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HIRSCHFELD BROS.,
LONDON, E.C. : 12, Furnival St., Holborn.

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

HOSSFELD'S SERIES

Go ni itte wa, go ui shitagae.

( WTifn you enter a country, conform to its mstomt.)

[Jap. Proverb.]

HOSSFELD'S

JAPANESE GRAMMAR

COMPRISING

A MANUAL OF THE SPOKEN LANGUAGE
IN THE ROMAN CHARACTER

TOGETHER WITH

DIALOGUES ON SEVERAL SUBJECTS

AND

TWO VOCABULARIES OF USEFUL WORDS

H. J. WEINTZ

Author of "The Spanish Principia," etc.

L vol. l]

LONDON

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS, LIMITED

13 FURNIVAL STREET, E.C.

1904

[All rights reserved.']

PREFACE

THE rapidly increasing amount of commerce and
social intercourse between this country and Japan has
created a pressing demand for a really practical
grammar for the acquisition of the Japanese language
by English-speaking people. No apology therefore is
needed for the appearance of the present work, which
is designed to exhibit in as concise and scientific a
form as possible the main features of Japanese
accidence and syntax.

Usually, English people who take up the study of
an Oriental language are not children, but those of
mature years having a competent acquaintance with
the mother-tongue, and it is from this point of view
that the explanations contained herein have been
framed.

Every Japanese phrase and sentence in the book is
taken from some work by an author of eminence and
published during the last decade, and authority (volume
and page) can be adduced in every instance. This has
been regarded as a point of special importance, inas-

VI PREFACE

much as it is a guarantee that the work exhibits the
language to the student as it is really current in polite
social intercourse at the present day.

My object during the compilation of the work has
been to include everything of practical utility, and
to discard everything superfluous. I have endeavoured
to make the definitions clear and precise, that they
may be easy of comprehension and readily retained.
I have further endeavoured to arrange and distribute
the matter, so as to embrace within narrow limits
much more information than is generally embodied in
a book of its pretensions, and I believe that there is
not a useful Rule or Observation in the works of any
recognised writer of eminence that is not found in this.

The native alphabet employed for writing the
language has two different forms, one rendered
intricate by the addition of numerous variations,
known as the " Hirayana " form of character, and
the other, the " Katakana " character, entirely devoid
of variation, and therefore much simpler ; but a move-
ment has for some time been in active progress
in favour of the adoption of the Roman alphabet
according to the system employed in this work, where
all the Japanese words are spelt in the native mode,
by assigning to each of the native letters a correspond-
ing equivalent from the English alphabet, and fixing
accurately the sound of each. The acquisition of a
knowledge of the Hiragana and Katakana characters is

PREFACE Vll

therefore entirely unnecessary, and it is quite practic-
able to obtain a thoroughly intimate acquaintance with
Japanese for colloquial purposes through the instru-
mentality of our own alphabet.

Owing to the peculiar structure and composition of
the language, it is necessary to become acquainted with
the functions and methods of use of all the parts of
speech before an attempt can be made by the student
to frame sentences of his own, hence the absence of the
incidental exercises for translation found in the other
grammars of the series. The publishers, however,
have under consideration the issue of a small supple-
mentary work as an Appendix to the present volume,
comprising, amongst other useful features, a graduated
series of Exercises and Examination Papers on the
whole of the book, together with Beading Lessons
consisting for the most part of excerpts from the
works of modern native writers.

With this prefatory excursion I submit my work
to the candid judgment of its students and of the
friends of the Japanese language, trusting that it
will be deemed worthy to range with the other publica-
tions of the Hossfeld series which has so long and
so deservedly held a high position in public favour.

H. J. WEINTZ.

BRADFORD (York*), 1904.

CONTEXTS.

PAGE

THE SYLLABARY . .... 1

PRONUNCIATION . . . . . .3

I. THE VOWELS ..... 3

II. THE CONSONANTS ..... 4

LETTER PERMUTATIONS: THE NIGORI ... 6

ARTICULATION AND ACCENT ..... 6

CLASSES OF WORDS : PARTS OF SPEECH ... 8

THE NOUN ....... 9

I. NUMBER ...... 9

II. GENDER ...... 10

III. CASE 11

IV. COMPOUND NOUNS . . . .12
V. CLASSES OF NOUNS . . . .14

1. Abstract Nouns . . . .14

2. Concrete Nouns . . . .14

3. Augmentative and Diminutive Nouns . 15
VI. NOTES ON VARIOUS NOUNS . . .15

THE PRONOUN ...... 16

I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS . . . .16

II. REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS . . . .22

III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS . . .23

IV. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS . . .27
V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS .... 29

VI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS . . . .31

POSTPOSITIONS ....... 32

ix

X CONTENTS

I'AOE

THE VERB . 53

First Conjugation ..... 58

Second Conjugation (First Form) . . .00

Second Conjugation (Second Form) . . .62

Formation of the Bases, Moods, and Tenses . 68

Irregular Verbs ... .71

Kuril, to come ... .71

Sum, to do . . . . .73

The Polite Verb " Afasu " . . 75

Uses of the Bases, Moods, and Tenses . . 78

Auxiliary Verbs . . . . .91

1. Aru . . 92

2. Jru 93

3. Orii ...... 93

4. Kuni .... .94

5. Shimau . . . . .95
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs . . .90
Passive and Potential Verbs . . . .97
The Verb" Sum" . . .103
The Equivalents of " to be " . . 105
Causal or Causative Verbs .... 107
Ambiguous Verb-forms .... 110
Compound Verbs ..... 113

THE ADJECTIVE ...... 115

I. PRIMARY INFLECTIONS .... 116

II. SECONDARY INFLECTIONS . . 121

III. NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES .... 122

IV. COMPOUND AND DERIVED ADJECTIVES . 125
V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES . . . 127

(a) Comparative Degree .... 128

(b) Superlative Degree .... 129
NUMERALS : METHODS OF COMPUTATION . . . 129

I. CARDINAL NUMERALS . . 129

II. AUXILIARY NUMERALS . . . 132

III. ORDINAL NUMERALS . . . 137

IV. FRACTIONAL AND MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS 137

CONTENTS XI

PAGE

THE ADVERB, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTION . 143

I. THE ADVERB ..... 143

(a) Adverbs of Plate .... 144

(b) Adverbs of Time .... 145

(c) Adverbs of Quantity .... 146

(d) Adverbs of Manner .... 147
II. THE CONJUNCTION . . . 151

III. THE INTERJECTION .... 152

HONORIFICS ....... 154

I. HONORIFIC PREFIXES .... 155

II. HONORIFIC SUFFIXES .... 158

III. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE NOUNS . . 160

IV. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERBS . . 164

SYNTAX ....... 167

REPORTED SPEECH : INDIRECT NARRATION . . 175
CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES ON SUBJECTS OF E VERY-DAY

LIFE ........ 177

Questions ...... 177

About the Way or Road .... 177

At a Town ...... 178

At an Hotel ...... 179

Buying and Selling ..... 181

Eating and Drinking ..... 182

Visiting ....... 182

Travelling ...... 183

With a Doctor ...... 184

Writing, Letters and Post . . . .185

Miscellaneous ...... 186

JAPANESE-ENGLISH VOCABULARY .... 188

ENGLISH-JAPANESE VOCABULARY .... 204

INDEX . 221

GRAMMAR

JAPANESE SPOKEN LANGUAGE.

THE SYLLABARY.

IN Japanese, an Alphabet, in the sense of the term under-
stood by Western grammarians, does not exist. The
various sounds of the language are represented in writing
and printing by symbols or " ideographs," termed " sylla-
bics." These are grouped together in what is known as
" the Syllabary," which corresponds, in a measure, to the
Alphabets of Europe.

The Syllabary is divided into Vowel Syllables and Con-
sonant Syllables, the former consisting of pure vowel sounds,
and the latter, with one exception, of consonantal sounds
combined with the vowels, although each consonant syllabic
is represented in the native character by a single sign.

The following scheme shows the Japanese Syllabary
denoted in the Roman character, and arranged in the
order adopted by most transliterators.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 1

INTRODUCTION

THE SYLLABARY.

VOWEL SYLLABICS.

a

e

i

0

u

CONSONANT SYLLABICS.

ka

ke

ki

ko

ku

ga

9*

9'1

&>

gu

sa

se

shi

so

8U

Za

ze

Ji

zo

ZU

ta

te

chi

to

tsu

da

de

ji

do

• /:"

na

ne

ni

no

nu

ha

lie

M

ho

fu

ba

be

bi

bo

bu

pa

pe

pi

po

pu

ma

me

mi

mo

mu

ya

ye

i

yo

yu

ra

re

ri

ro

ru

wa

ye

i

wo

u

INTRODUCTION 3

From an examination of the preceding table it will be
observed that, when represented by the Roman Alphabet,
the Japanese language employs the same letters as English,
excepting /, q, v, and a:.

It will also be noticed that certain irregularities and
duplications occur; thus sh is substituted for s before i;
t is replaced by ts before u ; i does duty for both wi and
yi ; and so on. These peculiarities owe their appearance
to the inability of the Japanese organs of speech to articu-
late the sounds replaced by the substitutions indicated ;
and as will be seen subsequently, many apparent anomalies
of conjugation are due to them.

PRONUNCIATION.
I. THE VOWELS.

Except when the sign of long quantity is placed over
them the vowels are invariably short.

a is pronounced approximately like a in mat.
a „ „ „ „ a „ calm

e „ „ „ „ e „ pen.

e „ „ „ „ ey „ prey.

i „ „ „ „ i „ cigar.

1 ,, ,, ,, .. 'I ,, pOllC6.

o „ „ „ „ o „ shore.

6 „ „ „ „ o „ gold.

u „ „ „ „ u „ full.

u „ „ „ „ oo „ tool.

Great care must be taken not to confuse the short and
the long vowels in pronunciation, as there are many pairs

4 INTRODUCTION

of words spelt exactly alike, but which differ in the length
of their vowels. Such are : —

sato, village. sato, sugar.

kuki, the stem of a kuki, the atmosphere.

plant.

torn, to take. torn, to pajts through.

Under some circumstances / and u are sounded so lightly
as to become almost inaudible. This occurs chiefly when
they follow /, h, k, s, sh, or ts, as exemplified in the follow-
ing :—

shita, beneath, is pronounced almost like shta.

takusan, much, „ „ ,, „ taksan.

tsuki, the moon, „ „ ,, „ tski.

In such cases these quiescent vowels are distinguished
throughout this work by the diacritic sign of short quan-
tity ; thus, shUa, takusan, tsuki.

In diphthongs (ae, ai, ao, au, ei, oi, ui) each vowel must
be distinctly sounded ; thus au is not to be pronounced like
au in cause, but very nearly like ow in cow ; oi is much
like oi in going, never as in boil, etc.

II. THE CONSONANTS.

Those not mentioned below are pronounced approxi-
mately as in English.

C occurs only in the combination ch, which is pronounced
as in charm, couch — never as in chaos or machine.

F. This letter, which is used only in the syllabic /a, is
pronounced by means of the lips alone, and not as in English,
where the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper

teeth. Thus the pronunciation of fu is almost identical
with that of the English word ivho strongly aspirated.

G- at the beginning of a word is hard, like g in girl, good ;
in all other cases it has the sound of ng in singer.

N, which is the only letter that may terminate a syllable,
has in this position the nasal sound of n in the French
bon, enfant, i.e. somewhat like ng in our wing, tiling. In
other positions it is pronounced as in next, noir.

E before a, e, o, or u is pronounced as in English, but
never with the trill characteristic of the continental
languages. In the syllabic ri, however, its exact sound
has no counterpart in English, but the student can obtain
a just conception of its pronunciation by placing the tip of
the tongue at the same point in the roof of the mouth as
in pronouncing our letter r, and then articulating the
letter d*

S has invariably the sound of 6' in sat, soon — never as
in rise or pleasure.

Y is always a consonant, and is pronounced as in yacht,
youth — never as in by or myth.

When a consonant is repeated, it must be distinctly
sounded twice, as many pairs of words are distinguished
only by a doubled consonant ; thus —

itai, painful. ittai, altogether.

oto, a sound. otto, husband.

* Students acquainted with Arabic or Hindustani will re-
cognise this sound as being almost identical with the palatal d
of those languages.

INTRODUCTION

LETTER PERMUTATIONS : THE NIGORI.

It will be observed on referring to the Syllabary, that cer-
tain syllables are given in italics. These all commence with
a soft consonant, and in the native character they are
written with symbols identical with those representing the
syllabics beginning with hard consonants in the lines
immediately preceding, the distinction between the two
being indicated by a small mark termed the "nigori"
placed by the side of the hard-consonant syllabic. Sa, for
example, with the diacritic sign is read za ; and so on.

Under certain circumstances, to be noted later, words
commencing with hard consonants take the nigori, i.e.
their initial letters become softened ; thus sato when used
as the second member of a compound becomes zato ; fune
becomes bune ; and so on.

ARTICULATION AND ACCENT.

There is a great and striking distinction between Japanese
and English as regards articulation — both in character and
degree. Speaking generally, the Japanese pronunciation
of both consonants and vowels is lighter and narrower than
that of English. There is no tendency to diphthongise
vowel-sounds, or to mouth and drawl them as is sometimes
the case in some European languages. Japanese articula-
tion is sharp, clear, and forcible ; the lips are more vigor-
ously employed, and the mouth is opened more freely.

Tonic and rhetorical accent are both very slight, that is
to say, the various syllables of a word, and all the words of
a sentence, are uttered with almost uniform stress of the

INTRODUCTION 7

voice, so that in English ears most Japanese words appear
to have no accent, properly speaking.

RULE I. In words of two syllables the accent is on the
first syllable, as ku'-mo, mu'-ri.

Exceptions. — When the first syllable contains 1 or u, and
when the second syllable contains a long vowel, the accent
is on the second syllable; as shi-ki' ; tsu-ka ; mu-su ;
sa-to.

RULE II. In words of three syllables the accent is on the
second syllable ; as Tsu-ga'-ru ; O-sa'-ka.

Exception. — When the second syllable contains i or u,
the accent is on the first syllable unless the last syllable
contains a long vowel, when, of course, the accent is placed
on the last ; as, ka'-shi-ra ; a'-tsu-ku.

RULE III. In words of more than three syllables the
accent is on the last but one ; as, a-sa-ma-da '-ki ; Shi-mo-no-
se'-ki.

Exception. — When the last syllable but one contains i or
•it, the accent is removed to the preceding syllable ; as, a-ta-
ra'-shi-ki ; Yo-kd -su-ka.

It must be remembered, as a general rule, that long
vowels always bear the accent, and where a word contains
two such long vowels, the accent is laid equally upon them,
similar to the Spondee in English prosody.

The student should carefully bear in mind the remarks
made previously on diphthongs, and he must beware, for
example, of taking for three syllables a word which really
has four ; thus in the words Terauchi and Niigata, each
vowel must be pronounced separately; as, Te-ra-u'-cM,
Ni-i-ga'-ta.

8 INTRODUCTION

CLASSES OF WORDS ; PARTS OF SPEECH.

In construction and methods of use Japanese differs
materially from all European tongues. Language being,
however, the vehicle for the communication of thought,
and as all human thought is, in its essential characteristics,
alike, Japanese must in common with all languages contain,
under some guise or other, words denoting persons and
things, and also words to indicate certain relations among
those persons and things, as well as their qualities and
actions.

Native grammarians do not, however, classify these
words in the same manner as they are classified in
Europe, that is as nouns* pronowis, adverbs, conjunctions,
etc. They divide them into (a) NA, or name-words proper
— i.e. uninflected words which include the noun and pro-
noun ; (b) KOTOBA or HATARAKI - KOTOBA, i.e. inflected
words including the verb and adjective ; and (c) TENIWOHA,
i.e. particles, which are equivalent to our prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections.

As, however, no violence is done to the language by
adopting the European classification, we have retained the
familiar words noun, pronoun, etc., to facilitate the progress
of the student.

* There is no Article in Japanese; thus, hako signifies "box,"
" the box," and " a box," indifferently.

THE NOUN

THE NOUN.

In Japanese the Noun is indeclinable, distinctions of
gender and number being exhibited by the context, and
case relations are indicated, as in English, by separate
words or particles.

I. NUMBER.

(a) Singular. — As a rule, no distinction is made between
the singular and plural, but if it is necessary to specify-
only one thing of a certain kind the numeral for "one " —
ichi, hitotsu, or hlto — is attached as a prefix or suffix;
thus : —

ichi-nen, one year = a year.

tsutsumi-hitotsu, one parcel = a parcel.
hlto-tsuki, one month = a month.

(b) Plural. — When more than one thing is implied,
certain particles are agglutinated to the word. These
particles are ra, domo, shu (often pronounced shi), tachi
and gata thus —

Singular. Plural.

kuruma-ya, 'riksha-man. kuruma-ya-ra, 'riksha-men.

onna, woman. onna-domo, women.

hyaktlsho, peasant. hyakusho-shu, peasants.

shikwan, officer. shikwan-tachi, officers.

yakunin, official. yakunin-gata, officials.

The order in which the preceding particles and examples
are shown is in a gradually increasing degree of politeness,
tachi and gata being generally employed for polite speech,
whilst among the others ra is familiar and least respectful
(see " Honorifics," p. 158).

1*

10 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Occasionally, the idea of plurality is conveyed by re-
duplication, but the forms thus produced serve to render
the idea which English idiom expresses by the noun
preceded by " every " rather than the ordinary plural ;
thus —

kuni, country. kuni-guni, every country, or various

countries.

iro, a sort, a kind, iro-iro, all kinds.
shina, object. shina-jina, all kinds of objects.

tokoro, place. tokorO - dokoro, different places,

many places, here and there.
ho, a side. ho-bo, everywhere.

As will be gathered from the foregoing examples, the
reduplication almost invariably assumes the nigori when
commencing with a letter susceptible thereof.

II. GENDER.

Conformably with the absence of number in the noun,
Japanese usually ignores all considerations of gender : thus
tori is either cock or hen ; ushi, bull or cow ; tima, horse or
mare. If, however, it be absolutely indispensable to dis-
tinguish the sex of an animal, it can be effected by prefixing
o or on, male, for the masculine, and me or men, female,
for the feminine, the compound thus produced often under-
going a slight change of form for the sake of euphony ;
thus —

ushi = any bovine animal.
o-ushi, bull. me-ushi, cow.

tori = fowl, bird.
on-dori, cock. mendori, hen.

uma = any equine animal.
omma, horse. memma, mare.

THE NOUN 11

The words osu, male; mesu, female; otoko, man ; and
onna, iroman, are also used for the same purpose ; thus —

inu = any canine animal.

osu ^ -, inu no mesu 1 , ., 7

} a dog. a Intch.

inu J (or) mesu no inu )

inu no
(or) osu no inu J (or] mesu no

ko = a child.

otoko no ko, man-child, onna no ko, woman-child,
i.e. a malr-r/t/Itf, or i.e. a female-child, or

boy. girl.

Osu and mesu are used for (lower) animals only, whilst
otok^and onna may be applied indifferently to persons and
animals.

Difference in gender is indicated in a very few instances,
principally the names of the degrees of relationship, by the
use of separate words ; as —

M<ixrti1ine. Feminine.

ojisan, grandfather. obasan, grandmother.

chichi, father. haha, mother.

otottsan, papa. okkasan, mamma.

musuko, son, boy. musfime, daughter, girl.

oji, uncle. oba, aunt.

ani, elder brother. ane, elder sister.

ototo, younger brother. imoto, younger sister.

III. CASE.

Although, strictly speaking, nouns have no cases in
Japanese, equivalents for the European case-forms can be

12 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

formulated for them by the use of certain particles as
suffixes, as exemplified in the following table : —

Yama, a mountain.

Nominative, Yama, or yama ga, mountain.

Vocative, Yama ! or yama yo ! 0 mountain !

Accusative, Yama, or yama wo, mountain.

Genitive, Yama no, or yama ga, of a mountain, or

a mountain's.

Dative, Yama ni, or yama ye, to a mountain.

Ablatine, Yama kara, or yama tori, from a mountain.

(For further illustrations of the uses and employment of
these particles, reference should be made to the section on
" Postpositions," p. 32).

IV. COMPOUND NOUNS.

The Japanese language is very rich in Compound Nouns
which are produced for the most part in the following
manner : —

1. From two nouns; as —

gakumon, science, study; from gaku, learning,

and mon, a gate.
hanazono, flower-garden ; from hana, flower, and

sono, garden.
kazagururna, ivindmill ; from kaze, wind, and

kuruma, wheel.
tebukuro, glove; from te, hand, and

fukuro, bag.

2. From a noun preceded or followed by the stem of an
adjective (see p. 120) ; as —

to-megame, telescope ; from toi, far, and megame,

spectacles.

, cheap article; from yasui, cheap, and mono,
thing.

THE NOUN 13

3. From a noun preceded or followed by the stem of a verb ;
as —

nusubito, thief; from nusumu, to steal, and

hito, person.

kaimono, a purchase; from kau, to buy, and mono,

thing.

te-nugui, towel; from te, hand, and nuguu,

to wipe.

hito-goroshi, murderer ; from hito, person, and

korosu, to kill.

4. From two verbal forms ; as —

haki-dame, dust-heap; from haku, to sweep, and

tameru, to collect.

kigaye, change of dress ; from kiru, to wear, and

kayeru, to change.

hiki-dashi, drawer ; from hiku, to pull, and dasu,

to take out.

As will be seen in the preceding examples, the first letter
of the second component in compounds usually takes the
nigori, thus hanazona has zono for sono ; hito-goroshi has
goroshi for koroshi, and so on.

In some instances, the final vowel of the first member in
a compound is modified, the substitution of a for e being
the change of most frequent recurrence ; as —

saka-ya, grog-shop; from sake, beer, and ya, a

house.

kaza-deppo, air-gun; from kaze, wind, and teppo,

gun.

14 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

V. CLASSES OF NOUNS.
1. Abstract Nouns.

These are frequently derived from adjective stems by
adding thereto the syllable sa ; as—

samusa, cold, the degree of coldness ; from samui, cold.
takasa, height ; from takai, high.
shirosa, whiteness ; from shiroi, white.

Equivalents for abstract nouns are also produced by
adding to an adjective or verb the word koto, fact, act,
(abstract] thing ; as —

shjrni ^nta, whiteness, the fact that something is white.
fukai koto, deep-fact = depth.
machigata koto, a mistake.

" cannot-fact," i.e. impossibility.

These locutions are frequently heard with an ejacula-
tory signification ; thus —

Takai koto A What a height !
Atsni kntn ! How hot it is !

2. Concrete Nouns.

These may be formed in a similar manner to abstract
nouns, by adding to an adjective the word mono, thing ;
as —

shiroi mono, a white thing, an object which is white.

ao mono (aoi, green), green things = vegetables.

nui mono, embroidery ; from nuu, to sew.

It must be noted that mono nearly always signifies a
tangible, material object, whilst koto means "a thing of
the mind," "an act or fact."

THE NOUN 15

3. Augmentative and Diminutive Nouns.

(a) Augmentatives.

These are formed by prefixing 6, the root of okii, large,
to nouns ; thus —

nezumi, rat. 6-nezumi, large rat.

fune, boat. o-bune, ship.

tera, temple.. o-dera, large temple.

shima, island. 6-shima, large island.

(b.) Diminutives.

To produce these, the word ko, child, little, is employed,
prefixed to nouns ; thus —

inu, dog. ko-inu, child-dog, little dog, i.e.

puppy.

ishi, a, stone. ko-ishi, a pebble.

tera, temple. ko-dera, small temple.

shima, island. ko-jima, small island.

As exemplified in the preceding instances, the words to
which o and ko are prefixed often assume the nigori.
N.B. — Care must be taken to distinguish 6 large, from o,
honourable (see p. 155).

VI. NOTES ON VAEIOUS NOUNS.

The word, hazu, obligation, necessity, is often employed
to render the idea expressed by the English verbs " ought "
and " should " ; thus —

Mo kuru hazu da * \ He should be here by

already comes necessity is j now.

Sakujitsu sono kane wo \ f ^ to ^ ^

yesterday that money . 7 ,, ,

, , ., > paid that money
uketoru hazu deshita. ,

,7. .. yesterday.

receive obligation was. }

* For the arrangement of words in the sentence, see
" Syntax," p. 167.

16 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Aida, interval, is sometimes used to correspond to our
" while " or " whilst" ; thus—

Wataktishi wa Tokyo ni"|

me as-for Tokio in \ Whilst I WOS in

oru aida. j Tokio.

dwell whilst j

So suru aida, } Whilst we were doing

so do while. J so.

The word toki, time, is frequently employed to translate
"when"; thus—

Watakushi to omaye wa "I

/ and you I When you and I came

kuni kara kita toki j from our province.

province from, came time j

Meshi kuu toki. \ When eating rice

rice eat time. J = when dining.

The locution t-n*" ™ is sometimes heard at the begin-
ning of a phrase, with the signification "by-th^-hyp-"

THE PRONOUN.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

The Japanese substitutes for the Personal Pronouns of
Western languages are merely nouns which by process of
time have become pronominal, and their discussion as
separate parts of speech is merely to suit the convenience
of the foreign student. They are arranged in several
classes expressing the various grades of respect or politeness
peculiar to the colloquial idiom, and are somewhat similar
to the English expressions "your obedient servant," "your

THE PRONOUN 17

lordship," etc., or to the Spanish " vuestra merced" (your
honour}.

(a) Singular.
1st Person.

The ordinary word for " 1 " is watakushi (literally,
"selfishness"). The lower classes generally use the con-
traction watashi or washi.

Boku (lit. " servant ") is much used for the first person
by soldiers, students, and young men in general, when
addressing each other familiarly.

Temae (or temaye) is a very humble and therefore
respectful equivalent for /, and is in frequent use amongst
the lower classes to address their superiors. It possesses
the peculiarity of being also employed as a rude equivalent
for the pronoun of the second person.

Ora, a contraction of ore wa is the word for " I " generally
used by coolies to each other.

Other equivalents for " I " are sessha ; oira (used
familiarly) ; wattchi (used by peasants) ; shosei, and ore
which is a vulgar corruption of ware, the ordinary word for
" I " in the classical language.

2nd Person.

Anata, a contraction of ano kata, that side, was formerly
a pronoun used only for the third person, but it has come
to be employed for the second, like the Spanish " listed "
and the German "Sie." Anata is used when address-
ing equals or superiors, and with the addition of sama
( = Mr, Mrs, Miss), it expresses the highest degree of
respect.

18 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Omae was originally respectful, but it is now familiar and
condescending, and is used to address inferiors, children,
and one's own servants.

Omae san (san is short for sama} is nearly the same as
anata, but more familiar, and it is heard usually from the
mouths of women.

Klsama and temae are employed in addressing inferiors
familiarly.

Sense! is used in speaking to learned persons.

Students, soldiers, and young men in general use kimi
when addressing each other in a familiar way.

Danna. danna san, and danna sama are the expressions
used by servants to their masters.

Other equivalents for the second personal pronoun are
sochi (to inferiors) ; konata ; sonata (familiar) ; sokka
(formal) ; nushi (contemptuous) ; ware (by peasants) ; and
unu (abusive).

Of these numerous equivalents for the second person,
anata and omae will usually be found to suffice for the
needs of ordinary conversation between Europeans and
natives.

3rd Person.

Are is often used for " he " or " she," but is frequently
replaced by the more polite forms ano hlto, ano o kata,
ano otoko (" that man"), and ano onna ("that woman").

Muko, literally " the opposite side," is used indiscrimi-
nately for "he," "she," or "they."

(b) Plural.
The so-called pronouns just discussed may assume the

THE PRONOUN 19

plural suffixes given on page 9, the forms most commonly
employed being as follow: —

1st Person.
"We."

watakushi domo. boku ra.

sesslia domo. sessha ra.

oira, for ore-ra (vulgar).

2nd Person

"You."

anata gata.

omae (san) gata.

sense! gata.

omae (san) tachi.

danna shu.

kimi tachi.

danna gata.

kisama tachi.

temae tachi-ra.

3rd Person.
"They."

ano Into tachi. ano o kata gata.

are ra (rude).

NOTE. — 1. Watakushi domo is frequently used for the singu-
lar, and is slightly humbler than watakushi.

2. The Japanese never use the equivalents for
"we" as in English to signify "you and I." They
only employ them to mean "other persons and I."
To render " we " meaning "you and I," the locution
q.nat.rt. t.n wniftjcfisfift to may be used, but visually the idea
is rendered more idiomatically by means of " Honori-
fics " (see p. 154).

20 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The so-called personal pronouns may be followed by the
particles (postpositions) exactly as with other nouns, and
in this manner the cases may be formed. Thus, exactly as
we say —

Ano hlto to kenkwa

that man with, quarrel
wo shlta

(ace. sign) did

He had a quarrel with
that man.

so we may say —

Watakushi to kenkwa \ He had a quarrel with
wo shita. / me.

In like manner the possessive pronouns are formed
simply by the addition of the possessive particle no or ga,
and exactly as we say —

Ano hito no oya j The Q/ ^

that man of, parent J

so we may say —

Watakushi no oya, The parent of me = my
parent.

Mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, are also translated by
watakushi no, anata no, etc., but they may easily be
distinguished from my, your, etc., by the particles used
with them, or by the context.

From the preceding observations it will be gathered that
there is no special declension for pronouns, nor any sepa-
rate class of possessive pronouns.

Examples of Personal Pronouns.

Watakushi mo mairirnasu, ) T .„

} 1 will go too.
1 too will-go J

THE PRONOUN

21

Kimi wa doko ye iku ka ? * 1 T;fr, ... .

\ Where are you off to ?
you where to go 1

Boku wa shibai ye
/ theatre to,

kaeru tokoro da,
return place am

I I am returning to the
theatre.

I

Anata ni o nanasni

you (hon.) talk

moshitai koto ga

There is something

I

wish-to thing

irish to tell you.

gozaimasti,

there-is

Unu uso wo tsuku ze, 1
you lie stick ! J

You are telling a lie.

Ann TiYtn \va daiku "|

carpenter
de gozaimasti, j

He is a carpenter.

* }

Wataktishi ni kwankei \

me to, connection

It has nothing to do

ga nai, j

with me.

(nom.) i$-not

Ano hfto no ta wa "j

rice-field

His rice-field is a long

yohodo toi, j

way off.

very-much is-far

Omae no kiukin wa "j

wages

How much are your

ikura ? 1

wages ?

how-murh

See remarks on " ka," pp. 38 and 174,

22 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Kore wa anata no kfishi \

tli is yuur comb T , . , „

, . ,. . Y Is not this your comb :

de wa gozaimasenu ka,

is-not ? J

Hei ! wataktishi no desti, ~\ v ., .

* Yes. it is mini',
yes mine it-is )

The student must note that the use of personal pronouns
is much less frequent in Japanese than in English. Except
in cases of special emphasis, or where their omission would
occasion ambiguity, they are unemployed. Thus, "I am
going to Hiogo to-morrow," will be translated Miduichi
Hiogo ye mairimasu unless it be doubtful to whom the
speaker refers, in which case watakushi will be added. If
there be an emphasis on the pronoun, as in the sentence,
" / shall go to Hiogo, but you may please yourself," the
pronouns will also then be inserted.

The constant repetition of ivataknshi and anata is one
of the commonest errors into which Europeans fall, and a
Japanese will often carry on quite a long conversation
without employing a single pronoun.

II. REFLECTIVE PKONOUNS.

Jibun or Jishin, self (usually followed by de), is the
Reflective Pronoun in most frequent use ; thus —

watakushi jibun,

jibun, ^
jisMn, }

go jibun (honorific)l
omae jibun (not j- yourself.
honorific) J

The above are used only when it is desired to emphasize
the idea of "self,"

THE PRONOUN 23

"Self" may also be expressed by onore, which is some-
times heard as an insulting equivalent for "you."

Waga, whose real meaning is "my," is frequently used
with the signification "one's own," "my own," "our own";
thus —

waga ko, one's own child.

wao-R knni. my country, one's country (der vater-

hind, la patrie).
waga kiodai, one's oini brothers and sisters.

Waga nai, ire, is also in use, but is confined chiefly to
the public platform.

"Each other," "one another," are generally rendered by
the adverb tagai ni, whose literal meaning is " mutually " ;
thus —

Tagai ni tasukeru, } rri i ? .1

j- Ineii help one another.

they -help )

Tagai ni mite 1 ~f

. ,v. }• 1 hey looked at each other.

orimashite, J

III. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

(Substantive) Sore, 1 „«. (Substantive) Bat*,} That.

(Adjective) Eono, I (Adjective) Sono, / (near).

(Substantive) Are, ~| That.
(Adjective) Ano,J (remote).

The Japanese, like the Latin and Spanish, distinguishes a
near " that " (sore ; Latin, iste ; Spanish, ese) from a
remote " that " (are ; Latin, ille ; Spanish, aquel), the
former being used when the object is near or in the posses-
sion of the person spoken to, whilst the latter is used when
the object is distant, not in the possession of the person
spoken to, or has relation to the person spoken of,

24 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

It must be noted, too, that Japanese, like French, dis-
tinguishes substantive forms of these pronouns from pro-
nominal adjective forms ; thus kore corresponds to the
French celui-ci, celle-ci, and stands alone, whilst kono corre-
sponds to ce, celle, and is joined to nouns.

Examples.

Kore wa ikura desu ka. "1 TT 1 . ^ . „

, , ' } How much is this ?

this as-for how-much is (it) J

Kore wa teppo de gozaimasu, ) m • •

'\ I/MS is a qun.

gun is )

Kono nedan, This price.
Knnn mifOil,. This road.

Sore wa, nan desti ? ) ™ri . • .-, . ,

f i, t • -t \ What is that (near you, etc.} ?
that as-for what is-it )

Sono hako, That box (in your hand, etc.}.

Are wa, darp. no ijp.bi rlp.sii ? | Whose is that house

that as-for, who of house is (it) J (yonder} ?

tfl.kai yam a, ) .

\ lhat high mountain (yonder).
high mountain }

Remarks.

1. Are and ano are sometimes replaced by kare and
kano respectively, but the latter forms belong more to the
classical language, and are heard only from the lips of cul-
tured speakers. Kano sometimes occurs with the meaning
"a certain."

2. Sore and sono are used in reference to the immediate
object of conversation ; are and ano are used when a new
subject is proposed. Sono boshi, for example, signifies that
hat, i.e. the hat you are wearing, or, of which we are speak-
ing • ano boshi, the hat you wore yesterday, etc,

THE PRONOUN 25

3. Ano is frequently heard at the beginning of a sentence,
serving merely to draw attention similarly to our " I say,
Mr -- ."

4. The pronominal adjectives this and that are often
rendered by to before words derived from the Chinese. To
signifies "the one in question," "the actual one," as to-
nin, this (or that) person, the person in question.

The demonstratives in the following list are derived
from the same roots as those just discussed.

This sort of; such as this.
Ko iu

rSonna, ~l That sort of;

( Anna, ^ That sort of;
*

, , . . ,

(near)lc ./, (remote)].. *f

I So iu, Jsftcn as that. x MA iu, J such as that.

N.B. — The remarks on the words in the first list apply
equally to the corresponding words in this, and need
not be repeated.

Examples.

Konna nedan, This kind of price.
Ko iu rosoku, This sort of candle.

Sonna koto, \ „,, . , . , /. ., .
o. . ! , That kind of thing.

So m koto,

Anna hito ni korarecha, ) ^

., . . , , • .„. \une is perplexed ivhen

tnat-sort-of person by, gcttt ing-come, * f

meiwaku shimastt, f 8jtck Pe°Ple come to

trouble does } ones house.

A iu hanashi wa mettani \

such-as-that story seldom \0ne seldom hears a

kikimasenti, j story of tJiat sort.

(one) hears

The words in the succeeding list are adverbs from the

26

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

same roots as the pronouns just dealt with, and they may
be advantageously discussed at this stage.

Ko,

Koko,

KocM(ra),

Koya,

Konnani,

Kokoera,

Thus, like this, so.
\ Here, hither.

This manner.

In this kind of way.

Hereabouts.

Near.

Remote.

So,

Like that, in that

A, Like that, in

way, so.

that way, so.

Soko,

\There.

AstikO, \ rrii

Sochi(ra),

Achi(ra), '

Sayo,

That manner.

Sonnani,

In that kind of

Annani, In that kind of

way.

way.

Sokoera,

Thereabouts.

Asukoera, Thereabouts.

Examples.

Koko ye oite oite kudasai, ) D7 . •. /,

' } Please put it here,
here to, putting condescend )

Achirayemate,| Wait there.

ite,\

\it J

Astlko kara saki wa jiki

there, from, front as-for immediately
desu,

is

So moshimashitareba, mina
so, when-I-said, all

okorimashita,

became-angry

A ! sayo deshitakke,

ah thus it-was

It is no distance
from there to the
next place.

They all became angry
when I said so.

THE PRONOUN 27

Sho sho sokoera de matte ore, \ Stay where you are
a-UttJe thereabouts waiting remain j a little.

Sonnani yasuku wa uranakatta, \ / did not sell so
so cheap (/) did-not-sell ) cheaply as that.

Kochira ye o tori nasai, \ m • i

} Please come in here.

here to to-pass condescend J

IV. INTERKOGATIVE PRONOUNS.

|^? (Subst) Dore,
Donata (polite), J (Adj.) Dono,

•(Subst.) Nani, What?

Examples.

Dare ga so itta, 1 Jjri . , 9
Who said so ?

thus said )

Drma,ta deafl. 1 TI7-, . ., ,,
\ Who is it ?

IS (it) )

Dore ni shirnasho, j
shall-do )

Dono fune, Which ship ?

Nani shi ni kita, j ^^ ^^
do to have-come )

Darenohako, I WJumbox?
who of box )

Dare ni kane wo yatta,\ To whom did he give the
to money (ace.) gave J money?

Remarks.

1. Donata (for dono kata, which side), is employed as a
polite substitute for dare. A still more respectful phrase
is donata sama.

2. Nani, what? is applied to inanimate objects only.

28 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

There is no adjectival form, nani no, nanno, or dono being
used instead ; as —

Nanno go yo desii ka, 1 Tjr, . . ,

Y What is your business ?
what (hon.) business is ? J

The Interrogatives in the following list are derived from
the same roots as those last discussed.

Do, How? Doko, \where?

Donna, ) What kind of? Dochi(ra)
>6 iu, J

i(ra), I

Do iu, / What-ltke ? Donnani, In what kind of

way?

Dokoera, Whereabouts ?

Examples.

Doshiyo I Whatshallldo?
now shall-do )

Do iu wake de, konna^j

what-like reason by, such [Why do you do such
baka na koto wo suru, I foolish things ?
foolish things do J

Doko de sono tokei wo o

where that watch

kai nasatta,
buy did

Where did you buy that
watch ?

Donnani ureshi ka

wJutt-way joyful ? You don't know how pleased

shiremasenu, / am.

cannot-know

Dochira ye irasshaimasti, | ^^ ^ . ?

where to deign-to-go J

THE PRONOUN 29

V. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.

The Indefinite Pronouns are formed from the Interro-
gative Pronouns by addition of the particles ka, mo, de mo,
and zo ; thus —

Dare ka, Somebody (or other).

Dare mo, Anybody, everybody.

Dare de mo, A nybody, everybody, any one whatever.

Dore ka, Some one thing, one or other.

Dore mo, Any one thing, nothing.

Dore de mo, Anything whatever, either one, any one

(thing).

Nani ka, Anything, nothing, something (or other).

Nani mo, Anything, nothing.

Nan de mo, "1 ,,. ^ .,•

} Amithmq, hveruthinq.
Nani de mo, /

Nanzo, \ Something, anything, any, something or

Nani zo, ) other.

Examples.

Dare ka so itta, } Somebod y said so.
so said J

Dare de mo shitte imasu, Everybody knows it.
Anybody will do.

Dare de mo yoroshu

good
gozaimastt,

is

Dore ka hitotsu chodai, Please give me one or the

other.

Dore mo ikemasen ka,\
any-one-thing will-go ? j

30 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Daiku ni nani ka o ^1

carpenter to, something >»..•-.• , 7 •

r Grtw M0 carpenter somethmq.
yari nasare,

<7iw do )

Nani mo gozaimasenu, There is nothing whatever.

Nani de mo shitte iru, He knows everything.

Nan de mo yoroshii, Anything will do.
Nanzo omoshiroi hanashi ^

amusing story I Can you not tell us some-
ga gozaimasen ka, j thing amusing,

is-not ? J

Remarks.

1. The polite forms for dare are donata ka, donata mo,
and donata de mo ; thus —

Donata ka o ide ni natte \

going to having-become I TT
orimasu ka,

)

Donata mo ikaremasen, ^ ,r , ,

' } Nobodii can qo.
can-go J

Donata de mo ikareru, 1 , ,

J- Anybody can qo.
can go J

go

2. Dare mo, dore mo, and nani mo are generally used
with negative verbs, and are equivalent to the English
"nobody" and "nothing."

Indefinite adverbs may be formed from the interrogative
adverbs in like manner to the indefinite pronouns ; thus —

Doka, Somehow (or other).

Domo, Really, somehow.

Do de mo, Anyhow.

Doko ka, dokko, Somewhere (or other}.

Doko mo, Everywhere.

Doko de mo, Anywhere.

THE PRONOUN 31

DocM(ra) ka, f These are the same as the last
,, mo, three, and they may also be used

,, de mo, j for dore lea, dore mo, and dare de
[ mo when two only are spoken of.

Examples.

Doka nasaimashlta ka, Is anything wrong with you ?
Sore wa, dochira de men Oh ! either (of the two) will

yoroshii, / do.

Doko ka de mita yo \

somewhere seen manner I / believe I have seen him
ni omoimasu, j somewhere or other.

think J

Doko ni mo gozaimasen, There are none to be had

anywhere.

VI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

In the Japanese language there are no Relative
Pronouns, and to express reference or relation to another
noun or pronoun in the sentence the verb is prefixed to
the noun attributively exactly as an adjective might be.
Thus, just as we say "a good boy," so also we may say
"a runs boy," i.e. "a boy who runs"; "a plays boy,"
i.e. "a boys who plays," as exemplified in the following
phrases : —

°' i The person who ran away,
ran-away person J

Kuru hlto, | The man who com^

comes J

Kita hito, 1 m i

The man who came,
came J

Sakuiitsu katta hako,^ ™, , T, ,. ,

- The box I bought yesterday,
yesterday bought box J

32 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Shiranti hito, 1 , T , , ,

A man whom 1 do not know.
know-not J

Tsunekichi to iu hlto.l ™, „ j m 7 • 7 •

line man called 1 sunekichi.
that-called J

NOTE. — The appeai'ance of ambiguity caused by the use
of the active where we should expect the passive, as
seen in the last phrase but one, is in most cases
dispelled by the context. Thus sakujitsu katta Jiako
cannot be construed as ' ' the box which bought
(something) yesterday," but only "the box which
I bought yesterday."

Remarks.

The words tokoro no (literally, " of place "), are not in
frequently heard from the mouths of learned people, with
the force of the relative pronouns who, which, and that ;
thus —

Kuru tokoro no hikn ™,

, , N „ \ Ihe man who comes.

(for) Kuru Into, }

Koroshita tokoro no ~\

akindo, I ^,

/ /• \ IT- i v, 1-1 ^ Ihe merchant who killed.
(jor) Koroshita akindo,

killed merchant J

Korosareta tokoro ^

no akindo, - The merchant who was kitted.

(for) Korosareta akindo, J

POSTPOSITIONS.

In Japanese that relationship of words which, in English,
is expressed by Propositions, is indicated by what are
termed by Western grammarians " Postpositions " from
the fact of their being placed after the words with which
they are directly connected. These postpositions, in

POSTPOSITIONS 33

addition to fulfilling the prepositional office, are also used
as conjunctions, and they serve also, as we have seen, to
express those relations of words which Latin, German, and
other European languages indicate by the use of case-
inflections.

The following scheme shows all postpositions in common
use, together with their most usual significations, and to
facilitate reference they are arranged alphabetically.

Dano.

Dano is a combination of the verb da, is, and the post-
position no. It is employed in enumerating a number of
objects when it is desired to particularise each one as fully
as possible. It is generally translated "and," and must be
repeated after each of the things enumerated ; thus —

Daiku dano, kajiya dano,"|

carpenters blacksmiths I Carpenters, blacksmiths,

yaneya dano, j and tilers and such.

tilers

The student should note carefully the distinction
existing between dano and ni (see p. 41) used in
enumerations, for whilst the latter is employed simply to
join together the names of a definite number of objects,
dano expresses the idea of a group or series of things
similar to those enumerated. Thus daiku ni, kajiya ni,
yaneya ni signifies "carpenters, blacksmiths and tilers,"
and no more than these three classes of workmen, but
daiku dano, kajiya dano, yaneya dano means " carpenters,
blacksmiths, tilers and the like," and may thus include
other workmen also.

The word dano is considered to be somewhat impolite,
and cultured speakers usually substitute its more courteous
equivalent de gozaimasu no.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 2

34 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

De.

The primary use of this postposition is to convey the
meanings expressed by the English "by," "with," "at,"
"in," "on account of" ; as —

Okadeiku, j TO go by land,
land to-go J

Hasami de kiru, \ m .,7

\ lo cut with scissors,
scissors to cut )

Tokyo de hocho wo kaimasho, \ I shall buy a knife at
ToTdo knife shall-buy J ToMo.

Hiogo de soba wa ikura, \ What is the price in
price how-rmich J Hiogo ?

Nawa de shibaru,^ rr s j L *

} lo fasten by means of a rope.
rope to-fasten )

Wakaranai de komaru, \/ am troubled on account
not-understanding am-troubled) of his not understanding.

A second use of de is puzzling to the student as it seems
to have no meaning and to be superfluous in the sentence.
It is then a corruption of nite, the gerund of an obsolete
verb. Its real signification in these cases is " being " ;
thus —

Ima no betto wa, dajaku ^

now of, groom lazy] \ The groom I have now is

de yaku ni tatanai, f useless, (as) he is so lazy.

being iisefulness stands-not J
Watakushi wa isha de
me doctor being

gozaimasu,

/ am the doctor.

The last sentence exemplifies the most common mode of
expressing the English verb " to be," that is, by means of

POSTPOSITIONS 35

de aru, de arimasu, de gozaimasu. With these various
verbs for "to be," de forms a group of contractions, thus
de aru is usually contracted to da; de arimasu and de
gozaimasu to desu ; de arimashita to deshlta ; de atta
to datta, etc. (see pp. 78, 92, 106, and 164); thus the last
sentence above would commonly be rendered Watakushi
wa isha desu.

In some cases the postposition wa is added to de, usually
in expressions indicative of displeasure, and in interrogative
and negative sentences. De iva is generally contracted
into ja in conversation ; thus —

Kore de wa, oki ni "

. y \ 1 am much perplexed with this.

komarimasu,

am-perplexed

Kore ja (or de wa) nai, It is not this.
I ja nai ka, Is it not good ? = Are you not

satisfied ?

A substantive with de affixed frequently renders an

English nominative, when the substantive verb is accom-

panied by a qualifying word or expression after de ; thus —

Kore bakari de taranu \ This will not be enough

this alone not-enough \ alone (i.e. something else

daro, I will be required in

™ll-be J addition).

Hitotsu de yoroshii

one good

gozaimasu

De is often combined with mo, even, also, and de mo
is frequently thus employed in a manner not needing
translation into English, although retaining the significa-

36 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

tion of "even" in the Japanese sentence, as the following
examples show : —

Sore wa ninsoku de mo

Even a coolie can comprehend

that coolie

wakaru,

that.

is-intelligible
Ato de mo yoroshl, J ff wiu ^ afterwardSf
after even is-good J
Kao de mo, o arai \

face even to-wash I TIT'// i y c<- <?

, }- W ill you wash your lace, atri

nasaru ka,

condescend ? J

(For de mo with Interrogative Pronouns, see p. 29.)

Ga.

This particle was originally a genitive sign, and it still
possesses the sense expressed by our " of" in the names of
certain places and in a few locutions, as : Koma-ga-take,
Colt's Peak (a mountain) ; Hoshi-ga-oka, The Mound of the
Stars (a part of Kamukura) ; ga suki, liking, fond of; ga
kirei, not liking, not fond of; ga hoshii, desirous of.

Ga is now, however, employed as the generic nominative
sign, though the nominative case is not necessarily asso-
ciated with ga, as, for instance, when a noun is followed
by wa or mo.

Examples.

Ame ga futte kimashlta. "I T. , , ,

\ It has commenced to rain.
rain falling lias-come )

Fuyu ga kimashita,

itrinter has-come

j
J

Kane ga nai. \ There is no money ; or

money is-not j / have no money.

Kane ga am ka, \ Is there any money ; or

*" • / Have you any money ?

POSTPOSITIONS 37

Ga frequently follows a substantive in cases where the
accusative is naturally expected ; thus —

Tabako ga o suki desti ka, 1 4 . , ,. . ,

\Are you fond of tobacco ?
fond-ofis ? J 9

Kono imi ga wakarimasenti,\/<fo not understand
meaning is-unintelligible J this.

In the above sentences "tabako" and "imi" are
regarded by native grammarians as the subjects of the
sentences.

When situated at the end of a clause ga may usually be
rendered by "but" or "yet," and this force is frequently
conveyed merely by a pause ; as —

Konnichi o taku ye agaru
to-day house to go-up

no destt ga, ashi ga
is leg

itamimashite,

/ would go to your house
to-day, but my leg is
painful (therefore I
cannot go}.

being-painful

Tori-naoso to omou ga, \

take-will-mend think I / wish to mend it, but I

tori-naosenai, j cannot.

take-cannot-mend

Kochira de zonjite oreba ^j j wouU m you if j

Jiere in knowing if-be , i . / r j

, . }- Anew, out (1 do not
moshi-agemasu ga, know).

say-will-lift-up but J

Tokoro ga, or daga, at the commencement of a sentence,

signifies "well then "; "in this case, then ";

" upon this " ; thus —

Tokoro ga, sono ban ni \ Well, then, on that
that night on J night — .

38 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Ka.

Ka serves to ask a question or to express a doubt, and
in the English translation of a Japanese sentence where it
is used in this connection, it may be replaced by a note of
interrogation ; thus —

Arimasu, There is.
Arimasu ka, Is there?
Kita ka, Has he come?

When the sentence includes some other interrogative
word, ka is generally omitted, as, for instance, in the
following —

Dare desu 1 TT77 . .. ,
} \v ho is it ?

who is (it) J

Itsu shinimashita,, i Tiri j--,i •,• 9
} When aid he die /
when (he) died )

Between two substantives ka corresponds to the English
" or," and when repeated in the sentence it has the force
of the correlatives "whether — or," "either — or"; as —

Kore wa /tforflshij ka "1

this new I Whether is this new

furui ka, j or old ?

old

Otoko ka onna ka, "i Whether is it a male

man woman j or a female?

Tama ka ya ni, ^1

bullet arrow [ He was killed either by a

atatte shinimashita, j bullet or by an arrow.

striking he-died

(For ka with Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs,
see p. 29.)

POSTPOSITIONS

39

Kara.

Used with nouns kara means "from" and "since," but
with verbs it bears the significations "because," "after,"
" for " (when meaning " because ") ; thus —

Shinagawa kara Tokyo made, \ From Shinagawa

Shinagawa to f to ToklO.

kara, Since yesterday.

\Ido not know because
] I was absent.

Rusu datta kara, shiranai,
absent was not-know.

Asa-han wo tabete kara,
breakfast having-eaten

de nakucha ikimasenu,

if-not do-not-go
Kutabiremashlta kara, choto,
have-become-tired a-little

yasumimasho,

will-probably-rest

I shall not go until
after breakfast.

Let us rest a little
for I am tired.

Made.

This postposition may be employed to render the ideas
conveyed by such English words and locutions as " to,"
"up to," "as far as," "till," "until," etc., as exemplified
in the following : —

Hiogo made aruite ikimasu, I shall walk as far as

Hiogo.
Yokohama made donoguraL

what-amount I How far is it to
aru, I Yokohama ?

is

Sakuban osoku made,
last night late

kayerananda, f late last night.

not-returned

Komban made machimasu, \ I will wait until
will-wait /

| He had not returned up to

to-night

to-night.

40 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Wataktishi no kuru made "|

me of, to-come I Please wait till my

matte ite kudasai, f coming, i.e. till I come.

waiting being deign J

Mo.

When used alone, mo signifies "also," " too," " even" ;
thus —

Kono hako mo o kai \

box buy .,, ,

)• Buii this box also.
nasare,

do }

Ore mo iko, \ 7 .„

}• I will qo too.
I will-go J

Aru keredo mo omaye }

are although even you I / have some, but I shall

ni wa yaranai, j not give you any.

to give-not

When repeated, in an affirmative sentence, "mo — mo"
renders the English "both — and" ; as —

Inu mo neko mo oi \

dogs cats numeroiis I It is a place where there are

tokoro desu, j both cats and dogs.

place is

In a negative sentence, "mo — mo" means "neither
— nor " ; as —

Yoku mo, waruku mo "I

good bad I It is neither good nor

nai, j bad.

is-not

N.B — Mo must not be confounded with the adverb w 6 (see
P. 145).

POSTPOSITIONS 41

Ni.

The primary meaning of this particle is "to, in, into " ;
as —

KJH"" ni ^r'mafin, He lives in Kioto.

Tera ni hairimashita, j ffg ^ ^ ^ k

temple has-gone J

Tokyo ni niairimasu, I go to Tokio.

Ni means " and " in enumerating several objects ;
thus —

Mikan ni budo, j Q ^

oranges grapes )

With passive verbs ni means " by," and when preceding
a causative verb (see p. 109), it denotes the person who is
caused to perform the action ; as —

Neko wa inu ni kamereta, \ The cat was bitten by

cat dog was-bitten J the dog.

Ame ni furi-komeraremashita, \ We were kept in by

rain (we)-were-kept-in

Inu ni ye wo kuwasero, "\ n- ,7 •, • . /. -,
Jf I Give the dog its food,

dog by food make-eat )

Hito ni sagasasemasho, ^ / will cause the man to
man by will-make-seek I seek it.

When suffixed to the indefinite forms of verbs (see p. 80)
ni means " to," " in order to " ; thus —

Hana wo mi ni ikiinasu. \ T ,, ,,

} 1 go to see the flowers.
flowers see (I)-go )

Kimono wo arai ni yatta,\.£T<? sent the clothes to be

clothes wash sent ) washed.

42

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Ni is often suffixed to nouns to form adverbs ; thus —

baka,

a fool.

baka ni,

foolishly.

dai-ichi,

number one.

da,i inhi ni,

firsthr.

daiii

Care.

(Ja.iji TIT,

carefully*

UOlJJJ.,

heta,

one unskilled.

heta ni,

unskilfully.

jiria.

f.Jif present tiff*1*

ima ni,

presently.

jozu,

one who is skilled.

jozu ni,

skilfully.

makoto,

truth.

makoto ni,

truly, really.

rippa,

magnificence.

rippa ni,

magnificently.

shinsetsu,

kindness.

shinsetsu ni,

kindly.

tashika,

certainty.

tashika ni,

certainly.

ue,

the top.

ue ni,

above, on.

Care should be taken to distinguish between the uses
of de and ni, both of which may sometimes be rendered by
" in." De is employed to indicate the place where an action
is performed, whilst ni denotes the place where something
exists. Compare the two examples following : —

Kono kawa de, uwo ga ^

river in fish \ Are there any fish to be
tsuremasu ka, j caught in this river ?

are-catchable ?

Kono kawa ni uwo wa '|

in \ Are there no fish in this

imasen ka,

are-not

river ?

No.

No, of, is the ordinary genitive sign, and after a noun
it usually indicates possession ; thus —

Inu no tsume, j fl d ,g

dog of, claics J

Hakonokagi, j ^ fe

box of, key )

POSTPOSITIONS 43

Kinnokahei, \ Gold coins.

gold of, cmns J

nr> T)a,it,nryr)

of, President

\The President of America.

Omaye no kimono, } Your clothes,

you of, clothes J

Hari no ana, } m s *-L ji

> The eye of the needle,
needle of, hole )

No is also employed to join two nouns in apposition ;
thus —

Betto no Kurokawa, \ m v

} The groom K.
groom Aurokawa )

Yamato no kuni, "I ^ . , v

} 1 he province of Y.
Y. province J

Dokushin no wataktlshi, \ r / 7, \ 7,7,7
bachelor I J

At times, no is employed attributively after adjectives,
with the force of the English "one" or "ones," as shown
in the following sentences : —

Motto yasui no ni shiyo, ~» / will take a cheaper
more cheap one to will-do J one.

Korewaii no da, \ rhi* i<t a aood one

> -t /fcfro fco I* UULfLi/ L//CC.

this good one is j

Kore ! nibui no bakari aru : } m 7 7, 7

These are only blunt
these blunt ones only are _

„ , Y °nes ) are there no

togatta no ga arimasenu ka,

sharp ones are-not ? J ^arpones?

Ko iu no mo hayarimasu, 1 These aho are fash.
this-sort ones also are-fashionable I ionabu SQ fo. „

kara, goran nasai, 7 7 . ,,

look at them,
as glance deign J

44 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

When a cardinal numeral precedes a noun qualified by
it, the postposition no is generally suffixed to the numeral,
thus —

Mitsu no hako, } rri L

I Ihree boxes,
three boxes J

instead of —

Hako mitsu.

Hitotsu no tsutsumi, ) ^ ,

> One parcel.
one parcel J

instead of —

Tsutsumi hltotsu.

A very favourite idiom is the employment of no as an
equivalent for koto, act, fact. Most frequently this con-
struction is used in conjunction with the verb da or desu,
and is generally translated by " it is that," or " is it that ?"

Examples.

Nani wo sum no desu ? 1 What is that ? (you are
what (ace.) do fact is ) doing).

Konai no daro, 1 D i i •/;

y Perhaps he ivill not come,
will-not-come fact probably is J

In sentences like the preceding, the o of the word no is
usually elided in conversation, so that the phrases become
Nani wo suru n'desu and Konai n'daro. If, however, no is
placed at the end of the clause, the o cannot be omitted, as
for example in —

Aru no ?

is, fact

Shi.

j- Is there ? (Is it a fad that there is ?)

This postposition often serves as the copulative " and "
with verbs in the Indicative Mood. Care must be taken
not to confound it with the Indefinite Form of the verb
suru, to do (see p. 73).

POSTPOSITIONS 45

Examples.

Sawashi hi mo am shi ; "\ r ,

I haoe busy days and rest-
busy day aim

hima na hi mo aru, ** da^ (hima> rest

interval Insure, interval).

Takai shina mo aru shi,

expensive articles and There are expensive articles

yasui no mo aru, I and also cheap ones.

cheap )

One can see the

Kono tera wa yam a mo

mountain from

temple mountain ,-, . 7

, . , . , . V this temple, and

mieru shi, kawa mo mieru sm, ., ,

the river also is
is-seen river also

to be seen.

To.

Used with nouns, to may be taken as an equivalent for
the copulative "and." It is usually repeated after each
noun, but even when not so repeated it invariably belongs
to the word immediately before it and not to the one
following ; thus —

Budo to mizu to wo motte 1

wine water bring Y Bring wine and water.

o ide,
AnoJittoJ^ikirnashtta, j

that man and (I) ivent J

Anata to, watakushi to, You and I.

Other idiomatic uses of to may be classed under this
head ; as —

Kono betto to issho ni ike, 1 n .,-, ,7 .

' }- Go with this groom,
this groom and same-place go )

Kore to wa c>npra.imRgfi ^ .

\ It is different from this,
mis and as-for differs J

Akindo to kenkwa wo shlta, \ He and a merchant
merchant and quarrel (he) did J had a quarrel.

46 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Rionin to mo, 1 D .-,. s .-,

Both of them.
two-men and even J

To has also at times the sense of the conjunction "that,"
and it is used as the sign of quotation or of indirect state-
ment; thus —

Uso da to omoimasu, \ / think that it is a lie (literally,
lie is, that (I) think J <•'- it is a lie," that I think).
Honto da to iiinasu, \He says that it is true (literally,
truth is, that (he) says / " it is truth," that he says).
Koko de awo to wa

here will-meet ,,.. ,7 .. M1

, v (literally. will - meet you
omowananda, ,5*. .

did-not-expect j here> ^ I did not expect).

In phrases like the two first above, "that" is often
omitted in English, but to cannot be so dispensed with
in the Japanese sentence. Thus we may say in English
" I say it is a lie," or " I say that it is a lie " ; " he says it
is true," or "he says that it is true."

The following examples illustrate an important idiomatic
use of to with the literal meaning "that," but being
untranslatable into English : —

0 namaye wa nan' to iu ka,"| What is your name?
name as-for what that say I literally, "as to your

I name, what (do
j people) say that it is."
Watakushi wa Hagiwara to "|

me that

_ , . r My name is H,

moshimasu,

call j

Maruyama to mosu tokoro, ~\ A place catted M. (liter-
thai say place j- ally, a place (of which

J they say) it is M.).

Very frequently in a sentence containing to an ellipsis

POSTPOSITIONS 47

occurs with certain parts of the verbs iu, to say ; omou,
to think; kiku, to hear ; and sum, to do ; thus : —

0 gakko ni iku tote, ~\

school to, (I) go (saying) He icent out saying that he

demashlta, f was going to school.

that went-out

Anata ni kenkwa (sho), ^
you with quarrel (mil do) \ He came intending to

to (omotte) kimashita, j quarrel with you.

thinking came

To after verbs often means " if" or " when " ; as —
Sugu ikanai to, okuremasu, "I If you do not go at once
at-once go-not if are-late ) you ivill be too late.

Kuru to sugu ni, 1 T -,. , , ,

} Immediately he comes,
come when immediately )

Yoku-jitsu ni naru to, 1 ^m ,,

}- When the next day came,
next-day become when J

Placed at the end of an assertion to has a strongly
emphatic form. When thus used it is generally followed
by mo ; as —

Arimasu ka ? Arimasu to mo ! Are there any ? Of

course there are !

Yo gozaimasu to itte mo, j c&rtaMy / shall
good is that said even J

Wa.

This is a distinctive, separative or isolating postposition
corresponding somewhat to the French " quant a " and may
be translated by "as for," "with regard to," "so far as
. . . goes (is concerned)," etc. In English the same notion
is expressed, not by a separate word, but by an emphasis
on the noun.

Examples.

Korede wa ikenai, ) This
this with cannot-go J

48

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Atsui koto wa atsui,
thick fact is-thick

Konda wa sonna wake

this-time such reason
ja (for de wa) nai,
is not

Konnichi wa, yoi tenkL

to-day good weather

18

As far as thickness is con-
cerned, it is thick.

This time, there will be
nothing of that sort.

To-day it is fine (ichatever
the weather has been).

Ima wa te-suki de gozaimasu,
now hand-empty am

Kore wa umai,

this

are wa mazui,

Now I am at liberty
(althougjl z Mve

, >
been so busy).

1 This is delicious,
I

is-delicious, that is-unpleasant

}

agreeable.

In interrogative sentences wa often appears to be
employed in asking a question, but an ellipsis must
always be supplied. For example, ato wa, pronounced
interrogatively, signifies "What is the next (thing)?" but
literally it is " As for the next (thing), what is it ? "

Examples.

Inu wa ?

0 atsuraye wa ?

order

Mr Watanabe, what

about the inter-

.
prefer ?

Where is the dog ?

From the preceding observations and examples it will be
gathered that wa is not, as is advanced by some writers, a
sign of the nominative case. Certainly the word which wa
follows has often to be rendered, in the English translation,

POSTPOSITIONS 49

by a nominative, but in the Japanese sentence it never has
the nominative force.

Beginners are often puzzled to know when to use wa
and when ga, inasmuch as in many cases the same English
translation must be rendered to two Japanese sentences,
one containing wa and the other ga.

This is an important point, and one that must be clearly
apprehended by every one endeavouring to express English
ideas in the Japanese language. Although an incorrect
use of the two words is impossible when the mind is fairly
penetrated by Japanese, yet it is impossible to formulate
precise rules for their employment.

The following explanations will probably suffice to
minimise the difficulty and enable the student to recognise
the distinction between wa and ga.

If the doctor is regularly visiting a patient in my house,
the servant will probably announce his arrival by the words,
"Isha wa miemashlta," "The Doctor has come" In this
case the " Doctor " (subject) is uppermost in the servant's
mind. If, on the other hand, there be no one ill in the
house, the Doctor's visit would be unexpected, and if he
came he would be announced by, "Isha ga miemashlta,"
" The Doctor has come ! " Here the unexpected arrival of a
medical man is predominant in the maid's thoughts.

Similarly, if a friend has died suddenly and unexpectedly,
a person would inform me of his death by saying, "Seihnn
San ga shinimashlta," " MrJ&ibiw is dead ! " but if he had
been ill and his death were expected at any moment, the
sentence would be, "Seibun San wa shinimashlta," "Mr
Seibun is dead."

From the preceding observations it will be understood
that wa is separative and emphatic, although there will
usually be no emphasis on the corresponding part of the
English sentence when the English substantive is a

50 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

nominative. Ga, however, has nothing particularly
emphatic about it, although in the English translation of
a sentence in which it appears, its nearest equivalent is an
emphasis on the word which it follows.

The rule for two nominatives in antithetical phrases is,
that either ga may be employed in each, or else wa may
be employed in each ; thus, for the example on page
48, Kore wa umai, are wa mazui, This is delicious, that is
disagreeable, we might substitute Kore ga umai, are ga
mazui, in which case the two subjects would receive a
stronger emphasis than the two predicates.

Wo.

Wo denotes that its associated word is the object in the
sentence, and it is the nearest equivalent for the accusative
case in Japanese although a noun in this case is not
necessarily followed by wo. The accusative may be
signified by the employment of other words than wo as
well as by the form of the sentence, and the accusative
case governed by a preposition does not take wo. It
is also rejected before suru and itasu, to do, as well as
in various other connections.

Examples.

Kondate wo misete kudasai^ \ Please allow me to see
bill-of-fare • shoicing condescend ) the bill-of-fare.
Ato kara go aisatsu wo \
after reply I / will send my reply after-

moshimasho, | wards.

will-say

Nani wo suru,
what do

Hon-yaku suru,
translation to-do

\ What are you doing ?

j- To translate, to make a translation.

POSTPOSITIONS 5 1

Kannin shite kudasare, \ Please have patience

patience having-done give J with me.

Meshi kuu toki, \ When dining (literally, when

rice eat time / eating rice).
Wo is not infrequently employed in cases where a
preposition appears in the English sentence, as in the
following : —

Kuruma wo orite, ~» Getting out of the

'riksha having-got-doicn / 'riksha.

Hachijiu yen to iu taikin \ He was robbed Q/ the

eighty called large-money \ , . . 7

f large sum of eighty
wo torareta,

, , yen.

was taken J

Omaye no o kage de kinsu ~\

you shadow by money \ Thanks to you, I was not

wo torarenai, f robbed of my money,

not-taken J

Mise wo demashita. ^ TT ,, , . ,

} He went out of his shop,
shop went-out

Ya.

This postposition is sometimes expressive of hesitation,
doubt, or reflection, and often it is simply an ejaculation.
In some contexts it is a conjunction, and should be trans-
lated " and " or "or."

Examples.

Kurokawa ya ! / say, Kurokawa (a name)

Uma ya inu ya buta ga \
horses dogs pigs \ There are horses, dogs

arimasu, j pigs, and such.

are }

Nido ya sando, j TwQ or

twice, three-times J

Omocho ya nani ka, j Toys 0),

toys something J

52 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Ye.*

Ye signifies "to," "into," "towards," "at," and when
added to nouns it is an equivalent of the dative case ;
thus —

Gakko ye, o ide desu ka, 1 r.

I Do you go to school f
school exit is : )

Shibai ye iki-gake ni Qn the to ^ theatre

theatre to qoinq-while T .„ . , 7

, , V 1 will just a/rop in at

gakko ye chotto yonmasu ., , ,

\ 7 f • t -a , the school

school at, just will-stop j

Suteishon ye itte o machi ^

at go wait [ Kin dly go and wait at

nasai, I the station,

condescend J

Yo.

With this particle, an equivalent for the vocative case
can be formed for Japanese nouns, although its function
extends somewhat beyond that of a mere vocative particle.
It is not easy to furnish an exact English counterpart of
yo, but a very approximate rendering is—" ... I can tell
you !" or "... and that's the end of it ! "

Examples.

\ It is cheap, I can tell you !
is-cheap )

\ I don't know, and that's an end to it !
don t-know 1

Arimasen yo ! / haven't any, so that's all about it !
Okkasan yo ! Mother !

0 agari nasai yo H ^ • ,

} JJo come in, please !
come-up do J

* By many speakers the y in ye is omitted entirely in con-
versation, and even where not dropped entirely most people
pronounce it very lightly.

THE VERB

53

Yori.

Yori means "from," "since," "than"; thus—

Hiogo yori,
Ima yori,
Sakujitsu yori,
Kore yori shichi ri,
this from seven ri

Omotta yori abunai,
though than dangerous
Roku-ji yori mo osoku,
six-o'clock than late
natcha ikemasen,

as-for-becoming is-no-go
Moshi-agemashlta nedan, :
stated price

yori shlta de
than low with
sashi-ageraremasenu,
offer-cannot

From Hiogo.

From now, henceforth.

Since yesterday.

\Seven- rifrom here.

\It is more dangerous than
J I thought.

It will not do to be later
than six o'clock.

I cannot let you have it
at a lower price than
I stated.

THE VERB.

The treatment of this most important part of speech
in all languages— the Verb — varies considerably from that
of Western tongues. For example, the Japanese verb
possesses no forms which show distinctions of number or
person; thus "I hear," "thou nearest," "he, she, it hears,"
"we hear," "you hear," "they hear," may all be rendered
by the same word, kiku. and similarly with the other
tenses.

The ultimate element of the verb — the germ out of
which spring all inflectional forms — is termed the " root,"
which in many instances has become obscured and difficult
to trace, through decay during process of time and other
causes,

54 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Japanese roots are a vexed question with philologists,
but a clear and ample insight into the nature and functions
of the verb can be obtained by the beginner without
entering deeply into the study of verb -roots.

It is sufficient for all practical purposes to take as a
starting point for verbal inflection, a certain developed form
of the verb, termed the " stem," which can be utilised as a
primary unit for further development. From the stem
by the agglutination of one or more letters, are formed the
"bases," which are four in number, and which serve to
support certain affixes for the production of all the con-
jugational forms. The bases are —

1. The Certain Present. 2. The Indefinite Farm.
3. The Conditional Base. 4. The Negative Base.

and as their process of formation from the stem, and the
subsequent conjugatioual development are not in all cases
identical, the verbal forms diiferentiate into two distinctly
marked groups termed "Conjugations."

The following table exhibits the terminations of the
bases in the two conjugations : —

FIRST CONJUGATION.

Cert. Pres. Indef. Farm. Neg. Base. Condi. Base.
-u -i -a -e

SECOND CONJUGATION.

-eru -e -e -ere

or or or or

-iru -i -i -ire

It will be observed that in the Second Conjugation there
are two classes of terminations, one characterised by the
vowel e, and the other by the vowel /. Some grammarians
treat the latter class as a Third Conjugation, but as the
forms of inflection are in other respects precisely the same,
this separation is quite unnecessary.

THE VERB 55

EXAMPLES OF BASES IN THE TWO CONJUGATIONS.
(The termination is italicised.)

First Conjugation.

Cert. Pres. Indef. Farm. Neg. Base. Condi. Base,
to write kak?* kakz kaka kake

„ sell uru un ma me

i, read yonm yomi yonm yome

Second Conjugation.

to lose

makeru

make

make

makere

„ eat

taberii

tabe

tabe

inhere

„ see

mini

mi

mt

mire

„ fear

ojiru

oji

oj*

ojire

The student should note that the letter r is always a
component of the terminations of the bases of the Second
Conjugation, but it never appears in those of the First.
Any verb, however, may have it in the stem (e.g. uru,
to sell, above).

Before proceeding to demonstrate how the various Moods
and Tenses are formed by agglutinating suffixes to the
bases, it is advisable to append a few remarks with
reference to the points of difference between the Moods
and Tenses of Japanese and English verbs.

Tense. — In Japanese, inflection of the verb to indicate
the time of the action or state denoted by the verb, is
limited almost entirely to forms expressing present or past
time, and this time as either Certain, or merely probable.
Among the verbal forms present time is not clearly
distinguished from future time as it is with most European
languages. Future actions and states are indicated either
by using words in conjunction with the present tenses or
by employing the Probable Present tense alone.

56 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

In Japanese, then, four tenses only are produced by
inflection, and these are —

1. The Certain Present* 2. The Probable Present.
3. The Certain Past. 4. The Probable Past.

Taking the verbs Naosu, to mend, and Taberu, to eat,
as examples of the First and Second Conjugations
respectively, the following forms exemplify the method
of forming the above tenses by the agglutination of
suffixes to the bases. The terminations are marked by
a hyphen.

Certain Present (or Future).
naosu, / mend, or shall mend, taberu, / eat, or shall eat.

Probable Present (or Future).

naos-6, I probably mend, or tabe-yo, I probably eat, or
shall probably mend. shall probably eat.

Certain Past.

naoshi-ta, / mended, or tabe-ta, I ate, or have

have mended. eaten.

Probable Past.

naoshi-taro, I probably mended, tabe-taro, I probably ate,
or probably have or probably

mended. have eaten.

N.B. — As observed previously, the Japanese verb ignores
person and number, so that where the pronoun "I"
is used in paradigms any other person would be equally
appropriate; thus—

naosu = 1 mend, thou mendest, he mends, she mends,
ice mend, etc.

* It may here be stated that verbs are entered in Dictionaries
and Vocabularies by the Certain Present form. In English the
Infinitive is used for this purpose, but the latter form has no
exact equivalent in Japanese.

THE VERB 57

Another time-inflection, peculiar to the language, is
an indefinite tense form termed the "Frequentative" or
"Alternative," form. Its primary function is to imply
that the action is occasional or to denote the alternation or
opposition of two different actions. The equivalent in
English varies according to circumstances.

Frequentative Form.

naoshi-tari, sometimes tabe-tari, sometimes eating,

mending, sometimes eats,

sometimes mends.

Mood. — The mode or manner of the assertion expressed
by the verb is denoted by inflected forms intimating
simple declaration, contingency or doubt, and command.
Thus among Japanese verbs we have (1) Indicative, (2)
Subjunctive, and (3) Imperative Mood forms.

The Subjunctive Mood consists virtually of two forms
(a) the Conditional, and (b) the Concessive, according
as the action or state expresses dependence, or involves
concession.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Tense.
naosu, / mend. taberu, / eat.

Past Tense,
naoslii-ta, I mended. tabe-ta, late.

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
(a) Conditional.
Present Tense.
naose-ba, if I mend. tabe-reba, if I eat.

Past Tense.

naoshi-tara, if I had mended, tabe-tara, if I had eaten.
(b) Concessive.
Present Tense.
naose-do, though I mend. tabe-redo, though I eat.

58 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Past Tense.

naoshi-taredo, though I have tabe-taredo, though I have
mended. eaten.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
naose, mend! tabe-ro, eat I

Verbal- Adjective forms. — Two other verb-forms closely
allied with adjectives are — (1) the Gerund, and (2) the
Desiderative. The formation and uses of these will be
explained later.

GERUND.

naoshi-te, having mended, tabe-te, having eaten,
mending. eating.

DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE.
naoshi-tai, / want to mend, tabe-tai. I want to eat.

The student will now be in a position to follow the
verbal paradigms now to be given, arranged in accordance
with European methods. The formation and uses of the
tenses will be discussed fully later (see pp. 68 and 78).

FIRST CONJUGATION.

Naosu, to mend.

Indefinite Form — naoshi. Negative Base — naosa.
Certain Present — naosu. Conditional Base — naose.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future.

Positive — naosu, / mend, I shall mend.

Negative — naosa-nai,* ^ / do not mend, I shall not
(or)naosa-n(u),t / mend.

* Where two forms are given, the first is the one in most
common use.

t Letters in brackets may be dropped at will.

THE VERB 59

Probable Present or Future.

Pos. naos-6, I probably mend, I shall

probably mend.

Neg. naosa-nakaro, \ I probably do not mend, I
naosu-mai, / shall probably not mend.

Certain Past.

Pos. naoshi-ta, / mended, I have mended.

Neg. naosa-nakatta, \Idldnotmmd.
naosa-nanda,

Probable Past.

Pos. naosM-taro, I probably mended, I pro-

bably have mended.

Neq. naosa-nakattaro, } T , ,; ,. , ,

V 1 probably did not mend.
naosa nandaro,

Frequentative Form.

Pos. naoshi-tari, sometimes mending, at times

mending.

Neg. naosa-nakattari, | sometimes not mending, at
naosa-nandari, J times not mending.

Desiderative Adjective.

Pos. naoshi-tai, / want to mend.

Neg. naoshi-takunai, / do not want to mend.

Gerund.

Pos. naoshi-te, . mending, having mended.

Neg. naosa-nakute, \ not mending, not having
naosa-zu, / mended.

60 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.
Present Tense.

Pos, naose-ba, if I mend.

Neg. naosa-nakereba, )

naosa-neba, ) ****

Past Tense.

Pos. naosM-tara(ba), if I had mended.

Neg. naosa-nakattara(ba), ^ . ,. , ,

j /x. \ / v I had not mended.
naosa-nandara(ba), )

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. naose-do(mo), though I mend.

Neg. naosa-nakeredo(mo), ^

. / v f though 1 do not mend.

naosa-nedo(mo), )

Past.

Pos. naoshi-taredo(mo), though I have mended, though

I mended.

Neg. naosa-nakattakeredo, 1 ,, , T , , ,

. , [ thouqli 1 have not mended.

naosa-nandaredo,

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pos. naose ! mend !

Neg. naosu-na ! do not mend !

SECOND CONJUGATION— FIRST FORM.
Taberu, to eat.

Indefinite Form — tabe. Negative Base — tabe.

Certain Present — taberu. Conditional Base — tabere.

THE VERB 61

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future.
Pos. taberu, / eat, I shall eat.

Neg. tabe-nai, \ I do not eat, I shall not

tabe-n(u), / eat.

Probable Present or Future..

Pos. tabe-yo, / probably eat, I shall pro-

bably eat.
Nefj. tabe-nakaro, ^ I probably do not eat,

tabe-mai, / / shall probably not eat.

Certain Past.

Pos. tabe-ta, / ate.. I have eaten.

Neg. tabe-nakatta, j r did mt ^
tabe-nanda,

Probable Past.

Pos. tabe-taro, / probably ate, I probably

have eaten.

Neg. tabe-nakattaro. ^ T , ,, ,.-,

I / probably did not eat.
tabe-nandaro, J

Frequentative Form.

Pos. tabe-tari, sometimes eating, at times

eating.

Neg. tabe-nakattari, ^ sometimes not eating, at
tabe-nandari, / times not eating.

Desiderative Adjective.
Pos. tabe-tai, / want to eat.

Neg. tabe-takunai, / do not want to eat.

Gerund.

Pos. tabe-te, eating, having eaten.

Neg. tabe-nakute, ~\ not eating, not having
tabe-zu, / eaten.

62 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.

Present Tense.

Pos. tabere-ba, if I eat.

Neg. tabe-nakereba, \ifldorwteat.

tabe-neba,

Past Tense.

Pos. tabe-tara(ba), if I had eaten.

Neg. tabe-nakattara(ba), } if f had ^ eaten.
tabe -nandara(ba) ,

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. tabere-do(mo), though I eat.

Neg. tabe-nakeredo(mo), j f ^ ^ ^

tabe-nedo(mo), J

Past.

Pos. tabe-taredo(mo), though I have eaten, though

I ate.

Nea. tabe-nakattakeredo, ~\ ., , T ,

, , \ though I have not eaten.

tabe-nandaredo, J

IMPEEATIVE MOOD.

Pos. tabe-ro ! eat !

Neg. taberu-na ! do not eat !

SECOND CONJUGATION.— SECOND FORM.

Ojiru, to fear.

Indefinite Form — oji. Negative Base — oji.

Certain Present — ojiru. Conditional Base — ojire.

THE VERB 63

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future.
Pos. ojiru, I fear, I shall fear.

Neg. oji-nai, ^ I do not fear, I shall not

oji-n(ti), / fear.

Probable Present or Future.

Pos. oji-yo, I probably fear, I shall prob-

ably fear.

Neg. oji-nakaro, ^ 1 probably do not fear, I shall

oji-mai, J probably not fear.

Certain Past.
Pos. oji-ta, I feared, I have feared.

Neq. oji-nakatta, ) T ,., ,

> / did not fear.
oji-nanda, )

Probable Past.

Pos. oji-taro, I probably feared, I pro-

bably have feared.

Neq. oji-nakattaro, \ T , , 7 ,. , . ,

\ I probably did not tear.
oji-nandaro,

Frequentative Form.
Pos. oji-tari, sometimes fearing, at times

fearing.

Neg. oji-nakattari, -v sometimes not fearing, at
oji-nandari, / times not fearing.

Desiderative Adjective.
Pos. oji-tai, / want to fear.

Neg oji-takunai, I do not want to fear.

Gerund.

Pos. oji-te, fearing, having feared.

Neg. oji-nakute, ^ not fearing, not having

oji-zu, / feared.

64 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
(a) Conditional.
Present Tense.

Pos. ojire-ba, if I fear.

Neq. oji-nakereba, ^ . ,, T , . -

} if I do not tear.
oji-neba,

Past Tense.

Pos. oji-tara(ba), if I had feared.

Neq. oji-nakattara(ba), ^ ... T , , .,. ,

V if I had not feared.
oji-nandara(ba),

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. ojire-do(mo), though I fear.

Neq. oji-nakeredo(mo), "1 ., , T , , ,

} though I do not fear.
oji-nedo(mo),

Past.

Pos. oji-taredo(mo), though I have feared, though

I feared.

Neq. oji-nakattakeredo, \ ., , T , . ,.

} though I have not feared.
oji-nandaredo,

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pos. oji-ro ! fear !

Neg. ojiru-na ! do not fear 1

NOTE. — The student should bear in mind that, as observed
before, the two forms of the Second Conjugation are
distinguished from each other only by the letters e and i
of the bases. A comparison of the two forms will show
that the terminations are identical, so that when the
first form has been memorised the second one can be at
once formed.

THE VERB

65

Orthographical Modifications of the Stem. — It will be
observed on reference to the preceding paradigms of the
regular verbs, that the terminations are in most cases
simply added to the bases without any changes taking
place, but the Stems of all verbs of the First Conjugation
undergo various orthographical modifications, chiefly
euphonic, during conjugation, these changes occurring
for the most part in the Gerund, in the Past Tenses,
and in the Frequentative Form. The nature of these
modifications is dependent in every case upon the final
letter of the Stem, and they will be readily understood
from a careful examination of the numerous exemplifica-
tions appearing in the following series —

(a) Stems ending in a vowel —

Warau,
to laugh.

Indef. Form warai
Neg. Base warawa
Gerund waratte

Cert. Past waratta
Condi. Past warattara
Freq. Form warattari

Here the consonantal element t of the suffixes is doubled.

With regard to the w in the negative base of verbs
ending in a vowel stem (wara^-a, iwa, omoz/'a), formerly
the stem of all these verbs terminated with an f: as,
Present, warafu ; Indefinite Form, warafi ; Conditional
Base, warafe ; Negative Base, warafa ; but in accordance
with a rule governing the entire vocabulary of the modern
language, the / has been left out before u, i, and e, and
has been changed into w before a, thus producing warau,
warai, ivarae, warawa.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 3

Iu,

Omou,

to say.

to think.

ii

omoi

iwa

omowa

itte

omotte

itta

omotta

ittara

omottara

ittari

omottari

66

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(b) Stems ending in s —

Indef. Form.
Neg. Base.
Gerund
Cert. Past
Condi. Past
Freq. Form

Here the change of s into sh in the Indefinite Form is
caused by the inability of the Japanese to pronounce s
before i.

Nasu,

Naosu,

Orosu,

to do.

to mend.

to lower.

naslii

naoshi

oroshi

nasa

naosa

orosa

nashlte

naoshite

oroshite

nashita

naoshita

oroshita

nashitara

naoshltara

oroshitara

nashitari

naoshltari

oroshltari

(c) Stems ending in t —

Indef. Form
• Neg. Base
Gerund
Cert. Past
Condi. Pres.
Freq. Form

Here the change of t into ch is caused by the inability of
the Japanese to pronounce t before i or u.

Motsu,

Katsu,

Butsu,

to hold.

to win.

to beat.

mochi

kachi

buchi

mota

kata

buta

uiotte

katte

butte

motta

katta

butta

ruottara

kattara

buttara

mottari

kattari

buttari

(d) Stems ending in b or m —

Tobu,
to fly.

Indef. Form tobi
Neg. Base toba
Gerund tonde

Manabu,

to study.

inanabi

manaba

manande

Yomu, Amu,

to read, to weave.

yomi ami

yoma ama

yonde ande

THE VERB

67

Cert. Past
Condi. Past
Freq. form

tonda

tondara

tondari

mananda

manandara

manandari

yonda anda
yondara andara
yondari andari

Here, before the suffixes, the b and m are changed into
w, and the t of the suffixes becomes d.

(e) Stems ending in k —

Kiku,

Kaku,

Nozoku,

to hear.

to write.

to peer.

Indef. Form kiki

kaki

nozoki

Neg. Base kika

kaka

nozoka

Gerund kiite

kaite

nozoite

Cert. Past kiita

kaita

nozoita

Condi. Past kiitara

kaitara

nozoitara

Freq. Form kiitari

kaitari

nozoitari

Here k is dropped before the terminations.

Exception. — Iku, to go (Indefinite Form, iki), forms its
Gerund as itte (not iite), its past tenses as itta, etc., and
its Frequentative Form as ittari.

(f) Stems ending in g —

Indef. Form
Neg. Base
Gerund
Cert. Past
Condi. Past
Freq. Form

Here g is dropped and the t of the suffixes is changed
to d.

Elegu,

Kagu,

Tsugu,

wel off.

to smell.

to join.

hegi
hega
heide

kagi
kaga
kaide

tsugi
tsuga
tsuide

heida

kaida

tsuida

heidara

kaidara

tsuidara

heidari

kaidari

tsuidari

68 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(g) Xft'w/x ending in r : —

Am, Shim, Noboru,

to be. to know. to climb.

lit'lef. Form ari .shiri nobori

Xfj. B<(.«' ara shira nobora

Gerund atte shitte nobotte

Cert. Past atta shitta nobotta

Condi. Past attara shittara nobottara

Freq. Form attari shittari nobottari

Here r is dropped, and the t of the suffixes is doubled.

The student cannot have failed to observe that the
foregoing letter-changes cause ambiguity in verbs whose
stems end in b and m, and also those ending in a wire/,
in r and in t. Thus the context alone shows whether
yonda is to be treated as the Certain Past of yobu, to call,
or of yomu, to read; whether utte is the Gerund of utsu,
t» strike, or of uru, to sell; whether nattara is the
Conditional Past of naru, to become, or of nau, to twist ;
and similarly in other instances.

FORMATION OF THE BASES, MOODS, AND TENSES.

INDEFINITE FORM. — Affix i to the stem for the First
Conjugation, and e or i for the Second.

CERTAIN PRESENT OR FUTURE.— (Positive): Affix u to
the stem for the First Conjugation, and eru or iru for the
Second. (Jfeyative): (a) Affix nai to the Negative Base ; (b)
affix nu to the Negative Base.

NEGATIVE BASE. — For the First Conjugation affix a to
the stem. The Negative Base of the Second Conjugation
is identical with the Indefinite Form.

CONDITIONAL BASE.— Affix e to the stem for the First
Conjugation, and ere or ire for the Second.

PROBABLE PRESENT OR FUTURE.— (Positive) For the
First Conjugation affix u to the Negative Base, producing the

THE VERB 69

diphthong au, which must then be contracted to 6; for
the Second Conjugation affix yo to the Negative Base.
(Negative): (a) Affix nakaro to the Negative Base ; (b) affix
mai to the Certain Present 'for the First Conjugation, and
affix it to the Negative Base for the Second.

CERTAIN PAST.— (Positive) : Affix ta to the Indefinite
Form, noting the phonetic modifications in the First Con-
jugation (p. 65 et seq.). (Negative) : (ft) Affix nakatta to
the Negative Base ; (b) affix nanda to the Negative Base.

PROBABLE PAST. — (Positive) \ Affix taro to the Indefinite
Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjugation
(p. 65 et seq.). Taro represents te aro, literally, "probably
shall be having finished." (Negative) : (a) Affix nakattaro
to the Negative Base ; (b) affix nandaro to the Negative
Base. Nandaro is deduced from the Negative Certain
Past on the model of the same tense of the Positive.

FREQUENTATIVE FORM. — (Positive) -. Affix tari to the
Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First
Conjugation (p. 65 et seq.). Tari represents te art, so that
its original signification is identical with that of the Past
Indicative. (Negative) : (a) Affix nakattari to the Neg-
ative Base ; (b) affix nandari to the Negative Base.
Nandari is deduced from the Negative Certain Past on
the model of the same tense of the Positive.

DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE.— (Positive) •. Affix tai to the
Indefinite Form. Tai is an adjective originally identical
with itai, " painful," and may be conjugated like other adjec-
tives in accordance with the paradigms on pages 120, 121,
and 123. (Negative) : Affix takunai to the Indefinite Form.

GERUND.— (Positive) : Affix te to the Indefinite Form,
noting the modifications in the First Conjugation (p. 65 et
seq.). Te is supposed to be a part of the verb hater u, " to
finish," so that naoskite means, literally, " having finished
mending," or "finishing mending." (Negative): (a) Affix

70 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

nakute to the Negative Base ; (b) affix zu to the Negative
Base. This form often takes the postposition ni after it,
without, however, altering its signification.

CONDITIONAL PRESENT. — (Positive) : Affix ba to the Con-
ditional Base. Ba is really wa under an irregularly nigoried
form. (Negative): (a) Affix nakereba to the Negative Base ;
(b) affix neba to the Negative Base.

CONDITIONAL PAST. — (Positive): Affix taraba to the Inde-
finite Form, noting the modifications in the First Conjuga-
tion (p. 65 et seq.). Taraba represents te araba, literally,
"if am having finished," araba being a classical form — the
"Hypothetical Mood" — of aru, "to be" (see pp. 87 et
seq.). (Negative): (a) Affix nakattaraba to the Negative
Base ; (b) affix nandaraba to the Negative Base.

CONCESSIVE PRESENT. — (Positive) : Affix domo to the
Conditional Base. Do is the postposition to with the
nigori, and mo is also a postposition. (Negative) : (a) Affix
nakeredomo to the Negative Base ; (b) affix nedomo to the
Negative Base.

CONCESSIVE PAST. — (Positive): Affix taredomo to the
Indefinite Form, noting the modifications in the First Con-
jugation (p. 65 et seq.). Taredomo represents te aredomo,
literally, " though am having finished." Aredomo, the
Concessive Present of aru, " to be," is a compound of the
Conditional Base are, with the postpositions to and mo.
(Negative) : (a) Affix nakattakeredo to the Negative Base ;
(b) Affix nandaredo to the Negative Base.

IMPERATIVE. — (Positive) : In the First Conjugation this
is the same as the Conditional Base, and in the Second it is
produced by affixing ro to the Indefinite Form. Ro is pro-
bably a corruption of yo, which is an ejaculation somewhat
similar to the English " oh ! " In addressing one another
the members of a household often use a form obtained by
affixing na to the Indefinite Form, as shina! "do!"; yobi-na!
" call ! " (Negative) : Affix na to the Certain Present.

THE VERB 71

IRREGULAR VERBS.

Japanese verbs present very few irregularities in com-
parison with those of most European languages, and in the
small number of those which deviate from the general
scheme of conjugation the irregularity is but slight.

The three irregular verbs in most common use are kum,
to come ; suru, to do ; and masu, to be. Used as auxiliaries
with other verbs kuru and suru have an extended applica-
tion in expanding and describing the actions expressed by
the principal verb, and the same two verbs serve also to
afford verbal meanings to nouns, etc.

The use of masu, as a separate word has now become
obsolete, and it is only employed in combination with other
verbs to form an honorific conjugation which is in constant
use to express politeness, respect, or reverence.

The following are the paradigms of these irregular verbs,
and instead of exhibiting masu alone, it is shown combined
with the verb naosu, to mend, but it should be observed
that the respectful form for nearly every other verb can be
deduced by substituting the Indefinite Form of such verb
for naoshi- in the paradigm : —

THE IRREGULAR VERB Kuru, to come.

Indefinite Form — ki. Negative Base — ko.

Certain Present — kuru. Conditional Base — kure.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain, Present, or Future.

Pos. kuru, / come, I shall come.

Neg. ko-nai,* \ / do not come, I shall not
(or) ko-n(u)f / come.

* t See footnotes, p. 58,

72 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Probable Present or Future.

Pos. ko-yo, I probably come, I shall

probably come.

Neg. ko-nakaro, "\ / probably do not come, I
ki-mai, / shall probably not come.

Certain Past.

Pos. ki-ta, / came, I have come.

Neq. ko-nakatta, ^ T j.j

} 1 did not come.
ko-nanda,

Probable Past.

Pos. ki-taro, I probably came, I probably

have come.

Neq. ko-nakattaro, } T , ,, •,.-,

\ I prooabhi did not come.
ko-nandaro,

Frequentative Form.

Pos. ki-tari, sometimes coming, at times

coming.

Neq. ko-nakattari. 1

} sometimes not comma.
ko-nandan,

Desiderative Adjective.

Pos. ki-tai, / want to come.

Neg. ki-takunai, / do not want to come.

Gerund.

Pos. ki-te, coming, having come.

Neg. ko-nakute, \ not coming, not having

ko-zu / come.

THE VERB 73

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.

Present Tense.

Pos. kure-ba, if I come.

Neq. ko-nakereba, 1 • ,. r j

\ ij I do not come.

ko-neba,

Past Tense.

Pos, ki-tara(ba), if I had come.

Neg. ko-nakattara(ba),
ko-nandara(ba),

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. kure-do(mo), though 1 come.

Neg. ko-nakeredo(mo), j ^ k /<fo
ko-nedo(mo),

Past.

Pos. ki-taredo(mo), though I came.

Neq. ko-nakattakeredo, } ., r T ,

} though I have not come.
ko-nandaredo,

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pos. koi ! come !

Neg. kuru-na ! do not come !

THE IRREGULAR VERB Sum, to do.

Indefinite Foi*m — shi. Negative Base — se.

Certain Present — sum. Conditional Base — sure,
3*

74 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future.
Pos. sum, / do, I shall do.

Neg. sM-nai,* j 7 ^ ^

se-n(u),T

Probable Present or Future.

Pos. shl-yo, / probably do, 1 shall pro-

bably do.

Neg. shi-nakaro, \ I probably do not do, I pro-

se-mai, ) bably shall not do.

Certain Past.
Pos. sM-ta, / did, I have done.

Neg. shi-nakatta. \ 7-7.7

f 1 did not do.
se-nanda, J

Probable Past.

Pos. shl-taro, I probably did, I probably

have done.

Neg. shi-nakattaro. ) T 7777-7 , j

} I probably did not do.
se-nandaro,

Frequentative Form.
Pos. sM-tari, sometimes doing, at times

doing.

Neg. shi-nakattari, | sometimes not doing, at
se-nandari, / times not doing.

Desiderative Adjective.

Pos. shi-tai, / want to do.

Neg. shi-takunai, / do not want to do.

Gerund.
Pos. shl-te, doing, having done.

Neg. sM-nakute. 1 , •, • , 7, •,

> not doing, not having done.

SG~ZU,

*t See footnotes, p. 58.

THE VERB 75

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.
Present Tense.

Pos. sure-ba, if I do.

Xcg. shi-nakereba. 1 . ,. r 7

I ij I do not do.
se-neba,

Past Tense.

Pos. shl-tara(ba), if I had done.

X*g. shi-nakattara(ba), \ if j had not done.
se-nandara(ba),

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. sure-do(mo), though I do.

Neg. shi-nakeredo(mo), j ^ k /<fo ^ ^
se-nedo(mo),

Past.

Pos. shl-taredo(mo), though I have done, though

I did,

Neq. shi-nakattakeredo. ) ., j T i » j

I though I have not done.
se-nandaredo,

IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Pos. shi-ro ! do !

Neg. suru-na ! do not !

THE IRREGULAR POLITE SUFFIX Masu.

(Exemplified in the Conjugation of the Verlt Naoshimasu.

to deign to mend.}

Indefinite Form — mashl. Negative Base — mase.
Certain Present — masu, or Conditional Base — masure,
masuru.

76 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Certain Present or Future.

Pos. naoshi-masu \ you deign to mend, you will

naoshi-masuru, / deign to mend.

Neg. naoshi-masen(u), you do not deign to mend,

you will not deign to mend.

Probable Present or Future.
Pos. naoshi-masho, you probably deign to mend,

you probably icill deign to

mend.
Neg. naoshi-masumai, you probably do not deign to

mend, you probably will

not deign to mend.

Certain Past.

Pos. naoshi-mashlta, you deigned to mend.

Neg. naoshi-masen deshita, you did not deign to mend.

Probable Past.
Pos. naoshi-mashltaro, you probably deigned to

mend.
Neg. naoshi-masen deshitaro, you probably did not deign

to mend.

Frequentative Form.

Pos. naoshi-mashltari, sometimes deigning to mend.

Neg. naoshi-masenakattari, sometimes not deigning to

mend.

Desiderative Adjective.

(wanting)

Gerund.

Pos. naoshi-mashlte, deigning to mend, having

deigned to mend.

Neg. naoshi-masezu, \ not deigning to mend, not

naoshi-masen de, / having deigned to mend,

THE VERB 77

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.
Present Tense.

Pos. naoshi-masureba, if you deign to mend.

Neg. naoshi-masen(a)kereba, if you do not deign to mend.

Past Tense.

Pos. naoshi-mashitara(ba), if you had deigned to mend.
Neg. naosM-masen(a)kattara- if you had not deigned to
(ba), mend.

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. naoshi-masuredo(mo), though you deign to mend.
Neg. naoshi-masen(a)keredo- though you do not deign to
(mo), mend.

Past.

Pos. naoshi-mashltaredo- though you deigned to mend.

. (mo),
Neg. (wanting).

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pos. naoshi-mashl ! \ j • j ,

- deign to mend !
naoshi-mase !

Neg. naoshi-masuna ! 1 , . j • j ,

\ do not deifjn to mend !
naosm-masuru-na !

Other slightly irregular verbs are the following : —

Am (First Conjugation), to be: The Negative Voice of

this verb is not in use, the negative adjective nai (see p. 122)

being employed in lieu thereof. The Improbable Present

or Future, arumai only is found, employed with nakaro.

78 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The Desiderative Adjective also is wanting. When the
postposition de precedes aru the final syllable is discarded,
and the combination becomes da instead of dam.

Gozaru, to be: With many speakers the r in the final
syllable of this verb is rejected when masu is affixed :
thus, gozaimasu for gozarimasa. This also takes place
in the polite verbs irassharu, to go, to come; nasaru,
to deign to do; kudasaru, to condescend; and ossharu, to
deign to say, and the resulting forms — irasshai, nasai,
kudasai, and osshtii — are also used as Imperatives ; osshai-
masht is, however, much more frequent than osshai.

Besides the elimination of the r in gozaimasu, in familiar
intercourse several other of the letters in the body of the
word are frequently dropped, so that it becomes in the
mouths of many speakers gozasu, gasa, or gem, and when
gozaimasu is preceded by de the combination de gozaimasu
is often contracted to desii ; de gozaimashlta to desKlta, etc.

Shinuru, to die. This verb partakes of the nature of
both the First Conjugation and of the Second. Throughout
the greater part of its conjugation it is treated as if it
belonged to the First Conjugation and had the form shinu
(stem, shin). The termination ru, however, causes its
Certain Present shinuru, and its Negative Imperative
shinuru-na to be irregular.

USES OF THE BASES, MOODS, AND TENSES.

( The three regular verbs naosu, taberu, and ojiru given in
che paradigms on p. 58, et seq., are used in illustration.)

THE INDEFINITE FORM, naoshi ; tabe ; oji. — As will have
been observed in the paradigms, this base is used more
extensively than any of the others to support verbal inflec-
tions. It is also constantly employed without any modifi-
cation to produce nouns ; thus —

THE VERB 79

warai, laughter, (from) warau, to laugh.

yorokobi, happiness, „ yorokobu, to be happy.

hori, moat, canal, „ horu, to dig.

nokori, remainder, „ nokoru, to remain over.

akinai, commerce, „ akinau, to trade.

hikari, lustre, „ hikaru, to shine.

The Indefinite Form is also used to form compounds
with nouns, adjectives, and other verbs; as —

te-nugui, a towel ; from te, hand, and nuguu, to wipe.
kimono, clothes ; from kiru, to wear, and mono, thing.
wakari-nikui, difficult (to comprehend) ; from wakaru,

to understand, and nikui, distasteful.
kiru-korosu, to cut to death; from kiru, to cut, and

korosu, to kill.
shi-ageru, to finish ; from suru, to do, and ageru, to

raise.

The negative forms of the verbs suru, or itasu, to do,
preceded by the Indefinite Form of other verbs with the
postposition wa or mo following, are used for Negative
tenses, the forms thus obtained being more emphatic than
the corresponding simple tenses. In such cases wa is
usually pronounced ya in familiar conversation ; thus —

Ari wa shimasen (familiar), \ ~,
A . , . . , ,. , • Ihere is none (at all).

An ya shinai (polite),

Kamai ya shinai, ^ T •, ,.

J [ / don t care,

care do-not )

Mo ki ya itashimasen, ) / know he will not come
again coining will-not-do ) again.

A most important rule exists in the classical language,
governing the use of the Indefinite Form, and it is also

80 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

frequently observed in set speeches, and by careful and
educated speakers. This rule is as follows : —

" In sentences where two or more consecutive clauses
contain verbs characterised by the same tense and mood,
all the verbs except the last are put in the Indefinite Form,
the final verb alone taking the termination indicating the
tense or mood of the whole sentence."

Thus it is necessary to wait till the finish of the final
clause before it can be seen whether the present, past, or
future, the indicative or conditional, etc., is intended.

In the Negative voice the Indefinite Form is replaced by
the Negative Gerund.

Examples.

1 Dust heaped up becomes
(Jhiri tsumotte, yama to naru, I . /T

Y a mountain (Jap.
dust heapinq mountain becomes

J Proverb).

Miredomo, miyezu ; kikedomo, } Though he looks, he
though-look cannot-see though-listen I cannot see ] though

kikoyenai, f he listens, he cannot

cannot-hear j hear.

CERTAIN PRESENT OR FUTURE : (Positive) naosu ; taberu ;
ojiru: (Negative) naosa-nai, naosa-n(u); tabe-nai, tabe-n(u) ;
oji-nai, oji-n(u). And PROBABLE PRESENT OR FUTURE:
(Positive) naos-o ; tabe-yo ; oji-yd : (Negative) naosa-naJcaro,
naosu-mai ; tabe-nakaro, tabe-mai ; oji-nakaro, oji-mai.

As has been observed before, the Japanese verb does not
clearly discriminate between present and future time.
If an Englishman intends definitely to read a certain
book at some future time, and expresses that intention, he
decides upon the tense to employ by considering the time
when the reading takes place, and thus uses the Future, " I
shall read the book." If, however, his mind is not fully
made up, he still employs the Future, and intimates the

THE VERB 81

uncertainty by the use of some such word as " perhaps,"
and says, " Perhaps I shall read the book."

Similarly, if my servant desires to let me know that
some one is reading a newspaper in another room, as the
act of reading is proceeding while she is speaking, she says,
" He is reading the newspaper ; " but if not quite sure
whether the man is reading or not, she says, " Perhaps he
is reading the newspaper."

Now in Japanese, things are different. The verb has one
form serving to fulfil the purpose of indicating any certain
act or condition be it present, habitual, or future, and
another form to indicate any probable act or condition,
whether present or future, and thus it is the certainty or
uncertainty that is considered instead of the time. How-
ever, since acts and conditions belonging to the present are
necessarily more certain than those of the future, the form
implying probability is used in most cases for future time,
whilst the form which denotes certainty is used for present
time. Thus, adverting to the sentences just given — " He
is reading the newspaper," and " I shall read the book,"-
the verbs in both sentences are translated by the Certain
Present or Future, whilst in " Perhaps he is," etc., and
" Perhaps I shall," etc., both verbs are rendered by the
Probable Present or Future.

From the foregoing remarks it will be readily understood
that when a Japanese says " Mionichi mairimasho," he is
not giving a decided promise to come to-morrow, he says
merely " I shall very likely come to-morrow." If he in-
tended to promise faithfully he would say, "Mionichi
mairimasu."

Examples.

Hiogo ni honya aru ka, \ Are there any booksellers in

book-shops J Hiogo ?

Arimasu to mo, Certainly there are.

82 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Arimasho, / believe there are.

Gozarimasumai, / believe not.

Kimasu ka (certainty}, Will he come ?

Kimasho ka (probability), Will he come (do you think)?

Is he likely to come ?

Kinaasumai, / do not think he will come.

Kimasho, He will probably come.

Ame ga furimasu, \ It rains, it is raining (or)

rain falls J it will certainly rain.

Ame ga furimasho, It will probably rain.

Dare ka, soto de matsu, j ^mebody is waiting outside.

somebody outside waits J

Mushi ga taiso oru, \ j,, a lot c

insects many abide )

Mionichi sono hako wo "I

to-morrmo box \ I shall probably buy that

kaimasho, I box to-morrow.

will-buy
Shiranu, / don't know.

The dominating idea inherent in the Probable Present
or Future being one of uncertainty, with an inclination
towards probability, it is frequently employed to translate
such conjectural assertions as those iu which " may " or
" must " appears in English as —

Koyo mo shirenu, ^ He may come for anything

will-come even cannot-know J J_ know.

Sayo de gozaimasho, ga . . . \ R mmf ^
thus probably-is but )

It should be carefully borne in mind that where the
English " must " implies obligation, the above idiom cannot
be employed. In this case, "must" is expressed by a
double negative ; as —

THE VEKB 83

Ikaneba naranu ^ It won't do not to go, i.e.

if-not-go icill-not-be / / must go.

N.B. — It is sometimes permissible for naranii to be under-
stood, as Ikaneba, "I must go."

CERTAIN PAST: (Positive) naoshlta ; tabe-ta ; oji-ta:
(Negative) naosa-nakatta, naosa-nanda ; tabe-nakatta,
tabe-nanda, oji-nakatta, oji-nanda, aiid PROBABLE PAST :
(Positive) naoshi-taro ; tabe-taro ; oji-taro : (Negative)
naosa-iuikattaro, naosa-nandard ; tabe-nakattaro, tabe-
nandaro ; oji-nakattaro, oji-nandaro.

The difference between the Certain Past and the
Probable Past is precisely similar to that between the
Certain Present and the Probable Present (see p. 80).

Note that Hiogo ye itta signifies both "He went to
Hiogo," and " He has gone to Hiogo." When it is necessary
to intimate distinctly the Perfect signification, the Gerund
with oro or iru must be used, as Hiogo ye itte oru (itte
iru or itteru), He has gone to Hiogo (literally, Having gone
to Hiogo, he remains).

The student should also carefully note the difference
between itta kara and itte kara. The former signifies
"because he has gone," whereas itte kara means "after
he has gone." The only difference between the two phrases
is the use of the Past Tense in a to convey the sense of
" because," and of the Gerund in e when " after " is meant.

Certain anomalous uses of the Past Tense are apt to
embarrass the beginner. Thus it is sometimes heard where
the Present is preferred in English, as Wakarimashita, 1
have understood, i.e. I understand; 0 naka ga sukimasMta,
/ am hungry (literally, inside has become empty).

The Certain Past (and Certain Present) construed with
the koto, action, thing, fact, is somewhat equivalent to
our Infinitive, a mood for which Japanese has no exact

84

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

counterpart, thus mini koto, to see (in general) ; mita koto,
to have seen.

Examples.

Kita ka,
Kimashltaro ka,

Kio kita,

Doko ye itte kita,

where having-gone has-eome

Ikimasenanda,

Mae ni mo itta tori,
before in also said way

Taigai wakarimashita,

mostly have-understood

0-warai shimashlta,

great-laughing (ice) did

Dare ni kiita,

whom from have-heard

Amari mita koto ga

too-much have-seen fact

gozaimasen,
is-not

Sazo go taikutsu de
surely tedium
gozaimashitaro,

will-have-been

Has he come ?

Do you think he has

come ?
He came to-day.

Where has he been ?
I did not go.
As I said before.

I understand most of it.

We laughed heartily

about it.
From whom have you

heard it ?

I have scarcely ever seen
any.

You must have found
the time long.

FREQUENTATIVE FORM : (Positive) naoshi-tari ; tabe-tari ;
oji-tari : (Negative) naosa-nakattari, naosa-nandari ; tabe-
naJcattari, tabe-nandari ; oji-nakattari, oji-nandari.

The dominating idea of this form is to denote occasional
action, or alternation of action. It is commonly used with

THE VERB 85

an accompanying word having the same inflection, the
second one being generally followed by sum, to do.

Examples.

1 Sometimes he comes,
Kitari konakattari shnnasu, I j . • /,

' /- ana sometimes he
sometimes-coming sometimes-not-commg does I

J does not.

Kono yuki ga futtari yandari

this snow falling stopping
suru tenki,
do weather

I do not like this weather,
when it is alternately
snowing and being
fine.

DESIDERATIVE ADJECTIVE : (Positive) naoshi-tai ; tabe-
tai ; oji-tai : (Negative) naoshi - takunai ; tabe -takunai ;
oji-takunai.

This is deduced from the verb by affixing to the Inde-
finite Form the termination tai, which means " desirous "
or " desirable," the form thus compounded being employed
where such verbs as " want," " wish," or " desire " appear
in English ; as —

Sono mono wo mitai,
that thing wish-to-see

Mitai mono, j A ^ .

desire-to-see thing )

Ikitaku-nai, / do not wish to go.

0 hanashi wo (or ga) shltai, ^

talk wish-to-do I / have been wishing to

to omotte imasu, j talk to you.

thinking remain

Either of the postpositions ga or wo may precede the
Desiderative, as exemplified in the last sentence.

THE GERUND : (Positive) naoshi -te; tabe - tai ; oji-te:
(Negative) naosa-nakute, naosa-zu / tabe-nakute, tabe-zu ;
oji-nakute, oji-zu,

j
)

86 A JAPANESE GRAMMATl

The following sentences show the ordinary uses of the
Gerund.

Furuki wo tazunete, atarashlkH New tUngs are leamed

old enquiring new , , 7 . , , , T

, . )• by studying the old

wo shiru, J *\ *

know } (P^verb).

Kondate wo misete kudasai, \Pkase show me the
menu shoidng condescend ) menu.

Amegafutte kimashlta, \It has begun to rain,

ram falling has-come J

1 P\led-up dust becomes
Chin tsumotte yama to naru, . .

Y a mountain
dust neaping mountain becomes I ,_. ,.

) (Proverb).

Doko ye itte kita ? ) TT7-, , , ,

J \ Where has he been to ?

wliere hamng-gone has-come J

Motte kite agemasho,\ I will bring it for

having-taken having-come will-offer J you.

Shio wa irezu to yoroshiu, ~\

salt not-putting-in good \Youneednotput

gozaimastt, | in any salt.

is }

The Gerund very frequently appears in sentences where
the word "so " is employed in English; as —

Te ga hiete tamaranai,) My hands are so cold I
hands being-cold cannot-bear J cannot bear.

Construed with mini, to see, the Gerund denotes that
an action is to be performed, but without the exercise
of much exertion as it were ; thus —

Muzukashiku nakareba, yatte \

difficult if -not -be sending I / will have a try at it

mimaslio, j if it is not difficult.

will see J

Kiite miru ga ii, ) You might just enquire about
asking to-see is-good ) it.

THE VERB 87

Construed with oku, to put, the Gerund denotes a final
and decided completion of some state or action ; thus —

Menjo wo katte okimashita, \ / have got my pass-

passport having-bought have-put j port all right.
Kangaete oite kudasai, \ Kindly consider the matter
reflecting putting condescend ) very carefully.

Kotowatte okimashita, / refused.

CONDITIONAL PRESENT : (Positive) naose-ba ; tabere-ba ;
ojireba : (Negative) naosa-nakereba, naosa-neba ; tabe-
nakereba, tabe-neba ; oji-nakereba, oji-neba : and CONDI-
TIONAL PAST: (Positive) naoshi-tara(ba) ; tabe-tara(ba) ;
oji - tara(ba) : (Negative) naosa-nakattara(ba), naosa-
nandara(ba) ; tabe-nakattara(ba}, tabe-nandara(ba) ; oji
nakattara(ba\ oji-nandara(ba).

To understand clearly the uses and formation of these
tenses it is advisable to advert briefly to the Classical
form of the language.

In this form there exists what is termed a " Hypothetical
Present and Past " ; thus —

Condi. Pres. naoseba, when I mend, as I mend.
„ Past naoshltareba, when I had mended, as I

had mended.
Hypo. Pres. naosaba, if I mend.

„ Past naoshitaraba, if I had mended.

It will be observed that the Hypothetical Present is
deduced from the Negative Base by adding ba. In the
modern Colloquial the distinction between hypothetical
and conditional is gradually dying out, and to convey
the idea of "when," a periphrasis with the word toki, time,
or with the postposition to, is usually employed ; thus —

88

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

So moshimasu to sugu
so said when at-once

ni shikaremashlta,

got-scolded
Kuru toki,

When I said so, I at once
got scolded.

When he comes.

The Present Tense of the ancient Conditional and the
Past of the Hypothetical have remained, and the single
modern mood thus deduced by combining parts of the
two ancient forms might more logically be called the
Hypothetical since it expresses the signification "if . . ."

The only surviving Present Tense Hypothetical forms
are iwaba, from iu, to say, which is used to render the
idea of "thus to speak," and naraba, from naru, a Classical
verb signifying "to be," which latter must be distinguished
from naru, to become. The real signification therefore of
naraba is "if it be," but when used with other verbs
as an auxiliary its meaning is nearly "if." Some speakers
reject the final ba, saying "nara" ; thus —

Dekiru nara, kyo-ju ni
fortkcomes if by-to-night

kore wo utsushite,

this having-copied

Naro koto naraba,
will-become thing if-it-be
Fusoku nara, motto
not-sufficient if-it-be more

toraseyo,

will-make-take

If you can manage it, please
copy this by to-night.

}lfit

can be done.

If it is not sufficient, I
give you more.

will

Examples (Conditional).

Uwasa wo sureba kage

gossip if-do shadow

ga sasu,
strikes

If you talk of a man, his
shadow will fall upon
you (Proverb).

THE VERB

89

If it ceases snowing in reason-
\ able time, it would be a good
thing.

\ If you do evil, there is an
evil reward.

Yuki ga ii kagen ni
snow good condition

yameba, yoroshi ga,

if-stop is-good but

Warui koto sureba, warui
bad thing if-do

mukui ga aru,

reward is

Areba, yd gozaimasu ga, \ If there were some I should
if -there-be good is ) be glad.

Dekitara(ba), motte kite \

if-has-forthcome carrying coming I If it is ready, please bring

kudasai, j it with you.

condescend

Ittaraba, kayo na koto
if-had-gone this-sort thing

wa dekinai hazu

not -become necessity
de arimashita,

Nothing like this would have
happened if he had gone.

CONCESSIVE PRESENT : (Positive) naose-do(mo} ; tabere-
do(mo} ; ojire-do(mo) : (Negative) naosa-nakeredo(mo),
naosa-nedo(mo} ; tabe-nakeredo(mo}, tabe-nedo(mo} ; oji-
nakeredo(mo), oji-nedo(mo] : and CONCESSIVE PAST : (Posi-
tive) naoshi-taredo(mo] ; tabe-taredo(mo) ; oji-taredo(mo} :
(Negative) : naosa-nakattakeredo, naosa-nandaredo ; tabe-
nakattakeredo, tabe-nandaredo ; oji-nakattakeredo, oji-
nandaredo.

The signification of these tenses is very similar to
"though" in English, but in practice it is usually con-
veyed more conveniently by commencing the subsequent
clause with "but."

The forms given in the paradigms are not much used,
the substitute more commonly heard being the word keredo

90 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(to which mo, even, is often affixed) in conjunction with
the Present or Past of the Indicative ; thus —

Tazunemash!ta keredomo,
(I) enquired though

gozaimasenti,

is-not

I enquired, but there was
not any.

Keredo and keredomo are often replaced by to wa

iedo(mo), literally "though one say that," and thus the

phrases oitaredo(mo), oita keredo(mo) and oita to wa
iedo(mo) all have precisely the same meaning.

Examples (Concessive).

Tenki naredo samui, \ Though the weather is
weather though-it-is is-cold j fine, it is cold.

Aru keredo mo omaye ni ~\

are though, even you to \ I have some, but I will

wa yaranai, j not give you any.

not -give

Sagashlta keredomo, *|

sought though \ I have sought it, but cannot

shiremasen, j find it.

cannot-know

Yohodo maye ni kane,^ ^ ^ agQ f ^ Mm $(me
wo kashita, keredo, I ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ (.rf ft
mada kayeshima- ^^
sentl,

THE IMPERATIVE : (Positive) noose ; tabe-ro ; oji-ro :
(Negative) naosu-na ; taberu-na; ojiru-na.

The ordinary use of this form is, like that in other
languages, to express command or direction, but the bare
Imperative is seldom used except in military commands,
as it sounds, in Japanese ears, decidedly abrupt and dis-

THE VERB 91

courteous. Even in addressing members of the lowest
classes an honorific periphrasis is usually substituted, as
will be explained later.

Examples.

0 toshi mose, 1 «* *i ^

\ Snow the gentleman in.
let-through say }

To wo shirnero. 1 «, , ., ,

} Shut the door,
door shut J

Sukoshi mate 1 TIr •. 7.,,,

^ Wait a little,
a-little wait J

Tornare ! Halt !

Yasume ! Stand at ease !

Sore wo taberuna ! Don't eat that t

Shochi suruna ! Do not consent I

A common construction, by means of which the English
first person plural of the Imperative (let us . . .) may
generally be rendered is given in the following examples : —

Itte kikimasho, 1 r . j /• . .,

} Let us go ana listen to it.
namng-gone unll-hear J

Ko shiyo ia nai ka 1 r , -, •. 7.7 ,, .
J J > Let us do it like this.

thus unll-do is-not ? J

(or the future alone without ja na Icai).

AUXILIARY VERBS.

A considerable number of the affixes contributing to the
production of the moods and tenses are really auxiliary
verbs which were originally independent. For example, in
the expression naoshimashlta, / have mended, the affix
mashi formerly signified " to be," and the terminal ta (for
te aru) means " am having finished," and thus the word
naoshimashlta when decomposed is shown to mean "am
having finished mending." The auxiliaries have also con-

92 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

tributed to the production of verbal stems. Thus with
the auxiliaries em, to get, and am, to be, are formed —

yameru, to cease, mazaru, to be mixed.

kakeru, to hang (trans.) kakaru, to hang (intrans.)

The following are the chief auxiliaries in use at present
as separate and independent words : —

1. Aru, to be.

As an auxiliary aru is most commonly employed with
the particle de to produce compound equivalents for the
Probable Present or Future, and also for some of the
Negative tenses. De am is usually abbreviated to da;
de aro to d'aro or daro ; de atta to d'atta or datta, etc. ;
thus —

Iku de aro, "j

iku d' aro, \ for iko, will probably go.

iku daro, J

Kasanai de atta, \ for kasanakattaj did not kndt

kasanai datta, J
Konai de attaro, \ for konakattaro, has probably not

konai dattaro, J come.

NOTE. — The postposition no is frequently placed between
the verb and da, daro, datta, etc. ; thus konai no d'aro,
he is probably not coming.

When the polite termination masti is preceded by de
and the verb aru, a still further abbreviation occurs,
which is in frequent use in familiar conversation. Thus
de arimasho first becomes de masho and then desho ; and
de arimasMta contracts to deshita.

It should be observed that the compound future denotes
a slightly greater degree of doubt than the simple future,
and that the shorter and more abbreviated the phrase,
the less courteous it becomes. De gozarimasu is much
politer and less familiar than desu.

THE VERB 93

Preceded by the Gerund, aru serves to produce another
group of compound tenses, as kite gozaimasu, they have
come.

2. Iru (2nd Conj.; stem /).

3. Oru (1st Conj ; stem ori).

These auxiliaries each mean, literally, " to dwell," hence
" to live," " to be " (in a certain place), and combined with
the Gerund their various forms compose a group of other
tenses which are equivalent to such English compound
tenses as are exemplified in the expressions "he is eating,"
"he was walking," "he has been reading," etc. This
combination has therefore in some cases a Progressive
signification and in others a Perfect signification. For
example, nete orimasu means he is sleeping, whilst kite
orimasu is, not he is coming, but he is having come, i.e.
he is come. The simple past kimashlta is more obscure,
inasmuch as its meaning might be merely that the person
had come but had gone away again, whilst the meaning
of kite orimasu cannot be other than that he has come and
is still here.

In some cases the English passive must be employed
to render such phrases, the neuter being nearly always
preferred in the Japanese construction ; thus —

Kirei ni sorotte orimasu, \ m • / j

\ They are nicely arranged,
prettily bcmg-m-order are )

After the Gerund, the initial I is frequently elided,
particularly in the Present tense, and thus shitte iru
becomes shittem, I know (literally, having learnt, I remain) ;
kditv Iru becomes kaiteru, etc.

Irassharu and o ide nasaru are honorific synonyms of
iru and of various other verbs, as will be demonstrated
later.

94 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Iru and oru as auxiliaries are now frequently used in
speaking of inanimate objects, although their original
signification appears to restrict their application to living
beings. In a few idioms, however, am is used for inani-
mates and iru for animates ; observe, for example, the
distinction between kite orimasu, he has come, and kite
arimasu, it has come, or there is some.

Examples.

Nani wo shite imasu, ^ ^T, . . , , • /,
' \ What is he doing ?
what doing is J

Dete orimasu, He has gone out.

Bakana koto wo itteru, \ You are talking at
foolish thing say-remain ) random.

Mada nete orimasu, } TT • ± v/ /

} tie is still sleeping,
still sleeping is )

Donata ka o ide ni natte "|

someone-or-other exit to having-become I Has someone
orimasu ka, j arrived?

J

4. Kuru, to come.

With this auxiliary, in conjunction with the Gerund, are
produced what are sometimes termed " Illative tenses," so
called because they contribute a secondary idea of motion
towards the speaker or the one spoken to, added to the
primary idea ; thus —

, . . 1 Having carried water,
Mizu wo motte koi ! . . D .

f come ! i.e. Bring some

water hamng-carnea come

j water.

0 Yone wo yonde koi !\ Tell 0 Yone to come
Yone having -called ) here.

Doko ye itte kita ? \

where having-gone has-come j

THE VERB 95

Go and tell him to be
sure to come.

Kitto kuru yo ni to
positively come manner in that

so itte koi,

so having-said
Anata ni sodan sho

you with consultation will-do

, , . , v, f I came to consult you.

to omotte kimashita,

thinking came

5. Shimau, to finish.

This auxiliary employed with the Gerund, serves to
indicate the conclusion of an action, usually in the sense
of ending by . . . ; thus —

Kashi wo tabete shimatta,
cakes eating has-finished

does not mean "He has finished eating the cakes," but
rather " He has finished by eating the cakes." Similarly —

Shisho Sanaa ni natte shimaimashita,

teacher Mr to having-become has-finished

does not mean "He has ceased to be a teacher," but
" He has ended by becoming a teacher (after trying other
professions, etc.)."

Examples.

Motte itte shimaishlta, "i He has gone off

having-taken having -gone has-finished j with it.

Sukkari gakumon wo ^1

quite learning I / have quite given up

mi-kigatte shimatta, j studying.

see-having limited finished

Uma ni mame wo 1 rr & •-/,

He went offwith-

horse beans . .

tsukezu ni itte shimatta, I f* gwm? the

having-gone finished ' its beans'

96

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

Many verbs are used in English with a difference of
signification, sometimes as transitives, sometimes as
intransitives, as "he ran away," "he ran a needle into his
hand," "the child speaks already," "he can speak several
languages."

In Japanese, however, the transitive and intransitive
applications are nearly always indicated by different verbs
containing the same root ; thus —

Transitive.
hiraku (1st Conj.) to civilise.

Intransitive.

hirakeru (2nd Conj.) to be-
come civilised.

kaesu (1st) to return.

kaeru (1st) to return.

kakusu (1st) „ hide.

kakureru (2nd) „ hide.

naosu (1st) „ cure.

naoru (1st) „ get well.

nobasu (1st) „ stretch.

nobiru (2nd) „ stretch.

oru (1st) „ break.

oreru (2nd) ,, break.

orosu (1st) „ lower.

oriru (2nd) „ descend.

yaku (1st) „ burn.

yakeru (2nd) „ burn.

chirasu (1st) „ scatter.

chiru (1st) „ scatter.

nekasu (1st) „ put to sleep.

neru (2nd) „ sleep.

dasu (1st) „ put out.

deru (2nd) „ go out.

akeru (2nd),, open.

aku (1st) „ be open.

hajimeru(2nd),, begin.

hajimaru (1st) „ begin.

soroeru (2nd),, match.

sorou (1st) „ match.

tasukeru (2nd) „ save.

tasukaru (1st) ,, be saved.

tateru (2nd) „ set up.

tatsu (1st) „ stand.

susumeru(2nd),, encourage.

susumu (1st) „ advance.

yameru (2nd),, cease.

yamu (1st) „ cease.

ireru (2nd) „ put in.

iru (1st) „ enter.

sageru (2nd) „ let down.

sagaru (1st) ,, come down.

THE VERB 97

No rule can be framed for forming transitives and in-
transitives from a common root, and it is only from the
dictionary, and by practice, that the student can tell
whether a Japanese verb is transitive or not. It may,
however, be observed that whilst the ending eru may
belong to either form, the termination su belongs almost
exclusively to transitives, a noteworthy exception being
dam which is sometimes intransitive as in the compounds
hashiri-dasu, to run out, naki dasu, to begin to cry.

The student should also note that a large number of
intransitives in the First Conjugation terminate in aru,
as sagaru, to come down ; to domain, to stop ; kakaru, to
hang ; etc. These are produced by adding aru, to be, to
the stem, hence their intransitive force. Most of them
have corresponding transitives in eru of the Second Con-
jugation, as sageru, to let down ; kakem, to hang ; etc.

PASSIVE AND POTENTIAL VERBS.

In Japanese no special conjugation for the Passive Voice
exists, and the paradigms of all the so-called passive verbs
are in accordance with the First Form of the Second
Conjugation of regular verbs given on p. 60. The change
from the active to the passive is produced by affixing
reru to the Negative Base of the First Conjugation and
rareru to the same base of the Second ; thus —

First Conjugation.
SMru, to know, (neg.) shira, (pass.) shirareru, to be

known.
Yobu, to call, „ yoba, „ yobareru, to be

called.
Korosu, to kill, „ korosa, „ korosareru, to be

killed.
Warau, to laugh, „ warawa, „ warawareru, to

be laughed at.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 4

98 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Second Conjugation.
First Form.

Taberu, to eat, (neg.) tabe, (pass.) taberareru, to be eaten.
Keru, to kick, „ ke, „ kerareru, to be kicked.

Eru, to obtain, „ e, „ erareru, to be obtained.

Second Form.

Miru, to see, (neg.) mi, (pass.) mirareru, to be

seen.

Omonjiru, to esteem, „ omonji, „ omonjirareru, to

be esteemed.

Iru, to shoot, „ i, „ irareru, to be shot.

Strictly speaking, however, there is no Passive Voice
in Japanese, and the so-called passive termination areru
is a condensed form of ari, being, blended with em, to 'get,
thus the literal meaning of shirareru, for instance, is " to
get being knowing," and similarly mirareru is from the
stem mi, a euphonic r, and ari eru, i.e. "to get being
seeing."

Thus it is that all passive verbs belong to the Second
Conjugation together with the verb eru, to get, and herein
also lies the susceptibility of intransitives to passive forms,
as, for example, okorareru, to be got angry, i.e. to be made
angry, from okoru, to get angry ; shinareni, to have someone
die (belonging to one).

A sentence illustrative of this idiom is Teishi ni
shinaremashita. Here the literal meaning is "she was
died by her husband," which at first sight appears to
signify that "she was killed by her husband," but the
real meaning is "she had her husband die," or "she
lost her husband by death."

An idiom bearing a near resemblance to the so-called
passive, is formed by the verb morau, to receive (more

THE VERB 99

politely itadaku, "to put on the head," referring to the
native custom of lifting a gift to the brow) in conjunction
with the Gerund ; thus —

Kami wo kitte moratta, I f ^ Mr cut

hair hav ing-cut received )

Oshiete itadakitai, ^ / wish you >mnl<l kindly

teaching icish-to-put-on-tlic-hcad ) show me how.

Dare ka Hiogo made \

someone as-far-us I / want someone to go to

itte moraitai, j Hiogo for me.

having-gone icish-lo-rcccivc 1

Kiite itadakito, 1 / wish you would kindly

hearing u-ish-to-receive J enquire for me.

Ane no menjo to yara mo

elder-brother passport

watakilshi made kayeshite
me to return

moraitai,
tcish-to-receivc

I with my elder brother s
passport, if that is what
it is called, to be re-
turned to me.

NOTE. — The foregoing sentences exemplify the method by
which icishing is indicated in the Passive Voice, the
Desiderative Adjective of passive verbs not appearing
in the spoken form of the language.

The passive forms of the irregular verbs kuru, to
sum, to do, and shinuru, to die, are kwareru, serareru (some-
times abbreviated to sareru) and shinareru respectively.
Masu, the polite termination, is not susceptible of the
passive form.

As has been mentioned before, passive constructions are
used much less frequently than in English, and in the
majority of instances an intransitive verb or an active
but subjectless construction is employed to render an
English passive.

100

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

It is probably
finished by now.

That medicine is
taken three times
a day.

What is this used for?

The following exemplifications will be found useful : —
Doniiani ureslii ka shiremaseutt, \ / cant tell you how
how-much joyful ? cannot-krwiv J pleased I am.

Hayazo to iu otoko.^l n j u

J } A man called Hayazo.

say man J

Mo sliimai ni narimashitaro,
already finisfad icill-have-become
Sono kusnri wa ichi nichi
that medicine one day

sando dzutsu nomu no desti,

3-times drink is

Kore wa nani ni ^
this what for

tsukaimasti, . I

use

Ate ni narimasen, \ He is not to be depended
reliance to becomes-not J upon
Dekinti toki wa shikata
not-can-do time do-manner

ga nai,

is-not

Miogonichi made ni
day -after -next by
deki-ogarimastt,

is-finished

Kono shina wo naoshi ni
this article mend to

yarimasho,

ivill-probably-scnd
Sakuban sono kane wo
last night that money

\ If it cannot be done, there
f is no help for it.

It will be finished by the
day after to-morrow.

I think I will send this
article to be mended.

uketoru hadzu deshita,
receive necessity u.~as
Naro koto naraba,
will-become thing if -it-be
Shiyo koto ga nai,
will-do thing is-iwt

I was to have been paid
that money last night.

\ If it can be done.

} There is nothing which
can be done.

THE VERB 101

THE POTENTIAL VOICE.

Potentiality, that is having power to do a certain thing,
is indicated by the same verbs as those by which passive
significations are rendered, thus mirarent may mean either
"to be seen," or "to be able to see" ; okareru may mean
either "to be put," or " to be able to put."

NOTE. — The one important deviation from this rule is the
form omowareru from omou, to think, whose potential
signification is not "to be able to think," but "to
venture to think," " to be inclined to think."

Examples.

Kyo no atsusa wa, ^

to-day of heat I / cannot endure the

koraeraremasen, j heat to-day.

cannot-bear J
Ikareru de aro ka ? Will he be able to go ?

Mazukute taberaremasen, 1 T. . .

\ It is too nasty to eat.
being-nasty cannot-eat J

Moraware ya itashi-masenu,) T ...

} 1 cannot accept it.
can-accept do-not J

Korareru ka kiite mimasho, / will ask him if he can

come.

Another frequently recurring method of expressing
potentiality is the use of dekini, a verb formed from the
classical . de-kum, to come out. Dekiru has come to mean
"possible," "to take place," "to be ready," but frequently
it is best translated " can," " can do " ; thus—

Iku koto ga dekiru, / can go.

Iku koto ga dekinai, / cannot go.

Mabushikute, miru koto ga, ^

being-dazzling to-see I / cannot see ; the light

dekimasen, j is so dazzling.

forthcomes-not

102 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Kaneru, to be unable, cannot, attached to the Indefinite
Form of a verb, is constantly used to indicate impossibility
or inability, but the use of this construction is almost
exclusively confined to persons of culture and refinement.

}/ can hardly venture
to say so but
(said when asking
a favour).

Ika naru dori to mo, \ I cannot understand

, how be rationale I Oil what principle

kai shi kanemasu ga, j this could take

understand do cannot place,

There is an extensive group of verbs which are in practice
best translated by passive or potential constructions in
English, although, properly speaking, they are intransitives
in Japanese.

If we take such a sentence as "the bridge is being
broken," we observe that the breaking is caused by the
intervention of some external influence, whereas in the
expression " the bridge is breaking," no such outer influence
is implied. In the first case, the verb corresponds to the
Japanese orareru, to get broken (passive, from oru, to break,
transitive) ; in the second, to oreru, to break, intransitive.
Thus from transitives belonging to the First Conjugation,
are produced a large number of intransitives of the Second
Conjugation, by changing the termination u into eru as
exemplified in the following series : —

Intrans. Trans,

toreru, from toru, to take.

furueru, „ furuu, to shake.

yakeru, „ yaku, to bum.

THE VERB 103

oreru, from oru, to break.

kireru, ,, kiru, to cut.

ureru, „ uru, to sell.

yomeru, „ yomu, to read.

Kireru, ureru, yomeru, etc., are employed to render such
expressions as "that wood cuts easily," i.e. "is easy to
cut"; "this article sells readily," i.e. "is readily sold";
"that poem reads beautifully," i.e. "is beautiful when
read."

In such constructions it is often convenient to introduce
the word " can " ; thus, " one can cut that wood easily " ;
"this article can be sold readily."

The student should carefully note the difference between
the true potentials in areru and rareru, and the intrans'itives
in eru. The latter forms denote the possession of strength
or power to do anything such as is expressed by "can"
in English, whilst with the true potentials is associated
the notion of permission which is indicated by "may,"
thus ikaremasu signifies "one can go" (because permission
is granted), and ikemasu signifies " one can go " (because
one possesses the physical ability, not being lame, etc.)

As verbs of the Second Conjugation are not capable
of forming intransitives in eru, the passive potentials in
rareru have to be utilised. The form mieru, to seem, to be
visible, formed irregularly from mini, to see, should be
noted.

THE VERB Sum.

The paradigm of this verb, which is probably the one
most frequently heard, has been given on page 73. Its
primary signification is "to do," "to make " (French, faire),
and it is often used independently in this sense, the noun

104 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

governed by it taking the postposition wo, although the
latter is in most cases dropped before suru ; thus —

hon-yaku suru, to translate, to make a translation.

choai suru, to love, i.e. to make love.

eshaku suru wo suru, to make an apology.

ban wo suru, to keep watch.

jisatsu suru, to commit (do) suicide.

saisoku suru, to urge on (literally, to do urgency}.

Omae do shimasu, What are you doing ?

So suru to yokatta, \ It would have been better to do

so do if was-good ) that.

At times instead of wo, the particle ga is employed with
suru used independently, and the signification of the verb
is then " to be " ; as —

Zutsu ga suru, There is a headache, i.e. /

have a headache.
Hansho no oto ga suru ! There is the firebett !

The most frequent use of suru is, however, that of
supplying the place of a suffix to nouns of Chinese origin,
and other uninflected words. The following are useful
illustrations : —

shimpai suru, to be anxious, from shimpai, anxiety.
kenkwa suru, to quarrel, „ kenkwa, a quarrel.
ryoko suru, to travel, „ ryoko, a journey.

tochaku suru, to arrive, „ tochaku, arrival.

If the noun is monosyllabic and terminates in n, the s of
suru in the verb formed with it assumes the nigori, and
suru becomes jiru, which is made to conform to the para-
digm of verbs with stems in i of the Second Conjugation.
Thus from the combination of suru with kin, a word of
Chinese origin signifying "prohibition," is produced the
verb kinjiru, which is inflected like ojiru and not like suru.

THE VERB 105

This sometimes occurs even in cases where the termination
is other than n.

Examples.

sonjiru, to spoil, from son, loss.
ronjiru, to argue, „ ron, argument.
ojiru, to correspond, „ 6, correspondence.

THE EQUIVALENTS OF "to be."

To recognise the distinction between the numerous
Japanese equivalents of the English verb "to be," and to
employ them correctly, is one of the most bewildering tasks
which the student has to encounter, and as it is impossible
to attain a thorough knowledge of the language until a
familiarity with such locutions is attained, the following
suggestions and examples are offered with a view to mini-
mising the difficulty : —

Am, atta, aro, etc. These forms are mostly used with
the signification "there is," "there was," "perhaps there
will be." In many instances their meaning is conveniently
rendered by "I (you, etc.) have, had, shall have," the
subject in the Japanese construction being replaced by the
object in English ; thus —

Mizugaaru, j j have (some} water.
water tfiere-is J

If masit is affixed, as arimasu, arimashita, arimasko, a
politer signification is imparted. Still more respectful but
identical in meaning are the forms gozaimasu, gozaimashita,
gozaimasho (cf. p. 78).

Used with a Gerund, however, arimasu, gozaimasu mean
" to be " only, and not " there is " ; as —

Kami ni tsutsunde arimasu, \ It is wrapped up in
paper in having-wrapped is J paper.

4*

106 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

This is also the case when gozaimasu has an adjective
associated with it ; as —

Yama ga tako gozaimasu, j^ m(mntain ishih.
•mountain high is J

The Certain Present of aru and of arimasu are seldom

used in this connection accompanied by adjectives in

the u or o form as the notion of " to be " is inherent in

the adjective itself. Thus the last sentence would be,

in a less respectful form, "Yama ga takai" (see p. 118).

De aru, de atta, de aro, etc. (familiar).

De arimasu, de arimasnlta, de arimasho, etc. (politer}.

De gozaimasu, de gozaimashlta, de gozaimasho, etc.

(politest}.

These are forms of the verb "to be "without "there,"
and their signification is therefore simply "I am, he, she,
it is," etc., and similarly throughout the conjugation.

Desu is an abbreviation of de gozaimasu ; deshlta of
de gozaimashlta, and desho of d# gozaimasho.

Examples.

Kore wa nan de aru (or da) ? "1 T;ir, , . ., . ,

\ W hat is this f
this what is (it) J

Kore de

this with all

0-sawagi deshita, ~l . 77

' \ All was in an uproar,
uproar (it) icas )

Hiroi-totte kureta wa do } What sort of a man

pick-up-havinq-taken gave how , . , 7

. ,* , ' f was it who picked

lu nito de atta,

77 j tt up /

called man was J

Mazu sore-kkiri de gozaimasu, ) Well, that is about
ivell that-only it (is) ) ^//.

Iru and Oru. The real signification of these verbs is " to
dwell," "to live," "to be (in a certain place)," but they are
employed mostly as auxiliaries, as explained on p. 93,

THE VERB 107

Naru, to be, appears more frequently in the classical
language than in the colloquial, although it is not rare to
hear the Conditional Form used as an auxiliary with the
Indicative tenses of verbs. Thus iku nareba or iku nara,
for " if he goes," are more common than ikeba, and similarly
we may say itta nareba or itta nara, for " if he went " or
" had gone," instead of ittareba.

N.B. — Naru, to be, should be carefully distinguished from
naru, to become, which latter may usually be recognised
by its being preceded by the postposition ni or to ; as —

Chiri tsumotte, yama to naru, \ Dust piled-up becomes a
dust piling-up mountain becomes J mountain (Proverb).
Shindai-kagiri ni natta, He became bankrupt.

Suru, to do, is at times employed as an equivalent of
" to be " (see p. 104).

CAUSAL OR CAUSATIVE VERBS.

In Japanese there are large numbers of phrase-verbs
denoting causation of action, e.g. "causing to eat," "causing
to read," etc. These causal verbs, or causative verbs, as they
are sometimes termed, are formed by the addition of seru
to the Negative Base in verbs of the First Conjugation, and
by "the addition of saseru to the same base in the Second.
Many causals are better translated by different words in
English, as shiru, to know, causative shiraseru, to inform,
i.e. to cause to know.

Examples of Causals.
First Conjugation.

Neg. Base. Causal.

yomu, to read, yoma, yomaseru, to cause to read.

shiru, to know, shira, shiraseru, to cause to know.

tsukuru, to make, tsukura, tsukuraseru, to cause to make.

108

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Second Conjugation.

First Form.
Neg. Base. Causal.
era, to obtain, e, esaseru, to cause to obtain, i.e.

to give.

taberu, to eat, tabe, tabesaseru, to cause to eat,

i.e. to feed.

Second Form.

mini, to see, mi, misaseru, to cause to see.

abiru, to bathe, abi, abisaseru, to cause to bathe.

The conjugation of all Causals is in accordance with that
of the First Form of the Second Conjugation given on p. 60,
and they are, in common with other verbs, susceptible of
the passive voice ; thus —

Causal. Passive,

shim, to know, shiraseru, to cause to shiraserarera, to be

know. caused to know.

era, to obtain, esaseru, to cause to esaserarera, to be

obtain.

mini, to see, misaseru, to cause
to see.

It must be noted that although there are passive forms
of causals, no causal forms of the passive are employed.
Thus such constructions as "to cause to be seen," "to cause
to be eaten," are inadmissible ; the corresponding active
being used instead. A sentence like " I will let some books
be brought (i.e. I will cause [somebody] to bring some
books) " will therefore be changed before translating into
"I will cause some books to come," and similarly with
other like phrases.

It should also be noted that the causals in seru and the
transitives in su (First Conjugation) are used indiscrimi-
nately. Thus the same speaker will use matasKite (from

caused to obtain.
misaserareru, to be
caused to see.

THE VERB

109

matsu, to wait) at one time, and matasete at another,
though the former word is, strictly speaking, the correct one.

Causal verbs possess various slight divergencies of signi-
fication, and their English translation must therefore vary
according to circumstances. For example, naosaseru (from
naosu, to mend) may be translated "to cause to mend,"
" to make . . . (e.g. a servant) mend," " to allow to mend,"
or "let . . . mend."

In phrases containing Causals the postposition ni is
associated with the substantive which denotes the one
caused to perform the action, whilst the postposition wo
accompanies the substantive denoting the person or thing
acted upon.

The Causals of the Irregular verbs kuru, shinuru, and
sum are respectively kosaseru, to cause to come ; shinaseru,
to cg,use to die ; and saseru, to cause to do.

Examples.

Sugu ni kikashlte kudasai,
at-once causing-to-hear condescend

Inu ni niku kuwaseta ka,

dog meat mode-eat

Shizuka ni sasenakereba,

quiet

ikenai,

Taihen ni o matase moshita,
dreadfully made-to-wait

Ima onna ni ii-tsukete heya

nmc woman commanding room

no soji wo saseru ga ii,

cleaning cause-to-do is-good

Hayaku kikasete kudasare,

quickly hamng-made-hear give

Please let me know

at once.
Did you give the

dog its meat ?

You must make
them keep quiet.

I have kept you
waiting a dread-
fully long time.
It will be as well
to get the woman
to come and clean
the room.
\Please let me
J hear quickly.

110 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

AMBIGUOUS VERB-FORMS.

It will be observed that iu the First Conjugation a large
number of verbs have steins terminating in r, and that the
same letter also appears in two of the bases (Certain
Present and Conditional) in verbs of the Second Conjuga-
tion. Owing to this fact beginners are often at a loss to
know to which Conjugation a certain verb, e.g. teru, to
shine, belongs. Nothing but a thorough mastery of the
rules which have been fully set forth in preceding pages
relating to the formation and uses of verb-forms can furnish
the student with the ability to at once discriminate with
accuracy in such cases, and if the remarks and examples iu
the preceding sections have been carefully followed he would
immediately assign the above-mentioned verb — teru — to the
First Conjugation, as the stem is ter, the Indefinite Form
ten', and the Negative Base tera. In like manner, the verb
makeru, to lose, will be recognised as belonging to the Second
Conjugation, because the r in this case is part of the termina-
tion and not of the stem. Similarly shir-u, to know, is of
the First Conjugation, whilst mi-ru to see, is of the Second.

A still further degree of difficulty is presented by such
pairs of verbs as kaeru (First Conjugation), to return, and
kaeru (Second Conjugation), to change; kiru (First Con-
jugation), to cut, and kiru (Second), to wear ; and until some
material progress has been made in the language, it will
be found difficult to distinguish readily all the forms of,
say, kakaru, to Jiang (intransitive), from those of kakeru, to
hung (transitive).

The differences existing between the various verbal forms
in instances such as those just referred to are clearly and
concisely demonstrated in the paradigms appearing on the
opposite page. The three verbs shown are all in common
use. They are —

THE VERB

111

Iru (First Conjugation ; stem ir), to enter, to go in.
Ireru (Second Conjugation, First Form ; stem ir), to

insert, to put in.
Iru (Second Conjugation, Second Form ; stem i), to be,

to dircU.

Iru, Ireru, Iru,

to enter. to insert. to be.

Indefinite Form,
iri ire i

Negative Base,
ira ire i

Conditional Base,
ire irere ire

Pos.

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future. *
iru ireru iru

iranai irenai inai

iran(u) iren(u) in(u)

Probable Present or Future.

Pos.

"iro

ireyo

iyo

Neg.

irumai

iremai

imai

Certain Past.

Pos.

itta

irete

ita

Neg.

I iranakatta
1 irananda

irenakatta
irenanda

inakatta
inanda

Probable Past.

Pos.

ittaro

iretaro

itaro

Neg.

[ iranakattaro
\ iranandaro

irenakattaro
irenandaro

inakattaro
inandaro

112 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Frequentative Form.
Pos. ittari iretari itari

-*T [ iranakattari irenakattari inakattari
Neg. {

( iranandan irenandari inandari

Desiderative Adjective.
Pos. iritai iretai itai

Gerund.

Pos. itte

irete

ite

Neg. j iranakftte

irenakute

inakute

I irazu

irezu

izu

SUBJUNCTIVE "Mooo.

(a) Conditional.
Present.

Pos. ireba irereba ireba

ny- I iranakereba irenakereba inakereba
I iraneba ireneba ineba

Past.

Pos. ittara(ba) iretara(ba) itara(ba)

iy ( iranakattara(ba) irenakattara(ba) inakattara(ba)
I iranandara(ba) irenandara(ba) inandara(ba)

(b) Concessive.
Present.

Pos. iredo(mo) ireredo(mo) iredo(mo)

•vr ( iranakeredo(mo)irenakeredo(mo) inakeredo(mo)
I iranedo(mo) irenedo(mo) inedo(mo)

Past.
Pos. ittaredo(mo) iretaredo(mo) itaredo(mo)

THE VERB 113

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Pos. ire ! irero ! iro !

Neg. iru-na ! ireru-na ! iru-na '

\

COMPOUND VERBS.

The Japanese language is very rich in verbal combina-
tions which partake more or less of a compound character,
and these verbal compounds serve in many cases as
equivalents for English prepositional verbs, but in others
they replace complete phrases ; thus —

buchi -korosu, to kill by beating (from butsu, to beat,

and korosu, to kill.}
mi-tsukeru, to fix by seeing, i.e. to notice (from miru,

to see, and tsukeru, to fix.

In the majority of instances such compounds are formed
by using certain verbs as affixes to other verbs and the
meaning of the verb employed as an auxiliary is frequently
lost, the basal verb receiving merely an increase of force
from the association.

In compounds consisting of two verbs in juxtaposition,
the first component is put in the Indefinite Form, which
remains unchanged, whilst the second component is inflected
throughout the Conjugation.

Usually the second component is modified adverbially
by the first, as in kiri-korosu, to Mil by cutting, where
kiri (from kiru, to cut] denotes the mode of action of
korosu, to MIL

In some cases, however, each member of the compound
contributes its own particular meaning as in wake-ataeru,
to give in shares, from "to divide" and "to give."

The verbs of most frequent recurrence as second members
of compounds are —

114 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

1. Dasu.

This usually denotes the action of commencing, coming
out or talcing out ; as —

okoru, to get angry, okori-dasu, to begin to get

angry.

naku, to cry, naki-dasu, to begin to cry.

furu, to fall (of rain, furi-dasu, to begin to rain.

snow, etc.),

hashiru, to run, hashiri-dasu, to run out.

tsukuru, to compose, to tsukuri-dasu, to produce, to

grow, bring forth.

omou, to think, omoi-dasu, to recall to mind.

torn, to take, tori-dasu, to take out.

2. Kiru.

The literal meaning of this verb is "to cut," but as
the second member of a compound it usually denotes
completeness or totality; as —

kariru, to hire, kari-kiru, to hire the whole (of a

building, etc.).
kau, to buy, kai-kiru, to buy up the lot (of

goods, etc.).
shimeru, to shut up, shime-kiru, to shut up completely

(a shop for alterations, etc.).
omou, to think, omoi-kiru, to decide finally.

3. Komu.

This verb has the sense of the English " in " or " into " ;
thus —

tobu, to jump, tobi-komu, to jump in.

furu, to fall, furi-komu, to come in (said of rain,

snow, etc., coming into a house),
kiru, to cut, kiri-komu, to cut into.

agaru, to rise, agari-komu, to force a way up into.

THE ADJECTIVE . 115

4. Sokonau.

This implies failing to do something, or just escaping
something ; thus —

kiku, to hear, kiki-sokonau, to fail in hearing, i.e.

to hear wrongly.
mini, to see, mi-sokonau, to fail in seeing, i.e.

to see wrongly.
kaku, to write, kaki-sokonau, to fail in writing,

i.e. to make an error (in writing).
shinuru, to die, shini-sokonau, to fail in dying, i.e.

to barely escape death.

5. Tsukeru.

Tsukeru means literally "to fix," "to affix" ; hence —
iu, to say, ii-tsukeru, to fix by saying, i.e. to

command.
kaku, to write, kaki-tsukeru, to fix by writing, i.e.

to jot down.
kiku, to hear, kiki-tsukeru, to fix by hearing, i.e.

to happen to hear.
mini, to see, mi-tsukeru, to fix by seeing, i.e.

to notice.
tataku, to knock, tataki-tsukeru, to fix by knocking,

i.e. to knock on.

THE ADJECTIVE.

In Japanese, the words and locutions employed to
describe, limit or define the significations of substantives
differ considerably in construction and modes of use from
those fulfilling similar functions and termed " Adjectives "
in Western languages. Thus Japanese adjectives ignore all
distinctions of number and gender, as well as the ideas

116 . A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

denoted in English by the degrees of comparison. They
have, however, inflectional forms, which, so far as they
extend, are almost identical with those of verbs.

I. PRIMARY INFLECTIONS.

The crudest and most elementary form of the adjective
is what may be termed the "Stem." From the Stem
by the agglutination of affixes are produced the various
adjectival words and phrases which are used as simple
adjectives, adverbial adjectives, and verbal adjectives ; thus —

(a). By adding i to the Stem, the simple adjective is
produced, and this form is both attributive and predicative,
being employed either attached directly to a substantive
or else at the end of a phrase, with the English verb
"to be " understood. For example, from the Stems Juka
and atsu are formed the simple adjectives fukai, deep, and
atsui, thick, which may be used thus : —

Attributive. Predicative.

Fukai kawa, a deep river. Kawa ga fukai, the river is

deep.
Atsui kami, thick paper. Kami ga atsui, the paper is

thick.

N.B. — In predicative phrases like the two above, ga must
not be regarded as corresponding to the word " is."
It is a particle serving approximately to indicate
the nominative case (see p. 36).

The terminal i of the adjective in the attributive relation
is a contraction of a somewhat obsolete form in ki. The
complete syllable is still retained in formal speeches and
in some proverbs, as for instance in

Furuki wo tazunete, atarashiki, ~\ New things are
Old (things) tidying new (things) [ ^^ ft ,

wo shim, I . , f,

, in ft the old.

knows J '

THE ADJECTIVE 117

The attribute form in ki is also used in the words
gotoki, similar, like, and in the termination beki.

The terminal % of the adjective in the predicative relation
is a contraction of an archaic form in ski. In some phrases
the complete syllable is still in use ; thus —

Yoshi ! Yoshi ! All right ! (literally, is good,

is good).

Kurasa wa kurashi ! ^ T. . •, , / , • , , x .
} It is dark (and no mistake) !
darkness (it is) dark J

Kizukai nashi, \ m • ft

} Ihere is no cause jor alarm.
w-not )

When employed attributively the adjective is sometimes
accompanied by the postposition no which serves to convey
the idea of the English indefinite pronoun " one." In
this connection no is probably an abbreviation of mono,
thing; thus —

Warui no, A bad one.

Akai no, A red one.

Akai no bakari aru, ) ,™ i j

\ There are only red ones.
red only is )

Examples of the Attributive and Predicate uses of
Adjectives.

Awoi kao, ) , /.

} A paleface,
face J

Yoi onna, A good woman.

Warui no da, 1 T, . , -,

\ It is a bad one.
bad one is J

Samui koto ! } rr u -* • ,

\ How cold it is!
cold thing )

Tenki wa yoroshi, \ ^i .7 • /•

J Ihe weather is fine.

weather is-good J

Nawaganagai, | The is lo
rope is-long J

118 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

(b). By adding hi to the Stem there is produced a
form which is employed in cases where a verb other
than gozaimasu follows. This form is also used as an
adverb corresponding very often, though not invariably,
to an English adverb in "ly." When adverbial it is
followed by the verb which it modifies.

Examples.

Yoku dekita, ) T. • •, „
> It is made well
well )

Kawa ga fukaku miemasu. } m • 777

> The river looks deep.
river deep looks )

Yasuku dekimashita, It is made cheaply.

Hayaku kite kudasai, 1 nj . 7 7

} Please come quickly,
quickly J

(c). When gozaimasu is used a form of the adjective
in o or u is employed, this form being deduced from that
in ku by first discarding k and then combining into one
syllable the final vowel of the stem and the u remaining
from ku. In cases where the adverbial form of an adjective
terminates in iku the k is rejected, but no further change
is made.

Examples.

nagaku (from nagai, long) becomes nagau, and then nago
yoroshiku ( ,, yoroshi, good) ,, yoroshiu, ,, yoroshiu.
hiroku ( ,, fciroi, wide) ,, hirou „ hiro.

yasuku ( ., yasui, cheap) ,, yasuu ., yasu.

Kawa ga fuko gozaimasu, The river is deep.
Kono hon wa goku tako ~\

very dear - This book is eery dear.
gozaimasu,

Kami ga atsu gozaimasho, The paper is probably thick.

Mada hayo gozaimaseml ka, ) f . ^ ^ ,
yet early J y y

THE ADJECTIVE 119

The student should note that the verb "to be" is
affected equally with other verbs by the rule by which
a verb must be preceded by the form in ku, so that it is
quite allowable to say, for example :

Ano kawa ga fukaku ^

that river deep \ That river is deep.

gozaimasti,

Kami ga atsuku \ The paper will probably be

gozaimasho, / thin.

The use of the adverbial form is governed by a Rule
somewhat analogous to that given for the employment
of the Indefinite Form of verbs (p. 80). This rule is
generally followed only in set speeches, and by pedantic-
speakers, and is as follows : —

"Where in English two or more adjectives are coupled
together by the conjunction ' and ' (expressed or under-
stood), all but the last assume the adverbial form in ku ; "
thus —

Ano utsukushiku chisai ^|
pretty little I

kodomo, j That pretty llttle chlld-

child }

Kami no ke ga kuroku, "|

head of hair black I A man with black hair

me ga akai otoko, j and brown eyes.

eyes brmcn man

It should be observed, however, that the foregoing rule
is now rarely heeded in conversation, the sentence generally
receiving some other construction ; thus —

Hako mo yoroshikereba, \

also whereas-is-good I The box is good and

nedan mo yasui, j cheap.

price also (is) cheap

120 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

It will have been observed that the adjectival inflections
are all affixed to stems terminating in one of the vowels
a, i, o or u, no stems in e being found in modern Colloquial.
In a few instances this stem is used alone, as, for example,
Shiro, White (a dog's name), and in one or two phrases
such as —

Makkuro ni natta, It has become perfectly black.
Naga no toshi tsuki, Long months and years.

The stem is used most frequently in helping to form
compounds ; as —

Aka-gane, copper, from akai, red, and kane (nigoried),

metal.

Shiro-kane, silcer, „ shiroi, white „ kane.
Hoso-nagai, slender, „ hosoi, narrow „ nagai, long.
Nagasaki, "long-cape" (the name of a place) from
nagai, and saki, a cape.

From a consideration of the foregoing principles it is now
possible to formulate a table of the primary adjectival
inflections in modern colloquial use, and as illustrations
we have chosen the adjectives nagai, long; yoroshii, good]
hiroi, wide ; and furui, old, i.e. one for each of the four
vowels a, i, o, u with which, as has been mentioned before,
adjective stems terminate.

Stem.

Simple

Adverbial

Predicate

Adj.

Form.

with "to be.

long, naga,

nagai,

nagaku,

nago.

good, yoroshi,

yoroshii,

yoroshlku,

yoroshiu.

wide, hiro,

hiroi,

hiroku,

hiro.

old, furu,

furui,

furuku,

furu.

THE ADJECTIVE 121

II. SECONDARY INFLECTIONS.

In addition to the primary inflections just discussed,
the adjective has tense and mood inflections like true verbs.
These secondary inflections are produced in most cases
by affixing various forms of aru, to be, to the adverbial form
in ku, certain orthographical modifications, chiefly phonetic,
occurring as will be observed from a comparison of the
following table with the paradigm of the First Conjugation,
to which aru belongs. The Imperative forms are " not
inserted, as they are never heard in practice.

Fund, old.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Certain Present or Future.

I is old. or will be old.
(Polite Jorm), furu, gozaimasu, (

Probable Present or Future,
furukaro, ) probably is old, prob-

(Polite), furu gozaimasho, I ably will be old.

Certain Past.

furukatta. ) 7 ^

.„ 7. . } was old.

(Polite), furu gozaimashlta, )

Probable Past.

furukattaro, ) , ,7 77

,.„ 7. . >• was probabhi old.

(Polite), furu gozaimashitaro, )

Frequentative Form,
furukattari, being sometimes old.

Gerund,
furukute, being old.

122 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

(a) Conditional.
Present.

furukereba, if (it) is old,

Past,
fumkattara(ba), if (it) had been old.

(b) Concessive,
furukeredo(mo), though (it) is old.

III. NEGATIVE ADJECTIVES.

A highly important and frequently used adjective is
that termed "the negative adjective nai" whose real
signification is " non-existent." It is generally employed
as an equivalent for the negative conjugation of aru, to be,
and also at times to render the notion of the English
preposition " without."

The inflections of nai are shown in the following table.

Primary.

Attributive: nai. Predicate: nai (rarely nashi).

Adverbial: naku.
N.B. — The contracted form no is not in ordinary use.

Secondary.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future,
nai, is not, or will not be.

Improbable Present or Future.
nakaro, probably is not or will not be.

THE ADJECTIVE 123

Certain Past,
nakatta, was not.

Improbable Past,
nakattaro, probably was not.

(And so on, through all the forms shown in the paradigm
of adjectives on p. 121.)

Affixed to the adverbial form of adjectives, nai serves
to produce their negative conjugation ; thus —

INDICATIVE MOOD.
Certain Present or Future,
furuku nai, is not old, will not be old.

Improbable Present or Future,
furuku nakaro, probably is not, or will not be old.

Certain Past.

furuku nakatta, was not old.
Improbable Past,
furuku nakattaro, probably ims not old.

(And so on through the remaining tenses and moods.)

In polite intercourse, however, for the negative con-
jugation in nai there is usually substituted another with
the verb gozaimasen, not to be ; thus —

Certain Present or Future,
furu gozaimasen, is or will not be old.

Improbable Present or Future,
furu gozaimasumai, probably is not or will not be old.

(And so on through the remaining tenses and moods.)

124 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

N.B. Care must be taken to distinguish adjectives in the
negative form from positive adjectives like, e.g., abunai,
dangerous, which happens to terminate in nai. The
negative of abunai is abunaku nai which follows the
paradigm in the preceding table, and similarly with
sftkunai, scarce ; kitanai, dirty ; etc.

Examples of Adjectival Inflections.

Amari muzukashi, ) T. . . •,.„, 7,
' I It is too difficult.
too is-difficult )

Go tsugo ga o warukereba, \

convenience if-is-bad I If it is not convenient,

o yoshi nasaimashl, I please don't do it.

cease condescend

I

Wakaranai, / don't understand.

Kurokute yoroshl. \ T. 7 . 777-

f Its beinq black is convenient,
being-black is-good J

Mionichi tenki ga, \

to-morrow weather [ If it is fine to-morrow, I

yoroshikereba mairimasu, I irill come.

if-good icill-come

Shiranakereba sensaku ^

if-not-know enquiry I If he does not know, I will

shimasho, j make enquiries.

Abunakeredo shikata \Though dangerous, it can-
tliougli-dangerous J- 7777

not be helped.
ga nai, }

Samukute tamarimasenu, \ It is so cold I cannot en-
being-cold (cannot) endure J dure it.

Sugu ni kawanakute

at-once not-buying
narimasenu,
does-not-do

Some must be bought at

once.

THE ADJECTIVE 125

IV. COMPOUND AND DERIVED ADJECTIVES.

This class is very numerous. They are formed mostly
upon definite principles and as their meanings can be easily
obtained from the dictionary a few only of their leading
characteristics need be discussed here.

I. A number of derived adjectives are produced by
affixing to substantives the termination rashii (literally,
"like" or "appearance") which corresponds to the English
terminations -ish and -ly ; as —

otoko, man, otoko- rashii, like a man, i.e.

manly.
honto, truth, honto-rashii, like the truth, i.e.

truth- seeming.
baka, fool, baka-rashii, foolish.

II. Substantives followed by the postposition no serve
as adjectives ; as —

kin, gold, kin no, of gold, i.e. golden.

makoto, truth, makoto no, of truth, i.e.

truthful, true.

gwaikoku, foi'eign parts, gwaikoku no, foreign.
konaida, a short ivhile ago, konaida no, recent.
Furansu, France, Furansu no, of France, i.e.

French.

III. Some adjectives are produced from nouns by
affixing to the latter the syllable na, which is an
abbreviation of naru, to be, and which must be distinguished
from naru, to become ; thus —

muda, uselessness, muda na, useless.

baka, fool, baka na, fool-being, \.Q.foolish.

shizuka, quiet (noun), Shizuka na, quiet (adj.).

akiraka, bright „ akiraka na, bright „

126 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Belonging to this class are a large number of words
which are produced by agglutinating so, appearance, to
the stems of simple adjectives or to the Indefinite Form of
verbs ; thus —

oishii, nice to eat, oishiso na tasty.

omoshiroi, interesting, omoshiroso na, interesting-looking.

aru, to be, ariso na, likely to be, in

existence prob-
ably.

ochiru, to fall, ochiso na, likely to fall

IV. Many locutions are in use, consisting chiefly of
substantives (and indefinite verbal forms used as such)
followed by no, of, and a simple adjective, as ashi no hayai
(literally, "quick of foot"), swift. Examples of these are —

ishi no 6i, abounding of stone, i.e. stony.

me no chikai, near of eye, i.e. short -sighted.
iji no warui, bad of spirit, i.e. ill-tempered.
mimi no toi, distant of ear, i.e. deaf.
wakari no hayai, quick of understanding, i.e. quick-
witted.

V. Not infrequently present and past forms of verbs
are in practice employed adjectivally. Thus dekiru and
dekinai signifying "able to do" and "not able to do,"
when employed as adjectives, serve to render the
English " possible " and " impossible." The following are
exemplifications :

mieru, to appear, hence risible.

yomeru, reads (intrans.), „ legible.

shireta, was knowable „ self-evident.

futotta, has become fat „ fat.

choito shlta, did slightly, „ slight.

THE ADJECTIVE 127

tsumi no aru, is of guilt hence guilty.

aita, has become open, „ open.

tai shita, did great, „ important.

nakereba naranai (lit. if it is not, won't do), hence,

indispensable.

ki no kiita (lit. spirit of, was efficacious), hence, sharp-
witted.

These examples are all attributive in form, but most
of them may be used predicatively at the end of a phrase.
In such connections, however, ga must be substituted for
no, and the simple past tense in ta must be replaced by
the compound present in . . te iru (p. 93) ; thus —

Kono daiku wa, ki ga, \

carpenter spirit I This carpenter is sharp-

kiite iru, j witted.

being -efficacious

Sono hito wa, futotte iru, j That smisfat

that fat J

Needless to mention, the polite inflection in masu may
always be substituted for the simple verb. Except when
addressing inferiors, this substitution invariably takes
place; thus the preceding examples would become, in
polite conversation : Kono daiku wa, M ga Mite imasii
(or orimasu), and Sono hito wa futotte imasu (or orimasu).

N.B. — Adjectives of this class terminating in shita (as
choito shita) are never employed predicatively.

V. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

In English the degrees of comparison are expressed by
the terminals in -er and -est, or by a succession of auxiliaries
of relation — "more," and "most," but in Japanese the

128 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

adjective undergoes no change of form for this purpose,
the idea being conveyed in the following ways : —

(a) Comparative Degree. — Two things only, being com-
pared, that with which the comparison is made is marked
by the postposition yori, than ; thus —

nr j. i_* f • • 1 You are

Watakushi yon, anata o oku gozaimasu, , .

T ti 7 • owner

I tlian. you big are yy

y j 1 T

} than 1.

Iku yori wa ikanai, \

going than not-going I It is better not to go than
ho ga yoroshi, j to go.

side is-good

Frequently in sentences similar to the first quoted above,
the first part is discarded if no ambiguity is occasioned
thereby; thus, anata wa o oku gozaimasu, -you are the
bigger, or anato no ho ga o oku gozaimasu, your side
is big.

In negative sentences hodo (literally, "quantity,"
"amount") is substituted for yori; thus —

Musuko hodo okiku wa nai, \ He is not so tall as
son tall is-not J fas son.

The fact that a certain thing possesses a given quality
or attribute in a greater degree than another thing is
sometimes expressed by such adverbs as motto, more, or
nao, yet, still, as motto nagai, more long, i.e. longer, still
longer ; nao takai, yet dear, i.e. dearer, still dearer.

Examples.
Sore wa nao yoroshiu >,

that still good I ^,, . . J>7, , ,

L That is still better.
gozaimasu,

is )

Motto o make nasai, \ Please make it a little
more cheapen deign J cheaper.

NUMERALS 129

To express "the" with a repetition of the comparative,
the word hodo is employed ; as —

Mijikai hodo wa, yoroshi, j n&
short amount is-good )

(b). Superlative Degree. To denote the extreme degree
of quality, sucli words as ichi-ban, number one, and dai
ichi, first, principal, are employed'; as —

Kore wa ichi-ban nagai, 1 m- • *i ?

- This is the lonqest.
this no. 1 is-long J

Kore ga ichi-ban stiki da, / like this best.

Various other locutions are used to convey the idea
of the Superlative among which are those with the words
uchi and naka (literally, among, in) ; as —

Yotsu no uchi ni kore wa, ^

among this I This is the prettiest of

ichiban kirei de, the four.

no. 1 pretty
gozaimasu,

Naka ni sore wa takai, 1 m . • .1 i • i

That is the highest.
among that is high J

Very frequently, however, the first part of sentences
similar to the above, is discarded, thus when making an
enquiry as to prices, a Japanese will not say " which is the
cheapest," but "which is cheap" (dochira go, yasui), mean-
ing "which is cheap as compared with all the others."

NUMERALS. METHODS OF COMPUTATION.
I. CARDINAL NUMERALS.

In Japanese the methods of enumeration and computa-
tion are much more complicated and lengthy than in most
European languages. Usually in grammars of the latter

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 5

130 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

tongues the treatment of numbers is discussed in connec-
tion with the adjective, but in Japanese, numerals are
rather substantival in character although owing to various
characteristics peculiar to themselves they are generally
regarded as forming a separate part of speech.

Two series of numerals are in use, one of Japanese origin
and the other borrowed from the Chinese. Except in a
few compound words the"* Japanese group are now obsolete
for the numerals above ten. Those remaining in common
use are : —

1. Hltotsu. 6. mutsu.

2. futatsu. 7. nanatsu.

3. mitsu. 8. yatsu.

4. yotsu. 9. kokonotsu.

5. itsutsu. 10. to.

These ten numbers may be used (a) quite independently ;
(b) following a noun; or (c) followed by the postposition
no preceding a noun. They are seldom placed before
a noun without no being inserted between. Thus —

Ikutsu gozaimasuka, } ff&w many an tbn ?

how-many are (there) )

Mitsu, Three.

Mono futatsu, j TwQ fh .

(or) Futatstt no mono, )

Yotsu bakari, kudasai, ^ Please let me have four

four about condescend ) or SO.

The termination tsu is rejected before nouns of Japanese
origin and in compounds ; thus —

Mi-hako, Three boxfuls.

Yo-hako, Four boxes.

Futa-ban, Two nights.

Mi-tsutumi, Three parcels.

NUMERALS 131

The Chinese group of numerals is : —

1. ichi. 5. go. 9. ku.

2. ni. 6. roku. 10. ju.

3. san. 7. shichi. 100. hyaku.

4. shi. 8. hachi. 1,000. sen.

10,000 man or ban.

Ichi is also used to signify "whole, all," as ichi-ni one
day ; all day long.

Ni is often* replaced by ryo, both, as ryo san nin, two
or three people.

The higher numbers are expressed by combinations of
the first ten Chinese numerals ; thus —

11. ju-ichi.

31. san-ju-ichi,

12. ju-ni.

etc.

13. ju-san.

40. shi-ju.

14. ju-shi.

50. go-ju.

15. ju-go.

60. roku-ju.

16. ju-roku.

70. shlchi-ju.

17. ju-shichi.

80. hachi-ju.

18. ju-hachi.

90. ku-ju.

19. ju-ku.

100. ip-pyaku (for ichi hyaku).

20. ni-ju.

200. ni-hyaku.

21. ni-ju-ichi.

300. sam-byaku (/or san hyaku).

22. ni-ju-ni.

400. shi-hyaku.

23. ni-ju-san.

500. go-hyaku.

24. ni-ju-shi.

600. rop-pyaku (for roku hyaku).

25. ni-ju-go.

700. shichi-hyaku.

26. ni-ju-roku.

800. hap-pyaku (for hachi hyaku).

27. ni-ju-shichi.

900. ku-hyaku.

28. ni-ju-hachi.

10,000. ichi-man.

29. ni-ju-ku.

100,000. ju-man.

30. san-ju.

1,000,000. hyaku-man.

132 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

105 is hyaku go.
473 is shi-hyaku shlchi-ju-san.
1898 is is-sen hap-pyaku ku-jii hachi.

The first ten of the Chinese numbers are only used
independently, and to precede uncompounded or mono-
syllabic nouns derived from the Chinese ; as icM-nen, one
year ; san-gin (for san-kin) three pounds ; sam-byaku (for
san-hyaku) three hundred.

The orthographical modifications which occur will be
best understood from the examples on p. 133 et seq.

In many contexts the Japanese numeral yo, four, As
substituted for the Chinese shi as the latter is regarded as
unlucky because it also means " death " ; as —

yo-nin, four persons (instead of shi -n in, which means

"dead person," i.e. "corpse").
ni-ju yo-ban, number 24.

Similarly the Japanese nana, seven, is sometimes sub-
stituted for the Chinese skichi as the latter is easily
confounded with shi, four ; thus —

nana-jis-sen, seventy cents.

II. AUXILIARY NUMERALS.

We have seen that in some cases the numeral is joined
directly to the noun, e.g. futa hako, two boxes ; ichi-nichi,
one day. It is, however, very seldom that the numbers are
thus used, and in enumerating objects the Japanese
generally reckon them as so many things of a certain
species or class, the substantive being placed first, the
number and class following. For example, the word
" pencil " will come under the category of the cylindrical

NUMERALS 133

class of objects which includes pencils, pens, poles, and the
like, and for this group the class-name or "auxiliary
numeral," as it is termed, is "hon." Thus in rendering
"five pencils" we should say "pencil five cylindrical
class," and translate by

fude go hon.

pencil five cylindrical-class.

Similarly, the auxiliary numeral for Jtat, broad things
such as sheets of paper, plates, coins, etc., being "mai" we
shall translate " one sheet of paper " by

kami ichi mai.
paper one fiat-class.

This peculiarity is somewhat analogous to the English
idiom illustrated in such expressions as "three pairs
of shoes," "a hundred head of cattle," " two brace of
pheasants," " one yoke of oxen," etc.

The following scheme shows the principal auxiliary
numerals now in use, with the phonetic modifications
which occur when they are combined with the numbers.

Cho, for things with handles, such as tools, guns,

jinriJiishas :

1. it-cho
2. ni-cho
3. san-cho

4. shi-cho
5. go-cho
6. roku-cho
10. jit-cho

7. shichi-cho
8. hat-cho
9. ku-cho

Hai, for cupfuls, glassfuls, and bowlfuls of any liquid :

1. ip-pai 4. shi-hai 7. shichi-hai

2. ni-hai 5. go-hai 8. hachi-hai

3. sam-bai 6. roku-hai 9. ku-hai

10. jip-hai

134 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Hlki, for most animals (excepting human beings and
birds) ; also for certain quantities of textile materials and
sums of money :

1. ip-piki 4. shi-hiki 7. shichi-hiki

2. ni-hiki 5. go-hiki 8. hachi-hiki

3. sam-biki 6. rop-piki 9. ku-hiki

10. j ip-piki

Hon, for cylindrical things such as pencils, pillars,
posts, masts :

1. ip-pon 4. shi-hon 7. shichi-hon

2. ni-hon 5. go-hon 8. hachi-hon

3. sam-bon 6. rop-pon 9. ku-hon

10. jip-pon

Ken, for houses, and buildings in general :

1. ik-ken 4. shi-ken 7. shichi-ken

2. ni-ken 5. go-ken 8. hachi-ken

3. san-gen 6. rok-ken 9. ku-ken

10. j ik-ken

Mai, for flat objects such as sheets of paper, plates,
coins, clothing :

1. ichi-mai 4. yo-mai 7. shichi-mai

2. ni-mai 5. go-mai 8. hachi-mai

3. sam-mai 6. roku-mai 9. ku-inai

10. ju-mai

Nin, for human beings :

1. ichi-nin 4. yo-nin* 7. shichi-nin

2. ni-nin 5. go-nin 8. hachi-nin

3. san-nin 6. roku-nin 9. ku-nin

10. ju-nin

* See p. 132.

NUMERALS 135

So for boats, and vessels generally :

1. is-so 4. shi-so 7. shichi-so

2. ni-so 5. go-so 8. hachi-so

3. san-zo 6. roku-so 9. ku-so

10. jis-so

Soku, for pairs of boots, sandals, clogs, socks :

1. is-soku 4. shi-soku 7. shichi-soku

2. ni-soku 5. go-soku 8. hachi-soku
2. san-zoku 6. roku-soku 9. ku-soku

10. j is-soku

Wa, for birds, and bundles (of wood, etc.) :

1. ichi-wa 4. shi-wa 7. shlchi-wa

2. ni-wa 5. go-wa 8. hachi-wa

3. sam-ba 6. rop-pa 9. ku-wa

10. jip-pa
NOTE. — Roku-wa is sometimes used for rop-pa.

For "volumes" of a book the auxiliary is satsu, but
for complete copies of a work, regardless of the number
of volumes in it, it is bu.

It will be observed that all the foregoing examples
of auxiliary numerals are Chinese, with the exception of
wa which has been inserted because it invariably has
associated with it the Chinese numerals ichi, ni, etc.

The native auxiliary numerals are comparatively few
in number, the only ones calling for notice being :

Hashira, for Shinto deities.

Kabu, for shrubs.

Kumi, for sets of things like toys and clothes.

Ma, for rooms.

Mune, for ridge-like things such as houses, haystacks.

Suji, for line-like things such as rivers, roads.

Soroe, for suits of clothes, armour.

136 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The Japanese numbers below eleven are used to precede
the above native auxiliaries ; thus

futa-hashira ; hito-soroe ; mi-ma.

From eleven upwards the Chinese numbers are used,
without any phonetic modifications taking place ; thus
ju-ni-hashira ; ni-ju-soroe ; shi-ju-ma.

The Japanese forms hitotsu, futatsu, etc., are employed
to enumerate objects to which no special auxiliary numeral
has been assigned.

In the Classical form of the language the Japanese
numbers are employed to enumerate rational beings, and
when thus used, the numbers have affixed to them the
syllable tari, the origin of which is unknown. In the
Colloquial, of these words only the following are retained :

hltori (for hito-tari) one person.

futari (for futa-tari) two persons.

yottari, (for yo-tari) four persons.

The Chinese synonyms of these (i.e. icki-nin, etc.,) are
also used, but less frequently.

Examples (Auxiliary Numbers).

Ko-gatana ni-cho, Two pen-knives.

Suzume ni-wa, Two sparrows.

Maki sam-ba, Three bundles of wood.

Hon go-satsu, Five volumes (of a book).

Gunkan jis-so, Ten men-of-war.

Mizu ip-pai kudasai, Give me a glass of water.

Kururna it-cho wo kaitai, / wish to buy a 'riksha.
Kutsu is-soku utte kudasai, Sell me a pair of boots.
Mekura sen-nin, me-aki

/* /' t*(''j*t
blind lOQO-persons eye-open ,

V there are a thousand
sen-nm,

im-persons (are) who can see (P^verb).

NUMERALS 137

III. ORDINAL NUMERALS.

The Ordinals are formed by adding me to the Japanese,
or 6«»(bamme) to the Chinese cardinal numbers. The word
dai may also be prefixed and bamme added, or dai may be
prefixed with no addition, to the Chinese numerals. When
preceding a noun, all these forms assume the postposition
no ; as —

hitotsu-me,

ichi-ban,

ichi-bamme,

, • • i ^ First.

dai-ichi,

dai-ichi-bau,
dai-ichi-bamme,
futatsu-me,
ni-ban,

ni-bamme,

, . . }• second.

dai-m,

dai-ni-ban,
dai-ni-bamme,

dai-ichi no isha, the first (chief) doctor.

ni-ban no kisha, the second train.

sam-ban no fune, the third ship.

Frequently dai-ichi-ban or ichi-ban alone, is used to
render " number one," and similarly with the other numbers.

IV. FRACTIONAL AND MULTIPLICATIVE NUMBERS.

Fractional and Multiplicative quantities are expressed
with the aid of the word bu or bun, "a part," and bai,
" double "; thus—

sam-bun no ichi, } one-third. sam-bai, treble three-
sam-bu no ichi, / fold.

shi-bun no ichi, \ one quarter, shi - bai, quadruple,
shi-bu no ichi, / four-fold.

5*

138 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

ju-bun no ichi, j one.tentky ju.ba> ten.foUf
ju-bu no ichi, J

sam-bun no ni, \two-thirds.
sam-bu no m,

shi-bun no san, ] tkree_qmrters.
shi-bu no san, J

hyaku bun no ni 1 , /. 7 7,7

J . . > twenty-one hunareaths.

jii ichi,

"One-half" is han, or, when employed substantively,
ham-bun ; as —

Hambun wo chodai, Please give me half.

Han-ne, Half-price.

Sometimes mitsu ichi is used for " one-third," and yotsu
ichi for "one-fourth," but these are exceptions which have
the sanction of custom, such combinations of Japanese and
Chinese numerals not being allowed generally.

The time of the day and night is expressed by the use of
the Chinese word ji, time, hour, with the Chinese numerals
prefixed; thus —

ichi-ji, one o'clock. shichi-ji, seven o'clock.

ni-ji, two „ hachi-ji, eight „

san-ji, three „ ku-ji, nine „

yo-ji, four „ ju-ji, ten „

go-ji, five „ ju-ichi-ji, eleven „

roku-ji, six „ ju-ni-ji, twelve „

A.M. is indicated by prefixing the word gozen, and P.M. by
go-go; thus —

gozen-ku-ji, 9 A.M. go-go ju-ichi-ji, 11 P.M.

To express the minutes the word fun is employed, but

DAYS OF THE MONTH 139

the initial f is changed to p in the following combina-
tions : —

ip-pun, one minute. sam-pun, three minutes.

rop-pun, six minutes. jip-pun, ten minutes.

Examples.

Sau-ji ni-jip-pun, twenty minutes past three.

yo-ji ju-go-fun, a quarter (literally, fifteen minutes)

past four.
hachi-ji-han, half -past eight.

It is not usual to say "ten minutes to three," "a quarter
to four," etc., the general practice being to state the number
of minutes past the hour ; thus —

ni-ji go-jip-pun, 2.oO, i.e. ten minutes to three.
san-ji shi-ju-go fun, 3.45, i.e. a quarter to four.

The counting of the days of the month is effected by
a mixture of native and Chinese words. In the following
table the Japanese words are given in italics and the
Chinese in ordinary Roman type : —

ichi-nichi,

1 the first of

ju-ichi-nichi,

llth.

tsuitachi,

/ the month.

ju-ni-nichi,

12th.

fntsuka,

2nd.

ju-san-nichi,

13th.

mikka,

3rd.

jn-i/okka,

Uth.

yokka,

4th.

ju-go-nichi,

15th.

itstika,

5th.

ju-roku-nichi,

16th.

muika,

6th.

ju-shichi-nichi,

17th.

nanuka,

7th.

ju-hachi-nichi,

18th.

i/oka,

8th.

ju-ku-nichi,

19th.

kokonoka,

9th.

hatsuka,

20th.

toka,

10th.

ni-jii-ichi-nichi,

21st.

140 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

ni-ju-ni-nichi, 22nd. ni-ju-shlchi-nichi, 27th.

ni-ju-san-nichi, 23rd. ni-ju-hachi-nichi, 28th.

ni-ju-yokka, 24th. ni-ju-ku-nichi, 29th.

ni-ju-go-nichi, 25th. san-ju-nichi, 30th.

ni-jii-roku-nichi, 26th. san-ju-ichi-nichi, 31st.

gwanjitsu, first day of the year.

o-misoka, last day of the year.

misoka, last day of the month (whether the 30th
or the 31st).

The preceding forms, which are really cardinals, are
also used for such phrases as "three days," "fifteen days,"
etc. For "one day," however, we must say ichi nichi,
not tsuitachi, as the latter is derived from tsuki tachi,
the moon rising, i.e. the first day of the moon. Nor can
misoka be employed for "thirty days" or "thirty-one
days," although it is derived from miso, thirty, and ka,
days, both components being ancient native forms.

" January " is termed sho-gwatsu, literally " chief month,"
sometimes also ichi-getsu, literally "one month." The
remainder are formed by prefixing the Chinese numbers
to the word gwatsu ; thus —

ichi-getsu,

^

shichi-gwatsu, July.

sho-gwatsu,

^January.

hachi-gwatsu, August.

ni -gwatsu,

February.

ku-gwatsu, September.

san-gwatsu,

March.

ju-gwatsu, October.

shi-gwatsu,

April.

ju-ichi-gwatsu, November.

go-gwatsu,

May.

ju-ni-gwatsu, \Deemberm

roku-gwatsu,

June.

shiwasu,

"One month," "two months," etc. are expressed by
prefixing the Japanese numbers to the native word tsuki
(month) ; thus Mtotsuki, one month ; futatsuki, two
months; etc.

NUMERICAL INTERROGATIONS 141

Years are usually reckoned by what are termed " year-
names" (nengo\ i.e. arbitrary periods distinguished with
names arbitrarily chosen. The present period is known
as Meiji, which commenced on the 25th January 1868,
but the Japanese government adopted the Gregorian
Calendar as from 1st January 1873, so that the Japanese
year now coincides with the English, and thus begins on
the 1st January.

1890, Meiji Ni-ju-san-nen.

1891, „ Ni-ju-yo-nen.

1892, ,, Ni-ju-go-nen.

1893, „ Ni-ju-roku-nen.

1894, „ Ni-ju-shichi-nen.

1895, „ Ni-ju-hachi-nen.

1896, „ Ni-ju-ku-nen.

1897, ,, San-ju-nen.

1898, „ San-ju-ichi-nen.

1899, „ San-ju-ni-nen.

1900, „ San-jii-san-nen.
Etc. Etc.

Thus, to express, for instance, 8th September 1900, in
Japanese, we must say :

Meiji San-ju-san, ku-gwatsu, yoka,

in which it will be observed that the arrangement of the
words is exactly the reverse of that in English.

Foreign dates are expressed as follows, prefixing the
word " Sei-reki " (literally, Foreign Calendar) : —

8th February \%%Q = Seireki Issen-happyaku ku-ju-nen,
Ni-gwatsu, yoka.

Interrogations relating to number and quantity are
asked by means of the word ikut which, however, is

142

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

never employed independently but always in combination ;

thus-

Ikutsti ?
Ikura ?
Ika-hodo ?
Iku-satsti ?
Iku-so ?
Iku-tabi ?
Iku-nin ?
Iku-tari ?

How many ?
How much ?

How many (books) ?
How many (vessels) ?
How often ?

How many (persons) ?

and so on with all the auxiliary numerals, no phonetic
modifications taking place in the latter.

The word nani (usually contracted to nan) may be em-
ployed in place of iku ; thus —

Nan-nin ? How many (persons) ?

Nan-gen ? How many (houses) ?

" How much " is often translated also by dvre-hodo ? or
dono-kurai? as —

Dore-hodo hairi masu ka ? How much will it contain ?
Bono kurai irimasu ka ? How much do you require ?

The Collective numbers are : —
Ichi-do, 1

(or)
Hito-tabi, J
Ni-do, \
Futa-tabi, J
San- do, \
Mi-tabi, J
Yo-tabi,
Go-tabi,
Itsu-tabi,

Once.

Twice.

Four times.

Roku-tabi,
Mu-tabi,

Shichi-tabi,
_T . .
JNana-tabi,

Hachi-tabi,

Ya-tabi,

Ku-tabi,

Kokono-tabi,

Jit-tabi,

To-tabi,

\ Seven times.
\ Eight times.

} Nine times.
i. J

Ten

THE ADVERB 143

The following miscellaneous phrases should be noticed : —

FtttatSU ZUtSU, } rr .•

..__.. \ Two at a time,

(or) Ni-mai-zutsu, J

mitsuzutsu, \Threeatatime.

sam-mai zutsu, )

ni-do-me, the second time.

san-do-me, the third time.

dai ni ni, secondly, in the second place.

dai san ni, thirdly, in the third place.

hltotsu oki, every other one (lit. one omitting).

futatsu mitsu, two or three.

go bu, five per cent,

ichi-wari, ten per cent.

ni-wari, twenty per cent.

ni-wari go-bu, 1 „ - ,

} 25* per cent.
go-rm, )

THE ADVERB, CONJUNCTION AND
INTERJECTION.

NOTE. — The Preposition has been dealt with previously
under the head of "Postpositions."

I. THE ADVERB.

The Japanese language is almost devoid of true adverbs,
but the deficiency is amply replaced by numerous words
and locutions with functions equivalent to them. Most
of these equivalents are nouns, adjectives or verbs, which,
by the aid of postpositions and combinatives serve to
denote the conditions which limit or distinguish an action
or attribute.

The following lists contain the principal words perform-
ing the office fulfilled by European adverbs, in addition
to those mentioned later.

144

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR
(a). ADVERBS OF PLACE.

\ there, thither.
acmra, J

koko, 1 ,
, . . h Aera
kokoni, J

asuk°' \there.

sakini, before.

asukoni, J

shitani, below.

atode, behind.

doko, 1 ,
v iDfiere.

\ there, thither.
sochira, J

dokoni, J

, , .' | where, whither.
dochira, J

soko, 1 ,,
' . }- £A«m
sokoni, J

soto, outside.

kochi, ") 7 7 ., ,
, , . h here, hither.
kochira, J

uyeni, afowe.
' yokoni, across.

Examples.

Omaye koko ni matte ore, \
you here waiting remain)

Danna wa kochira de,

master here

gozaimasti ka,

Doko de sono hako wo o
where that box
kai nasatta ?

buy did

Dare ka soto de matsti,
someone outside waits

Dochira ye o ide de,
where go

gozaimasti ka,

is

Yo ga aru kara, kochi

business is because here

o ide,

wait here.

Is the master (anywhere)
here ?

Where did you buy
that box ?

Someone is waiting
outside.

Where are you going ?

Come here, I have some-
thing for you to do.

THE ADVERB

145

(b) ADVERBS OF TIME.

ashita, to-morrow,
ima, now.
itsu ? when ?
itsudemo, always (with a

negative, "never").
jikini, soon.
kesa, this morning.

\ yesterday.
sakujitsu, )

' . \ to-day.
konmcm, J

mata, again.
mada, still (with a neg.
verb, not yet}.

mettani (with \ 7J

V seldom,
a negative), J

mionichi, to-morrow.

mo, already (with neg.
verb, " no more ").

mohaya, already.

nochihodo, by-and-by.

sendatte, some days ago.

sudeni, already.

sugu, at once, immediately.

tabi tabi, several times.

tadaima, presently, im-
mediately.

toki, when (relative).

yube, last night.

Examples.

A iu hanashi wa mettani
called story seldom

kikimasenti,

hear

Mo o kayeri ni natta, \
already return has-become J

Mada ki ya shimasumai, \
yet come will-not-do J

Sakujitsu kita,

Kesa tabemashita ringo,

this- morning ate apples

Mionichi made naorimasumai,

to-morrow till recover-will-not

Mada hayo gozaimasenti ka,
yet early is-not ?

It is seldom we hear a
story of that kind.

He has already gone
away.

He cannot have come yet.

He came yesterday.

The apples I ate this

morning.
He will not be well by

to-mmrow.

Is it not yet early ?

146 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Sugu ni kawanakute

at-once not-buying
narimasenu,
does-not-do

Itsu iku d'aro?
uill-oe

Some must be bought at

once.

j ^ & ^ fo ?

J

Yube ame ga futta, 1 T. , 7 . 7 ,

> 7r rained last mc/ht.
last-niynt ram fell J

(c) ADVERBS OF QUANTITY.

amari' . ) too much. !kura • ^w muck ?

yokeini, J ikutsti ? how many ?

bakari, about, only. jiubun, enough.

chitto, ~\ motto, more.

choito, r a little, slightly. sappari, wholly.

chotto, J taiso, \ much, very,

donokurai ? hoiv much ? taktisan, / enough.

iku bun ka, mwe or less, zuibun, a good deal, pretty
rather. (as in pretty well).

Examples.

Sono kasa wa ikura ? ^ How much is that

umbrella hmv-much J umbrella ?
Hiogo made donogurai }

to what-quantity \ .

}• How far ts it to Hioc/o ?
aru?

it

Amari takai, ~| T, . , -, r • >.

} It is too much (in price).
too-much is-dear J

Yube wa taiso atsukatta, ^ It icas very hot last
last-night very / night.

Ikutsu gozaimasu ? How many are there ?

Sore de takusan, That is enough.

Motto arimasu ka, Have you any more ?

THE ADVERB

147

pleage

Chitto o kake nasaimashi,

a-little place deign

Taiso nigiyaka de gozaimashita, ) ff ^ ^ ,

very lively was J

Kore bakari de taranti d'aro, \ This alone ivill not

this not-mffice will-be J

Taiso ni o kawari nasatta

very change done

.
ne !

be sufficient.

you are

(d) ADVERBS OF MANNER.

naze, why ?

sayoni

so,

do, Tioiv.

domo, howsoever.

goku, |

hanahada, J ver^'

ikaga ? how ?

kayoni, ^

ko, } in tUs

kitto, positively.

makoto, truly, indeed.

ma, quite (always com-
bined with the follow-
ing adjective, of which
the initial consonant
is doubled, as makka
(for ma-alca).

, ~\ .

I in that way. so.
J

sakasama, upside down.

soimani, so.

tokoro ga, nevertheless,

still.
tokoro de, thereupon, and

so.

yahari, \ ,

yappari, (emph.)'
yohodo, \
yoppodo, -
yoku, well.
zehi, positively.

Examples.
Dare ga so iimashita ? Who said so ?

Naze hayaku konai ?

why quickly not-come
Sonnani yasuku wa,
so cheap

come .^ ?

uranakatta,

did-not-sell

I did not sell it so cheaply
as that.

148 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Kono kasa wa goku,

this umbrella very „, .

, , f This umbrella is very dear.

tako gozaimasu,

dear is
Kona shina ga makoto, "|

article truly \ rm_ • . • 7 . , ^ ,

f This article is truly cheap.
m yasui,

is cheap

Shinsetsu wa arigatai ga, ^ .

You are very kind.
kindness thanks

zehi ikaneba naranai, j" ™ I must positively
ositivel i-not-o does-not-become) QO^ng.

positively if-not-go does-not-become

Makka na kao,"\ -, /•

' } A very red face.
quite-red face )

It will no doubt have been observed that in the preceding
tables there are no equivalents for the adverbs of affirma-
tion and negation " yes " and " no." This is owing to the
fact that answers to questions in Japanese have not yet
been reduced to the simple "yes" or "no" in English.
The words lie ! hei I or hai ! it is true, may mean yes !
but they are most frequently employed as ejaculations to
signify that the speaker has heard and understood, or
that he is paying attention to what is being addressed
to him. Thus, when a waiter is summoned he will exclaim
hei 1 merely to notify that he has heard and will come.

The word iye (or ie) signifies no ! but it is rarely
employed except when the speaker desires to emphasise
his denial.

The simple affirmative yes ! is usually rendered by so da,
so desu (more respectful), or sayo de gozaimasu (most
respectful), all of which mean, literally, "that is so."
In familiar intercourse, these are often contracted to the
one word sayo.

Similarly the counterpart of the simple negative no!

THE ADVERB 149

is found in so ja nai, and sayo de gozaimasen (more
respectful), which mean " that is not so."

The same ideas are also conveyed by repeating the verb
of the question either affirmatively or negatively ; thus—
Mo kimashita ka, Has he come yet ?

Sayo de gozaimasu, Yes.

0 wakari ni narimashita \

understanding has-become > Do you understand ?

ka, J

Wakari mashita, \ y
(I)-have-understood \
"Wakarimasen, \ -y-
(I)- understand-not

The indefinite forms in ku of adjectives are employed
adverbially and form counterparts (though not exclusively)
for the English adverbs in -ly ; as, yasuku, cheaply, easily ;
hayaku, quickly.

Nouns which are rendered adjectival by the addition of
no or na, are made to serve as adverbs by substituting ni
for no or na ; as —

daiji ni, carefully. teinei ni, politely.

makoto ni, truthfully, really. shinsetsu ni, kindly.
shizuka ni, quietly, gently.

An adverbial signification is imparted to some words
merely by reduplication ; thus —

tokoro-dokoro, here and there (tokoro, a place).
dan-dan, gradually (dan, a step).
ho-bo, everywhere (ho, side, direction}.
iro-iro, various kinds (iro, sort, kind).
toki-doki, sometimes (toki, time).
tabi-tabi, often (tabe, a time [French, fois]).
nichi-nichi, daily (nichi, day).
naka-naka, very, more than one might imagine
(uaka, inside).

150 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

In numerous instances words which have to be rendered
by adverbs or adverbial phrases in English, are the gerunds
of verbs, which have passed into use as adverbs ; thus —

daniatte, silently (damaru, to keep silence).
hajimete,/or the first time (hajimeru, to begin).
yorokonde, gladly (yorokobu, to rejoice}.
kaette, on the contrary (kaeru, to return).
machigatte, wrongly (machigau, to err}.
sadamete, probably (sadanieru, to confirm}.
kesshite (used with a negative verb), never (kesshiru,
to determine).

The particles de, mo and to are in some cases employed
to produce adverbial phrases ; thus —

maru de, quite. tonto mo (with neg. verb), not

in the least.
waza to, on purpose. don to, with a bang.

Onornatopoetic compounds like the English ding-dong,
slap-bang, higgledy-piggledy, etc. exist extensively in
Japanese, and are usually classed as adverbs. Examples
of these are : —

pon-pon, the sound of a gun. pika-pika, glitteringly.

para-para, sound of rain. butsu-butsu, grumblingly.

pisshari, slamming of doors, kyan-kyan, yelping like a
goro-goro, rolling of thunder. dog.

bon-yari, expressive of list- gata-gata, with a rattling

lessness. noise.

domburi to, fatting with a soro-soro, slow or laboured

flop. movement.

patchiri, sudden breaking. katchiri, with, a click.

guzu-guzu, complainingly. burra-burra, saunteringly.

THE CONJUNCTION 151

II. THE CONJUNCTION.

In Japanese, conjunctions can scarcely be regarded as
a separate part of speech, the service they render in
English being performed partly by postpositions, partly
by nouns, and partly by conjugational forms of the verb,
as has been abundantly demonstrated previously.

The most frequently recurring conjunction in most
languages — "and" — is sometimes rendered by ni or to
as shown on pp. 41 and 45, but in most cases its
signification is imparted by merely placing the nouns in
juxtaposition, as sake sakana, sake-beer and fish.

The necessity for " and " between verbs or clauses is very
nearly obviated by the construction with the Indefinite
Form or Gerund shown on pp. 79 and 80.

" But " at the beginning of a phrase may be translated
by shikaski, shikashi nagara, datte, or demo ; as —

It has begun to rain

Hidoi furi ni natte kiinashita ;
shikashi, yudachi desti kara,
jiki agarimasho,

hard; but as it is only
a thunder-shower, per-
haps it will soon clear
again.

"Or" may be rendered by nan, or by ya, or it may
be omitted entirely ; thus —

Toka nari, hatsuka nari, Ten or twenty days.

Nido ya sando, Two or three times.

Go roku nen, Five or six years.

"As," used with the signification "in the same manner
as " is translated by tori (literally, " way, road ") ; thus —

Go zonji no tori, As you know,

Watakushi no iu tori ni nasai, Kindly do as I say.
Mae ni mo moshita tori, As I haw already said.

152 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

III. THE INTERJECTION.

The Japanese language is abundantly supplied with
words which are used to express some emotion of the
mind, but as in other languages the interjection is a
nondescript kind of word not entering into the construction
of sentences so that it can hardly be considered as having
any grammar.

The following are the interjections most frequently
heard : —

A ! shows attention, and often assent on the part of a
listener.

Aa ! may express either admiration or grief, and when
long drawn out, usually tells of weariness.

Aita ! a cry of pain.

Ara ! tells of either joy or fear. Spoken quickly by
women it shows surprise.

Ai ! often answers a call.

Dokkoi ! or Dokkoisho ! is a signal for encouragement
like the English, " Now then, altogether ! " or " Up with
it ! " when lifting heavy weights. It is also a sigh of
relief when the weight is safely lifted into its place.

Domo ! shows the speaker to be puzzled, not knowing just
what to do. It also expresses astonishment, corresponding
somewhat to "Well I never," "Indeed," and "Really."

Hate na ! equivalent to our "Well I never."

Koso ! an emphatic particle used to strengthen the word
which precedes it.

Ma ! betokens surprise and wonder like " Oh ! " and also
entreaty like " Do ! do please ! " It is used chiefly by
women.

Naruhodo ! has no exact counterpart in English. It
stands for attention, surprise, sympathetic wonderment
in conversation, and corresponds pretty nearly to "Who

THE INTERJECTION 153

would have thought it ! " " You don't say so ! " Some-
times, when pronounced in an assenting tone of voice
it means "Yes, I see," " Oh, indeed," "Really." When
someone is telling a long story it is common for listeners to
insert a naruhodo I when he pauses for breath. Instead
of naruhodo we may say so desu Jca ? literally, " is that
so ? " or, less politely, "so ha"

Ne ! serves to draw attention to a preceding word or
clause, something like the English "you know," or the
French " n'est-ce-pas ? "

Oi ! is an exclamation used to call the attention of
people.

Oya ! is an expression of astonishment heard chietiy
from the mouths of women.

Sa ! is an exclamation used to urge or hurry anyone.
It is often used with sayo; thus, sayo sal "of course,"
"yes."

Yo ! indicates address to some one. It is also often
used at the end of a sentence to show emphasis.

Yai ! betokens terror.

Ya ! an expletive accompanying expressions of profound
contempt.

Ya ! shows pleasurable excitement over what is being
witnessed. It is often heard in theatres as an expression
of applause.

Zo ! at the end of a sentence gives it a strong emphasis.

Examples.

Oi ! Kurumaya ! michi ga ^| I sayjinriksha-man ! are
I-say ^ 'riksha-nian road \ ^ ^ ^ ?

cmgai wa shmai ka,

wau?
mistake not do ? J

Hiogo to iu tokoro wa to ~\

place distant Y Is Hiogo far from here ?

gozaimasu ka,

154 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Say 6 sa ! That it is I Of course it is .'

TT , . Tr. m i ^ I cant make it out ! 2'here

Hate na ! Kino no asa Tokyo

, i_ „. , .. should be a reply to the
ye dashita henji ga mo V * * .

, , Zefter / serc£ to Tofoo
kuru waka da ga,

) yesterday mormng.

Ikaga de gozaimasu ? ~\ Suppose we go and Have

Kitsuenjo de ip-puku a pipe in the smoke-

itashimasho ka, J room ?

Sa ! o tomo itashimasho, All right, come along !

Ma ! Yo gozaimasen ka, Oh ! why hurry so ?

Oya ! kwaji to miete, hansho } Halloo I there appears to
conflagration /ire-bell \ be a fire; they are

wo utteru ga, } ringing the fire-bell.

Mo ku-ji sugi da, It's past nine o'clock.

Naruhodo ! You don't say so !

Aa ! sappari shimashita ! Ah! I feel quite refreshed.

Oi ! kyuji, hi wo o-kure, \ Waiter I oblige me ivith

waiter light ) a light.

HONORIFICS.

Probably the most perplexing task which the student
of Japanese finds in his path is the attainment of a correct
use of the honorific and humble forms of expression which
permeate the entire language.

In social intercourse, whether between servant and
master, host and guest, men and women, or parents and
children, various alternatives are provided in the grammar
and vocabulary to indicate the relations of superior and
inferior, real or formal, and although the subject of
honorifics has been incidentally referred to in many places
previously, it has been considered desirable to defer until
now the full and detailed explication of their leading
characteristics.

HONORIFICS 155

Although it is impossible to formulate precise rules for
the employment of honorific idioms, the following main
principles may be said to underlie their Japanese usage.

I. In speaking to equals, or to any persons except
intimate friends or one's own servants, the honorific forms
are used.

II. In speaking of oneself or one's own possessions the
honorific forms are never employed.

III. In speaking of absent persons (the third person in
English) custom varies. Should the person spoken about
be decidedly superior in rank to the person spoken to, or
should he be present and at least an equal, then honorifics
are used.

Speaking generally, the beginner in the study of the
language should avoid the forms of address set apart for
the speech of superiors to inferiors, and even in conversa-
tion with his own servants he would do well to employ at
least polite verbal forms, that is, the forms inflected with
the verb masii. He should not, of course, employ honorific
forms in intercourse with decided inferiors, but for all
relationships, except those of his immediate family and
of intimate friends polite verbal forms are appropriate.

Respect and humility are denoted in the following
ways : —

1. By honorific prefixes.

2. ,, „ suffixes.

3. „ special honorific and humble nouns, pronouns, and
verbs.

I. HONORIFIC PREFIXES.

The prefixes o and go are employed with nouns,
adjectives and verbs to indicate respect. Usually, though
not invariably, these prefixes denote that the words with

156 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

which they are associated are in the Second Person, or
refer to something connected with the person addressed,
and thus by their use, the necessity for the employment
of pronouns of the Second Person is largely obviated.
Thus o taku and go shochi will generally signify respectively
"your house" and "your consent," without the inter-
vention of a pronoun.

0 being a word of Japanese origin is usually prefixed
to native words, whilst go, a Chinese importation, is
generally used before words borrowed from the Chinese,
although neither of these rules is without exceptions.
Subject to the restrictions laid down on page 155, o and
go may be applied to the third person, thus o rusu may
signify either " your absence," or " his absence " ; go son,
" your loss," or " his loss " ; etc. Sometimes, in order to
render the phrase still more respectful, the word sama,
Mr, is superadded ; thus —

Maido go yakkai sama \

each-time (hon.) help Mr I I am much obliged to you
desu, I for your continual help.

0 kage sama, sukkari

naoirnashite gozaimastt,
recovered am

have quite recovered ;
thanks for your kind

shade Mr quite . . / ,.,

v enquiries (more liter-

ally, "thanks for your

influence ").

Go taikutsu sama, ) r, , , , , . ,

> It must be tedious for you.
tedium Mr )

0 kinodoku sama de \

poison-of-spirit I I am sorry for it on your

gozaimasu, j account.

NOTE. — Zanncn is substituted for kinodoku to express regret
on one's own account.

HONORIFICS 157

In such sentences as the following beginners are often
at a loss to account for the use of o and go, which at first
sight seem to be employed in contravention of Rule II.
on page 155.

0 itoma moshimasho, \ / think I must now take
(hon.) leave will-probably -say / my leave.

0 tomo itashirnasho, } I should like to go with
(hon. ) companion will-probably -do ) you.

0 jama wo it&shim&shita,,} Excuse me for having
(hon.) interference did J interrupted you.

Ato kara go aisatsu wo

/ will send my answer
afterwards.

afterwards (hon.) answer

moshimasho,
icill-say

Go shiu wa ikaga de"|

(hon.) sake how I May I offer you some sake-
gozaimasu, j beer ?

is

In constructions such as the above, one might naturally
infer that the honorifics are being applied by the speaker
to himself, but this is not the case. He intends by their
use to convey the idea that his answer, his refreshment,
his companionship, and even his interference are dignified
by their being associated with the person to whom he is
speaking.

In some cases the honorifics are used, especially by
women and members of the lower classes, not as a token
of respect .for the person addressed, but with honorific
intent for the things to which they are applied. This
usage originates probably in the ancient deification of
the objects represented, or from the use of the words
in connection with deified objects.

158 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

The following are examples : —

tea, o cha.

hot water, o yu.
cold water, o hiya.
soup, o tsuyu.

food, go zen.

a tray, o bon.

the sun, o tento sama.
the moon, o tsuki sama.
the weather, o tenki.-
cash, o ashi.

money, o kane.

a funeral, o tomurai.

0 is also frequently associated with adjectives ; thus —

Danna wa, o isogashiu \

Master (Aon.) busy ( My master & fo^.

gozaimasti, (

is

Yohodo o kirei desil, ) T. .

> It is very pretty.
very (hon.) pretty is )

0 wako gozaimasu, You are young.

The locution o saki (or o saki ye} is employed with
two distinct meanings. It may be an apology for going
on in front of a person, like our "please excuse me for
going first (upstairs, etc.)," or it may mean "you go first,
please."

II. HONORIFIC SUFFIXES.

Gata and tachi, the plural suffixes, are employed to
convey a moderate degree of respect, whilst shiu expresses
still less. Ra and domo have no honorific meaning.

Sama (more commonly san) corresponds to the English
Mr and Sir, and is placed after the name, description or
title in addressing, or speaking about, superiors ; thus —
Ikeda san, Mr Ikeda.

Koshi sama, The Minister (plenipotentiary).
Danna san, Sir (used by servants, to or of,
masters, or a tradesman to a
customer,

HONOEIFICS 159

At times the Chinese word Kun (literally, Prince) is
substituted for sama and san ; thus Kanda Kun, Mr
Kanda. Members of Parliament, and students generally,
employ it in referring to each other.

Very recently San has passed into common use in-
differently for Mr, Mrs or Miss in cases where no mis-
conception can arise, although our words Mrs and Miss
are generally rendered by such periphrases as —

Kanda, san no okusama, j
Kanda Mr of, lady J

Kanda san no ojosan j Mss
young-lady J

The personal names of women (corresponding to European
Christian names) are preceded by the honorific o and
followed by san, but in familiar intercourse the latter
word is generally omitted. In the majority of instances
these feminine names are taken from natural objects,
preferably those of an elegant or pleasing nature ; thus—

0 Hana San, Miss Blossom.
0 Tsuyu San, „ Deiv.

0 Matsu Sari, „ Pine-tree.

0 Yone San, ,, Rice.

Usually, feminine names of more than two syllables are
used without the honorific o, which is also discarded before
surnames and men's personal names. San, however, may
be affixed either to personal names or to surnames.

NOTE. — In Japanese the surname precedes the personal
name just as if we should say " Smith John " instead
of "John Smith."

To one's own wife or servant the personal name with
or without o is used,

160 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

In speaking of her husband a wife usually says yado
or teishiu (generally pronounced teishi'}.

San is not used to the servants of one's friends, and to
the servants of strangers it is replaced by don. One's own
male servants are addressed by their personal names which
are usually abbreviated, as Tsune for Tsumkichi.

Between themselves children employ the first part of
the personal name with or without san.

San is in frequent use after names of trades and
professions, as kajiya san, the blacksmith ; isna san, the
Doctor, both in the second and in the third person.

"Madame" is rendered by oku san, or more familiarly
o kami san, and Mademoiselle is o jo san, or o musume go.

III. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE NOUNS.

The gradual infiltration of Chinese words into the
Japanese language for over a thousand years has tended
to develop a contempt for the native equivalents, and
consequently Chinese words are usually considered more
elegant than their Japanese synonyms. Thus in polite
speech go shiu is usually preferred to o sake (sake-beer) ;
the general term for "head" is atama, the polite one,
o tsumi; for oki na ki the Japanese for "a large tree," the
Chinese tai-boku is preferred ; and so on.

It is, however, principally in speaking of the relatives of
oneself and of others that humble and honorific nouns are
employed, of which the following are the chief : —

One's own.

Another's.

f sofu,

go sofu sarna.

1 JiJ^

go sofu.

o ii sama.l ,
.. \ to

I

o ji san. ;

HONORIFICS

161

One's own.
Grand- rsobo,
mother, Ibaba,

oyaji

Father,

okka (by children}

Brother,

Sister,

am.

ototo,

Husband, *

rane,

[imoto,

't$uTe-a,i(lower class), danua.

danna or teishiu, teishi (familiar).

Another's.
go sobo.

o ba san (to children).
go shimpu.
go sompu.

ototsu san (to children).
otottsan.

go boko.

haha sama.

okka san (to children).

go robo (when aged).

o ani san (elder).

gosonkei( „ ).

go shatei sama (younger).

go shatei ( „

ototo go ( „

o ane san (elder).

ane san.

o imoto go (younger).

Wife,

}go teishi.
literally, "house."

niobo, o kami san (lower class).

sai' sai\un \ middle class.

go sninzoJ

kanai, oku san "|

oku sama, supper class.
go naishitsuj

* In general, the husband's surname is employed both to a
wife and also by her in mentioning her husband, in the former
case with san added, in the latter case without san.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR 6

162

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

One's own.

Another's.

,segare,

go shlsoku.

musuko,

o musuko san.

~ 1 kodomo (and for

daughters).

1 sorio,

go sorio (eldest).

jinan,

go jinan (second).

I sannan,

go sannan (third).

{musume,

go sokujo.

o musume go.

o jo san.

Uncle, \ •* '

oji san.

oji sama.

Aunt, |oba'

oba san.
oba sama.

Nephew, oi,

o go sama.

Niece, mei,

o mei go sama.

Father-in-law, shiuto,

shiuto go.

Mother-in-law, shiutome,

shiutome go.

Son-in-law, muko,

o muko san.

Daughter-in-law, yome,

o yome go.

Grand-child, mago,

o mago.

Remarks.

1. In speaking of their elder relatives, children (and to
a certain extent, women), add san, saying, for example,
otottsan, "my father"; ane san, " my elder sister."

2. For the nominative particle ga, de wa is usually
substituted, with the humble terms for " husband " (yado,
uchi, taki) ; thus —

Taku de wa, tabi ye dete

journey to having-gone
rusu de gosaimasu,

absent is

My husband is away ;
he has gone on a
journey.

HONOR1 FICS 163

3. The terms applied to one's own relatives may also be
employed for those of absent persons when no special
respect is intended to be paid to the latter, and even for
the relatives of the person spoken to, if he is decidedly
inferior in rank to the speaker. Segare, however, should
only b6 employed for ones own son.

4. Little boys up to six or seven years of age are called
botchan.

Examples.

Go shimpu wa, ikaga de \ How is your father

irasshaimasu ? / to-day ?

Ano Daiku san wa o kami \ Has that carpenter a

san ga arimasu ka, / wife ?

Sore ra no koto wo segare \
that (phi.) thing son | I heard about those things

kara kikimashita, f from my son.

from heard }

Yome go san no go bioki \

daughter-in-law illness I How is your (sick)

wa ikaga de gozaimasu, J daughter-in-law ?

how is j

Kono ko wa, anata no go \ Is this little fellow your

shlsoku de gozaimasu ka, / son ?

He ! watakushi no sorio de 1 v , • / 7 ,

f Yes, he ts my eldest.
gozaimasu,

Sa, botchan ! koko ye o kake \ Here, my little man, sit

nasai, J down here.

Ane hodo okiku wa nai, \ She is not so tall as her

Ug is not J elder sister.

Haha ga naku narimashita ^

not became -,,- ., • j j

. , . . my mother is dead, so

kara m san nichi o itoma r ,

1 beq iiou to aim me

because two three day leave ^ •* ,

wo negaimasu, two or three d^s

request

164 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

IV. HONORIFIC AND HUMBLE VERBS.

Verbs are rendered polite by substituting the paradigms
of masu (p. 75) for the ordinary forms given on pp. 58, 60,
and 62. Formerly masu was exclusively honorific, but
modern usage sanctions its employment as a respectful
termination which may be "used indiscriminately with any
person of the verb.

The student should bear in mind that masu is a con-
stituent of the abbreviations desu, deshita and desho, which
are therefore more respectful than da, datta and daro.
It should also be noted that the use of an abbreviation
including an honorific or polite form always shows less
respect than does the unabbreviated form.

It must be observed, however, that the forms in masu
are not honorifics, strictly speaking, being employed in
most cases merely as indications of a courteous manner
rather than of any special respect granted to the person
addressed. When respect is intended to be shown it
is usual to employ a periphrasis with the word o,
"honorable," the Indefinite Form of the verb, and mosu,
/ say, if the first person is meant, or nasaru (less
commonly, ni naru) for the second or third person.
Nasaru signifies "to deign"; ni naru, "to become."

Examples.

0 tanomi mosu, I ask.

o tanomi nasaru, | -^ ^.

o tanomi ni naru,

0 kashi nasatte kudasare, Please be kind enough to

lend me .

Masu may be superadded ; thus —

0 negai moshimasu, I ask a favour of you.

HONORIFICS

165

Another method of rendering a verb honorific is by
substituting the Causal or Potential (passive) verb for
the simple verb, on the principle that it is more polite
to suggest that a person is able to do a thing or causes it
to be done rather than to state that he does it.

A yet further method is the employment of a separate
verb according as the phrase is intended to be honorific
or humble. The following are those in most general use : —

Neutral. Humble. Honorific.

To be, iru ; or iru ; or oru ; o ide nasaru ; or

oru. irassharu.

,, borrow, kariru, haishaku suru ; o kari nasaru.

„ come, kuru, mairu ; agaru ; o ide nasaru ;

makaru, irassharu.

„ do, suru, suru, nasaru; asobasu.

„ eat, taberu, itadaku ; chodai (meshi-) sageru.

suru,

,, give, yaru, ageru ; shinjo
suru.

go,

hear,
meet,

receive,

iku,

kiku,
an,

mairu; agaru;

makaru,
uketamawaru,
o me ni kakaru,

ukeru, itadaku; chodai
suru,

kudasaru; kureru

(less polite).
o ide nasaru ;

irassharu.
o kiki nasaru.
o ai nasaru.
o uke nasaru.

say,
see,

m,
miru,

ossharu.
goran nasaru.

o mse nasaru.

moshi-ageru,
haiken suru,
miseru, o me ni kakeru,

Examples.

Donata de irasshaimasu ka, ^ May I ask who you are,

(Sir) ?

who

I

Moshi-kanete orimasu, \I can hardly say it (said

J ii

to-say-undble am

in asking a favour).

166 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Doko ye irassharu ? } Where are you going

where to deign-to-go ) (Sir) ?

Iko to omou, ^ T .,. ,. /.

} 1 am thinkinq of qoinq.
will-go think J

Nan'to osshaimashita, 1 nri . -,- •, /&• \ ,

} What did you say (Sir) ?
what say J

Sore de nan'to itta ? What did he say then ?

Itsu o ide nasaru ka, When will you come ?

Mata mairimasti, / will come again.

The Imperatives of the Honorific verbs in the preceding
list are used thus :

j • , , / >. , f irasshai ! or irasshaimashi !

deign to be (come or go) \ \

I o ide nasai !

be pleased to do I asobase !

deign to eat ! meshi-agare !

condescend to give I kudasai !

deign to say ! osshaimashl !

deign to do ! nasai !

deign to look ! goran nasai !

NOTE. — 0 ide nasai is often familiarly contracted to o ide ;
goran nasai to goran.

The Imperatives of other verbs are very seldom used
except when addressing one's own servants or coolies, as
such modes of address sound, in Japanese ears, too blunt
and abrupt. Thus the common verb naosu, to mend, when
employed in a command would not be naose ! mend ! but
rather naoshite kudasai, mending condescend = please mend,
or o naoshi nasai mase, honorably mend deign = please mend.
In like manner kake, the Imperative of kaku, to write,
would be replaced by o kaki nasai, or o kaki kudasai, or
kaite kudasai.

Speaking generally, it may be held that the difference

SYNTAX 167

between nasal and kudasai is one of degree, the former
being usually a very polite command, whilst kudasai is
a request and would be employed, for instance when one
asked a friend to do something for one.

Examples.

Kondate wo misete kudasai, \ Please show me the
bill-of-fare showing condescend ) bill-of-fare.

Matairasshai, \ Please come again.
again deign-to-come )

Itte mite koi ! Go and look ! (to a servant).

Itte goran nasai ! „ ,, (to an equal).

Mo ippen osshatte]

§ay
kudasai,

?T5Z° ° misf nasai'l Please show it to me.
J

, T
(or) Misete kudasai,

SYNTAX.

The normal arrangement of the Japanese sentence is —
First, the nominative case.
Second, the indirect object of the verb, or a noun

followed by a postposition.

Third, the direct object of the verb (accusative case).
Fourth, the verb, or the verbal form of an adjective.

Examples.

Watakushi wa tabako ga, \

I (nom. ) tobacco of \ I am very fond of

dai-suki desti, j tobacco.

very-fond am

Natsu ga kimashita, \Snmmerhascome.
summer (nom.) has-come

0-chaga dekimashita, \Theteaisready.

tea (nom. ) is-made J

168 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Watakushi wa zeikan no^l f am ff <Mgtom.1imue

1 (nom. ) custom-house of > „

i • j • officer.

yakunin de gozaimasu, )

Ano hlto wa junsa de "]

he (nom.) policeman > He is a policeman.

gozaimasu,

Watakushi ga ashi wa itande iru,) = I have a pain
my foot (nom.) painful is j in my foot.

An exception to the above normal order occurs in com-
parisons, where the object with which the comparison
is made is usually placed first ; as —

Watakushi yori, anate o ^ TMn f are (&r}

I than, you I . ^ \

, . r i.e. You are younner than

wako gozaimasu,

young are

Kono yama yori are \ Than tUs ^untain, that is
this mountain than that | , . 7 , . . „, ,

, . r high(er), i.e. That moun-

tain is higher than this,
(nom) ^s-high J

The relative sequence of the direct and indirect objects
is sometimes varied. As a rule whichever of the two
it is meant to emphasise comes first. Thus in rendering
into Japanese the sentence " He went away without giving
the horse its fodder," if it is meant, for instance, that he
had fed the other animals but not the horse, we should,
in English, render the word horse emphatic by placing
stress of the voice on it, but to render the same idea
in Japanese the word would simply be placed first ; thus —

Muma ni kaiba wo

horse to fodder (ace.)
tsukezu ni itte
giving-not having-gone
shimatta,
finished

He went away without giving
the horse its fodder.

SYNTAX 169

If, however, it is meant that the person had given the
horse his water, etc., but not his fodder we should, in
English, stress " fodder," and put it first in Japanese ;
thus —

Kaiba wo muma ni, etc.

When a subject to the verb is expressed it is generally
placed at the beginning as already stated, but usually
verbs are subjectless, and instead of expressing an act
as performed by some person they intimate rather a
"coming-to-be" on his part. Where no subject is named,
the word on which it is desired to lay most stress is
frequently placed at the head of the sentence and followed
by the isolating postposition wa (see remarks on this
particle, p. 47).

Examples.

Sonna koto wa, ii ya \

such thing as-for saying as-for I / should never think of

itashimasen, j saying such a thing-

do-not-do

Kyo no atsusa wa A

to-day of heat as-fvr \ ^ ^ ^
koraeraremasen,
cannot-bear J

Kore wa, nan de dekite

this as-for what by eventuating I What is this made

orirnasu,

Kono hen wa, ka ga ~\ It is quite tiresome, the

this vicinity as-for mosquito I number of mosquitoes

okute uruso gozaimasu, j in this neighbour-
being-many tiresome is J hood

6*

170 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Kono mono wa, Nihon-go de

this thing as-for Jap. -language by

nan to moshimasti ka

what that say ?

What is this called
in Japanese (liter-
ally, " As for this
thing, what do

(people) say that
It is?")

Qualifying words or phrases precede the words which
they qualify ; thus —

(a) the adjective and the verb in the attributive form

precede the word to which they refer, as atsui1
kami,2 thick1 paper2; kuru hlto, the person who
comes (literally, " the conies person ").

(b) the adverb precedes the verb, adjective or other

adverb which it modifies ; as —

Hayakuoide nasare, \ Com uiM ,

quickly come do )

Kono mtlma wa goku,

this horse (nom.) very

, , . • V This horse is very dear.

tako gozaimastl,

dear is '

Amari mutsukashi, j R & ^ Mfficult

too is-difficuU J

Taiso nigiyaka de

very lively 1

i y, I It was very lively.

gozaimashita, r

(it) was }

(c) the noun followed by the possessive particle no or

ga precedes the noun to which it is joined ; as —

Neko no tsume, \ The claws of a cat ; a cat's

cat of claws j claws.

Kin no kahei, j ^ -^ of u . u

gold of coins J

Ju-nen ga aida,

Q fm

ten-years of space

SYNTAX 171

Particles denoting number and case, with wa, ya, ga,
mo and to follow the noun ; as —

Oktisama gata, ladies.

onna shu, \

women.
onna domo, J

yakunin-tachi, officers.

tori ni, to a bird.

When two or more verbs or adjectives are co-ordinated
in a sentence, only the one placed last assumes the
inflection or particle belonging to all, the others taking
the Indefinite Form. This rule has been given previously,
and a rule somewhat analogous governs the use of nouns
and pronouns, by which particles belonging to several
nouns or pronouns are not placed with each of them,
but only with the last of the series ;* thus —

Watakilshi to omaye wa Yoroppa "|

/ and you Europe I When you and I came

kare toki, j from Europe.

from came j

Kori to mizu wo motte koi, \ Bring ice and

ice and water (ace. ) having-carried come J water.

Ya ka tama ni atatte "j

arrow or bullet by striking I He died either by an arrow or

shinimashita, j a bullet.

died )

Taisetsu na tegami lion ni kane } Besides important

important letter book monei/ I 7 , , 7 , 7 ..

. . . Y letters and books, ^t

mo haitte imasnita, , . ,

contained monei/.
hamng-entered was

Hone to kawa to ni natta, 1 „ 7 , 7 . ,7

J- He has become skin and bon<-
bone skin J

* See, however, " Dano " p. 33.

172

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Mo (with any other particle preceding it), however,
accompanies each substantive in a series ; thus —

Furansu ni mo, Doitsu
France in also Germany

m mo,

in also

^ Germ

Expressions of time are usually put before expressions
of place ; as —

Tonen mo Tokyo ni hakurankwai
this-year at exhibition

ga arimasho ka ?

will-be ?

Kionen no natsu watakilshi no
last-year siimmer my

tokoro ni kita hito,

place came man

Toshi ni nido gurai dzutsu
year twice amount each,

Hiogo ye dete kuru wake ui

to out come reason
wa ikumai ka,
will-not-go ?

Is there to be an ex-
hibition at Tokio
this year?

The man who came to
my place in the
summer of last year.

Would it not be possible
to go to ff. twice
each year ?

Explanatory or dependent clauses precede the principal
clause ; as —

Mionichi tenki ga yoroshikereba,'
to-morrow weather if-good

mairimasti,

come

Sono teganii wo yonde nan'
that letter (ace.) having-read what

to itta,
said

If the weather is fine,
I will come to-

What did he say when
he read that Utter 1

SYNTAX 173

Nikko wo minai uchi wa \ Do not use the word

(ace.) see-not within as-for \ "magnificent" un-

"kekko" to iu-na, I til you have seen

magnificent that say-not ) Nikko (a saying).

1 / don't know what to
Te ga mete tamaranai, , , ,

f do, my hands are so

hands being-cold cannot-bear *

) cold.

Final verbs and adjectives are frequently omitted in
cases where no misconception or ambiguity can arise,
especially in short idiomatic sentences ; as —

0 hayo (gozaimastt), ~\ /-< j <

" \ Good mormnq !
lion, early (is) J

Dozo kannin shite "j

please patience having-done ^Please have patience with me.
(kudasare) J

This example of ellipsis is the one of most frequent
recurrence, but it is by no means the only one. A feature
of speech much in vogue is the breaking-off of a phrase
in the middle, leaving the rest to be inferred ; thus —

Kochira de zonjite oreba,
here in knowing if-be

moshi-agemasu ga

/ would tell you if I knew
(but I don't know}.

say-icill-lift-up although,

Cha wo irete (o kun nasai),^ a/r /

" \ make some tea.
tea (ace.) putting-in I

T1 ., . 1 / should like to go, but

Ikitai mono desu keredo , T ,. . , '

.., \ (I am afraid I can-

hke-to-go is although ^

J not).

} That is perhaps so, but
bayo demo gozaimasho ga, ( /., , > , .,

> (it does not affect the
thus even will-probably -be but

i question, etc.).

174 A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Conjunctions are usually placed at the end of the
sentence or clause to which they belong; as —

li keredo, ne ga takai, ) Though it is good, the

it-is-good though, prize is-high f price is high.

Uso da to iimasu, 1 u *i * •* • /•

\ He says that it is a lie.
lie (it) is thai (he) says J

A-, • , ,v, i j • } Please lend it to me if

Aite iru nara. kashite kudasai,

., . ., 7 ,. , j r you do not require

open it-is if lending condescend I •;

j it at present.
Kutabiremashlta kara, chotto

have-becoine-tired because a-little ' Let US rest a little
will -probably -rest

yasumimasho, C because I am tired.

In English, interrogation is indicated by an inversion of
the normal construction of the sentence, bnt in Japanese
no alteration is made, the interrogation being denoted
merely by placing the postposition hi at the end of the
phrase ; as —

Kimashita, He has come.

Kimashita ka, Has he come ?

As in English, two negatives make an affirmative, and
thus destroy each other ; thus —

Shiranu koto wa gozaimasenu, ) u . • 7 7

' }- He certainly knows,
not-know thing is-not )

Mo ikanakereba narimasen, 1 T 77

\ 1 really must qo now.
already if-do-not-go is-not J

Ko shinakereba narimasen, 1 It must be done in

thus if-not-do > is-not j this Way.

In Japanese, the personification of inanimate objects
is almost entirely unknown. Thus we find no counterparts

REPORTED SPEECH, ETC. 175

for such expressions as "the flight of Time," "Smiling
Morn," " the sting of Death," etc., and even the employment
of the name of an inanimate thing as the subject of a
transitive verb is repugnant to the matter-of-fact Far-
eastern mind. For example a Japanese will not say, " This
heat knocks me up," but rather —

Kono atsusa ni domo yowatta,

this heat on-account-of have-become- weak,

i.e. " J am knocked up on account of this heat."

Similarly, where we should say " His not-understanding
annoys me," he would embody the notion in the words —

Wakarani • de komaru, \
(his) not-understanding at (I) am-annoyed )

i.e. " I am annoyed at his not-understanding."

REPORTED SPEECH ; INDIRECT NARRATION.

In English, a sentence when reported by another person
is usually reconstructed; thus, if I say "I shall come,"
another person, in reporting my intention uses the words
" He said he would come." In Japanese, however, the
sentence is repeated exactly as spoken and the particle to,
that, is placed after it to denote that it is a quotation;
thus —

Mairu to iimashlta.

"I-will-come," that (he) said.

Examples.

Sore wo Komuro San kikaremashite, \ jjearinQ Of

that Mr having-heard

_ „ , Mr Komuro said

so omou mono mo aro, to

so think people may-be
iwaremashita,
(he) said

there might be
some people who
thought so.

176

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

He said that the lecture

was over.

Enzetsu ga mo shimai ni
lecture already finish

natta to iirnashlta,

became (he) said

Iku, to iimashlta, "1 „ • •,,

T ' ,,, \ He said he would no.

I-will-go that he-said J y

Haha ga sono koto \vo

mother that thing
moshiinashitara, ko-toshi
when-she-spoke-of this-year
\va ayaniku shirabe-mono

unfortunately investigation
ga aru kara yenkai wa

is because entertainment
gozaimasenti to
is-not that

kotayemashlta,

he-answered

Taiso ni kirei desu to hito
greatly pretty is that people

ga iimasu,

(nom.) say

When my mother asked
him about it, he said
that Unfortunately he
ivould be prevented
from g icing an enter-
tainment this year, by
an investigation which
he had in hand.

It is said to be extremely
pretty.

Conversational Phrases on Subjects of E very-day

Life.

NOTE. — The words used in the following phrases will be found in the
Vocabularies at the end of the book. The construction of the
respective sentences will be readily understood if the grammatical
portion of this work has been diligently studied. In many cases
the English phrases are given in a brief and abrupt form, but the
Japanese equivalents are uniformly polite and may be addressed
to all classes.

Questions.

Do you speak English ? Ei-go wo go-zonji desu ka.

What do you call it in Japanese ? Nihon-go de nan to moshimasu

ka.

HOAV do you say it in Japanese ? Nihon-go de, do iu fu ni iimasii

ka.

What is this used for ? Kore wa nani ni tsukaimasu ka.

What is that ? (which you have in Sore wa nan desu ?

your hand, etc. ) j

What is that — (e.g. ship) called ? Sono /***''*wa nan' to iu ?

What do you want ? Nan desu ka.

What do you say ? Nani wo osshaimasii ka.

Who is it ? Dare HPSTI Vn.

What do you think of it ? Do omoimasu ka.

Which do you prefer ? Dochira ga yo gozaimasit ka.

Where are you going ? Dochira ye irassharu ka.

Where have you been ? Doko ye oide deshita ka.

Where is it ? Doko ni aru ka.

Is it so ? So desu ka.

Isn't it so ? So ja nai ka.

What are you doing ? Nani wo shite iru no desu ka.

Where has he gone ? Doko ye mairimashita ?

About the Way or Eoad.

Where does this road lead to ? Kore wa doko ye iku michi da ?

Please tell ine the way to . made no iku michi wo oshiete

kudasai.

Which way shall I go ? Dono michi wo ikimashn k^

Shall I turn to the right (left) ? Migi (hidari) ye magarimasho ka.
Turn to the right (left). Migi (hidari) ye magare.

Must I keep straight on ? Massugu ni ikimasu ka.

Keep straight on. Massugu ni itte o-kure.

Is not this the road ? Kore wa michi ja nai ka.

ITT

178

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Kindly direct me to

Is this the right way ?
No, Sir, that is the way.

I do not know or I would tell you.

What is the distance to ?

What place is this, please ?

Chotto ukagaimasu ga, ye iku

ni wa dochira ye mairimashite
yoroshiu gozaimasu ka.

Kore wa hom-michi desii ka.

liye, hom-michi ja gozaimasen ;
ano michi ga hom-michi de
gozaimasu.

Kochira de zonjite oreba, moshi-
agemasu ga.

ye dono kurai arimasu ka.

Moshi, koko wa nap fo in tokoro
d'aro ?

At a Town.

Here, bring me a jinrikisha.
What is the charge (or fare) ?
Can I engage you by the hour ?
How much do you charge per

hour?
What will you take me to

for?
Take me to as quickly as you

can.
I will increase your fare if you go

quickly.
Run quicker !
I am not in a hurry so you can

take your time.
Put these things under the seat.

I want to go to to stay some

hours and then return.

Take me back to .

Wait for me.

I wish to see the streets, so you

may go slowly.
I wish to purchase some ; is

there a good shop ?

There is a good one at .

Here is your fare.

The heat is unbearable to-day.

It is terribly cold.

It is most disagreeeble weather.

It is very hard walking the roads

are so bad.

Oi, jinrikisha it-cho motte koi.
Ikura desii ka.

Jikan-gime de ore wo noseru ka.
Ichi-ji-kan wa ikura ?

made dono-kurai de noseru

ka.
0-isogi de made yatte kure.

Hayaku ittara chinsen wo mashite

yaro.

Motto hayaku hashire !
Isoganai kara, soro-soro to itte

mo ii.
Kono mono wo kekomi ye irete

o-kure.
ye itte, ni-san-jikan ite, sore

kara kaeru tsumori da.

Kore kara made modose.

Matte kure.

Machi wo mi-nagara yu-kitai kara,

shidzuka ni yatte o-kure.
kaitai ga, ii mise ga aru ka.

ni ii mise ga gozaimasu.

Sa, kore wa chinsen da.
Kyo no atsusa wa,koraeraremasen.
Osorosluku samui.
Kornarimashita o tenki da.
Michi ga warukute, aruku n hone
ga oremasii.

179

Here is a card of my hotel.

I am much obliged to you for the
trouble you have taken.

Good morning !

Good evening !

Good night ! (said to one retiring
to bed).

Good-bye !

How do you do ?

Thank you, I am very well.

How is your family ?

Thank you, all very well.

Please present my compliments to

your family.
What production is this place

noted for ?
This place is noted for .

Where is the Post Office (Railway

Station) ?

It is on that side of the street.
Is there not a person of the name

of living about here ?

You will find him on the right

(left) side of this street.
He lives in the next street to this.

The next door is the house for

which you are asking.
I will show you where he lives.

Order a jinrikisha for me.
I will go in a jiurikisha.
Is the jinrikisha ready ?
You have overcharged me.

Kore wa watakushi no yadoya no

na-fuda de gozaimasu.
Oki ni o horie-eri.

Ohayo gozaimasu !
Komban wa !
O yasumi nasai !

Sayouara !

Go kigen yoroshifi gozaimasu ka.
Arigato, tassha de gozaimasu.
0 taku de wa mina-san o kawari

wa gozaimasen ka.
Arigato, kawari de gozaimasen.
Dozo, o uchi ye yoroshiku, oshatte

kudasai.
Kono hen no meibutsu wa nan

daro?
Kono hen no meibutsu wa, madzu

• de gozaimasen.

Yubin - kyoku ( Suteishon ) wa

dochira de gozaimasu ka.
Sore wa muko-gawa de gozainiasu.
Kono hen ni to iu na no hito

ga sunde imasen ka.
Kono tori-michi no hidari-gawa

(migi-gawa) ni gozaimasu.
Sore wa, tsugi no cho - nai de

gozaimasu.
Tonari ga o-tadzune iiasaru uchi

desii.
Ano hito no tokoro wo oshiete

Kuruma wo tanonde o-kure.
Kuruma ni notte iko.
Kuruma no shitaku ga dekita ka.
Omae wa taiso kake ne wo tsuketa.

At an Hotel.

Can I have a suite of rooms ? Mitsu yotsu no tsudzuita zashiki

ga aite imasii ka.

Have you a room with a good Miharashi no ii heya ga aru ka.
view ?

How will this room suit you ? Kono heya wa ikaga de gozaimasu

ka.

This will do very nicely. Kore wa kekko da.

180

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

What do you charge for a night's

lodging ?

I will engage these rooms.
Please send the landlord up.
Please send the chambermaid

here.
I want something to eat.

Waitress, please let us have

something or other to eat.
I want to have a wash.
Please give me some water.
Lend me another towel.

Have you a newspaper ?
Have you foreign newspapers ?

WThere can I dine ?
At the table d'hote .
Where shall I sit ?
Can I have this seat ?
Take this seat, please.

What do you charge per head

at the table d'hote ?
Is wine included in that ?

Kindly take your seats, gentle-
men.
Please show me the wine-list.

Let me have a cigar, please.
Please get me a cigarette.
Please pass the matches.
Where is the smoke-room ?
Is my bed ready ?
Give me another pillow.
Is the bath ready ?
Please let me know when it is

ready.

The bath is now ready, Sir.
Please lend me a sponge.
Call me early, please.
I shall leave at seven o'clock

to-morrow morning.
I wish to catch the first train to

to-morrow.

What time will you get up, Sir ?

Call me at six, please.

Send me up some hot water in

the morning.

Hito-ban no tomari-ryo wa

ikura ?

Kono heya wo karimasho.
Teishiil wo yokoshite o-kure.
Jochu wo kochira ye, yokoshite

o-kure.
Watakiishi wa nani ka mono wo

tabetai.
Oi ! nedan, nanika mitsukurotte

dashite kun na.
Chodzu wo tsukaitai.
Midzu wo o-kure.
Tenugui wo mo hitotsii kashite

o-kure.

Shim bun wo motte orimasu ka.
Yoko-moji no shimbun wo motte

orimasu. ka.

Shoku-ji wa doko de shimasu ka.
Shokudo de gozaimasii.
Doko ni koshi-kakemasho ka.
Kono tokoro wa ii ka ?
Dozo, koko ni o kake nasai-

mashi.
Shokudo nara, ichi-uin-mae ikura

desii ka.
Sake-rui mo sono uchi ni haitte

orimasu ka.
Dozo, mina-san, o kake nasai-

mashi.
Sake-rui no mokuroku wo misete

o-kure.

Ha-maki-tabako ippon o-kure.
Kami-maki-tabako ippon o-kure.
Machi wo o-kure.
Kitsuenjo wa doko desu ka.
Toko ga shikemashita ka.
Makura wo mo hitotsu o-kure.
Furo ga waite iru ka.
Waitara shirashite o-kure.

Tadaima, o-yu ga wakimashita.

Kaimen wo kashite o-kure.

Hayaku okoshite o-kure.

Myo-asa sbichi-ji ni shuttatsu
shimasu.

Myo-asa yuki no ichi-ban

kisha no noritai.

Nan-ji ni o oki nasaimasii ka.

Roku-ji ni okoshite kure.

Asu no asa yu wo motasete yoko-
shite o-kure.

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES

181

Good-night and sleep well.

Please put out the light.

I shall be down to breakfast

in five minutes.
Tell the waiter to let me have

some breakfast.
Have you cleaned my boots ?
Please clean my boots.
Please let these things be sent

to the wash.
Has the laundress returned my

washing ?
Let my linen be well-aired.

Please let me have my bill.
How much is my bill ?
Good-bye, Sir, and please come

again soon.
Good-bye ; I thank yo\i for your

kind attention.

Go kigen yo o yasumi nasaimashi.

Akari wo keshite o-kure.

Mo go-fun de asahan ni mairi-

masu.
Asahan wo koshiraeru yo ni

kyuji ni iitsukete o-kure.
Kutsii wo migaitaka.
Kutsu wo migaite o-kure.
Kono mono wo sentaku ni yatte

o-kure.
Sentaku mono wo motte kitaka.

Kanakin-rui no sentaku mono wo
yoku kawakashite kure.

Kanj5 o-kure.

Kanjo wa ikura ?

Sayonara ; dozo o-chikai uchi ni
uegaimasu.

Sayonara ; Oki ni o sewa ni
narimashita.

Buying and Selling.

Have you any silk like this ?
What is the price ?
Please show me that.
Have jou no better ?
Have you any cheaper ones ?
How much do you require ?
Which is the cheapest ?
Show me something better.

What is the lowest price you

will take ?
Well, I will buy it at that

figure.
I will buy this if you will

take yen.

The lowest I can sell at is

yen.

I can sell it at .

Won't you reduce the price a

little ?
How do you like this ?

How much do you ask ?
I will buy this also,

Kono yo na kinu ga arimasu ka.

Ikura desii ka.

Dozo are wo misete kudasai.

Motto yoi no wa arimasen ka.

Motto yasui no ga arimasu ka.

Dono gurai yoroshiii ?

Dochira ga yasui ?

Motto yoi mono wo misete

kudasai.
Ketchakii no tokoro wa, ikura

made makarimasu ka.
Ma, sono nedan naraba kaimasho.

Kono \

kaimasho.
Goku makete

yen nara

yen.

de sashi-agemasii.

Nedan wo sukoshi wa makete

kurenai ka ?
Kono wa, ikaga de gozai-

masu ?

Ikura desu ka.
Kore more kaimasho.

182

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

This is quite enough.

How much are they altogether ?

Send the things to No.

I am leaving on , so please

have the things packed by
then.

Kore de takusan.

Minna issho ni ikura ?

Nimotsu wo ban ye yatte

kure.

ni shuppan suru kara sore

made ni mono wo nidzukuri
shinakereba narimasen.

Eating and Drinking.

I am very hungry.
I am very thirsty.
Are you hungry ?

Are you thirsty ?

Please show me the menu.

Give me some please.

What will you take to eat ?
Please give me some more.
May I offer you a cup of tea ?
Please bring me a cup of coffee.
Will you take some soup ?
I will take a little.

May I trouble you for the .

What fish is that on the dish ?

It is cod-fish.

This fish is well-cooked and

delicious.
Is it sea or fresh -water fish ?

Give that gentleman something

to drink.
Have you a wine-list ?

Give me a glass of .

Show me some liquors.
Give me a glass of this.

Taiso hara ga herimashita.
Taiso nodo ga kawakimashita.
Anata wa kufuku de wa gozai-

masen ka.
Anata wa nodo ga kawakimashita

ka.
Kondate wo misete.

Dozo o-kure.

Nani wo meshi-agarimasu ka.
Motto o-kure.

0 cha ippai sashi-agemasho ka.
Kohi wo ippai motte kite o-kure.
Soppu wo agarimasu ka.
Sukoshi moraimasho.

wo o-kure.

Naga-zara ni notte iru sakana

wa nan de gozaimasu ka.
Tara de gozaimasu.
Kono sakana mo yoroshii, ryori

mo yoku dekite imasii.
Umi-uwo desu ka kawa-uwo desii

ka.
Ano o-kata ni nani-ka sake wo

agete o-kure.
Sake-rui no mokuroku ga motte

orimasu ka.

wo ippai o-kure.

Rikazu iro-iro misete o-ukure.
Kore wo ippai o-kure.

Is Mrs at home ?

Is your master at home ?

Visiting.

Okxisama wa, o uchi de gozaimasu

ka.
Go shujin wa, o taku de gozaimasu

ka.

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES

183

No, Sir, he is out.

When will he return ?

Please tell him (or her) I am
waiting.

Please come in.

Show him (or her) in.

Pray take a seat.

Excuse me for keeping you wait-
ing so long.

Are you quite well ?

I am quite well, thank you.

I must now say good-bye ; or, I
must now take my leave.

I have been wearisome to you
(said on taking have after a
visit).

Please make my compliments
to .

Kindly remember me to Mr

I regret that I cannot avail
myself of your kind invitation
for to-day.

At what time will you come ?

Tadaima rusu de gozaimasu.

Ttaii kaerimasn ka..

Watakushi ga matte iru to

moshite o-kure.
0 agari nasai.
0 toshi mose.
Dozo o kake nasai-mashi.
0 machido sama.

Go kigen yo gozaimasu. ka.
ArigatS, tassha de gozaimasu.
0 itoma itashimasho.

0 yakamashiu gozaimasu.

san ni yoroshiku negaimasu.

san ye yoroshiku o tanomi-

moshimasu.
Sekkaku no o sasoi de gozaimasu

ga, konnichi wa mairikane-

masu.
Nan-ji goro ni oide nasaimasii ka.

Travelling.

Is my luggage packed ?

Bring my luggage, please.

Put the luggage into the jinri-
kisha.

I will start when all is ready.

I shall go to Yokohama to-morrow
if it is fine.

When will you start ?

I shall go to-morrow.

Has my luggage come ?

Have you br. aight my luggage ?

Shall we catch the train '{

What time does the train leave
for ?

It leaves at half-past nine.

What is the fare ?

Please give me a first-class (second-
class) ticket for .

Please give me a return ticket.

Nimotsu wa nidzukuri shite aru

ka.

Nimotsu wo motte kite o-kure.
Nimotsu wo kuruma ni nosete

kure.

Shitaku shidai, de kake-masho.
Myonichi tenki ga yokereba,

Yokohama ye iko.
Itsu goro o tachi nasaru ka.
Ashita yukimasho.
Nimotsu wa kita ka.
Nimotsu wo motte kita ka.
Kisha ni ma-ni-awase-masho ka.
yuki no kisha wa nan-ji ni

demasu ka.
Ku-ji-h^n ni demasu.
Ikura desii ka.
made joto (chuto) no kippu

ichi-mai kudasai.
Ofuku kippu wo kudasai.

184

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

Follow me, please.

I will leave ray luggage in your

care.

What time does the train start ?
The train will be here directly.
Put these things in a first-class

(second-class) carriage, in the

train for .

This seat is engaged.

How long does the train wait

here?
What is the name of this station ?

WThich is the best hotel ?

Is it far off' ?

Take me to a good hotel.

We shall sail in a few minutes.

Shall we have a good passage ?

What time shall we reach ?

How long will it take us ?

Shall we breakfast on board ?
Please let me see your passport.
There is the way out.

Watakushi no ato ni tsuite kite

kudasai.
Nimotsii wa omae ni adzukeru.

Kisha wa nan-ji ni deni ka.
Kisha wa mo hodonaku tsukimasu.
ye yuku kisha no joto (chuto)

shitsu ye kono nimotsu wo irete

o-kure.

Kono tokoro wa fusagatte imasu.
Kisha wa dore hodo koko ni

tomaru ka.
Kono tei-sha-ba no na wa nan to

moshimasu ka ?

Yado wa, nani-ya ga yoroshii ka.
Toi desii ka.

Yoi yadoya made nosete kure.
Jiki ni shuppan shimasu.
Odayaka na kokai ga dekimasho

ka.
ye nanji-goro ni tochaku

shimasu ka.
Dore hodo nagaku kakarimasho

ka.

Fune de asahan wo tabemasho ka.
Menjo wo chotto haiken.
De-guchi wa asiiko de gozaimasu.

With a Doctor.

Who is the best doctor here ?
Where does he live ?

Please send for a doctor.

I have come to consult with you.

I have taken the liberty of send-
ing for you, Doctor, as I am
greatly in need of your advice.

Show me your tongue.
What is the matter with you ?
Have you any appetite ?
I have no appetite.

Does your head ache ?
My head aches fearfully,

Koko de ichi-ban jodzu na isha wa

dare desii ka.
Ano o-kata no sumai wa doko

desii ka.

Isha wo yobi ni yatte kudasai.
Anata ni sodan to kimashita.
0 mukai ni agete, shitsurei wo

itashimashita. Sensei no go

shinsatsu wo zehi negawaneba

narimasen.
Shita wo haiken.
Do nasaimashita ?
Shok-ki wa gozaimasu ka.
Shok-ki wa sukoshi mo gozai-

masen.

Dzutsu ga nasaimasii ka.
Osoroshiku dzutsu ga itashimasu.

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES

185

Where do you feel pain now ?

I have a bad cold.

I cannot sleep at night.

How long have you felt unwell ?

I have been unwell for several
days.

Do you cough at all ?

Where do you feel it ?

Is my illness dangerous ?

There is nothing to be alarmed at.

You must take a little medicine.

Here is the prescription.

I will send you some medicine to

take.
When must I call again ? (said by

patient).
I will see you again to-morrow

(said by doctor).
I feel a little better.

Ima, itami wa doko ni gozaimsua

ka.

Warui kaze wo hikimashita.
Yoru wa nemurarenai de komari-

masu.
Itsu-goro kara go-byoki deshita

ka.
Watakushi wa shi-go nichi ato

kara kokoromichi ga warii

gozaimashita.
Seki ga demasu ka.
Doko ga itande orimasu ka.
Abunai to o kangae nasaimasu ka.
Taishita koto wa gozaimasen.
Kusuri wo sukoshi o nomi.
Yaku-ho-gaki wa kore de gozai-

masu.
Nani - ka kusuri wo sashi - age -

masho.
Kondo, itsu mairimasho ka.

Myonichi mata o-mimai-moshi-

masvi.
Shosho yoku narimashita ; koko-

romochi wa sukoshi yoku

narimashita.

Writing, Letters and Post.

Please give me a sheet of paper.
Please post this letter.

Are there any letters for me ?

The mail has not arrived yet.
Has a telegram come for me ?

What is your address ?

My name and address is .

Please give me his address.

Please write the address in

Japanese.

To what address shall I send it ?
Kindly forward my letters to .

Please sign your name.

Kami ichi-mai kudasai.

Kono tegami wo yubin ni dashite

kudasai.
Watakushi ni ateta tegami ga

gozaimasu ka.
Yubin wa mada hairanai.
Watakushi ni ateta dempo ga

kimashita ka.

Anata no tokoro wa doko desu ka.
Watakushi no seimei oyobi shuku-

sho wa .

Ano hito no tokoro -gaki wo

kudasai.
Doka, Nihon no moji de •tokoro

wo kaite kudasai.
Doko ye o todoke-moshimasho ka.
Watakushi . ni ateta tegami wa

ye sotatsu sasete kudasai,

0 namae wo o kaki nasai.

186

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

How muoh is the postage on this

letter ?
I want to cash this money order,

please.
The name and address of the

sender is .

Please dispatch this telegram.

Kono tegami no yubin-zei wa

ikura kakarimasu ka.
Kono kawase - kin wo negaito

gozaimasu.
Sashi-dashi-nin no seimei, shuku-

sho wa .

Kono dempo wo dashite kudasai.

Miscellaneous.

Do you understand ?
I don't quite understand.
I understand quite well.
Indeed ! or, Really !
Wait a moment.
Don't do that !
Do as you please.
I will enquire about it.
Please give it to me.
You are right.
I am very pleased.
I don't think so.

Tj^ flnpg nnt matfpi'j

It is a nuisance ; or, How annoy-
ing.
I am sorry to trouble you but

Oh, there's no difficulty about

that ; or, That's easy enough.
I don't understand it at all.
Excuse me for having troubled

you.
Don't trouble yourself about me

(or it).

I am very busy just now.
I am too busy now.
I beg to congratulate you (on any

occasion).

It is very interesting.
I am very tired.
I am very sleepy.

Has -anyone come during my

absence ?
Has anything happened dxiring

my absence ?
May I have the loan of this ,

pie

Wakarimasu ka.

Voku wakariTnasfln

Yoku wakarimasu.

Ika-sama !

Sukoshi mate.

So shicha ikenai !

Anata no ii yo ni nasai.

Kiite mimasho.

Dozo watakiishi ni kudasai.

Go mottomo de gozaimasu.

Taiso yorokobimasu.

So ja nai to omou.

Kamaimasen.

Komatta koto da.

Go mendo nagara .

nai.

Ikko (or sappari) wakarimasen.
0 jama itashimashita. «

0 kamai kudasaru na.

Ima wa taihen ni isogashii.
Ima wa isogashii de ikimasen.
0-medeto gozaimasu.

Yohodo omoshiroi de gozaimasu.
Watakiishi wa taiso kutabireta.
Watakiishi wa taiso nemuku

natta.
Rusu-chu ni dare ka miemashita

ka.
Rusu ni nani ka yo ga atta ka.

Kono wo haishaku sum wake

ni wa mairimasen ka.

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES

187

Shut (open) the door.

I have never seen it.

It is very good ; or, It will do

nicely ; or, It is delicious ; or,

It is splendid.
I am studying Japanese.
I can speak Japanese a little.
I am going to study Japanese.
Thanks for your assistance.
There is plenty of time.
I will be back in a short time.
What time is it ?
You had better wait.
I will wait for you.
Shall I wait ?
I cannot wait.
If anyone should enquire for me,

say I have gone to

To wo shimete (akete) o-kure.
Mita koto ga gozaimasen.
Kekko de gozaimasu.

Nihon-go wo manande orimasu.

Nihon-go wo sukoshi dekimasu.

Nihon-go wo manabu tsumori da.

O sewa sama.

Mada yohodo jikan ga arimasu.

Jiki ni kaerimasu.

Nanji desii ka.

Mateba yokaro.

0 machi-rnoshisho.

Machimasho ka.

Matte irarenai.

Dare ka tazunete kitara, ye

itta to so ie.

VOCABULARIES

OF

USEFUL AND NECESSARY WORDS USED IN

ABBREVIATIONS — trans. = transitive ; intrans. = intransitive ;
subst. = substantive ; adj. = adjective.

I. JAPANESE-ENGLISH.

abunai, unsafe, dangerous.

abura, oil, grease, fat.

acni ; achira, there.

agaru, to rise, to get up ; to clear
(of the weather).

ageku ni, finally, as a final
result.

ago, chin.

aniru, duck.

ai, dark blue.

aida, interval, time, while, during.

aida-gara, connection, relation-
ship.

ai-kawarazu, as before, unaltered.

aisatsu, response, reply, acknow-
ledgment.

aisatsu sum, to reply, to acknmv-
ledge.

aisuru, to love.

aite, antagonist (at a game) ;
party (to a transaction) ; com-
panion.

aite iru, to be open, to be un-
occupied.

aiiwai, taste, flavour,
188

akagane, copper.
akai, brmvn, red.
akambo, baby.
akarui, light (not dark).
akeru, to open (trans.).
.aki, autumn.
akinai, business, commerce.
akinau, to do business.
akindo, dealer, merchant.
akiraka (na), clear, intelligible.
akiraka (ni), clearly.
akke ni torareru, to be amazed.
aku, to open (intrans.) ; to become

empty.
amai, sweet.
amari, too much, too; (with a

negative), not very.
amaru. to remain over, to exceed.
ambai. way, manner.
aine, rain.

ame ga furu, to rain.
an, bill, draft, opinion.
ana, hole, cavern, tunnel.
anadoru, to abuse, to jeer.
ane, elder sister.
ani, elder brother.
anjiru, to be anxious.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

189

anna, that kind of, like that.

ano, that (adj.).

ano hito, he, she.

anshin suru, to be free from

anxiety.

anzen ni, safely.
anzu, apricot.
aoi, green, blue.
aoru, to slam (in trans. ) ; (of a

door).

arai, rough, sharp, severe.
arappoi. harsh, strict.
arare, hail (from sky).
arasoi, a dispute.
arasou, to dispute.
aratamaru, to be rectified, to be

re- adjusted.

aratameru, to re- adjust, to rectify.
arau. to wash.
arawareru, to appear, to show

oneself.

arawasu, to show, to disclose.
are, that (subst.).
are hodo, as much as that, that

much.

are kara, after that.

arigatai, thankful.

arisama, condition, state.

ariso mo nai, unlikely.

aru, to be.

aruji, host, head of house.

aruku, to ivalk.

asa, morning.

asa-han, breakfast.

asai, shallow.

asatte, the day after to-morrow.

ase, perspiration.

ase ga deru, to perspire.

asni, leg, foot.

ashiki, wicked.

ashi no yubi, the toes.

asMta, to-morrow.

asMta no asa, to-morrow morning.

asobi, a game.

asubu ; asobu, to play, to amuse

oneself.
asuko. there.
asuko kara, thence.
asuko ye, thither.
asukoera, thereabouts, in that

place.

aterau, to grant, to give.

atai, cost, price, value.

atama, head (of body).

atarashii, new, fresh.

atari, neighbourhood.

atarimae, generally, ordinarily.

atarimae no, proper, usual, con-
venient.

ataru, to hit the mark.

atatakai, warm.

atatameru, to warm.

ate, trust, reliance.

ate ni naru, to be reliable.

ate ni suru, to rely on.

ate-nameru, to assign, to allot.

ato, effects, traces.

ato de, afterwards.

ato no tsuki, last month.

ato saki, circumstances, context.

atsui, thick (of solids) ; hot.

atsukau, to undertake, to manage.

atsusa, heat, thickness.

atsumaru, to collect together
(intrans.).

atsumeru, to collect (trans.).

atsuraeru, to order (e.g., at a
shop).

au, to suit, to agree, to meet ;
hidoi me ni au, to be treated
cruelly ; hidoi me ni awaseru,
to treat cruelly.

awaseru, to add, to join.

awatadashii, flurried, excited.

awateru, to be excited, to be
flurried.

ayamachi, mistake, error.

ayamatsu, to make a mistake.

B

ba, a place (only in compounds,
as furo-ba, a bath-place).

baba, old woman.

bai, double.

baishu, something purchased, a
purchase.

baishu suru, to purchase.

baka, folt, dolt.

bakarashii, absurd, foolish.

190

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

baka ni suru, to make a fool of
anybody.

bakari, about, only, some where
near.

bam-mesM. late dinner, supper.

ban, evening, nigM.

banchi, house-number (in a
street).

bane, springs (of a vehicle).

banzuke, programme.

bari, insulting language, abuse.

bari sum, to revile, to abuse.

basha, carriage (vehicle).

bassuru, to punish.

bata, butter.

bemmei, explanation, demonstra-
tion.

bemmei suru, to demonstrate
clearly.

benjiru, to discuss, to talk over.

benko, eloquence.

benko no yoi, eloquent,

benkyo, industry, diligence.

benri, convenience.

benri na ; benri no yoi, con-
venient.

benri no wand, inconvenient.

betsu, a difference.

betsu ni, differently, specially.

betsu no, different, other, separate.

betsudan (no), special.

betto, groom, horseman.

biiru, beer.

bikko, /'///c.

bimbo, want, poverty.

bimbo na, poor, indigent.

bin, bottle.

birodo, velvet.

b6, stick, cudgel.

boeM, commerce, trade.

bon, tray, salver.

bon-yari snlta, dull, stupid,
dazed.

boro, rags.

boshi, hat.

bo tan. button.

botan-hame, button-hook.

botan no ana, button-hole.

botan wo kakeru, to button.

botchan, a little boy, urchin.

boyeki. trade.

brikki, tin.

buchoho, awkwardness ; clumsi-
ness.

buchoho na, awkward.

budo-shu. wine.

buji, safe, without danger.

buji ni, safely.

butoyo na, awkward, clumsy.

bukku, book (European).

bumpai suru, to distribute.

bun, « part.

burra-burra, loiteringly.

burei, rudeness, impertinence.

burei na, rude, impertinent:.

busho (na), indolent, idle, lazy,
slovenly.

buta, pig.

butsu, to strike, to thrash.

buchi-taosu, to knock down, to
prostrate.

buttsukeru, to bump.

byo, tack (nail).

byoin, Iwspital.

by5ki (na), sick, ill.

byonin, invalid, sick person.

cha, tea.

cha-iro, brown.

cha-nomi-jawan, tea-cup.

cha wo ireru, to brew tea.

chakusuru, to arrive.

cha-saji, teaspoon.

cnanto, quietly.

chanto shit a. quiet.

chawan, bowl, teacup.

chi, blood.

chi ga deru, to bleed (intrans).

chichi, father ; milk.

chigai, a difference, an error.

chigatta, unlike.

chigau, to differ, to be in error.

chiisai, small.

chikagoro. lately, recently.

chikai, near.

chikai uchi, soon.

chikara, strength, force.

JAPANESE- ENGLISH

191

chikara wo tsukutu, to strive

earnestly, to do to the best of

one's ability.
chikazuki, a?! intimate friend,

friendship.
chikuba no tomo, a friend from

youth upwards.
chikuten sum, to run away.
chirasu, to scatter.
chiri, dust.
chiru, to drop (as leaves from a

tree).

chitto, a small amount, a trifle.
chiujiki, lunch.
chizu, map.
cho, butterfly; a measure of

distance (about 120 Eng.

yards).

chSai, love, affection.
choai suru, to love.
chobatsu, punishment.
chobatsu suru, to punish.
chochin, lantern.
chodo, just, exactly.
choho, convenience, usefulness.
choho na, convenient, useful.
choi-choi (to), little by little.
choito ; choto ; chotto, a small

amount, a trifle.
choito shita, trifling, slight.
chokki, waistcoat.
cho-tsugai, a hinge.
chozu, water (for washing the

hands).

chdzu-darai, wash-hand bowl.
chui, care, attention.
chui sum, to pay attention, to

heed.

chumon, order (at a shop, etc.).
chushin, middle, centre.
chutd, middling, second-hand.

dai, table (furniture).

daibu, a large portion, a good

deal.

daichi. the ground.
dai-dokoro, kitclien.

daiji, importance.

daiji na, important.

daiji ni suru, to take great care of.

daijobu, safe.

daiku, carpenter.

dajaku (na), lazy.

damaru, to be silent.

damasu. to cheat.

dan, a pace, a step.

dan-dan, gradually.

dangi, advice ; a, speech.

danjiru, to consult.

danki, heat, warmth.

dare ? who ?

dare demo, anybody.

dasu, to take out, to put aside.

de-au, to meet with, to meet v.-ith

out-of-doors.

de-guchi, way out, exit.
de-iri, entrance to a house.
de-kakeru, to set out, to start off.
deki, workmanship, produce.
dekinai, impossible.
dekiru, to take place, to eventuate,

to come out.
deki-agaru, to be completed, to be

ready.

dempo, telegram.
denshin-kyoku, telegraph-office.

denwa, telephone.

deru, to go out, to issue forth.

de-shabaru, to project, to stick out.

do ? how ?

dobin, teapot.

dobutsu-gakn, zoology.

do de mo, anyhow.

do ifl. ? what kind of?

ddbutsu, an animal.

dochi ? dochira ? ivhere ?

dogu, a utensil; furniture; a
second-hand shop; dealer in
second-hand goods.

doko ? where ?

doko demo, anywhere.

doko kara ? whence ?

doko made ? how far ?

dokoera ? whereabouts ?

doku, poison.

doku ni naru, to be unwholesome.

dokHshin (-mono), a bachelor.

donata ? who ?

192

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

donna ? what kind of?

dono ? which ?

dono kurai ? hoiv much ?

dore ? 'which ? (subst.).

dore-dake ? how much ? what

amount ?
dori. reason.

doro-darake, covered with mud.
doro michi. a muddy road.
dote, embankment, bank, declivity.
doyobi. Saturday.

e, picture ; handle of a tool.

eda, branch (of tree, road, etc.).

egaku, to paint (as an artist).

ekaki, painter.

eki-fu, railway -porter.

empitsft, pencil.

empo, far distant, a great ivay off.

empo na, distant, afar off.

endo manie. peas.

ensno, gunpowder.

ensoku. picnic, excursion.

enzetsu. lecture, speech.

enzetsu suru, to lecture, to make

a speech.

erabu, to choose, to select.
erai, wonderful.
eri, collar.

eru, to get ; to select, to pick out.
eshaku, apology, boic.
eshaku wo suru, to bow, to

apologise.

fu-annai, ignorant of, not con-
versant with.
fuben, inconvenience.
faben na, inconvenient.
fu-bun, report, rumour.
fuchi, edge, border.
fudan no, common, usual.
fude.^ew.
fueru, to increase (intrans).

fuhai, putrefaction.

fuhai suru, to putrefy.

fui to, accidentally.

fujiyu, discomfort, inconvenience.

fujiyu na, inconvenient.

fukai, deep.

fu-kohei, iinjust.

fuku, to blow (as the wind, etc.),
to wipe.

fukumu, to include, to contain.

fukurasu, to cause to sivell up, to
inflate.

fukuro, a bag.

fukwai, illness.

fumu. to tread, to tread on.

fumi-hazusu, to stumble.

fumi-shimeru, to tread firmly.

fune, ship, boat.

funinjo. cruelty, unkindness,
severity.

fureru, to touch.

furi, a fall (of snow, etc.).

furo, bath.

furo-ba, bath-room.

furu, to fall (only of rain, snow,
etc.).

furi-dasu, to begin to rain, etc.

furueru, to tremble, to quiver.

furui, old (of things only).

furukusai, stale.

furuu, to shake.

fuseru, to lie, to go to bed.

fusetsu, report, rumour.

fu-shi-awase na, miserable, un-
happy.

fushigi, a marvellous thing, a
miraculous circumstance.

fushigi na, marvellous, curious.

fusnin, doubt.

fushin ni omou, to doubt, to con-
sider suspicious.

fu-shinsetsu (na), harsh, unkind.

fushoclii, objection, dissent.

fushochi, wo iu, to object.

fusuru, to submit (trans.), to de-
liver up.

futa, a lid.

futatsu, two.

futo, accidentally, suddenly.

futon, bed-cover.

futoru, to become fat.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

193

futotta, fat, stout.

futsu (no), general, ordinary,

usual.

futsugo, inconvenience.
futsugo na, inconvenient.
fuyasu, to increase (trans.).
fuyu, winter.
fuzai, absent, not at home.

G

gacho, goose (tame).

ga deru, to cough.

gaitan, groaning, lamentation.

gakko, school, college.

gaku, science, learning.

gakumon, study, learning.

gakumon sum, to study.

gakutai, band (of music).

gaman, patience.

gaman sum, to be patient.

gan, wild goose.

gaten, acquiescence, comprehen-
sion.

gaten no ikanu, incomprehensible.

gaten sum, to acquiesce, to com-
prehend.

gehin (na), vulgar, ill-bred.

gejo, maid-servant.

gekkyu, salary, loages.

genan, man-servant.

genkin, ready-money, cash.

genkotsu, the knuckles.

genkwa(n), entrance to a house,
porch.

genzai, the present moment, now.

gesubatta, low, vulgar.

getsuyobi, Monday.

gimon, question.

gimu, duty, obligation.

gin, silver.

ginen, doubt, suspicion.

ginko, bank (establishment).

ginko-sha, banker.

giyaman, glass (the substance).

go, Jive; after; sono go, since
that time.

gogo, afternoon.

go-gwatsu, May, (the month).

gohan, rice ; food.

JAPANESE GRAMMAR

7

goke, widow.

goku, very, extremely.

gomakasu, to deceive.

gomi, dust (on furniture, etc.).

gotaki, like, such as.

gozen, forenoon; boiled rice;
a meal.

gu, dull, stupid.

gujin, ignoramus, dull person.

gurai, somewhere near (approxi-
mately).

gururi, around.

gutto, suddenly, tightly.

gwaiken, appearance.

gwaikoku, abroad, foreign
countries.

gwaikoku-jin, a foreigner.

gwaikoku no, foreign.

gyoslia, driver (of a vehicle).

gyu (-niku), beef.

ha, tooth ; leaf (of tree).

haba, width.

haba no hiroi, wide.

habakaru, to fear; to be ashamed.

habikoru, to spread out (intrans.).

ha-burashi, toothbrush.

hachi, bee, wasp ; a pot ; eight.

hachi-gwatsu, August (the

month).

nachi-ju, eighty.
hadaka (na), naked.
naeru, to grow (intrans).
hagaki, post-card.
hagane, steel.
haha, mother.
hai, fly (insect) ; ashes.
hairi-kuchi, entrance, way in.
hairu. to enter, to go in.
ha-isha, dentist.
haishaku sum, to borrow.
haitatsu-nin, postman.
hajimari; hajime, the beginning,

commencement.

hajimaru, to begin (intrans.).
hajimeru, to begin (trans.).
haji wo kaku, to be ashamed.

194

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

hakarazu, unintentionally.

hakaru, to weigh.

hakkiri (to), clearly.

hako, box.

bakobu, to convey, to transport.

haku, to sweep.

hamabe, shore, beach.

hambun, half.

han, a meal ; rice.

hana, a flower, blossom ; the nose.

hana-fuki, handkerchief.

hanahada, <••/-//.

hanahadashii, excessive, extreme.

hanashi, tale, story.

lianasu. to tell, to speak.

hana-tate, flower-vase.

bane, wing, feather.

banko suru, to print.

hara ga hem, to be hungry.

bara wo tateru, to become angry.

hari, needle, pin.

baru, to stick (trans).

haruka, afar.

basami, scissors.

basbi, chopsticks, bridge.

basbigo, ladder.

basbira, post, pillar.

basbigo-dan, staircase.

hasbiru, to run.

batake, vegetable-garden.

bataraki, work.

hataraku. to work.

bateru, to finish, to conclude

(trans. ).
bato, pigeon.
bau, to creep.
hayai, quick ; early.
bayari, fashion.
bayari no, fashionable.
haya-tsukegi, lucifcr-match.
bazukasbii, bashful.
bazukasbisa, bashfulness.
be-datari, distance.
bei, fence, hedge.
beizei (no), usual, ordinary.
ben, a change ; neighbourhood.
ben na, queer, curious.
benji, an answer.
benji suru, to answer.
benkwa, a change.
bento, an answer.

bento BUTU, to answer.
berasu, to diminish (trans. ).
hem, to diminish (intrans.); to

pass through.
beya, a room, a chamber.
hi, the sun ; fire ; a day.
bibasbi, fire-tongs.
blbi ni, daily.
bidoi, cruel, unkind.
bldoi me ni au, to receive cruel

treatment.
bidoi me ni awaseru, to treat

cruelly.

bidarui, hungry.
hieru, to be cold.
bigasa, parasol.
bigashi, east.
hiji, elbow.

hijo (na), extraordinary, unusual.
bikaru, to glitter, to shine.
Mki-dasbi, a drawer.
hikkuri-kaesu, to upset.
hiku, to draw, to pull.
hikui, low (not high).
himo, bootlace.
himo-ji, hungry.
bineru, to twist (intrans).
liinko. conduct, behaviour.
binko no ii, well-behaved, moral.
hinshitsu, quality.

hiroi, broad.

hiromaru, to spread (intrans.).

biromeru, to spread (trans).

hirou, to find ; to pick up.

him, to dry (intrans. j ; day-time ;

noon.
him (-gozen), luncheon, mid-day

meal.

niru-BUgi, the afternoon.
bisasbii, long (of time).
bisuru, to compare.
hitai, forehead, brmo.
Mto, person, human being.
bito-tarashi, drop (of water, etc.).
bitori. alone.
bitotsu oki, alternate, every other

one.

bitsuji-no-niku, mutton.
bitsuyo (na), indispensable,

necessary.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

195

niya, cold.

hiyori, the iveather.

hiza, the knee.

n6, the cheeks.

h6b6, in every direction; every-
where.

hocho, a knife.

hoeru, to bark.

hogo sum, to protect.

hoka, besides, except.

home, praise.

homeru, to praise.

hon, a book.

nonto, truth.

Uouto no, true, real.

hon-ya, bookseller, bookshop.

lioreru, to be in love.

horu, to excavate, to dig ; to carve.

horu, to throw.

ho shi, star.

hosoi, narrow.

hoso-nagai. slender.

hossuru, to wish.

hosu, to dry (trans.).

hotondo, almost; (with a nega-
tive), hardly.

hoyu, friend.

hozu, limit, boundary, end.

hyakusho, farmer, peasant.

hyo, bale, package.

hyoban, rumour, report.

hyorotsuku, to stagger.

ichi-ban, number one, first.

icni-gai, altogether.

ichigo, strawberry.

ichijiku, fig.

ichi-6, once, once for all.

ie, house.

ie no uchi, indoors.

iedomo, though, even.

igo, henceforth.

ii-kakeru. to address (in speaking).

ijiru, to tease, to interfere,

ikaga ? how ?

ikahodo ? how much ?

ikan ? or ikani ? why?

ika na koto ? what ? what kind

of?
iki-gake, while on the road to,

whilst going.
ikioi, strength, force.
ikiru, to live.
iku ? how many ?
ikutsu ? how many ?
iku, to go.
ikura ? hoiv much 1
ima, nou>, at present.
ima-imashii, disagreeable.
ima no itatte, by now, by this

time.

imashimeru, to warn, to reprove.
imo, potato.
inabakari, lightning.
inaka, the country (as opposed to

town).
inochi, life.
inori, prayer.
inori wo suru, to pray.
inu, dog.

ippai ni suru, to fill.
irai, since, after ; henceforth.
ireru, to insert, to put in.
iriyo (na), requisite, needed.
iri-kunda, intricate, complicated.
iro, colour.
iro-iro (no), all sorts.
iru, to enter ; to be ; to shoot.
irui, clothing, dress.
isha, doctor, physician.
ishi, a stone.

isogashii, busy, occupied.
isogu, to make haste, to hurry.
issakujitsu, the day before

yesterday.
issho ni, together.
isu, chair, seat.
itai, painful, smarting.
itameru, to hurt (trans.).
itami, pain.

itamu, to pain (in trans. ).
itatte, very.
ito, string, thread.
itou, to shun, to avoid.
itsu, when ?

itsuwari, a lie, a fabrication,
iu, to say.
iwa, rock, stone.

196

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

iyagaru, to dislike.
iyo-iyo, more and more.
izumi, fountain, spring.

ji, ground, earth.

jibun, self.

jihaku sum, to confess, to own.

jiki (ni), immediately.

jin, human being, person.

jinryoku sum, to do one's best, to

endeavour
jisatsu, suicide.
jisatsu suru, to commit suicide.
jishin. self.
jisuru, to refuse.
jitsu, truth.
jitsu no, true.
jiyu, freedom, liberty.
jiyfl na, free.
jobu (na), Jinn, sturdy, solid,

strong.

jochu, chambermaid.
jodan, joke.
jodan wo iu, to joke.
joM steam.
jokisha, a railway.
jubun, ample, plenty, quite.
ju-go, fifteen.
ju-gwatsu, October.
ju-hachi, eighteen.
ju-ichi-gwatsu, November.
ju-ju, repeatedly, over and over

again.

jumoku, tree.
ju-ni-gwatsu, December.
junjo, turn, order, sequence.
junsa, policeman.
jurai, till now, hitherto.

K

kabe, mud wall.
kabu, turnip.
kado, gate; corner,
kaeru, frog.

kaeru, to return (intrans. ) ; to

change (trans.)
kaesu, to send back, to give back,

to return (trans.)
kaesu-gaesu, over and over again.
kagami, looking-glass.
kage, shadow, reflection.
kagi, key.
kai, shell.

kaiken, beach, shore.
kakaru, to hang (intrans.).
kakato, tJie heel.
kake-au, to arrange about, to

discuss, to bargain.
kakeru, to run ; to hang (trans.);

to put.
kaki, oyster.

kaki-tsuke, note, memorandum.
kaku, to write, to scratch.
kakureru, to hide (intrans.).
kakushi, pocket.

kami, the hair (on head) ; paper.
kami, above, upper.
kaminari, thunder.
ka mo Shiran, perhaps.
kamu, to bite.

kanarazu, certainly, positively.
kane, bell.

kane, money ; metal.
kane-ire, a purse.
kangaeru, to think over, to

consider.
kani, crab.
kanjiru, to feel.
kanjo, account, bill.
kannin, patience.
kannin suru, to be patient.
kanshaku-mochi, quick-tempered.
kanshin, amazement ; admiration.
kanshin sum, to be amazed at ;

to admire.
kantei, criticism.
kao, the face.
kara (na), empty.
karada, the body (of a living

creature).
karakane, bronze.
karashi, mustard.
kariru, to hire ; to borrow.
kasa, quantity, amount.
kasanete, again, several times,

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

197

kasha (wa), oak-tree.

kasu, to let (a house, etc. ) ; to lend.

kata, shoulder.

kataohi, shape, configuration.

katsu, to vanquish, to win.

kau, to buy.

kawa, skin, rind, peel, bark,

leather.

kawaru, to change (intrans.).
kaze, the u-ind.
kozeru, to count.
keisatsusho, police-station.
keisatsiikwan, police-officer.
kekko (na), splendid.
kemuri, smoke.
kenkwa, a quarrel.
kenkwa suru, to quarrel.
keredo (mo), though, but.
kesa, this morning.
kessMte, certainly, positively;

(with a negative), never.
ki. a tree ; wood (the substance),
kibun ga warui, to feel ill.
ki-iroi, yellow.
kikaseru, to inform.
kiku. to hear ; to listen.
kin, gold, money.
kinchaku. purse.
kinjiru, to forbid.
kinkl, joy, pleasure.
kind, yesterday.
kinu, silk.
kin-yobi, Friday.
M-6 (no), former, past.
kippu, ticket.
kirau, to dislike.
kirei (na), neat, clean, pretty.
kiru, to cut ; to kill ; to wear.
kita, north.

kitai (na), strange, queer.
kitanai, dirty.

kitto, without fail, positively.
ki-yo (na), handy, skilful, clever.
ko, thus, in this way, like this.
ko iu, such as this, this kind of.
kobosu, to spill.
kochi, here.
kodai, huge, immense.
koe, the voice.
koe wo kakeru. to cry out.
kogoto wo iu, to scold.

kohei (na), just, fair.

kojiki, a beggar.

koko, here.

kokoera, hereabouts.

koman, pride, conceit.

koman na, conceited, proud.

komban, to-night.

konaida, a short time ago, lately.

konna, this kind of, such as this.

konnichi, to-day.

kono, this (adj.)

konomu, to like.

koraeru, to bear, to endure.

kore, this (subst.).

kore kara, henceforth.

kore made, hitherto, up till now.

korosu, to kill.

koshiraeru, to prepare.

kosuru. to rub.

kotae, a reply.

kotaeru, to reply.

kotogotoku, all, completely.

kotoshi. this year.

kotowari, an excuse, a refusal.

kotowaru, to refuse, to make an

excuse.

kowagaru, to be frightened.
kowai, frightened.
kowareru, to break (intrans. ).
kowasu, to break (intrans.).
ko-yoji, toothpick.
kubi, the neck, the head.
kuchi, the mouth, an opening.
kuchi-bue wo fuku, to whistle.
kuchibiru, the lips.
kuchi-nuki. corkscrew.
kudakeru, to break to pieces.
kudaru, to descend.
kugi, a nail (to fasten with),
ku-gwatsu, September.
kflki, air, atmosphere.
kunto, instruction.
kunto suru, to instruct.
kurai, dark.
kurasa, darkness.
kureru, to give.
kuro, trouble, pains.
kuroi, black.
kuru, to come.
kusuri. medicine.
kutabireru, to get tired.

198

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

ktttabirete iru, to be tired.

kutsu, boot, shoe.

kutsu-ya, bootmaker, bootmaker's

shop.

kuu, to eat.

kwairaku, joy, pleasure.
kwaiwa, talk, conversation.
kwayflbi, Tuesday.
kyaku, guest, customer.
ky5, to-day.
kyonen, last year.
kyu (na), sudden.
kyflji, waiter.
kyukin, wages, salary.
kyttto, last year.

\

M

ma, quite.

mabushii, dazzling.

machi, a street.

machi-naka, the whole street or

macMgai. an error, mistake.
machigai naku, without fail.
machigau, to commit an error, to

err.
mada, still; (with a negative),

not yet.

mado, icindow.
mado-kake, window-curtain.
mae, in advance, in front, before.
mae kara, beforeJiand.
magaru, to bend (intrans.).
mageru, to bend (trans.).
mai, each (as in mai-iclii, each

day).
majiwaru, to mix with, to

associate.
makeru, to lower in price ; to

yield, to be beaten (in a battle

or in a game),
miki, fire-wood.
makoto, truth.
makoto ni, really, truly.
makoto no, true.
makura, pillow.

mamoru, to watch, to keep guard.
mane, imitation.

mane wo sum, to imitate.

maneku, to invite.

manzoku, contentment, satisfac-
tion.

manzoku suru, to be satisfied.

mari, ball (for playing with, etc.).

maru de, quite.

marui, round.

masaka (with a negative), hardly,
surely not.

massugu (na), straight.

masu, to increase (trans. ).

mata, again; (with a negative),
no more.

matsu, to wait.

mattaku, quite.

mawaru, to turn (intrans.).

mawasu. to turn (trans.).

mazeru, to mix (trans. ).

meigen suru, to state with clear-
ness.

meijiru, to order, to command.

meiwaku, trouble, perplexity.

meiwaku suru, to be perplexed,
to be in trouble.

mekata, weight.

mekura, blind (adj.).

mendo, trouble.

mendo na, troublesome.

messo (na), extravagant.

mezurashii, marvellous, miracu-
lous.

michi, road, way.

mieru, to be in sight, to appear.

migota (na), beautiful.

migurushii, ugly (to look at).

mijikai, short.

mimi, the ears.

mina, all.

minami, south.

mini, to look, to see.

mise, shop.

mise-saki, shop-window.

miseru, to show.

mizu, or midzu, water.

mo, still, yet, more ; (with
negative), no more.

mochiiru, to employ.

mochi-nushi, possessor, owner.

mochiron, certainly, of course.

moke, gain, profit.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

199

mokuyobi, Thursday.

momen, cotton.

mommo (na), ignorant.

moppara, principally.

mosu, to say.

motomeru, to look for, to ask- for.

motsu, to hold, to possess.

motto, still, more.

mottomo, very, quite.

muclo (na), useless.

mugaku, ignorance.

mugaku (na), ignorant.

mune, the chest.

musuko, son, boy.

musume, daughter, girl.

muzukashii, hard, difficult.

myocho, to-morrmv morning.

my5 (na), curious, marvellous.

myonichi, to-morrow.

N

nabe, saucepan.

nadakai. renowned.

nagai, long.

nagareru, to flow.

nagasa, length.

nageru, to throiv.

naguru, to thrash, to beat.

naisho (no), private, secret.

naku, to cry, to sing.

naku naru, to die.

nan ? (abbreviation ofnani) what ?

nan de mo, anything.

nani ? what ?

nani-hodo ? what amount 1

naoru, to mend, to cure, to rectify ;

to get well, to recover (in trans.).
narasu, to ring (trans.).
narau, to learn.
naru, to ring (intrans. ) ; to be, to

become, to ripen.
nasu, to do.
natsu, summer.
naze ? why ?
nedan, price, cost.
negai, desire, request.
negau, to beg, to request.
nejiru, to twist (trans.).
nema, bedroom.

uemui, sleepy.

neru, to lie down, to go to bed.

nichiySbi, Sunday.

nigai, better.

nigiru, to grasp.

ni-gwatsu, February.

niku, flesh, meat.

niku-sashi, fork.

niru, to boil (food, not water).

niwa, garden.

nobasu, to stretch (trans.); to

put off.

noboru, to go up, to climb.
nochi, after, afterwards.
nochi hoclo. by and by.
nodo, throat, neck.
nodo ga kawaku, to be thirsty.
nokorazu, all, without exception.
nomu. to drink.
noru, to ride (on a horse, in

conveyance, in a boat, etc.).
nuguu, to wipe.
nusumu, to steal.
nuu, to sew.

oba, aunt.

obi, sash, belt.

oboeru, to remember, to learn, to

feel.

ochiru, to fall.

odayaka (na), calm, tranquil.
odoroku, to be afraid, to be

amazed.

odoru, to leap, to dance.
oishii, nice to the taste, tasty.
oji, uncle.

okiru, to rise, to get up.
okkakeru, to chase.
okoru, to become angry.
oku, to put.
okuru, to accompany, to send,

to give.

omoi, thought, affection.
omoi-dasu, to recall to mind.
omoi-kiru, to make up one's mind.
omoi-tatsu, to resolve.
omoi-yaru, to sympathise.

200

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

omoshiroi, amusing, interesting.

omotai, heavy.

omou, to think.

onna. woman.

oreru, to break (trans.).

oriru, to descend.

osbieru, to teach, to instruct.

osoi, late.

osoreru, to fear.

OBU, to push.

oto, a noise, a sound.
otoko, a man.
otosu. to let fall.

owam, to terminate (trans, and
intrans. ).

pan, bread.
penki. paint.

pika-pika, glitteringly, with a
flash.

E

raida (na), lazy, idle.
ramune, lemonade.
rasha, woollen cloth.
ressha. railway train.
rettasu, lettuce.
rieki, advantage, profit.
rik6 (na). intelligent, 'cute.
ringo, apple.
rippa (na), magnificent.
rippuku, temper, anger.
rippuku sum, to get angry.
roka, passage, corridor.
roku-gwatsu, June.
ronjiru, to discuss, to argue.
rosoku. candle.
rusu, absent, absence.
ryok5r journey.
ryoko suru, to travel.
rySri, cooking.
ry6ri-nin, cook.
ryori wo, to cook.
ry6ri-ya, eating-house.

S

sabishii, dull, lonely.
sagasu, to search for, to seek.
sageru, to let down, to hang down

(trans.).
saji, spoon.

sakasama, inverted, upside down.
saku, to rend, to tear.
samasu, to cool (trans. ).
samatageru, to prevent.
sameru, to fade ; to cool (intrans.).
samui, cold.

san-gwatsu, March (the month),
sappari. quite; (with a negative),

not at all.

sasayaku, to whisper.
sasshiru, to guess.
sassoku, immediately.
sato, sugar.
seiryoku, strength.
seki, a cough.
seki ga deru, to cough.
sekitan, coal.
semai, narrow, small.
senaka, the back (of body).
sentaku suru, to wash (clothes).
sentaku-ya, laundress.
setsumei, an explanation.
setsumei suru, to explain.
shabon, soap.
shakkin. a debt,
shashin, photograph.
shashin-ya, photographer.
shatsu, shirt.
shiba, turf, grass.
shibaru, to tie.
snlchi-gwatsu, July.
shiga, the teeth.
shigoku, very, extremely.
shi-gwatsu, April.
shiitake, mushrooms.
shiju, constantly.
shikar u. to find fault with.
shikkari, firm, tight.
shikkei, rudeness, impertinence.
sliikkei na, rude, impertinent.
shimau, to finish.
snimbun, news.
shimbun-shi, newspaper.
shimeppoi, moist.

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

. 201

shimeru, to fasten, to close.

shimpai, anxiety, trouble,

shimpai sum, to be troubled or
anxious.

shimpo, progress.

shimpo sum, to pi-ogress.

shin (no), real, true.

shin ni, truly, really.

shinjiru, to believe.

shinki (na), //••"-.

shinkfl, belief.

shinko suru, to believe.

shinri, truth.

shinsetsu, kindness.

shinsetsu na, kind (adj.).

shinuru, to die.

shiraberu, to enquire into, to
<. i'n HI inc.

shirase, an announcement, intima-
tion.

shiraseru, to inform.

shiroi, white.

shiru, to know.

shita, the bottom or under part of
anything.

shita, the tongue.

shitaku, preparations, making
reail;/.

shitaku wo suru, to prepare.

shitashii, friendly, intimate.

shitsurei, insolence, impertinence.

shitsurei na, insolent, im-
pertinent.

shizuka (na), calm, quiet.

shochi. consent, assent.

shochi suru, to consent, to assent.

sho-gwatsu, January.

shoji suru, to possess.

shojiki, honesty.

shonin, dealer, merchant.

shosen, finally, at last.

shoshS, a little.

shui, meaning, purport.

shusen, help, aid.

shusen wo suru, to help, to aid.

shushi, intention, aim.

shuttatsu, setting-out, departure.

shuttatsu suru, to depart.

soba, alongside.

sochi, or sochira, there.

sodan, consultation.

7*

sodan sum, to consult.

soken (na), healthy, vigorous.

soko, there.

sokoera, tJiereabouts.

sokouau, to spoil, to fail.

sonaeru, to provide.

sonjiru, to spoil (trans, and

intrans.).
sono, that (adj.).
sora, the sky.
sore, that (subst.).
soroeru, to arrange, to put in

order.
sorou, to be arranged, to be in

order.

soro-soro, leisurely, slowly.
soshiru, to blame, to revile.
sotai (no), whole.
soto, the exterior, out of doors.
soto (na), convenient, proper.
sozSshii, noisy.
suberu, to slide, to slip.
subete, altogether, all.
sude ni, already.
sue, end or tip of anything.
sugi, past, after.
sugiru, to exceed.

sugu (ni) ; sugu (to), immediately.
suiryS, a conjecture.
suiry6 sum, to conjecture.
suiyobi, Wednesday.
sukkari, completely, ivholly ;

(with neg.), not at all.
siikoshi, a small amount, a bit.
suku. to be empty.
sukunai, few, scarce.
sumau, to dwell, to live.
sumasu, to finish (trans.).
sumu, to reside, to conclude.
suppai, sour.

sum. to rub, to make, to do.
surudoi. sharp.
susumeru, to recommend, to offer,

to urge.

susumu, to go forward, to progress.
suteishon, railway -station.
suteru, to throw away.
suu, to suck.
suzu, tin (the metal).
suzume, sparrow.
suzushii, fresh, cool.

202

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

tabako, tobacco.

taberu, to eat.

tabemono, food, nourishment.

tabi. journey.

tabi-bito, traveller.

tada, simply, merely, only.

tadaima, presently, immediately.

tadashii, exact, just:

taira (na), flat, level.

taisetsu, consequence, importance.

taisetsu na, of consequence, of

importance.

taiso, greatly, very, much.
taiy5, the sun.
takai, dear, expensive, high.
takara, treasure.
takaru, to collect (intrans. ).
takusan. plenty, much, many.
tamago, egg.
tamotsu, to keep (trans.),
tana, shelf.

tanoshimi, satisfaction, pleasure.
tansu, chest of drawers, cabinet.
tara, cod-fish.

tariru, to be sufficient, to be enough.
taru, cask.

tashika (na), positive, sure.
tashika ni, positively, certainly.
tasshiru, to attain to, to reach.
tataku, to knock.
tatami, mat.
tatamu, to pile up.
tateru, to set up, to build.
tatoeru, to compare.
tatsu, to rise, to get up, to start out.
taznneru, to enquire, to ask.
te, hand, arm.
te-arai, violent, rough.
tebukuro, glove.
teburu-kake, tablecloth.
tegumi, letter (correspondence),
teinei (na), polite, courteous.
tekito (na), suitable, fit, proper.
tenki, weather.
tenugui, towel.
teppo, gun.
teru, to shine.
tetsu, iron (the metal),
tetsubin, kettle.

tetsudo. railway.

to, door.

tobu, to jump, to fly.

tochaku. arrival^

tochaku sum, to arrive.

todana, cupboard.

todomaru. to stop, to stay.

todomeru. to stop (trans.).

toga, fault, blame.

togameru, to find fault with, to

blame.

toi,/a?-, distant.
tokei, clock, watch.
tokeru, to melt (intrans. ).
toki, time.

toki-ori, now and then, sometimes.
tokkuri, bottle.
toku, to explain, to unfasten.
tomeru, to stop (trans.).
tomodacni, companion, friend.
toru, to take.

torn, to pass through, to pass by.
toto, at last.
tou, to ask.
tsugi (no), tlie next.
tsugu, to join (trans.) ; to follow .
tsui (ni), at last.
tsukamaeru, to catch.
tsukasadoru. to control, to direct.
tsukau, to employ, to use.
tsukemono, pickles.
tsukeru, to fix, to affix.
tsnku, to push, to shove.
tsumari, at last, in the long run.
tsumb5 (no), deaf.
tsunagu, to tie up, to fasten.
tsutsumi (mono), parcel.
tsutsumu, to wrap up.
tsuyoi, strong.

uchi, the inside ; a house ; home ;

no uchi ni, inside, in; sono

uchi, meanwhile, soon; o uchi

de, at home.
ude, the arm.
ue, tJie top of anything ; no ue ni,

above, on, after.
ugokasu, to move (trans.).

JAPANESE-ENGLISH

203

ugoku, to move (intrans. ).

ukagau, to visit, to listen to, to
enquire, to ask.

ukeru, to receive. '

uniai. nice to the taste, tasty.

un, luck.

un no yoi, luckij.

un no warui, unlucky.

uru, to sell.

uruwashii, splendid, magnificent.

usbi. cov, bull, beef.

ushinau. to lose.

usbiro, the back of anything ; no
ushiro ni, at the back of, behind.

uso, lie, falsehood.

uso wo iu, to tell a lie.

usu-gurai, dusk.

usui, light, thin (in colour or con-
sistence).

utsu, to hit, to strike.

utsusu, to remove (trans.).

uwo, ajish.

w

wakai, young.
wakari, understanding.
wakari-nikui, difficult to under-
stand.

wakari no hayai, sJiarp, intelligent
wakaru, to understand.
wakeri-yakui, easy to understand.
wakeru, to divide, to share out.
waku, to boil (intrans.).
warai, laughter.
warau, to laugh.
warui, bad.
wasureru, to forget.
watakusbi, 1.
waza, to (prep.).
waza-waza, on purpose.

yabuku, to rend, to tear.
yabuku, to tear (iu trans.).
yacbin, house-rent.
yabari, also.
yakedo, a burn, a scald.
yakimocbi, jealousy.

yaki-pan, toast (to eat).

yaku, to toast, to bake, to roast,

to burn.

yakusoku, promise, agreement.
yakusoku suru, to agree, to

promise.

yama, mountain, hill.
yameru, to put an end to.
yaru, to send, to give.
yasui, easy, cheap.
yasumu, to rest, to retire to bed.
yatou, to engage, to hire.
yatte sbimau, to give away.
yobi-dasu, to summon.
yobi-kaesu, to call back.
yobu, to call.

yobodo, plenty, a lot, very.
yoi, good.
yo-i (na), easy.
yoki, weather.
yoku, irell, often.
yomu, to read.
yorokobi, pleasure, joy.
yorosbii, good.
yoso, elsewhere.
yowai, weak, feeble.
yube, yesterday evening.
yubi, Jinger, toe.
yubin-kyoku, post-office.
yue ni, therefore.
yuge, steam.
yuki, snmo.

yukkuri, slowly, leisurely.
yureru, to shake (intrans.), to

quiver.
yurui, loose.
yurusu, to grant, to allow.

zashiki. a room.

zenryo (na), virtuous, upright.

zoku, commonplace, vulgarity.

zoku na, vulgar, low.

zonjiru, to know.

zonji-yori, opinion.

zuitaun. very, pretty (adv. ) ; a

good deal.
zutsu, headache.
zutsu ga suru, to have a headache.

II. ENGLISH-JAPANESE.

abate (cheapen), mnkeru.

able, to be, dekim.

about (around), »w> mawari ni ;

(approximately) gnrai ; (here

and there), adii-kochi.
above (on the top), ue, no ue ni.
absence, msu.
absent, rusw, orimasen.
absent, to be, rn.sn da, inai.
abundance, takusan, dossari.
accept, to Hkfi'ii. ; (to accede to),

shock i sum.
accident, fti.i n<~> kof<>, ihen;

(calamity) «w«an; (hurt), kega.
accidentally, futo ;fui to, soso de.
according to, ni i/otte.
account (narrative), hanashi ;

(bill), kanjo.
ache, to, itamu.
acknowledge (to receive), uketoru;

(to admit), shochi sum; (to

confess), hnkujo sum.
acquire (to obtain), eru ; (to

gain), mokeru ; (to purchase),

motomem.

across, yoko ni, n» n»ik<~> ni.
act (deed), sho-i, shhoaza.
act, to, sum, na<su ; (on the stage),

yaku wo sum.
add, to, tjoseru, kuiccicnt, taoa-

sem.
address, tokoro ; (written) tokoro-

gaki ; (on a letter), uwn-gaki.
admire, to, kanshin sum.
admit, to (grant entrance), ircm

nyujo-sasem.

advance to (go forward), susumu,
shimpo suru.
204

advantage, toku, ri-cki.
advertisement, kok' •/.•//.
advertise, to, kakokn sum
afraid, osorem, ko>rn;/'iri>.
after (later on), aLo nochi;

(behind), itshiro, nr<i.
afternoon, h/rn-xi/>/i.
afterwards, nochi ni.
ago, mac, izen ; (long-), muknshi ;

(a short time-), s>:nkokn.
air, kaki, kn~,-.
alive, to be, ikite sum.
all, nokorazu, mina.
allow, to, yt'r/isii.
almost, hotondo.
alone, hitori.
already, s,n1r ni
also, aw, t/dhnri.
always, itsudenw, tsune ni.
among, no urhi ni.
amount, tnka.
amusing, omoshiroi.
animal, kedamono, ddbiifw.
another (different one), hokn no.

befsu 110.

answer, h<:nji, hento.
answer, to, henfisurtt, h?nf6$ui'ii.
any, demo.
anybody, <l'ir<- '/r/yo.
anyhow, do demo.
anything, nan demo.
anytime, itsudemo.
anywhere, doko demo.
appear, to, micru ; (become

visible), araicareru.
appearance, gwaiketi, rnic, nii-

kn.ke ; (shape), katachi ; sugata.
appetite, shok-ki.
apple, ringo,
apply, to (ask), tan-oiim,

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

205

apricot, anzu.

April, ski-gtcatsu.

arm, te, ude ; (weapon) buki.

around, no mawari ni.

arrive, to, tvehaku stt.ru, tsukii.

army, rikugun.

article, shinamono.

artisan, shokeinin.

as (like), tori, yo ni.

ashamed, to be, Jutji wo kakit.

ashes, liai.

ask, to (enquire), kiku, tazuncru.

assist, to, telsudau.

assistance, shtisen.

astonish, to, odorokasu,

at, ni, de ; (at first), hajimete,

ltdjime wa ; (at last), yoyaku ;

(at least), semete ; (at all), ikko,

sappari.

attend, to, ki v:o tsukcru.
auction, seri'iiri.
August, Tiachi-gu-atsu.
aunt, ola.
autumn, aki, shirt.
awkward (clumsy), bukiyo na.

B

baby, cikunibo.

back (of body), stnaka ; (behind

something), vsJn'ro.
back, to go, kacru, modom.
bad, •icftrui.

bag, ffikuro; (hand-), te-kaban.
bake, to, yaJcu.
baker, pan-ya.
ball (sphere), tama, mart;

(dancing), odori, buto.
bamboo, take.
band (music), yakutai.
bank (for money, etc.), (jinko.
banker, ginko-sha.
bank-note, ginko-sh ihei.
barber, toko-ya, kami-yui.
bargain, to, negiru.
bark, to, Iweru, naku.
bark (of tree), kcnra.
barometer, sei-u-kei.
barrel (cask), tarn ; (of gun),

teppo no tsutsu.

basin, domburi ; (wash-), tarai.

basket, kago, zaru.

bath, yu,furo.

bath-room, furo-ba.

beach (shore), hamabe, umibe.

bear, to, koraeru.

beans, mame.

beat, to, butsu, uts-u.

beautiful, ittsukusldi, kirci na.

because, kara, yuye.

become, to, num.

bed (Japanese), toko, ticdoko ;

(foreign), nedai.
bed-clothes, yagv,fiiton.
bed-room, nema, nebeya.
beef, uslii-no-niku, gyu-niku.
before (in place), saki ; (in time),

mae, izen.
beggar, kojiki.
begin, to, hajimeni (trans.)

tiajimaru (intrans.).
behind, ura, iishiro ni.
believe, to, omou, shinjiru.
bell, kane.
below, sMta.
belt, obi.
bend, to, mageru (trans.);

magaru (intrans.).
beneath, no sJiita ni.
berry, ichigo.

besides, hoka ni, sono tie, betsu ni.
between, no a id a ni.
beyond, no saki ni, no miiko ni.
big, okii, oki na ; (bigger), motto

okii ; (biggest), ichiban okii no.
bill (account), kanjo ; (of Ex-
change), ka/wase-tegata ; (of

fare), kondate.
bird, tori.

bit (little), kire, kakc sukoshi.
bite, to, ka'inu ; (as a dog), kui-

tsukeru.
bitter, nigai.
black, kuroi.

blind (sightless), mekura no.
blood, chi.
blow, to,/M».
blue, aoi ; (dark), ai, kon-iro ;

(light), muhu-asagi.
body, karada, shintui.
boil, to, niru, -uderu.

206

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

book, Iwn, shomotsu.

bookseller, hon-ya.

boot, kutsfi.

borrow, to, kariru, haishaku

sum, shakuyo suru.
both, ryoho, dochira mo, fuiatsu

nagara.

bottle, tokkuri, bin,
bottom, soko; (underneath), ftlMn.
bow, to, o jigi wo suru.
box, hdko.

boy, otoko no ko, miistiko.
branch, eda.
brass, shinchu.
bread, pan.
break, to, oreru, kowareru (in-

trans.); oru, kmuasu (trans.).
breakfast, asa han.
breath, iki.

breathe, to, iki suru, kokyu suru.
brick, renga.
bridge, hashi.
bridle, tazuna.
bring, to, motte kuru.
broad, hiroi.
bronze, karakane.
brother, kyodai ; (elder), ani ;

(younger), ototo.
brown, tobi-iro, cha-iro.
building, ie uchi, tatemono.
build, to, fushin wo suru, ie wo

tateru.
burn, to, moeru (intrans.);

yakeru (trans.).
business, yo, yomuki, shobai.
busy, isoyashii.
but, keredomo, shikashi, ga.
butcher, niku-ya.
butter, bata.
butterfly, chocho. j
button, Man.
button-hole, botan no ana.
button, to, botan wo kakeru.
buy, to, kau.
by, ni, de.

cabbage, kabeji.

cabinet (furniture), tansu.

cake, kwashi.

calculate, to, kanjo suru.

call, to, yobu ; (rouse), okosu.

can (able), dekiru.

canal, hori.

candle, rosoku.

card (visiting-), nafuda, ineishi.

carpenter, daiku.

carpet, shiki-mono.

carry, to, mochi-hakobu.

cat, neko.

catch, to, tsukamaeru.

catch cold, to, kaze wo hlku.

cause, gen-in, wake.

certain, tashika na.

certainly (of course), mochiron,

atarimae.
ceiling, tenjo.
chair, isu, kosM-kake.
chambermaid, jochu.
change (balance of money), tsuri.
change, to, kawaru (intrans) ;

tori-kaeru (trans. ).
character (nature), seisliitsu.
cheap, yasui.
cheat, to, damasu.
cheeks, ho, hopeta.
cheque, kogitte.

chest (bosom), mune ; (box), Jiako.
chicken, niwa-tori.
child, kodomo ; (infant), akambo.
chin, ago.

choose ,to, yoru, erabu, yori-dasu.
cigar, ha-maki-tabako.
cigarette, kami-maki-tabako.
clean, kirei na.
clean, to, soji sum.
clever, riko na.
climb, to, noboru.
clock, tokei.
close, to, shimeru.
cloth, kire ; (cotton), momen ;

(woollen), rasha.
clothing, kimo-no, ifuku.
cloud, kumo.
coal, sekitan.
coat, uivagi.
coffee, kohi, kahe.
cold (to the touch), tsume tai ;

(of the weather), samui,
coUar, eri.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

207

collect, to, yoseru, atmmeru.

college, gakko.

colour, iro.

comb, kushi.

come, to, kuru, maim.

come back, to, kaeru.

commence, to, hajimeru.

common (ordinary), nami no.

company (firm), kwaisha, shokivai;

(visitors) o-kyaku.
consent, to,shochi sum.
consider, to, kangaeru,
consult, to, sodan suru.
contain, to, hairu.
convenient, benri no yoi.
cook, ryori-nin.
cook, to, ryori suru.
cool, suzushii.
cool, to, samasu.
copper, akagane.
copy, to, utsusu.
corn (wheat), mugi, ko-mugi.
corner (exterior), kado ; (interior),

sumi.

cotton, momen, ivata.
cough, seki.

cough, to, seki ga deru.
count, to, kanjo sum.
country (not town), inaka.
cousin, itoko.
cover, to, futa wo suru
cow, me-ushi.
cream, kuriimu.
cruel, huioi, zankoku na.
cruet, yakumi -tate.
cry, to, naku.
cup, wan.
cupboard, todana.
cupful, ippai.
curious, kitai na, myo na.
curtain, mado-kake.
cushion, zabuton.
cut, to, kiru.

daily, hibi-ni, mainichi.

damp, shimeppoi.

dangerous, abunai, kennon na.

dark, kurai ; (of colour), koi.

date (the day), hidzuke.

daughter, musume.

day, nichi, jitsu hi.

day-time, hint.

deaf, tsunbo, mimi-ga-toi.

dear (in price), takai ; (beloved),
kawaii.

debt, shakkin, kari.

debtor, kari-nushi.

deceive, to, damasu, gomakasu.

December, ju-ni-gwatsu.

decide, to, kimeru, kettei suru.

deep, fukai.

delicious, umai.

deliver, to, todokeru.

dentist, ha-isha.

depth, fukasa.

descend, to, kudaru.

desire, to, hoshii, nozomu.

dew, tsuyu.

die, to, shinuru.

difference, chigai, kubetsu.

different, betsu no, hoka no,
chigatta.

difficult, mudzukashii.

dig, to, horu.

dinner, yu-han, yashoku.

directly, (at once)sugii mi; (with-
out intervention), jika ni.

dirty, kitanai, kitanarashii.

disappear, to, mienaku naru.

discount, loari-bike.

dish, naga-zara, o-zara.

dishonest, fu-shojiki.

dislike, to, kirau.

dismiss, to, hima wo yaru.

distance, michi-nori, he-datari,
kyori.

distant, toi, empo (na).

do, to. suru. nasu, itasu.

doctor, isha.

dog, inu.

door, to.

doubt, utagai, ginen.

doubt, to, utagau, fushin ni
omou.

down (below), shita.

draught (wind), sukima-kaze.

drawer, hiki-dashi. ,

dreadful, osoroshii.

208

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

dream, to, yume wo mint.

dress, kimono.

dress, to, kimono wo sum.

drink, to, nomu.

drive, to, muma wo gyo-suru.

driver, gyosha.

drop (of water, etc.), hito-tarashi.

drop, to, ochiru (intrans.) ; otosu

(trans. ).
dry, kawaita.
dry, to, kawakasu.
duck, ahiru.
durable, mochi ga yoi.
during, aida.
duster, zokin.
dusty, hakori ga takatta.
duty (obligation), gimu ; (tariff),

zei.
dye, to, someru.

every, goto ni, mai.

everybody, daredemo.

every day, mainichi.

every time, maido.

everywhere, doko deuio, hobo.

exactly, chodo.

examine, to, shiraberu, kensa

sum.

excellent, yoi, ii, kekko.
except, no hoka ni.
exchange, to, tori-kaeru.
excuse, to, kamben sum, yurusu.
expense, nyuhi, nyuyo.
expensive, takai.
explain, to, toki-akasu.
extinguish, to, kesu.
eye, me, ; (of needle), medo.

E

each, ono-ono, mei-mei.

ear, mimi.

early, hayaku, hayai.

east, higashi.

easy, yasashii, yasui.

eat, to, tdberu.

edge (border), fuchi ; (of knife),

ha.

eel, unagi.
egg, tamago.
egg-cup, tamago tote.
either, dochira demo.
elbow, hiji.

elegant, kirei na, rippa na.
elsewhere, yoso, hoka.
empty, kara, karappo.
end, shimai, owari.
England, Igirisu, Eikoku.
enough, jubun, takusan.
enquire, to, tazuneru, kiku, ton.
enter, to, hairu.
envelope, jobukuro.
Europe, Seiyo, Yoroppa.
even (level), taira ; (equal), ichiyo

na.
evening, ban, yugata ; (this),

komban ; (yesterday), sakuban ;

(to-morrow), myoban.

face, kao.

fact, jijitsu, koto.

fail, to (in a scheme), hadzureru ;

(in sense of mistake), machi-

gaeru.
faint, to, me wo mawasu, kizetsu

sum.
fair (pretty), kirei na ; (just),

kohei na ; (of weather), yoi.
fall, to, ochiru; (of rain, etc.),

furii.

false, uso no.
famous, nadakai.
far, toi, empo na.
fare (charge), chinsen.
farmer, hyakusho.
fashion, hayari, ryuko.
fast (quick), hayai.
fat, futotta.
father, ototsan, chichi.
fear, to, osoreru.
feather, hane.
feel, to, kanjiru, oboeru.
fern, shida.
fetch, to, totte, kuru.
field, hatake.
fig, ichijiku.
fight, kenkwa.
fight, to, kenkwa suru, tatakau,

senso suru.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

209

figure (number), Icazu-ji ; (form),

katachi.

fill, to, ippai ni suru.
find, to, midasu, mi-ataru,

mitsukeru.
fine (slight), hosoi ; (minute).

komakai ; (pretty), kirei na ;

(of weather), yoi.
finger, yubf.
finish, to (end), shimau ; (com-

plete), shiagery.
fire (flame), hi; (conflagration),

fire-wood, maki, taki-gi.

first, htijime no, saisho no, dai-

ichi.

fish, sakana.
fit, to (of keys, etc.), an.
fit (suitable), tekito na.
flag, Jiata.

flat, hirattai, taira na.
flesh, niku.
floor, yuka.
flour, kona, udonko.
flow, to, nagareru.
flower, hana.
fly, (insect) hai.
fly, to, tobu.
follow, to, tsuite iku.
food, tabe-mono, shoku-motsu ,

kni mono.

foolish, bakarashii, tsumaranai.
foot (of body), ashi ; (measure)

for, tame ni ; (because), kara.

forbid, to, kinjiru.

forehead, hltai.

foreigm, qu-aikoku no.

forget, to, wasureru.

forgive, to, yuntsu,kamben sum,

kannin sum.
fork (table-), niku-sashi.
fortunate (lucky), un no yoi.
fowl, tori, niwatori.
free. jiyu.

frequently, tabi-tabi.
fresh (new, just gathered, etc.),

atarashii ; (of eggs), umi-tate.
friend, tomodachi, hoyu.
frog, kaeru.
from, kara, yori,

front, omote ; (in of) no mae

ni.

fruit, midzu-gwaishi, kudo-mono.
full, ippai.
funeral, tomurai.
fur, ke, kaira.
furniture, kazai, dogu.

G

gain, moke, riyeki.

gain, to, mokeru.

garden, niica, hanazono ; (vege-
table-), hatake.

gardener, uyeki-ya.

gate, mon.

gateway, kado guchi.

general (usual), ippan no,futsu no.

generally (usually), tsurei, taigai.

gentleman (well - bred man),
sh in ,s7< / .

get, to (obtain), em ; (receive),
morau.

get out, to, neru.

get up, to (rise), okiru.

girl, rnusume.

give, to, yam, ageru.

glad, ureshii.

glad, to be. yorokobu.

glove, tebukoro.

go. to, yuku, iku.

go hack, to, kaeru.

go down, to (an incline), oriru,
kudaru.

go forward, to, mae ye susunnt.

go in, to, hairu.

go out, to, deru.

go through, to, torn.

go up, to, agaru.

go with, to, issho ni iku.

gold, kin.

good, yoroshii, yoi, ii; (to the
taste), umai.

goods, shina-mono.

goose (tame), gacho ; (wild-), gan.

gradually, dan-dan.

grand, rippa.

grand-child, mago.

grandfather, sofu-jiji.

210

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

grandmother, solo, baba.

grass, kusa ; (turf) shiba.

gravel, jari.

gray, nedzumwro.

grease, abura.

green, aoi, midori-iro ; (light),

moyegi-iro.
greengrocer, yaoya.
grocer, kambutsu-ya, tobutsu-ya.
groom, betto.

grow, to (increase), seicho suru.
grumble, to, guzu-guzu iu, guzu-

tsuku.

guard, to, mamom.
gun, teppo.

habit (custom), narai, narawasM,

fusoku.

hail, hijo, arare.
hair, ke.

hairbrush, ke-harai.
hairdresser, kami-yui, rihatsu-

nin.

half, hambun, han.
hammer, hanadzuchi.
hammer, to, kanadzuchi de utsu.
hand, te ; (right-) migi no te ;

(left-) hidari no te.
handkerchief, hanafuki, han-

kechi.
handle (of tools), e ; (of baskets,

teapots, etc.), te; (of drawer),

totte.

handsome, kirei na.
hang, to, kakaru (intrans. ) ;

kakeru (trans.).
happy, to be, yorokobu, tano-

shimu.
hard (not soft), katai ; (difficult),

mudzukashii.
hare, usagi.
hat, boshi, shappo.
have, to (possess), motsu, motte

iru.

head (of body), atama.
headache, zutsu.
health, kenko, yojo.

healthy, tassha na.

hear, to, kiku.

heart, kokoro.

heat, atusa, nekki.

heavy, omoi, omotai.

height, takasa.

help, to, tetsudau, tasukeru, seu-a
wo suru, te wo kasu.

hen, mendori.

here, koko, kochira.

here and there, achi-kochi.

hide, to, kakureru (intrans. ) ;
kakusu (trans.).

high, takai.

hill, ko-yama, oka.

hinge, cho-tsugai.

hire, to (a house, etc.), kariru ;
(an employe), yatou.

hit, to, btttsu.

hitherto, kore made, ima made.

hold, to, motsu, te ni motsu.

hole, ana.

holiday, yasumi-bi, kyu-jitsu.

home, taku, ji-taku, uchi.

honest, shojiki na.

horse, muma, uma.

hospital, byo-in.

host, aruji.

hot, atsui.

hotel (native), yadoya ; (Euro-
pean style), hoteru.

hour, toki, jikan.

house, ie, uchi, taku.

how, ikaga, doshite.

how long ? itsu made ?

how many ? ikutsu ? iku-mai ?

how often ? iku tabi ?

hungry, Mdarui, himo-ji, hara
ga hetta.

hurry, to, isogu.

I, watakushi, watakushi-domo.

ice, kori.

idle, to be, namakete iru.

if, moshi, nara, naraba.

ill (sick), byoki.

illness, fukwai, byoki, yamai.

ENGLISH- JAPANESE

211

Immediately, sugu ni, sassoku,
sugu-sama.

impertinence, burei, shitsurei.

impossible, dekinai.

improve, to, kairyo sum.

in, ni, uchi, mite.

inconvenient, fuben na.

incorrect, machigatta.

indeed, jitsu n i.

indeed! naruhodo!

inform, to, shiraseru.

ink, inki.

inkstand, inki-taubo.

inn, i/adoya.

insect, mushi.

inside, no naka, ni.

instead, kawari ni.

interesting, omoshiroi.

interfere, to,' jama sum.

interpret, to, tsiiben wo sum.

interpreter, tsTtji, tsiiben.

into, ni, ,10 naka ye.

iron (material), tetsft ; (of laun-
dress), hinoshi.

island, sftinia.

jam, jami.

January, sho-gwatsu, Ichi-getsu.
Japan, Nihon, Nippon.
Japanese (person), Nippon -j 'in ;

(adj.), Nihon no.
jealous, yakimochi.
jealous, to be, yakimochi v:o yaku.
jealousy, » ft ami, yakimochi.
join, to, tsugu, issho ni naru.
joiner (trade), sashimono-ya.
joke, jodan.
journey, ryoko.
journey, to, ryoko suru.
judge, to, saiban suru.
jug, iirizu-tsugi.
July, shtchi-gicatsu.
June, roku-gicatsu
just (fair), kohei na, eko-hiiki no

iiai, tadashii ; (scarcely), chodo,

yoyaku.

keep, to, motsu.

keep back, to, nokosu.

kettle, tetsu-bin, yii-wakashi.

key, kagi.

kick, to, keru.

kill, to, korosu.

kind (sort), shurui, tagni ; (adj.),

shinsetsu na.
knee, hiza.
knife (kitchen-), deba-bocho ;

(pocket-), kogatana.
knock, to, tataku.
know, to, .s7<iYu wakaru.

lace (boot-), himo ; (needlework),
reisu.

lady (well-bred woman), fujin.

lamb, ko-hitsuji.

lame, bikko, chimba.

landlord (of building), iye-nushi ;
(of inn, etc.), teisKiu.

language, kotoba.

lantern, chochin.

large, okii, oki na ; (wide and ex-
tensive), hiroi ; (thick), futoi.

last, ato rno, sen, saku.

last night, sakuban.

last month, ato no tsuki, sen-getsii.

last year, sakunen.

late, osoi.

lately, chikagoro, kono aida.

laugh, to, warau.

lazy, busho na.

lead (metal), namari.

learn, to, manabu, narau, keiko
suru, osowaru.

least (smallest), ichiban chiisai no.

least, at, siikunakute mo.

leather, kaica.

left, hidari.

leg, ashi.

lemon, yuzu, remon.

lend, to, kasu.

length, nagasa ; ( at ) tsiti no,

yo yaku.

212

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

less (in quantity), sukunai.

let, to (allow), saseru ; (hire out),

Icasu.
letter, tec/ami; (-paper), teyami

no-kami.

level, tairaka na.
library, shomotsu-beya.
Hdj/Ste.

lie, uso ; itsuwari.
lie, to (tell falsehoods), uso wo

tsuku.

lie down, to, nerufuseru.
lift, to, mochi-agent.
light (not heavy), karui ; (colour),

usui-iro ; (flame), akari.
light, to, hi wo tsukem.
like (similar), nita, ni-yottn.
like, to, suku, konomu.
lip, kuchi-Mni.
listen, to, kiku.
little (small), cliiisai.
live, to, ikiru ; (dwell), sumau.
long, nagai.
look, to, mini.
look for, to, sagasu.
loose (not tight), yumi.
lose, to, nakusii, ushinau, son

mini ; (be beaten), makent.
loud (in sound), oki na oto.
love, to, suku, Jwreru.
low (in height), Mkui ; (vulgar),

aesubatta.
luggage, nimotstt.
lunch, chiiijiki, hiru-meshi.

M

make, to, koshiraeru.

man, h Ho, jin, otoko.

many, 61, takitsan, yohodo, oku no.

manufacture, to, seizo-suru.

mark, shinishi.

market, icfii-ba.

marry, to, konrei sum.

map, chizu.

March, san-gicatsu.

master, danna, shujin.

mat, tatami.

match (lucifer), haya-tsiikegi.

meaning, imi, wake.

meanwhile, sono aida ni.

measure (dimensions), sumpo ;
(instrument) mono-sashi.

measure, to, sumpo ivo torn.

meat, niku.

medicine, Msuri.

melon, uri.

mend, to, naosu, tsukurou.

merchant, akindo, shonin.

merely, tada.

message, kotozuke.

messenger, tsvkai no mono.

middle, chu, naka, mannaka.

milk, chichi.

mine (of me), watakushi no.

minute (time), fun.

mirror, kagami.

mist, moya, kiri.

mistake (error), machic/ai, aya
machi.

mistake, to, macliigaeru.

mix, to, mazeru.

Monday, getsu-yobi.

money, kane, kinsu.

month, tstiki.

monthly, mai-tsuki, tsuki-dzuki.

moon, tsiiki.

more, mo, motto.

more and more, masu-masu.

more or less, tnsho, ikura-kn.

morning, ctsa ; (this-), kesa ;
(to-morrow-), myo-asa.

mountain, yama.

mouth, kuchi.

mother, liaha, okkasan.

move, to, ugoku (intrans. ) ;
ugokasu (trans.); change resi-
dence), tentaku sum.

much, takusan.

mushroom, shiitake, matsittake.

mutton, hitsuji-no-niku.

mustard, karashi.

N

nail (finger-), tsume ; (metal, etc.),

kugi.
naked, hadaka.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

213

name, na.

narrow, scmai.

nasty (to taste), ma:ui.

near, chikai.

nearly, hotondo, mo sukoshi de.

necessary, hitsuyo na.

neck, kwri, nodo.

needle, hrtri.

neighbour, tonari-bito.

neighbourhood, kinjo, kimpen.

never, kesshite nai.

new, fi'nrashii.

news, shimbun.

newspaper, shimbunshi.

next, tsiigi no.

nice (pretty), kirei na ; (dainty

and sweet), umai.
niece, mei.
night, yoru; (to-night), kombnn ;

(last-), sakuban.
nobody, dare mo nai.
noise, oto.

noisy, yakamaskii, sozoshii.
none, />"/'.
noon, It frit.
north, kit ft.

nose,

nothing, tutni mo nai.

notwithstanding, ni k

November, Ju-ichi-cjetsu.

now, ima ; ( - and then), ori-

ori, toki-doki.
number, kfr.n.
nurse (child's), ko-mori ; (sick-),

kfi mbyo-nin.

oak, kftshiii'rt, nara.

obedient, sunav na.

object (aim), mokuteki.

object, to, kosho n;o iru.

observe, to (see), mi-tomeru, mi-
ukeni ; (be careful about),
chu-i-suru; (incidentally), kiga
tsuku.

October, Ju-gwatsu.

of, no.

offer, to, susumeru.

official (officer), shikican, yaku-
nin.

often, tabi-tabi.

oil, abura.

old (of things), fund ; (of
persons), toshiyori.

omit, to, otosu ; (in writing), kaJci-
otosu.

on, tie ni ; ni.

once, ichido ; (at ), suguni.

onion, negi.

only, tatta, bakari, tada.

open, to, akeru.

opinion, kangae, ryoken.

opposite, muko no.

or, mata wa, ka.

orange, mikan.

order (sequence), jungo, shidai ;
Hfor goods), chumon ; (to ser-
vants, etc.), meirei, ii-tsuke.

order, to (command), ii-tsukern,
meijiru.

ordinary, tsurei, atarimae.

other, hoka no, ato no.

our, watakfishi-domo no.

out, outside, solo.

out, to go, dekakeru, dcrn.

over (on top), ue ni.

overcoat, gwaito.

owner, mochi-nushi.

package, tsntsumi ; (bale), hyo ;
(case), hako.

pain, it ami.

pain, to, itamu.

painful, itai.

paint, penki.

paint, to, penki wo nuru, egnktt.

painter, penki-ya ; (artist), ekaki,
i/ii-akd.

pale, aoi, aozame no, ao-zameta.

paper (wall-), kabe-gami ; (writ-
ing-), kaku-kami.

paper-knife, kami-kiri.

parasol, higasa.

parcel, tsutsupii.

parent, oya.

214

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

part, bun.

part, to (of an object), wakeru ;

(of friends), hanareru.
particular (special), kakubetsii

na; (strict), yakamashii, genju,

ko-mudzukashii.
partner (business), shain.
pass, to (through or along), toru.
passage (corridor), roka.
passenger, nori-kyaku.
passport, menjo, ryoko-menjo.
pattern (model), te-hon ; (sample),

mi-hon ; (figure), inoyo.
pay (salary), kyukin.
pay, to, harau.
payment, harai.
pea (in pod), saya-endo ; (shelled),

ewdo-mame.
pear, nashi.
pear-tree, nashi no ki.
peasant, hyakusho, nomin.
peculiar, kitai na, hen na.
pen, fude, seiyo no fude.
pencil, empitsu.
penknife, ko-gatana.
pepper, kosM ; (red), togarashi.
perfect, kwanzen na.
perfectly, mattaku.
perhaps, tabun.

permit, to, yurusu, shdchi suru.
person, hito, jin.
perspiration, ase.
perspire, to, ase ga deru.
persuade, to, kudoku, susumeru.
photograph, shashin.
photographer, shashin-ya.
pick, to (fruit), toru, mogu ;

(flowers), hana wo oru ; (select),

erabu.

pickles, ko-no-mono, tsukemono.
picture, e ; (hanging), kakemono;

(framed), gaku.
pierce, to, tsuki-tosu.
pig, buta.
pigeon, liaio.
pillow, makura.
pin, tome-bari, hari.
pink, morno-iro no.
pipe, kuda ; (tobacco-), kiseru.
place, tokoro, basho.
place, to, oku.

plain (level ground), hira-chi,

heichi ; (clear), akiraka na.
plant, ueki, kusa-ki.
plant, to, ueru.
plate, sara.
play (game), asobi ; (drama),

kyogen.

play, to, asobu.
pleasure, tanoshimi.
plenty, takiisan, jubun.
plum, ume; (-tree), ume-no-ki.
pocket, kakushi, ftttokoro.
pointed (sharp), togatta.
police-station, kcisatsu-sho.
policeman, keisatsu-kv;an-junsa.
polite, teinei na.
pond, ike.

poor (indigent), bimbo na.
pork, buta no niku.
porter (railway-), eki-fu; (light-),

karuko.

portmanteau, kaban.
portrait, shozo, nttaru-katachi,
post (pillar), fiashira ; (letters,

etc.), yubin.

postage-stamp, yubin-kitte, inshi.
postcard, yubin-hagaki.
postman, yubin-ha,itatsu-nin.
post-office, yubin-kyoku.
post-omce-order, yubin-kawase.
potato, imo ; (sweet-), Satsuma-

imo.

pour, to, tsugu.
powder (gun-), ensho, kicayaku ;

(medicinal), kogusuri.
praise, to, homeru.
present (gift), shinjo-mono.
presently, jiki ni.
pretty, kirei na ; (beautiful),

utsukushii.

prevent, to, samatageru, sasenai.
price, nedan, ne, atai.
print, to, hanko suru, insatsft

suru.

prison, rot/a.
probably, tabun.
proper (appropriate), so-o na,

tekilo, soto na.

protect, to, mamoru, Jwgo suru.
proud, koman na.
provide, to, sonaeru.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

215

public, dyake no; (people in

general), koshiu.
pudding, ku-ashi.
pull, to, hiku.

punish, to, bassui'u, tsumi sum.
pupil (scholar), deshi.
pure, s>i/i>i-kitta,junsui na.
purse, saift(, kane-ire.
push, to, osu.
put, to, oku ; ( aside), totte

oku.

quality, hinshitsu; (superior ),

johin ; (inferior ), gehin.

quantity, taka.
quarrel, kenkwa.
quarrel, to, kenkwa suru.
quarter (£), shibun no ichi.
queer, kitai na, myo na.
question, toi.
quick, hayai.
quiet, shidzuka.
quietly, shidzukani.
quite, mattaku, jubun.

R

rabbit, usagi.

rags, boro.

railway, tetsudo.

railway carriage, kisha.

rain, ame.

raise, to, ageru.

raisin, hoshi-budo.

rare, medzurashii, mare na.

rarely, mare ni.

rat, nezumi.

rather (on the contrary), kaette .

(somewhat), zuibun.
raw, nama.
read, to, yomu.
ready, to be, shitaku shite oru.
ready, to get, shitaku wo suru.
real, honto no, makoto no.
reason, dori, wake.
receipt, uketori.

receive, to, uketoru.
recently, konaida.
recollect, to, omoi-dasu.
recommend, to, susumeru.
recover, to, tori-modosu ; (from

sickness), zenkwai suru.
red, akai.

refuse, to, kotowaru, jitai suru.
relate to (tell), noberu.
remainder, nokori.
remember, to, oboeru.
repair, to, naosu, tsukurou.
report (rumour), fusetsu, fu-bim,
request, negai.
request, to, negau, tanomu.
require, to, yo-suru.
reside, to, jukyo suru.
resolve, to, sadameru, ketchaku

suru.
rest (after work, etc.), yasumi ;

(remainder), nokori.
rest, to, yasumu. .
restaurant, ryori-ya-.
result, kekkwa.
return, to, kaeru (intrans.) ;

kaesu (trans.).
rich, kanemochi.
ride, to, noru.
right (not left), migi ; (just,

proper), tadashii.
ring (for ringer), yubi-wa.
ring, to, narasu (trans. ) ; naru

(intrans. ).

ripe (of fruit), juku shita.
river, kawa.
road, michi ; (highway), orai,

kaido.

roast, to, yaku.
rock, iwa.
rob, to, nusumu.
roof, yane.
room, heya, zashiki.
rope, nawa, tsuna.-
rough, arai, zarakkoi ; (rude),

burei, sokotsu na; (harsh),

arappoi.
round, marui.
rub, to, kosuru.
rub out, to, kesu.
run, to, kashiru ; ( away),

chikuten suru.

216

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

S

sad, to be, kanashimu.

safe, buji, daijobu.

safely, buji ni, anzcn ni.

salary, kijukin, gekkyu.

salmon, sake.

salt, shivo ; ( cellar), shitco-

ire.

same, oiwji.
sand, siina.
satin, shusu.
Saturday, doyobi.
sauce, shoyu.
saucepan, nnbe.
saucer, sara, shita-zara.
say, to, hanasu, iu.
scarce, sukunai.
school, gakko.
scissors, hasami.
scratch, to, kaku.
scream, to, sakebu.
screw, neji.
season, jisetsS.
seat (chair), isu koshi-kake.
see, to, mini.
seed, fane.
seem, to, mi-em.
seldom, mare ni.
select, to, erabu.
selfish, tamae-gatte na.
sell, to, urn, uri-sabaku.
send, to, yarn, okuru.
separate, betsu no, bctsu-betsii

no.

separate, to, wakeru.
September, fat-gwateu.
servant (male), kodzukai ;

(female), gejo.
sew, to, nu.
shadow, kage-boshi.
shape, katachi.
sharp (of knife, etc.), yoku

kireru.

shave, to, hige wo sum.
shelf, tana.
shell, kai.
shine, to, teru.
ship, fune.
shirt, jiban, shatsu.
shoe, kutsii.

shoemaker, kutsu-ya.

shoot, to (with weapon), teppo
wo utsu.

shop, mise.

shopkeeper, akindo.

short (not long), mijikai.

shoulder, kata.

show, to, miser u.

shower (of rain), yudachi.

shut, to, shimeru.

sick, byoki.

side, ho, kata.

sight (something seen), mini-
koto.

sign, to, kimei sum, namae wo
kaku.

silence, damatte oru koto.

silent, shidzuka.

silent, to be, damaru.

silk, kinu.

silver, gin.

since, kara.

sing, to, uiau.

sister, onna-kyodai ; (elder), ane ;
(younger), -imoto.

sit, to, kosh-i wo kokeru.

size, okisa.

skin, kaii'a, hadac.

sky, sora.

sleep, to, neru.

sleepy, nemui.

sleeve, sode.

slow, noroi, osoi.

slowly, shidzuka ni.

small, chiisai.

smoke, kemu-ri.

smoke, to (tobacco), tabako 100
nomu.

smooth, subekkoi.

sneeze, to, kitshami wo sum.

snow, i/uki.

soap, shabon, sekken.

soft, yaivarakai.

soil (earth), tsuchi.

solid, katai.

some, am.

somebody, dare ka, aru hito.

somehow, doka.

something, nani ka.

sometimes, aru toki, toki-on.

somewhere, dokka de, doko ka.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

217

son, mus&ko.

song, iifii.

soon, jiki-ni.

sound (heard), oto.

soup, suimono, tsuyu, soppu.

sour, suppai.

south, minami.

sparrow, suzume.

speak, to, iil, hanasu, mosu.

spectacles, megame.

splendid, rippa na.

spoil, to, sonjiru.

spoon, saji ; (tea-), cha-saji.

spring (season), haru.

spring (of vehicle), bane.

square (shape), shlkaku.

stable, fitna-ya.

staircase, hashigo-dan.

stand, to, tatsu.

star, hoshi.

start, to (set out), shuttatsti, suru.

state (condition), yosu, arisama.

station (railway), suteishon,

teisha-ba.

steal, to, nusumu.
steam, yuge, jdki.
steamer, joklsen.
steel, hagane.

stick, to (adhere), kuttsuku.
still (until now), ima made;

(tranquil), shidzuka na.
stocking, kutsu-shita, tabi.
stone, ishi.
stop, to, tomaru (intrans. ) ;

tomeru (trans. ).
stove, sutobu.
straight, massugu na.
strange, fushigi, medzu rashii.
strap, kawa-himo.
straw, wara.
stream, nagare.
street, michi, tori.
strength, chikara.
string, ito.
strong, jobu na ; (physically),

chikara no.
stupid, baka na.
sudden, niwaka na.
sufficient, jubun na.
sugar, sato.

suitable, tekito na.
sum (total), shime daka.
summer, natsti.
sun, taiyo, hi.
Sunday, nichiyobi.
supper, yumeshi.
sure, tashika.
surely, tashika ni.
sweep, to, haku.
sweet, amai, umai.
swim, to, oyogu.

table, dai, taberu.

table-cloth, teberu-kake, dai-kake.

tail, shippo.

tailor, shltate-ya.

take, to, torn.

talk, to, hanasu,

tall, sei-no-takai.

taste, ajiwai.

tea, cha.

tea-cup, chawan.

tea-kettle, tets&-bin.

tea-pot, dobin, kibi-sho.

teaspoon, cha-saji.

teach, to, oshieru.

teacher, sensei.

tear, to, yaburu.

telegram, dempo.

telegraph-office, denshin-kyoku.

telephone, denwa.

tell, to, hanasu.

than, yori.

thimble, yubi-nuki.

thing (abstract), koto ; (concrete),

mono.

think, to, omou, kangaeru.
thirsty, nodo ga kawaita.
this, kore, kono.
though, keredomo.
thread, ito.
throat, nodo.

through, toru, toshite, totte.
throw, to, horu, nageru ; (

away), suteru.
Thursday, mokuyobi.
ticket (railway-), kippu; (for

theatre, etc. ), jfuda.

218

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

tie, to, shibaru, yuioaeru.
tight, katai.
till (until), made.
tin, brikki, suzu.
to, ye, ni.

toast (bread), yaki-pan.
to-day, konnichi, kyo.
together, issho no.
to-morrow, myonichi ; (-morn-
ing), myo-cho ; ( evening),

myo-ban.
tongue, shita.
to-night, komban, kon-ya.
too (also), yahari; (excess),

amari.
tooth, ha.
toothache, ha itai.
tooth-brush, yoji.
touch, to, ni fureru; (meddle

with), ijiru.
towards, 710 ho ye.
towel, tenugui.
town, machi.
toy, omocha.

trade, akinai, shobai, boyeki.
train (railway-), ressha, kisha.
translate, to, hon-yaku sum.
travel, to, ryoko sum, tabi*suru.
traveller, tabi-hito, ryoko ja.
tray, bon.
tread, to, fumu.
• tree, ki, jumoku.
tremble, to, furu; (with fear),
kowakute furu; (with cold),
samakute furu.

trouble (bother), mendo ; (in-
convenience), tekazu ; (anxiety),
shimpai.

trouble, to be in, komaru.
troublesome (of persons), urusai ;

(of things), mendo no,.
trousers, momohiki.
true, lionto, makoto.
truly, makoto ni, hon ni.
truth, makoto, jitsu.
truthfully, aritei ni.
Tuesday, kwayobi.
tumble, to (over),korobu; (down),

ochiru, taoreru,
turnip, kabu.
twist, to, hineru, nejiru.

ugly, mi-nikui, migurushii, fu-

kiryo na.

umbrella, kasa, kara-kasa.
unable, to be, dekinai.
unavoidable, shikata-ga-nai, yon-

dokoronai.

uncertain, tashika de nai.
uncle, oji-san.
uncomfortable (inconvenient),

fujiyu na.

uncommon, mcdzurashii.
under (underneath), shita.
understand, to, wakaru.
undress oneself, to, kimono wo

nugu.

unfortunate, fu-shiawase na.
ungrateful, on wo shiranu.
unhappy, fu-shiawase na.
unhealthy (of persons), byoshin

na ; (of places), yojo no tame ni

yoku nai.
unjust, fu-kohei.
unkind, fu-shinsetsu na, nasake-

nai.

unlike, chigatte.
unlikely, ariso mo nai.
unpleasant, omoshiroku nai.
unsafe, abunai.

unsatisfactory, zombun de nai.
unsightly, mi-nikui.
unskilful, heta na, bukiyo na.
unsuitable, fu-so-o-na, fu-tekito

na.

untrue, jitsti de nai, uso no.
untruth, uso, itsuwari.
unusual, hijo na, rei no nai.
unwise, kangae ga nai.
up, ue ni.
up, to get, okiru.
upon, ue ni.
upright (honest), jitchoku na,

tadashii ; (erect), massugu.
upside-down, sakasama, abe-kobc,

sakasa.

upstairs, nikai.
us, ivatakushi-domo.
use, to, tsukau, mochi-iru.
useful, choho na.
useless, yaku ni tatanii.

ENGLISH-JAPANESE

219

uselessly, itadzura ni.
usual, atarimae no.
usually, taitei, fudan ni.

valuable, fattoi, ne-uchi, no am.
value (cost), aiai, nc-itchi.
various, iro-iro no, sama-zama

no.

vase, hana-ike.
vegetable, yasaimono.
velvet, birodo.
venture, to, yatte mini.
verandah, engawa.
very, taiso, hanahada, Mate, yoku,

sh iyoku, naka-naka.
vex, to, ijimeru.
view (prospect), ke-shiki, mi-

harashi, chobo.

view, to, mini, kembun sum.
vigorous, jobu na, tsuyoi, soken-

nn.

village, mum.
vinegar, su.
violent, te-arai.
violet, sum-ire.
visit, to, tadzuncru, ukayeru.
visitor, kijaku.
voice, koe.
voyage, kaijo.
voyage, to take a, fune de tokai

suru.
vulgar, gehin na.

w

wages, kyukln.

waist, koshi.

waistcoat, cJwkki.

waggon, kuruma, ni-guruma.

wait, to, matsu ; (at table), kyuji

wo suru.
waiter, kyuji.
walk, to, aruku.
waU, kabe.
want to (desire), iru, iriyo, hoshii.

warehouse, kura, dozo.
warm, atatakai.
warn, to, imashimeru.

wash, to, arau ; ( clothes),

sentaku suru.
waste, to, tsuiynsu, muyami ni

tsukau.

watch, kwaichu-dokci.
watch-maker, tokeiyn.
water (cold), midzu ; (hot), yu.
way (road), michi ; (manner), yd,

shikata.

we, ivatakushi-domo, ware-ra.
weak, yowai.
wealth, zaiho, shiiidai, takara.

wear, to, (clothes), kiru.

weather, tenki.

Wednesday, sui-yoU.

week, isshukan.

weigh, to, haJcaru, hakari ni,
kakete miru.

weight, mekata.

well (in health), sukoyaka na,
tassha na.

wet, nureta.

wheat, komugi.

wheel, wa, kuruma.

when ? Hsu ?

where ? doko ? dochira ?

which ? dochira ? dore ?

while, aida.

whip, muchi.

white, shiroi.

who ? dare ? donata ?

whole, mina, nokorazu.

wholesale, oroshi.

whose ? dare mo ?

why ? naze ?

wicked, warui, ashiki.

wide, hiroi.

widow, goke, yamone.

width, hirosa, haba.

wife, tsuma.

wind (which blows), kaze, fu.

wind, to (a watch, etc.), maku.

window, mado.

window-shutters, mado no to.
wine, buddshu.
wine-glass, sakazuki.
wing (of bird), tsubasa.
winter, fuyu.

220

A JAPANESE GRAMMAR

wipt to, fuku.
wire, harigane.
wise, riko na.
woman, onna, fujin.
wonderful, kimyo na, kitai na,

fushigi.

wood, ki ; (forest), hayashi, mori.
wool, ke, rasha.
word, kotoba.
work, shigoto.
work, to, halaraku.
workman, shokunin.
worthless, Isumaranai, yaku ni

tatanai.

wound, kega, kizu.
wrap, to, tsutsumu.
wrist, te-kubi.
write, to, kaku.
wrestle, to, sumo wo toru.
wrong, machigatfa (adj.); (evil),

warui.

year, toshi, nen, sai.

yearly, mai-nen.

yellow, ki-iroi.

yesterday, kino.

yesterday evening, sakuban.

yesterday morning, kind no asa.

yet, mada.

young, u-akai, toshi no ikanai.

zeal, nesshin.

zealous, nesshin naru, fumpatsfi

nara.
zig-zag, une-kune, tsuzu-ra-ori

natte oru.
zinc, Man.

INDEX

PAOE

Accent, Articulation and, ...... 6

Accusative 50

Active constructions (preference for) . . . .99, 108

Adjectives 115, 167

„ (adverbial form) .... 118, 119, 120, 121
„ (attributive form) . . . . 116, 117, 127

„ (comparison of) 116, 127

„ (compound) ...... 125

„ (derived) 125

„ (desiderative) 69, 85, 99

„ (form in ») 116,117,120

„ (form in JW) 116, 117

„ (form in ku) .... 118, 119, 120, 121, 149

„ (form in o or it) 106, 118, 120

„ (form in sh{) . . . . . . 117

„ (gerund of) 86, 121

„ (in TWM) 77, 122, 123, 124

„ (in rashii) ....... 125

„ (in tat) 69, 85

„ (inflection) 116, 121

„ (negative) 122, 123, 124

„ (paradigms of) .... 120, 121, 122, 123
„ (predicative form) . . . 116, 117, 120, 127

„ (primary inflections) 116, 120

„ (secondary inflections) .... 121

„ (stems) 118, 120

„ (tense and mood in) 121

221

222 INDEX

PAGE

Adverbial Phrases 149, 150

Adverbs 16, 42, 118, 143, 170

Apposition 43

Article (absence of) 8

" As " (how rendered) 151

Attributive constructions . . . . 31, 116, 117, 127
Augmentatives ........ 15

Auxiliary Numerals 132, 142

„ Verbs (see Verbs)

B

Bases of Verbs . . 54-56,64,65,68-71,73,78,97,107,110

"Because" (how rendered) 39

" Become " (how rendered) 88

"But" (how rendered) 89,151

C

"Can" (how rendered) 101,103

" Cannot " (how rendered) 101-102

Causals or Causatives 107

Certain Past Tense 69, 83

Certain Present or Future Tense . . . 54-57, 68, 80, 106
Chinese words . . .25, 130-132, 135-140, 156, 159, 160

Comparison 116, 127, 168

Compound (Adjectives) 125

„ (Nouns) 12

„ (Tenses) 93

„ (Verbs) 113

Concessive Mood 70, 89

Conditional Base 54, 55, 68, 70

„ (Mood) 70, 87, 88

Conjugation 54-64, 121

„ (First) . 54, 55, 58, 65-68, 96, 97, 102, 107, 108, 110

„ (of Adjectives) 121-123

Conjugations (of Verbs) 54-64

(Second) 54, 55, 60, 60-64, 97, 98, 102, 103, 107,

108, 110, 111
Conjunctions ..',,«,-»'., » . 16, 151

INDEX 223

D

PAGE

Days of Month (how counted) . . . 139

Dependent Clauses (where placed) . . . . 172

Desiderative Adjective 58, 69, 85, 99

Diminutives 15

E

" Either . . . or " (how rendered) . . . . 38, 51

Elision 4, 88, 93

Ellipsis 48, 173

Emphasis . 6, 49, 50, 152, 153, 168

Enumeration 33, 41, 129

Frequentative Form .... 57, 58-64, 69, 84, 121
Future Tense 68, 80, 92

G

Genitive 36, 42, 170

Gerund 69, 85, 93, 94, 95, 99

H

Honorifics . 91, 154

« //" (how rendered) 47, 87, 88

Imperative Mood ..... 70, 90, 121, 166
Impossibility (how expressed) ..... 102

" In order to " (how expressed) ..... 41

Indefinite Form ... 54, 55, 68, 78, 113, 126, 164, 171

Indicative Mood 58-64, 68, 78

Infinitive „ 56, 83

Interjections ........ 148, 152

Interrogation .... 27, 28, 38, 48, 141, 142, 174

Irregular Verbs ( see Verbs).

Isolating Particle ,,,.,,,, 47

224

" Let " (how rendered) .
Letter-changes

" May " (how rendered)

Months (names of the)

Mood

Mr, Mrs, Miss

" Must " (how rendered)

INDEX
L

PAGE

91, 109

. 6, 65-68, 69, 92, 132, 133-135

M

N

Negative (syntax of) .
„ (adjective nai)
„ (base) ....
„ (conjugations)
" Neither . . . nor " (how rendered)

Nominative

Nouns

„ (abstract)
„ (compound)
„ (used as Adjectives) .
„ ( „ Adverbs) .
„ (verbal) ....
Number .....
Numerals

. 82, 103
140

57, 58-64, 68, 78, 83

. 158, 159

82

. . 174

77, 122-124

54, 55, 68, 97, 107

122

40

. 12, 36, 48

9, 130, 167, 171

14, 83

12

. 125, 126
. 16, 149
. 13, 15, 79
. 9, 53, 115
129-143

"Or" (how rendered) .
" Ought " (how rendered)

38, 51, 151
15

Particles (see Postpositions).
Past Tenses .
Person . . .
Plural ....
Postpositions (Particles)

69, 70, 83, 87, 89, 127

16, 53, 154

9, 19

, 9, 19, 62, 167, 171

INDEX 225

Potential Verbs (see Verbs).

Prefixes 9, 10, 15

Present Tense (see Certain Present).

Probable Past 69, 83

„ Present or Fnture 68, 80

Pronouns . . . . . . . .16, 155, 156

„ (demonstrative) ...... 23

„ (indefinite) 29, 43

„ (interrogative) 27

„ (personal) 16, 22

„ (possessive) 20

„ (reflective) . 22

„ (relative) . . . • . . . . 31

B

Reduplication of Consonants 5

„ (of words) . . . . . . 10, 149

"Should" (how rendered) 15

"Since" (how rendered) 39,53

Stems (of Adjectives) 116, 118, 120, 126

„ (of Verbs) 54, 55, 65-68, 92, 97, 110

Subject (of Sentence) . . . .36, 48, 50, 167, 169, 175
Suffixes. . . 9,14,19,91,97,104,113-115,116-120,125

Tense (in Adjectives) . 121

„ (in Verbs) . . . . . . . 53, 68, 78, 92

"Than" (how rendered) 53,128

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 96,110

Verbs . .53, 167, 170, 171

„ (ambiguous forms) 1 10

„ (auxiliary) 91, 106

„ (bases of) 54-56, 68-70, 78-91

JAPANESE GRAMMAR ft

226 INDEX

Verbs — (continued).

„ (causal) 41, 107, 108

„ (compound) 113

„ (final, omitted) • . 173

„ (honorific) 71, 75, 91, 105, 164

„ (in aru) 92, 97

„ (in eru) 92, 97

„ (injiru) 104

„ (in suru) ........ 104

„ (intransitive) 96, 98, 103

„ (irregular) 71-78, 99, 109

„ (passive) .... 41, 93, 97-100, 102-103, 108

„ (potential) . . . . . . . 101-103, 165

„ ("to be") . 34, 35, 92-94, 105, 116, 119, 121, ]22, 125

„ ("to do") 99,103-105

„ (" to have ") 105

„ (transitive) 96-97, 175

„ (used as adjectives) 126, 127

„ (used as nouns) 12, 13, 79

„ (with so affixed) - . 126

W

" When" (how rendered) 16,87-88

" JVliether" (how rendered) 38

" IVliik " (how rendered) 16

Printed at the Edinburgh Press

FRANK and EDWARD MURRAY (Printers)

9 and 11 Young Street

TELEGRAPHIC ADDRESS— "HIRSCHFELD, LONDON."
TELEPHONE— No. 2757 CENTRAL.
CODE— "A.B.C." FOURTH EDITION.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED, Publishers
13 Furnival Street, Holborn, London, B.C.

HOSSFELD'S CONVERSATIONAL METHOD

FOR THE

Study of Modern Languages

(FOR SCHOOLS OR SELF-TUITION)

THE Publishers of this now World-renowned Method for the
study of foreign languages respectfully submit the following
Reviews and Letters to the notice of their readers, as con-
vincing and indisputable evidence of the remarkable popularity
it has attained, and this solely through its intrinsic value as
a medium for acquiring languages in the easiest and most
attractive manner, and in an incredibly short time.

" The increasing intercourse between nations, and develop-
ment of international trade, with its keen rivalry between
the competitors, have in our time considerably increased the
importance of a Working Knowledge of Modern Languages,"
and this is exactly what may be acquired by a student of the
Hossfeld Method. The difficulty of the study of a foreign
language may be easily overcome by a little attention on the
part of the student if he uses the Hossfeld Method, which,
to assist him in the accomplishment of this object, lays down

2 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

such rules for his guidance as will place him in a position to
master the same with comparative ease and satisfaction.

The publishers have given many years' earnest attention to
the subject, and it has been their aim to make their books
really trustworthy and reliable guides from which any student
of ordinary intelligence may, with a modicum of industry and
perseverance, obtain a thorough and practical knowledge of
the language he is studying.

The Hossfeld Method is planned on a perfectly rational and
scientific basis, the books are divided into 62 lessons, and each
sub-divided into four parts, comprising from the first lesson: —

Conversations. Translations. Readings. Grammar.

It will thus be seen that, as one of our correspondents states,
this one Method embraces the four recognised up-to-date modes
of teaching and learning, carefully avoiding those extremes
which are so unsatisfactory and disappointing in their results.

The plan of the lessons is very fascinating, and one in which
the student himself becomes greatly interested, hence he
makes that rapid progress which is so marked in all students
of the Hossfeld Method, and which is, happily, fast doing away
with the stigma cast upon our young men and women for
their deplorable ignorance of foreign tongues. This was,
however, not attributable to any incapacity or lack of intelli-
gence in themselves, but entirely owing to the inadequate and
false means of instruction.

The Hossfeld Method , unlike others which promise so much
and perform so little, gives from the very beginning ample
proof of its efficiency, and the publishers urge you to give it a
trial without delay and judge its merits for yourself.

They would also call your attention to the cheapness of these
volumes in comparison with others.

HIESCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED,
13 FURNIVAL STREET, LONDON, E.G.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

for the Study of Modern Languages

A SELECTION OF UNSOLICITED TESTIMONIALS

H.M.S. CLEOPATRA, COLONIA, URUGUAY.
DEAR SIR,

"The Grammar in French, of Hossfeld's, having been mainly
instrumental in my having gained the quality of Interpreter, R.N.,
in that language in six months, I take the earliest opportunity of
acknowledgment, and also of suggesting the propriety and immense
advantage to the public service should every library in H.M. ships of war
be supplied with your Grammars in, say, French, German, Italian, and
Spanish, etc. I may mention that our libraries are supplied free to us,
and at the public expense, and that the addition would represent a merely
trifling cost, and that I believe that should you represent the advisability,
their Lordships would acquiesce, in the interests of the public service.

"You are at liberty to make what use you please of my views, as I
was the first to elect the present regulations, granting four months' study
on the Continent, and therefore I need lose no time in consultation." — I
am, SIR, Yours sincerely,

L. B. DENMAN (Lieutenant),

H.M.S. Cleopatra, S.E. Ccast, America

(Montevideo).

CHARTER HOUSE, GODALMING.
DEAR SIRS,

"I thank you for a copy of your Italian Grammar [Hossfeld's
System], with which I have been for some time well acquainted. The
system is excellent and the book is admirably arranged. My experience
of the Italian Grammar was so satisfactory that I recommended a pupil of
mine, who wished to learn Spanish, to get your Spanish Grammar in the
same series. He made rapid progress, and required very little help beyond
that which the book gave him." — Yours faithfully,

W. HAIG BROWN (Principal).

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, REGENT STREET.
GENTLEMEN,

"I use Hossfeld's German Grammar for our large day and
evening classes at this Institute, and I appreciate the work highly. lu
proof of the good results attending its introduction to the classes, I
may mention that out of 98 students presented for examination by the
Society of Arts, 18 gained first class Certificates, 4 second class, and 72
third class, and only 4 failed ; a student also gained the prize for German
given by the Chamber of Commerce, value £5, and Certificates." — Yours
truly,

M. SEIFERT.

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

4 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

MANCHESTER, 3/</ October 1903.

"For many years I have used your Spanish Grammar, Hossfeld's
Method, at the Central Commercial Schools in this city, and also at
various other institutions and with private pupils, and I may say that
I consider this Method the most interesting, satisfactory, and complete of
all the text-books of a similar kind which have come under my notice. It
contains all the necessary matter for a student of languages, Grammar with
examples, Exercises for translation to and from Spanish, Questions on the
Grammatical Rules already given, and a Reading Lesson in Spanish, pre-
ceded by conversation in Spanish and English on the whole of latter, and on
every-day topics What more could be desired even by the method-ridden
modern student ? Some say ' Grammar is useless, ' some say ' Translation
only is necessary,' some, ' Conversational Phrases, in question and answer
form, only are needed,' and finally, some say 'only connected ideas (as
shown in your reading lessons) are of any avail, ' and they evolve phrase
after phrase in successive order on all the ordinary topics of life. Now,
what do we find in your Hossfeld's Method of all these four up-to-date
modes of teaching and learning ? Everyone : Grammar, Conversation,
Translation, and Reading, and that right from the very beginning, from
the first lesson in the book.

" If proof be needed of the efficiency of the Hossfeld Method, any one
can find it for himself by consulting the Result Sheets of the ' Lancashire
and Cheshire Union of Institutes ' and of the ' Society of Arts ' Examina-
tions each year, where he will find that the Spanish students of the
Central Commercial Evening Schools, Manchester, invariably stand at the
head, and often with one or more prize-winners and medallists. This
year's Society of Arts' results includes first and second prize-winners from
these schools, where all the students use Hossfeld's Method for Spanish.
It is well to state that I have had occasion to use your other Grammars
in French and German, and have found them always equally satisfactory.

" You are quite at liberty to make any use you think fit of this letter, as
I do not hesitate to confirm to everybody what I have written above."

ALFRED CALVERT,

Lecturer on Modern Lanr/coges at the Manchester Central
Commercial Evening Scliools and Manchester Athena»in.

TECHNICAL SCHOOL, BLACKBURN, 25th Jul>/ 1904.

"I have used your French, German, Spanish, and Italian Grammars
for many years. I selected them for my Classes and private students
after a careful perusal of every system published in English, both here
and in U.S.A. My students always figure conspicuously in Exam, results,
and several times have earned medals and been first in lists of results.

"The Grammars are the nearest to my ideal of what a Grammar
should be, and because the rules are so well explained and exemplified, I
am able to spend nearly all the one poor hour per week we evening class
teachers can get in per language to the ' spoken ' and ' dictation ' aspects.
instead of being compelled to spend the all-too-short time in wearisome
explaining of the Grammar sections that should be (as they are in your
Grammars) clearly enough set forth in easily comprehensible English in
the book itself.

" As 'imitation is the sincerest form of flattery,' I have imitated your
system for the most part in my Portuguese Conversational Grammar
published by your firm."

FRANK THOMAS,

P rafessor of Modern Languages at BlacHn'rn Technical
Schools, and Blackburn Grammar School.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

for the Study of Modern Languages

SHIPLEY, YORKSHIRE, 20th June 1904.

" It is, of course, superfluous to add that 1 am practically acquainted
with your Grammars. I have used them for many years with most
gratifying results."

H. J. WEINTZ.

ALLEYN'S SCHOOL, LEWISHAM.

" I have gone through your Hossfeld Grammars very carefully, and
like them very much indeed. The Method is clear and lucid, the task is
not made too irksome for the student, and the happy medium is nowhere
missing in the arrangement of matter. The hand of experienced teachers
is clearly perceptible in the disposition of the lxx>ks, and I shall be glad
to use them whenever opportunity occurs."

L. HIRSCH, Ph.D.

BIUKBECK COLLEGE, BREAM'S BUILDINGS.
DEAR SIRS,

" The success of my pupils has been phenomenal since I
adopted Hossfeld's Spanish and Italian Methods in my classes for teach-
ing these languages. I have examined every Grammar for teaching
languages that exists, and do not find one so admirably adapted for
classes and private tuition as Hossfeld's. These books are marvellously
clear and in every way fitted for teaching a language in the simplest and
easiest way." — Yours very truly,

RAFAEL DEFFERARI MONTE VERDE, B.A.,
Teacher at above Institute ami King's College,
Wimbledon, Skerry's College, etc., Sworn Inttr-
irreter by Royal Authority.

THE COLLEGE, EAST ACTON.
DEAR SIRS,

" Early last autumn you sent me a specimen copy of your
Hossfeld's Spanish Grammar, which I am pleased to say I decided to
adopt as a text-book. The result has proved most satisfactory. All the
pupils I sent in for examination were successful — one took premier posi-
tion out of several hundred candidates. Having lately been appointed
an Examiner to one of our great Examining Bodies, I shall certainly
recommend your works to other teachers." — Yours truly,

W. RADFORD, Principal.

COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, QUEEN'S ROAD,
DALSTON, 1903.

" It is satisfactory to note that in our German, Russian, and Spanish
Classes where the Hossfeld Grammars are exclusively used, we have
during the last two sessions won four Society of Arts' bronze medals and
£16 in prizes."

J. SINCLAIR. M.A.

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

G Hossfeld's Conversational Method

LONDON, I6th March 1903.

"I have had great pleasure in introducing your 'Hossfeld's' German
Grammar into my German Classes both at Kennington Road and Balham
Commercial Schools, and it has met with the greatest approbation. I
admire the method and arrangement of the Grammar greatly."

E. BROOKS.

COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, CHAUMERT ROAD, 1904.

"The German and Spanish books of the Hossfeld Method are being
used in above school, and are giving every possible satisfaction."

A. A. KEMP.

LEIPSIC ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904.

' ' I have thoroughly examined your French Method, and find that the
completeness of the Grammar, combined with well-selected Conversations
and Readings, make it a most useful and attractive book to students of
French. I am introducing it into the Classes here."

THOMAS LEA.

KENNINGTON ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904.

"We are using your books in Italian and Spanish, and are very
pleased with them."

F. W. BULL.

CAVENDISH ROAD COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, 1904.

" I have had great pleasure in introducing your Hossfeld German
Grammar into my Classes both at above school and Kennington Road."

F. BROOKS.

EVENING COMMERCIAL SCHOOL, BROCKLEY ROAD,

3lst August 1903.

' ' I have your Spanish and German books in use at my school, and am
introducing the French this Session."

A. J. WREN, Responsible Teacher.

CRAWFORD STREET EVENING SCHOOL,

June 1904.

" I think Hossfeld's Method is capital. I recommended it to the
master who takes the Intermediate County Council Scholarship work,
and he is now using it in his Class. I have your smaller book in use in
the Evening Classes."

C. E. PANNELL.

EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL,

FIRCROFT ROAD, BALHAM, July 1904.

" We used your French Books all through last session, and our Class
was large and successful."

JOHN G. GRAY.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

•for the Study of Modern Languages 7

EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL,

RAYWOOD STREET, 27th June 1904.

" Please send me a copy of your Hossfeld Method. My French
Instructor has already spoken of it to me in terms of praise."

E. B. LING.

EVENING COMMERCIAL CENTRE, GOSPEL OAK, 1904.

" I shall certainly recommend your Italian Method. I think it to be
admirably adapted to the needs of our students."

J. H. GARSIDE.

SCIENCE AND ART SCHOOL, BRIXTON, July 1904.

"My teacher of German is anxious to introduce next session Hoss-
feld's System."

W. C. EDWARDS.

LONDON, 5lh Febniary 1903.

" I have been using 'Hossf eld's German Grammar' at the Goldsmith
Polytechnic Evening Classes for the last two years, and find it the
most suited for the purpose of the rapid study of German."

J. FORTSCHUNK.

ARCHBISHOP TENISON'S SCHOOL,
LEICESTER SQUARE, LONDON.

" Last term I introduced your large French and German Grammars
and Exercises into the Upper Form of this school, and we like them very
much."

J. F. ARNOLD.

LAUREL HOUSE, BRYMBO, N. WALES.

" I shall recommend your 'Hossfeld' French Grammar very strongly
to my pupils, and will extend the sale of that valuable book."

FERNAND DELETTRES.

GEORGE HERIOT'S SCHOOL, EDINBURGH,

2Gth October 1903.

" I am using your ' Hossfeld's ' German Grammar in all of my German
Classes, and think it an excellent book. Your German Exercises and
Idioms by Prof. Mengel also gives good results."

D. LOWE TURNBULL, M.A., LL.D.

ST GEORGE'S CLASSES, EDINBURGH,

I3th October 1903.

" Your ' Hossfeld ' Italian Grammar seems to me excellent, and I am
sorry not to have known of it before. I shall be very glad to adopt it
with my pupils."

S. ALBEGGIANI.

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

8 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

SHARP'S INSTITUTION, PERTH.

" I have formed a very high opinion of your German Grammar, and
have decided to introduce it here next session. Kindly let me have the
name of your agent in this town."

A. WATSON BAIN, Modern Language Master.

CHAMBER OF COMMERCE,
DUNDEE, 22nd June 1904.

"I brought to the notice of the examiner for Spanish on the
Commercial Education Examinations of this Chamber, the copy of the
Hossfeld Method received from you, and was informed that he already
used it in his Classes." G. C. KEILLER.

EDINBURGH, 20th May 1904.

" I greatly approve of Hossfeld's System, and I have already
introduced it into my French, Italian, and German Classes with much

H. CANROBERT.

CHAIGHOLME, GLASGOW, September 1903.

"J have gone through your 'Hossfeld's' French Grammar with my
French teacher, and we both think it a very useful book, combining theory
and practice and introducing a large and serviceable vocabulary."

J. MURDOCH, Principal.

"I have already introduced your book into my German Classes at the
Manchester Athenaeum, and in future intend to use it everywhere."

G. ALBERS.

MANCHESTER, 26th June 1904.

"All my private pupils are using Hossfeld's Method and like it very
much. I am determined to introduce it everywhere I can."

B. GAUME.

MANCHESTER, ith April 1904.

' ' For many years now I have used various of your publications for the
study of modern languages with great numbers of my pupils for University
and other important examinations." ARTHUR HORSFALL.

PRESENTATION BROTHERS' COLLEGE,

MARDYKE, CORK.
DEAR SIRS,

"I have been successful in introducing Hossfeld's German and
Italian Methods and also the French and German Correspondents, of
which you sent me specimens, and I must say that I am really astonished
at the remarkable progress made by my pupils since they got your books
into their hands. I shall do all in my power to make your publications
known to and appreciated by my colleagues in other schools."

Yours faithfully,

J. L. THEODORE GETZ,
Bach, es Lett.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

for the Study of Modern Languages 9

ST. FAUGHNAN'S COLLEGE,
Ross CARBERRY, CORK.

' ' The two Grammars on the ' Hossfeld ' system are just the thing we
want, and I shall do my best to promote their introduction into this and
other Irish schools. The German Grammar could positively not be better ;
it is unique." Rev. PAUL A. PESCHEL.

COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, CORK.

' ' I think that the Hossfeld French Grammar is the best that I have
seen, and I trust that I shall be able to introduce it into my school at no
distant date." H. WILLIAMS, M.A., T.C.D.

ST. PETER'S COLLEGE, WEXFORD.

"Your 'Hossf eld's' French Grammar seems to be excellent in every
way, and the praises bestowed upon it by teachers who have introduced
it into their schools shows that the Method must be well adapted for
pupils. I shall recommend it here." 0. KING.

LIVERPOOL, '30th September 1903.

"Having found your Hossfeld 's German Grammar a sensible and
useful book, I have already introduced it into my German Classes held at
the Y.M.C.A., also at the Balfour Institute and Wallasey Grammar
School." C. 0. WICKERT.
Senior German Master.

HOLY CROSS SCHOOL,
LIVERPOOL, July 1904.

' ' I have tried many Spanish Grammars with my pupils, and think
Hossfeld's is undoubtedly the best published." L. CONWAY.

EGREMONT COMMERCIAL SCHOOL,

July 1904.

"I am very pleased with the style and the matter contained in your
Spanish Grammar. When convenient I will use it in my Classes, as I
consider the Method an intelligent and pleasant way of acquiring a
knowledge of a language." T. B. GERAGHTY.

MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL,

LINCOLN, 1904.

"I am pleased to say I am using your Hossfeld Method, French and
German, in a private class at present. Now that I have proved the
excellence of the books I shall, in all probability, adopt them for my
Classes at School the next session. Pupils using these books make
splendid progress in a short time." C. PHILLIPSON.

BIRMINGHAM, November 1903.

" I am pleased to say that I am using your Spanish and Italian
Grammars at the Birmingham and Midland Institute ; and your Spanish
and French Grammars at the Walsall Science and Art Institute, and
tind them very satisfactory." E. EDMONDS.

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

10 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

SOUTHAMPTON, 17th Jtif>/ 1904.

"Some of my students have begun their studies on Pitman's ami
Hugo's Methods, but these have given such unsatisfactory results that I
wish to substitute Hossfeld's and gradually make use of the other works
published by you. Pitman's Method was chosen owing to its special
commercial character, but on examination T think it is plagiarized from
Hossfeld." C. E. L. WRIGHT.

LEICESTER, 19th A<igustlQQ2.

"Your German Course has met with great success here. It is the
finest work I have seen." £. CUNLIFFE,

Teacher of Languages at t/if Y.M.C.A.
uml r/n'tij) Street College.

RATCLIFFE COLLEGE,
LEICESTER, January 1904.

" We are using your German and Italian books and are much pleased
with the German especially." J. CREMONINI.

WAUKHAM TECHNICAL INSTITUTE.

"I find ' Hos.sfeld's Method' a most practical one ; the conversations,
reading lessons, questions and exercises, all comprised in a neat form,
display much judgment and care. The conversations and remarks
embrace all topics, and are worded in the most elegant French of to-day.
It is a practical System which will prove very useful to those who are
anxious to speak French with fluency and correctness. The book in fact
is a model of the way in which French should be taught."

I. WALTER, B.A.

COLLEGIATE SCHOOL, SLEAFORD.

" I have carefully tested your German Grammar and have now decided
to adopt it for general use. The graduation of the lessons and the
combination of theory, exercise, questions, conversation and reading make
it a model lesson book." E. R. DIBBEX.

TECHNICAL INSTITUTE,
COVENTRY, September 1903.

"I have introduced 'Hossfeld's Grammar' this winter at the
Technical Institute French Class, and if I am as well satisfied with same
as with the German Grammar, intend introducing it later into the
Advanced French Class as well, giving up other books."

J. F. RUEGER.

MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL,

HULL, September 1903.

Your French, German, and Spanish Grammars on the 'Hossfeld
Method ' are being used in this school through my recommendation."

C. KESSLER, M.A.,
Lecturer on Modern Languages.

BRITISH EVENING CLASSES,
NORTHAMPTON, 27th June 1904.

"An earnest student with a good teacher for pronunciation should
have no difficulty in rapidly acquiring a sound and extensive knowledge
of a language by your methods." E. PARNELL.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

for the Study of Modern Languages 11

SPRACH-U, UEBERSETZUNGS-INSTITUT,
LEIPZIG, GERMANY, 1903.

"I take great pleasure in telling you that I have used ' Hossf eld's'
German Grammar with my pupils for the past three months and find it a
most excellent book. It has the great advantage over all other Grammars
I know that all dullness has been avoided, the scholar soon takes a liking
to his German studies, and all rules being explained very lucidly, speaks
and writes German correctly in a short time."

M. MULLER-BONJOUR.

AMERICAN TESTIMONIALS

UNIVERSITY OF ROCHESTER,

OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT.
DEAR SIRS,

"I have examined with great care and much gratification your
Italian, German, and Spanish Grammars in the Hossfeld Series. I find
them quite equal to the French Grammar, of which I sent you a notice.
The method seems to me in all respects admirable, combining with a
wonderful skill grammatical and conversational exercises so as to convert
theory immediately into practice. I shall bring them to the attention of
our Professors in these Departments with a strong commendation."—
Respectfully yours,

D. J. HILL, President.

ST FRANCIS SERAPHICUS COLLEGE,
CINCINNATI, OHIO.

" I am happy to state that the Professor of French at our College is
highly pleased with your Hossfeld Grammar, and wishes to have it
introduced at once in place of the text-book we have hitherto been using.
Please send six copies at once."

REV. P. BERNARD NURRE, O.S.F.

TEMPLETON, IOWA.

" Your Spanish Grammar is eminently what is claimed for it — a
Practical Method for learning the Spanish Language. The lessons in
conversation are taken from life, and introduce the realities of life in a
familiar -and natural way so as to make the scholar feel at home and
help himself. The reading exercises are likewise ingeniously devised
and practically arranged so as to afford many opportunities of readily
recognising the idiomatic peculiarities of the language, and gradually
becoming familiarised with the same. Therefore I say, to whom it
concern, take and read and reap its manifold benefits, as the best proof
of its excellence."

REV. B. A. SCHUKTE.

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

12 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

COLLEGE OF ST THOMAS,
MERRIAM PARK, ST PAUL, MINN.

"I was so pleased with the copy of your French Grammar that I
immediately ordered thirty copies."

J. C. BYRNE.

CHURCH OF IMMACULATE CONCEPTION,

ALLENTOWN.

" I received your Hossfeld's French Grammar, and am impressed
that it meets the wants of the times, and, in my opinion, is the best I
hare seen."

REV. P. F. DONEGAN.

HENRYVILLES COLLEGE, CANADA.

" I think that your German Grammar is one of the best I ever saw."

BROTHER JOSEPH.

NEWARK, N.J.

"I am a teacher of Modern Languages, and all my pupils are using
the Hossfeld Grammar. It is, in my opinion, the best teaching method I
know. Its clear, easy, and methodical arrangement renders the study of
modern language pleasant and easy. The sub-division of each lesson
gives the pupil from the start an idea of the language he is studying.
Since I have used Hossfeld's Method the success has been beyond
expectation."

ALBERT J. FREICHLER.

NEW YORK.

" After careful examination of your French and Spanish Grammars, I
am pleased to say that the Hossfeld Method is in every way one of the
best I have ever seen. I cannot show my appreciation better than by
saying I shall place your books in the hands of my pupils with the greatest
confidence as to results."

EUGINIE RIVARDE.

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, WASHINGTON, D.C.

" I take much pleasure in informing you that I think the Hossfeld
Method most excellent. I deem it peculiarly well suited for private or
self instruction, and for this purpose I shall heartily recommend it to our
students. "

B. J. LAUTERBACH, S.J., Professor of German,.

CATHEDRAL OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION,
BURLINGTON.

" After a careful examination of your French Grammar I am happy to
concur with those who have already extolled its merits. I find its Method
remarkably clear and well adapted to the wants of those who cannot
conveniently procure the assistance of experienced teachers."

C. C. DELANEY, B.A.

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

for the Study of Modern Languages 13

CHARTER OAK, IOWA.

"We use your German Grammar, and consider it ahead of anything
we have yet seen. It seems to embrace the happy combination necessary
to make the study of the language interesting and easy."

PROFESSOR A. J. BAUMAX.

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, ST Louis.

"I am much pleased with your Hossfeld Method. It is one of the
best that has come under my notice, and I will give it a practical test."

BROTHER FELIX.

ST MARY'S COLLEGE, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS.

"The perusal of Hossf eld's Spanish Grammar forces upon me the
admission that it is an admirable work tending towards the acquisition of
the musical Castillan tongue. The varied reading exercises presented in
such a novel, and at the same time attractive form for the beginner, I
consider as one of the characteristic features of the production in
question."

BRO. CHARLES AUL, Teacher of Spanish.

PRESS OPINIONS

Tlie School muster says : " Hossf eld's French Grammar is a book of more
than average merit. It is a thoroughly practical work, combining rules,
illustrations and practice in a very judicious manner. Grammar, Conver-
sations, Reading Exercises follow each other so rapidly and are inter-
spersed in such continual variety, that if the Student finds the work dull
the fault must be in himself and not in the book. We are glad to find so
much use made of the double column system, by which very rapid progress
may be made by a diligent student."

The School Viun-dian says : " This Method of teaching possesses many
advantages and is well worked out in the Grammars before us."

L<j' says: " Hussi'eld's Grammar is almost entirely free from the
tiresome repetition of the same words and sentences, indeed one of the
aims has been to make it a vehicle of teaching as many words as possible.
This, however, is only one of the number of recommendations which this
work possesses. The work, in short, strikes us as being a sound and
highly meritorious performance. It has the additional advantage of
being excellently printed and remarkably cheap."

The Old/ami Chronicle says : " Messrs Hirschfeld Bros, did a splendid
work in issiiing the various text-books in Hossfeld's New Method ot study-
ing languages. It is quite free from all those irksome methods which have
made the study of foreign languages so repulsive to the average English-
man. All the definitions are crisp, clear, discriminating, and all the
exercises are developed on the soundest principles, hence the works are

13 Furnival Street, London, E.G.

11 Hossfeld's Conversational Method

the handiest and most interesting in our language. No one can blunder
through the Grammar, they are made to understand it line for line as they
go on. The books will prove a boon to the private student as well as to
those who study in a class-room ; they are accurate, comprehensive and
captivating, and cannot be too widely known amongst those desirous of
mastering languages. Governesses, private pupils, teachers and school-
masters will find these volumes all that they could desire."

The London Press Co. says : " Learners cannot do better than to obtain
the interesting and extremely cheap series of Grammars, Readers,- etc.,
written and compiled on the ' Hossfeld ' System. These manuals are all
that can be desired and are the best guides extant for learning languages.
Everything is set forth in a plain and concise manner, rendering the task
an easy one and making the student soon proficient in the languages.
The Readers form a collection of the most interesting prose and poetry of
each country."

The Birmingham Daily Post says : "The plan of the Hossfeld Grammars
is rational, and we think the acquisition of a foreign language by means
of them is likely to prove pleasant and rapid."

The Bristol Times says : " ' Hossfeld's Method ' offers the easiest and
quickest way of learning the French language. The progressive exercises
are arranged with skill and care, and the extracts of prose and poetry are
well chosen. No better book than this could be recommended to the
student of French."

Civil Service Review says : " These volumes, we should say, require only
to be mentioned to be bought far and wide, and only to be bought
to be appreciated."

The Standard says : " The diligent student of French may obtain a very
serviceable mastery of the language in a comparatively short time by
means of these excellent guides."

The Nonconformist says: "The Grammars and the Commercial Corre-
spondent are marvels of cheapness, of compression, and of fullness of
information. The Dictionaries are also very cheap, yet they are accurately
compiled."

The Publishers' Circular says : "The excellence of ' Hossfeld's Series '
is now so well known that additional volumes come before the public with
the hall-mark of assured ability, and require little comment at our hands."

Daily News says : '' We heartily commend these books to all wishing to
master these languages with ease and small outlay."

Daily Post says : "These books are as remarkable for their cheapness
as they are for their usefulness ; the type is large and clear."

Mercury says : " They are marvels of cheapness and brought within the
reach of all classes of persons."

HIRSCHFELD BROTHERS LIMITED

HOSSFELD'S EDUCATIONAL WORKS.

FRENCH. s. d.

English-French Grammar, by Hossf eld's New Method,

arranged for Classes, Schools, and Private Lessons ... v 3 0
Elementary French Grammar

Essentials of French Grammar ... ... ..^ ... 1 0

Advanced French Grammar ... ... ... ... 26

French Composition and Idioms ... ... ..." ... 2 6

Conjugation of French Kegular and Irregular Verbs ... 0 0
Polyglot Correspondent (English, French, German,

Spanish) n»t ' 3 6

English-French Commercial Correspondent ... . . 2 0

French-English Commercial Correspondent ... . . _' n

English-French Dictionary ... ... . ., '•»,"'! 0

French-English Dictionary ... 1 0

Two two Dictionaries in one volume ... ... ... '2 0

French Reader by Huguenet ... .•.. ... ... 2 0

Manual of French Conversation ... ... , . ... 1 6

100 Passages for Translation into English and German ... 2 0

100 Passages for Translation into German and French ... 2 0

Anecdotes, with notes, by Larmoyer ... ... ... J 0

French Plays, with Notes ... ... each volume, net 0 G

New English and French Vocabulary ... ... ... 2 <}

French Dialogues ... ... ... ... ... ... 1 6

SPANISH.

English-Spanish Grammar, by Hossfeld's New Method,

arranged for Classes, Schools, and Private Lessons ... 3 0

Spanish-English Grammar, by Hossfeld's New Method ... 4 0

Key to above 2 0

Spanish Composition and Idioms, by J. Boedo Yanez ... 2 0

Conjugation of the Spanish Regular and Irregular Verbs... 0 6

English-Spanish Commercial Correspondent ... ... 2 0

German-Spanish Commercial Correspondent ... ... 2 0

French-Spanish Commercial Correspondent ... ... -2 0

A new Spanish-English and English-Spanish Dictionary... "$& 6

Ditto, by Velasquez ... ... ... ... ... .0 0

Ditto, by Velasquez (Large Edition) ... ... ... 24 0

Hossfeld's Spanish Reader ... ... ... ... ... 20

German-Spanish Reader ... ... ... ... ... 2 0

Hossfeld's Spanish Dialogues ... ... ... ... 1 6

Gil Bias, in Spanish 2 0

Engineering Translations in English and Spanish net 3 6
Spanish Technological Dictionary, by N. Ponee de Le6n: —

Vol. I.— English-Spanish 36 0

Vol. II.— Spanish-English 32 0

GERMAN.

English-German Grammar, by Hossfeld's New Method,
arranged for Classes, Schools, and Private Lessons ...
Mangel's German TT^T :

y . i

**

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