, which speedily effect
a cure in almost every case if taken in hand at once.

A predisposing cause of mud-fever is the practice of
washing the legs on returning to the stable, especially if
warm water is used, and then leaving them only half-dried ;
particularly is this the case if the washing is done outside
the stable door and the animal is kept there until the wash-
ing is complete. The horse ought to be taken at once into
the stable, the legs rubbed down with a wisp of straw to
take the bulk of the mud off, and then bandaged and left
till the next morning, when the dried mud will easily brush
off. If, from the circumstances of the case, it is probable
that the animal may have received a chill from exposure,
the horse should be warmly clothed, without any elaborate
dressing, and have half a bucket of gruel with a couple of
glasses of whisky or a pint of ale in it, and then be supplied

300 THE HORSE

with a mash. But if it is inclined to shiver, administer
immediately —

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia ... ... ... 1 oz.

Tincture of Gentian ... ... ... ... ^ ,,

in a pint of thin gruel, or warm water, as speedily as
possible, or give instead —

Spirits of Nitric Ether ... ... ... ... 1^ oz.

Aromatic Spirits of Ammonia ... ... ... ^ ,,

before anything else is done.

Mallenders and sallenders are also a form of eczema, chiefly
affecting the heavy breeds of horses with much hair on their
legs, mallenders being the name given to cracks and sores
in the flexure of the knees, and sallenders when they ap-
pear in the bend of the hocks. The cause is usually too
high feeding, when the inflammatory swelling of the legs
which it occasions finds a vent in a discharge in the
situations mentioned.

If attended to at once they are easily amenable to treat-
ment, but if allowed to become chronic the ulcerative
condition can seldom be wholly cured.

A strong aloetic purge should be given, to be followed by
sulphate of magnesia powders in the water for four days, and
afterwards by a course of alterative powders as recommended
for indigestion.

The sores should be cleansed with soft soap and water,
and then dusted with —

Fuller's Earth 5 parts

Boracic Acid ... ... ... ... ... 2 ,,

Powdered Alum ... ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

for several days, occasionally using instead —

Unguent Hydrargyri Nitrate Oxyde 1 dr.

Cetacei ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

or else apply a few drops of Friar's Balsam with a feather,
and then sprinkle on it a little Flowers of Sulphur,

SIMPLE AILMENTS 301

Cracked Heels.

The skin of the heels in health is softened with an oily
matter, and if this is diminished the condition known as
cracked heels is the result. The legs swell and become hot,
and sores form in the heels, causing stiffness, if not actual
lameness. The causes are from the heels not being sufti-
ciently dried after being wet, and also from being fed on
more stimulating food than the stomach can bear. The
heels should be poulticed, and, if it is imperative to keep
the horse at work, should be well softened with zinc
ointment for at least half an hour before the horse leaves
the stable. The blood must be cooled by diminishing the
corn and stopping all beans for a few days, and giving a
bran mash for two or three nights with a tablespoonful of
Sulphur in it, besides —

Epsom Salts ... ... ... ... ... 2 oz.

Comiuon Salt ... ... ... ... ... ^ oz.

while, if time permits, it is well to commence the proceeding
with an aloetic purge of about 4 drs.

Cracked heels are very apt to occur when a horse is being
forced to the highest condition, a few days before a race.

Choking.

At the back of the mouth are situated the openings of the
oesophagus and windpipe, the upper one communicating
with the stomach, and the lower one with the lungs. If the
obstruction which causes choking is situated in the oeso-
phagus gentle pressure may be tried, and a little linseed oil
poured down ; but in giving the latter, great care must be
taken not to hold the head up by force, or some of the oil
may find its way into the windpipe, and so into the lungs,
thus choking the horse. If any oil is forced back it will
probably have to return through the nostrils.

302 THE HORSE

Tetanus, or Lockjaw.

Tetanus is a stiffening of the muscles, especially of the
head and neck, accompanied by more or less spasm, and
when once seen can never be forgotten. The microbe
which causes it is introduced through some opening in the
skin, and as its habitat is generally in the soil an injury to
the foot is the usual mode of its entry into the system of a
horse. It is said also to have an affinity for iron-rust, and
an operation performed with a dirty knife has often been the
reason of its making its dreaded appearance. It frequently
follows after a prick in the foot from a nail, broken knees,
castration, and docking, and usually appears seven or eight
days after the injury has occurred. After ten days have
passed there is not much fear of tetanus setting in.

The muscles of the jaws and neck are usually first affected,
the animal having difficulty in swallowing and turning its
neck ; before long these muscles become quite stiff, the mouth
is nearly closed, the jaws cannot be parted, and little food
can be taken into the mouth. By degrees all the muscles
become affected with the same stiffness and cramp ; and
amongst the most characteristic signs is the pointing for-
wards of the ears, which are erect and fixed, and the staring
of the eyes, which are drawn back into the socket, with the
haw thrust forward in front ; the head cannot be raised or
lowered, and the legs are fixed stiffly and spread out from
each other, the tail is lifted up, held straight out, and in a
constant tremble, and the lips are firmly stretched across
the teeth, which are partly seen. The breathing is
quickened, laboured, and convulsive ; the bowels are bound,
and the urine is difficult to pass. When convulsions come
on and keep increasing in strength there is little hope of
saving the animal, but in the absence of these there is a
good chance of recovery if the strength can be maintained
by careful nursing. The writer has known of a case which
lasted six weeks, and the patient eventually got per-
fectly well and was able to do its work the same as
before.

As the eyes are extremely susceptible to light, the invalid

SIMPLE AILMENTS 303

must be placed in as dark a box as possible, covering over
the vi^indows and excluding all light, but freely admitting
fresh air ; and since the nervous system is in a state of con-
tinuous excitement, the utmost quietness must prevail, and
all necessary duties must be performed as gently as possible.
A harsh or angry v^ord v^ill cause the pulse to be much dis-
turbed. One attendant only should look after the horse, and
the door be kept constantly locked, no inquisitive persons
being allowed to enter on any pretext whatever. The
wound should be treated in the ordinary way, but it will
probably already be nearly healed before the tetanus declares
itself ; if proud flesh should form, it can be reduced by the
application of Nitrate of Silver (lunar caustic), and then
Tincture of Arnica or Chinosol lotion should be dabbed on
daily until a healthy scab is formed. The food should con-
sist of a small amount of bran mash, in which is placed any
green food procurable, such as grass, carrots, or celery tops,
chopped up as fine as possible, so as to require no mastica-
tion ; and instead of water some linseed tea should be always
present, made into very thin gruel with well-boiled oatmeal
porridge, so that whatever is taken will contain as much
nutriment as can be managed. The groom should enter
the box four times a day, remove any food which is left,
replacing it with a fresh supply, and clean out the stable if
needed. He should then give 10 drops of Belladonna and 10
drops of Arnica, in alternate doses, until the wound is nearly
healed, after which the Arnica should be left off and 10 drops
of Nux Vomica substituted instead. The man should not
stay any longer than is absolutely necessary, leavmg again
as quickly as possible. It will be found that the horse will
pick up quite sufhcient food with its hps, and manage to
swallow it, to keep up its strength, unless the case is very
severe, and in this case convulsions will soon appear and the
end will then be not far off.

If it is noticed that the jaws are becoming less fast,
Liquor Arsenicalis may be substituted for the Nux Vomica,
but the Belladonna should be continued.

Under the above treatment the writer has known many
cases recover ; but there is one treatment, too often at once

304 THE HORSE

resorted to, which he emphatically condemns — an ounce of
lead in the head, from which no recovery is possible !

Breaking Blood-vessels.

Unless as the direct result of an injury, when an artery is
burst, the breaking of a blood-vessel in the head is not a
serious matter, the trickle of blood down the nostril soon
ceasing as the circulation subsides. But it is often a sign
of delicacy, especially with young animals, and this must be
borne in mind in apportioning their work. After such an
occurrence the horse should not be allowed to gallop for a
week, or to excite the circulation in any way, being given
plenty of walking exercise instead ; for it must be re-
membered that the seat of injury requires time to heal,
like a cut finger, and if pressure is put upon it too soon it
is very likely to give way again. As an additional pre-
caution the assistance of the two valuable blood purifiers
should be invoked — Sulphur, and Arsenic — and a table-
spoonful of the former should be given in every bran
mash ; whilst —

Liquor Arsenicalis 30 drops

should be given twice a day, during the rest-week the patient
is recommended to enjoy.

A horse. Bailiff, notorious for this habit, entirely outgrew
it under this treatment when under the writer's care, and
soon afterwards carried off two races on the same day with-
out any evil results, nor did the misfortune happen again
whilst the horse remained in his stable.

Inflammation of the Eye.

When this occurs from a hay-seed, or dirt, getting into the
eye, the cause must be sought for and removed ; but it also
occurs from blows, or from standing in a draught and getting
a chill. Whatever the cause, the eye should be shielded
from daylight falling directly upon it ; and it should be

SIMPLE AILMENTS :m

bathed with either a little warm milk-and-water or rather
weak lukewarm tea, either of which remedies are generally
sufficient to soothe and cure the ailment. If, however, a
more potent one is required, apply with a clean sponge, or
medicated cotton wool —

Rose "Water 2 oz.

Glycerine 2 drs.

Acetate of Lead 2 ,,

which may be relied upon if the homely remedies fail.

Internal Parasites.

The parasites which take up a lodgment in the intestines
are various, but the tape-worm is not a very common one in
this country, and only the three sorts usually met with, and
the bot, will now be considered. Those that are usually
referred to as "worms" are the large round, white, or
sometimes red worm, 4 to 12 inches in length and tapering
at both ends, which chiefly occupies the small intestines ;
the second kind are the small ones, thick at the one end and
tapering away at the other, which mostly inhabit the large
guts ; and besides these are the thread-like worms, the oxy-
uris, which infest the terminal portion of the intestinal canal
and cause intense itching, with consequent frequent rubbing
of the tail against anything available to allay the irritation.
The last pest is the " bot," the larva of the bot-fly, which
buries itself in the mucous membrane of the stomach. All
worms cause loss of flesh and prevent the animal from
thriving, often causing cough and gripes, with a rough,
dry, staring coat.

There are many remedies for the first two kinds, and if
the presence of the large worm is suspected, which much
resembles an earthworm in appearance, it can often be
ejected by the administration of sulphate of iron. But far
the most efficacious remedy for both sorts is a dose of tur-
pentine and linseed oil ; and to give due effect to it the horse
should have a bran mash, and then be fasted for at least

306 THE HORSE

twelve hours, which may be extended with advantage to
twenty-four hours, previous to the dose being given.
To a foal on the mare give —

Linseed Oil ... ... ... ... ^ pint

Turpentine | tablespoon

To a yearling —

Linseed Oil ... ... ... . . . i pint

Turpentine 1 tablespoon

To a full-grown horse —

Linseed Oil ... ... i pint

Turpentine 1 oz. (2 tablespoons)

Camphor ... ... ^ „

The Camphor should be put in the oil the previous evening,
when it will be dissolved by the following morning.

It is of the utmost importance that the Turpentine should
be thoroughly incorporated in the oil, and both should be so
shaken up together that the Turpentine breaks up into small
globules. This is easier effected if the Turpentine is put at
first into a soda-water bottle, with the white of a raw egg,
and thoroughly shaken before adding the Linseed Oil.

Another successful remedy is to give for three mornings —

Calomel ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 grs.

Black Antimony ... ... ... ... ... 60 ,,

to be followed on the fourth day by a purging ball not
exceeding 4 drs, of aloes.

After either dose has been completed it is a good plan to
give daily for a fortnight — •

Powdered Gentian ... ... ... ... ... 1 dr.

Cammomile ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

Ginger ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 „

Sulphate of Iron ... ... ... ... ... 1 .,

in the early morning feed. The Sulphate of Iron needs to
be finely powdered, and no nodules should be left in it.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 307

The oxyuris can with difficulty be reached by internal
medicine, as it is only situated a few inches from the funda-
ment, and hence is more effectually dealt with by throwing
up an enema of a solution of Quassia, or of common salt.
To make Quassia extract a quart of boiling water is poured
on to 4 oz. of Quassia chips, and then allowed to stand till
nearly cold, when it may be injected from a common zinc
syringe through a wooden funnel. If a solution of common
salt and lukewarm water is used, it must not be made too
strong, or the intestine, which is already suffering from the
attack of the parasites, becomes irritated ; a couple of hand-
fuls of salt to 3 quarts of water being quite sufficient.

Bots are very troublesome in the spring months, when
they have attained a large size, and greatly affect the con-
dition of the horse. The parent-fly lays its eggs from July
till the end of September, selecting the neck, mane, ribs,
and the inside of the knees and fore-legs of the victim, all
being parts which are easily reached by the horse when
nibbling any part which is itching, or by another comrade
who is performing the same kind office. In this way the
pests become transferred to the stomach, where they quickly
bury themselves in the mucous membrane, attaching them-
selves by two hooklets, and eventually growing to the size
of large blackberries. By the following June or July they
have completed that stage of existence, and, passing out
in the ordinary way, bury themselves in the ground, shortly
to reappear as flies, when their cycle of life is complete. At
first they do not give much evidence of their presence inside
their host, but subsequently they cause loss of condition,
whilst occasionally such emaciation occurs as even to result
in death. No medicme seems to have any effect upon these
dreaded intruders, though a course of Sulphate of Iron may
help their departure when nearing maturity.

An Irish friend of experience once gave me the following
recipe, which he stated he had found to be efficacious in
banishing the pests : —

" Give nearly a tumblerful of the common stone-crop for
a week, chopped up very fine, in the feed of oats or in a
bran mash; then give a ball, 1 dr. each of black antimony

308 THE HORSE

and calomel ; twenty-four hours afterwards give another
ball of 3 drs. of aloes."

Prevention is ever better than cure, and when horses are
in the fields at the season the bot-fly is engaged in laying
her eggs, the animals should be visited night and morning
and every egg removed from their coats. A sharp knife
quickly effects a clearance, but they are difficult to remove
with only the finger and thumb, for they adhere very closely
to the hair, and it is by no means easy to get them off.

Sanding.

This is a condition of affairs peculiar to very sandy, gritty
soils, but in a dry summer, when the pastures are very
shrunk, horses are apt to swallow some of the sand by
reason of their biting so close to the ground. The result is
anaemia, and finally diarrhoea, and if not attended to fatal
consequences may ensue. If there is any doubt about the
cause, the condition is easily detected by rubbing some of
the droppings between the finger and thumb, which will
feel gritty to the touch. The remedy is to remove the
animal elsewhere ; but first of all to treat it in the stable,
giving bran mashes, and small doses of Linseed Oil, until it
is well.

Mange, and Eing-worm.

Although these two affections differ greatly, the former
being the work of a parasite and the latter being of a
vegetable origin, the superficial appearance in many respects
is so much alike that they are mentioned here together, since
the only really effectual treatment, to be absolutely relied
upon, is the same for both. In the wilder parts of
Ireland, nearly thirty years ago, both ailments were so rife
that it was impossible not to have frequent outbreaks in
the stable ; for the horses had often to be put up in strange
stables, whilst new purchases frequently began to show
signs of being infected, soon after they arrived home. Many
recipes were prescribed by different professional advisers,
and tried, but when a case was obstinate the one remedy
which always had to be fallen back upon was Tincture of

SIMPLE AILMENTS 309

Iodine. It may be remarked the stain can be removed from
the hands by the apphcation of warm water, in which a
Httle soda has been dissolved.

In deahng with ring-worm — and the same appHes to
mange — the mode of procedure was to wash the affected
part, to soften the skin, and then to apply compound Tinc-
ture of Iodine, rubbing it in with an old tooth-brush for a
few seconds, but taking care that too large a surface of the
body w^as not treated at the same time. In one case when
an animal was so treated from head to foot it very nearly
died in consequence, and was with much difficulty nursed
back to health again. Unless the part affected is a very
limited one it is scarcely to be expected that one application
will suffice, and the moment there is any suspicion of a fresh
breaking-out, another resort to the Iodine must be made.
Nor does it suffice only to touch the visible signs of the evil
since it creeps along under the hair, so that a considerable
margin of the surrounding skin should also be included in
dealing with the attack, and the touch is more to be reHed
upon than sight ; any place, therefore, which feels at all
rough when passing the hand over the coat should receive
attention at once, to check the spread of the ailment before
it has become actually visible.

The rug worn next the skin should also be gone over with
the Iodine to prevent the complaint being started again
through this agency ; and every brush which is used for
dressing should be kept entirely for the patient, and thrown
into a bucket of soft soap and water every time after being
used. The manger and walls of the box, or stall, should fre-
quently be washed over with warm water and soft soap, to
which about a gill of paraffin has been added, and for this
purpose a large brush, such as is used for white-washing, will
be found very useful.

There is some resemblance between eczema and mange, in
that both display points of incrustation from which a dis-
charge issues, and there is present a considerable amount of
irritation, which the animal endeavours to allay by rubbing
violently against anything available ; it may therefore be
well to point out that with eczema the itching is most felt

310 THE HORSE

while the vesicules are forming, and that when they have
arrived at a head the irritation to a large extent ceases,
though a tenderness to the touch, causing shrinking, may
remain ; but with mange there is no cessation, and the
irritation increases as the disease proceeds.

Horses with much feather on the legs occasionally suffer
from leg-mange, due to a parasite that lives in the region of
the fetlocks, and rarely ascends high up the leg. It is chiefly
active at night, remaining quiescent during the day-time, and
hence its presence is not always suspected ; the symptoms of
stamping violently at night, and rubbing one leg against the
other until sores are formed, being attributed to grease
instead of the real cause. These energetic actions to allay
the irritation speedily produce bare patches in the hair,
which call aloud for instant treatment, which fortunately
is not a difficult matter.

Since the "feather" is so voluminous it is necessary to
use some agent which can deal with this, and nothing
answers better than soft soap. Plaster it thickly on, no
water being used, commencing at the hoofs, and work up-
wards against the lay of the hair until the knees and hocks
are reached. In half an hour's time wash the soap thoroughly
off with warm water, and then apply tincture of iodine,
working it well in with a brush to the roots of the hair.

In case any parasites may escape the operation should be
repeated in five to seven days' time, when the new brood
will have hatched from any eggs which have been over-
looked.

Warts, or Angle-berries.

These unsightly growths are sometimes very troublesome,
and often require careful treatment. When small, with a
pronounced neck, and not situated in any delicate part, a
piece of silk may be tied so tightly round as to stop the
circulation, when in a few days the growth will drop off.
Its departure can be hastened by applying —

Acid Arseniosum... ... ... ... ... 80 grs.

Oleum Turpentine ... ... ... ... 2 drs.

Pure Lard... ... ... ... ... ... 1 oz.

SIMPI.E AILMENTS 311

Well mix. Apply a small portion to the wart for seven days,
then discontinue, and apply sweet oil until the wart sloughs
off. The wound usually heals without any treatment except
keeping it clean, but several applications of the ointment
may be required before the growth is completely removed.

Care must be taken not to apply the ointment if the
surface is at all raw, or it may be absorbed, injuriously, into
the system.

If the warts are situated within such delicate parts as the
sheath, or the vagina, or on the penis, they should be wiped
dry with cotton-wool, and then have dry, powdered Calomel
applied with a camel 's-hair brush. The wart will gradually
slough away, coming off in flakes, and leaving each time a
raw surface which must be again treated with the powder.
Sometimes the animal dreads the application so much that
it becomes violent, necessitating the use of a twitch ; but
this can often be avoided by blowing the Calomel on to the
wart with a tobacco puff, such as is commonly used by gar-
deners for the destruction of green-fly ; and when an angle-
berry is situated inside the ear — a not uncommon place — the
puffer is most useful. It is difficult, however, to blow out
Calomel by itself, since it is an excessively light powder, and
should therefore be associated with one heavier than itself,
but if a little Borax Powder is mixed with it there will be
no difficulty found in thus using it.

The Hoofs.

Apart from accidents, such as picking up a nail, being
pricked in shoeing, or being bruised by treading on some
sharp substance, or an over-reach, the foot is liable to suffer
from navicular, laminitis, quittor, corns, thrush, sand-crack,
and seedy toe, all of which are attended by lameness more
or less severe, generally, but not always curable.

Navicular.

Navicular lameness in the earliest stages, when only
inflammation of the bony structure of the navicular bone

312 THE HORSE

exists, holds out some hope of being cured ; but when once
actual caries of the bone has commenced there is no longer
any chance of recovery. At the beginning it is neces-
sary to relieve the frog from all pressure, situated as it is
under the seat of mischief, and if the inflammation yields to
the treatment adopted the horse in a few days may move
again with freedom. The shoe should be sprung a little at
the heel to relieve the pressure, and until the lameness is
lessened the frog should be kept from touching the ground.
Cold swabs should be wrapped round the foot and kept con-
stantly wet, while the horse is allowed to rest in a loose box,
with quite short litter for bedding. Blistering the coronet
should be practised, and bleeding from the toe is a remedy
which may well be tried. When good results follow, and the
horse appears to be sound again, it is advisable to turn it out
in a marshy meadow ; but if that is not practicable it should
for some time only be exercised on soft ground, until the cure
appears to be complete.

When affected by navicular lameness the horse, when
standing at rest, flexes the fetlock of the affected limb, and
raises the heel, the foot resting on the point of the toe.

Laminitis.

Laminitis is associated with a considerable degree of fever,
and almost invariably both feet are affected, which causes
the horse to step with the same even action — however short
it may be — although it is unwilling to move at all. The feet
are intensely hot, and the horse endeavours to throw all its
weight upon its heels. Unless the attack is speedily cured
the inflammation is likely to cause structural changes in the
feet, causing permanent unsoundness.

In chronic cases a horse is unable to do fast work, but
slow work is beneficial, such as light labour on a farm.

The usual treatment is to adopt the ordinary means for
reducing fever, to remove the shoes, to relieve the congestion
by bleeding at the toe, to pare out the soles and apply cold
poultices, and to wrap sw^abs round the feet, which are kept
constantly wet by pouring cold water over them.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 313

Some years ago a Mr. Broad, a veterinary surgeon of
Bath, introduced a different method of treatment, which in
many cases has been most successful.

The system advocated is to construct a small bath, if no
natural supply is available, in which the horse may be kept
standing for hours in cold water ; and at short intervals to
compel the horse to take walking exercise for half an hour,
by so doing forcing the congestion of the feet to be relieved.
As soon as the exercise is over the horse must be placed
at once again in the bath to prevent congestion re-
curring. In an hour's time the horse is to be sent for
another half-hour's exercise, if possible on soft ground, and
this rotation of walking, and resting in the cold bath, to be
steadily continued until the action is once more restored. It
is essential that the proceedings in the first instance must
commence with a walk; and the animal must be forced to do
this, even if two men have to hold it up with a sack under
its belly, and a whip has to be called into requisition to make
the horse move. After the subsequent rest in the cold bath
the animal will be able to move freely by itself. A feature
of the treatment is to shoe the animal with heavy bar shoes at
the beginning, which are made thinner at the toes and heels
than in the middle, forming a curve, and compelling the
weight to be thrown mostly on the centre of the foot.

QUITTOE.

This is a deep, narrow abscess, opening upon the coronet,
and generally is connected with an ulcer in the foot. It should
be well poulticed, and a probe should be used to find out the
direction of the fistula, and whether there is more than one.
An antiseptic lotion, such as Chinosol, should be squirted
into it three or four times a day. It often arises from a corn
in the heel.

Corns.

A corn is a bruise upon the sole of the foot at the angle
between the bar and the sole. It is caused by contracted
feet and tight shoes, especially if the latter become embedded

314 THE HORSE

in the hoof from not having the hoof pared out often enough.
The place is painful, causing the animal to go lame, particu-
larly after treading upon a stone, and when the corn is pared
it will be seen to have a blood-red appearance, through the
bursting of small blood-vessels under the horn. In some
cases matter will form, and unless a vent is made it will
under-run the sole, or appear at the coronet, and form a
quittor.

The seat of the corn must be well pared out, and some
tow saturated with tar placed over it, and then the shoe
lightly tacked on, all pressure being kept off the sore heel.

If, however, matter has formed a vent must be made so
that it can flow out freely ; and after fomenting the foot, and
syringing with Chinosol solution, a large poultice should be
put on. After poulticing for a day or two, as soon as matter
ceases to exude tar and tow may be placed over the vent, and
the horse may be shod and resume its work.

Thrush.

This disease consists of inflammation of the sensible frog,
which in consequence secretes pus instead of healthy horn,
and this issues from the cleft of the frog with an offensive
odour. The ragged portions of the horn should be cut away,
the frog washed with warm water, and a small piece of tow
introduced into the cleft with a piece of stick, in order to
wipe up the accumulated pus. A fresh piece of tow should
then be smeared with a mixture of —

Tar 6 oz.

Sulphate of Copper ... ... ... ... I „

and placed in the cleft, and if necessary a bar shoe be put on
to retain the dressing in its place. If properly applied it will
neither fall out nor permit the entrance of dirt, and should be
renewed every two or three days.

In an obstinate case a more powerful lotion may be used,
but this should not be entrusted to the care of an ordinary
groom.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 315

Make a lotion of —

Calvert's Carbolic Acid (No. 5) i dr.

Nitric Acid ... 40 drops

Water 60 drops (1 teaspoon)

A small quantity of tow should be saturated and introduced
carefully into the frog. It is very important before applying
the preparation that the foot is soaked for a few minutes in
warm water, and the parts thoroughly cleansed ; and great
care must be taken that on no account is the dressing
allowed to come into contact with the skin. One or two
applications are usually sufficient, and after that, tow and
Stockholm tar — without any addition of Sulphate of Copper
— may replace it, and will complete the cure.

In compounding the lotion, first mix together the water
and nitric acid and then add the carbolic acid ; and this
should be done slowly, for a certain amount of effervescence
will arise.

Sometimes the frog is so extensively diseased that it is
better to cut away the whole, until the sensible frog is reached,
and then the dressing of tar may be applied, and a bar shoe
put on for at least one remove, or until the new frog is
sufficiently grown to sustain the weight of the horse.

Sand-crack.

A separation of the fibres of the hoof from above down-
wards is thus termed, and usually commences at the
coronet, though occasionally it begins at the shoe surface,
and runs upward. An old thin knife should be heated red-
hot, and two cross-cuts be made with it at the very top of
the sand-crack, and one below it, to prevent any further
splitting of the fibres. In addition a round hole should
be made at the apex of the crack, such as can be made
with an old door-key when heated red-hot, and is very
effective against any more splitting. Two holes should be
drilled through on each side of the crack, and apiece of soda-
water wire — which will not rust — passed through them, and

316 THE HORSE

the ends twisted together, or small nails may be driven
through and then clenched ; while a simple method is to
bind tarred cord round the hoof, but the drawback to this is
its habihty to stretch. The crack itself should be filled with
artificial horn made of equal parts of —

Pitch 1 part

Gutta-percha ... ... ... ... ... 1 part

which should be melted in an iron spoon and run into the
crack, finally smoothing it over with the bottom of the
heated spoon.

Another plan is to drive in two small nails on each side of
the crack, and twist wire tightly round them, in a figure
of 8.

The coronet should be slightly blistered with a mild fly-
blister —

Cantharides ... ... ... ... ... 1 part

Lard 24 parts

to stimulate secretion of horn ; and the horse should be
shod with a bar shoe, to prevent, as far as possible, any
expansion of the hoof. If the animal is at grass in the
company of others, and the sand-crack is situated on a
hind-foot, so that a bar-shoe might be dangerous in case of
kicking, a small clip may yet be used on the outside, near
the toe.

Seedy Toe.

It is not the outer horn which is affected in seedy toe,
but the inner portion, and a space forms between the two,
which sounds hollow when rapped with the handle of a
pocket-knife or stick. In 1884, Professor Axe discovered
a nematode worm in the debris of seedy toe, which has been
christened Polodera Axei. Every particle of detached horn
should be removed, and the surface dressed with turpentine,
or with the lotion directed for Thrush. If the wall of the
hoof is left very weak, after using the lotion and allowing
the surface to become dry, apply surgeon's diachylon plaster

SIMPLE AILMENTS 317

to the surface, such as is used for binding up broken ribs,
and when it adheres smear over it a Httle Stockholm tar.

Over-reach, or Tread.

This is caused on the heel of a fore-foot by the blow of a
hind shoe ; and an over-reach is generally to some extent
the fault of the groom in charge, from not taking care that
the inner edge of the toe of the hind shoe has been rounded
off with the rasp, but has been carelessly allowed to become
almost as sharp as a knife, which it will do from ordinary
wear and tear.

The first step is to cleanse the wound from dirt, and this
is best done by directing a stream of cold water upon the
wound ; or, if this is not available, by squeezing a sponge
above the wound, and letting the water run down over it.
A poultice may be put on for the first night, adding to
it some antiseptic, such as Chinosol or Tincture of Arnica ;
but a prolonged use of poultices is not advisable, though one
for a few hours helps much to cleanse all foreign matter
from the wound. The next day a powder may be sprinkled
over the raw surface composed of —

Red Oxide of Mercury ... ... ... ... 1 part

Powdered Sugar 20 parts

or instead Iodoform may be dusted over, either of which
remedies will speedily cause a healthy scab to form.

Hoof Ointment.

A good ointment for dressing hoofs, and especially frogs,
at all times is —

Honey

Stockholm tar [■ in equal parts

Elder Ointment

Kings in a Hoof.

When rings are seen to go right round a hoof they are
usually of no consequence, but merely mark different periods

318 THE HORSE

of growth, especially when an animal has been turned out,
for the horn grows faster in wet weather or in damp grass
than it does when the conditions are drier. But when the
rmgs appear only on the inner quarter attention should be
paid to them, for then they often point to some disease
of the foot. This is frequently well marked in cases of
navicular and laminitis.

Exostosis.

In all cases of exostosis, such as side-bones, ring-bones,
splints, and spavins, non-interference in the majority of
cases results in a much larger deposit of bone than is the case
if treatment is at once resorted to. Bhstering, as a rule,
limits the growth, and causes the process to become callosed
more rapidly than rest alone will effect. The inflammatory
action in the lateral cartilages can also be arrested by
blistering, which otherwise will convert the cartilage cells
into bone ; and therefore there is every reason to blister at
once any exostosis, wherever situated, as soon as any
indication is apparent that mischief is brewing, which may
become serious.

Side-bones.

Side-bones are the ossification of the lateral cartilages
of the foot, and when these are pressed upon at the heels,
instead of being flexible they are found to be perfectly
unyielding. Like ring-bones they are to some extent here-
ditary, and while formerly they were largely in evidence
amongst the heavy breeds, they are now much more rarely
seen in consequence of stallions being rejected as unsound
when so afflicted.

EiNG-BONES.

Eing-bones are a bony enlargement of the same nature as
spavins and sphnts, but are situated above the coronet, and
may encircle the whole part. Though causing lameness
whilst they are forming, when once they are fully grown

SIMPLE AILMENTS 319

a horse may do its work perfectly well, if they do not
interfere with the free motion of the pastern joint. They
should be well blistered with the following : —

Cantharides Pulvis

Adeps

Oleum Terebinth

No. 1.

No 2.

drs.

oz.

dr.

U drs.

oz.

Hydrargyri lodidum Rubrum...

Adeps

The two ointments to be made separately, the first (No. 1)
being made in a water bath. The Oleum Terebinth being
put in when cooling. When made the two are to be mixed
together on a slab. After the traces have all peeled off

apply-
Soft Soap (B.P. formula) ... ... ... ... ^ oz.

Spirit of Wine 2 „

Tinct. Iodine ... ... ... ... ... 1 ,,

Water 8 .,

to be rubbed in on alternate days.

Splints.

These are of the same nature as the foregoing, an
exostosis, or deposition of bony matter on the shank-bone,
and painful, when growing, through the stretching of the
periosteum, the membrane covering all bone, which is
inelastic. Unless they interfere with the knee-joint, or are
situated immediately beneath the tendon of the leg, sooner
or later Nature will accommodate herself to their presence,
and the lameness, which is sometimes severe at first, will
eventually disappear. They should be treated in the same
manner as ring-bone, being first blistered, and afterwards
have Iodine applied for a lengthened period ; it will be found
that in three or four days after the application of Iodine the
scarf skin will begin to rise, when the treatment should be

320 THE HORSE

stayed for a while until the scurf falls off, which will occur
in about four days more.

Instead of Iodine, a sweating blister is sometimes used
with good effect. A small piece of tea-lead — such as is
employed for wrapping up tea — -being first made smooth
with the back of a knife, and then placed over the splint,
with a linen bandage over it to keep it in its place.

Spavins.

An exostosis situated on the inner and lower part of the
hock-joint is known as a spavin, and is of the same nature
as a ring-bone and splint. Situated as it is, where there are
so many small bones which constitute the hock-joint, it is a
more serious ailment than those just discussed, since it
interferes more or less with the free working of the hock.
A spavin is held to be legal unsoundness, and a hereditary
ailment, though this is scarcely borne out by experience. A
stallion proved to have a spavin is at once rejected, though if
he shows no other tendency to exostosis it is unlikely that his
progeny will inherit a liability to spavin. The famous Derby
winner, Hermit, had a spavin on his near hind hock, and yet
he had a very numerous and distinguished progeny none of
whom developed spavin, but were noted, on the contrary,
for fine, strong hocks. The joint is so complicated, and has
to sustain such stress, that it is particularly liable to con-
cussion and sprain, and these are undoubtedly the real cause
of spavin. A stallion may be constitutionally disposed to
exostosis, and this he will be very likely to transmit,
and also a tendency to faulty hind limbs ; but beyond these
predisposing causes he is not likely to pass on a liability to
contract spavin, and if he has stood the test of training for
two or three seasons, and been sound throughout, there need
not be hesitation in employing his services, until his stock
give reason to pass him by.

Baron Von Oettingen, with his immense experience of the
German State Breeding Stud at Trakehnen, states his views
on the subject in " Horse Breeding in Theory and Practice,
and quotes Professor Eberlein, who writes : —

SIMPLE AILMENTS 321

" Therefore spavin is not hereditary. Scientifically it is
proved, however, that a deficient formation of the hocks and
a faulty position of the thighs, which predispose a horse to
this disease {causa interna) are transmitted. Thus it follows
that with regard to spavin, only horses with defective hocks
or a faulty position of the thighs on the one hand, and
badly constructed bones on the other hand, must be excluded
from breeding." Baron Von Oettingen adds : " I fully sub-
scribe to the view of Professor Eberlein" ; and then mentions
several stallions afflicted with spavin, all of whom begat
sound stock.

Bog Spavins.

These have nothing to do with true spavins, and are soft
swellings in front of the hock, a kind of synovial dropsy,
which very rarely cause lameness.

Curbs.

Curbs are a sprain of the ligaments at the back of the
hock, about 4 inches below the point, where a swelling may
be felt, with heat and soreness. A sudden shp in deep
ground when galloping or jumping, or the catching of a toe
when trotting along the road, especially by a young horse
when tired, are frequent causes of curb. As horses get
older they frequently grow out of the tendency to spring
curbs ; but those weak hocks which have a piece cut out of
the shank, as it were, just below the joint in front, are
always liable to contract this ailment.

To ease the pain dissolve a handful of common washing
soda in a quart of warm water, and apply it to the swelling
with a sponge. Afterwards soak a woollen or serge bandage
in the liquid, and wrap it round with a dry one outside.
The next morning mix —

Sal Ammoniac ... ... ... ... ... 2 oz.

Vinegar... ... ... ... ... ... ^cupful

and add to it a quart of boiling water. When cool put it
into a bottle, and sponge the curb two or three times daily

322 THE HORSE

with the mixture, after which a wet bandage raust be
put on.

If Sal Ammoniac is not readily available, use instead —

Common Salt 2 teaspoonfuls

Vinegar 1 cupful

and sponge the curb with it. Afterwards continue to use
the vinegar daily without the salt, sponging the curb
freely, and placing a cabbage-leaf over it to prevent evapo-
ration. When the inflammation has subsided the blister
which was recommended for ring-bone should be rubbed on,
and when the effects of this have passed off compound Tinc-
ture of Iodine, or a lotion made from Ehus Toxicodendron,
should be applied until all signs of curb have disappeared.

Thorough-pin.

This is the name given to a bursal enlargement at the
side of the hock, but beyond disfigurement it does not
interfere with working the horse. No better treatment, if
any is desired, can be suggested than to paint over it a
lotion made from Rhus Toxicodendron for three or four
days, when the scarf skin will rise, as when Iodine is used.
A similar period must be allowed to elapse, and a rest given,
until the scurf falls off, and then th^ application must be
renewed until the swelling is reduced If a horse is turned
out to grass for a few weeks it will generally be found that
all bursal enlargements, such as thorough -pins, capped
hocks, &c., disappear when the animal comes into the
stable again, and is fed on dry food.

Wounds.

In June, 1909, Elie Metchnikoff, the famous Russian
scientist, was one of the four representatives chosen to
deliver orations in the Senate House at Cambridge, at the
great Celebration in honour of Darwin. Amongst other
points he explained the use of inflammation ; how that the
circulation of the blood is checked in its course at a wounded

SIMPLE AILMENTS 323

place by means of the nerves, and therefore stagnated at
this spot, bringing along with it thousands of phagocytes,
who pass through the walls of the blood-vessels into the
inflamed tissue, when they at once attack and eat up the
injurious bacteria who have entered through the broken
surface of the skin. The germs of disease are thus
destroyed.

The phagocytes may, however, not be present in sufficient
numbers to be equal to the occasion, and art can frequently
assist nature. A wound should be washed clear of all dirt,
as mentioned in the treatment of over-reach ; and in very
simple cases a little Iodoform, or powdered Alum and Fuller's
Earth, may be dusted over it through a piece of fine muslin.

A wound must always heal up from the bottom, and deep
ones are apt to close up too quickly, and should be probed
daily to keep them open. For this purpose a tallow candle
often answers, for there is nothing hard about it to cause
injury, while it is sufficiently firm to force its way in.
Warm water with some soft soap dissolved in it should be
frequently squirted into the interior to cleanse the wound,
and the Iodoform puffed in afterwards, or some other anti-
septic lotion. But wounds somehow seem to form a scab
quicker when a dry powder is used as a dressing than when
liquids are employed. Sometimes although a wound has
filled up from the bottom it still does not form a scab, and
there is too much granulation or "proud flesh," which
will require drying up before the place will heal. A little
powdered Sulphate of Copper (blue stone) dusted over a few
times will usually alter this state of things. The condition
frequently arises from too much fomentation or poulticing
having been employed. If the wound looks greasy and
does not heal a little powdered Alum mixed with Fuller's
Earth should be dusted over it.

Broken Knees.

The above treatment should be followed for broken knees :
A piece of linen, with the surface well covered with cold cream
or zinc ointment to prevent any sticking to the wound,

324 THE HORSE

should also be fastened lightly above and below the knee, to
keep dirt from the wound. No flies will approach when
Iodoform is used ; and whenever an animal can reach an
injured place with its teeth the precaution should never be
omitted of putting a cradle round its neck, or keeping it
racked up, lest it should do itself mischief by gnawing the
wound.

Air getting into a Wound.

When a serious wound occurs and the animal has a long
way to travel home, the first thing to be attended to is to
take means to prevent air getting into the wound, and under
the skin. The next consideration is to get the horse back to
its own stable if it can by any means be accomplished.

When an accident occurs which leaves a large gaping
orifice, such as happens when a horse is badly staked, as
soon as the journey is commenced air will get in, until the
whole body is blown out to a vast size ; and if the hand is
passed along the skin a curious crackling sound will be both
heard and felt. To prevent this occurring the wound should
be plugged with anything clean and handy, a handkerchief,
cotton-wool, tow, &c., and if possible a stitch or two should
be put in to draw the edges together ; or a pin may be
inserted through both lips of the wound and bits of string
lapped round its head and jDoint in a figure-of-eight, which
will draw the wound together and keep the pin from falling
out. If the body should become badly swollen a rug may be
repeatedly steeped in warm water and placed over the horse
as soon as it arrives at the stable, another dry rug being put
on outside. This causes the skin to act freely, and by this
means the air will gradually pass out through the pores,
though many hours will elapse before the animal becomes
entirely relieved.

Unhealthy Sores.

Sometimes it is necessary to apply a caustic, such as
Nitrate of Silver, to sores that are unhealthy, but it is well
first to apply a few drops of Friar's Balsam after fomenting
the sore, and then dust some Flowers of Sulphur over it.

SIMPLE AILMENTS 325

Sprains.

A strain of the back sinews — which is more often a strain
of the sheath of the tendon — should be treated similarly to a
curb, fomenting well with hot water in which soda is dis-
solved, applying Sal Ammoniac the next morning, and sub-
sequently relying upon plain vinegar. When all inflammation
has departed the leg should be well blistered with the blister
recommended in the case of ring-bone, and in bad cases the
horse should be subjected to blistering three times, with an
interval of about six weeks between each application. All
the effects of one blister must have peeled off before the next
one is begun. If any thickening should remain, a useful
liniment to reduce enlargements between the skin and the
tendon is —

Soft Soap ^ oz.

Spirit of Wine ... ... ... ... ... 2 ,,

Tincture of Iodine ... 1 ,,

Water 8 „

which should be applied on alternate days after the final
blister has performed its office. Under this treatment and
with a long rest — a year if necessary — the leg should get quite
right again, without the disfiguring use of the firing-iron. The
real benefit which ensues from the firing-iron is the long rest
which must perforce be given to the patient, and there is no
greater good to be obtained from the cautery itself than may
be gained by repeated blisters. The latter also have the
merit of causing no disfigurement, whilst after recovery the
horse may be as good as ever ; but this can never be the case
with firing, for the moment the hot iron has touched the
skin the form of the horse has fallen from at least a stone to
two stone below what it was before. This arises from the
fact that the skin never regains its former elasticity, thereby
shortening the stride, and when it is considered how many
strides are taken in a mile, it is evident that a loss of only
2 inches each time will result in a loss of many yards in that
distance.
It is a common mistake to imagine that a horse has broken

326 THE HORSE

down when it has only struck the tendon of the fore-leg with
the hind foot, when galloping or jumping. At first sight
there is no difference between the two, there is the same
bowed swelling and the horse is very lame, but in a few
days there is a great distinction, for if it is only a blow the
horse will soon be almost sound, but if it be a strain the
animal will be as lame as ever. In the latter case nothing
is of real benefit but a prolonged rest.

Blistering.

A few hints on blistering may be found of service. An
animal should never be blistered on all four legs at once,
only the alternate fore and hind limbs being blistered on one
occasion — say the near fore and the off hind-legs — so that
two sound legs on opposite sides are left to stand on. In
two or three days these legs can then be blistered in their
turn. If a fore-leg has to be blistered by itself turn the horse
round and fasten it to pillar reins — without giving it room
for much play — so that there is nothing in front to strike
the knee against, such as there would be if the horse is
fastened up to the manger. The opposite leg should be
bandaged, or the horse may rub one against the other, and
and so transfer some of the blister on to the wrong leg. A
cradle should be put on, particularly if a hind-leg is being
blistered, or the animal may screw itself round and rub its
nose and eyes against the blister ; and at all times the horse
must be fastened so short that the blister cannot be reached
with its teeth or muzzle. If a liquid blister is used the
hollow of the heel must be filled with vaseline or lard, in
case some of the fluid drops upon it. Before commencing to
apply a blister the part should be clipped if the hair is long,
and the skin should be damped with a sponge and then
dried, which ensures the blister taking a good hold.

Eheumatism.

When exposed to wet and cold a rheumatic attack is apt
to follow, which, if acute, is accompanied by increased tem-

SIMPLE AILMENTS 327

perature and heat, swelling, and pains in the joints or other
parts. Sometimes it is present in the loins, and is similar to
lumbago with mankind, when the back is raised, the belly
tucked up, and the horse stands with all its legs gathered
under it.

When the disease is of recent origin, with quick, full pulse
and pains in the joints, give —

Tincture of Aconite 30 drops

for two or three doses, and then give —

Salicylate of Soda ... 2 drs.

Iodide of Potash 50 grs.

Bicarb. Potash ... ... ... ... ... |^ oz.

in half a pint of water, twice daily, and rub gently the
affected parts with the following liniment : —

Menthol 3 drs.

Spirit Rectified ... ... ... ... ... 2 ,,

Chloroform... ... ... ... ... ... ^ oz.

Liniment Aconite ... ... ... ... ... 3 ,,

Liniment Belladonna ... ... ... ... 6 ,,

or else make a lotion —

Sal Ammoniac ... ... ... ... ... 1 oz.

Saltpetre ... 1 „

Water ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 quart

Dip some lint into it and place it over the part, covering it
with a bandage soaked in vinegar and water.

In obstinate cases sulphur is very beneficial, and one or
two tablespoonfuls should be added to every bran mash.

Condiment. — For delicate feeders, and at any time as a
" pick-me-up " during, or after, severe work, Mawson's
well-known Spice can be confidently recommended. It is
largely given to hunters after a severe day, with beneficial
results, and also to horses in training for racing.

328 THE HORSE

Arteries.

Arteries are sometimes severed out hunting, and in other
accidents, and every one should have a general knov^^ledge
of their direction and how to apply " first aid," v^^ith the
help of a roughly made tourniquet, or the animal may bleed
to death before professional assistance can be procured. If
the bleeding can be stayed until a clot of blood has formed
the immediate crisis is over ; but the horse should be kept
quiet for at least an hour before making any attempt to
proceed home, lest the bleeding should break out afresh.
The writer has occasionally used dry grass plucked from the
nearest hedge and twisted into lumps, or a smooth pebble,
wrapping them in a handkerchief and twisting it tight by
means of a pocket-knife, latch-key, or a stick, after the ends
have been placed round the leg and tied together. On two
occasions when a facial artery had burst, the bandage was
kept in its place by adjusting the nose-band over it and then
buckling it sufficiently tight.

Table of Measures.

20 grains = 1 scruple (9)

3 scruples = 1 drachm (5)

8 drachms := 1 oz. (5)
12 oz. = 1 lb.

Fluid Measure.

1 grain =: 1 drop, or minim

1 drachm = 60 drops = 1 teaspoon

2 drachms = 2 teaspoons = 1 dessert-spoon
4 drachms = 2 dessert-spoons = 1 tablespoon

16 tablespoons ^ | pint = 8 oz.

6 tablespoons = 1 claret glass

Compulsory Notice.

The diseases of which compulsory notice must be given to
the authorities are : —

Glanders, Farcy, Anthrax, and (only in the Shetland Isles)
Rubies (Sarcoptic Mange).

CHAPTER XII

DISINFECTANTS

A LEAKING drain, an open cesspool, heaps carelessly
thrown together of offensive animal or vegetable
matter, are likely to contaminate food or water, while milk
absorbs obnoxious gases and germs even more readily.
Poisons which destroy such harmful pests are usually
termed disinfectants, and under this heading are grouped
also antiseptics and deodorants.

Disinfectants proper are directed against the germs of
infectious diseases contained in excreta or in foul drains,
and also against unpleasant and sometimes dangerous
odours and exhalations given off by decaying organic
matter. These dread enemies may be successfully combated
by Sunlight and Heat, solutions in water of Carbolic Acid,
preparations such as Izal or Jeyes' Fluid, Permanganate of
Potassium, Formalin, or Sulphur Dioxide — the gas which is
produced by burning sulphur in the open air.

Mercuric Chloride is another most powerful agent, but is so
virulent a poison that it should be used with the greatest
caution ; a solution of one part in one thousand parts (roVo)
of water will disinfect and destroy all forms of life.

Important considerations in selecting a disinfectant are
cheapness and accessibility, for there is often little to choose
between their respective results.

Sunlight is not so important an auxihary in England as
in many foreign countries, for its continuance and clearness
often cannot be depended upon, though it is a powerful
germicide. The spectroscope has disclosed that it is the blue,
violet, and ultra-violet rays which alone have the power of
destroying germs.

329

330 THE HORSE

Heat, when it is convenient to employ a temperature of
230° to 250° Fahrenheit, may be used for disinfecting
any hnen articles, but it is not suitable for woollen clothing,
or anything that will char easily, such as leather. Boiling
for half an hour will destroy germs in clothing, while steam
can be used with perfect safety, and penetrates everywhere
with ease.

Crude carbolic acid mixed with water, Izal, and Jeyes'
Fluid are all cheap chemical drugs, suitable for washing
stable floors and disinfecting drains, whilst they may also
be used for damp, ill-ventilated cellars.

Permanganate of Potassium is suitable for the same
purpose, and a mixture may be made : —

P. Potassium ... ... 10 parts) to be dissolved in

Common Salt ... 8i ,, [ one thousand parts

Acid Sodium Sulphate 25 ,, ) of water

Formalin, or formaldehyde, has only the objection of cost.
It can be used either as a spray or burnt in the solid form,
para-formaldehyde, and converted into gas. It possesses the
invaluable merit of not tarnishing metals, as sulphur does,
or damaging clothing, and is very useful for destroying
moths. As a spray, it can be used to disinfect stables,
pigstyes, fowl-houses, and such-like ; whilst in small places
which can be closely shut up, the conversion into gas is oft-
times the preferable plan.

Sulphur Dioxide is at once one of the most effective and
cheapest of disinfectants, but it is open to the objection that
it tarnishes all metals, and no bits, stirrup-irons, &c., should
be exposed to its fumes. It can be easily employed in the
usual way, by burning it in an open iron pot or other vessel,
the place where it is used being carefully fastened up, every
chink being attended to, and the place kept closed for some
hours afterwards. Sulphur candles can be bought in dif-
ferent sizes for varying proportions of cubic capacity. Liquid
Sulphur Dioxide can likewise be obtained, and used instead
as a disinfectant.

Antiseptics retard the growth and activity of micro-
organisms, and thus promote healing. Any disinfectant in

DISINFECTANTS 331

weak solution will act as an antiseptic ; but one of the most
useful in the house, as well as in the stable, and easily
carried about when travelling, is quickly made by dissolving
tablets of Chinosol, which should always be kept at hand.
The old-fashioned Tincture of Myrrh is an excellent anti-
septic, though its value as such was never suspected when
it was in general use in stables ; but its healing power was
universally known and appreciated without understanding
the reason why. Tar is another simple, easily obtained
remedy, very useful in certain cases, such as thrush, or to
counteract the attacks of flies on a raw wound, after it has
been well diluted with honey, or some form of grease, or
common vaseline. Another excellent one is Paraffin, mixed
with a good body of water; while one always at hand is Soft
Soap, which should be formed into a lather and applied to a
wound by the aid of a plume from the wing of a hen, or some
such similar feather.

Deodorants destroy or neutralise unpleasant odours, which
may be charged with dangerous germs and so be prejudicial
to health, and they accomplish their mission by being
powerful oxidising agents.

The chief of them for stable use are : —

Potassium Permanganate,
Carbolic Acid,
Formalin,
Charcoal ;

and for refuse heaps and manure, the nurseries of the
common house-fly, which is a formidable agent in conveying
infection.

Magnesia Lime (Burnt Dolomite),

Fresh Slaked Lime,

Gas Lime,

Fresh Pine Sawdust,

Ashes.

Charcoal is one of the most valuable deodorisers, as it not
only oxidises, but also absorbs and condenses many foul-
smelling gases. Before the days of rapid transit it was
largely used when sending away presents of grouse from

332 THE HORSE

Scotland to friends in England, a piece being placed in the
beak of each bird, some powdered charcoal sprinkled under
each wing, and some spare pieces placed between each
grouse.

When mixed with Magnesia Lime — Charcoal one part and
Magnesia Lime eight parts — it increases the value of manure
when spread over a heap. It acts well both with stable and
vegetable heaps, and also with earth closets.

Gas Lime is a good disinfectant and deodorant, and more-
over cheap, when the cost of carriage is not prohibitive. It
acts well on grass-lands and in the garden, being destructive
to that pest the wire-worm, as well as performing the
ordinary functions of lime in correcting humic acid in the
soil, thus rendering available as food for plants much which
was rendered unfit before by the presence of the acid. It
should not be put on fresh, however, but should either be
mixed with soil, or thrown on a vegetable heap, and allowed
to mellow for some months, being occasionally turned over
before being applied to the ground.

CHAPTER XIII
ALCOHOL

FROM the cerebrum of the horse being less developed
than that of human beings arises the fact of the sensory
centres being also less highly developed than the motor
centres, while the contrary is the case with man. For this
reason alcohol does not act in the same way on animals as on
human beings, for with the former the drug stimulates the
motor functions before it acts on the intelligence, whereas
with man the mind is affected before his power of movement
is disturbed. In a book published by Mr. Finlay Dunn,
which is a standard work of the veterinary profession, he
writes thus on the subject : " Different classes of animals
are somewhat differently affected by alcohol. Man, whose
intellectual centres are about eight times larger than his
motor centres, has his intelligence quickly acted on by doses
which are insufficient to impair his motor functions.
Amounts corresponding to 0'4 to the 1,000 of the total
weight of the body disturb human intelligence ; while 2'40
per 1,000 of weight are needed to impair motor function.
Alcohol has no notable effect on dogs until 1*5 to the 1,000
of body weight is taken, and the prominent results then
occurring are disturbance, not of intehigence, but of motor
function. Horses and cattle receiving full doses exhibit
like excitement, and perversion of motor function."

Although these remarks may be perfectly correct with
regard to pure alcohol, no suggestion is made as to the
vehicle in which it is conveyed into the system ; for instance,
it is a well-known fact that with many human beings an
amount of champagne will "go to their head" and produce
a temporary hesitation of speech, which would not be the

333

334 ' THE HORSE

case if instead some spirit and water were taken, although
the latter contained considerably more alcohol. In this
case the thickness of speech appears to be caused through a
partial paralysis of "motor function" in the tongue, while
the intelligence is all the time extremely active and unim-
paired. It may be a boon to such as are liable to be aifected
in this way and yet are compelled to attend public dinners,
and make speeches, to know that by taking a very small
quantity of Bicarbonate of Soda, or effervescing Citrate of
Magnesia, half an hour before dining they need have no
fear of any such occurrence, even after indulging in
champagne ! Whether any similar traits may be noticed
in animals after the scientific administration of champagne
is not anywhere recorded, as far as the writer is aware,
though he has known it successfully given to a nervous
race-horse previous to a race.

What mainly concerns the horse-owner is — when is a
stimulant likely to be of service ; what should be adminis-
tered ; and in what quantity ? In respect of the first item,
horses very much resemble human beings, and just as
a nervous or mentally depressed person is benefited by
taking a glass of wine before encountering some unusually
trying ordeal, so also does a nervous animal receive encour-
agement in the same way. Before the stringent orders
forbidding "doping" in any form whatever were issued by
the Turf authorities, it was a common custom to give a little
spirit, or even beer, to a horse that began shaking, and
breaking into a sweat from nervousness when taken into a
paddock before a race; and the difference that " nip " often
made in the horse's running was only in accordance with
what common sense would expect, and of which innumerable
instances could be given by any prominent jockey or trainer
of those times. The bottle of port the great trainer, John
Scott, used to give Taraban was the talk of the times, and a
little crowd used to collect round the pair, as the time for
the race drew nigh, in hopes of witnessing the interesting
ceremony. In this case the stimulant was given to put
heart into the horse, who was not otherwise always to be
depended upon to do his best. It is difficult to understand

ALCOHOL 335

why it should now be ruled as a misdemeanour to give a
horse that which will enable him to produce his best powers
at the very moment they are most required, while during
the preparation for the event every form of medicine and
tonic is allowable to bring him up to the pitch required. It
seems curious reasoning to deny at the last moment what
will enable a horse to wiji his race, though to give something
which will certainly cause him to lose it instead is quite
another matter ! The usual argument is that doping — in
which term is included the administration of a stimulant —
is likely to be prejudicial to the animal in after-life,
especially in the case of its progeny, which may be injuriously
affected thereby. But how does this argument hold good if
carried logically further '? Is it absolutely necessary that
geldings should be deprived of a mild stimulant, if needed,
for how can their progeny suffer thereby ? The knife of the
surgeon should also surely be suppressed, since it renders
the animal incapable of begetting progeny at all — which is
going even beyond doping ! Such a conclusion would have
no doubt caused Euclid much merriment if the proposition
had been placed before him.

The famous steeplechase trainer, the late Mr. Linde,
liked an old experienced jockey to have just a "wee drappie"
before getting into the saddle, for, he used to remark, it
just put that heart and dash into him that brought out his
best powers, which the memory of many falls, and close
shaves, was apt to diminish. He was very averse though
to a young jockey taking anything, for in this case, he said,
he probably in his excitement forgot the little he ever
knew ! Is not what is good for the rider likely also to be
good for the horse that carries him ? Otherwise the law
against administering a stimulant to the one should surely
apply to the other too ! It is rather necessary that there
should be no long delay at the post after any such in-
dulgence, as an incident at the Newbridge Kaces in 1879
may prove. There had been several false starts before one
of the races, when at length a jockey sidled up to the
starter and ejaculated in a low whisper, " Captain, darlint,
can't you let us go?" Then, putting his hand to his

336 THE HORSE

mouth lest the others should hear : " Shure the dhrink is
dying away within me! "

On such occasions a horse would require about a small
tumblerful of spirit, added to a little water, or very thin
gruel, given about a quarter of an hour before going to
the post. On one occasion in the writer's experience,
a horse had left Plymouth for Landrake Eaces at seven
o'clock in the morning, and had sixteen miles to traverse
before reaching the course. The rider, however, lost his
way and wandered about the country lanes in Cornwall, till
at last he reached the race-course about half-past two, the
race in which he was engaged being at 3 p.m. Under
the circumstances it was thought better to give him some-
thing in the shape of a drink, as he must have been very
thirsty, so a large bottle of beer was procured, which he
greedily drank to the last drop. It freshened him up in a
wonderful degree, so that he was quite perky when he
cantered down the course, and he won his race from a large
field by several lengths. In these days such a drench would
have been illegal !

A stimulant is also most efficacious when a horse is
overtired from any cause, or weakened to an extreme degree
from severe or prolonged illness, and the pulse is then the
indicator of what is required. That must at all costs be
kept going, for if that mighty muscle, the heart, once stops
nothing can set it going again — unlike a watch, which only
requires winding up to be as efficacious as ever. Theory is
apt to be allowed to prevail too much sometimes, both
in human and equine illness. Many a man has been saved
by his comrades in India and the Colonies, who have used
their common sense and administered such a dose of alcohol
when the collapse occurs after even typhoid fever and
cholera, that the heart has been kept going when the
patient would have slipped through the fingers of a medical
man, who, relying too much on the teaching of books, and
fearing after-effects, administers so small a stimulant that it
has not sufficient result to be of use. The consequences
that might possibly have ensued do not matter, if in the
meantime the sufferer has died.

ALCOHOL 337

A case in point occurred in the spring of 1881, when the
writer was A.D.C. to the Major-General commanding
the Dubhn District. The stable accommodation being
limited in the Royal Barracks, the late Mr. William
McGrane, the famous horse-dealer who lived close by, kindly
took in some of the horses. One day a well-bred mare,
Lurline (which had been bred by the late Mr. Joseph
Studholme, of Ballyeighan, in King's County), got a gorse-
epine into her leg whilst hunting, and as the sap was just
beginning to run it affected the wound and blood-poisoning
ensued. It was some weeks before the mare was approach-
ing convalescence, and as she had a particularly long dock,
which moreover was crooked, it was thought an excellent
opportunity to shorten it sufficiently to give a handsome
appearance. Mr. McGrane kindly offered to perform the
operation, which he was in the habit of performing
on his own purchases when needed — for this was before
the present craze came in for disfiguring all hunters with
short docks — so the docking-knife was hunted up, and the
operation performed. It is notable, in view of the after-
consequences, that the stump was seared with a red-
hot iron to stop the bleeding. Some ten days afterwards,
on going to visit the stable one morning, the groom in
charge said he did not like the look of the mare, and the
moment the door of her box was opened it was only too
plain that lock-jaw had supervened. This took place before
the dangers of microbes and bacteria had been made known
to the world, and at that time tetanus was presumed to be
produced by an injury to a nerve. Consequently this
attack was erroneously supposed to have arisen from the
mare having been subjected to an operation when in a weak
state of health, whereas there is no doubt it originated from
the knife having become somewhat rusted when lying about,
and so attracted the bacillus of tetanus, for no one in those
days thought it necessary to be particular about sterilising
an instrument before using it.

There was a sharp frost at the time, and as I had to pass
the door each day when going to and returning from skating
on the ice at the Viceregal Lodge, I never failed to call in

338 THE HORSE

each time to see how Lurhne was getting on, though it was
not a very severe case. Often I was accompanied by a friend,
who might be curious to see an instance of lock-jaw, on one
occasion my companion being the late Lord Randolph
Churchill, who took a keen interest in everything pertaining
to horses, and was very fond of hunting. One morning
when I looked in the spasm had left the mare, and her
muscular system was completely relaxed, though she was
very weak, for it must be remembered that this attack
had followed a previous severe illness. Giving instructions
to the groom to get some groats for her, to boil them with
linseed, and to give the gruel to her in small quantities
several times during the day, I returned about five o'clock,
hoping to find the patient already better. The groom said
he had been to her about every two hours, and that she
seemed hungry at first, yet took very little ; but on going to
the box and feeling her pulse I was much alarmed, and saw
there was no time whatever to lose. On the near side there
was no pulse to be felt at all, while on the off side of the jaw
it could be very slightly discerned, though it appeared to be
getting momentarily both slower and fainter. Hurrying out
of the box, I called to the head man, Whelan, the once well-
known steeplechase jockey, and asked him to fetch some
whiskey, or any spirit, as quickly as possible, and after giving
one glance at the patient he ran out of the stable as fast as
he could. When discussing the case afterwards, Whelan
said he had fully thought the mare was done for, she seemed
to be at the very last gasp. Before the man returned, which
he really did very quickly, the mare sank down on the straw
apparently lifeless, and I thought she had gone down to die.
A well-bred horse fights it out to the last on its legs, except
in some diseases, and it is a bad sign when they lie down,
until there is a real turn for the better. There was some
gruel warming on the fire, so when Whelan arrived with a
half-pint of whiskey — he said less would be of no service —
we poured most of it into a bottle, filled it up with gruel, and
then, raising the mare's head, poured it down her throat as
she lay, though we were doubtful if she still possessed the
power of swallowing. To our relief she managed to get

ALCOHOL 339

the first mouthful down, and then at slow intervals we gave
her about a tablespoonful at a time, till all was finished. It
was curious to note how quickly the heart responded to the
stimulant. Keeping my finger continuously on the pulse, as
I supported her head, I at once felt the pulse vibrate again
directly the first mouthful of spirit had been taken, and by
the time the bottle was finished the strength was perceptibly
increased. We left her alone then and went out of the box,
while Whelan prepared a warm mash, and in a little more
than half an hour the mare struggled on to her legs again,
ate the mash when it was given to her, and from that
moment rapidly gained strength.

It must be borne in mind that there are certain times when
it is not advisable to give alcohol, except under such stress
as the above, when if it is not administered the heart will
stop and there will be no need for any further treatment.
Alcohol especially should not be administered after an
accident to the head, when the brain is bruised, for it would
only aggravate the mischief ; nor, except under surgical
advice, is it wise to administer it when the liver is affected.
But it is called for in cases of great distress after hunting ;
in prolonged weakness after illness, such as strangles or
influenza ; and especially in yew-poisoning, when there is
great depression of the nervous system, and the circulation
becomes greatly impeded.

CHAPTEK XIV
EXAMINING A HOESE FOR SOUNDNESS

WHEN examining a horse for soundness it is well to
follow a settled routine, for then there is less likeli-
hood of overlooking any ailment, every part being taken
in due sequence. If possible the horse should be seen first
in the stable, when at ease. The position in which he
stands can then be studied, and whether he points a foot
or favours a leg generally. After the first cursory glance —
when any glaring fault should be detected, and the general
appearance, and whether the animal stands true on its legs
be noted — it is usual to commence with the head, looking
whether signs of injury are anywhere apparent, especially
to the nostrils or mouth. The pulse should be felt, to see
whether the beat is normal, and not irregular, which latter
may disclose disease of the heart. The palms of the hands
should be pressed against the line of the back-teeth, and
if the edges are too sharp, requiring attention, the flinching
of the animal will at once betray their condition. The
mouth should then be opened, and the tongue glanced
at, lest it has been injured at some period through a halter
rope having been carelessly used as a makeshift bit ; and
next the teeth must be examined, and the age of the animal
duly recorded. The eyes may be left until the rest of the
examination is concluded. The glands under the jaws must
be felt to see whether they are enlarged and hard, which
may be a token of glanders ; and then the width between the
angle of the jaws is an important point to observe, for if
narrow there may not be sufficient room for the windpipe,
and the horse will also never give properly to the bit. After
looking at the top of the poll for any indication of soreness (or

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 341

poll-evil), the neck vein should be examined to see if there
is any mark of the animal having been bled, and then each
of the limbs must be taken in turn, commencing with the
near fore-leg. It is not enough to rely upon eyesight alone,
the touch also must be brought into requisition, and the
hand rapidly passed down the front and the sinews of each
leg down to the coronets, feeling for any indication of
exostosis or thickening, when if a splint or ring-bone exists,
or there is any sign of brushing, it should be quickly
detected. The lateral cartileges must be felt to see whether
they are elastic and free from any suspicion of side-bones.
Each foot must be picked up, the state of the frog noticed,
and whether the hoof is concave or flat ; and if the bars
are contracted ; and also whether there are rings only on
the inside of the hoof, which may indicate laminitis ; or if
there is any sign of navicular disease. It should especially
be noted, if the shoes are not new ones, whether they are
evenly worn, or whether there is too much wear at the toes
or heels. The fore-shoes should be taken off, and the seat
of corn subjected to pressure from the smith's pincers, and
if the animal flinches some horn should be removed, to
discover if any redness exists proving the existence of
corns. The hocks must receive particular attention, signs
of curb being sought, and whether the hock betrays weak-
ness by being slightly cut away in front at the head of the
shank-bone. Thorough -pins and bog (or jack) spavins must
be noted ; but above all the presence of exostosis must be
diligently searched for, more especially at the true site
of spavin, the inside of the small bones of the hock. If
there is the least doubt a sure way of detecting spavin is to
raise the hind-leg as high as possible, drawing it well
forward at the same time, and thus flexing the hock as much
as possible. After holding the limb in this position for
a minute or more, let the leg down, and at once have the
animal started off at a trot, when lameness will be apparent
if any spavin exists.

During the examination of the hind-legs it is prudent to
have the fore-leg taken up on the same side to prevent the
animal from kicking at the examiner; and it is not

342 THE HORSE

generally known that if the foot is held on high simply
with the fingers by the tip of the toe, the fetlock being
well flexed, very little exertion is required to hold it, and
no horse is able to get its leg down again ; but if, as is
often done, the groom holds the leg by the pastern, or takes
the whole foot into his hand, and allows it to be in a line
with the leg horizontal to the ground, it will tax his utmost
powers to retain his grasp, if the horse should turn restive.

It is also frequently necessary to cover an eye with the
hand to prevent the horse resenting being handled, and
there is a right and a wrong way of doing this. The wrong
way is to put the flat palm against the eye, which most
likely irritates the horse, and if it should endeavour to jerk
its head away it will probably succeed in doing so. The
right way is to place the side of the hand behind the eye,
and then turn it sufficiently to prevent the animal observing
the other person examining it, when the wrist is in a
position to give to the motions of the horse, and the groom
can easily keep his hand in its place.

As soon as the examination of the horse is finished, it
should be trotted to see if it is sound ; and herein lies the
advantage of trotting it after, instead of before, the
examination, for it has perforce been in a state of rest
whilst the latter has been made, and if there is any stiffness
there is a better chance now of detecting it.

Let the horse first be walked slowly, with the head at
liberty and with plenty of rein. The way in which the
animal places its feet upon the ground must be carefully
watched, whether the toe is dug into the ground, or whether
it goes on its heels, or whether, as it should do, the feet are
placed evenly and flat. The evenness of the strides must
also be noted, and whether each hind-foot covers the print
of the fore-foot by exactly the same distance. Unless the
horse has its head quite at liberty it cannot do this, for
the stride will be shorter on the side to which the head is
pulled ; also a horse which has carried a lady, riding in
a side-saddle, throughout the winter, will almost always step
shorter with the off hind-leg than with the other ; but in
both cases the horse will trot with level action if it is sound.

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 343

If unsound in front, the moment the horse trots it will
show lameness on the side that the hind-leg covered the
fore-foot print by the greater distance — the strides of the two
hind-legs being equal, while those of the fore-legs are
unequal. The contrary is the case of lameness behind, for
then the strides of the two fore-legs are equal, while the
strides of the hind-legs are unequal. In this case the sound
hind-leg covers the corresponding fore-leg to a greater
extent than the lame one does, as there is a deficiency of
power to bring the lame leg forward.

In cases of lameness in front the head drops as the knee
of the lame leg is bent in the act of bringing it forward,
and it rises again as the foot is placed on the ground. This
is more plainly seen when the horse is trotted past the
examiner. If the action is so slightly affected that there is
some doubt as to actual lameness existing, if the horse
is trotted downhill the matter should be quickly set at rest.
In the case of hind-lameness, it will be better shown when
the animal is trotted uphill. Care must be taken that the
attendant does not hold the horse tight by the head, or
give a jerk to the bridle, either of which will prevent a
horse for the moment from appearing to be lame.

If a horse goes sound in soft ground, but lame on hard
ground, it is generally suffering either from foot-lameness,
or is developing a splint. In the case of sprains, or
rheumatism, the animal goes worse, if anything, on soft
ground. In foot-lameness the horse generally stands in the
stable with his foot stretched out in front (except with
navicular), and the heat in the foot and round the coronet
is notably increased. With navicular the foot is colder than
the others, and when at rest the horse draws back the
affected leg, resting it upon the toe, and placing very little
weight upon it.

To detect whether a horse is lame behind, place yourself
behind the horse when trotting from you, up an incline
if possible, and note whether the two hocks are raised to
exactly the same height. If the horse is lame in the hock,
or below it, the hip on that side is usually carried higher
than the sound one, and the hock also is raised above the

344 THE HORSE

other. If lame above the hock the hip will generally droop
somewhat in action, and the horse swerves slightly from that
side, not carrying its body in a straight line, whilst the hock
is not raised so high as the other one.

Acute laminitis is indicated by great heat in the foot, and
almost total inability to move.

Chronic laminitis is shown by loss of the concave form of
the sole, by an abnormal degree of heat, by well-marked
ridges in the hoof, and by the animal treading as much as
possible on his heels.

Navicular is indicated by the horse standing either with
his leg flexed, as already mentioned, or else by stretching
out both legs and bearing his weight upon the toes, both
heels being raised off the ground. In action he goes chiefly
on his toes, with short strides, but gets better with exercise,
though he will be worse next day. If of long standing, the
inside quarter will be straighter than the other, with small
ridges on that side, and the sole will be more concave than
natural. A further test may be applied by bending the foot
well up, and applying pressure to the heel with the thumb,
pressing upon the flexor perforans, which passes over the
navicular bone prior to its attachment to the os pedis.

Lameness from rheumatism in the shoulder may be
distinguished from navicular lameness on the horse being
put into action ; with rheumatism he only gets worse the
longer he is out, but with navicular he gets better as he
becomes warm, until he may appear quite sound. Also with
rheumatism he walks lame ; but with navicular he may
walk sound, and only appear lame when he trots.

The muscles of the shoulder frequently waste in
rheumatism, and remain so for a long period after it has
departed, and this is best seen by standing in front of the
horse, and comparing both shoulders together.

After finishing the external examination the eyes should
be carefully examined, and for this purpose each must be
shaded in turn with something which will not reflect light,
such as a black felt hat. Close search must be made for
cataract, which is sometimes so small it can scarcely be
observed, and appears like a white spot in the lens itself, or

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 345

as streaks running from the middle outwards. Cataract
must not be confounded with simple specks on the cornea,
the clear fore-part of the eye through which the light passes,
which may be of no consequence, whether they interfere
with the vision or not depending upon their situation. If
there is a doubt felt about cataract being present the animal
should be taken into a dark stable, and a match struck and
held close to the eye, when with a sound eye three reflections
should be seen, one being inverted to the other two, which
are upright. When the light is waved to and fro the two
reflections should follow its movement, and the other move
in the contrary direction. Besides cataract and specks, it
must be noted whether the pupil contracts and enlarges,
according to the degree of light, for the eye may look
perfectly right and yet the horse be absolutely blind,
suffering from amaurosis, or gutta serena. The pupil then
remains of one size, and the eye has a glassy appearance.
An additional test is cautiously to advance a finger very close
to the eye, when the animal will not wink or take any
notice, though if this is done too rapidly, or violently,
the horse will perceive that something is being done,
through some subtle sense, and the supposed test be of
no avail.

Even if the eyes are healthy there is yet a trap for the
unwary, as sometimes the curious dark body of the eye,
the corpus nigrum, is of such size as seriously to impede
the sight, and hence largely to diminish the usefulness of the
horse as a hack or hunter.

The eye should be large and generous-looking, and the
outer portion, the cornea, not be too convex and protruding
beyond the eyelids, for animals possessing such are usually
short-sighted and given to shying. In stable language this
formation is termed buck-eyed.

The last portion of the examination is for the wind, and
no test equals either galloping the animal under the saddle,
or lunging it in a circle. Although all roarers will grunt if
threatened with a stick, it is not all grunters who are wrong
in their wind. Coughing an animal by pinching the wind-
pipe is also not a sure test, and it requires a carefully trained

346 THE HORSE

ear to distinguish the character of the cough. But a horse
which is galloped sharply, and then rapidly twisted first one
way and then the other, or which is made to gallop round
fast in the lunge, will quickly betray the secret if anything
is wrong. It must be borne in mind that an animal who
has only just recovered from a severe cold, and whose throat
is relaxed, will sometimes make a noise temporarily, yet
show no signs of it when perfectly recovered. I have many
a time refused to pass such a horse, but directed that it
should be shown again in about six weeks' time, when the
horse has frequently turned out perfectly sound.

A broken-winded horse will sometimes emit no grunt
when threatened with a stick in a fair, but it cannot pass
one simple test : put a man on its bare back, without a saddle,
and direct him to urge it to a trot, when the ailment will be
at once apparent. This is possibly because the weight is
directly over the lungs.

There is one thing which should never be omitted : the
horse should always be turned rapidly round, first one way
and then another, on its own ground, and then made to
back. If it is a shiverer this test will find it out. Shivering
— so-called — is a disease of the spine, and no shiverer is able
to back, although it may stand any trial in a straightforward
direction.

Auction Sales.

When purchasing a horse at an auction it is advisable to
study the rules in force at that particular auction, which will
be found printed under the " Conditions of Sale." Although
the chief auction marts are conducted on much the same
lines they sometimes differ in minor particulars, and the
purchaser has only himself to blame if he does not study
such important items as to what constitutes a warranty at
that particular mart ; and what period is allowed for a trial,
within which time the horse must be returned if a breach
of warranty or serious misdescription is alleged.

Notice of complaint in respect of any lot not answer-
ing the description, or warranty, should invariably be
delivered in writing, and a duplicate kept ; and care must

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 347

be taken that it reaches the auctioneer's hands within the
time specified in their rules.

Amongst the usual conditions held to constitute warranties
are the following : —

1. That a horse described as "a Hunter" has been
hunted, and is capable of being hunted.

2. " Good " or " Perfect Hunter," constitutes a warranty
that the horse has been hunted, is capable of being
hunted, and is sound in wind and eyesight.

3. "Good Hack " constitutes a warranty that the horse is
quiet to ride, and is sound in action.

4. " Quiet to Eide and Drive,"

" Regularly Driven and Eidden,"

" Good Workers,"

" Used to Farm Work,"

" Quiet in all Gears,"

" Suitable for Town Work,"

constitute a warranty that the same are quiet and

capable of being worked in saddle, harness, or gears, as

the case may be ; and have not any infirmity or disease

which renders them incapable of doing reasonable

work, or any particular vices.

5. " Good Polo Pony" constitutes a warranty that the
pony is sound in wind and eyes, quiet to ride, will go
to the ball, and is capable of being played.

6. " Age," when stated, constitutes a warranty.
Descriptions which do not carry a warranty are : —

1. Height.

2. A mere statement that the horse has " been hunted up
to date with," &c., is " A fine fencer," " Has carried a lady,"
" Likely to win a Point-to-Point."

3. A mere statement that the horse has been ridden or
driven, and went quietly.

Such may be touched in the wind, a runaway, or jibber in
harness, and absolutely unsound.

The responsibility and risk is upon the purchaser from the
fall of the hammer.

The responsibility for all accidents to a horse on road or
rail to or from a purchaser, and whilst in his custody, must

348 THE HORSE

be borne by him, whether or not the arbitrator decides he is
entitled to return it ; but the responsibihty for accidents, if
any, to a horse while at the repository pending trial, or
during the trial, must be borne by the vendor if the arbitra-
tor decides that the purchaser is entitled to return it ; or by
the purchaser if it is decided he must keep it.

Due care must be exercised by the auctioneer's servants
to exclude liability for damages on the part of the firm.

The Teeth.

As a rule horses have four more teeth than mares, as it is
not usual for the latter to develop the four tushes. The
former have forty teeth, and the latter thirty-six. They are
arranged in the following manner : —

Front teeth, or incisors ... 6 upper and 6 lower = 12

Tushes, or canine ... ... 2 upper and 2 lower = 4

Molars, or back teeth ... 12 upper and 12 lower := 24

(6 on each side) —

Total 40

The teeth afford valuable information as to the age of a
horse, owing to the changes which are constantly taking
place, though it is the incisors, or front teeth, by which
the examiner is guided, and more especially those in the
lower jaw.

The foal is usually born with two incisors in the lower
jaw (Plate XI.), or, if not, they make their appearance a day
or two afterwards ; and then after the others are gradually
developed the whole set are replaced by the permanent in-
cisors, which are all fully grown by the time the animal
is five years old. The crowns of both sets of teeth, the milk
teeth and the permanent ones, are furrowed with a groove,
which they gradually lose by detrition in a regular sequence,
thus enabling the age to be told. After all the marks have
been worn out it is still possible to arrive at the approximate
age by the different shape the teeth assume as their surface
is worn away ; by the shrinking of the gums, by the angle
at which the teeth are placed, and by certain marks on the

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 349

upper corner teeth. Teeth are not always normal, and those
on one side often differ somewhat from those on the other
side of the mouth. They are also affected by external
circumstances, such as the character of the food, by the
ground on which the animal has to seek its living, and by
crib-biting, which " stable vice " wears the teeth away more
than anything. Per contra, the state of the teeth often give
the examiner a hint to look out for this evil habit.

The molars, or back teeth, are not shed like the milk teeth,
but remain permanent throughout life. Sometimes the
upper and lower molars do not cover each other, resulting

PLATE XT.

Foal's Teeth when born.

in a portion of each meeting with no opposition, and
thereby failing to experience the attrition which would
keep them level. Then sharp processes arise on the outer
edge of the upper molars and the inner edge of the lower
molars, wounding the cheek on one side and the tongue
on the other, and making the animal afraid to masticate
its food. It therefore either bolts its corn or " quids,"
dropping half-masticated food into the manger. These
sharp edges should be at once attended to, and removed
by the use of the chisel and rasp.

The lower molars always wear faster than the upper ones,
and the middle ones sooner than the outer ones, so that
many old horses present an undulating surface. The
"tables," as the surfaces are termed, are also apt to become
too smooth to be of much use in grinding the food, and if
this should occur there is nothing for it but to give the
horse crushed oats and finely chopped hay, to assist
mastication as far as possible. Molars are occasionally

350 THE HORSE

fractured, and are apt to split from the crown to the fang,
and if such an accident is discovered the tooth should be at
once removed. Otherwise food will get into the fissures,
and when fermenting may bring on inflammation of the
gums, possibly affecting the surrounding bone also. If the
tooth is extracted a watch must be kept that the opposing
tooth does not in consequence grow too long.

Often the crowns of the milk teeth are not duly shed
though the fangs have been absorbed, and they should be at
once taken out with a forceps, which is an easy matter as
their attachment is but slight. If allowed to remain the
space is too crowded, with the advent of the permanent teeth,
and food accumulates, ferments, and gives rise to foul
breath and irritation of the gums, and consequently quid-
ding. Sometimes supernumerary teeth make their appear-

PLATE XII.

ance, which should be promptly removed, as they interfere
with the movements of the tongue when roUing the food
across the mouth, or prevent the lateral movement of the
jaw. There is usually little difficulty in extracting them,
since the fangs are generally imperfectly developed. Only
this spring the writer had one removed from under the
tongue of a thoroughbred mare (Plate XII.), which was so
thoroughly hidden that its presence had never been suspected.
The mare had been very shy of her bit during the short time
she had been ridden, always carrying her head as high as
she could get it, and tossing it the moment the bit was
touched, but as soon as the offending tooth had been dis-
covered, and removed, she no longer resented the bit, and
carried her head in the proper position.

Sometimes two little teeth make their appearance adjoin-

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 351

ing the molars, and are termed wolves' teeth. They are
the remains of the very ancient days when horses had seven
molars instead of six.

Occasionally incisors of the upper jaws so overhang those
of the lower jaw that it is impossible for the animal to graze,
and therefore it should never be turned out to grass to find
a living. Such animals are said to be parrot-mouthed. As
the teeth cannot oppose each other they need frequent
filing when they become too long.

PLATE XIII.

Loioer Jaw, sliowing grooves.

Names are given to each pair of incisors, and these are —

2 front incisors (or what would usually be

called the middle ones) are termed the . . . Central

2 next on each side are termed the ... ... Middle

2 outside ones are termed the ... ... Corner

In the centre of the crowns of the incisors there are
grooves, or depressions, forming cups, the infundibular
markings (Plate XIII.) ; the milk teeth lose these ap-
proximately in this order : —

Central teeth lose the CU13S at ... ... ... 1 year

Middle teeth ,, „ 18 months

Corner teeth ,, „ ... 2 years

when the crowns of the lower incisors become flat.

It has been mentioned that the centre incisors are present
at birth or within a few days afterwards, and the others make
their appearance and become level with their predecessors

352

THE HORSE

as follows, taking about two months in the process from the
time they are first seen.

Centrals appear at birth (Plate XI.).

Middle „ 14 to 21 days, and are level at 2 months (Plate XIV.).

Central „ 6 months, „ „ 8 months (Plate XV.).

These foal's teeth differ from the permanent ones in being
semicircular, with a shoulder, whilst the permanent teeth
diminish in size from the crown downwards with a regularly
graduated slope. The milk teeth have a short fang, which
is gradually absorbed, so that the tooth is ready to fall off
when the corresponding permanent tooth is sufficiently
ready. But the permanent teeth are of considerable length,
are partially curved in shape, and when first developed are

PLATE XIV.

Foal's Teeth at 2 Months.

PLATE XV.

Foal's Teeth at 6 Months.

twice as wide as they are thick through (Plate XVIIL). In
consequence of their graduated form, as the upper surface
is worn away, the width and thickness by degrees alter
their respective proportions, until in a very old horse
they become twice as thick through as they are wide
(Plate XXV.).

Similarly, from being curved, the lower teeth which were
at the beginning perpendicular, become very nearly straight
as age creeps on.

The two central permanent teeth, and the two middle
ones in the lower jaw, have grooves down the front from
their first appearance ; but not so the milk teeth, which are
quite smooth ; and this is another aid in distinguishing
between them.

The permanent teeth are thus developed, bat often there

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 353

PLATE XVI.

Permanent Teeth.

CROWN

Milk Teeth.

THICKNESS

.GROOVE

VilDTH

PLATE XVII.
Position of Permanent Teeth in Lower Jaw.

354

THE HORSE

is a difference of nearly six months between animals of the
same age in the growth of the teeth.

Appearance of Teeth.
Centrals commence at
„ fully grown ...

Middles commence at ...
„ fully grown ...

Corners commence at ...
„ fully grown ...

Age (about).
2^ years

3 years

3^ years

4 years

4^ years

5 years

PLATE XVIII.
Outside view of Lotver Jaw at 5 years old.

Grooves in the centrals and middles, but not in the corner teeth.
Lower Jaw at 5 years old.

Corner Tee^/i.— Outside walls level, but thin. Inside walls not quite
level, and thinner than the outside.

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 355

At five years (Plate XVIII.) the incisors should be fully
grown ; the cups in the centre teeth still well developed,
though more worn than those of the others ; and the inside
walls of the corner teeth should be thin compared with
the outside ones, and not quite level with them.

The top corner teeth should be much wider than they are
long ; and a notch may be felt in the centre of the inside
wall. If the milk teeth have been knocked out, from time to

PLATE XIX.

Lower Jaw of Mare's Mouth at 6 years old.

Cups leaving the centrals. Cups a little larger in the middles. Inside
wall of corner teeth level. Outside wall thicker than at 5 years.

time, to force on the growth of the permanent teeth so as to
make the horse appear older than he legitimately is, the
guides to detection are the appearance of the cups, which
will be quite gone in the centrals but fully developed in the
middles, instead of the difference between the two being
clearly graduated, the reason being that an unfair amount
of wear has been forced upon the centrals, by the knocking
out of the middle teeth before Nature intended them to be

356

THE HORSE

shed ; and also the relation of the width to the length of the
top corner teeth ; and whether the inside walls of the lower
corner teeth are level with the outsides or not, if the horse
is represented to be 6 years old.

The cups leave the crowns in this order : —

Cups disappear from-
Centrals at
Middles at
Corners at

Age.

7 years

8 years

9 years

PLATE XX.

Loioer Jaiv at 7 years.

Cups entirely left the centrals. Cups small in the middles. Inside wall
of corner teeth begins to show wear, and the outside wall is thicker.

At 6 years the top corner teeth are only a little wider
than they are long ; and the inside walls of the lower corner
teeth are level with the outside walls, which are thicker
than at 5 years (Plate XIX.).

At 7 years the upper corner teeth are square, or longer
than wide ; and the inner walls of the lower corner teeth
begin to show signs of wear, and have ceased to be very
thin (Plate XX.).

EXAMINING A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS 357

At 8 years there are only small cups left in the lower
corner teeth, and the walls are much thicker than formerly
(Plate XXI.).

PLATE XXI.

Lower Jaw at 8 years old.

PLATE XXII.
Loiver Jaiv at 9 years.

Cups left all lower teeth.

358

THE HORSE

After 9 years (Plate XXII.) the age must be told by the
thickness through in comparison to the width, especially of
the two centrals, which become equal in that respect at

PLATE XXIII.

Top Jaw at 10 years.

A. — Groove in corner tooth.

PLATE XXIV.
Toi) Jaw at 15 years.

about 18 years, and afterwards exceed it ; and by a groove
in the face of each upper corner tooth, which begins to
show at 10 years (Plate XXIIL), at 15 years will be

PLATE XXV.
Fig. 1. — Top Jaw about 26 years.

The groove extends only about f from the bottom of the corner tooth.
Fig. 2. — Lower Jaiv about 26 years.

Central teeth longer across than they are in width.
Fig. S.— Lower Jato about 26 years.

Note the extent of gum between
teeth, owing to the narrowness of their
""^ bases, also the length of the teeth.

360 THE HORSE

half-way down (Plate XXIV.), and in 6 more years' time
will have reached the bottom, when the horse is 21 years
old. By the amount of growth of this groove the age of
the horse can be fairly calculated.

After the groove has reached the bottom it begins to leave
the gums at the top, where the tooth then becomes round
(Plate XXV.), and by the time the animal has reached
30 years this round, grooveless part will have descended
nearly a third of the tooth. By this time also the teeth
in the lower jaw will extend from the jaw in almost a
straight line, having lost all curve.

Since the cups are such important guides to the age at a
time of life when the animal is at its prime, dishonest
attempts are made to provide fictitious cups — a process
which goes by the designation of " Bishopping." The
horse is thrown for the purpose, and cups are scooped out of
the crowns with engraving tools, being afterwards burnt
black with a red-hot iron. But round a natural cup there is
always a ring which cannot be imitated, and the hot iron
also stains the surrounding enamel, so that when once a
bishopped mouth has been examined the deception is easily
recognised when met with again.

The tushes are usually seen in geldings at 4 years, and
with stallions a little earlier. They are at first pointed with
sharply defined edges, but these get rounded with age, and
the top gets blunter.

CHAPTEK XV
TEAINING FOE EACING, POINT-TO-POINT, Etc.

THERE is no mystery in training ! When I was about
to leave Spain, during the heyday of the Spanish
Turf, where for three years the stable over which I presided
had carried off a large number of prizes, including the chief
and most valued races, I was asked a searching question by
the clever owner of the most successful stable in the
Peninsula. Moreover, W. Everitt, his professional trainer
and jockey, was one of the most capable men, in both lines, I
have ever had the fortune to meet. I was staying with Mr.
Davies just prior to my departure for England, and whilst
we were riding home together he remarked, " We have
always been excellent friends, and I hope you will not mind
my asking you a question. What is your secret in training ?
for now you are leaving us there can be no harm in telling
it." " Secret " ! I ejaculated. " I have no secret ! " But
he was quite huffed, and said in hurt tones, " You must
have a secret. I have never seen horses so universally
turned out well, not on any race-course in England, as yours
are. You might let me know your secret now — and I think
you ought to, after all I have done for you. Everitt wants to
know, and told me to ask you." " I have no secret," I
answered. " The only secret I know is hard work and
common sense ! " At first my reply did not mend matters,
and seeing he was really annoyed I added, " I would tell
you directly if I had anything to tell ! But let us see what
your system is, and I expect it will be just the same as
mine." Having mollified my friend, we went into all the
minutiae of our respective methods, and, as I expected, there
was no essential difference between us, any more than there

362 THK HORSE

was on the race-course. The aim I always had in view was
to deliver each horse at the post in the highest possible
health, full of vigour and muscle; free in his action, and
thoroughly clear in his wind. This sums up the whole art
of training, but if one item is wanting the animal will not
win when competing against those who have similar form.
For instance, a horse may have done too much work, and
therefore be lacking in vigour, and disinclined to catch hold
of his bit and put heart into his work ; or he may be short
of work and have accumulated fat inside, and consequently
soon gets blown and does not catch his second wind ; or he
may be fairly right in his wind, in so far that he does
not take long to recover it after a sharp gallop, yet has not
done enough long work to fully develop the muscles, which
consequently tire, and his strokes lose their power ; or
perhaps he gets jarred, and stiff in his joints and sinews,
whereby his stride is shortened a few inches, which means a
loss of many yards in the course of even a short-distance
race. One thing, however, I must add : that it is far easier
to train a horse in England, with a springy turf to gallop
on, with better and less heating food, and a cooler and more
bracing climate, than it is in a hot country, where any ail-
ment runs its course in hours instead of days.

Supposing a horse to have done too much work, nature
having been overtasked, there is a want of life about the
the animal, a listlessness and slackness, which tells its tale
at the end of the race, when there is no energy remaining
for a struggle against an opponent. We all know what it
feels like to be " above oneself," and no one can do his best
work unless he feels in the humour for it. It is the same
with a horse when turning out for a race ; and though he
may warm up in the course of the contest, and his well-
hardened muscles and good wind may bring him home if he
has the best of the race, he certainly will not do the big
thing a well-trained horse, full of nervous energy, can
accomplish. Some horses go off their feed when given too
much work, and it can never be to their advantage when
such is the case. If an ordinarily hearty feeder does not
clean out his manger the cause must be ascertained, and

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TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 363

measures be adopted accordingly. A delicate feeder needs
to be very closely watched, and light tasks should be given
to it, though when it is asked to gallop it should generally
be sent along at a very fast pace to keep the wind in order.
The rest of its work should be rather that of an ordinary
hack. I once had a horse, Baccarat, in training who whilst
with me won the only mile and a quarter race he ever won,
though a frequent winner at five and six furlongs, and he
only had a fast gallop every third day, or he went off his feed
at once. In my possession he showed better form than he
had ever done before, and throve on his work instead of
looking all skin and bone.

The best of food and water must of course be provided, for
it is folly to attempt to train a horse and feed it upon
inferior hay or oats, just because they happen to be on the
spot. It is false economy to use anything but the very best
provender, thus running the risk of upsetting the digestion.
The measure of corn for each horse is what he can
continue to consume with advantage to himself, and during
the daytime the manger should be emptied of any corn left
half an hour after the feed has been given. Any horse that
has quickly finished up his allowance may then be given an
additional double handful, and the capacity of each animal
should soon be learned. Delicate feeders, which eat very
little in the daytime, will often make up for it when all
is quiet at night, and such should always be given a double
feed at the last meal, which they will probably finish up to
the last grain before the morning. A careful man who is
a good feeder, quickly understanding the capacity and
idiosyncrasy of each horse, is one of the most valuable
assets a racing-stable can possess.

Some rock-salt should always be in the manger, or if there
are local difficulties with regard to this, a tablespoonful of
kitchen salt should be put into each bran mash. I have
invariably given the horses two mashes a week with linseed
gruel in them, as a rule on Wednesdays and Saturdays, and
let them have easy exercise the morning after. It is
more usual to give but one mash a week, but the proof of
the pudding is in the eating ; and as the horses are crammed

364 THE HORSE

with highly stimulating food the bran mashes are an
excellent corrective, and prevent the beginning of many
minor ailments. For the last fortnight or three v^eeks
before a race a good handful of split beans or peas may be
given each day, stopping them again as soon as the race is
over, for if given always they lose their stimulating effect.
There is nothing like a little change. When the beans are
stopped a handful of lentils may be given instead, which
are of assistance to young horses in providing much bone-
making material. Effort should be made to provide a little
green food, whatever is in season, a handful of tares, young
green corn, clover, dandelions, watercresses, chicory, and the
green tops of celery all being excellent, besides carrots
during the season for them. Only a small quantity should
be given, the object not being to provide a meal but merely
a little change, which is also cooling to the blood. The
great thing is to follow the dictates of Nature, but also
strictly to regulate them.

Another craving of a horse which has been long in the
stable is for earth, and a little undoubtedly has an excellent
effect upon the acid secretions of the stomach. If a horse
has had none for a long time he will gnaw the turf at the
first opportunity, and biting pieces off will champ them with
the greatest satisfaction, raising his nose high in the air
whilst he does so ; and he prefers doing this to paying
attention to the sweetest, most luscious grass, which will
not be noticed till he has had his fill of earth. After
a morning or two he will start grazing at once, for the
small quantity of earth his system needs is then swallowed
along with the herbage he picks up. When there is no
opportunity of allowing the horse to graze for a minute
or two, a substitute can be found by placing a lump of
chalk in the manger ; and I have known in Spain a native
custom of putting a small quantity of chalk, obtained from
the chemist, in a bran mash ; or mixing it up into a mess
like porridge, which the horses eat of their own accord.

Another custom of the Spanish farmers was to drive their
horses down from the mountains to the vicinity of the sea-
shore, when the warm weather began in the spring, and the

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 365

droves of horses would rush into the sea and drink eagerly
of the salt water. The natives considered this acted as
a vermifuge, though no doubt it was the salt which was the
attraction to the animals themselves. It is never safe
to allow horses to be stabled on sand from the sea-shore — as
I have known done from motives of economy — since they
are so apt to swallow it, for the sake of its saline properties.

Since 1872, when the late Mr. John Hubert Moore, the
famous Irish trainer, first called my attention to the
practice, all my horses in training have been ridden at once
to a sheltered spot, as soon as ever they have finished their
gallop on fine mornings, and then been allowed to graze for
not more than five minutes by the watch ; the boys jumping
off their backs, and slipping the bits of the quiet ones under
their chins during the few minutes of relaxation. The
chief reason for the practice is the earth they thereby
obtain.

The full development of muscle can only be obtained by
plenty of work, continued over a long period of time ; it is
this which hardens it, and increases the volume, as witness
the forearm of a blacksmith, or the muscles of the arms of
an oarsman. It is impossible to develop the muscles with a
short preparation, though the wind may be got right in a
comparatively brief space by sharp gallops, if there is no
accumulation of internal fat, which takes time to reduce.
The system in vogue at the present day is very different to
what it was thirty or forty years ago, but certainly the
horses seen on race-courses appear to be no fitter than they
were formerly, when longer work was in vogue ; and
personally I think they are frequently now less fit than they
were then. Horses running throughout the season no doubt
gradually run themselves fit, but even winners often seem to
lather a good deal in these days, which shows that they are
not up to concert pitch. Though a horse should sweat a little
after a race — and if he does not do so it is probable he is
overdone, and dried up — it should be clear sweat, with
no appearance of lather. When the latter is present it may
be noticed that the horse takes a longer time to cease
blowing hard, and the animal is decidedly not up to the
form it is capable of showing.

366 THE HORSE

In order to decide whether the muscles are properly
developed, stock should be taken of their volume where they
can most easily be seen, and this will be found to be in the
arms and second thighs, where they are bunched together.
If each muscle of the group stands well out, fully rounded
in appearance, it may be concluded that enough long work
has been done ; and if the muscles of the quarters feel as
hard as a board when lightly slapped with the palm of the
hand, and the neck likewise is very firm when grasped, the
muscular development is all that can be desired. But if the
arms and second thighs have a rather flat appearance, with
an undeveloped look, more long work is called for, though
it need not be at a rapid pace. It is long work which puts
on muscle, and sharp work which improves the wind. The
skin should be very glossy, and feel as soft as silk, whilst it
should be loose enough to be easily pinched up into a fold
on either the neck, or ribs, by the finger and thumb. If it
is tight and difficult to get hold of, the horse will never do
himself justice in the race, and it shows that the digestion
is not quite right, and that probably the animal is somewhat
constipated. An extra bran mash, with a tablespoonful of
sulphur in it, and a couple of the sulphate of magnesia
powders in the drinking-water for the next two days, will
probably improve matters, to be followed by a wineglassful
of linseed oil mixed in a feed of oats for several days, until
the skin becomes looser. It is a state of things which must
not be allowed to continue, or all hope of bringing the
animal out at the top of his form may be abandoned. In
obstinate cases linseed tea to drink instead of water will
almost certainly effect a cure before long. Flowers of
sulphur is not nearly so much in use as it deserves, and a
tablespoonful now and again in a bran-mash has an excellent
effect in clearing the blood, and consequently the wind.

Frequently it may be noticed, after a horse has been a
considerable time in work, that the fundament is beginning
to sink inwards, and this is a sign of exhausted nature, a
consequence of the whole of the fat of the intestines having
been absorbed. It indicates more or less loss of form, and
the only real remedy is a temporary rest. A wineglassful of

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 367

linseed oil per diem may help matters, or linseed gruel, or
linseed tea ; but very gentle exercise for a month is urgently
needed, or if the weather is fine, turning the animal out for
a couple of hours daily into a paddock, bare of grass, for at
least three weeks. What is required is, in the words of an
old and most successful trainer, " To get juice into it again,"
and the animal will not return to its best form until this
is done.

The droppings of each horse should always be left in the
morning in a corner for the head lad or trainer to see, and
not be removed until he has been his round, for much may
be learned from them regarding the health of each horse.
They should be in good-sized rather moist balls, with a
glaze upon them, and the colour of gingerbread ; but if so
sloppy that they do not ball, or if in little, hard, very dark-
coloured balls, the diet needs to be attended to at once.

A fortnight before the race the horse may probably need
a tonic, and what is suitable will depend much upon the
state of his skin. If there is a disposition to develop
warbles, or a quantity of little pimples are seen — probably
urtica (nettle-rash) — tonics for the moment are not required.
Instead some sulphur m a handful of mash for a day or two,
and sulphate of magnesia powders in the water should be
given, and subsequently 80 drops a day of liquor arseni-
calis. But if the skin is clean and silky the horse will
benefit from the sulphate of iron powders, which have been
mentioned earlier in this work.

The silkiness of the coat largely depends upon the
thorough grooming of the horse, as explained under " Stable
Management," and this should therefore be actively carried
out morning and evening.

Formerly race-horses were sweated every fourth, fifth, or
sixth day, wearing one or more rugs, and one or more hoods,
as deemed requisite, the distance varying from three to
four miles. The pace was very slow, and the day after-
wards only walking exercise was done ; and then on alternate
days, after the usual canter, a mile, or thereabouts, was
galloped at a fast pace, the same distance being done on the
intervening days at a moderate rate of speed. Certainly

368 THE HORSE

the horses came to the post very fit to run, and very few
bore the stigma of jadiness, which is now such a frequent
attribute of the modern race-horse. Whether this is a
consequence of the up-to-date methods of daily gallops over
short distances it is difficult to say, but certainly the distaste
for racing prevails to a considerable extent. William Day
in "The Race-horse in Training" recommends that the
animal should go steadily a short course for a week or two,
until his condition enables him to go faster with ease ; and
then go the whole length of the course, whether it be a
mile, two, three, or four miles, on alternate days at better
speed, and the other days at half-speed, until it is as well
and fit as may be. Since he was a very successful trainer,
his methods must receive due respect, though few trainers
nowadays would ever thmk of galloping a horse repeatedly
four miles, however long the course might be over which it
is going to run.

The new American plan is to give the horses two very
slow canters daily in the morning, finishing up by doing
the last quarter of a mile or so at racing pace ; and once or
twice a week, in the case of the more advanced, extending
the quick part of the work to three-quarters of a mile, and at
the most one and a quarter miles. But it is notorious that
the Americans scarcely ever win a long race, though they
win many short ones, and whether this is the effect of their
system of training, or the fault of the material they train,
it is impossible to say. The late WiUiam Day had, on the
contrary, a great and well-deserved reputation for turning
out the winners of long-distance races.

In my own experience I have never thought it advisable
to gallop horses further than two miles when running on
the flat, and three miles for steeplechasing — except perhaps
once during the preparation, when the race was going to be
four miles. But even when a horse is going to run over
a very long distance he needs frequent sharpening up over
a short distance, and certainly once or twice a week, after
the preliminary canter, he should, towards the end of his
preparation, gallop a mile nearly at top speed. The day
after a horse has had a long gallop he needs little beyond

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 369

walking exercise, only having a quiet canter or two at a

slow pace, just to warm him up, and set the circulation

going. A point, which is frequently not attended to, is that

horses should always be trotted for a few minutes as soon

as they come out of the stable, for this is a time when they

are very likely to take cold, owing to the blood not being

in full circulation. As soon as every minute vein is supplied

to its full capacity, cold and blustering weather can be

endured with impunity. When a horse is doing fast work

he should not be required to go quite his full " distance,"

that is the distance which he is capable of doing at full

speed. All horses, excepting those phenomenal animals to

whom all distances seem alike, have a limit to their

capacity, one being able to race for a mile, another for two

miles, and others for not more than five or six furlongs, and

it is the business of the trainer to find out what the distance

is of each horse under his charge. If the distance of a horse

is a mile, he should very seldom be allowed to gallop a

full mile at speed in training, and never beyond it, except

at a steady pace, so that the task, being well within

the compass of his powers, does not become irksome

to him. By continually being asked to do more than

he is capable of doing easily his speed is quickly impaired,

his dash destroyed, and in all probability he will turn

cunning. Even for a long steeplechase of three, or indeed

four miles, the animal does not need to exceed two miles

very often, only occasionally going three miles, besides the

smart mile work which has been already mentioned. When

galloping in company care must be taken to assort horses,

as nearly as may be, of similar capacity in speed and staying

power, to prevent the risk of an inferior animal turning

jady from always galloping in company with one which is

much too good for it. The lads riding should never be

allowed to push their horses in canters or gallops, and

disobedience to orders should be severely punished. They

should sit still and hold their horses, so that the belief may

be instilled into them that the riders really wish to go a

little more slowly — provided an animal is not a real slug in

its work.

370 THE HORSE

If a horse exhibits signs of distress in its gallop, altering
its stride, and beginning to sob in its breathing, it should
be at once pulled up.

Now that all races on the flat are started by use of the
" gate " it might be thought that the practice would be uni-
versal of so accustoming the animals to it they would take
little notice of it ; yet many trainers are averse to this, and
allege that some horses take more and more dislike to it,
the oftener they see it. Horses are full of whims, and what
is sauce for the goose is not always sauce for the gander !
But a very painstaking and successful trainer has kindly
given me his views, and with most horses the plan he
advocates should assuredly answer. He writes : —

"Jumping a horse off under the machine is exactly what
should not be done. That makes them nervous and afraid
to stand up to the machine. My plan is, and I have never
found it fail, simply to walk the horses round the machine
on the days they are not to do any galloping. Occasionally
I pull up the machine and make them walk under it. Then
when they are thoroughly familiar with the apparatus, which
may take a few days, I line them up, and trot them off
under it. After another few visits I canter them under, and
so they gradually get to know what you want, and have no
fear of it."

Another trainer, who has adopted the plan of allowing his
horses to graze for a few minutes after their gallop, takes
care to have them at once trotted to the machine and pulled
up close to it, when the boys lead them all round, and under
it, at intervals, whilst they are picking a few mouthfuls of
grass ; and the precaution is taken to change the position of
the apparatus fairly often, that the horses may recognise it
wherever placed, and connect the machine with the act of
grazing. Care and trouble are never thrown away, and
though success may not always be achieved, it can at any
rate be deserved. A great disadvantage of our system of
starting horses at a stand, drawn up in line, is that the quiet,
docile horse, who will stand quietly while the others are
fretting and refusing to come into their places, is at a disad-
vantage when the start takes place. Almost directly a horse

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 371

stands still it begins to sink down on its fetlocks, and then a
supreme effort is needed to lift the great weight of its body,
and project it into motion ; and not only does it require more
time to do so than do those who are " on their toes," but a
considerable extra strain is thrown upon the muscles, sinews,
and joints in addition. Undoubtedly the fractious horse has
an advantage over the quiet one, when started from a state of
rest, by being quicker into its stride, and at less exertion to
itself.

At the commencement of training the work must be
suited to the condition of the animal, and only short
distances must be attempted at a very slow pace, both being
gradually increased as the animal progresses in condition ;
and this is where the judgment of the trainer is required.
A horse commencing training from ordinary hack work
should have ten clear weeks before his race so as not to be
hurried in his preparation. An animal who has been hunted
during the beginning of the season, and is going to
compete for a special steeplechase, or point-to-point, begins
with hardened muscles and clear wind, and will require far
less time to be at its best. For such six weeks should be
allotted, during which there should be no hunting, except an
occasional trot to a near meet, to raise the spirit of the
horse by seeing the hounds again. This acts quite like
a tonic to a hunter and relieves the monotony of the ordinary
routine ; but as soon as the hounds leave the first covert the
horse should be brought back home, for the benefit desired
will have been attained, and the extra fatigue is not desirable
which might follow if the rider in his zeal rode after the
pack. At the beginning of the six weeks' course it is well to
let the horse go very easily for the first week, if he has been
regularly taking his turn in the hunting-field, to recover
from any staleness, and usually a mild dose of physic will
clear his system and do considerable good. Following this
plan I have won many races with my ordinary hunters,
including the Conyngham Cup at Punchestown, and the
Grand National Hunt Steeplechase, both of which were
four miles.

As it may be of interest, the actual work done by the

372 THE HORSE

latter winner is appended, taken from my diary. I was then
living at Scarboroagh, and the horses took their gallops on the
sands when the frost was too severe to go elsewhere. When
they practised over the steeplechase course the distance was
about three miles, over a course laid out on the late Mr. James
Darrell's low farm at Ayton, about four miles from Scar-
borough, so that merely going there and back was a journey
of eight miles, in addition to the gallop. When we schooled
over hurdles often only three or four were jumped, and then
the horses were stopped and taken back to the commence-
ment and the practice repeated, a group of hurdles being
placed very near each other, with only about eighty yards
between them. The object was to sharpen the horses up
over fences after having been hunted ; and in this the plan
of Ben Land was followed, when he trained for Lord
Paulett, the Lamb being then one of the string of steeple-
chasers.

Monkshood, 6 yrs.

By Uncas out of the Abbess by Confessor.

(Winner of the Grand National Hunters' Eace.)

Diary of Work.

Jan. 21, Friday. — Galloped 3| miles on the sands.

The horse had been hunted since the beginning of the season, but
in consequence of a hard frost had not been out with hounds for
some time. He was given this gallop, and then allowed to have
nothing but trotting exercise till the following week, when he was
schooled over hurdles. Thinking he had not gained sufficient flesh
he was given another week's trotting exercise, and then commenced
training in earnest.

Jan. 25, Tuesday. — Schooled over hurdles.

Trotted daily for the following seven days.

Feb. 2, Wednesday. — Schooled over hurdles.

Feb. 3, Thursday. — Schooled over steeplechase course.

Feb. 4, Friday. — Walked and trotted for two hours.

Feb. 5, Saturday. — Galloped two miles on the race-course. Then schooled
over hurdles at Ayton, and afterwards jumped two fences on the
race-course.

Feb. 6, Sunday. — Galloped two miles on the race-course.

Feb. 7, Monday. — Galloped two miles on the race-course, and jumped
two hurdles.

Feb. 8, Tuesday. — Cantered on the sands.

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 373

Feb. 9, Wednesday. — Cantered two miles on the sands.

Feb. 10, Thursday. — Galloped six furlongs sharply twice on the sands.

Feb. 11, Friday. — Galloped two and a quarter miles on the sands.

Feb. 12, Saturday. — Galloped two and a quarter miles on the sands.

Feb. 13, Sunday.— Walked.

Feb. 14, Monday. — Went three times over the group of hurdles. Then

galloped two and a half miles on the race-course.
Feb. 15, Tuesday. — Went twice over the hurdles. Then galloped two

miles sharp on the race-course. Lady Clare joining Monkshood and

Outlaw for the last quarter of a mile.
Feb. 16, Wednesday. — Trotted and walked.

(I had a bad fall the day before when hunting after the gallops

had been finished, so could not get about for a few days.)
Feb. 17, Thursday.— Trotted and walked.

Feb. 18, Friday. — Schooled over the steeplechase course at Ay ton.
Feb. 19, Saturday. — Galloped three miles over hurdles on the race-course.
Feb. 20, Sunday.— Walked.

Feb. 21, Monday. — Schooled over the steeplechase course at Ayton.
Feb. 22, Tuesday. — Trotted and walked.
Feb. 23, Wednesday. — Schooled over the steeplechase course at Ayton.

Monkshood refused the regulation jump several times.

(Having broken a rib and dislocated the cartilage of the sternum

on the left side, I was unable to ride Monkshood when schooling, as

usual. He was always inclined to be shifty.)
Feb. 24, Thursday. — Trotted and walked.
Feb. 25, Friday. — Pinkney, the steeplechase rider, schooled Monkshood

over the steeplechase course at Ayton. He refused the regulation

jump the first time, but afterwards went well.
Feb. 26, Saturday. — Trotted and walked.
Feb. 27, Sunday. — Walking exercise.

Feb. 28, Monday. — Schooled over the steeplechase course at Ayton.
March 1, Tuesday. — Trotted and walked.
March 2, Wednesday. — Trotted and walked.
March 3, Thursday. — Trotted and walked.

Bransdale won the Hunter's Steeplechase at Malton easily, ridden

by Pinkney.

Outlaw ran second to Wild Meadow, after missing a fence and

having to go back.
March 4, Friday. — Bransdale ran second to Delandre, beaten a length.

Outlaw ran second to Iving John, beaten a length. His jockey

rode a very peculiar race. When leading at the bottom of the hill

he stopped his horse and allowed himself to be passed some distance,

saying afterwards in excuse he thought the horse was beaten. Then

he set his horse going again, and caught the others so fast he was

only beaten a length at last. I was afterwards informed he had a

good win over King John.
Monkshood trotted and walked.
(I had only these three horses in training, and had nothing to lead

Monkshood when the others were away.)

374 THE HORSE

March 5, Saturday. — Monkshood, led by some of the hunters, jumped

two hurdles, and then galloped three and a half miles.
March 6, Sunday. — Trotted and walked.
March 7, Monday. — Tried Monkshood two and a half miles on the race-

coiirse with Bransdale, Bob (a fast hunter who had run in Ireland)

taking them along for the first half-mile.
Monkshood, 12 st. 3 lbs.
Bransdale, 11 st. 10 lbs.
Monkshood won by eight lengths.
March 8, Tuesday. — Walking exercise.

March 9, Wednesday. — Schooled over the steeplechase course at Ayton.
March 10, Thursday. — Walking exercise.
March 11, Friday. — Monkshood and Outlaw galloped four miles on the

race-course.
March 12, Saturday. — Snowed all day.
March 13, Sunday. — Deep snow. Galloped on the sands.
March 14, Monday. — Monkshood left for Derby.
March 15, Tuesday. — Monkshood won the Grand National Hunters' Race,

4 miles, by ten lengths, 12 st. 10 lbs., ridden by Capt. E. E. Owen.

This was far from being what would be considered an
orthodox preparation, but the details are set down to show
the actual working of a stable when having to contend
against weather in a very rigorous climate, besides the
disadvantages of having only a very limited staff of skilled
assistants and an extremely small stud of horses. I had had
to break up my stable three years before for the second
time, owing to prolonged malarial fever contracted on the
West Coast of Africa in the Ashanti War, 1873-74, but being
temporarily in better health, I was just recommencing to
train again. But circumstances arose shortly afterwards
which made me retire from active superintendence, and now
if I occasionally have an animal in training I entrust it to
the care of a professional trainer. This desultory way of
doing things does not prove of much success, and most of
the interest is gone when one can no longer train and ride
the animals in their races.

It will be seen from the above diary that sometimes the
horses were schooled several days together, and one week
were galloped every day on the sands. The reason for this
was that we took the opportunity of sending the horses along
over jumps when there was some open weather, for the
snows oft lie long and deep on the bleak north-eastern coast,

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 375

and it was very possible, as happened the very year before, that
the snow might have lain for many consecutive weeks, when
there would never have been another opportunity of jumping
the horses again before the big race. The sharp work on the
sands was given during a hard frost to get the horses ready
to take advantage of any open weather for jumping them,
and therefore they were galloped several consecutive days to
make up for the rather prolonged idle time they had been
having, for it was found that they lathered more than was
anticipated when they recommenced fast work. They were
closely watched, and as they were improving m every way
there was no hesitation about keeping them going, for there
was plenty of time to ease them a little later on. Quite a
different course would have been pursued if there had been
a fair prospect of open weather before us. As it was, all the
three horses came out in excellent condition, and after
Monkshood's race Captain Owen stated to the writer that
he thought he had never ridden a horse so thoroughly fit as
Monkshood was that day, and that he could easily have
galloped another round of the course had he been required
to do so. Monkshood was subsequently sold to go to India
to win a mile Cup race on the flat, which he did with ease.

It may be noticed from the diary that only twice was
3 miles exceeded in training, 3^ miles having been covered
on the flat on March 5th, and 4 miles a week later, on
March 11th. This was the last real gallop the horse had,
four days before his race, for the gallop on March 13th was
only a short, sharp one, to open his pipes. It has already
been stated that 3 miles is quite sufficient to get a horse
ready for any length of race, and when Frigate won the
Liverpool Grand National, which is run over rather more
than 4^ miles, her owner and trainer, Mr. M. Maher, told
me she had only twice exceeded 3 miles in her preparation,
having then galloped 4 miles. Moreover, she would not have
been sent that distance a second time if he had not been
unavoidably prevented from being present when the first
4-mile gallop was arranged, and therefore she was sent the
same distance on a subsequent day in order that he might
satisfy himself as to her condition.

376 THE HORSE

Unless a preparation has been so short that there is no
time to be lost, a horse should always have three or four days
clear between his last real gallop and the day of the race ;
but he needs a sharp gallop of about half a mile, one or two
days before the race day, just to keep his wind right. He
should then be full of nervous energy on the day he runs,
and ready to put his heart into the race.

When horses have been very fit, and are then indulged
with a complete rest, it is possible to have them ready to
run in a very short time, for there has been no time to
accumulate fat inside. Amongst instances that come into
my mind was that of Eose Blush, by Commotion, who was
bought by a very able trainer after winning the Trial Stakes
at Southampton on July 16th. Being very poor in flesh,
and dried up, her new trainer took her shoes off, turned her
into a loose box for three weeks, and gave her plenty of
grass. He then took her up again, and, after a few gallops,
ran her in ten days' time from the recommencement of
training at Plymouth, on August 25th, and after running
third in the Tradesman's Plate of 1 mile, the same after-
noon she won the Handicap Hurdle Race of 1| miles. The
next day she won the Plymouth Plate of 1 mile by a length ;
and on the same afternoon another Handicap Hurdle Race,
IJ miles, by a head. A fortnight afterwards she won the
Borough Member's Handicap of 1^ miles at Tiverton, which
ended her racing for the season. It was an extraordinarily
daring instance of that trainer's pet theory of " getting
juice into them."

I can give another instance out of my own stable. A
horse of mine, Fortal, won a hurdle race at Droxford on
April 25th, and then I put him out of training, riding him
instead as a charger on parade. But one day I noticed that he
was eligible to run for the Hurdle Race at Aldershot, then a
coveted race, although there were only three weeks in which
to get him ready. I therefore at once put him into work,
and despite a field of eight which came to the post, seven of
which were winners that season, we won the race by three-
quarters of a length. I could give other instances, but
sufficient has been said to prove that a rest to a horse, when

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 377

very fit, may prove of the greatest benefit to him. Not much
subsequent work is needed to bring him out in excellent
condition, but still the necessary hard work, and plenty of
it, must have been done within a sufficiently recent period,
the good effects of which have not had time to pass away.

Many a mare will again win races after having been
awhile at the stud, sometimes indeed showing improved
form, but in their cases a certain length of time is required
in which to get them into racing trim. They must not be
hurried. Perhaps the most notable instance was that of
Mr. W. Elsey's Xenie, by Xenophon out of Griselle, in
August, 1899. Not only was she eleven years old, but she
had bred five foals, and was even then in an " interesting"
condition, yet she contrived to win the Falmouth Welter
Plate from six others at York Kaces, carrying the top
weight, 9 st. 13 lbs., and giving a stone to the second ; and
she also carried off the Londesborough Plate a little later
the same afternoon. These wins were but the precursors of
others, and made a notable finish to the great deeds done on
the historic course during the past century.

A beginner must have frequent schooling over fences to
acquire a good style of jumping, for to a great extent
steeplechases, and still more hurdle races, are won by quick
jumping, by the animal that can race up to its fences and
judge its distance well, and, above all, can get away
quickly on the far side and be into its stride at once. Prac-
tice, constant practice, is needed until the horse has learned
its lesson ; and however well old practitioners may perform,
they also need practice to harden and keep in order the
jumping muscles. It is not necessary to jump many fences
each time of schooling, nor full-sized ones, but they should
be stiff enough not to allow any liberties being taken with
them. Four or five fences are quite enough at a time, with
as much variety as possible, but they must be properly made
and properly placed. For the last half-dozen strides at
least the ground should be perfectly level on the approach
side of a fence, for if the horse has to begin making short
strides on account of the unevenness of the ground, he is
learning to be sticky instead of racing over the fences, and

378 THE HORSE

such schooling is worse than none at all. There is equal
need to have the ground level on the far side of the fence
for quite half a dozen strides, or the horse v^ill seldom
acquire the necessary dash. A steeplechase is a race over
fences, and not a jumping match, and this is a point which
seems to be often overlooked.

When hunting-men who have never had much to do with
steeplechasing have the selecting of a point-to-point course,
they are apt to be quite oblivious of ridge and furrow in the
field to finish in, or gripes cut in it for surface drainage, or
the landing side of a fence being lower than the take-off,
especially towards the finish. They do not know what it is
to ride a horse at full stretch, for though they may often
think they are doing so in the hunting-field, a horse is never
extended there beyond three-parts speed, and not often even
that. At such a pace a horse can collect or extend his stride
when meeting slight obstacles, but when really racing home
at full stretch he has to blunder into them, and then there is
a great danger of serious injury to the horse. If the landing
is but 6 inches lower than the take off when racing home
bad falls are often the result.

It is a mistake when schooling to keep on jumping horses
over very big fences, for it is then worth their while to
refuse ; and also the lads riding are apt to turn nervous, and
this is quickly communicated to the animal. If the fences
are a fair height both horses and riders enjoy the fun, par-
ticularly if they do not get too much of it at one time.
Every now and again a longer school can be taken, with one
or two full-sized fences in the course of it ; but I am quite con-
vinced that horses jump better, with more dash and nerve, if
the fences are rather on the small side than if they are too
big. A sure sign that a fence is too big is when the horses
jump sideways at it, and this is a frequent cause of falls
through the leader crossing the path of the horse which is
following close behind.

When a colt is first being taught he should learn his first
lessons over a low fixed bar or something similar, which he
cannot knock down, and be led over it with a lunging rein,
without any weight on his back. It is an excellent plan

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 379

also to make an Irish bank with a ditch on one side, and to
lead the young horses over it until they can change their
feet on it in the right way, which gives them command over
themselves, as a man learns when crossing stepping-stones.
They should also be led over little gripes and blind places,
which teaches them to look where they are going. They
should be perfect in these lessons before they are asked to
carry a rider over fences ; and then they should at first be
given plenty of time, and allowed to take the fences quite
slowly before being asked to gallop over them. Animals
so trained will always be able to " put in a little one "
if they have misjudged their distance at a fence, and will
seldom fall. A child needs to learn to walk before it
can run.

Many horses at first appear to have little notion of
jumping, and yet in the end make useful fencers. Occa-
sionally a very mulish animal may be met with, which
obstinately refuses to try to jump, or invariably endeavours
to crash through the obstacle. Falls may even not suffice
to educate the animal to do better. Before giving up the
contest altogether in despair it is well to try the old dodge
of the circus trainer, and keep the horse absolutely without
water for two days. A fence made of railway sleepers, or
strong boards, in a triangular shape, with a broad base,
should then be fixed in a gateway, or similar place, where
the horse cannot run round it, and a man placed with a
bucket of water so that the horse can see it. The moment
the horse catches sight of the water it will jump over any
obstacle, to get to the bucket and slake its thirst. After the
horse has had a few mouthfuls the man may take the bucket
round to the other side of the fence, and the horse is
compelled to jump it again, if it wishes to finish its draught.
A lesson of this sort is long remembered, and frequently all
further trouble is obviated thereby. It should ever be a
maxim that when young horses are being taught to jump
timber of any description it must be quite unbreakable,
so that carelessness in jumping will be followed by a bad
scramble, even if a fall is saved. But the timber should
never be raised up high until the pupil has well learned its

380 THE HORSE

lesson, for a fall over high timber may be fraught with
serious consequences.

When schooling horses, especially valuable ones, it is a
wise plan to have them bandaged with thick bandages,
which saves any blow on the fore sinews with the hind toe
from being a serious injury. I often place a shield under-
neath the bandage, cut out of a thin felt saddle-cloth, and
many a time I have been thankful this precaution had been
taken. The shield should extend from just below the knee
and cover the fetlock-joint. But I prefer bandages which
buckle on with four or five straps, and these can be made of
double serge, padded between with cotton-wool, and all
sewn together in a diamond pattern. The straps need not
be drawn tight, only just enough to prevent the bandage
slipping down over the fetlock ; but when bandages are tied
on the strings have to be drawn very tight, and many a
horse goes short in consequence and a swelling is raised
under the ligature. Bandages which are sewn on obviate
this, but then there is a temptation to keep them on in the
stable on account of the time and trouble required when
sewing them on. When a horse needs support they answer
the purpose, especially when well padded with cotton-wool
underneath. But in a small establishment where labour
has to be considered the bandages with straps are far more
convenient, and personally I like them better, although they
do not appear nearly so neat.

When a horse first begins galloping after a long rest, in a
few days' time all the legs are apt to get gummy and fill, and
this is a sign that a dose of aloes is required. Indications of
mischief to the tendons are when one leg alone fills and is
hot, but when all the legs fill after exercise and get fine
again when at work, it is merely a sign that a dose of physic
is required. Except under such conditions I am averse to
physic being given, and the practice of some trainers of
giving strong doses of nitre or other diuretic, once or twice
a week, is much to be condemned, for the kidneys cannot
be frequently forced without bad results occurring in the
end. If a horse has much difficulty in staling the placing of
an onion inside the sheath, as already mentioned, almost

TRAINING FOR RACING, POINT-TO-POINT 381

always has an immediate result ; but if the habit has become
chronic an improvement can usually be effected by the free
use of linseed — either as gruel, or as " tea" to drink instead
of water — with plenty of green food (especially carrots or
dandelion-leaves), and a tablespoonful of common salt in a
handful of bran mash amidst a feed of corn. Salt and
green food in combination promote a flow of urine much
more beneficially than by using diuretics.

Gummy legs occur also in old horses from feeble circula-
tion, and require more active treatment, such as being well
hand-rubbed or massaged. When this is finished they
should be well sponged twice a day with —

Alum 2 lbs.

Soda lib.

boiled in a gallon of water and applied cold. A serge
bandage steeped in the mixture should then be rolled on,
and a dry bandage placed over it. The same treatment
should be used for windgalls in the fetlocks.

The last hint is the desirableness of allowing a horse to
have a roll in the sand, which affords great enjoyment. A
loose box can often be set apart for this purpose, and the
sand does not need to be frequently renewed. When in
Spain, now more than thirty years ago, we used to take off
the saddles as soon as ever the work was over, and allow
the horses to have a roll before they had a few minutes
grazing, and it was amusing to watch the eagerness of the
horses to be down, so that if the lads did not look out the
animals were down on their knees before the former were
out of the saddle. Anything which adds to the enjoyment
of a horse tends to make him happy, and a contented animal
thrives far better than one who is sulking or fretting. How
natural it is to roll is easily seen by observing a horse when
freshly turned loose, for after the first gallop round he is
sure to lie down and enjoy a good roll to his heart's
content.

CHAPTEK XVI
DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING

Deiving.

A FEW words may well be devoted to the harness. Brass
and plated mounts should be kept clean by rubbing
with a woollen cloth or a chamois leather, and for the
former lemon-juice may be used with a flannel to clean
it on emergency, but for ordinary use nothing is better than
Globe Polish. Whiting is required for silver-plated mounts,
but not plate-powder if the harness is patent leather, lest
it should burn or scratch it ; and for all black leather,
whether patent or ordinary, Harris's composition is quite
excellent. Steel work should be thrown into a pail of
water at once on being brought into the harness-room,
to soften the mud and dirt, and should then be wiped dry
and polished with a burnisher, any rust being removed at
once with very soft and fine silver sand.

When buckling straps together, such as the end of the
reins, the rule should be kept in mind that all buckles point
to the right, the reason being that then the right hand pulls
in the easiest direction for unbuckling the strap.

The stitching of the harness has an important bearing
on its appearance, and the thread should be very regular,
as will be seen in all high-class work.

The neck collar in the best work is always covered with
patent leather on the outside, and the inside is stuffed with
straw. A collar must fit the depressions on both shoulders,
and neither be so narrow as to pinch the neck, nor so loose
as to roll about. Either misfit will soon begin to gall and

382

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 383

cause raw surfaces, if not at once attended to. On the out-
side of the collar is a roll, forming a recess to hold the
hames to which the traces are attached. The hames help to
preserve the shape of the collar, and also prevent it working
outside the shoulder. The collar should be so fitted that
the weight at the end of the trace is distributed over the
whole surface of the shoulder, and to obtain this the trace
must be attached to the right place on the hames, a point
opposite the middle of the shoulder-blade, where this is
practically immovable. If opposite a movable part, either at
the shoulder-joint or the upper part of the blade, the collar
is continually being pulled away from its bearing. A collar
requires to be widest at its base, being there about an inch
or an inch and a half wider than at any other part.

The Bearing-eein.

The question of bearing-reins is oft discussed, and many
well-intentioned but ill-informed persons believe them to
be a relic of barbarism, and can see no good in them at
all. If all horses had perfect mouths, perfect conformation,
the most amiable dispositions, and docile tempers, bearing-
reins could be dispensed with, but taking horses as they
come it is impossible to relegate all bearing-reins to the
scrap-heap. It is the abuse of them which is to be con-
demned, and not the instruments themselves. They are
seldom required in single harness ; but to drive two or
more horses together in safety, as well as comfort, bearing-
reins are frequently a necessity. There have been some
alarming accidents this summer from horses running away,
which in these days of terrifying road nuisances is scarcely
to be wondered at ! It would be interesting to know if in
any of these cases bearing-reins had been dispensed with.
Bearing-reins do not require to be so tightly fastened that
the animals' heads are drawn back into an unnatural, con-
strained position, and so kept at a stretch for two or three
hours, and such a proceeding is absolute cruelty. But they
should be so adjusted that the wearer cannot get his head
down low, and thus be able to throw all his weight into his

384 THE HORSE

bit, when he can run away fast enough to provide a sensa-
tional paragraph for the journals, if he has a mind to !
Many a horse when standing still will hang his head as low
as he can get it, and the judicious use of a bearing-rein will
prevent this unseemly habit when out for show in a town,
but without worrying the horse. The bearing-reins should
be loose enough for the horse to make his utmost exertion
when at work without unduly pressing on the bit, but they
should be tight enough to take a good deal of the stress from
the driver's hands if the animal begins to pull desperately
hard, and shows a desire to run away.

It is against the gag bearing-rein that the crusade should
be directed, for this can be made a veritable instrument
of torture, and is very powerful. A gag bearing-rein
is attached to the upper part of the head-stall, where it joins
the brow-band, then passed through a swivel attached to
a snaffle, which may be a twisted one, and after passing
through another ring attached to a strap depending from
the head-piece, is fixed to the pad-hook, where it can be
tightened to the fancy of the coachman.

A bearing-rein should be fastened in the first instance
direct to the snaffle if a double bridle is used, or to the
cheek of a Pelham, and then much more freedom is allowed
to the horse.

The bit should never have a bottom bar. If used without
a bearing-rein a horse can hook it over a shaft in single
harness, or over the pole in double harness, and an accident
may be the immediate result.

Many horses have a one-sided mouth, which makes it
difficult to steer them in traffic or to prevent them cutting
a corner too sharp, and Mr. Walter Winans strongly advises
the American Cain bit to be employed in such cases. He
says : —

" I have found a remedy for horses with dead sides to
their mouths, which are otherwise unpleasant, if not impos-
sible to drive. It is the American Cain bit, a snaffie which
pinches the horse's jaws and makes him drop it when he
endeavours to pull on one side, much as one makes a dog
let go a bone by pinching his lower jaw."

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 385

Mr. Winans is so expert in the management of horses
that such testimony is a valuable hint.

The saddle carries the back-band, shaft-tugs, and belly-
band ; but neither it, nor the pad in double harness, must
be permitted to press on the horse's spine.

The traces should take a slight rise from the bar to the
hame-pull, and there is a loss of power if instead they
inclme downwards. If this is unavoidable, in the case of
a small horse the evil can be diminished by lengthening the
traces as far as possible.

Winkers are quite superfluous, but it is hard to resist
fashion ! Army horses are never driven in them, and no
more are omnibus horses in the streets of London, yet
neither of these classes meet with any undue share of
accidents in consequence of the absence of blinkers.

Double Haenbss.

In adjusting the reins for double harness the hand-reins
go to the outsides, the hand-rein on which the buckle is
being always the near rein, and thus the buckle points
to the right. The horses' heads should not be pulled either
in or out, but be level, the horses running parallel to the
pole. A young horse should always be started with the
reins fastened to the cheek of the bit, and there should be
plenty of length to the inside reins at first. These matters
can be adjusted if necessary as soon as it is seen how the
horses go.

When regulating the harness, first adjust the traces
to the proper length, seeing that each horse is suffi-
ciently far, but not too far away from the splinter-bar,
when he is made to stand up into his collar as when
in draught. Secondly, adjust the pole-straps. The pad
must be placed just at the junction of the withers and the
back, sufficient length being given to the croup-strap to
enable it to do so ; and the girth-strap should hang straight
down when the horse is made to stand up into its collar, or
if it inclines at all it should be backwards. The outer girth-
strap should be quite loose to allow free play to the traces.

386 THE HORSE

In the arrangement of the couphng-reins Hes the comfort
and much of the art of driving. If one horse is free and the
other sluggish, or if one is faster than the other, the one
requires more holding than its comrade, to whom possibly
the whip may have to be applied. It is necessary therefore
that the reins should be so arranged that pressure is applied
to the free and fast horse, whilst the mouth of the other
is still untouched. This is accomplished by buckling the
inner rein of the lively horse a hole or two nearer the
driver's hand than that of the other, thus shortening
the hold upon it. In this way the slow, sluggish horse
may be forced to take up its fair share of the work.

When putting a pair of horses into harness, place the
horses alongside the pole and then buckle the pole-pieces ;
they are thus fastened to the carriage, but cannot draw it
if anything should suddenly startle them. Next attach the
outside reins, and knotting them up, hang them over one
of the pads. There is now a means of controlling the
animals if needed. Then slip the traces over the roller
bolts, and finally adjust the pole-straps to the right length,
and buckle the coupling reins to the bits.

In taking the animals out of the carriage these processes
are reversed, for the same reasoning, only the reins are
unbuckled at the commencement, for the horses are likely
to move away from the pole as soon as the traces are
loosened, and if they are still held fast by the coupling-
reins they may get into a tangle.

First unbuckle the pole-straps, but do not unfasten them.
Next undo the coupling-reins. Then remove the traces
from the roller bolts and take the horses clear away from
the carriage. If bearing-reins are used they should not be
fastened to the pad-hooks until the horses are in their places
alongside the carriage, and they should be unhitched before
the horses are led away.

The Deiver's Seat.

The height of the driver's seat should be proportioned to
the length of his legs ; it must be sufficiently high for him

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 387

to be able to use all the power of his legs in holding hard-
pulling horses, or in stopping them suddenly, but it is a
mistake to have it so high that he is almost standing bolt
upright. Then if he receives a sudden jerk, such as is given
v^hen a horse falls, he is apt to be pulled off the box. On
the other hand, if the seat is too low the driver feels
cramped, and cannot exert his full strength. He should
keep his legs straight before him, close together, with the
feet turned slightly out, for nothing gives a greater impres-
sion of slovenliness than to see a coachman with legs wide
apart, or with toes turned in ; whilst as for crossing one leg
over the other it " gives the show away at once " ! Apart
from the unsightliness, it is at once evident that the driver
has no idea how to apply his strength to the best advan-
tage, and is at the mercy of his horses, and of luck ! Any
sudden call upon him will find him wanting in ability to
cope with it.

The right hand should always be ready to catch hold of
the off-rein, and when this is called for all the four fingers
should be placed upon the rein, and not just one or two,
which cannot provide for the full power of the arm.

The Whip.

The whip should be held loosely at the metal collar,
which ought to be placed at the exact spot where the whip
will balance in the hand without being grasped, merely
being supported by the thumb and the outside edge of the
palm, when the whole hand is at liberty to grasp the off-
rein at any moment. It should be held parallel to the
dashboard, for it is bad form to hold it poking forward like
a fishing-rod, detracting greatly from the smartness of the
appearance. With a dogcart, or a carriage and pair, the
thong may catch in the wheel if the whip is allowed to
droop, and so get broken ; and the proper position for it to
be held is so that the stick slants across the body, just
crossing the point of the left shoulder. With a four-in-
hand the coachman sits a long way above the wheel, and in
addition the thong is curled in a " double thong," so there

388 THE HORSE

is no fear of becoming entangled in the wheel ; the whip
is therefore held low, almost horizontal in fact, but still
parallel with the dashboard.

It should be an invariable rule to start the vehicle at a
slow pace, which can be quickened immediately as much as
desired. A lesson may be learned from the splendid drivers
on the fast express trains, which glide off so smoothly that
it is really difficult to know the actual moment of startmg ;
whilst on some of the bye-lines one is almost jerked off
one's seat, to the accompaniment of sundry groans and
squeaks from the wheels, owing to the violence of the start
from a state of rest.

The Eeins.

There is often a considerable superfluity of rein, which gets
entangled with the driver's feet or slips over the side of the
carriao'e if allowed to remain at liberty; but if the driver
just hangs the buckle end over the little finger of his left
hand he will find he has conquered the difficulty, and will
have no more trouble with it. In low-seated carriages, if
care is not taken with the reins they are constantly getting
under the tails of the steeds, especially when they have
short docks ; and nothing is more provocative of a bout of
kicking and bolting than such an occurrence, particularly if
the driver tries to unhitch the reins by dragging violently at
them. The more he pulls the tighter the animal tucks
down its tail, and the more it kicks and gallops ; but if the
driver can only keep his wits about him and at once lets
down a long loop of the reins, their own weight causes
them to sHde down, and, feeling no resistance, the horse no
lono-er tucks its tail in close. When long-tailed horses were
in fashion for carriages — and the writer was thirty years old
before he ever even saw a short-docked horse — it was very
rare indeed to hear of a horse getting the reins under his tail,
for the long tail down to the hocks never had sufficient sweep
to rise over the reins. It is now often urged as a reason for
docking horses short that it is done to prevent horses doing
such a thing ; but if those using this argument had only
had sufficient experience, they would know that they were

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 389

arguing on entirely wrong premises. In the Colonies, where
long tails are the rule, the trick of getting reins under the
tail is seldom heard of !

Horses liable to kick in harness should be driven with a
kicking-strap, and in double harness may have long straps
from the pad to the splinter bar connected by two cross-
pieces of leather, which will effectually prevent the animal
from doing any harm. The colonial plan is to tie the long
tail to the bar, which makes it an absolute impossibility for
the animal to kick.

The colonists have another ingenious method for dealing
with a jibber. The long tail is again called into requisition
and tied securely to the splinter-bar, and then the vehicle is
wheeled backwards until resistance is offered by the tail.
On feeling the weight the animal plunges forward, and if it
stops the same plan is again resorted to, and it is thus
forced to drag the load some distance before the tail is
released, when the culprit is usually ready to draw in the
usual way.

If horses are required to canter or gallop in harness it is
necessary that their strides should be of equal length, for if
otherwise the carriage will sway so much there is great
danger of its being overturned.

A little hint, which does not seem to occur to every one,
is to draw up a carriage, when required to wait, so that the
horses' heads are away from home, and then even fidgety
horses may be induced to stand for a while. It is rather
curious to note how often a coachman does just the reverse !
He then blames the horses, which may be young or fresh,
for not standing quietly when they know in which direction
their stable lies, and are really displaying more sense than
their driver !

KiDiNG AND Hunting.

The generation which was familiar with the top-booted
squire, and the jolly old farmer riding to market, possibly
with his wife behind him on a pillion, has almost passed
away. The ranks of those who remember the stage-coach
as the ordinary means of travel, and the gay-coated

390 THE HORSE

postilions in the chaises of the nobility and gentry, are
getting very thinned. But those were the days when
England was justly famous as a nation of horsemen ; and
now, like many a celebrity, we are living amongst the ashes
of a past reputation. If a given number of persons of the
younger generation were selected at random from any
public gathering, say, a football match, a theatre, or a crowd
assembled to gape at some public character, how many per
thousand would be found who could ride even a docile
horse ten miles ? How many indeed would there be who
had ever even been on a horse at all ! We are no longer a
nation of horsemen, and even the picked riders amongst us
have now to take a back seat to those of foreign nations,
who have lately come to Olympia to add to our national
humiliation. Mechanical traction in all its various forms
has taken away the necessity for riding, except in wild
and mountainous districts ; and has also destroyed the
pleasure of an amble along our country roads and lanes.
If it were not for the delights of the chase very few
persons would now ride from year's end to year's end, for
polo is of necessity confined to a comparatively small number
of people. The various packs of hounds form assets of
grave national importance, for if they were unfortunately
squeezed out of existence through any modern legislation,
few people indeed would ever take the trouble to learn to
ride, and there would be but a scanty number of horses
required to satisfy the wants of these few.

Riding, like everything else, is preferably learned in
youth, and a child may with advantage begin its earliest
lessons almost as soon as it can walk ; for however much a
horseman may know, he is ever learning something fresh
about the animal, even to the end of his life. But the
earliest lessons should be given by a careful instructor, who
himself knows what the position and seat should be, and
how the reins should be held and used, and who both can
and will instruct the little pupil in all the minutiae of the
art of riding. It is at the beginning of a thing that the best
teaching is required, for then faults are quickly corrected ;
there is nothing to unlearn afterwards, and a correct style

"Carnival."

Owned by Admiral Sir F. Bridgeman, C.B. , K.C.V.O.

r/iolo by irMiii

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 391

can be assured. How painfully badly most people ride is
easily seen at the meet of any pack of hounds, or in Eotten
Row itself. Through the innate goodness and long-suffering
of their steeds many riders manage to get along somehow
after hounds, but they are thrown high into the air at the
leaps, as any photograph of hounds running will disclose ;
and most of them seem to think that the reins are intended
to hold themselves on by. Those of the field who sit with
grace and ease, and are really capable of teaching their
animals their business, are very few indeed. Yet most of
this indifferent horsemanship is the result of not having
had, in their earliest years, the rudiments of riding imparted
by a skilled instructor. Instead, they probably have been
put upon a pony or horse, and left to find out everything for
themselves. As to being taught the right length of the
stirrups, the position of the feet and legs, or the length of
the reins, the ordinary groom probably does not know him-
self— nor possibly the parents either — and therefore it is a
matter of chance what kind of a beginning is made. The
limbs of a child also grow quickly, and this is apt to be
forgotten, and the stirrup-leathers are kept to the same
length after they ought to have been dropped another hole.
A little boy must be put on a narrow pony, as a risk of
grave and permanent injury is incurred if the pony's back is
too broad. It is most advisable that there should be a frequent
change of mounts, for after a time very slow improvement
is made, when the sole experience is restricted to riding the
same animal every time. But care should be taken that
each pony is quiet, and without tricks, until the youthful
rider has acquired complete confidence in himself ; if he
finds the pony is his master he is likely to lose all enjoyment
in his ride, even if he does not take a positive dislike to the
exercise itself. Should this occur — and in these days it seems
to happen oftener with little boys than with their sisters — it
is far better to fall in at once with the child's wishes, and let
him defer riding until he wishes to try again on his own
initiative. As he approaches adolescence he will probably
have more confidence in his own powers, the spirit of
rivalry will arise in him, and he will become envious ot his

392 THE HORSE

acquaintances whom he sees enjoying what he is rejecting.
If he has been well taught at the commencement he will be
very differently situated to what he would be if he had never
learned at all, for he will take up riding again where he left
off; and in seat and hands he may soon even display
superiority to those who have kept steadily on, but who have
been allowed to pick up riding as best they could, and are
sure to have acquired many little faults.

Stirrups.

To most grooms it seems a never-ending puzzle that their
master alters the length of his stirrups with almost every
different horse he rides ! He never dreams of doing so him-
self, unless he is a finished rider, which so few of the class
ever seem to become. Fat horses or thin, narrow or broad,
one length of the stirrup suffices for the groom, and there-
fore he does not attain accuracy of balance and perfect
hands, although he may be able to retain his seat, regardless
of plunges, and to steer an animal with the mouth of a bull.

One of the commonest faults of position is the thrusting
of the feet too forward, which entails a defective balance,
and a grotesque struggle to maintain it if the horse should
suddenly rear-up straight on end, whip suddenly round,. or,
thrusting its head between its legs, indulge in a series of
bucking antics. No horse-breaker, accustomed to the
vagaries of bad-tempered and youthful animals, will be
found to sit in such a position — and yet how often it will be
seen amongst the riders in an ordinary hunting-field ! The
feet should be so drawn back that the ankles are under the
knees, the grip being maintained by grasping the saddle
with the prominent bony part of the inside of the knees, and
then whatever the horse does the rider will sway with it, as
if both were carved out of one block. The part between the
upper calf and the knee will then take its full share of the
work, and the saddle will be gripped as if in a vice. A con-
siderable portion of the weight of the body should rest upon
the thighs, and not, as is so often seen, entirely upon the
buttocks. A fine rider should be able to place a sixpence

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 893

between the stirrup-plate and the sole of his boot, and keep
it there while jumping fences, or during any vagaries of his
mount. Or if he is riding without stirrups let the sixpence
be placed underneath the knee, and see if it is in its place
after three or four fences have been jumped in succession.
Many a rider who " fancies himself " will soon discover this
test to be too high for his capabilities.

A rough-and-ready rule for the length of the stirrups is to
place the bottom of the stirrup against the armpit, and then
stretching the arm to the full extent just touch the saddle-
bar. If the stirrup-leathers are so adjusted before getting
into the saddle no horse can throw a good rider, although,
from the particular shape of the animal, the leathers may
have to be altered a little afterwards, to ride in the greatest
comfort and to the best advantage. When the rider has
omitted this test and is already in the saddle, he should
sit on his fork and allow his legs to hang to their fullest
extent, and then shorten the leathers until the bottoms of
the dangling stirrups barely touch his insteps. He will then
find himself ready to cope with any antic the horse may
indulge in. Very many riders are in the habit of riding a
hole, or more, too long, when the weight is too much placed
upon the fork, and a sudden shy or stumble on the part of
the horse is only too apt to strain the " tailor's muscle," the
painful and baleful effects of which are unfortunately only
too well known. Should this happen it is possible still to
manage to ride by procuring a very long soft leather strap,
and after winding it two or three times round the thigh,
buckle it round the waist. The relief this simple method
affords can scarcely be appreciated until tried. Without
some such support it may be found impossible to ride until
the strain is quite recovered, perhaps only after some weeks
of treatment. But almost the sole cause of the disaster is
the riding with stirrups which are too long.

Whilst the legs should be rigid, when in the saddle, the
body should be quite supple, swaying gracefully with every
movement of the horse. The elbows must always be kept
close to the sides, which adds greatly to the neatness of the
appearance, and also to the power of the rider ; for the elbow

394 THE HORSE

must pass straight to the rear, the arm working backwards
and forwards like a piston, when great force is required to
be applied to the reins. If the elbows are stuck out at
right angles there is loss of strength besides the awkward
look, and ladies are frequently guilty of this. For a long
time my masculine denseness did not furnish me with the
reason why they affected this position, but at last one of

them "let the cat out of the bag." "Look at " she

exclaimed, calling my attention, through jealousy, to a fair
rival in front of us, " she is sticking out her elbows to call
attention to her waist ! " So the secret was out, and I have
never since forgotten the reason why !

Eeins.

Of course no one who aspires to be a real horseman will
ride with both reins in one hand ; though many make a sort
of compromise, and keep possession of both reins in the left
hand, whilst assisting with the right hand. But this is only
doing things by halves, and as a rule the reins should be
detached and held in the respective hands. The reins should
be held at a good length and the hands be kept low, and as
a rule the knuckles should be kept playing just over the
pommel of the saddle. At this distance there is plenty of
freedom for the horse to play with its bit, and yet consider-
able pressure can be put on in a moment if required ; also
a sudden snatch at the bit will not drag the rider out of
his seat on to the horse's neck. It is excellent practice for
forming a seat, when trotting home on a horse too tired to
take liberties, to cross the stirrups over its neck, after taking
the feet out of them, and to jog a mile or more riding by
balance only, without holding by the reins. Another useful
exercise is to let the body swing back until the shoulders
touch the croup, when the horse is either standing still, or
moving on slowly at a walk. The balance is improved by
these little tricks, and the secret of all gymnastics is the
perfection of balance, very little strength being required as a
rule in addition.

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 395

Bits.

When riding across country it is prudent to use as easy a
bit as gives the necessary control over the horse. Many
persons pin their faith to a plain double bridle, in which the
generality of horses go pleasantly ; but there is a bit which
is an admirable invention, which seems to suit more horses
— or possibly their riders' hands — than any other. Smooth
snafHes are apt to induce horses to lean too much upon
them if the man in the saddle is in the habit of steadying
his balance by the reins ; but this bit is more severe than an
ordinary snaffle, though just as easj^ if a horse does not pull
hard, so it lies with the animal itself whether it hurts its
own mouth. Moreover, all horses jump freely into it,
and there is no fear of pulling the steed into a ditch on
the far side of a fence when using it. Horses are not
irritated with it as they often are with a curb bridle ; nor do
they snatch at it, or throw their heads about when they are
caught hold of to steady them at a fence. The great objec-
tion to chain and twisted snaffles is that they are always
severe, but this bit combines the severity of a twisted snaffle
with the ease of a plain one; and thus unites the merits
of both. It consists of four smooth bars of steel, as if an
ordinary snaffle had been sliced in half, with three large
rollers inserted between each pair of bars, the whole con-
stituting a "roller snaffle." When a horse is very head-
strong, and determined not to stop, if the bit is drawn through
his mouth from side to side all the rollers begin working,
and few horses will continue to rebel under this treatment.
When, however, the horse ceases pulling the bit becomes in
effect a plain snaffle, and horses soon learn the easement of
this.

Some horses acquire a trick of getting the tongue over the
bit, when the rider is powerless to control his mount. Many
inventions have been brought forward to obviate this, and
one which is particularly successful when properly adjusted
was the idea of the famous Allan Macdonough, as fine a
horseman and steeplechase-rider as Ireland ever produced.
It IS detached from the reins, and is simply a plain bit with

396 THE HORSE

a high port, hanging loosely by itself. The object of it is to
provide the animal with something to play with, so that by
putting its tongue either through the high port, or over it,
the animal feels contented, and leaves the real bit alone. For
this purpose the bit should be hung very loic in the mouth,
only just above the tushes, with room above for the horse
to get its tongue between it and the real bit, which
being left alone acts as usual. Grooms are never satisfied
to adhere to these directions. They always think they know
better than the inventor, and so try to place the port as high
as possible, even into the animal's throat. And then they
say the invention is of no use, and that they knew from the
first it would never do !

Occasionally a horse, when being led at exercise, acquires
the trick of turning its head to the off-side, and making a
rush at the same time, when no man can possibly retain
control over the animal. The groom is forced to let go the
leading-rein, or be dragged out of the saddle. To prevent
the horse from putting this evil habit into execution, a
means must be found of hindering it from turning its head ;
and a simple way of doing this is to fix a side-rein on the
near-side, buckling it to the bit, and to the roller, the latter
having a special buckle for the purpose, sewn on about
half-way down. A man can hold a led-horse, so long as
its head is slightly bent towards him.

Stirrups should always be broad in the sole-plate, giving a
good hold to the foot, and not tiring the rider. Then if the
heels of the boots are brought well forward, ending in a line
with the front of the leg, the top of the stirrup will always
be kept clear of the tendon at the bend of the foot and leg,
just above the upper spur-strap, which is otherwise apt to
get very sore when the feet are thrust well home. The
hoop of the stirrup should expand into a broad wing on each
side where it joins the foot-plate, which saves the side of
the foot from getting chafed. Stirrups must be wide enough
for the boot to enter easily, or there is a danger of getting
the foot jammed in the stirrup in the event of a fall. On
the other hand, they should not be too large for fear the
foot should shp right through and so get fixed, though

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 397

a large heel minimises this danger. The reins should
not be narrow, for broad ones are easier to hold without
getting the fingers cramped ; and the leather should be
supple, yet stiff. A horse should never be ridden without a
nose-band, when only a snaffle is used, for if he chooses to
open his mouth he can render the snafEe of little effect.
Many grooms appear to think nose-bands are only for
ornament, and buckle them far too loose to be of any
service, but if the horse is only able to open his mouth a very
little the nose-band will be of great use. Considerable addi-
tional power is gained by the use of a properly adjusted
martingale, which is generally put on far too short, when
there is a danger of pulling the horse into a fence. A short
martingale may be all very well for a rearer, but it does not
do for riding over a country. The right way is to hold the
horse's head well up, and then so adjust the length of the
martingale that the rings just reach the throat behind the
angle of the jaws. This is short enough to give great power
in steadying and controlling the animal, while it does not
fidget or interfere with its comfort in any way.

Some horses have a habit of throwing back their heads so
far that the rider receives a serious blow in the face. If the
reins are merely passed through two leather- covered metal
rings, fastened together and placed under the jaws, the head
can be prevented from reaching the rider's face ; but a
preferable plan is to use a standing martingale, usually
termed a " Cheshire Martingale," which terminates in two
branching chains with spring-hooks, which are snapped on
to the rings of the bit. This does not interfere with jump-
ing, for a horse drops his head as the leap is made, but it
effectually prevents any tossing of the head ; and the first
time the horse tries to do so he gets such a wrench to his
mouth as much disconcerts him, and very often cures him of
the habit altogether.

When galloping after hounds the rider should stand up in
his stirrups, so that he can give-and-take to the swing of the
horse as he passes over uneven ground. It adds greatly to
the fatigue of the horse if the rider remains sitting down all
the time. It is soon enough to sit down when a short

398 THE HOESE

distance from a fence ; and then the body should be allowed
to swing back as the horse rises, when, if exact time is kept
with the movements of the horse, there is no shock on his
back when he alights. A horse needs to be collected when
approaching a high fence, but this does not mean pulling
him altogether out of his stride ! If a firm hold is taken
about a hundred yards from the fence, and no change in the
rider's mind is made from the place first selected, the horse
will measure his distance and swing over the fence, and
jump both high and wide. Fortunately, when taking our
pleasure in an ordinary hunting-field, we are not expected
to emulate the 7 ft. 3 in. that was jumped at the Olympia
Show by All Fours in 1907, though this shows what it
is possible for a horse to clear.

Xenophon's description of the proper carriage of the head
and neck is as true now as when it was written, for it
describes symmetry in a few words, and gives a good
description of what a hunter should be like.

" The neck of the horse as it proceeds from the chest should
not fall forward like that of the boar, but should grow
upward like that of a cock, and should have an easy motion
about the arch."

Advice to Beginnees.

To the beginner a few words of advice may be added. Be
on the alert when hounds are running in covert, and get
away with them when they break ; and if the scent seems
good do not hesitate to jump a big fence to get to them,
rather than go some distance to a gate. Give a wide berth
to coverts on your way to the meet, lest you disturb a fox,
and the hounds in consequence have a long draw before they
find. Ride your own line if you are in front, but if you are
obliged to follow any one else take care to give him plenty of
room when he jumps a fence ; his horse may blunder, or
fall, and if you are too close you may cause a bad accident
to your leader. If you view a fox hold up your hat if in
sight of the field, and do not holloa when the hounds are
running. If they should be at fault and there is no other

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 399

means of letting the huntsman know, give but one holloa,
and then wait and see if attention has been drawn to it.
When you are able to tell the huntsman where the fox has
gone, tell him in few words where you last saw it, in which
direction it was going, and how long a time has elapsed since
it passed by. Never jump an unnecessaiy fence, for you
know not what calls you may have to make on the endu-
rance of your steed before the end of the run ; and always
keep some wind in your horse, and be careful of what you
ride him at when getting blown. If hounds can jump a
brook, so too can a horse ; and as a rule the fox crosses at the
narrowest place. Choose a spot where the banks look sound
for taking off, and if possible near a tree, for the ground is
generally soundest there. Always wait for a man to mount
who has jumped off to open a gate ; and if you have opened
a gate yourself, and some one is close behind, hold it a
moment and give it a swing back that he may get through
as well. Often the two or three seconds you lose in doing
so are of gain to your horse if he is getting blown in a sharp
gallop. Cross ridge and furrow at a slight angle, according
to the stride of your horse ; you will feel directly the
difference in his going when he finds the dips and ridges
agree with his action. It is better to select a big fence if
the take-off is good, than a smaller one where it is bad.
Always turn your horse's head towards hounds when the
pack is passing you in the lane, and then you minimise the
chance of one getting kicked. Hold your horse well by
the head in deep ground, for with a slack rein he will soon
be blown.

Race-riding.

" Parce Puer stimulis et fortius utere loris " is advice as
true to-day as when first uttered by Virgil. The words
constitute the most ancient orders given to a jockey on
record, and indeed are entitled to rank amongst the very
best — especially in these days of "butcher-boy" jockeys,
when race-riding is at a very low ebb mdeed. Probably at no
period of the history of the Turf have the riders been more
utterly destitute of control over their steeds, and Virgil no

400 THE HORSE

doubt would have laughed them to scorn, and written some
scathing lines, had he been able to observe the riding of
to-day. The natural result is the constant occurrence
of unintentional crossing and jostling so frequently com-
plained of, and the many falls which have taken place
during the last two decades ; whilst grace of bearing, which
is an invariable attribute of high skill in all athletic pur-
suits, is now only conspicuous by its absence.

Formerly it was quite a rare thing to hear of a horse
falling on the flat — but then jockeys were able to guide
their mounts, and could keep them from striking into the
heels of their leaders, even in the middle of a crush of
horses. But now it is quite different, and falls are frequent.
The present fashionable absurd seat totally prevents the rider
from utilising the powerful muscles of the back and legs (the
same which are used in rowing), which the old school
of jockeys employed with great success. They kept their
horses to their stride in the early part of a race by putting
their backs into it and bringing their weight into play, and
held their horses with little exertion to themselves, or any
fighting for their heads on the part of the steeds. With
their weight thrown chiefly upon the lower part of the
thighs, the inside of the knees, and the upper part of the
calves, they could poise their balance with the utmost
nicety, and give and take with the reins with great delicacy
of handling. "When such artists were seen in the saddle as
Tom Challoner, George Fordham, Tom Cannon, Custance,
Tom French, John Osborne, Jem Snowdon, and many
others, a race was run smoothly all through, the horses
gliding away at the start much as an express train starts
from the platform under the guidance of a highly skilled
driver. Although the horses were steadied they were into
their stride at once, for their riders maintained their balance
by grip, and not by holding on by the reins, and not an inch
of ground was lost that the horse could stretch for. A
photograph of one of the greatest races of a recent year
reveals a very different start, and yet the riders are the best
we can now produce ! Only one jockey is sitting down on
his horse and allowing it to strike off at once into its stride.

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 401

and he, it may be mentioned, proved the ultimate winner.
The rest of the riders are in the queerest of positions, most
of them with dayhght showing underneath them for the full
length of their thighs, and one and all are holding so tight
by the reins that the horses' jaws are wide open with the
necks bent, while the laid-back ears betray the discomfort
the animals are feeling. What would not any of the great
jockeys of old have accomplished amongst such a crew !

It should always be kept in mind that a horse starts with
only a given amount of energy in his frame, just as an
accumulator is stored with electricity ; and that any call
made vipon this energy, such as having to hold its rider in
position by the mouth, is so much the less available for the
struggle of the race. Also every inch lost in the fight for
freedom when the rider is hanging on by the reins, which
would otherwise have been gained with the same expendi-
ture of force, is equal to carrying so much extra weight.
A yard of ground is soon lost in this way, and that is the
equivalent of about 1^ lbs. in weight. It is easy thus to
lose many yards before the rider has got balanced, and the
amount of weight so lost is often quite incalculable.

Tod Sloan introduced this present fashion, but then he
was one of those talented, exceptional jockeys, who would
have been certain to win races in whatever style he rode.
Moreover, he had the luck to arrive in England at a time
when our jockeys were very moderate ; though if he had
only visited our shores some twenty years before he would
soon have had to alter his style, or Fred Archer and George
Fordham would have given him no chance whatever of
holding his own with them.

Sloan formed a theory on what suited a bicycle, and sought
thus to escape the pressure of the wind ; and this is just the
sort of catch-phrase the public delights in getting hold of,
without following the matter up. Jockeys can crouch quite
as low with the old seat, if they have a mind to, and there is
any necessity for it, but this is only one single item in the
delicate matter of riding a race. Balance, so adjusted that
the weight is distributed to the greatest advantage, is equally
important, and the burthen especially should not be all put

402 THE HORSE

in one place. Any one who has run a race at school with a
comrade on his back, knows what a vast difference there is
in carrying two persons of the same weight. One sits so
lightly the motions of the limbs are scarcely impeded, and
it is hardly noticed that he is on one's back ; but the other
allows all his weight to sag into one place, feeling as if
he is so much lead, and soon tires his carrier. It must
be the same with a horse, and it is common knowledge that
it is more tiring to a horse to carry dead weight than a
person who is as heavy, but a good rider. At the same time
it is better for the horse to carry the dead weight than to
have a bad rider put up. A great objection to the American
seat is that the weight is all in one place, and cannot be
distributed in the same way as before. Moreover, by the
very forward seat, with the reins held close up to the horse's
head, there is a great strain on the muscles of the neck, as
the burden is imposed at the end of a long lever.

Tod Sloan overlooked the fact that a rider of a bicycle,
when crouching down, still has the weight within the
compass of the two wheels which support the frame ; but
a jockey stretched out upon the horse's neck, supporting
himself to a great degree by the bit, is far beyond the limbs
which support the body of the horse.

It is true that the American position takes the weight
off the loins, so that the horse gallops with more freedom ;
but a first-class jockey in the old style, when standing up
in his stirrups, and with some of his weight resting on his
thighs, not only took his weight off the horse's loins but
was so glued to the horse that he was carried by it as a part
of itself, in a fashion no one can hope to emulate with the
American seat. How many pounds this meant in favour
of the former it is impossible to state, but it must certainly
have been a good many.

Another difference between the effect of the forward seat
on a bicycle and on a horse, is that the former being made
of metal does not tire, however long the weight remains in
one place. It is different, however, with a horse, whose
muscles must feel the burden after a time, and the relief
was great when a jockey sat down to finish his race, after

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 403

standing up in his stirrups during the early stages of the
contest, for the weight then came upon a different set of
muscles. We all know what a relief it is after carrying a
weight, like a pail of water, in one hand to change it into
the other ; the weight to be carried is just the same, but on
the new muscles coming into play it seems as if it had been
halved, and an extra exertion would be quite possible if
suddenly called for. No doubt the horse feels this when
his rider sits down on his back for the finish, but there is
no such relief for him with the American seat.

When finishing in the old style much can be done by
the jockey himself, if he can time himself exactly to fit the
horse's stride, in propelling his own weight forward, and
thus easing the horse. This can easily be tested by sitting
in a wooden chair, facing the back, and then grasping it
tightly with the knees endeavouring to move it on in a
series of jumps. It will be found quite possible to move it
a few inches, although the feet do not come in contact with
the ground. The energy of Archer's finish was largely due
to this, for, lapping his long legs round the horse, he got
such a purchase as must have considerably lightened the
horse's task. In this again the American seat can take
no part.

If the American seat possesses the advantages claimed
for it surely the times in which races are run should far
surpass those of former days, and yet this is not the case.
In spite of vastly improved racecourses, with turf like that
of lawns, and straighter tracks, and all the money and care
which is being bestowed in breeding the race-horse, the
times in which races are run remain very much the same.
It may be indeed that the American seat is the cause of
the non-improvement, since riders cannot now control their
horses so well as formerly.

The supreme test of the average of races won, to races
ridden, also betrays that there are no first-class jockeys now
riding, though " amongst the blind a one-eyed man is king."
The fatal craving for " getting the rails" which now yearly
loses so many races, from the jockey getting shut in and
unable to find an opening in time, is simply a consequence

404

THE HORSE

of the American seat, since the riders find they cannot hold
their horses to an absolutely straight course, unless they
can get alongside the rails as a guide. In former days
nobody cared about the rails unless they offered the shortest
way to the winning-post, which is the case on a circular
course ; but on a straight track Fordham, or Archer, or
Tom Cannon would never have dreamt of losing one or two
lengths in order to get the rails ; and at Epsom Fordham
never took them if he could help it, as he preferred the
middle of the course, deeming it to be better going in
wet weather.

Formerly no jockey was considered in the very front
rank if he could not show an average of one win for every
three rides, when spread over a long period ; but no jockey
now approaches this ideal, and thus the poverty of the land
is shown. In other days several jockeys attained this
average, even when they had others of their own calibre to
compete against ; if one such jockey should now come to
the front he would have an easy task to maintain his
position ! During the thirteen consecutive years that Fred
Archer was champion jockey, 1874-1886, he showed the
remarkable average of almost '2f wins for races ridden, the
totals being winners 2609, and races 7428, and if an
admirer of any of the present jockeys cares to compare the
performances of his pet hero with the figures given below
he will arrive at the respective merits of the two jockeys,
if not of the different styles of riding : —

Year.

1874 ,

1875 .

1876 .

1877

1878

1879 .

1880

1881 .

1882

1883 .

1884 .

1885 .

1886 ,

Wins.

Races.

147

530

172

605

207

662

218

602

229

619

197

568

120

362

220

582

210

560

232

631

241

577

246

667

170

513

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 405

On eight occasions Archer rode more than two hundred
winners.

A point, which seems but httle understood in these days,
is what ought to be done when a companion is started to
make running for another. The former is of course an
inferior horse, and no matter what speed he goes he cannot
get the other into trouble, who wiU always be going within
himself, and therefore the horse for whom the running
is made should lie close behind the leader's quarters. Unless
a strong pace is required, a pace-maker would not be started
on the mission ; and a true pace can only be insured if the
two horses go on together, for the rest of the competitors
cannot allow one from whom danger is feared to go away in
front, and therefore have to keep up with them. But what
is very often seen is the pace-maker galloping on with a
ten-lengths lead, or more, while the rest of the field follow
at a more steady pace, with possibly the companion last
of all. This is of no use to the latter ! Except by the pace-
maker, the race may be really run at a slow pace, the others
simply waiting for the leader to come back to them when he
has run himself out. But if the horse for whom running is
made lies up with his pace-maker, and goes on in front the
moment the leader begins to tire, the object of the pace-
maker is fulfilled, and the race is run at a strong pace
throughout.

A word may also be added with regard to riding trials.
These should be run from start to finish at the best pace
the horses are capable of, the object being to find out which
IS the best animal, and not for any particular horse to win.
There is a great art in riding trials, and many jockeys fail in
this, and it is very misleading to put them up. Some
cannot be induced to make the most of their mounts all
through the trial, for naturally every one likes to win, and
by easing their mounts a little at first they can almost
ensure riding the winner. Often stable-lads make good
trial-riders, for their emulation is keen, and not having
experience of riding races in public they do not endeavour
to steady their mounts in the same degree as a professional
jockey may be tempted to do. Many jockeys, however, are

406 THE HORSE

excellent trial-riders, and when this is the case their services
are very valuable.

It is seldom sufficient to have only two horses in a trial,
as then the pace is often not good. There should always be
a pace-maker, and it is better to have two when possible.
With four or five horses running in the trial a true pace
should be ensured.

The introduction of the starting-gate has done much to
equalise the chances of each horse at the start, though much
still remains possible to be gained by the skill of the rider.
Unless a horse is "on his toes" the moment the barrier
is raised much extra exertion is needed to start into motion,
for it is an axiom of motor mechanics that it requires double
the force to move a mass from a state of rest, than to propel
it when in motion. Formerly there were various little
dodges to gain an advantage at the start, and my mentor, the
late Sam Adams, so well known in connection with the
tampering of the scales after he had won the Cambridge-
shire, on Catch-'em-Alive in 1863, and who also rode Lozenge
in the dead-heat with Wolsey for the same race in 1867,
and was on his back again in the run-off, when he won,
took infinite pains with my education in that respect,
the fruits of which were afterwards reaped in many a race.
Archer was wonderfully good in this respect, and having
gained the start, which he almost invariably did, allowed his
horse to stride out for the first two or three hundred yards,
before he drew it back to a steadier pace. In his day there
was none of that loitering in the earlier stages of a race
which became so prominent a feature just prior to the
advent of Tod Sloan. Nowadays time is lost in the efforts
of the riders to maintain their balance at the start, and too
often a grotesque exhibition is seen.

After getting off well, and settled into a place, the jockey
must keep every faculty at its fullest stretch, to take advan-
tage of every phase of the race, if he is not tied down with
special orders. Very often there are only one or two
animals he fears, and if he sees one of these in a momentary
difficulty he should instantly force the pace, to take the
fullest advantage of the mishap to the other. It may be a

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 407

slight slip or a changing of its legs, or a cannon from another
horse, any of which occurrences will cause it to lose from
half a length to two or three lengths, if no time is given to
allow it to steady itself and again get into its stride.
Corners of race-courses are now so eased off that they do not
have so much effect as formerly ; but no horse can go at its
best pace round a corner if it happens to be leading with the
outer fore-leg, and if it is noted that a dangerous competitor
is going round on the wrong leg a rival jockey should force
the pace to its utmost, when the other must lose two or three
lengths in consequence. Sometimes a jockey will commit
the fatal error of trying to come up alongside another while
actually on the turn, when, if there is no danger of another
getting up on the inside in the meantime, the leading jockey
can allow the other to creep up to his horse's neck, and then,
pulling the outer rein, is able to shoulder his competitor
across the course for two or three strides without actually
touching the horse ; quickly straightening his own
horse again he will gain from the other about a couple
of lengths, for it is impossible for the outer jockey to
straighten his mount until the inner one allows him to do
so, or so quickly as the other. It requires a nicety of judg-
ment on the part of the inner jockey, for if he does not allow
the other horse to get alongside far enough, or lets him get
too far up, he cannot in either case put the manoeuvre
into practice. Whenever such an advantage is gained it
must be made the most of, and the horse urged almost to its
best pace, only a sHght hold being still kept upon the
reins.

When all goes well, and about three parts of the distance
has been covered, and the jockey's mount is still going
within his best pace, it is necessary to creep up alongside the
leaders and find out whether it has the pace of them or not.
If at once they increase their pace on being reached, and the
horse can keep with them, it should be let out yet a little
more, if possible, to see if it can get them stretched to the
utmost ; and if this can be done, whilst your horse has still
a httle in hand, keep it at the neck of the others, and
conserve its powers for the final struggle. If, however, you

408 THE HORSE

find that your horse cannot keep its place without doing its
very utmost, it is essential to remember whether it is
a stayer or not. If it is known to be stout and honest, you
can keep at it in hopes that the other horses will fail when
also kept at their full stretch, and begin to tire, when you
may be successful after all ; but if your animal is speedy
but a non-stayer, you must sit as still as possible, and steady
it as much as you dare, to within a very few strides of
the winning-post, and then endeavour to win by a single
short rush.

There is no worse fault in a jockey than to contract a
habit of lying away from his horses, when he has one under
him with speed enough to live with them, and then try to
make up twenty yards in the last hundred. This is
practically turning the race into a very short sprint, and
giving the others a start of twenty yards. The only time
when a jockey can allow the others to get away in advance,
if he also is riding a speedy animal, is at the beginning of a
race when he perceives that the other jockeys are racing their
horses at such a speed that it is impossible for them to keep
it up to the very end ; but this requires a jockey of the
finest judgment of pace, and should only be put in force on
special occasions.

Many jockeys, otherwise good, develop idiosyncrasies
which become so fixed that, when noted by an observant
first-class rider, a weapon is put into his hand which enables
him frequently to steal a race that he would not otherwise
win. In mentioning the following examples I have in mind
well-known jockeys of long ago, though ofttimes it would
seem that their mantles have fallen upon riders of the present
day! As an instance: "A" invariably makes the running
if possible, and keeps the lead as long as he can ; so that if
it is believed that it will be a close thing between a horse
which is fancied and " A's " mount, and it only can be
ensured that " A's" horse is kept at the full stretch all the
way, and is never allowed a pull, it will be much in favour of the
other horse, who will therefore probably gain the race. This
may be effected in two ways. Another horse may be started
with the express purpose of racing against "A," whilst the

DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 409

Simon Pure of the stable lies a little back, watching his
opportunity of tackling " A," the moment the mount of the
latter shows symptoms of faltering. If this is skilfully done
in all probability " A's " horse will be unable to resist the
challenge of the rival, and will lose the race. Even if " A"
has to be out-manoeuvred single-handed the same tactics
must be pursued, the rider of the other horse keeping
sufficiently near to be able to go up at once and race against
it, directly "A's" horse shows any signs of slackening its
pace. If no opportunity is given for an "easy," even for a
few strides, "A's" mount will be unable to keep up the
pressure, and vnll be beaten accordingly.

In another case " B " may have a habit of always keeping
in the rear during the early part of a race, and then trying
to win by a rush at the finish. He also can often be
manoeuvred out of the race. The rival jockey will go to the
front at once, and, if the pace is poor, will take up the
running, perhaps with a lead of two or three lengths, with
the sole object of stopping the pace. If the other jockeys
have waiting orders, or have not been told to see that there
is a good pace, they will probably be content to keep their
places behind till half the distance has been run ; and if
the leader is then on the alert, and immediately notes when
the others — especially " B " — are increasing their speed to
come up alongside him, and then instantly forces the running
to the utmost, he turns the race into a sprint from that spot,
with the advantage of several lengths start of " B."

Another example may be adduced of a jockey, " C,"
having a fancy for coming up on the rails, always trying to
creep up alongside them when getting on terms with the
leaders. By drawing away a little from the rails an appear-
ance of an opening may be given, but the moment " C " is
induced to make a rush for his favourite place the leader
retakes his position on the rails, thus baulking " C " in his
endeavour, when it is probably too late for him to draw back
and come on the outside. Again the race may thus be won
by an inferior horse, but an abler jockey.

"D," who has a trick of coming with a rush at the
end instead of going up to the leaders in good time,

410 THE HORSE

may be trapped by steadying" the leader, keeping him
back to horses which are not feared, and leaving a small
opening to tempt "D " to try to get through; but directly
he tries his favourite game the fancied opening is closed up,
and " D " appears in the report of the race as " not having
been able to find an opening in time." Jockeys such as
Fordham, Archer, T, Chaloner, Tom Cannon, and many
others never failed to be in their proper places at the right
time, and such mischances vs^ere scarcely ever recorded
against them, however large the fields in which they rode.

In the manner of going round a turn, especially a sharp
one such as is met with on country courses, ground can be
easily gained, or lost. If a jockey races up to a turn at his
horse's best pace the latter must perforce steady itself to get
round, checking its stride to do so, and being shaken in its
frame as well. It then has to get steam up again, and thus
ground is necessarily lost. But if the jockey steadies his
horse previous to approaching the corner the animal can
swing round it with continually increasing velocity, and
comes into the straight course beyond at the top of its speed.
To do this, however, it is essential that the horse should be
leading with the inside fore-leg, for if the outside one is
leading the horse cannot retain its balance properly, and
may even slip up, and fall, for it is obliged to lean consider-
ably over when making the turn. The jockey should take
note of which leg is leading before the turn is reached, and
if it is the wrong one the horse may be induced to change by
pulling the outside rein, thus forcing the head slightly to
that side, while at the same time the jockey niggles with his
spur on the same side, as far back as he can reach, which
usually produces the desired result. An old horse, which
knows the game, almost always changes to the proper leg,
when necessary, of his own accord before the actual turn
is reached.

Perhaps race-riding may be summed up with these
remarks : —

Obtain a good start.

Do not race your horse off his legs at starting, but settle him into his
stride as soon as possible.

DRIVma, RIDING, HUNTING, RACE-RIDING 411

Perfect your balance.

Make your turns close.

When you have the lead, always keep something in hand for the
finish.

Go up in good time to look for your race.

Utilise your horse's speed, or his staying powers, according to his
abilities.

CHAPTEE XVII
HOESE SHOWS AND EEMOUNTS

Horse Shows.

The educational value that Horse Shows have afforded
since their inception, well deserves recognition from the
historian of the nineteenth century. They have set up
a high standard, and shown breeders in out-of-the-way
localities what they should aim at, and taught them what
acknowledged experts consider to be the best articles of their
class. They have also helped to place an increased value
upon make and shape, and thus raised the general
produce to a higher level. The classes for young stock
should be the backbone of every Show of any pretension, for
these give great encouragement to breeders to bring out the
best of their produce, and also afford an opportunity to
prospective purchasers to see the pick of the youngsters in
the neighbourhood, at small cost and trouble. There is, too,
a fresh crop each year of the respective ages amongst the
youngsters, whilst this is often not the case with regard to
the older horses, which are apt to make the rounds year after
year with rather monotonous regularity. Such horses some-
times farm the various open prizes for quite a long period ;
and though it may add eclat to a Show that some famous
prize-taker should grace its exhibition, local breeders are
thereby discouraged from entering into competition with
" the crack," and the question needs to be carefully con-
sidered and weighed, as to what course will benefit the
district the most.

It is a very desirable thing to have a champion present,
whom all may see and admire, but the regulations should be
so compiled that the crack does not take an undue share of the

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 413

prizes ; and the object should be to cater for a multitude of
owners, and send home as many happy and contented prize-
winners as possible, rather than that several competitions
should be gained by the same animal. There is no greater
stimulant than success, nor anything more dispiriting than
continual defeat. It is better therefore to divide the prize-
money into many small sums, with several minor distinctions
awarded to those who receive notice from the judge, and to
vary the conditions in such a manner that if beaten in one class
a win may be still possible in another, than to give more
valuable but fewer prizes. Former winners may well be
restricted to competition amongst themselves, with only one
prize open to champions ; and many classes should have
local conditions attached to them, for the main object should
be to encourage breeding in the district.

These remarks are of course intended to apply only to
local Shows, which should be the feeders of the great ones,
such as those at Islington and Richmond (Surrey), the Royal,
the Great Yorkshire, and the world-famous Dublin Show.

None have been better or more judiciously managed than
the last-mentioned, which has grown to its present height
out of but small beginnings, for when located in Kildare
Street there was but little scope for the competitors, and
the funds were very low. The move to its present site was
the making of its success. Its ample space gave an
opportunity of seeing the animals to the best advantage,
whilst the shrewd idea of making the jumping a chief
feature by giving valuable prizes so as to attract good horses,
and then to make people pay a second entrance fee to see
them jump, soon provided the executive with large funds,
enabling it to carry out its plans without fear of the cost.
Other Stewards have grudgingly copied Dublin to a certain
extent, but not having fully grasped the idea have added
rather feeble jumping to their programmes ; they have not
gone whole-heartedly into the notion, and hence have not
benefited themselves pecuniarily in consequence. They
do not give sufficiently valuable prizes to attract good
horses, nor do they provide such excellent fences as at
Dublin, and as they feel that what they offer is but a poor

414 THE HORSE

performance they have not the temerity to make any charge
for seeing it.

It is not an unusual plan to engage the services of a
rough-rider to handle a horse at a Show, including the
riding of it in a jumping competition, and so far no case has
come into Court with regard to the liability of the owner,
in case of an accident, under the Employer's Liability Act.
Unless there was a special contract, binding the horse-
breaker to the exclusive service of the owner for a given
period, and a retainer paid accordingly, it would scarcely
seem that the employer would be liable. If injury is caused
to a third person, by his negligence when breaking a colt,
the horse-breaker is liable for the damage and not the
employer, although if the same damage was committed by
a groom in the ordinary service of the employer, the latter
would be responsible and not the groom. Also if a horse-
breaker has improved the value of a horse under his care
the law allows him a lien upon the animal, until he has
been duly paid for his services. It would seem then that a
horse-breaker riding in the Show-ring for a temporary period
only would be held to be a professor, and free on his own
account, and would not come under the category of a
servant.

Judges.

The most important person in the Show-ring is un-
doubtedly the judge, for on his verdict may depend large sums
of money, and the reputation of an animal to a certain
extent. How difficult it is to find a competent judge only
those know who have been in the ring with many who
are constantly officiating. It is very seldom that one
is met with who can take a horse to pieces, and having
a thorough knowledge of each part of the anatomy can
weigh up the good points and the defects, and balance them
thoroughly in his mind. Numbers of judges take a very
superficial glance at a horse, and will give a prize to an
animal who looks showy at a little distance, but on
closer inspection has some unpardonable fault. It is a
pleasure to be in the ring with a real judge, but a penance

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 415

to be there with an incompetent one ; and the less he knows
the more hkely he is to be unconvinceable ! Some judges
have special fads, and the moment they see their favourite
weakness they will look at nothing else. There are very
few judges I have ever met whom I would ask to buy me
a horse, from their inspection and without having seen it
for myself, although I have had the pleasure of knowing
one or two whose word I should take without the slightest
hesitation. Certainly any mistakes made, particularly at
the great Shows, are honest ones, and not from any ulterior
motive ; but it is to be feared that this is not always the case at
small local Shows, where the judges are chosen from amongst
the neighbours. An amusing and instructive instance of this
occurred to me two years ago when out shooting with a
friend in the West of England. A tenant of his had just
won a third prize at a local Show, and as we passed his
house I expressed a desire to see the animal, which the
owner was delighted to bring out for our inspection. It
was a very nice animal, and I comphmented him on having
bred such a good-looking one, and at the same time remarked
that the two placed in front of it must have been very good
indeed to have beaten it in their places. " Oh no," he
replied, " this one is much the best ; " and then added con-
lidentially, "You see, sir, I am only a poor man, and I
couldn't afford to give the judge more than five shillings,
so I was bound to be beaten by they two." The curious
part, to my mind, was that he seemed perfectly satisfied, and
appeared to think that it was the ordinary way at Show^s —
a comment indeed on the habits and customs of that part
of the West !

When first I had the honour to officiate in the judging-
ring, more than thirty years ago, it was the usual practice
to desire those who had no chance of being selected for a
prize to leave the ring at once, and in the huge classes we
had to adjudicate upon at Dublin it made the judge's task
easier by quickly reducing the numbers, thus enabling the
attention to be concentrated on the few who remained. It
was soon recognised, however, to be an invidious thing to
do, for it was not pleasant for those who were the earliest

416 THE HORSE

to be so conspicuously marked out for rejection. It is
far better to select the best and put them in a batch for
further inspection, and then send the others out in a body
together. If the class is a very large one — and I have
assisted to judge a class of 236 at Dublin — the most feasible
plan is to divide it into large batches, and after selecting
eight or ten from one batch, and a similar number from the
others, to send away all the remainder, and have only
twenty or so remaining from which to make a final selection.
In this way nothing which is good is likely to get over-
looked— which sometimes has been alleged to happen in
a large class. It is a great pleasure to have as a co-judge a
pleasant-mannered, good fellow, who knows the business ;
but with a rough, overbearing, rather ignorant person, it
is very unpleasant at times.

Until I retired from judging I much preferred judging by
myself, and bearing all praise or blame on my own shoulders,
to running the risk of having to share the latter with
another, at whose door it possibly chiefly lay. For ofttimes
it is a case of judges differing, and then either a compromise
must be effected, or a referee called in.

Many a horse at the minor Shows does not do itself
justice in the ring for want of proper training beforehand,
and will neither walk, trot, nor canter in a satisfactory
manner. This is usually due to the excitement produced
by the novel conditions ; and care should be taken before-
hand to accustom the animal to being amongst a crowd of
strange horses and people, to hear bands play, and to
disregard all kinds of strange noises. Agricultural horses
especially should have a course of lessons at the walk, and
trot, and be taught to stand squarely on their legs, for the
best judges will have nothing to do with an animal who
stands with its fore-legs and hind-legs stretched as far
apart as possible, in the style so beloved by grooms of that
class. It is then impossible to see if the hocks are properly
placed under the body, or standing away from it ; while the
position tends to give a false impression of the body in
general being too hght. The groom in charge should learn
the pace which his horse should not exceed at a walk, if he

HORSE SH0W8 AND REMOUNTS 417

wants it to appear at its best, for whilst it should walk with
plenty of vigour and fire many a Shire horse is apt to go
wide behind, if forced beyond a certain speed.

In 1908 the Council of the Hackney Society passed an
excellent rule respecting the shoes of exhibits, and laid down
that no shoe for a horse exceeding 14 hands may be more
than 2 lbs, in weight, whilst for ponies under that height
the shoe must not exceed IJ lbs. That such a rule should
be necessary affords the adverse critics of the breed much
food for reflection, with opportunity for drawing comparison
between action for Show and for real work.

The mounting of the cavalry in any future war is likely to
be a momentous affair, for the supply of suitable horses in
the country is greatly depleted, on account of motor-traction
having received such an overwhelming impetus since the
Boer War was concluded. Moreover, the shortage of horses
is likely annually to decrease, as the advent of the motor-car
has practically killed the demand for a numerous class of
horses suitable for 'buses, tramcars, posting, and general
harness-work, and when there is no demand the supply
must fall off. In the past the omnibus horses formed a
grand reserve to fall back upon, but this has now almost
entirely gone. It does not pay breeders to breed especially
for the Army at present prices ; nor would the horses be
forthcoming if the price was raised, for the numbers required
annually in peace time are so very small that the demand is
easily satisfied, and the surplus woald be left on the breeder's
hands. It is of no avail for the Government to register
stallions and mares if the breeders find it does not pay them
to produce foals.

According to the leaflet on ' ' Types of Horses suitable for
Eemounts," published by the Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, the numbers of horses required by the War Ofdce
annually are approximately —

Cavalry of the Line 1,000

Royal Artillery \

Royal Engineei's ;- ... ... ... ••• 1,360

Army Service Corps j

Mounted Infantry ... ... ... ... ••• 1-10

Total 'ISOO

2<S

418 THE HORSE

and in addition a small amount for the Household Cavalry.
It will be seen, therefore, that the number required cannot
possibly be an inducement for many breeders to take up the
industry of breeding troopers. Under present conditions
the only horses that will probably pay for breeding in the
future in the British Isles are hunters, race-horses, polo-
ponies, and agricultural horses, and the misfits from these
will be more than sufficient to supply the wants of the Army
in times of peace. Of these breeds hunters will probably
very sensibly decHne each year, for recent legislation is so
crippling the landlords, and tenants, that those who are in a
position to keep hunters are hkely to become less and less so ;
and hunting will further droop through lack of subscriptions
to the Hunt funds from the same cause. Small holdings,
and barbed wire, are ahke inimical to hunting. The former
because of the tendency to reprisals when foxes take toll of
poultry, or damage is sustained through the Hunt crossing
the holding, which cannot always be duly compensated —
especially if funds are scarce ; and the latter because it is
cheap and handy. As the small-holder invariably cuts down
all his trees as soon as he comes into possession, he has no
supply of wood to mend his gaps, while he no longer has
a landlord to fall back upon to supply his minor wants.
Although the small-holders will probably soon disappear,
hunting and shooting may in the meantime have so
dwindled that it may be almost impossible to resuscitate them
again. What has happened in the past will take place in
the future. Under Free Trade no small-holder who has to
make his living out of an ordinary agricultural holding can
maintain himself during a cycle of bad seasons, and he is bound
to go to the wall. In addition those who buy their holdings
have to borrow the money to do so, and when the inevitable
death occurs of the head of the family the crushing Death
Duties will have to be paid, that are sapping the life-blood
of England, and the lately purchased holding will again be
thrown into the market, to meet the demands of the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer. All these changes must militate
against the continuance of hunting, and hunter-breeding will
suffer in consequence of the lack of demand for hunters.

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 419

The Germans have already grasped this fact, far-seeing as
they are, and such a demand for Irish hunter mares and
filHes for export has never been known as there has been
this year, for it is fully recognised in Germany that in a
short time there will be few mares to buy.

For mobilisation, including the Territorial force, 156,000
horses are required, whilst the wastage would be immense,
and at least three times as many horses in addition would be
required within six months of war being declared. To meet
this demand there are only 15,000 horses on the peace estab-
lishment, and some few thousands more registered — but these
latter are only effective as transport and mounted infantry
horses, and cannot be reckoned upon to take their places in
the ranks of the cavalry, or the gun-teams of the artillery.
Highly trained horses are necessary for both of these arms,
and when Lord Haldane so light-heartedly reduced the
artillery by batteries at a time, he surely never recognised
how long it takes to thoroughly train a horse to be able to
take any place in a gun-team which is required at the
moment. Three years is the least period requisite for the
horse, and seven years for the artilleryman, to be made
thoroughly effective, whilst a cavalry horse cannot be manu-
factured under eight months, and even that is too limited a
time in the majority of cases. I was adjutant of the Eifle
Brigade for nine years, and always reckoned that it took
three years to train a rifleman before he became thoroughly
dependable, so that the times mentioned for the much more
complicated cavalry and artillery branches of the service
can easily be understood. At present we have but 7,000
trained cavalry horses, and these are not likely to
be largely augmented by animals which have been used at
the yeomanry trainings ; for it is notorious that many of
the horses are hired out for one training after another, and
therefore the total of horses ridden in the ranks each year is
very different to what it may appear on paper.

The census of the horses already taken is very misleading,
as little or no distinction has been made between the animals,
and brood-mares and aged pensioners have all been counted
on. In my own case a mare thirty-three years old was
reckoned in the list of my horses.

420 THE HORSE

The question, then, is what should be done to provide an
ample reserve in time of need, and the only possible answer
is that the Government must provide it themselves.

The next question is how this should be carried out.

It would never answer for the War Office to attempt to
breed troopers for themselves, for it would inevitably turn
out a most costly failure if officers were appointed to super-
intend the breeding establishments. They have not the
necessary experience ; and as, moreover, especial gifts are
required to be a successful breeder, the odds would be
immense against any officer who possessed them being dis-
covered and appointed to the post. Where the blind
appoint the blind it is as difficult to avoid falling into the
ditch as when the one is a leader of the other. The expe-
rience of the remodelling of the Kemount Department after
the late war is a sufficient case in point. When General
Truman, the then Inspector-General of Eemounts, was
faced with the stupendous task of providing Eemounts on a
scale that had never been dreamed of by the War Office, and
for which no preparations therefore had been made, and
found the purchasers appointed unequal to the task, he took
a wise step. He placed himself in communication with
three retired officers, all of whom had judged for years at
such great Shows as Islington, Dublin, Cork, Limerick, and
elsewhere. One of them had been a Master of Foxhounds
for many years ; the second had conducted successfully a
large thoroughbred stud farm (where he had bred a winner
of the Oaks), and in addition had formed a famous stud of
hunter stallions, and had shown a grasp of detail and busi-
ness capacity which had insured success ; whilst the third
had been a prominent jockey in his day, besides training a
considerable number of winners. If such experience was
not equal to the job General Truman felt that at any rate he
had done his best to secure efficiency, and knew not where
else to seek it.

From the first he was constantly thwarted by higher
powers, and the orders for purchasing were frequently
changed as to height, ages, and other details without con-
sulting him, which caused great confusion, and required

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 421

considerable knowledge of men, especially of horse-
dealers, to get smoothed over without friction ; but with
the help of those he had selected, and of other officers sub-
sequently appointed to purchase abroad and also at home,
the task of keeping the Army in South Africa equipped with
horses was accomplished.

The 'bus and tram horses, seasoned as they were and with
muscles hardened from constant work, were invaluable for
dragging big guns, and for transport in general ; and many
of the ex-hunters and mountain ponies were in splendid
condition for campaignmg, though others proved too soft
and required months of conditioning, which there was not
always time to give them. With regard to the ponies rather
an amusing incident occurred, which dwellers in the North
will appreciate. At the beginning the orders were to
purchase horses 15.3 to 16 hands, but, from having lived
amongst the grouse moors from childhood, I felt sure that the
animals found most suitable there would be the best for a
mountainous country, and therefore urged with much force
that a few galloways should be purchased as an experiment.
A little correspondence took place, and then one morning a
telegram was received: "What are Fell Galloways'? No-
body here knows what you mean." The explanation was
soon made, and happening to meet with two excellent
specimens that day I wired to ask permission to purchase,
and send them for inspection, and as soon as they arrived I
received a telegram to purchase half a dozen more. Almost
immediately afterwards another telegram arrived to buy
fifty; and then yet another telegram to buy as many as
possible, and in the end many hundreds were purchased and
did extremely well. There is one little personal item I may
perhaps be permitted to mention here, and that is the origin
of the letters M.T. branded on the off fore-foot of many of
the Eemounts. Very early a batch of horses were sent to
the Remount Depot so unsuitable that the purchaser had
to be sought and cautioned, and these were attributed to me.
Feeling sure that a mistake had occurred I remonstrated,
when we were ordered to come to the depot to see the tjrpe
required, and to take note of these unsuitable horses. When

422 THE HORSE

I arrived with luy veterinary surgeon we were shown the
rejected horses, and on looking at them we both at once
declared that we had never seen them before, and, producing
our books, were soon able to show that none of the markings
corresponded with any we had purchased. We then passed
on to the batch that were held up as the type required, when
we instantly recognised the animals we had forwarded, and
again producing our books triumphantly pointed out each
animal, showing also from whom it had been bought, and
the price paid for it. To obviate any similar mistakes being
made in future — and such did occur more than once — I
requested permission from the Inspector-General to have a
private brand of my own, saying that I was quite willing to
bear any blame on my shoulders which might be deserved, but
that I did not want the faults of others to be fathered upon
me. The request was readily granted, and henceforward every
animal purchased by me was branded on the off fore-foot
with the letters M.T., besides the War Ofiice brand on the
near fore-foot. At first the dealers were curious to inquire
the reason why two brands were used, when the veterinary
surgeon used dehghtedly to reply, " To show we are not
ashamed of our purchases ! " At various times I have had
the pleasure of being told by men who had been out in
South Africa how well some horse had carried them which
was branded with the mysterious letters which they did not
understand but which were always prized when seen.
Another testimony to the value of the brand was supplied
after the war, when some of the colonial troops were brought
to England to share in the great review. My veterinary
surgeon was attached to a body of them, and when he joined
he found them loudly complaining of the quality of the
horses which had been handed over to them. " We have
picked out some of the best," they said, "which are down
there, but the rest are brutes." A sudden thought crossed
the mind of the veterinary surgeon, and he inquired, " Have
the selected horses got any special mark on them, by any
chance?" "Yes," was the answer, "they are nearly all
branded M.T. Do you know the reason of it? " He soon
enlightened them, and went at once to inspect them,

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 423

recognising many of them ; out of about 150 thus picked
out some 120 bore the famihar brand, and he at once wrote
to me to acquaint me with the incident.

We first commenced to purchase from the great dealers,
and at the auctions and fairs ; but we soon began to map
the country into districts, and then advertised places where
horses could be brought for inspection on a given day, by any-
body who chose. I thus became acquainted with all the little
dealers from Carlisle to Land's End, and also with the men,
chiefly gipsies, who make a business of knowing all about
every horse in their vicinity, getting, as a rule, a guinea for
their information if a purchase is effected. I thus had the
whole country covered with a network of workers, and when
once the plan had been thoroughly started there was no
difficulty in supplying any number of horses on the receipt
of a telegram. For three years I was at work almost every
day of the week, except Sundays, beginning at Carlisle, and
working along the eastern portion of England, through
Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex. I
then visited some of the dealers and auctions in London,
especially Tattersalls and Aldridge's; and then taking up
the tale again at Taunton, proceeded down one coast of
Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Cornwall, and returned by
the other coast. This tour just took five weeks, and as soon
as finished I returned at once to Carlisle to recommence the
same route. The correspondence was necessarily immense,
besides the keeping of the accounts and books, and, having
no secretary, every letter had to be written by myself, and a
copy kept of all the important ones. During the three years
I inspected 12,614 horses, rejecting 6,189, and purchasing
6,425 at a cost of £239,617 ; and I have in my books the
colour, markings, and ages of almost every horse inspected,
and the reason why it was rejected, if not purchased.

When going the round for the last time, and saying
goodbye to those with whom friendly relations had been
established, the remark was quite frequently made, " Oh,
no ! Not goodbye ! You are sure to be round this way
again ! " But when I replied that there was practically no
chance of this, for a new Inspector of Remounts would be

424 THE HORSE

appointed, and fresli buyers would be put in our places, the
dealers were fairly lost in astonishment. " Do you mean to
say," was said on more than one occasion, "that they will
turn out you and Major Fife, after all the experience you
have had? Why, you know the country better than any
one in the trade, and they cannot possibly afford to lose you !
If any firm was to conduct their business in such a way
they would be ruined in no time ! " But I answered that it
was even so, that I was quite sure what the result would be
— and I was quite right in my forecast.

Although a private firm would undoubtedly be ruined, if
they were to send away their purchasing travellers after
three years of making a district, to start again with entirely
new employes, thus losing all the advantages of ties formed
and carefully acquired local knowledge, the War Office gaily
disregard any such business-like ideas ! In my case, no
sooner was it certain that I should be no longer required by
my own Government than a far-seeing foreign one at once
began negotiations, to secure my services and utilise my
experience in buying Remounts for them.

Now the point I wish to make is that if the War
Office pursues a policy of constantly changing their buyers,
though they may have gained great experience and
served them well, and replaces them with untried men
without any special training for the post, what likeli-
hood is there of suitable officers being discovered, appointed
to, and retained in such a difficult post as the management
and direction of breeding establishments require? Too
probably it would finally result in a small proportion of foals
being born, and a still smaller proportion of these becoming
fit for Eemounts at the age of three, or four years old. At
any rate, under the system of purchase there is something
to be shown for the money expended, whereas under an
attempt to breed instead there may be no produce whatever
for a like amount of money expended.

If Government breeding establishments are out of the
question, and private breeders are not willing to speculate
in producing remounts, how can the requisite numbers be
supplied and an adequate reserve be formed ?

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 425

The answer to this must be that the Government will
have to purchase a very much larger amount of young
troopers annually, and thus create a market which will soon
induce a supply, for farmers are quick enough in taking up
any branch of farming which will pay. And in order to
create sufficient vacancies in the ranks to absorb the extra
amount of horses annually purchased, and at the same time
to create a reliable reserve in a time of need, all the horses
should be passed out of the ranks after serving about three
years and lent to private persons, on condition of their being
forthcoming on notice being given. A small annual sum
might be charged for the use of the animals, if not objected
to, and the animals should be registered and inspected at
stated periods by officers appointed by the Eemount Depart-
ment, who would keep an up-to-date census of those ready
for service ; and amongst other regulations one might
profitably be inserted by which the horse would become
the property of the owner after a 'specified number of years,
thus insuring that all the Government horses were of a
reasonable age for work. In this way a very large reserve
of trained horses could be built up, at very small cost to
the country at large. Under certain conditions a propor-
tion of the mares might be allowed to be bred from, but
these while in foal would need to be deducted from, the
total of those available for immediate service. The foals
themselves should be the property of the Government until
three years old, and then be inspected by the district officer,
and if thought suitable taken into possession at a fixed
price, but if rejected should then belong to the breeder, to be
disposed of as he thinks fit.

It would give a stimulus to breeding if remounts were
purchased by the Government at three years old instead of
four years, and foreign Governments already make their
purchases at this age.

It would be a further inducement to breed foals if no
mare might be exported under the age of five years, for
then the fillies would be bred from at three years old ; and
after the foal was weaned, when the mare would be four
years old, she would be fit for any description of work the

426 THE HORSE

following year, and have suffered no detriment whatever
from having been put to the stud.

The General Conditions applicable to Army Remounts, as
published in the leaflet issued by the Board of Agriculture
and Fisheries, are as follows : —

Age. — The limits of age for horses entermg the Army as Eemounts in
time of peace are between 4 and 7 years, and in time of war from
6 to 12 years.

Colour. — Whites and greys are only required for special purposes, and
are always specially ordered. Very light or washy-coloured horses
not accepted.

Soundness. — Entire, unmanageable, or vicious horses, crib-biters, wind-
suckers, parrot-mouthed or under-shot horses, or horses with capped
elbows, damaged knees, injured or deficient teeth, are not admissible.
Horses with short docks are not accepted.

Soundness in eyes, wind, and limb is essential ; no animals with
worn, upright, or over-shot joints, and none witli curby hocks, are
passed.

There are no specified dates for the assembling and inspecting of
horses. The Inspecting Officer of the Remount Staff is the final
authority to decide on the purchase or rejection of any animal.

Types of Horses Required.

The horses required for remount purposes may be divided into
five fairlj' distinct types : —
Houseliold Cavalry. — Horses for the Household Regiments must be
well bred and at the same time able to carry weight. Their work
being chiefly escort duty in London, a certain amount of action is
necessary, and they must be good-looking animals. The price paid
for these horses is considerably higher than that paid for the
ordinary trooper.

The colour required is black, and height at 4 years 15.3 hands,
and at 5 years 16 hands.
Cavalry of the Line. — The class required is a deep, short-legged, short-
backed, good barrelled horse of the hunter stamp, with substance
and quality, true action, and going without brushing the joints.
Light, active, well-bred horses, that move truly and well in all their
paces, well ribbed up, with plenty of bone and short backs, may be
said to represent the cavalry type.

Height at 4 years 15.0^ to 15.2J hands, over four years 15. li^ to
15.2J hands.

The number of cavalry horses required annually in peace time is
approximately 1 ,000.
Royal Artillery. — The type required for the Artillery is the weight-
carrying hunter, and as every horse, whether in the gun-team or

HORSE SHOWS AND REMOUNTS 427

not, should be capable of taking its place there on emergency, the
same type is preserved right through. For the Royal Horse
Artillery an animal with a little more quality and pace is required
than for the Field Artillery.

Height at 4 years 15.2 to 15.3 hands, and over 4 years 15.2i to
16 hands.
Boijal Engineers and Army Service Corps. — Draught horses of the type
known as the " Parcel Vanner " are required for these corps. They
must be able to trot with a good load behind them, but they do not
require so much pace as is needed in the Royal Artillery.
Mounted Infantry. — Mounted Infantry regiments are mounted on
animals of the cob or galloway class ; they require to be quick
and active, and able to gallop fast for a short distance.

Height 14.2 to 15. O5 hands. Ages 5 years and over only.

The height taken is over the standard for polo, so that there are
plenty of animals of the stamp and quality required.

The number of horses required annually in peace for tlie Mounted
Infantry is 140.

THE END.

INDEX

Abdallah, 137

Adams, Sam, 406

Accidents, responsibility for, 367

Alcohol, 333

when called for, 339
Aldby Park, 21, 23
Alders, Mr., lOS
All Fours, 398
Allison, Mr. W., 4-5
Almonarch, 147
Almont, 133
Amanda, 139
Amaurosis, 345
American pacers, 148

Narragansett's, 148

I'acing Standard, 152

record-holders, 149
American Star, 139
American trotters, 112

action of, 135

breeding of, 144

bicycle sulky, 142

kite tracks, 142

length of limbs, 134

points of, 132

record-holders, 142

thoroughbred, intiuencc on, 116

time records, 141

to breed, 128, 137

trotting standard, 147

trotting wagons, 141

weight of shoes, 142
American Trotting Association, 147
Anchitherium, 6
Andalusia, 30

packhorses, 31

roaring unknown, 32

sires, 97
Andrew Jackson, 140
Angle-berr'es, 310
Antispasmodics, 282
Arabians, 10

as sires, 19

as a warhorse, 11, li(

character of, 13

chief strains, 17

English judges, 12

Arabians, imported by Crusaders, 11

points of, 14

races at Wetherby, 10
Archer, Fred, 401, 403, 404, 406, 410
Arteries, 328
Ascetic, 87
Asil, 18

Astradam, Preface
Auchnafree, 45
Auction sales, 346

conditions, 347
Austria, Empress of, 84

B
Bandages, 257
Barbs, 26

breeds of, 28
Barcaldine, 25
Barker, Sir T., 101
Barley, 225, 227

green, 233
Barrow, Colonel, 19
Bavaria, King of, 108
Bayardo, 62
Beans, 226
Bear, K. , 3
Bearing-reins, 383
Belkis, 18
Bellfounder, 137
Belmont, 254
Bennett, Mr., 34
Berners, Dame Juliana, 198
Bicarbonate of soda, 334
Bidden, Mr. Hermon, 127
Birds with teeth, 2, 8
Birdcatcher, 87
Bits for driving, 384

riding, 395

roller-snalHe, 395

tongue-bit, 396
Blacklock, 42
Black Pilot, 112, 140
Black Warrior, 139
Blaze, 109, 112
Blistering, 326
Blood-vessel breaking, 304
Blow on sinew, 325
Blunt, Lady Anne, Preface, 11, 17, 23

•1-29

430

INDEX

Blunt, Mr. Wilfrid, 26
Bots, 307
Bot-tiy, 372
Boston Blue, 141
Boxes, 264, 268
Bran mash, 231, 277
Break-down, 325
Breaking, 202

long-rein tackle, 202
tying in a semicircle, 205
teaching to stand still, 208, 209
Breeding, antiseptic, 194, 198
artificial insemination, 197
building of cells, 186
colustrum, 195
cow's milk, 195
foaling, 193, 196
heredity, 182, 186
joint evil, 199
law of colour, 188
mammalian ovum, 182
myconium, 195
navel string, 194
signs of foaling, 194
suitable soil, 192
teaching foal to suck, 195
weaning, 184
Bridgeman, Admiral Sir Fiancis, 29
Bridles, 262
Broad, Mr., 313
Broken wind, 288, 346
Brood mar en, abortion, 198
barren, 197
in season, 193
maiden, 190
mating, 191
selection of, 190
twitch deprecated, 192
Bruce Lowe, Mr., 45, 61
Buckmaster, Mr., 99
Butson, Archdeacon, 79
Bush Farm, 84
Byerley, Capt., 23
Byerley Turk, 23

Canialtha, 130
Cambrian formation, 28
Cannon, T., 400, 404, 406, 410
Cano, 128
Carboniferous, 2, 8
Carbolic acid, 330
Carrots, 226
Carnival, 29
Carriage-horses, 105
Cart-horses, 116

breeding, 117

bone of, 118
Cataract, 345
Catarrh, 284
Catch-'em Alive, 406
Catfish, 2

Caverns, 6

Cave-dwellers, 4, 7, 9
Cavesson, 202
Celery, 232, 233
Challoner, T., 400, 410
Chariberta, 83, 126
Charcoal, 331
Charlier shoes, 237
Chicory, 232
Chinosol, 194, 199, 331
Chiquito, 147
Choking, 301
Churchill, Lord R. , 338
Clark, Mr., 123
Clay, Henry, 140
Cleveland Bays, 105
Clothing, 256
tearing, 237
Clydesdale, 119
Coach-horse, Yorkshire, 106
Coke, Mr., 24
Common, 147

Condiment, Mawson's spice, 327
Condition, 270
Conformation —

Bones of skeleton, 153
cannon, 164
fore-leg, 154, 161
feet, 165

haunch, 161, 166
head, 156
hind-leg, 155, 166
hock, 167
knee, 163
ribs, 158
vertebrae, 158
Muscles of —
back, 171
fore-leg, 171
head and neck, 169
hind-quarters, 172
shoulder, 170
Tendons of —
fore-leg, 174
hind-leg, 173
Cope, Professor, 3
Corn, 224
Corns, 313
Corona, 147
Corpora nigra, 345
Costiveness, 294
Crabbet Park, 25, 131
Cracked heels, 301
Creeping Jenny, 164
Cresceus, 142, 145
Cretaceous Age, 2, 3, 8
Crib-biting, 239
Crown Glass, 181

Dandelions, 233
Dan Patch, 149, 150

INDEX

431

Danegelt, 110

Darley, Miss Preface

Darley, Mr. T., letter of, 21

Darley Arabian, Preface, 21, 110

Dariel, 149, 150

Darrell, Mr. J , 372

Darrell, Mr. T., 83

Darwin celebration, 322

Davies, Mr., 361

Day, William, 868

Deinosaurus, 2, 8

Deodorants, 32i)

Devonian Age, 2, 8

Dexter, 149

Diarrhoea, 291

Diomed, 139

Diseases, compulsory notification, 328

Disinfectants, 329

Docking, evil of, 71, 271

Donkey killing a horse, 192

Doping, 334

Doyle, Johnny, 42

Drainage, 208

Dressing, 235

vicious horses, 237
Dreadnought, 108
Driving, 386

cantering, 389

driver's seat, 386

jibbers, 389

kickers, 389

reins, 388

starting, 388

waiting, 389

the whip, 387
Dunn, Mr. Finlay, 333
Duroc, 139

Earth needed, 233, 364

Eastern sires, 97, 100

East, Messrs., ]12, 113

Eberlein, Professor, 320, 321

Eclipse, 42, 137

Eczema, 298

Edos, 295

Elbow capped, 236

Electricity, 283

EI Khamsa, 17

Ellermire, 79

EIridge, Mr., 141

Elsey, Mr. W., 377

Emperor of Morocco, 23, 25

Empress of Austria, 186

Enfield Doe, 84

Eocene period, 3, 4, 8

Eohippus, 3, 8

Ephesus, 80

Everitt, Mr., 361

Ewart, Professor Cosser, 5

Exercise, 270

Exercise, horse bolting, 396
Exostosis, 168, 318
Eyes

how to cover, 342

buck-eye, 345

examination of, 345
Eyre, Miss Alice, 82

Mr. J., 82

Falmouth, Lord, 44

Farriers Eegistration, 255

Feet-stopping, 236

Fever, 278

Figure system, 46

Fireaway, 111, 137

Flora Temple, 141, 149

Fly, 143

Flying Childers, 109, 111, 137

Foals, treatment of, 183
early handling, 201
vermifuge, 186, 196

P'ood and work, 222
during digestion, 222
after hunting, 222, 224
Forage, 220

memoranda, 274
Fordham, G., 400, 401, 404, 410
Fore-foot, how to hold up, 342
Formalin, 330
Fortal, 376
Freake, Mr., 100
French, Tom, 400
Freney, 42
Frigate, 375
Frog, the, 242, 246
Frost studs, 249

Galway Blazers, 79

Galvayne, Mr. S., 205, 207

Gametes Cell, 187

Ganoid fish, 2

Ganymede, 109

Gates, Irish, 66

Genet, the, 29

George Wilkes, 149

Gilbey, Sir Walter, 101

Gilmore, Captain Parker, 29

Gimcrack, lines from, 139

Girths, 260

Give and Take Plates, 103

Glacial Age, 4

Glanders, 340

Gobi Desert, 4

Godolphin Arabian, 23

Goldsmith Maid, 128, 142, 149

Good gallops, 78

Gordon, 86, 87

Gosudar, 147

432

INDEX

Giiuid Bashaw, 140
Green food, 232
Grey Dionied, 139
Grooming, 241
Grosvenor, Lord, 131
Grosvenor, Hon. A., 82

Hackneys, 97, 98

origin of, 109
Hadramaut, 18, 130, 131
Hagar, 18, 131
Haifa, 18
Hall, Mr. H., 83
Halter-breakers, 207
Hambletonian, 135, 137, li3, 146
Hamilton, Duke of, 120, 127
Harness, 381

adjusting, 385

coupling reins, 386

putting horses to, 386
Hart, Mr., Ill
Hawley, Sir J., 101
Hay, 227

clover, 230

hay-making, 229

haystack to estimate, 274

herbage, 228

oat-hay, 230

over-sweated, 230

time to cut, 229
Haymaker, 70
Heat as a germicide, 330
Health indications, 277
Heels must be dried, 242

cracked, 301
Heinshon, Mr., 141
Helm, Mr. H. T., 12S, 129, 131, 132,

135, 136
Heredity, 186
Hermit, 87, 320
Hetnian Platotf, 37
Highflyer imp. , 139
Highland Maid, 149
Hipparion, 4, 6, 8, 26
Hippopotamus, 8
Hobgoblin, 24
Hocks capped, 236
Hogging evil of, 76

origin of, 112
Holmes, Mr. G., 108
Hoofs, 176, 311

ointment, 317

rings in, 317
Horace, 9 ,

Horse, four-toed, 4, 5

chestnuts of, 181

ergots of, 181

early colour, 5

horned, 181
hollow depression, o

Horse, how to measure bone, 180

points of, 177

sinistral, 188

used for food, 7
Horse Shows, value of, 412

employer's liability, 414

exhibits should be educated, 416

judges, 414

jumping at, 414

prizes, 412
Hospodar, 80
Hunters, 65

action, 69

character, 71

conformation, 71

essential qualities, 67

points of, 90

pony-cross, 89

speed necessary, 77

types of, 65

well-bred, 88
Hunting, advice to beginners, 398

cost of, 91

how to gallop, 397

how to jump, 398
Hutchinson, Sir J., 188
Hutton, Colonel G., 18

Icthyosaurus, 2, 8

Illness, 277

Inbreeding, 198

Indigestion, 290

Inflammation of the bowels, 293

of the eye, 3U4

of the liver, 294

of the lungs, 286

of the pleura, 287
Intestines, 293
Iodoform, 323
Iron, 231
Ivooschick, Preface

Jay-eye-sec, 141, 149
John o' Gaunt, 63
Johnstone, Hon. F., 83
Johnstone, Mr. J., 18
Johnston, Mr. II., 42
Joint Evil, 198
Jurassic Age, 2, 8
Justin Morgan, line of, 140

Kama, K., Preface
Kaleidoscope, 232
Kars, 18
Kasan, Preface
Keller, Dr. Conrad, 112

INDEX

433

Kendal, Preface
Keirison, Sir E., 127
Ketcham, Mr. G. H., 143

Kettleholder, 79, 80
Keynsham stud, 101
Khirgiz, Preface
Kicking in stable, 238
King, tlie, 82
King of Trumps, 80
King William, 108
Kingston, 80
Kittiwake, 84
Knees broken, 323
Knightly, Sir C, 44
Knocking with forefoot, 238

Lackland, 131

Lady Bo Peep, 130

Lady Suffolk, 141

Lady Thorn, 128, 135, 141

La Fleche, 63

Lameness, how to judge, 342

Lamb, the, 372

Laminitis, 312, 344

Lampas, 298

Land, Ben, 372

Land League, mischief caused by, 92

Landmark, 108

Landrake Races, 336

Lane-Fox, Mr. G., 91

Larynx, stripping of, 289

Lastic, Vicomte de, 7

Leeches, 219

Leeds, Duke of, 24

Legs not to be washed, 299

Lehndorff, Count, 35

Lemberg pedigree, 62

Lentils, 224

Libyan horses, 26

Light in stables, 266

artificial, 269
Lime, magnesian, 332

gas, 332
Lincolnshire black cart-horse, 117
Linde, Mr., 335
Liniment, 284, 325
Linseed gruel, 231
Lippasano horses, 28
Lou Dillon, 141, 142, 143, 144
Lozenge, 78, 406
Lurline, 337, 338
Luxford, Colonel G., 18

Mail train, 130, 131
Maize, 225, 226, 227
Major Delmar, 142, 144
Mallenders, 300
Mambrino, 129

proposed match, 131

portrait of, 138

descent of, 146

Chief, 128, 141, 146
Mammals, evolution of, 2, 3, 8
Manchuria, Preface
Mange, 308
Mangers, 267
Maple, Sir Blundell, 147
Markham Gervase, 37
Martingales, 387
Marx, Mons. A., 114
Maud, S., 142, 149
Measuring-stone, 103
Measures, table of, 328
Melbourne, 87
Melrose, Mr. J., Ill
Mendel Gregor, 187
Mesozoic Age, 2, 8
Messenger, 129

breeding of, 129, 133

descendants of, 143

measurements of, 135

pedigree, 138
Middleton, Lord, 89
Milk in illness, 280
Mint sauce, 45
Miocene, 4, 8
Mollusks, 8

Monkshood, 372, 374, 375
Moore, Mr. J. Hubert, 365
Morgan, 133
Morris, Capt. W. B., 84
Morris, Messrs., 120
Morrogh, Mr. L., 84, 185
Mud-fever, 298
Mule-breeding, 28

Nancy Hanks, 149

Narcotics 281

National Trotting Association, 147

Navicular, 311, 344

Neander Men, 4, 8

Newminster, 87

Nosebands, 387

Numnah, 259

Nursing, 278

MacDonough, Mr. Allan, 395
McGrane, Mr. W., 337
Mackintosh, 112

Maclean Kaid, Sir Harry, Preface, 27
Maher, Mr. M., 375

Oats, new, 274

boiled, 279
Oatmeal, 227
Oettingen, Baron Burchard Von, 36

39, 188, 320, 321

434

INDEX

Ogden's Messenger, 139

Old Clothier, 108

Old Shales, 109, 112

Oligocene, 4, 8

Orde, Mr., 91

Orestes, 80

Osborne, John, 41, 400

Osborn, Professor H. F., 20

Osmer, William, 38, 178

Over-reach, 234, 317

Owen, Capt. E. R., 374, 375

Paddocks, size of, 185

Paleeolithic, 8

PalaBOZoic, 2

Palgrave, Mr. W,, 19

Pantaloon, 87

Parasites, 271, 305

Parish's Food, 200

Paterson, Mr. J., 120

Paulett, Lord, 372

Perch-climbing, 2

Peirson's Plato, 108

Permanganate of potassium, 330

Permian, 2, 8

Persimmon, 42

Persse, Mr. Burton, 79

Phagocytes, 328

Phenomenon, 109

Phosphorus, 232

Phrenacodus, 3, 8

Physic, 270, 295, 380

Piette, Mons., 7

Pignatelli Prince, 202

Pilcher's Stop-rot, 266

Pinkney, 373

Plaiting a tail, 206

Plantations, 273

Piatt, Mr. James E., Preface

Plesiosaurus, 2

Pleistocene, 4, 8

Pliocene, 4

Pliohippus, 6

Pocahontas (pacer), 149

Polo ponies, Cuddington, 101

Fritz, 98

Jack, 98

Lady Polo, 100, 101

Lottery, 98

Marquis, 100, 101

measuring, 103

Play Actor, 98

Sandiway, 101

Silvertail, 100

sires for, 100

Tubby, 100

White Wings, 101
Ponies, Dartmoor, 94

Exmoor, 94

Irish, 97

Ponies, New Forest, 96

North of England, 93

Shetland, 96

Welsh, 93
Point-to-Point, 378
Portland, Duke of, 28
Post-Tertiary, 8
Pratt, Mr. A., 127
Pratt, Mr. J., 129
Pre-Gambrian Age, 2, 8
Preston, Mr., 146
Prickwillow, 111
Primary epoch, 2, 8
Prince Alert, 149, 150
Protohippus, 6
Pullen, Mr. Bevas, 108
Pulse, 276, 340
Punchestown, 84
Puncturing with a trocar, 297
Purge, 295, 300

Quaternary, 4, 8
Quilter, Sir Cuthbert, 127
Quittor, 313

Race-riding, 399

changing position, 403

finishing, 403

getting the rails, 403

idiosyncrasies, 408

importance of balance, 401

looking for the race, 407

losing ground, 401

must be alert, 406

pace-makers, 405

riding not so good as formerly, 403

riding trials, 405

rounding turns, 410

starting, 406

starting-gate, 406

summing up, 410

Virgil's advice, 399
Rainbow, 168
Ramsdale, Mr. R., 110
Ramsden, Mr., Ill
Rarey, Mr., 205
Rasouli, Preface
Ration, Government, 225

for carriage-horses, 225
dray-horses, 225
hunters, 225
tramway horses, 225
Redbourne, 78
Reins, 397

how to knot, 210
Reindeer men, 1, 4, 8
Remounts, annual numbers required,
417

INDEX

435

Remounts, on mobilisation, 419

how to create a reserve, 425

leaflet of Government conditions,
426

purchase during,' Boer War, 420

special brand, 421
Reptiles, 8
Restlessness, 240
Rheumatism, 326, 344
Rhus toxicodendron, 322
Riding should be learned in youth, 390

length of reins, 394
of stirrups, 393

proper seat, 392

riders scarce, 390
Ring-bones, 318
Ring- worm, 308
Roaring, 288

engrafting nerve, 289
Roberts, Sir W., 225
Robinson of Malton, 146
Romp, 140

Rope to attach to a short-docked horse,
207

hair, 208
Rose-blush, 376
Rose-drop, 63
Rose-water, 101
Rosicrucian, 101
Routine, daily, 223

after hunting, 233
Roxana, 24

Royal George line, 139
Royal mares, 37
Running families, 61
Rysdyk, Mr., 146

Saddlery, stulling, 258

roomy, 261

Robson's ventilated, 262
Saddle-room, 269
Samara, Preface
Sampson, 129, 131, 146
Sal Ammoniac, 321
Sallenders, 300
Salt, 231
Sanderack, 315
Sanders, Millard, 142
Sanders, Mr. .J. H., 147
Sanding, 208
Savory, Sir Joseph, 255
Sayers, Harry Clay, 135
Scott, John, 334
Secondary Age, 2

Securing a horse in open country, 209
Sedatives, 281
Seedy-toe, 316
Shawya Barbs, 29, 129
Shelter, 273
Shepherd lord, 181

Shii'e horse, 118
Shiverer to test, 346
Shoes, weight of, 255, 417
Shoeing, 243

bar shoes, 248

Charlier, 249

necessity for,

pricking, 243
Side-bones, 318
Side-lines, 210
Sidi-Okba invasion, 27
Silurian, 2
Simbirsh, Preface
Sire families, 61
Sir Hercules, 87
Sleeping standing, 240
Slingsby, Sir C, 79
Sloan, Tod, 401, 402, 406
Smathers, Mr. E. E., 142
Smith, Mr., 127
Smuggler, 133, 135, 142, 149
Snowden, J., 400
Soft soap, 234
Solon, 25
Solutre, 7

Sores, unhealthy, 324
Soundness, examining for, 340
Spanish Armada, 97, 120
Spanish horses, 29
Spavins, 320, 341

bog-spavins, 321
Splints, 319
Speculum, 87
Spice, Mawson's, 327
Sprains, 325
Stabling, 263
Stalls, 264
Stai'ting-gate, 370
Stallions, successful, 60

hunter sires, 85, 86

treatment of, 196
Stewart, General, 20
Steeple-chasers, 377

fences for, 377

gummy legs, 381

learning to jump when obstinate, 379

schooling, 378
St. Lawrence, 133
Stirrups, 201, 396
Stimulants, 280, 334, 336
Stradbroke, Earl of, 127
Strangles, 289

Studholme, Mr. J., 34, 81, 82, 337
Suffolk Punch, 121

sandbag test, 121

type, 123

colour, 124
Suicide, 45
Sulphur, 232
Sulphur dioxide, 330
Summering hunters, 270
Sunlight, 329

436

INDEX

Sunol, 142, 149
Surry, 140
Sword, 237
Swynford, 63

Tadpoles, 2

Tagg, Mr. J., Preface, 289

Taraban, 324

Teeth, the, 348

age after nine years, 358

age after twenty-one years, 360

milk, 348, 352 '

molars, 349

permanent, 348

parrot mouth, 351

split, 350

supernumerary, 350

wolves' teeth, 351

bishopping, 360
Tertiaries the, 1, 3
Tetanus, 302, 337
Thomas, Mr. R. , 108
Thompson, Mr., 108
Thorndale, 133
Thoroughbred horses, 33

inbreeding, 42

deterioration of, 40

distance for, 43

fast trotters, 130

how to breed, 44

taproots, 37
Thorns, search for, 184
Thornton, Mr. R., 184
Thorough pin, 322
Thrush, 314

of the mouth, 292
Tipoo, 139
Tirhoot, Preface
Tonics, 282

Torridonean Sandstone, 2
Touchstone, stock of, 69, 87
Training for racing, 361

diary of work, 372

exercise gallops, 368, 371

feeding, 363

good effect of rest, 376

muscle, how developed, 365

mares winning after being at the
stud, 377

state of skin, 366

sweating, 367

tonics, 867

value of earth, 364

value of rolling, 381

what to aim for, 362
Triassic, 2, 8
Trilobites, 2, 8
Troika, Preface
Truman, General, 420
Tryon, Captain, 18

Urine, retention of, 297
too profuse, 296

Valenta, 184
Valentine, 38
Vasogen, 200
Velocity, 137
Venus, 143
Vetches, 232
Virago, 80
Virgil, 399
Volga, Preface
Voltigeur, 87
Volunteer, 133, 135

Wallace, Mr. J. H., 146

Warranty, 347

Warts, 310

Water, effect at Gibraltar, 216

how to select, 212

summary of hints, 220

when fording, 213

when to give, 212
Watercress, 231
Weaving, 239
Weight of horses, 240
Wheat flour, 224
Wheat unsuitable, 226
Whelan, 338
Whipcord noose, 238
Whim, 42
Winans, Mr. W., Preface, 129, 146,

149, 384, 385
Winans, Mr. L., 149
Wind, to test, 345
Windsucking, 239
Winning families, 60
Winkers, 385
Wise, Mr. C, 168
Withers, Mr. Alfred, Preface, 113
Wolds, the, 89, 90
Wolsey, 78, 406
Wonderful, 108
Wood, Mr. Willoughby, 107
Wounds, 322

air getting into, 324

Xenie, 377

Xenophon, description of horse, 398

Yew poisoning, 297
Young, Arthur, 121
Youatt, 123

Zygote, 187

UNWIN BKOTHEBS, LIMITED, THE GBESHAM PRESS, WOKING AND LONDON.

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