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Prof, Alfred 0 Fcrretti
Household Refrigeration
A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES, TYPES,
CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION OF BOTH ICE
AND MECHANICALLY COOLED DOMESTIC
REFRIGERATORS, AND THE USE OF
ICE AND REFRIGERATION
IN THE HOME
H. B": HULL, M.E.
Refrigeration Engineer
Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged
PUBLISHERS:
NICKERSON & COLLINS CO.,
CHICAGO
/ r
H9
Copyright, 19^4, 1926 and 1927
XlCKERSON AND COLLINS Co
ALL RIGHTS RESESVED
Pke^' of
icE AND Refrigeration
Chicago-New York
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
In developing this work on "Household Refrigeration,"
the first of the kind published, the author has endeavored to
present a subject in its broadest sense.
Attention has been given to the production of refrigera-
tion for any household or domestic purpose by both ice and
mechanically cooled refrigerators. The work consists of a
treatise on the principles, types, construction and operation
of both ice and mechanically cooled refrigerators, including
therein certain considerations on the use of ice and refrigera-
tion in the home.
It is believed that this work will not only be found to be
interesting and instructive to designers, manufacturers, deal-
ers, and distributors, of both ice and mechanically cooled
refrigerators, but also will be of interest to the householder,
Ijll who employs refrigeration in either of the aforementioned
systems.
The author has drawn extensively on his experience as
a refrigeration engineer for material for this work. However,
in the many instances, he has made use of the work of others,
for which proper credit has been given. The author desires
to gratefully acknowledge the assistance which has been ex-
tended to him by various associations, publishers, manufac-
,turers, and others, during the preparation of the subject matter
of this book.
H. B. Hull.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
The industry of Household Refrigeration has made great
strides in the interim since the preparation of the first and
second editions of this work.
The use of the small refrigerating machine in homes is
rapidly increasing each year.
The use of ice in the home is also gradually increasing.
The seasonal character of sales of both household refrig-
erating machines and ice is gradually becoming less marked.
Many countries in Europe are demanding ice and house-
hold refrigerating machines to assure proper food preserva-
tion in the home.
This edition contains descriptions of the latest models
of both compression and absorption type household refrigerat-
ing machines and also includes recent improvements in refrig-
erator construction.
H. B. Hull,
October, 1927. Dayton, Ohio.
CONTENTS.
Chapter 1.
Page
Refrig-eration Units and Theory H
Chapter II.
Ice for Refrigeration Purposes 17
Chapter III.
Refrigerants "^^
Chapter IV.
Refrigerants — Tables ^■^
Chapter V.
Heat Transfer 101
Chapter VI.
Refrigerating Systems 125
Chapter VII.
Household Refrigerating Machines, Compression Type.. 187
Chapter VIII.
Household Refrigerating Machines, Absorption Type 299
Chapter IX.
J'age
Types and Constructions of Household Refrigerators.... 331
Chapter X.
Operation of Ice Refrigerators h77
Chapter XI.
Testing of Ice Refrigerators 399
Chapter XII.
Preservation of Foods in the Home 437
Chapter XIII.
Miscellaneous Tables 455
FOREWORD.
The problem of preserving food collected during times
of plenty, for use when the source of supply fails, has been
practiced by man from even the remotest ages. Among primi-
tive races, food preservation was essential to avoid f§mtf^
In the modern civilized countries, the preservation of food
is an important factor in maintaining a balance between the
demand and supply for perishable foods. There is a special
need of preservation in order to transport food to the large
cities.
Chemical processes of animal and vegetable tissue ac-
tively continue in these foods even after the more obvious
evidences of life has gone. Fruits ripen, grains mature,
starches become sugars, flavors develop, and meat becomes
tender. These changes are desirable and nutritively benefi-
cial.
There are numerous artificial methods employed to re-
strain the activity of these processes in foods. The most im-
portant is by refrigeration or cooling. Some other methods
are by drying, dehydrating-, smoking, pickling, curing, pre-
serving, and cooking.
Refrigeration is the method of food preservation which
causes a minimum of alteration of the desirable food prop-
erties. The natural freshness and flavors are retained with-
out abstracting moisture, and there is a minimum change in
the physical, chemical, or nutritive quahties of the food.
Refrigeration was first used by the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans, who cooled their wines and water in crude ves-
sels which extracted some of the heat from the liquids through
evaporation.
The first methods of preserving food by cooling were
very crude — a hole in the ground or a stream of water served
this purpose.
7
In the early part of the nineteenth century, the ice box
came into use. Natural ice was placed in the ice compart-
ment. The melting of the ice produced a circulation of cold
air which cooled the foods. This was a great improvement
over previous methods of storing perishable foods.
Ice of the winter months was stored for this use in spe-
cially constructed buildings, located near the pond or lake
supplying it.
The sui)ply of natural ice was very " uncertain. Trans-
portation M^as difificult and ice w^as only available to limited
localities.
The next important step in household refrigeration was
the use of manufactured ice. xA.ctive work in the develop-
ment of machines for producing ice in a commercial way was
carried on from 1830-1870. The success of these machines
permitted their use in even the 'warmest climates. In addi-
tion there were difficulties in transporting natural ice any
great distance from its source. In regard to manufactured
ice. the large loss in melting during months of storage and
the time of transportation could be saved. The quality of the
water used for making ice could be better controlled. The
supply was more certain and could be regulated to meet the
demand.
In addition to the increased use of manufactured ice, some
improvement in the construction of household refrigerators
was made. Better insulation was used, more sanitary lin-
ings and better air circulating systems designed. The tem-
])erature in the food compartments could be maintained from
20° to 30° lower than the room temperature.
During the last twenty years, the household refrigera-
ting machine has been under active development. It is only
within the last five years, however, that machines have been
manufactured in quantities and proven a commercial success.
Mechanical household refrigeration is having an impor-
tant influence on refrigerator cabinet construction. It is nec-
essary to have better constructed and insulated refrigerators
to operate satisfactorily, with the lower food compartment
temperatures produced by the mechanical unit.
The cost of operation of the household machine is about
the same as the cost of ice. When the interest of the invest-
ment and depreciation are considered they will usually cost
more than ice. The increased sale of machines indicate that
the advantages compensate for this difference in cost.
There are about 15,000,000 wired homes in the United
States supplied with electric current. Less than 3 per cent
of these have electrical refrigerating machines so there is a
large potential market for this product. About 12,000,000
iced refrigerators are in use in the United States at the present
time. There are about 9,000,000 wired homes in Europe.
The production of household refrigerating machines dur-
ing recent years has been approximately as follows :
Previous to 1923 20,000
Year 1923 20,000
Year 1924 24,000
Year 1925 75,000
Year 1926 260,000
Estimate for year 1927 600.000 to 800,000
The gas tired absorption type household refrigerating ma-
chine is being rapidly developed at the present time. The cost
of operation of this type machine can be considerably less than
the cost of the equivalent amount of refrigeration with ice.
There are about 17,000,000 gas meters in use in the United
States.
It is predicted that, in the near future, the automatic house-
hold machine will compete with ice, even on a cost basis in
homes having electric current or gas service.
CHAPTER I
REFRIGERATION UNITS AND THEORY
Heat Unit— A heat unit is an arbitrary standard or unit
of measurement which expresses the capacity of a given body
to absorb and retain heat energy under a given increase of its
sensible heat. Water has a greater heat capacity than ahnost
any other common substance and it has been used in framing
the definition of a heat unit.
British Thermal Unit.— A British thermal unit (B.t.u.) is
the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of pure v^ater one degree Fahrenheit at or near its
temperature of maximum density, 39.1° F. For practical work
it may be considered as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.
Sensible Heat.—Sensible heat is the heat which goes to
increase the temperature of a body without afifecting its state,
whether it be that of a solid, liquid or gas. Thus the addition
of sensible heat to a body may be felt by the hand or be indi-
cated by a thermometer.
Latent Heat.— Latent heat is the amount of heat that must
be supplied to a body to change its state from a solid to a
liquid, or from a liquid to change it to a gas. This heat sepa-
rates the molecules of the substance and cannot be indicated
by a thermometer since it produces no change in temperature.
Every substance has a latent heat of fusion, required to con-
vert it from a solid to a liquid, and another, a latent heat of
vaporization required to convert it from a liquid to a gas or
vapor. Experiments have shown that it requires 144 B.t.u.
11
12 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
to melt one pound of ice at 32° F. into one pound of water at
32° F.; thus we have 144 B.t.u. as the latent heat of fusion
of ice.
If heat is applied to one pound of water at 212° F. the water
will remain at this temperature under atmospheric pressure
until all of it has been evaporated into steam at 212° F. This
has been found to require 970.4 B.t.u.; therefore, the latent
heat of vaporization of steam at atmospheric pressure is said
to be 970.4 B.t.u.
Specific Heat. — The specific heat of a substance is the ratio
of its heat capacity to that of water. One pound of water
requires one B.t.u. to raise its temperature one degree F. One
pound of cast iron requires only 0.13 B.t.u. Therefore, the
specific heat of cast iron is 0.13. The specific heat of ice is
0.504; of air, 0.240, of anhydrous ammonia, 1.10. The specific
heat of materials usually stored in a refrigerator averages
about 0.80.
Refrigeration. — Refrigeration is a term used to represent
the cold produced or rather the amount of heat removed. It
is measured by the latent heat of fusion of ice. The capacity
of a machine in tons of "ice melting" or "refrigeration" does
not mean that the machine would make that amount of ice,
but that the cold produced is equivalent to the melting of the
weight of ice at 32° F. into water at the same temperature.
One ton of refrigeration is equal to 144x2,000 or 288,000
B.t.u. per 24 hours, or 12,000 Bt.u. per hour or 200 B.t.u. ])cr
minute.
Absolute Pressure. — Absolute pressure is the pressure
reckoned from a complete ^•acuunl. Gauges in common use
indicate the pressure, in pounds per square inch, above atmos-
pheric which is 14.7 at sea level ; this reading is called gauge
pressure. To convert gauge pressure to absolute pressure,
14.7 pounds, per square inch, must be added to the gauge
reading.
Absolute Zero. — Absolute zero is the point at which mole-
cules lose all motion ; in other words, the temperature at which
REFRIGERATION UNITS AND THEORY 13
there is an absence of all heat. This temperature has not been
reached but is assumed to be 460 degrees below 0° F.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.— The mechanical equiva-
lent of heat has been determined by accurate experiment. If
the heat energy represented by one B.t.u. be changed into
mechanical energy without loss, it would accomplish 778 foot-
pounds of work. One hp. represents 42.416 B.t.u. per minute.
Refrigerating Machine Capacity Rating. — In December
1920, the A. S. R. E. and A. S. M. E. adopted a standard
method for rating the capacit}^ of any refrigerating machine
which is concisely as follows :
"The capacity of any refrigerating machine shall be ex-
pressed in terms of 2,000 lbs. ice melting effect for 24 hours
(288,000 B.t.u.) with 5° F. saturation temperature in the suc-
tion side and 86° F. saturation temperature at the discharge
side."
Heat and Temperature. — Heat is a form of molecular
energy. All bodies are composed of large numbers of ex-
tremely minute particles, known as molecules. These mole-
cules have an attraction for each other, which is greater in
solids than in liquids and greater in licjuids than in gases.
These molecules are in a state of continuous and irregular
motion, the rate of which depends upon the temperature, be-
ing more rapid at higher temperatures. Absolute zero is sup-
posed to represent the condition of matter where there is no
kinetic energy of the molecules, and therefore no temperature.
Absolute zero is — 460° F., or —273° C.
Heat, being a form of energy, may be converted into elec-
trical, chemical or mechanical energy. The two terms, heat
and temperature, are frequently confused. Heat is a measure
of quantity. Two pieces of iron may have the same tempera-
ture, however if one piece is larger than the other it will con-
tain a larger quantity of heat. A cake of ice may contain more
heat than a smaller quantity of boihng water. Heat is con-
stantly passing from warmer objects to colder ones, just as
water always tends to flow down hill. There is no natural
process in which heat passes from a colder to a warmer object
without the expenditure of outside work.
14 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Temperature is a term used to denote the degree of hotness
or coldness of a body and as explained above, it depends upon
the amount of sensible heat contained in the body. Since our
sensation of warmth and cold is not sufficiently accurate and
trustworthy for technical purposes the physical change of ex-
pansion of a mercury, for example, accompanying its change
in temperature has been agreed upon as a method of measur-
ing temperature.
Theory of Refrigeration. — Refrigeration implies the reduc-
tion of the temperature of a body below the surrounding en-
vironment temperature. It further implies the maintaining
of this temperature difference. This requires the constant
extraction of heat from the space in which the temperature is
already lower than the surrounding environment temperature.
Example. — The food compartment of a refrigerator is being
maintained at a temperature of 45° F., and the room tempera-
ture is 70°. The refrigerator will continually absorb heat from
the room. It is therefore necessary to "pump" this heat out
of the refrigerator, as well as the heat supplied by placing rela-
tively warm food or containers inside the refrigerator. To
extract this heat from the 45° F. food compartment, it is neces-
sary to have a still colder object such as a cake of ice, a brine
tank, or cooling coil to continually absorb heat. The ice melts
and the heat in the refrigerator is used to supply the latent
heat necessary to change ice into water. With a brine tank in
which are immersed the evaporator coils, the heat in the re-
frigerator is used to vaporize the liquid refrigerant in the coils,
and a small amount to superheat the gaseous refrigerant, after
being vaporized. The refrigerant is then compressed, and this
heat passes into the condensing medium which is usually
water or air.
Refrigeration Constants. — A number of the commonly used
refrigeration constants are shown in Tables I to IX inclusive.
Table I contains the interrelation of tons of refrigeration,
pounds of refrigeration, and heat units (B.t.u.).
Table II gives the units of refrigeration, tons of refrigera-
tion, and pounds of refrigeration expressed in B.t.u. per day,
hour, minute and second. Due to the fact that the British
REFRIGERATION UNITS AND THEORY 15
ton is 2,240 pounds, the corresponding British ton of refrigera-
tion is therefore equal to 2.240X144=318,080 B.t.u. The cor-
responding American ton of refrigeration, 2,000X144=288,-
000 B.t.u.
Table III gives the tons of refrigeration required per ton
of ice made when approximately 20 per cent is allowed for
the losses occurring in the ice freezing process. Some of the
common properties of ice are given in Table IV, while the
weights of water per cubic foot and per gallon are given in
Table V. Table VI contains some useful hp. equivalents.
Some of the useful atmospheric pressure equivalents are given
in Table VII. Some average weights of cork insulation are
given in Table VIII. The heat transmission through one
square foot of surface is found by dividing the total heat in
B.t.u. transmitted per hour by the production of the mean
temperature difference, and the heat transfer rate expressed in
B.t.u. per square foot per degree of temperature difference per
hour. Some of the fixed points in thermometry and other tem-
peratures are given in Table IX.
TABLE I. CONVERSION FACTORS
^ Tons Pounds K.t.u.
Ton of Refrigeration 1 0.0005 O.GG0003507
Pound of Refrigeration 2,000 1 0 007014
B.tu 288,000 144 1
TABLE II. TONS AND POUNDS OF REFRIGERATION
1 Ton Refrigeration = 288000 B.t.u. per day
1 Ton Refrigeration = 12000 B.t.u. per hour
1 Ton Refrigeration = 200 B.t.u. per minute
1 Ton Refrigeration = 3j^ B.t.u. per second
1 Pound Refrigeration = 144 B.t.u. per day
1 Pound Refrigeration = 6 B.t.u. per hour
1 Pound Refrigeration = 0.1 B.t.u. per minute
1 Pound Refrigeration = .001^ B.t.u. per second
TABLE III. — RELATION OF REFRIGERATION TONNAGE TO ICE MAKING
Temperature of Condensing Tons Refrigeration
Water degrees F. Per ton ice making
50 1.46
60 1.53
70 1.60
80 1.67
90 1.74
16 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE IV. PROPERTIES OF ICE
Weight per cubic foot 57.5 pounds
Specific Heat 0.504 B.t.u.
Latent Heat 144 B.t.u.
TABLE V. — WEIGHT OF WATER
Weight per cubic foot 62.5 pounds
Weight per gallon 8.35 pounds
TABLE VI. — liORSEPOWER EQUIVALENTS
One mechanical horsepower = 33,000 foot pounds per minute
One mechanical horsepower = 2545. B.t.u. per hour
One mechanical horsepower = 746. watts
TABLE VII. — ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS
One Atmosphere = 14.67 pounds per sq. in.
One Atmosphere = 33,9 feet of water
One Atmosphere = 29.92 inches of m^ercury
TABLE VIII. — CORK INSULATION DATA
Weight per cubic foot, granulated = 6.5 pounds
Weight per cubic foot, regranulated = 8.0 pounds
Weight per cubic foot, corkboard = 12.0 pounds
B.t.u. heat leakage of one square foot corkboard
6.5 X temp, difference
per 24 hours =
Thickness in inches
TABLE IX. FIXED POINTS IN THERMOMETRY
Fehrenheil
Degrees
Absolute zero (theoretical) —460°
Mercury freezes —38°
Water freezes -{-32°
Household refrigerator (ideal temperature) 40° to 50°
Room temperature 68° to 70°
Pasteurizing milk 145°
Water boils 212°
CHAPTER II
ICE FOR REFRIGERATION PURPOSES
Historical Data. — The practice of cooling bodies below the
temperature of the atmosphere by the use of ice, has been fol-
lowed for centuries. In the earlier times, the ice used for
refrigeration purposes was natural ice, which formed on the
rivers, lakes and ponds, during the cold winter months. The
ice, after being harvested in the winter, was stored in caves
in the ground, so that perishable foods could be preserved
during the hot summer months. Coming up to modern times,
we find, in the last half of the nineteenth century, due to im-
proved methods of storing, harvesting, and distribution, that
the use of natural ice for refrigeration purposes assumed a
large proportion in the United States. Later, practically
within the time of the present generation, means were devised
whereby ice for refrigeration purposes could be procured by
mechanical means in commercial quantities. Still later, within
the last decade, attention has been directed to ways and means
of producing refrigeration in the home by mechanical means
directly.
At present this subject is receiving the attention of many
inventors, engineers, manufacturers, and others. New and
improved devices and processes are being developed con-
stantly.
The National Association of Ice Industries has recently
published a bulletin, entitled "The Romance of Ice," which
contains an interesting review of the historical data on this
subject. The following has been extracted from this bulletin :
17
18 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
THE ROMANCE OF ICE
Prologue. — Evt'iy i)ioducl, every industry, every modern develop-
ment has its "story." Perhaps the pages have not been turned back
to that he who runs may read and be interested, but the story is there.
Some of our greatest untold romances concern those taken-for-granted
commodities which the public sees, uses, enjoys, without giving a
thought to their interesting origin or the struggles of men in their
development.
For example, ice is a necessity without which the public would
really suffer. True the blasts of winter turn the waters of river, lake,
and pond into ice; one long pufJ from Boreas' cheeks provides thous-
ands of tons of ice each year, but twenty-six million American families
cannot be supplied by Nature's manufactory alone.
Let's turn back the pages of history for a moment and see what
happened in the world of yesterday to make ice now as readily acces-
sible as coal or wood. These pages reveal real romance.
History. — The early Greek poet, Simonides, while at a banquet,
observed that the liquor served to the other guests was cooled by
snow. Whereupon he expressed his dissatisfaction in the following
ode:
"The cloak with which fierce Boreas clothed the brow
Of high Olympus, pierced ill-clothed man
While in its native Thrace; 'tis gentler now,
Caught by the breeze of the Pierian plain.
Let it be mine: for no one will commend
The man who gives hot water to a friend."
History's pages also show that the ancient Egyptians knew the
secret of cooling by evaporation, as practiced by the native of India
today — filling with water shallow trays of porous material placed on
beds of straw, and leaving them exposed to the night winds, with
the result that dawn finds a thin film of ice formed on the surface.
On a very early page we find that the Emperor Nero had slaves
bring snow down from the mountains to cool his wines. Alexander
the Great had trenches dug for storing snow. Hundreds of kegs of
wine were cooled there, with the result that his phalanxes entering
battle the next day didn't care much what became of them, just so
it was a good battle.
Marco Polo, the great Italian navigator, brought recipes for water
and milk ices from Japan and China in the thirteenth century.
When Catherine d'Medici left Florence, Italy, to go to France, in
the sixteenth century, she took with her the best of the chefs to make
sure that she would be supplied with frozen creams and ices every day.
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 19
Sir Walter Scott told how Saladin, leader of the Mohammedan
armies, sent a frozen sherbet to Richard the Lion Hearted, much to
the amazement of that doughty monarch.
During the seventeenth century the French government made an
unsuccessful attempt at government ownership when it licensed the
business of farming snow and ice. The farmers who received govern-
ment favor thereupon raised prices with such studious regularity that
the people refused to buy and the Government was forced to relinquish
its control of this commodity. Immediately thereafter supply and
demand got into its stride and the business settled back into sanity.
As Lord Bacon commented in his Sylva Sylvarum:
"Heat and cold are Nature's two hands whereby she chiefly
worketh, and heat we have in readiness in respect of the fire, but
for cold we must stay till it cometh or seek it in deep caves or
mountains, and when all is done, we cannot obtain it in any great
degree, for furnaces of fire are far hotter than a summer's sun,
but vaults and hills are not much colder than a winter's frost."
Bacon knew what a useful thing it would be if man could have
the same command of cold as of heat. Scientist that he was, he under-
took experiments into its possibilities. This led to unfortunate re-
sults, as he caught his death of cold by alighting from his carriage
one winter day and stuffing snow into a chicken to see if it would keep.
The Italians, Spaniards, and Frenchmen have always been devotees
of better living, and history is filled with interesting side lights on
their uses of snow and natural ice.
Then we have the picture of the early fishmonger in England sell-
ing ice from his wagon, a practice which is continued to the present
day.
The first record of American delivery of ice to the home is in 1802.
The first commercial shipment of natural ice from America was ex-
ported from Boston by Frederick Tudor in 180.S when a shipload was
sent to Martinique in the West Indies to help stay the ravages of
yellow fever.
During this time all of the ice used was produced by Nature.
Natural and Manufactured Ice. — One of the most interesting phe-
nomena of Nature is the formation of ice. We all know that cold is
the absence of heat and that the freezing point of water is 32° F.
When the air above a pond, lake, or river is below 32° F., the top
layer of water is cooled and will sink because it is heavier than the
warmer layers underneath. This continues until all the water is cooled
to 39.1° F., at which point water reaches its greatest density. The
top layer will then be cooled still further but remains on top and
eventually will be reduced to the freezing point and ice will form.
20 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
If the water undearneath the ice is not in motion, opaque ice will
form. On moving bodies of water, as rivers and large lakes, clear
ice forms. This is because each drop of water in freezing sets free
the air it contains. The bubbles of air adhere to the surface of the
newly frozen ice crystal. As more ice encloses the bubbles, the
product becomes opaque. But where the water is in motion, the bub-
ble is washed ofiE the surface of the newly formed ice crystal and thus
the ice forms, clear and hard.
But how about the actual manufacture of ice?
As Edwin F. Slosson of the Science Service, Washington, D. C,
explains in his article, "Science Remaking Everyday Life:"
"The chronicle of the century of effort to approach the farth-
est north of temperature, absolute zero, is as fascinating as the
contemporary struggle to reach the geographic pole and unlike
the latter has proved profitable at every stage. When Fahrenheit
in 1724 stuck his mercury thermometer into a mixture of salt and
snow, he thought he had reached the lowest point possible and
boldly scratched zero on the tube. But it was not long before
scientists began to climb down the minus steps. In 1769 a Russian
professor, taking advantage of a cold spell, froze mercury itself
in a mixture of snow and nitric acid."
A hundred years ago, Faraday, working in the Royal Institution
of London, succeeded in condensing ammonia gas to a liquid by apply-
ing pressure and then cooling it. When the pressure was removed,
the liquid of course boiled off rapidly as a gas, absorbing heat in
doing so. Any liquid absorbs heat when it turns into a gas.
This discovery proved of the greatest importance, both practically
and theoretically. A solution of ammonia and water was used by
Carre in 1858 in his ice making machine. The first Carre machine to
reach the United States was shipped through the blockade of New
Orleans in 1863.
In 1755 Dr. William Cullen invented the first machine which pro-
duced ice by purely mechanical means, his achievement being followed
by those of Vallance of France (1824) and Jacob Perkins, an Ameri-
can then residing in England, who is given credit for the forerunner
of the modern compression apparatus, his model being patented in
England in 1834, with ether as the refrigerant employed. Other early
workers in this field of science were Prof. A. C. Twining, of New
Haven, Connecticut, and Dr. John Gorrie, of Appalachicola, Florida.
In the rotunda of the capitol at Washington, where each of the
states has set statues of its most distinguished citizens, Florida has
chosen this same Dr. Gorrie instead of any of its pioneer politicians or
military geniuses. Too many men of various countries have con-
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 21
tributed to the gradual development of mechanical refrigeration for
any one person to be entitled to exclusive credit for the invention,
but Dr. Gorrie certainly deserves this place in our National Hall of
Fame for the service rendered to the country when he took out the
first American patent in 1850 for a practical process of manufacturing
ice.
In the years of 1873-75 the first successful ammonia compression
machines were introduced by C. P. G. Linde of Germany, and David
Boyle of the United States. From 1875 to 1890 many new forms of
apparatus were produced and certain improvements were made.
Until the year 1890 the practical utilization of the art of ice mak-
ing and refrigeration had seemed to come to a standstill. But there
occurred in the year 1890 an incident that awakened the general public
to the possibilities of the use of mechanical refrigeration. This inci-
dent was the greatest shortage in the crop of natural ice that has
ever occurred in the United States. To this unusual shortage may be
accredited the impetus that started the rapid development and utiliza-
tion of mechanical refrigeration. Since 1890 the ice making and re-
frigerating industry has grown by leaps and bounds.
Thanks to the manufacturers of the refrigerating machine, ice
can be had at any time and anywhere that power can be obtained.
The ice machines give us ice in any quantity at any time.
Manufactured ice is made in cans holding 300 to 400 pounds. The
can is filled with pure water and is let down into a tank which is
filled with brine. The brine is made of sufficient density to permit its
freezing point to fall to zero Fahrenheit or below. The cans are ar-
ranged in regular order, in rows; between these rows of cans are
continuous coils of closed pipe through which passes the ammonia,
it being the most commonly used refrigerant. The ammonia starts
out as a liquid and expands, turning into a vapor and finally into a
gas as it absorbs heat from the brine which surrounds the coils
As the ammonia circulates through the pipes in the brine tank, it
absorbs the heat from the brine and lowers its temperature to a point
below the freezing point of water. As heat always travels from the
higher to the lower temperature, the brine, in turn, absorbs heat from
the water in the cans. When the temperature reaches a point low
enough, the water begins to freeze and ice forms on the inside of the
cans. As the freezing continues, the ice thickens until it finally closes
to the center of the can and is a solid block. As the ice forms, any
foreign matter in the water is forced to the center of the block. In
order to manufacture clear ice, it must be made from distilled water
or from "raw water," which is low in mineral content. The water
must also be kept in motion just as Nature keeps the river water
moving. By so doing, the particles of air and gases are liberated and
22 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
come to the top, thus allowing clear ice to be frozen. This is accom-
plished by conducting a stream of cold air into the can which keeps
the water in motion. Frequently, in order to get a cake that is clear
and clean all the way through, avoiding what is called a "core," the
water is drawn from the center of the can before it is completely
frozen and this cavity is refilled with distilled water.
What Ice Can Do. — When ice melts, it absorbs heat. Each pound
changing from solid ice to liquid water absorbs as much heat as would
be required to raise the temperature of one pound of water 144 de-
grees Fahrenheit. Indeed, the heat absorbing capacity of ice is so
great that it has been made the standard of comparison and the units
in which we measure this power are called British thermal units.
Ice is greedy to absorb heat. Therefore, if it is to do specific
work, it must be protected from those warm objects which we do not
desire cooled. For instance, in our home refrigerators ice is placed
inside of what we term insulated walls.
A material which does not allow heat to pass through it is called
an "insulator." To keep the ice from melting too rapidly, we build
into the walls of the container some insulator which keeps away the
atmospheric heat. The articles to be preserved for cooking or to be
kept cold are put into the insulated space with the ice. Then the
ice can absorb their heat, thereby cooling them, but turning into water
in doing so. This is the principle of all ice refrigerators.
The better the insulation, the less heat can get into the refrigera-
tor or ice box, and therefore, the less the ice meltage due to heat
leakage. The warmer the articles put into the box, the more ice they
will melt before they reach the same temperature as the ice box itself.
The temperature of ice is 32° F. If we had a perfect insulator —
one which would not allow any heat from outside to go through the
refrigerator walls, the temperature of the inside of the refrigerator
would be 32° F. also. However, all insulators allow some heat to
pass; the best ones permit little, while the poor ones let much heat
pass through. The poorer the insulation in the refrigerator, the higher
will be its temperature and the more ice will be melted when the air
outside is warm.
The question of proper air circulation in a refrigerator is one of
vital importance. The heat enters the refrigerator in two ways; some
through the walls of the box and some with the food to be cooled.
The warm air travels to the ice, is cooled, drops down to the section
directly under the ice and thence over the food, absorbing heat, mois-
ture, and odors. The warmed air, being lighter, rises through the
food chamber and again reaches the ice. Here the air is cooled, drops
moisture because of its lowered temperature, and whatever odors may
have been absorbed during its passage over the food are dissolved in
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 23
the film of water on the surface of the melting ice and pass off in
the meltage. Then the cooled, dried, and cleaned air is ready to make
another trip through the food compartment.
The intelligent housewife utilizes these facts to the advantage of
her family and her pocketbook. She sees that the ice compartment
of the refrigerator is ready to receive the ice when the ice man brings
it. Every minute it stays outside the insulated space it is absorbing
heat from the air and melting.
Refrigeration is the ideal preservative and the housewife who
really wants to economize on both food and ice keeps her refrigerator
well filled at all times. This is a simple matter of household efficiency.
When the ice gets low in the refrigerator, the walls naturally grow
warm and just that much more ice is required to bring the tempera-
ture down again to a safe point where the constant circulation of cold
air across the top of the ice, down its sides, down the side of the
small food compartment, across the floor of the refrigerator, up
through the food compartment and over the ice again purifies, and
preserves through every inch of its journey.
Ice in Daily Living. — In a multitude of ways ice has entered into
the daily life of the American people. It tinkles in the glass of water
with which the master of the house quenches his thirst; it furnishes
soft, clean water to shampoo milady's hair; and a small piece rubbed
on her satiny cheek brings the blush of youth. In the laboratory the
scientist depends upon it to chill his mixtures, and, in the hospital
the physician prescribes it to cure and to comfort. But most important
of all is the use of ice to maintain freshness, wholesomeness, and high
quality in foods, and, directly or indirectly, most of the ice produced
is utihzed for this purpose.
We are apt to think that the piece of ice in the home refrigerator
is the ice which is doing the work of food preservation, which is true.
But far behind the household refrigerator there is a long refrigerated
channel through which foods travel from producer to consumer. For
example, each refrigerator car holds from three to five tons of ice.
We have a fleet of about 150,000 such cars. One filling of ice is
seldom enough to protect the lading for the entire haul and, for long
hauls such as from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast as much as ten
tons of ice per car may be required. This means that millions of
tons of ice each year are used to protect our foods while in transit.
And then, just think of the hundreds of thousands of butcher
boxes, large and small, in which ice is the refrigerant.
How insignificant would apear the few ices and sherbets made by
Catherine d'Medici's chef when compared with the great ice cream
industry of this country. Though much of the ice cream manufactured
in this country is frozen by mechanical means, yet millions of pounds
24 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
of ice are required each year in the packing and handling of the
product. Over 300,000,000 gallons of ice cream are manufactured each
year, to say nothing of the large quantities made in homes where ice
must be used in the freezing process.
Of all the foodstuffs kept from spoiling by means of ice none is of
such importance as milk. Neither is there any food which depends
to such an extent upon ice to maintain its purity. From the cooling
of the milk with ice on the farm to the cracked ice in the container
for the bottles on the milkman's wagon, milk is never for one moment
from the cow to the consumer unaccompanied by its guardian and
caretaker — I CE.
What the Ice Industry Is Doing. — More than 6,000 factories sup-
ply America today with over 42,000,000 tons of ice each year. In
addition to this the harvesters of natural ice supply about 15,000,000
tons per annum. It is the duty of the industry to see that the Ameri-
can public is supplied with enough ice for all needs the year 'round.
To fulfill this responsibility requires a large investment in money and
men as well as sound business policy to serve the public economically
and produce that reasonable profit which must accrue to every suc-
cessful industry. For example, the city of New York uses each year
3,750,000 tons of ice. That the supply may not fail when warm weather
comes and the demand increases manyfold, ice is manufactured and
stored for months or until there is an accumulation of 200,000 tons
which is not considered excessive as a margin of safety for the con-
sumer. This is in addition to an average daily capacity for production
in the ice plants of greater New York City of 23,000 to 24,000 tons.
Similar precautions are taken the country over.
Not only the large city but the small town and the country side
must find ice available should the need or the desire arise. Accord-
ingly, we find small ice plants dotting the country from Canada to
Mexico and from Coast to Coast. Longer and longer are the delivery
routes and more and more frequent the supply stations. Into the
depths of the Grand Canyon where it is eternally summer, ice is
brought by burro back. On the banks of northern waters great houses
store Nature's product that even in the North food may be preserved
in warm weather.
To give an idea of the amount of equipment necessary and the
volume of business carried on, it is interesting to note that manu-
facturers of ice in large cities such as New York may have as many
as five hundred trucks and wagons in service, employ as many as
one thousand men and manufacture as much as one million and a half
tons of ice per year.
Such is the story of ice and the part it has played as the cen-
turies have rolled on and man has become more and more the master
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 25
of the elements about him. That he now holds the key which regu-
lates temperature, has been a development successful only after toil
and struggle.
But the benefits are available to all of us.
Properties of Ice. — Most substances on being cooled be-
come denser, changing from vapor to liquid and then to solid
form, each more compact than the preceding form. Water
is an exception to this general law. Water upon being cooled
behaves normally and becomes denser until cooled at 39°.
Further cooling expands the water until 32° is reached, when
it freezes. Ice forms with an expansion. If this were not so,
lakes would freeze from the bottom up. One can skate on
ice because the pressure melts the ice, making a thin film
of water. It requires energy to change from a solid to a
liquid as this is a propertv common to crystalline substances.
Ice freezes in crystals, hexagonal in shape. When ice is
frozen in the ordinary can method, these prisms have the
hexagonal side on the surface of the cake of ice. If there is
no agitation of the water during the freezing process, these
l)risms will continue in straight surfaces from the outside of
the cake to the center. When there is agitation of the water
during the freezing, the crystals break and pile up, forming
irregular lines and surfaces. This is the reason a sun test
will melt a 300 lb. cake of ice frozen without agitation, from
four to five hours sooner than it will melt a similar cake of
ice frozen with water agitation. The light, air, and heat enter
the cake frozen without agitation with much less resistance.
A cake of ice frozen with agitation has about one per cent
greater density than a cake of the same size frozen without
agitation.
One cubic foot of ice at 32° F. weighs 57.50 pounds.
One pound of ice at 32° F. has a volume of 0.0174 cubic
feet or 30.067 cubic inches. The relative volume of ice to
water at 32° F. is 1.0855. The specific gravity of ice is 0.922.
The specific heat of ice is 0.504.
Quantity of Ice Required for a Dairy Farm. —The United
States Department of Agriculture in Farmers' Bulletin No.
26 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
1078 gives the following information in reference to the quant-
ity of ice required for a dairy farm :
The quantity of ice needed for a dairy farm depends on
its location, number of cows milked, and methods of handling
the product. In the Northern States, it has been found that
with a moderately good ice house, where the shrinkage from
melting is not more than 30 per cent, half a ton of ice per cow
is sufficient to cool the cream and hold it at a low temperature
for delivery two or three times a week. It must be understood,
however, that suitable cooling tanks are necessary under this
estimate. The half-ton-per-cow estimate for ice to be stored
allows for a reasonable waste and also for ordinary household
use. If whole milk is to be cooled the quantity of ice stored
must be increased to one and a half tons per cow in the North
and two tons per cow in the South. To meet the needs of the
average family on a general farm, it will be necessary to store
about five tons.
Cost of Harvesting Ice. — ^The United States Department of
Agriculture in Farmers' Bulletin No. 1078 gives the following
data on the cost per ton for harvesting ice:
The cost of harvesting ice also varies with local conditions. It
is impossible, therefore, to give an estimated cost that will cover
all cases. The ice-harvesting season fortunately comes at a time when
there is the least work on the farm for men and teams, and conse-
quently the actual money cost is usually not very great. Investiga-
tions have indicated that counting the full value of the men's time,
the average cost of cutting ice is about 27 cents a ton. Add to this
the cost of packing and hauling, and the average cost of a ton of ice
is about $1.50, when the ice house is near the source of supply. If
the ice house is at a considerable distance the cost of hauling, of
course, is increased, and the total cost of storing ice in some instances
has amounted to $3.00 or more a ton.
Refrigeration Required for Making Ice.— The refrigeration
required to make a pound of ice may be calculated as follows,
when the initial temperature of the water is 75° F. :
To cool water (75° F.-32" F.) 43 B.t.u.
To freeze water (latent heat=::144) 144 B.t.u.
To cool ice from 32° F. to 18° F. (0.504x14) 7 B.t.u.
Total 194 B.t.u.
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 27
These quantities are shown graphically by Fig I. An addi-
tional amount of refrigeration, equivalent to from 15 per cent
to 20 per cent of the foregoing, must be allowed to cover the
unavoidable losses during the freezing of the ice. The fore-
going methods, together with an allowance of approximately
20 per cent for losses, were used for the calculation of the data
given in Table III of Chapter 1.
Size of Ice Cans. — Recent survey of the different sizes of
ice cans indicated there w^ere being manufactured at present
about fifty dilierent sizes. Of course, a great portion of the
ice manufactured in the United States is frozen in 300 lb. and
400 lb. cans. Table X gives the sizes of the so-called standard
ice cans. These particular sizes are used in a great majority of
the plants.
TABLE X. — STANDARD SIZES OF ICE CANS
Size of
Size of
Size ot
Inside
Outside
Size of
cake, in
top,
bottom.
depth,
depth,
band,
pounds
inches
inches
inches
inches
inches
50
8x 8
7/x7/2
31
32
j4xl/2
100
8x16
7>4xl5J4
31
32
j4xl/2
200
llj4x22/2
10/2x21/2
31
32
^x2
300
11/2x22/2
10/2x21/
44
45
^/4x2
400
11/2x22/2
10/2x21/2
57
58
Kx2
Cutting of Ice Into Blocks. — The cutting of ice into blocks
suitable for household refrigerators should be given special
attention. The 25 pound unit system of cuts is in general use.
The larger or 100 pound blocks are cut from the ends of the
cake and the 50 pounds cuts are made b}^ splitting the middle
100 pounds blocks. The 300 and 400 pound ice cakes usually
have from five to ten per cent overweight to allow for loss
in melting during storage and delivery.
Ice scoring machines are being used by the more progres-
sive manufacturers. Some of the advantages of the ice scor-
ing machines are : Insures customer of full weight, saves time
in delivery, and gives blocks of suitable dimensions for stan-
dard ice compartment. The ice scoring machine has a series
of saws which score the two largest faces at the same time.
The scoring for a 300 pound block requires one horizontal and
five vertical cuts.
28
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
ICE AND REFRIGERATION PURPOSES 29
Water. — Some of the dissolved solids found in ordinary
tap water are as follows :
Silica, Sulphate of soda,
Carbonate of iron, Chloride of soda,
Alumina, Carbonate of soda.
Carbonate of lime, Chloride of lime,
Sulphate of lime, Chloride of magnesia.
Carbonate of magnesia,
The first six of this list are scale formins: solids.
CHAPTER III
REFRIGERANTS
General Requisites. — The most desirable refrigerant should
possess the following" properties :
1. A high latent heat as well as a high ratio of the latent heat
to the specific heat of the liquid, in order to produce a large refrig-
erating effect per cycle of operation.
2. A boiling point at ordinary atmospheric pressure low enough
to obtain the temperature desired.
3. A condensing temperature at a relatively low pressure.
4. A low specific volume of vapor.
5. A high critical temperature.
6. A low ratio of compression.
7. A non-corrosive action on metals.
8. A chemical composition which is stable under working condi-
tions and inert on lubricants and gaskets.
9. A non-inflammable and non-explosive nature even when mixed
with air.
10. An inoffensive odor, non-injurious to health.
11. A behavior whereby its presence in small quantities may be
visibly detected by a simple test.
12. A low cost of production for a product of necessary chem-
ical purity for commercial use.
13. No affinity for constituents of the atmosphere whereby leaks
might form gases or acids effecting the normal operation of the
system.
14. A non-corrosive action on desirable bearing materials.
Refrigerants for Household Systems. — There are approxi-
mately 500,000 household refrigerating machines in operation
31
32 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
in the United States. Sulphur dioxide is the refrigerant used
in more than 75 per cent of these systems. Some of the other
mediums employed are : methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, butane,
isobutane, ammonia, propane, carbon dioxide, ether, air and water
vapor.
Amonia is used in more than 90 per cent of the larger or
commercial refrigerating plants.
Carbon dioxide is now used extensively for refrigerating
systems in boats where formerl}- ethyl chloride and air ma-
chines were favored. Carbon dioxide and air machines are
considered safer than machines with other refrigerants, in
case of accident or fire. Carbon dioxide is used rather ex-
tensively in Europe for small household machines and its use
in cooling theatres and public buildings is increasing in the
United States.
Ether has some use in small hand operated machines which
are manufactured in Europe and sold in the tropics.
Nitrous oxide has a limited use in the chemical industries
when very low temperatures are desired.
Pressure of Condensation, — The condensing pressure
should be comparative!} low. Assuming 86° F, as the con-
densing temperature, the following pressures are obtained with
the refrigerants in common use:
Ether 2.4 Lbs. Gauge
Ethyl Chloride 12.40 Lbs. Gauge
Sulphur Dioxide 51.75 Lbs. Gauge
Methyl Chloride 80.83 Lbs. Gauge
Propane 143.0 Lbs. Gauge
Ammonia 154.5 Lbs. Gauge
Ethane 666.0 Lbs. Gauge
Nitrous Oxide 915.3 Lbs. Gauge
Carbon Dioxide 1024.3 Lbs. Gauge
The high condensing pressure reached with carbon dioxide
and even ammonia, necessitates very strong and w^ell made
apparatus. The carbon dioxide machines in use today are
water cooled. The ammonia machines are also water cooled.
Air cooled ammonia machines have been built but have not
been used commercially. Sulphur dioxide machines have been
placed on the market, both as w^ater cooled and air cooled.
The air cooled operate at a condensing pressure of 10 to 20
pounds higher than the water cooled type. Air cooling lowers
REFRIGERANTS 33
the efficiency, but increases the simplicity of the refrigerating
system. A study of the development of household machines
indicates that it is very desirable to use air cooled condensers
to obtain simplicity, lower initial cost, and lower installation
costs. Air cooled condensers are now used almost universally
in household machines of the compression type.
It has not proven practical to use air cooling for refriger-
ants operating at a condensing pressure of more than 150 lbs.
gauge. It is usually necessary .to centralize the piping with
refrigerants having a condensing pressure of over 150 lbs.
o-auo-e and distribute the refrigeration by means of a brine
system.
Pressure of Vaporization. — The following evaporating
pressures are obtained with the refrigerants in common use
at 5° F., evaporating temperature.
Ether — 13.19 Lbs. Gauge
Ethyl Chloride —10.05 Lbs. Gauge
Sulphur Dioxide —2.88 Lbs. Gauge
Methyl Chloride 6.19 Lbs. Gauge
Ammonia 1957 Lbs. Gauge
Propane 30.5 Lbs. Gauge
Ethane 221.0 Lbs Gauge
Nitrous 'Oxide 318.3 Lbs. Gauge
Carbon Dioxide 319.7 Lbs. Gauge
The evaporating pressure has an important influence on
the stuffing box. The packing is usually made to take up
wear automatically. It is advantageous to have nearly the
same pressure on both sides of the packing.
Sulphur dioxide operates at an evaporating pressure very
close to atmospheric pressure, thus favoring this condition
better than any of the other refrigerants in common use.
With a refrigerant such as ethyl chloride, which normally
operates with a partial vacuum on the evaporator, it is very
difficult to locate a leak as air could enter the system un-
noticed, and would greatly reduce the efficiency of the appa-
ratus.
Some household machines have all moving parts entirely
enclosed, thus eliminating this packing gland difficulty. The
compressors so far designed with a method of eliminating the
packing gland include the design features which have not as
yet proven practical in large quantity production. Other
34 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
machines have an oil reservoir on both sides of the stuffing
box, so that any small leak would be of oil either into or out
of the compressor crank case. This would depend upon the
pressure inside the crank case being above or below atmos-
pheric pressure.
Latent Heat of Vaporization. — The latent heat of vaporiza-
tion should be carefully considered in selecting a refrigerant
for a household machine. One of the most difficult problems
is the expansion valve, float valve, or liquid restriction device,
which controls the rate of flow of liquid from the condensing
to the evaporating side of the system. With a high latent
heat of vaporization, this problem is more difficult, as it is
then necessary to control through a more sensitive valve (the
amount of liquid circulating per minute being less). In mak-
ing this comparison it is also necessary to consider the con-
densing and evaporating pressures. These determine the
pressure differential tr\ing to force the liquid through the
expansion valve.
This problem is more difficult with ammonia than with
sulphur dioxide, as it is necessary to circulate three to four
times more refrigerant in the sulphur dioxide system, because
of its lower latent heat of vaporization, while the pressure
differential between the condensing and evaporating sides are
less than in an ammonia system. On larger refrigerating sys-
tems, the liquid control problem is less difficult ; therefore, a
refrigerant with a high latent heat of vaporization is preferred.
Carbon dioxide has a very low latent heat of vaporization,
about half that of sulphur dioxide. However, the pressure
differential is so great as to more than offset the advantage of
having a loAver latent heat.
The latent heat of vaporization of the household refriger-
ants in common use at 5° F. is:
Carbon Dioxide 115.30 B.t.u. per Lb.
Nitrous Oxide 121.4 B.t.u. per Lb.
Sulphur Dioxide 169.38 B.t.u. per Lb.
Propane 169.5 B.t.u. per Lb.
Ethane 176.0 B.t.u. per Lb.
Ethyl Chloride 177.0 B.t.u. per Lb.
Methyl Chloride 178.5 B.t.u. per Lb.
Ammonia 565.0 B.t.u. per Lb.
REFRIGERANTS 35
Corrosion of Metals. — An important factor in choosing a
refrigerant is the corrosive action on metals. Sulphur dioxide
has no corrosive action on iron or steel, unless there is water
present. Water and sulphur dioxide combine chemically as
follov^'s :
H,0 plus SO2 = H.SO.-;
Water plus sulphur dioxidei^Sulphurous acid
Suli)liur(nis acid is f(jrnicd, which will attack won
This condition sometimes occurs, resulting in a so-called
"frozen" compressor. The pistons will "freeze" to the cylin-
ders so tightly that it is necessary to take the compressor
apart and remove such material before operating again.
Sulphur dioxide has no chemical or corrosive action on
copper or copper alloys, thus permitting the use of copi)er
tubes for the condensing and cooling elements. This is an
advantage, as the thermal conductivity of copper is seven or
eight times greater than that of steel or iron. Copper or cop-
per alloys cannot be used with ammonia when there is water
present. Copper can be used with anhydrous ammonia. Cop-
per lines are used on some absorption machines using a solid
absorbent and charged with anhydrous ammonia.
Methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, butane, and carbon diox-
ide have no chemical or corrosive action on copper, copper
alloys, iron or steel ; therefore, these refrigerants may be used
with any of these metals.
Testing for Gas Leaks. — Sulphur dioxide is one of the two
refrigerants, ammonia being the other, with which it is pos-
sible to find leaks by means of a visible method called the
"smoke" test.
The smoke test consists of placing aqua ammonia near the
sulphur dioxide leak. A chemical reaction occurs and dense
white smoke apparently issues from the opening.
SO. + H.O = H.SO3
2NH4OH H.SO:. = (NH4).S03 + 2H.O
(NH4)2SOy is a white solid ammonium sulphite. A burn-
ing sulphur stick is used in testing for an ammonia leak.
A small alcohol flame is sometimes used in testing for an
appreciable leak of methyl chloride. The flame is passed near
the connections to be tested. A leak of methyl chloride will
36
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
impart a green color to the nearly colorless alcohol flame.
There is no danger of igniting an explosive mixture of methyl
chloride and air in making- this test. It is necessary to have
at least 10 per cent and not more than 15 per cent of methyl
chloride present by volume to form an explosive mixture with
air. It is impossible to remain in a room for more than a
minute or tw"o with this concentration present because of the
physiological effect upon breathing.
Another method used to find leaks of methyl chloride is
to use a small electrically heated wire. The wire is heated
to a dull red temperature. While the wire is being applied,
the fumes of ammonia arc brought near. If methyl chloride
is present a fume will result, due to the decomposition of the
methyl chloride to hydrochloric acid and carbon and the recon-
struction of the hydrochloric acid set free with the ammonia.
Comparisons of Refrigerants for Household Machines. —
From foregoing considerations it will be observed *that the
operating pressures, latent heat of evaporization, facility for
testing for gas leakage, inflammability, corrosive action on
TABLE XI. REFRIGERANTS FOR HOUSEHOLD MACHINES
Relative Advantage for Use in Household Machines.
Listed in order of preference under each heading.
Operating
Pressures
Latent Heat
of Vapori-
zation
Testing for
Gas Leaks
Inflamma-
bility
Corosive
Action on
Metals
Danger of
Breathing
Small Con-
centration of
Gas in Air
Lubrica-
tion
Sulphur
dioxide
Carbon
dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon
dioxide
Methyl
chloride
Carbon
dioxide
Sulphur
dioxide
Methyl
chloride
Sulphur
dioxide
Sulphur
dioxide
Sulphur
dioxide
Ethyl
chloride
Ethyl
chloride
,\mmonia
Ammonia
Ethyl
chloride
Methyl
chloride
Ammonia
Ether
Methyl
chloride
Methyl
chloride
Ethyl
chloride
Methyl
chloride
Ether
Methyl
chloride
Carbon
dioxide
Ether
Ether
Ether
Ether
Ethyl
chloride
Ethyl
chloride
Sulphur
dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon
dioxide
Carbon
dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon
dioxide
Ether
Ammonia
Sulphur
dioxide
Ethyl
chloride
metals, danger of breathing, and lubrication, are the principle
factors to be considered in the selection of a suitable refriger-
ant for household refrigerating machines. With these factors
REFRIGERANTS 2,7
in mind, the author has prepared Table XI, to show the rela-
tive advantages of various refrigerants in household machines.
These are listed in order of preference, under each of the head-
ings for sulphur dioxide, ethyl chloride, ammonia, methyl
chloride, ether, and carbon dioxide.
Characteristics Influencing Selections. — The following are
some of the general characteristics influencing the selection of
refrigerants :
1. The condensing pressure should be reasonably low at tap
water or atmospheric air temperatures, depending upon the cooling
medium used. The evaporating pressure necessary to freeze ice in a
reasonable length of time should be close to atmospheric pres-
sure, preferably above, to prevent gas leaks when a stuffing box is used.
The ratio of compression between the condensing pressure and pres-
sure of vaporization should be small in order to facilitate the function-
ing of the expansion valve.
2. A low latent heat of vaporization is preferred so that a larger
amount of liquid refrigerant circulates to do the same amount of
cooling. This makes the expansion valve or liquid control restriction
less sensitive and permits the valve to leak more without affecting
normal operation.
3. A refrigerant having a visible or "smoke" test for leaks is
preferable as it is then not necessary to test every joint with oil or
soap water. It is extremely difficult to find leaks if a refrigerant oper-
ates at a pressure less than atmospheric as air can leak into the appara-
tus affecting normal operation before the leak is detected.
4. A non-inflammable refrigerant is preferred in order to prevent
danger in case of a gas leak in the refrigerating system in a home
and also to prevent danger in case of fire.
5. A refrigerant is favored which does not have a corrosive or
chemical action on metals. It is advantageous to be able to use cop-
per and copper alloys for heat interchange apparatus on account of
the higher rate of heat conductivity. Some refrigerants have a
corrosive efi'ect on metals when water or gases from the atmosphere
are allowed to enter the refrigerating system.
6. Preference is given to the different refrigerants in accordance
with the percentage of gas, which, when mixed with air, will not give
discomfort when breathed for a considerable length of time.
7. It is preferable to use oil as a lubricant. It is desirable to
eliminate the oil trap. The lubricant problem is more difficult when
larger volumes of gas must be compressed, often .necessitating a ro-
tary compressor.
38
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Amount of Refrigerant to Be Evaporated. — The relative
amount of the liquid refrigerant to be evaporated to produce
refrigeration at a given rate depends upon the relative latent
heat of vaporization and sensible heat of the respective re-
frigerant. Generally, those refrigerants which have high latent
heat of evaporization require a small amount of liquid to
be evaporated to produce a given refrigerating effect. This
is illustrated by ammonia, which has a fairly large latent heat
of evaporization. On the other hand, certain refrigerants have
Carbon Dioxide Ethyl Chloride Methyl Chloride Sulphur Dioxide Ammonia
FIG. 2— AMOUNT OF LIQUID REFRIGERANT TO BE EVAPORATED
low latent heats of evaporization, in which case, the sensible
heat of the liquid corresponds to a large proportion of the
available latent heat of evaporization. By sensible heat of
liquid is meant the heat required to cool the liquid refrigerant
from the temperature at the exit from the condenser, or at a
point just before the expansion valve to the temperature exist-
ing in the evaporator. Carbon dioxide is one of the representa-
tive refrigerants which has a fairly small latent heat of evapo-
rization. Fig. 2 shows graphically the amount of refrigerant
which must be evaporated per minute to produce one pound
of ice melting effect per 24 hours for carbon dioxide, ethyl
chloride, methyl chloride, sulphur dioxide, and ammonia.
REFRIGERANTS
39
Use of Refrigerants in the United States. — The various
types of refrigerating plants using different refrigerants in
the United States may be classified into large commercial
plants, small commercial plants, marine installations, and
household refrigerating machines. In a large commercial
plant, it will be found that ammonia is used extensively; in
small commercial plants ammonia is used extensively also;
in marine installations, carbon dioxide is used extensively,
and in the household machines, sulphur dioxide is used exten-
sively. Table XII shows the use of the different refrigerants
in the United States at present.
TABLE XII. — USE OF REFRIGERANTS IN UNITED STATES
Table Showing Present Usage in U. S. for Various Types of Refrigerating Plants.
Large
Commercial
Plants
Small
Commercial
Plants
Marine
Installations
Household
Machines
Ammonia
(Compression)
Extensive
Extensive
Limited
Very Limited
Sulphur Dioxide
None
None
Very Limited
Extensive
Methyl Chloride
None
None
Very Limited
Limited
Ethyl Chloride .
None
None
Very Limited
Limited
Carbon Dioxide .
Limited
Limited
Extensive
Very Limited
Air
None
None
Very Limited
Very Limited
Ammonia
(Absorption) .
Limited
Limited
None
Limited
Isobutane
None
None
None
Limited
Comparative Cylinder Displacements. — On account of the
fact that the different refrigerants have different latent heats
of evaporation and sensible heats of liquid, as well as specific
volumes of vapors, it is evident that the cylinder displace-
ments will be individual with each kind of refrigerant. Those
refrigerants which have high refrigerating effects with corre-
sponding low specific volumes of vapor, will require the mini-
mum cylinder displacements, while those which have low re-
frigerating effects, and correspondingly large specific volumes
of vapor, will require the maximum cylinder displacements.
The converse of this may be stated by giving the refrigerat-
ing effect per cubic foot of cylinder displacement. Table XIII
has been prepared to show the relative refrigeration per cubic
foot of cylinder displacement for an evaporating temperature
of 5' F., and a condensing temperature of 86° F. for some of
the common refrigerants. From this table, it will be noted
40
HOUSEHOLD REFKIGERATION
that ethyl chloride has a very small refrigerating effect per
cubic foot of cylinder displacement, that carbon dioxide has a
high refrigerating effect per cubic foot, and that sulphur diox-
ide, methyl chloride, and ammonia, have a medium refrigerat-
ing eff'ect per cubic foot of cylinder displacement.
TABLE XIII COMPARATIVE REFRIGERATION PER CU. FT. OF
CYLINDER DISPLACEMENT
For 5° F. Suction Temperature and 86° F. Condensing Temperature
S :lphur
Mcthvl
Carbon
Ethyl
Dioxide
Ammonia
Chloride
Dioxide
Chloride
Chemical S\"mbol
SO2
mh
CH3CL
CO2
C2H5CL
Latent Heat at 5° F
1G9.3S
oGo.O
17S.5G
115.3
177.0
Heat to Cool Liquid
2<S.01
90.55
■ 38.15
58.61
34.7
Refrigerating Effect per lb .
UL37
474.45
140.41
56.69
142.3
Specific Volume Vapor at
5° F. (cu. ft. per lb.)...
G.421
8.15
4.53
0.2673
17.06
Refrigerating Effect per
cu. ft. Cylinder Dis-
placement
22.17
58.22
31.00
212.08
8.35
Properties of Ammonia. — Ammonia is a colorless, gaseous
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Its chemical formula
is NH,,, indicating that one atom of nitrogen unites with three
atoms of hydrogen to form ammonia. Its boiling point at
atmospheric pressure is — 28° F. It has a melting point of
—107.86° F.
Color and Odor. — Ammonia is a colorless, transparent
liquid or gas. It has an extremely pungent, peculiar, and of-
fensive odor which is easily recognizable and irrespirable.
Inflauunahility. — It does not support combustion. How-
ever, under high pressure it may form an explosive mixture
when intermingled with oil vapor. It is decomposed into its
elements by extreme heat and under such conditions, an ex-
plosive mixture may result. It is combustible when mixed with
a sufficient proportion of air, being capable of exploding with
considerable violence.
Corrosion of Mcfals. — It will attack copper and all of its
alloys when water is present, but it has no chemical or corro-
sive action on iron and steel. Ammonium hvdroxide has a
REFRIGERANTS 41
slight reaction on iron when in a very dilute concentration.
With the higher concentrations used in ammonia absorption
plants, no reaction occvn^s on iron.
Locating Leaks. — Ammonia leaks may be readily located
by the "smoke" test which consists of placing a burning sul-
phur stick in the vicinity of the leak. A chemical reaction oc-
curs and a dense white smoke apparently issues from the open-
ing.
Stability Tozvard LIcat. — It is a rather stable gas especially
at temperatures under 300° F. However, the chemical bond
is not as strong as with carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
A household compressor should always have a discharge gas
temperature lower than 300° F.
Solubility in Water. — It is very soluble in water, the union
of the two producing considerable heat and forming ammon-
ium hydroxide until a certain concentration has been reached.
The vapor may then be driven off by heating the ammonium
hydroxide, and it is on this principle that the absorption sys-
tem operates.
Properties of Butane. — Butane is one of the isomeric, in-
flammable gaseous hydrocarbons of the methane series. Its
chemical formula is C^H^o, indicating that four atoms of car-
bon unite with ten atoms of hydrogen to form butane. It
has a boiling point of 31° F. at normal atmospheric pressure
and a melting point of 211° F.
Color and Odor. — Butane is a colorless lic[uid or gas, with
a slight ethereal odor and is slightly asphyxiating. The vapor
is non-poisonous.
Inflammability. — It is inflammable, the gas burning with a
yellow flame.
Corrosion of Metals. ■ — It has no corosive effect on copper,
copper alloys or iron, even in the presence of moisture.
Locating Leaks. — It is difficult to locate leaks as no easy
sight test can be made.
42 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Stability Tozvards Heat. — It is a stable gas which does not
break up at temperatures encountered in normal operation.
The critical temperature is 551.3° F.
Displacement Required. — The displacement required for a
certain amount of refrigeration is about 7 per cent more than
with sulphur dioxide.
Properties of Carbon Dioxide (Carbonic Acid Gas). — Car-
bon dioxide is a heavy, colorless gas ; it is sometimes called car-
bonic acid gas. This is on account of the fact that the acid,
carbonic acid, H._,CO:; breaks down readily into water and car-
bon dioxide, CO^ ; the latter is commonly called carbon dioxide
or carbonic acid gas. It has a chemical symbol, CO^, which indi-
cates that one atom of carbon unites with two atoms of oxygen
to form carbon dioxide. At normal atmospheric pressure, it
has a boiling temperature of —108.4° F. and if the liquid is
sufficiently cooled, it is solidified into a snowlike substance,
which evaporizes or sublimes at —160.6° F.
Color and Odor. — Carbon dioxide, sometimes called car-
bonic acid gas, is a colorless liquid or gas. It exists as a gas
in very small quantities in the atmosphere and is non-odorous.
It is harmless to breathe except in extremely large concentra-
tions when the lack of oxygen would be noticed.
Inflainniability. — It is not inflammable and does not sup-
port combustion.
Corrosion of Metals. — It has no corosive effect on copper,
copper alloys or iron.
Locating Leaks. — It is difficult to locate leaks as no easy
sight test can be made.
Stability Tozvards Heat. — It is a stable gas which does not
break up at the temperature encountered in normal operation.
This gas is very inert. The critical temperature is 87.80° F.
Solubility in Water. — It is slightly soluble in water, the
])ercentage increasing at lower temperatures.
Displacenioit Required. — It requires about one-fourth the
displacement of an ammonia machine to do the same amount
of refrigeration.
REFRIGERANTS 43
Properties of Ethane. — Ethane is a gaseous hydrocarbon,
and is a constituent of ordinary natural and illuminating gas.
It is a second member of the methane series, and has the chem-
ical symbol CgHg. It has a boiling point of —126.9° F. and
a melting point of — 277.6° F.
Color and Odor. — Ethane is a colorless liquid or gas of the
hydrocarbon series. The gas is non-poisonous. It has an
ethereal odor and is slightly asphyxiating.
Inflammability. — It is inflammable, burning with a yellow
flame.
Corrosion of Metals.— It has no corrosive efifect on metals
and does not form injurious acids with water.
Locating Leaks. — It is difficult to locate leaks as no easy
sight test can be made.
Stability Toivards Heat. — This gas is stable under the con-
ditions of pressure and temperature required in refrigeration
work.
Displacement Required. — The displacement required is
about 40 per cent greater than with carbon dioxide.
Properties of Ether. — Ether is a light, volatile, inflammable
gas, having a characteristic aromatic odor, and is obtained by
the distillation of alcohol with sulphuric acid, and is thus
sometimes termed "sulphuric ether." It has the chemical
symbol C4H10O. Its boiling point is 94.1° F., and its melting
point is —177.34° F.
Color and Odor. — Ether is a colorless gas or liquid with a
strong ethereal smell.
Inflammability. — It burns with a luminous flame and ex-
plodes when mixed with air.
Corrosion of Metals. — It has no corrosive action on metals
Locating Leaks. — It is difficult to locate leaks, especially
on the evaporating side, as this is usually operating at a
vacuum. Air leaking into the system would cause no damage
44 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
from chemical action or corrosion; however, it would soon in-
crease the condensing pressure, affecting the normal operation
of the system.
Stability Towards Heat. — It is stable at the temperatures
reached in the condensing element. The gas condenses dur-
ing compression and superheats during expansion.
It is miscible with water.
Properties of Ethyl Chloride. — Ethyl chloride is a colorless
and a very volatile liquid, having an aromatic odor. It is used
widely as a local anaesthetic. Its chemical symbol is CsHgCl.
It has a boiling point of 53.96° F., and a melting point of
—217.66° F.
Color and Odor. — Ethyl chloride is a colorless gas or liquid
with a pungent ethereal smell and a sweetish taste.
Inflammability. — It is inflammable when mixed with a cer-
tain proportion of air. It burns w'ith a green-edged flame. A
certain quality of ethyl chloride has been produced in England
which is claimed to be non-inflammable. This result is ob-
tained by the addition of a certain amount of methyl bromide.
Corrosion of Metals. — It has no corrosive effect on metals.
Locating Leaks. — It is very difficult to locate leaks, espe-
cially on the evaporating side of the system, as the pressure
of evaporization is considerably below atmospheric pressure.
Stability Tozvards Heat. — It is stable toward heat and does
not fractionize at the temperatures reached in the condenser.
The critical temperature is 361.0° F.
Solubility in Water. — It is slightly soluble in water and
dissolves oils. Glycerine is used as a lubricant in some ethyl
chloride systems.
Properties of Methyl Chloride. — Methyl chloride is the
colorless, sweet-smelling gas which is obtained by the action
of hydrochloric acid on methyl alcohol. It is easily liquefied
by pressure and cold, and is used as a refrigerant and a local
anaesthetic. It has a chemical symbol of CH3CI, and has a
boiling point of — 10.66° F., and a melting point of — 143.68° F.
REFRIGERANTS 45
Color and Odor. — Methyl chloride is a colorless, transpar-
ent liquid or gas. The odor resembles that of chloroform ;
however, it is not so lieavy and is less sweet.
Inflammability. — It is inflammable in concentrations of at
least 10 per cent and not more than 15 per cent with air. It
requires a spark or white hot wire to explode it even at these
concentrations.
Corrosion of Metals. — It does not attack copper, copper
alloys or iron.
Locating Leaks. — Methyl chloride operates with a pressure
greater than atmospheric on both the condensing and evapo-
rating units of the system. Adarge leak would force methyl
chloride gas into the room where its presence might be
noticed by the peculiar odor. One method of testing for leaks
is by means of an alcohol flame, for methyl chloride gas will
impart a green color to the nearly colorless alcohol flame.
Stability Towards Heat. — It is very stable towards heat.
It requires a red heat to decompose it into hydrochloric acid,
methane, hydrogen, etc. The critical temperature is 289.6° F.
Solubility in Water. — Three to four volumes of methyl
chloride gas will dissolve into one volume of water at ordinary
temperature and atmospheric pressure. Methyl chloride in
the presence of water may form a solid crystalline h}drate
CH3CI.6.H2O.
Properties of Propane. — Propane is one of the heavy gas-
eous hydrocarbons of the paraffin series. It occurs, naturally,
dissolved in crude petroleum. It has the chemical symbol
CgHg, a boiling point of — 48.1° F., and a melting point of
—309.8° F.
Color and Odor. — Propane is a colorless liquid or gas of
the hydrocarbon series. The gas is non-poisonous and is not
dangerous to breathe until its density is sufficient to ex-
clude the ox}'gen necessary during respiration. It has an
ethereal odor and is slightly asphyxiating.
46 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Inflammability. — It is inflammable. The gas burns with
a yellow flame.
Corrosion of Metals. — It has no corrosive action on any
metals and does not form injurious acids with water.
Locating Leaks. — It is difficult to locate leaks as no easy
sight test can be made.
Stability Tozvards Heat. — It is stable under the conditions
required in refrigeration work. The critical temperature is
204. r F.
Displacement Required. — The displacement required is prac-
tically the same as with ammonia.
Properties of Sulphur Dioxide. — Sulphur dioxide is a color-
less gas, having a pungent, suffocating odor. It is produced
by the burning of sulphur. It has a chemical symbol, SOg,
and a boiling point of 14° F., and a melting point of — ^98.86° F.
Color and Odor. — Sulphur dioxide is a colorless liquid or
gas. The gas is non-poisonous.
Inflammability. — It is not inflammable and does not sup-
port combustion.
Corrosion of Metals.- — It has no corrosive effect on copper,
copper alloys or iron. If there is water present, sulphurous
acid is formed which will have a chemical action on metals
such as iron, zinc, or copper. The moisture should be under
0.3 per cent by volume for commercial use.
Locating Leaks. — It is easy to locate leaks by a smoke
test, using ammonia water applied with a brush.
Stability Towards Heat. — It is a very stable gas which will
easily withstand the temperature conditions encountered in
normal operation. The critical temperature is 314.8° F. The
critical pressure is 1141.5 pounds per square inch absolute.
Solubility in Water. — One volume of water dissolves 80
volumes of this gas at 32° F., and 47.3 volumes at 60° F.
DisplacemC'iit Required. — It requires about 2.6 times the
displacement of an ammonia machine for the same amount
of refrigeration.
REFRIGERANTS 47
Air.— Air was used as the refrigerant in some of the early
machines. It was compressed, cooled to room temperature,
and then expanded in a cylinder. These machines were very
inefficient because of the large volume of air handled, which
together with the expansion cylinder, caused large friction
losses. Air has a very low heat capacity per unit volume.
Considerable difficulty was experienced with the moisture
freezing and clogging valves. The advantages of using air
such as safety from leakage do not compensate for the dis-
advantages stated above.
Two general types of air machines have been produced.
These are the open and closed cycle. The open cycle type
continually uses new air from the atmosphere. There is con-
siderable trouble from condensing and freezing water vapor
within the apparatus. The closed cycle eliminates this dis
advantage.
Water as a Refrigerant. — Several machines have been de-
veloped using water as the refrigerant. At a low vacuum
water boils at temperatures as follows :
Vacuum, ins. of mercury .' .2974 29 67 29.56 29 40
Boiling temperature 32°F. 40°F. 50°F. 60 F.
It is difficult to produce a commercial pump to obtain such
a low vacuum. The air in the water must also be discharged.
Sulphuric acid is used to absorb the water in some systems
of this kind. A pump must be used to remove the air.
Small hand machines are made in Europe to operate on
this system. They will cool a carafe of water in a few minutes
or make a few pounds of ice in less than half an hour. This
type of machine is used extensively in the tropics.
Non-Condensable Gases.— It is important to prevent the
formation of non-condensing gases in a household ammonia
absorption refrigerating machine. These gases are eliminated
on the larger plants by frequent purging.
The United States Bureau of Standards has recently made
a careful study of this subject and recommends the following
method of eliminating, to a large extent, the formation of these
Sfases :
48
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
1. The non-condensable gases found in ammonia absorption re-
frigeration machines are due to either or both of two causes, namely,
(a) leaks of air into the system and (b) the corrosive action of the
ammonia liquor on the metal of the plant.
2. When the foul air gas is mainly nitrogen, the gas is derived
from air that has leaked into the system, and leaks should therefore
be sought. The oxygen in the air is very quickly used up, and so will
be present in only a very small percentage of its original amount.
If the foul gas is hydrogen, the cause is corrosion by the ammoniacal
liquor. A gas containing both nitrogen and hydrogen shows both
causes to be present.
3. If a solution of sodium or potassium dichromate is added to
the generator charge so that the charge in the generator will contain
the salt to the extent of 0.2 per cent by weight, all foul gas forma-
tion from the corrosive action of the ammonia charge will be stopped.
It is recommended that the dichromate be added in all cases, as it has
been found that its presence decreases the very small amount of gas
caused by even the highest grade ammonias.
Explosion Data on Gases. — The following explosion data
on refrigerating and illuminating gases was taken from a re-
port on refrigerating with gas presented at a meeting of the
American Gas Association, 1925.
TABLE XIV EXPLCSIOX DATA OX GASES
Relative parts of diffu.^ion (Air=l)
Gas in mixture required for complete
combustion (%)
Apparent ignition temperature (°F.)
Explosion limits with air —
High {%)
Low (7c)
Explosion pre.=;sures with air (lbs.
sq. in)
Time required to develop maximum
pressure (seconds)
Ammonia
L301
21.83
X
2G.8
13.1
0.17.5
Ethyl
Chloride
0.658
6.05
o values a
14.0
4.3
98
0.049
Methyl
Chloride
0.750
10.69
vailable
15.0
8.9
81
0.099
Illuminat-
ing Gas
1.240
17.00
1094
21.0
7.0
95
0.017
Relative Piston Displacement for Refrigerants. — As pre-
viously indicated, the relative piston displacement for the com-
pressor cylinder depends upon a number of factors, such as a
latent heat of evaporization, sensible heat of the liquid, relative
specific volume, etc. Table XV has been prepared to show
REFRIGERANTS 49
the comparative displacements oi the various refrigerants in-
dicated when compared with the displacement required by
carbon dioxide.
TABLE XV. — RELATIVE PISTON DISPLACEMENT FOR VARIOUS
REFRIGERANTS
Carbon dioxide = 1 ■
Ammonia = 3.6
Methyl Chloride = 6.8
Sulphur Dioxide = 9.6
Ethyl Chloride = 25.4
Solubility of Sulphur Dioxide in Water. — - Weights in
grams of sulphur dioxide gas which will be absorbed in 1,000
grams of water when the partial pressure of the liquid at the
given temperature equals 700 millimeters are as follows :
0° C. 10° C. 20° C. 30° C. 40° C.
228 162 113 78 54
(This was compiled from Landoit-Bornstein-Meyerhoffers "Physi-
kalisch-Chemische Tabellen.")
Charging Refrigerants. — Refrigerants may be charged into
refrigerating systems or thermostats in many different ways.
Following are some of the principles used in this refrigerant
charging process :
There are two simple methods of charging the liquid re-
frigerant from container A to container B in Fig. 3. It is
assumed that the air has been exhausted from these containers
and the connecting line. The container B may be at a higher
elevation than A. By heating container A, the liquid is evapo-
rated and slowly condenses in B. This is a slow process as
sufficient heat must be applied to A to heat and evaporate
the liquid refrigerant and enough heat must be extracted from
B to condense the gas. Another method is to apply ice or
cool B.
When the outlet pipe from C is below the liquid level in
C the liquid refrigerant will pass to D in liquid form. It is
only necessary to either warm C or cool D. This establishes
a pressure difference which readily forces the liquid into con-
tainer D.
In charging household systems, it is customary to first use
a vacuum pump to eliminate the air and moisture from the re-
frigerating system. Then the refrigerant is charged in liquid
50
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
I
Confainei U.
(•ontainer A.
(r
Container C.
T^
51
Container D
FIG. 3 —CHARGING OF REFRIGERANTS.
REFRIGERANTS 51
form. Thf amount of charge is regulated by weighing or
using a glass liquid gauge on the charging receiver.
It is extremely dangerous to heat a cylinder containing
liquid refrigerant. When the pressure drops in charging it is
probably best to ])lacc the cylinder in a bucket of water in
order to supply sufficient heat to evaporate the liquid refriger-
ant from the cylinder rapidly.
In charging a thermostat, it is very important to first elimi-
nate the air. The best method is to use a vacuum pump, al-
though it is possible to eliminate practically all of the air by
repeatedl}' charging and discharging the .thermostat bulb and
line with the gas to be used. The liquid should fill about two-
thirds of the bulb. An overcharged thermostat may cause
considerable trouble.
Method of Determining the Density of a Gas. — The volume
of any gas may be approximately determined from its molecular
weight at atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lbs. and 60° F., as
follows :
Weight per cu. ft. = molecular weight
376
Cu. ft. per pound = ^^^
molecular weight
The volume of one cu. ft. of sulphur dioxide gas at 14.7
lbs. atmospheric pressure and 60° F. would be found as fol-
lows :
— ^= 0.170 lbs.
0/6
The volume in cu. ft, per pou^^d is found as follows:
TABLE XVI.— MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF GASES
Gas Molecular Weight
Nitrogen— N2 28
Oxygen— O; 32
Carbon Dioxide — COj 44
Sulphur Dioxide — SO. 64
Hydrogen — Hj 2
Ammonia — NHs 17
Air 28.1
CHAPTER TV.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES.
1. Properties of Saturated Ammonia — Temp. — Table X\'II.
2. Properties of Saturated Ammonia — Pressure — Table XVIII.
3. Properties of I-iquid Ammonia. — Table XIX.
4. Properties of Su])erheated Ammonia Vapors. — Table XX.
5. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Butane. — Table XXII.
6. Properties of Saturated A'apor of Carbon Bisulphide. —
Table XXIII.
7. Properties of Carbon Dioxide. — Table XXI.
8. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Carbon Tetrachloride. — ■
Table XXIV.
9. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Chloroform. — Table
XXV.
10. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Ethane. — Table
XXVIII.
11. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Ethyl Chloride. — Table
XXIX.
12. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Eth}! Ether. — Table
XXVI.
13. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Isobutane. — Table
XXX.
14. Properties of Saturated Methyl Chloride Vapor. — Table
XXXI.
15. Properties of Saturated \'apor of Nitrous Oxide.- — Table
XXVII.
16. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Propane. — Table
XXXII.
17. Properties of Saturated Vapor of Sulphur Dioxide.- —
Table XXXIII.
18. Properties of Superheated Vapor of Sulphur Dioxide. —
Table XXXIV.
19. Standard Ton Data.— Table XXXV.
20. Properties of Aqua-Ammonia (Percent Concentration
Table).— Tables XXXVIII, XXXIX.
21. Solubility of Ammonia in Water. — Table XXXVI.
22. Heat of Association of x\mmonia. — Table XXXVII.
23. Solubility of Gases in Water at Atmospheric Pressure. —
Table XL.
24. Compressibility of Liquids. — Table XLI.
53
54
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XVII— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES Oi'
SATURATED AMMONIA: TEMPERATURE TABLE.— (Continued.)
•
Pressure.
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Entropy.
. Temp.
Vhsohite.
GaKC
vapor.
vapor.
Liquid.
Vapor.
beat.
Liquid.
Btu./lb.'F.
Vapor.
Btu./rb.°F.
Temp.
•F
Ibs./in."
Ibs./in.'
ft>/lb.
Ibs./tt.>
Blu/lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
•F.
t
P
9 P-
V
11 V
h
H
L
8
.s
(
-60
5.55
•18.6
44.73
0. 02235
-21.2
589.6
610.8
-0.05U
1.4769
-60
-59
5.74
•18.2
43.37
. 02306
-20.1
590.0
610.1
-.0490
.4741
-59
-58
5.93
•17.8
42. 05
. 02378
-19.1
590.4
609.5
-.0464
.4713
-58
-57
6.13
•17.4
40.79
. 024.52
-18.0
590.8
608.8
-.0438
.4686
-57
-56
6.33
•17.0
39.56
. 02528
-17.0
591.2
608.2
-.0412
.4658
-56
-66
6.M
•16.6
38.38
0. 02605
-15.9
591.6
607.5
-0.0386
1.4631
-55
-54
6.75
•10. 2
37.24
. 02685
-14.8
592.1
606.9
. 0360
.4604
-54
-53
6.97
•15.7
36. 15
. 02766
-13.8
592.4
609.2
-.0334
.4577
-53
-52
7.20
•15.3
35.09
. 02S50
-12.7
692.9
605.6
-.0307
.4551
-52
-51
7.43
•14.8
34.06
. 02936
-11.7
593.2
604.9
-.0281
.4524
-51
-50
7.67
•14,3
33.08
0. 03023
-10.6
593.7
604.3
-0. 0256
1.4497
-50
-49
7.91
•13.8
32. 12
.03113
-9.6
594.0
603.6
-.0230
.4471
-49
-48
8. IB
•13.3
31.20
. 03205
-8.5
594.4
602.9
-.0204
4445
-48
-47
8.42
•12.8
30.31
. 03299
-7.4
594.9
eo2. 3
-.0179
.4419
-47
-46
8.68
•12.2
29.45
. 03395
-6.4
595.2
601.6
-.0153
.4393
-46
-45
8.95
•11.7
28.62
0. 03494
-5.3
595.6
600.9
-0.0127
1.4368
-45
-44
9.23
•11.1
27.82
. 03595
-4.3
596.0
600.3
-.0102
.4342
-44
-43
9.51
•10.6
27.04
. 03698
-3.2
596.4
599.6
-.0076
.4317
-43
-42
9.81
•10.0
26.29
.03804
-2.1
596.8
598.9
-.0051
.4292
-42
-41
10.10
•9.3
25.56
. 03912
-1.1
597.2
598.3
-.0025
.4267
-41
-40
10.41
•8.7
24.86
0. 04022
0.0
597.6
597.6
o.oooe
1.4242
-40
-39
10.72
•8.1
24.18
.04135
1.1
598.0
596.9
.0025
.4217
-39
-38
11.04
•7.4
23.53
.04251
2.1
598.3
596.2
.0051
.4193
-38
-37
11.37
•6.8
22.89
.04369
3.2
598.7
595.5
.0076
.4169
-37
-36
11.71
•6.1
22.27
.04489
4.3
599.1
594.8
.0101
.4144
-36
-35
12.05
•5.4
21.68
0. 04613
5.3
599.5
594.2
0.0126
1.4120
-35
-34
12.41
•4.7
21.10
. 01739
6.4
599.9
593. 5
.0151
.4096
-34
-33
12.77
•3.9
20.54
.04868
7.4
600.2
592. 8
.0176
.4072
-33
-32
13.14
•3.2
20.00
.04999
8.5
600.6
592.1
.0201
.4048
-32
-31
13.52
•2.4
19.48
. 05134
9.6
601.0
591.4
. 0226
. 4025
-31
-80
13.90
•1.6
18.97
0. 05271
10.7
601.4
590.7
0. 0250
1.4001
-30
-29
14. .30
•0.8
18.48
.05411
11.'
601.7
590.0
.0275
.3978
-29
-28
14.71
0.0
18.00
. 0.i555
12.8
602. 1
589. 3
.0300
.3955
-28
-27
15.12
0.4
17.. 54
.0.5701
13.9
602. 5
588.6
.0325
.3932
-27
-26
15.55
0.8
17.09
. 05850
14.9
602.8
587.9
.0350
.3909
-26
-25
15.98
1.3
16.66
0. 06003
16.0
60.t. 2
587.2
0. 0374
1.3886
-25
-24
16.42
1.7
16.24
.061.58
17.1
603. 6
586. 5
.0399
.3863
-24
-23
16.88
2.2
15. 83
.06317
18.1
603.9
.585. 8
.0423
.3840
-23
-22
17.34
2.6
15. 43
. 06479
19.2
604.3
585.1
.0448
.3818
-22
-21
17.81
3.1
15.05
. 06644
20.3
604.6
684.3
.0472
.3796
-21
-20
18.30
3.6
14.68
0.06813
21.4
605. 0
583.6
0.0497
1.3774
-20
-19
18.79
4.1
14.32
. or,ns5
22 4
605. 3
582.9
.0.521
.3752
-19
-18
19.30
4.6
13. 97
.07161
Si; 6
605. 7
.582. 2
.0545
.3729
-18
-17
19.81
5.1
13.62
.07340
24.6
600. 1
.581.5
.0.570
.3708
-17
-16
20.34
5.6
13.29
. 07522
2.5.6
606.4
580.8
.0594
.3686
-16
-15
20.88
6.2
12.97
0. 07709
26.7
606. 7
580.0
0.0618
1. 3664
-15
-14
21.43
6.7
12.66
.07S98
27.8
607.1
579.3
.0642
.3643
-14
-13
21.99
7.3
12.36
. 08092
28.9
607.5
578.6
.0666
.3621
-13
-12
22.56
7.9
12.06
. 08289
30.0
607.8
577.8
.0690
.3600
-12
-11
23.15
8.5
11.78
.08490
31.0
60S.1
577.1
.0714
.3579
-11
-10
23.74
9.0
11.50
0. 08693
32.1
608. 5
.576. 4
0. 0738
1.3558
-10
* Inches of mercury below one standard atmosphere (29.92 in.).
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
55
TABLE XVII.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SATURATED AMMONIA: TEMPERATURE TABLE.— (Continued.)
Pressure.
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Intent
Entropy.
Temp.
Absolute.
Ibs./in.'
0«e.
IbsTin.'
vapor.
ftMb.
vai-wr.
Ib3./tt.>
Liquid.
Btu.Ab.
Vapor.
Btu.Ab.
boat.
Btu.,lb.
Liquid.
Btu./lb.'F.
Vapor.
BtuI/lb.'F.
Temp.
•F.
(
P
?• P-
V
'IV
h
H
L
t
5
t
-10
23.74
9.0
11.50
0. 08695
32.1
608.5
576.4
0. 0738
1. 3558
-10
-9
24 3-5
9.7
11.23
.08904
33.2
608.8
575.6
.0762
. 3537
-9
-8
24.97
10.3
10.97
.09117
34.3
609.2
674.9
.0786
.3516
-8
-7
2.5. 61
10.9
10.71
. 09334
35.4
609.5
574. 1
.0809
.3495
^7
-6
26.26
11.6
10.47
. 09555
36.4
609.8
573.4
.0833
.3474
-6
-5
26.92
12.2
10.23
0. 09780
37.0
610.1
572.6
0.0857
1.3454
-6
-4
27. .59
12.9
9.991
.1001
38.6
610.5
571.9
.0880
.3433
-4
-3
2S.28
13.6
9. 763
.1024
39.7
610.8
571.1
.0904
.3413
-3
-2
28. M
14.3
9.541
.1048
40.7
611.1
570.4
.0928
.3393
-2
-1
29.69
1.5.0
9.326
.1072
41.8
611.4
569.6
.0951
.3372
-1
0
30.42
1.5.7
9.116
0. 1097
42.9
611.8
568.9
0. 0975
1. 3352
0
1
31. 16
16.5
8.912
.1122
44.0
612.1
.568. 1
.0998
. 3332
1
2
31. 92
17.2
8.714
.1148
4-5.1
612.4
567. 3
.1022
.3312
2
3
32.69
18.0
8.521
.1174
46.2
612.7
566. 5
.1045
.3292
3
4
33.47
18.8
8.333
.1200
47.2
613.0
505.8
.1069
. 3273
4
5
34.27
19.6
8.150
0. 1227
48.3
6ia3
^65.0
0.1092
1.32.53
5
6
35.09
20.4
7.971
.12.54
49.4
613. 6
564.2
.1115
.3234
6
7
35.92
21.2
7.798
.1282
50.5
613.9
563. 4
.1138
. 3214
7
8
36.77
22.1
7.629
.1311
51.6
614.3
562.7
.1162
.3195
8
9
37.63
22.9
7.464
.1340
52.7
614.6
561.9
.1185
.3176
9
10
38.51
23.8
7.304
0. 1369
53.8
614.9
561. 1
0.1208
1. 3157
10
11
39.40
24.7
7.148
.1399
54.9
615.2
560. 3
.1231
.3137
11
12
40.31
25.6
6.996
.1429
56.0
615.5
559. 5
.1254
.3118
12
13
41.24
26.5
6.847
.1460
57.1
615.8
558. 7
•. 1277
.3099
13
14
42.18
27.5
6. 703
.1492
58.2
616.1
557.9
.1300
.3081
14
16
43.14
28.4
6. .562
0. 1524
59.2
616.3
.557.1
0.1323
1. 3062
15
16
44.12
29.4
6.425
. 1556
60.3
616.6
5.56.3
.1346
.3043
16
17
45.12
30.4
6.291
.1590
61.4
616.9
5-55 5
.1369
.3025
17
18
46.13
31.4
6.161
.1623
62.5
617.2
5.54. 7
.1392
.3006
18
19
47.16
32.5
6.034
.1657
63.6
617. 5
553.9
.1415
.2988
19
20
48.21
33.5
5.910
0. 1692
64.7
617.8
553. 1
0. 1437
1. 2969
20
21
49.28
34.6
5.789
. 1728
6.5.8
618.0
552. 2
.1460
. 2951
21
22
50.36
35.7
5.671
. 1763
66.9
618.3
551.4
.1483
.2933
22
23
51.47
36.8
5.556
.1800
68.0
618.6
550. 6
.1505
. 2915
23
24
52.59
37.9
5.443
.1837
69.1
618.9
549.8
.1528
. 2897
24
26
53.73
39.0
5.334
0. 1875
70.2
619.1
.548.9
0.1551
1. 2S79
25
26
54.90
40.2
5. 227
.1913
71.3
619.4
548.1
. 1573
. 2.S61
26
27
56. OS
41.4
5.123
.1952
72.4
619. 7
547.3
. 1.596
.2843
27
28
57.28
42.6
,5. 021
.1992
73.5
619.9
.546.4
.1618
. 2825
28
29
58.50
43.8
4. 922
.2032
74.6
620.2
545.6
.1641
.2808
29
30
59.74
45.0
4.825
0. 2073
7.5. 7
620.5
544.8
0. 1663
1.2790
30
31
61,00
46.3
4.730
.2114
76.8
620.7
543.9
.1686
. 2773
31
32
62.29
47.6
4.637
.2156.
77.9
621.0
543.1
.1708
. 27.55
32
33
63.59
48.9
4.547
.2199
79.0
621.2
542.2
.1730
'. 2738
33
34
64.91
50.2
4.459
.2243
80.1
621.5
541.4
. 17.53
. 2721
34
36
66.26
51.6
4.373
0. 2287
81.2
621.7
540.6
0. 1775
1.2704
35
36
67.63
.52.9
4.289
. 2332
82.3
622. 0
539.7
.1797
.2686
36
37
69.02
54.3
4.207
.2377
83.4
622. 2
538.8
.1819
.2669
37
1
70.43
55.7
4.126
.2423
84.6
622. 5
537.9
.1841
.2652
38
71.87
57.2
4.048
.2470
85.7
622.7
537.0
.1863
. 2635
39
40
73.32
.58.6
3.971
0, 2518
86.8
623.0
536.2
0. 1885
1,2618
40
56
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XVII.— BUREAt' OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SATURATED AMMONIA: TEMPERATURE TABLE.— (Continued.)
T'rftRsiiTP.
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Entropy.
Temp.
Absolute
OaKo.
vapor.
ft.«/lb.
vapor.
Liquid.
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
Btu.^b.°F.
Vapor.
Btu.Ab." F.
Temp.
'¥.
Ibs./in.'
Ibs./in."
Ibs./tt.J
Btu.Ab.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
•F.
t
P
g.p.
V
11 V
h
H
L
3
S
t
40
73. 32
58.6
3.971
0. 2518
86.8
623.0
,536. 2
0. 1885
1. 2618
40
41
74.80
60.1
3.897
.2566
87.9
623. 2
.535. 3
.1908
. 2602
41
42
76.31
61.6
3.823
.2616
89.0
623. 4
.534. 4
.1930
. 2.585
42
43
77. ,83
63.1
3. 7.52
. 2665
90.1
623.7
533.6
.1952
.2568
43
44
79. 38
64.7
3.682
.2716
91.2
623.9
632.7
.1974
.2552
44
45
80. 06
66.3
3.614
0. 2767
92.3
624.1
531.8
0. 1996
1. 2535
45
46
82. :,-,
67.9
3.547
.2819
93.5
624.4
530.9
.2018
.2519
46
47
84. 18
69.5
3.481
.2872
94.6
624.6
.530. 0
.2040
. 2502
47
48
85. 82
71.1
3.418
.2926
95.7
624.8
529.1
.2062
.2486
48
49
87.49
72.8
3.355
.2981
96.8
625. 0
528. 2
.2083
.2469
49
50
89.19
74.5
3.294
0.3036
97.9
625.2
527.3
0. 2105
1. 2453
50
51
90.91
76.2
3.234
.3092
99.1
625. 5
526.4
.2127
.2437
51
52
92. 66
78.0
3.176
.3149
100.2
625.7
525.5
.2149
.2421
52
63
94. 43
79.7
3.119
. 3207
101.3
625. 9
524.6
.2171
.2405
53
54
96.23
81.5
3.063
.3265
102.4
626.1
523.7
.2192
.2389
54
55
98.06
83.4
3.008
0. 3325
103. 5
626.3
522.8
0. 2214
1. 2373
55
56
99.91
85.2
2.954
.3385
104.7
626.' 5
521.8
.2236
. 2357
56
57
101.8
87.1
2.902
.3446
105.8
626.7
520.9
.2257
.2341
67
58
103.7
89.0
2.851
.3508
106.9
626.9
520.0
.2279
.2325
58
59
105.6
90.9
2.800
.3571
108.1
627.1
519.0
.2301
.2310
69
60
107.6
92.9
2.751
0.3635
109.2
627.3
518.1
0. 2322
1.2294
60
61
109.6
94.9
2.703
.3700
110.3
627.5
517.2
.2344
.2278
61
62
111.6
96.9
2.656
.3765
111.5
627.7
516.2
. 2365
.2262
62
63
113.6
98.9
2.610
.3832
112.6
627.9
51.5. 3
.2387
.2247
63
64
115.7
101.0
2.565
.3899
113.7
628.0
514.3
.2408
.2231
64
65
117.8
103.1
2.520
0.3968
114.8
628.2
513. 4
0. 2430
1.2216
65
66
120.0
105.3
2.477
.4037
116.0
628.4
512.4
. 2451
.2201
66
67
122.1
107.4
2.435
.4108
117.1
628.6
511.5
.2473
.2186
67
68
124.3
109.6
2.393
.4179
118.3
628.8
510.5
.2494
.2170
68
69
126.5
111.8
2.352
. 4251
119.4
628.9
509.5
.2515
.2155
69
70
128.8
114.1
2.312
0. 4325
120.5
629.1
508.6
0. 2537
1. 2140
70
71
131.1
116.4
2.273
. 4399
121.7
629.3
507.6
. 25.58
.2125
71
72
133.4
118.7
2. 235
.4474
122.8
629.4
506.6
. 2579
.2110
72
73
135.7
121.0
2. 197
.4551
124.0
629.6
505.6
.2601
.2095
73
74
138.1
123.4
2. IGl
.4628
125.1
629.8
504.7
.2622
.2080
74
76
140.5
125. 8
2.125
0. 4707
126.2
629.9
.503. 7
0.2643'
1. 2065
76
76
143.0
128 3
2. 089
.4786
127.4
630. 1
502.7
.2664
. 2050
76
77
145. 4
130. 7
2. 055
.4867
128.5
630.2
501.7
.2685
.2036
77
78
147. 9
133; 2
2.021
.4949
129.7
630.4
500.7
.2706
.2020
78
79
150.5
135.8
1.988
.5031
130.8
630.5
499.7
.2728
.2006
79
80
153.0
138.3
1.955
0.5115
132.0
630.7
498.7
0. 2749
1. 1991
80
81
155. 6
140.9
1.923
. 5200
133.1
630.8
497.7
.2769
. 1976
81
82
158.3
143. 6
1.892
.5287
134.3
63L0
496.7
.2791
.1962
82
83
161.0
146. 3
1.861
.5374
13,5. 4
631; 1
495. 7
.2812
.1947
83
84
163.7
149.0
1. 831
.5462
136.6
631.3
494.7
.2833
.1933
84
85
166.4
151.7
1.801
0. 5652
137.8
631.4
493.6
0.2854
1.1918
85
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
SI
TABLE XVII.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES Ol
SATURATED AMMONIA: TEMPERATURE TA^UE.— (^Continued.)
i-ressurc.
Volume
Density
Ueat content.
Latent
Kntropy.
Temp.
Absolute.
Gage.
vapor.
vapor.
Liquid.
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
Bto-Tlb.-F.
Vapor.
lltujlb.-F.
Temp.
•F.
lbs.(in.>
Ibs./in.'
ft.',ab.
Ibs./tt.J
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
'¥.
t
P
g-v-
V
UV
h
H
L
S
5
t
85
166.4
151.7
1.801
0. 5552
137.8
631.4
493.6
0. 2854
1.1918
85
86
169.2
154.5
1.772
.5643
138.9
631.5
492. 6
.2875
.1904
86
ST
172.0
157.3
1.744
.5735
140.1
631.7
491.6
. 2895
.1889
87
88
174.8
160.1
1.716
.5828
141.2
631.8
490.6
.2917
.1875
88
89
177.7
163.0
1.688
. 5923
142.4
631.9
489.5
.2937
.1860
89
90
180.6
165.9
1.661
0. 6019
143.5
632. 0
488.5
0. 2958
1. 1846
90
91
183.6
168.9
1.635
.6116
144.7
632. 1
487.4
.2979
.1832
91
92
186.6
171.9
1.609
. 6214
145.8
632.2
486.4
.3000
.1818
92
93
189.6
174.9
1.584
.6314
147.0
632.3
485.3
.3021
.1804
93
94
192.7
178.0
1.559
.6415
148.2
632.5
484.3
.3041
.1789
94
96
195. 8
181.1
1.534
0.6517
149.4
632.6
483.2
0.3062
1.1775
95
96
198.9
184.2
1.510
. 6620
150.5
632. 6
482.1
.3083
.1761
96
97
202.1
187.4
1.4S7
. 6725
151.7
632.8
481.1
.3104
.1747
97
98
205. 3
190.6
!.4r,4
. (;832
152.9
632. 9
480.0
.3125
.1733
98
99
208.6
193.9
1.441
.6939
154.0
632.9
478.9
.3145
.1719
99
100
ail. 9
197.2
1.419
0.7048
155.2
633.0
477.8
0.3166
1. 1705
100
101
215.2
200.5
1.397
.7159
156.4
633. 1
476.7
.3187
.1691
101
102
218.6
203.9
1.375
.7270
157.6
633.2
475.6
.3207
. 1677
102
103
222.0
207.3
1.354
.7384
158.7
633.3
474.6
.3228
.1663
103
104
225.4
210.7
1.334
.7498
159.9
6.33. 4
473.5
.3248
.1649
104
105
228.9
214.2
1.313
0.7615
161.1
633.4
472.3
0. 3269
1.1635
105
106
232.5
217.8
1.293
.7732
162. 3
633.5
471.2
.3289
.1621
106
107
236.0
221.3
1.274
.7852
163.5
633.6
470.1
.3310
.1607
107
108
239.7
225.0
1.254
.7972
164.6
633. 6
469.0
.3330
. 1593
108
109
243.3
228.6
1.2.35
. 8095
165. 8
633.7
467.9
.3351
.1580
109
110
247.0
232. 3
1.217
0.8219
167.0
633.7
466.7
0.3372
1. 1566
110
111
250.8
236. 1
1.198
.8344
168.2
633.8
465.6
.3392
.1552
111
112
254.5
239.8
1.180
.8471
169.4
633.8
464.4
.3413
.1538
112
113
258.4
243.7
1.163
.8600
170.6
633.9
463.3
.3433
. 1524 ■
113
114
262.2
247.5
1. 145
.8730
171.8
633.9
462.1
.3453
.1510
114
115
266.2
251. 5
1.128
0. 8862
173.0
633.9
460.9
0.3474
1.1497
115
116
270.1
255. 4
1.112
.8996
174.2
634.0
459.8
. 3495
.1483
116
117
274.1
259.4
1. 095
.9132
175.4
634.0
458. 6
. 3515
.1469
117
118
278.2
263.5
1.079
.9269
176.6
634. 0
4.57. 4
.3535
. 14.55
118
119
282.3
267.6
1.063
.9408
177.8
634.0
456. 2
.3556
.1441
119
120
286.4
271.7
1.047
0. 9549
179.0
634. 0
455.0
0. 3576
1.1427
120
121
290.6
275.9
1.032
.9692
180.2
6.34. 0
453.8
.3597
.1414
121
122
294.8
280.1
1.017
.9837
181.4
634.0
452. 6
.3618
.1400
122
123
299.1
284. 4
1.002
.9983
182.6
634. 0
451.4
.3638
.1386
123
124
303.4
288.7
0.987
1.0132
183.9
634.0
450.1
.3659
.1372
124
125
307.8
293.1
0.973
1.028
185. 1
634.0
448.9
0. 3679
1.1358
125
58
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XVIII.— BUREAU OF STAiNDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OT
SATURATED AMMONIA: ABSOLUTE PRESSURE TABLE.
Pressure
Temp.
Volunie
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Kntropy
Pressure
(abs.).
vapor.
vapor.
Liquid-
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
Evap.
Vapor.
atafi\j.'F.
(abs.).
IbsJin.J
(t.'/lb.
lbs./tt.«
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb. T.
BtuJib.T.
Ib3./ln.»
P
I
V
IjV
h
n
L
LIT
S
V
6.0
-63. 11
49.31
0. 02029
-24.5
588.3
012.8
-0. 0599
1.5456
1. 4857
6.0
5.5
-60. 27
4.5.11
.02217
-21.5
589.5
611.0
- .0524
. .5301
.4777
6.5
6.0
-57.64
41.. 59
. 02405
-18.7
590.6
609.3
- .0455
. 51,58
.4703
6.0
6.5
-55. 18
38. 59
. 02.591
-10.1
591.0
607.7
- .0390
.5026
.4636
6.6
7.0
-52. 88
36.01
. 02777
-13.7
592.5
606.2
- .03.30
.4904
.4574
7.0
7 5
-50.70
33.77
0. 02962
-11.3
593. 4
604.7
-0. 0274
1.4790
1. 4516
7.5
8.0
-48. 64
31.79
.03146
-9.2
594.2
603.4
- .0221
.4683
.4462
8.0
8.5
-46. 69
30. (M
. 0.3329
-7.1
695. 0
602.1
- .0171
. 4582
.4411
8.5
9.0
-44. 83
28. 48
. 0,3511
-5.1
595.7
600.8
- .0123
.4486
.4303
9.0
9.5
-43.05
27.08
. 03693
-3.2
590.4
599.6
- .0077
. 4396
.4319
9.5
10 0
-41.34
25 81
0. 03874
-1.4
597.1
598.5
-0. 0034
1.4310
1. 4276
10.0
10.5
-39.71
24. (i6
. 04055
4- 0. 3
597. 7
597.4
+ .0007
. 4228
.4235
10.5
11.0
-.38. 14
23. 61
. 04235
2.0
598. 3
596. 3
.0047
.4149
.4196
11.0
11.5
-36. 62
22. 65
.04414
3.6
598.9
595. 3
.0085
. 4074
.41.59
11.5
12.0
-35. 16
21.77
. 04593
5.1
599.4
594.3
.0122
.4002
4124
12.0
12.5
-33.74
20.90
0. 04772
0, 7
000.0
593. 3
0. 0157
1. .39.33
1. 4090
12.6
13.0
- 32. 37
20.20
. 049.50
S. 1
OCX). 5
592.4
.0191
. 3806
.4057
13.0
13.5
-31.05
19.50
. 05128
9.6
601.0
591.4
.0225
. 3801
.4026
13.5
14.0
- 29. 76
18. 85
. 05305
10.9
601.4
590.5
.0257
. 37.39
.3996
14.0
14.5
-28.51
18.24
. 05482
12.2
601.9
589.7
.0288
. 3679
.3967
14.5
15.0
-27. 29
17.67
0. 05658
13.6
602.4
588.8
0 0318
1. 3020
1. 3938
15.0
15. 5
-26. U
17. 14
. 05834
14.8
602.8
588.0
.0347
. 3564
.3911
15.6
16.0
-24. 95
16. 64
. 06010
16.0
603.2
587.2
.0375
. 3510
.3885
16.0
16. 5
-23. 83
16 17
. 06186
17.2
603.6
586.4
.0403
. 3450
.3859
16.6
17.0
-22. 73
15. 72
. 06361
18.4
604.0
585.6
.0430
.3405
.3835
17.0
17.5
-21.66
1.5. 30
0. 06535
19.6
604.4
684.8
0 0456
1. 3354
1.3810
17.5
18.0
-20. 61
14 90
.00710
20.7
604. 8
584 1
.0482
.3305
.3787
18.0
18.5
-19.59
14. 53
. 06884
21.8
605. 1
583. 3
.0507
.3258
. 3705
18.5
19.0
-18. 58
14. 17
. 07058
22 9
60.5.5
582.6
.0531
.3211
.3742
19.0
19.5
-17.60
13.83
. 07232
23.9
605.8
581.9
.0555
. 3100
.3721
19.5
20 0
-10.64
13.50
0. 07405
25.0
606.2
581.2
0. 0578
1. 3122
1. 3700
20.0
20.5
- 15. 70
13.20
. 07578
20.0
606.5
580.5
.0601
.3078
. 3679
20 5
21.0
-14.78
12. 90
. 07751
27.0
606.8
679.8
.0623
. 3036
. 3659
21.0
21.5
-13.87
12.62
. 07924
27.9
607. 1
679. 2
. 0(>45
.2995
.3640
21.5
22.0
-12.98
12. 35
. 08096
28.9
607.4
678.5
. 0666
. 2955
.3621
22.0
22 5
-12.11
12. 09
0. 08268
29.8
607.7
577.9
0. 0687
1. 2915
1. 3602
22.6
23.0
-11.25
11.85
.08440
30.8
608. 1
577.3
. 0708
.2876
.3584
23.0
23.5
-10.41
11.61
. 08612
31.7
608.3
576. 6
.0728
.2838
.3666
23.6
24.0
- 9.58
11.39
. 08783
32.6
608.6
570. 0
.0748
.2801
.3549
24.0
24.5
- 8.76
11.17
. 08955
33.5
608.9
575.4
.0768
.2764
.3532
24.6
25.0
- 7.96
10.96
0. 09126
34.3
609. 1
574.8
0. 0787
1. 2728
1. 3515
25 0
25.5
- 7. 17
10.76
.09297
35.2
609.4
574.2
.0805
. 2693
.3498
25. 5
26.0
- 6.39
10. 56
.09468
36.0
609.7
573.7
.0824
.26.58
.3482
26.0
26.5
- 6. 63
10.38
. 09638
36.8
609 9
573. 1
.0842
.2625
. .3467
26.6
27.0
- 4.87
10.20
. 09809
37.7
610.2
672.6
.0860
.2591
.3451
27.0
27.5
- 4.13
10.02
0. 09979
38.4
610.4
572. 0
a 0878
1. 2,558
1. 34.36
27.6
28.0
- .3.40
9.853
. 1015
39.3
610. 7
571.4
. 0895
.2526
.3421
28.0
28. 5
-2.68
9.691
. 1032
40.0
610. 9
570. 9
.0912
.2494
. 3406
28.5
29.0
^ 1.97
9.534
.1049
40.8
611. 1
570. 3
.0929
.2463
.3392
29.0
29.5
- 1.27
9.383
.1066
41.6
611.4
569.8
.0946
.2433
. 3378
29.5
30.0
- 0.57
9.236
0. 1083
42.3
611.6
569.3
a 0962
1.2402
1. 3304
30 0
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
59
TABLE XVIII.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SATURATED AMMONIA: ABSOLUTE PRESSURE TABI.E.— {Continued.)
Presstire
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Entropy.
Pressure
(alls.).
Temp.
vapor.
vapor.
UquM.
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
Evap.
Vapor.
Btu.^b.T.
(8b3.).
lbs.;ln.>
tt.'/lb.
Ibs./lt.J
Btu./lh.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb. "F.
Btu./lb.°F.
Ibs./in.'
P
t
V
II V
h
n
L
»
LIT
.S'
P
30
-0.57
9. 236
0. 1083
42,3
611.6
569.3
0. 0962
1.2402
1.3364
30
31
+0.79
8. 955
.1117
43.8
612.0
568.2
.0993
.2343
.3336
31
32
2.U
8.693
.1150
45. 2
612.4
567.2
.1024
. 2286
.3310
32
33
3.40
8.445
.1184
46.6
612.8
566.2
. 10.55
.2230
.3285
33
34
4.66
8.211
.1218
48.0
613.2
565.2
.1084
.2176
.3260
34
85
5.89
7.991
0. 1251
49.3
613.6
564.3
0.1113
1.2123
1.3236
35
36
7.09
7.782
.1285
50.6
614.0
563.4
.1141
.■^072
.3213
36
37
8.27
7.584
.1319
51.9
614.3
562.4
.1168
.2022
.3190
37
38
9.42
7.396
.1352
53.2
614.7
561.5
.1195
.1973
. 3168
38
39
10.55
7.217
.1386
54.4
615.0
560.6
.1221
.1925
.3146
39
40
11.66
7.047
0. 1419
55.6
615.4
5.59. 8
0.1246
1.1879
1. 3125
40
41
12.74
6.885
. 14.52
56.8
615.7
558.9
.1271
. 1833
.3104
41
42
13.81
6.731
.1486
57.9
616.0
558.1
. 1296
.1788
.3084
42
43
14.85
6.583
.1519
59.1
616.3
557.2
. 1320
.1745
.3065
43
44
15.88
6.442
.1552
60.2
616.6
5.56. 4
.1343
.1703
.3046
44
45
16.88
6.307
0.1586
61.3
616.9
555.6
0. 1366
1.1661
1. 3027
45
46
17.87
6.177
.1619
62.4
617.2
554. 8
.1389
. 1620
.3009
46
47
18.84
6.053
.1652
63.4
617.4
5.54. 0
.1411
.1580
.2991
47
48
19.80
5. 934
.1685
64.5
617.7
5.53.2
.1433
.1540
.2973
48
49
20.74
5.820
.1718
65.5
618.0
552.5
.1454
. 1502
.2956
49
60
21.67
5.710
0. 1751
66.5
618.2
5.51.7
0.1475
1.1464
1.2939
50
51
22.58
5.604
.1785
67.5
618.5
551.0.
.1496
.1427
.2923
61
52
23.48
5.502
.1818
68.5
618.7
550.2
.1516
.1390
.2906
62
53
24.36
5.404
.1851
69.5
619.0
549.5
. 1.536
.1354
' .2890
53
54
25.23
5.309
.1884
70.4
619.2
548.8
.1556
.1319
.2875
54
56
26.09
5.218
0. 1917
71.4
619.4
548.0
0.1575
1.1284
1. 2859
55
56
26.94
5.129
. 1950
72.3
619.7
547.4
.1594
. 12.50
.2844
56
57
27.77
5.044
.1983
73.3
619.9
.546.6
.1613
.1217
.2830
57
58
28.59
4.962
.2015
74.2
620.1
5^5.9
.1631
.1184
.2815
58
59
29.41
4.882
.2048
75.0
620.3
545.3
.1650
.1151
.2801
59
60
30.21
4.805
0. 2081
75.9
620.5
544.6
0.1668
1.1119
1.2787
60
61
31.00
4.730
.2114
76.8
620.7
543.9
.1686
.1088
.2773
61
62
31.78
4.658
.2147
77.7
620. 9
543.2
.1703
.10.56
.2759
62
63
32. 55
4,588
.2180
78.5
621.1
542.6
.1720
.1026
^2746
63
64
33.31
4.519
.2213
79.4
621.3
541.9
.1737
.0996
.2733
64
65
34.06
4.453
0. 2245
80.2
621.5
541.3
0.1754
1.0966
1.2720
65
66
34.81
4. 389
.2278
81.0
621.7
540.7
.1770
.0937
.2707
66
67
35.54
4.327
.2311
81.8
621.9
,540.1
.1787
.0907
.2694
67
68
36.27
4.267
.2344
82.6
622.0
539. 4
.1803
.0879
.2682
68
69
36.99
4.208
.2377
83.4
622.2
538.8
.1819
.0851
.2670
69
70
37.70
4.151
0. 2409
84.2
622.4
538.2
0. 1835
1.0823
1. 2658
70
71
38.40
4. 0!i5
.2442
85.0
622.6
537.6
.1850
.0795
.2645
71
72
39.09
4.041
. 2475
8.5.8
622.8
537.0
.1866
.0768
.2634
72
73
39.78
3.988
. 2507
86.5
622.9
536.4
.1881
.0741
.2622
73
74
40.46
3.937
.2540
87.3
623.1
535.8
.1896
.0715
.2611
74
75
41.13
3.887
0. 2.573
88.0
623.2
535.2
0.1910
1.0689
1.2.599
76
76
41.80
3. 8:',S
.2606
88.8
623. 4
534.6
. 1925
.0663
.2588
76
77
42.46
3.790
.2638
89.5
623.5
534.0
.1940
.0637
.2577
77
78
43.11
3.744
.2671
90.2
623. 7
533. 5
.1954
.0612
.2566
78
79
43.76
3.699
.2704
90.9
623.8
532.9
.1968
.0587
.2555
79
80
44.40
S. 655
0. 2736
91.7
624.0
532.3
0.1982
1.0563
1.2.545
80
60
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XVIII.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SATURATED AMMONIA: ABSOLUTE PRESSLTRE TAB'LE.—iContinued.)
Pressure
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Entropy.
Pressure
(abs.).
Temp.
vapor.
ft.i/lb.
vapor.
Liquid.
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
Btui/lb.'F.
Evap.
Vapor.
Btu./Ib.*F.
(abs.).
Ib3./in.'
T.
lbs./(t.'
Btu./lb.
Btu.nb.
Btu-flb.
BtuVlb.T.
lb3./in.«
P
t
^
11 V
h
H
L
8
LIT
S
P
80
44.40
3.655
0. 2736
91.7
624 0
532.3
0. 1982
L0563
1.2546
80
81
45.03
3.612
.2769
92.4
624 1
531.7
.1996
.0538
.2534
81
82
45.66
3.570
.2801
93.1
624 3
531.2
.2010
.0514
.2524
82
83
46.28
3.528
.2834
93.8
624 4
530.6
.2024
.0490
.2514
83
84
46.89
3.488
.2867
94.5
624 6
530.1
.2037
.0467
.2504
84
85
47.50
3.449
0. 2899
95.1
624 7
529.6
0. 2051
1.0443
1. 2494
85
86
48.11
3.411
.2932
95.8
624 8
529.0
.2064
.0420
.2484
86
87
48.71
3.373
.2964
96.5
625.0
528.5
.2077
.0397
.2474
87
88
49.30
3 337
.2997
97.2
625.1
527.9
.2090
.0375
.2465
88
89
49.89
3.301
.3030
97.8
625.2
527.4
.2103
.0352
.2466
89
90
50.47
3.266
0. 3062
98.4
625.3
526.9
0. 2116
1. 0330
1.2446
90
91
51.05
3.231
.3095
99.1
626.5
626.4
.2128
.0308
.2436
91
92
51.62
3.198
.3127
99.8
625.6
625.8
.2141
.0286
.2427
92
93
52.19
3.165
.3160
100.4
625.7
526. 3
.2153
.0265
.2418
93
94
52.76
3.132
.3192
101.0
625.8
524 8
.2165
.0243
.2408
94
95
53.32
3.101
0. 3225
101.6
625.9
524 3
0. 2177
1. 0222
1. 2399
95
96
53.87
3.070
. 3258
102.3
626.1
523.8
.2190
.0201
.2391
96
97
54.42
3.039
.3290
102.9
626.2
523.3
.2201
.0181
.2382
97
98
64.97
3.010
.3323
103.5
626.3
522.8
.2213
.0160
.2373
98
99
55.51
2.980
.3355
104.1
626.4
522.3
.2225
.0140
.2365
99
100
56.05
2.952
0. 3388
104.7
626.5
521.8
0. 2237
1.0119
1. 2356
100
102
57.11
2.896
.3453
105.9
626.7
520.8
.2260
.0079
.2339
102
104
58.16
2.843
.3518
107.1
626.9
519.8
.2282
.0041
.2323
104
106
59.19
2.791
.3583
lOS. 3
627.1
518.8
.2306
1. 0002
.2307
106
108
60.21
2.741
.3648
109.4
627.3
517.9
.2327
0.9964
.2291
108
110
61.21
2.693
0. 3713
110.5
627.5
517.0
0. 2348
0. 9927
1. 2275
110
112
62.20
2.647
.3778
111.7
627.7
516.0
.2369
.9890
.2259
112
114
63.17
2.602
.3843
112.8
627.9
515.1
.2390
.9854
.2244
114
116
64.13
2.559
.3909
113.9
628.1
614 2
.2411
.9819
.2230
116
118
65.08
2.517
.3974
114.9
628.2
513.3
.2431
.9784
.2215
118
120
66.02
2.470
0.4039
116.0
628.4
512.4
0. 2452
0. 9749
1. 2201
120
122
66.94
2.437
.4104
117.1
628.6
511.5
.2471
.9715
.2186
122
124
67. 86
2.399
.4169
118.1
628.7
610.6
.2491
.9082
.2173
124
120
68.76
2. 362
.4234
119.1
628.9
509.8
.2510
.9049
.2159
126
128
69. 65
2.326
.4299
120.1
629.0
508.9
.2529
.9616
.2145
128
130
70.53
2.291
0.4364
121.1
629.2
508.1
0.2548
0.9584
1. 21.32
130
132
71.40
2.258
.4429
122.1
629.3
507.2
.2567
.9552
.2119
132
134
72.26
2. 225
.4494
123.1
029. 5
506.4
.2585
.9521
.2106
134
136
73.11
2.193
.4559
124.1
629.6
505.5
.2603
.9490
.2093
136
138
73.95
2.162
.4624
125. 1
629.8
504 7
.2621
.9400
.2081
138
140
74. 79
2.132
0. 4690
126.0
629.9
603.9
0. 2638
0. 9430
1. 2068
140
142
75.61
2.103
.4755
126.9
630.0
503.1
.2656
.9400
.2056
142
144
76.42
2.075
.4820
127.9
630.2
502.3
.2673
.9371
.2044
144
146
77.23
2.047
.4885
128. 8
630.3
501.5
.2690
.9342
.2032
146
148
78.03
2.020
.4951
129.7
630.4
500.7
.2707
.9313
.2020
148
150
78.81
1.994
0.5016
130.6
630.5
499.9
0. 2724
0.9286
1.2009
160
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
61
TABLE XVIIL—BUKEAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OI'
SATURATED AMMONIA: ABSOLUTE PRESSURE TABLE.— (Cowa'/iufrf.)
Pressure
Volume
Density
Heat content.
Latent
Entropy.
Pressure
(abs.).
Ibs./ln,»
Temp.
vapor,
ft.i/lb.
vapor.
Lic4Uld.
Vapor.
heat.
Liquid.
„ ^^»P;„
Vapor.
Btu.^b.°F.
(ah3.).
•F.
Ibs./tt."
Blu.llb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb. °F.
BtuVlb.'F.
Ib8./in.>
P
t
r
11 r
h
n
L
a
LIT
S
1
P
160
78.81
1.994
0.5016
130.6
6.30. 5
499.9
0. 2724
0. 9285
1.2009
150
152
79.60
1. 968
.5081
131.5
630.6
499.1
.2740
.9257
.1997
152
154
80.37
1. 913
.5147
132.4
630. 7
498.3
.2756
.9229
.1985
154
156
81.13
1.919
.5212
133. 3
630. 9
497.6
.2772
.9202
.1974
156
158
81.89
1.895
.5277
134.2
631.0
496.8
.2788
.9175
.1963
168
160
82.64
1.872
0. 5343
135.0
631.1
496.1
0.2804
0. 9148
1. 1952
160
162
83.39
1.849
.5408
135.9
631.2
495.3
.2820
.9122
.1942
162
164
84.12
1.827
.5473
136.8
631.3
494.5
.2835
.9096
.1931
164
166
84.85
1.805
.5539
137.6
631.4
493.8
.2860
.9070
.1920
166
168
85.57
1.784
.5604
138.4
631.6
493.1
.2866
.9044
.1910
168
170
86.29
1.764
0. 5670
139.3
631.6
492.3
0. 2881
0.9019
1.1900
170
172
87.00
1.744
.5735
140.1
631.7
491.6
.2895
.8994
.1889
172
174
87.71
1.724
.5801
140.9
631.7
490.8
.2910
.8969
.1879
174
176
88.40
1.705
.5866
141.7
631.8
490.1
.2925
.8944
. 1869
176
178
89.10
1.686
.5932
142.6
631.9
489.4
.2939
.8920
.1859
178
180
89.78
1.667
0. 5998
143.3
632.0
488.7
0.2954
0.8896
1.1850
180
182
90.46
1.649
.6063
144.1
632.1
488.0
.2968
.8872
.1840
182
184
91.14
1.632
.6129
144.8
632.1
487.3
.2982
.8848
.1830
184
186
91.80
1.614
.6195
145.6
632.2
486.6
.2996
.8825
.1821
186
188
92.47
1.597
.6261
146.4
632.3
485.9
.3010
.8801
.1811
188
190
93.13
1.581
0. 6326
147.2
632.4
485.2
0. 3024
0. 8778
1.1802
190
192
93.78
1:564
.6392
147.9
632.4
484.5
.3037
.8766
.1792
192
194
94.43
1.548
.6458
148.7
032.6
483.8
.3050
.8733
.1783
194
196
95.07
1.533
.6524
149. 5
632.6
483.1
.3064
.8710
.1774
196
198
95.71
1.517
.6590
150.2
632.6
482.4
.3077
.8688
.1765
198
200
96.34
1.502
0. 6656
150.9
632.7
481.8
0. 3090
0. 8666
1. 1756
200
205
97.90
1.466
.6821
152.7
632.8
480.1
.3122
.8612
.1734
205
210
99.43
1.431
.6986
154.6
633.0
478.4
.3154
.8559
.1713
210
215
100. 94
1.398
. 7152
156.3
633.1
476.8
.3185
.8507
.1692
215
220
102. 42
1.367
.7318
158,0
633.2
475.2
.3216
.8465
.1671
220
225
103. 87
1.336
0.7484
159.7
633.3
473.6
0. 3246
0. 8405
1. 1651
225
230
105. 30
1.307
.7650
161.4
633.4
472.0
.3275
.8356
.1631
230
235
106. 71
1.279
.7817
163.1
633.5
470.4
.3304
.8307
.1611
235
240
108. 09
1.253
.7984
164.7
633.6
468.. 9
. 3332
.8260
.1592
240
245
109. 46
1.227
.8151
166.4
633.7
467.3
.3360
.8213
.1573
246
250
110. 80
1.202
0. 8319
168.0
633.8
465. 8
0. 3388
0. 81^7
1. 1555
260
255
112. 12
1.178
.8487
169.5
633.8
464.3
.3415
.8121
.1536
255
260
113. 42
1.155
.8655
171.1
633. 9
462.8
.3441
.8077
.1518
260
265
114. 71
1.133
.8824
172.6
633.9
461.3
.3468
.8033
.16Q1
265
270
115. 97
1.112
.8993
174.1
633.9
459.8
.3494
.7989
.1483
270
275
117. 22
1.091
0. 9162
176.6
634. 0
458.4
0. 3519
0. 7947
1. 1466
275
280
118. 45
1.072
.9332
177.1
634.0
456.9
.3546
.7904
.1449
280
285
119. 66
1. 052
.9502
178.6
634.0
455.4
.3669
.7863
.1432
2t!5
290
120. 86
1.034
.9672
ISO. 0
634.0
464. 0
.3594
.7821
.1416
290
295
122. 06
1.016
.9843
181.5
634.0
462.5
.3618
.7781
.1399
295
300
123. 21
0.999
1.0015
182.9
634.0
451.1
0. 3642
0. 7741
L1383
300
62
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XIX.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLE OF PROPERTIES OF
LIQUID AMMONIA.
au 0/ Standarda Cxrcuiar No. I4£, April 16, I9SS. Itearranced and Eztended Jor The A:
Society of Rtfrisfratijig Bnoineere, J^y, IStt
Triple
point
-100
-95
-90
-8,5
-SO
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
- 5
0
St
10
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
86 1
90
95
100
105
no
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
(At Satobation)
1.24
1.52
1.86
2.27
2.74
3.29
3.94
4.69
5.55
6.54
7.67
8.95
10.41
12.05
13 90
15. 9S
18.30
20.88
23.74
26.92]
30.42
34.27
38.51
43.14
48.21
53 73
59.74
66.26
73.32
80.96
89.19
98.06
107 6
117. S
128.8
140.5
153.0
160.4
169.2
180.6
195.8
211.9
228.9
247.0
266.2
2S6.4
307 8
330.3
354 . 1
379.1
405.5
433 2
462.3
492.8
524.8
558.4
1.657.
Ih /in '
g P
28.1"
28.1"
27.4-
26.8"
26.1"
25.3"
24.3"
23.2"
21 9"
20.4"
18.6"
16.6"
14.3"
11.7'
8.7"
5.4"
1.6'
1.3
3.6
6.2
9.0
12.2
15.7
19.6
23.8
28.4
33.5
39.0
45.0
51.6
58.6
66.3
74.5
83 4
92.9
103.1
114.1
125. S
138. 3
l.")1.7
154.5
165.9
181.1
197,2
214.2
232.3
2.-11.5
271.7
293.1
315 6
3.39.4
364.4
390.8
418.5
447.6
478.1
510.1
543.7
1.642.3
Volume
;t '/ih.
0.01961
.02182
0.02197
.02207
.02216
.02226
.02236
0.02246
.02256
.02267
.02278
.02288
0.02299
.02310
.02322
.02333
.02345
0.02357
.02369
.02381
02393
.02406
0.02419
.02432
.02446
.02460
.02474
0.024SS
.02503
.02518
.02533
02548
0.02564
.02581
.02597
.02614
02632
0 02650
.02668
.02687
.02673
.02707
02727
0.02747
.02769
.02790
.02813
.02836
0.02860
.02885
.02911
02938
02966
0.02995
.03025
.0.3056
.03089
.03124
.0686
lb./(t '
I/V
51.00
45.83
45.52
45.32
45.12
44.92
44.72
44.. 52
44.32
44.11
43.91
43.70
43.49
43.28
43.08
42.86
42.65
42.44
42.22
42.00
41.78
41.56
41.34
41.11
40.89
40.66
40.43
40.20
39.96
39.72
39.49
39.24
39.00
38.75
38.50
38.25
38.00
37.74
37.48
37.21
37.16
.36.95
36.67
36.40
36.12
35.84
35.55
35.26
34 96
34.66
34.35
34.04
33.72
33.39
33.06
32.72
32.37
32.01
14.6
' ?leat
ntu /lb .
1.040t
1.042t
1.043t
1.045t
1.046t
1.048t
1 .050t
1.052t
1.054
1.056
1.0.58
1.060
1.062
1.064
1.066
1.068
1.070
1.073
1.075
1.078
1 080
1.083
1 .085
1.088
1.091
1.094
1.097
1.100
1.104
1.108
1.112
1.116
1.120
1.125
1.129
1.1.33
1.138
1.142
1.143
1.147
1.151
1.1.56
1.162
1.168
1.176
1.183
1.189t
1.197t
1 .205t
1.213t
1.222t
1.23t
1.24t
1.25t
1.26t
1.27t
-63. Of
-57. 8t
-52. 6t
-47. 4t
-42. 2t
-36. 9t
-31 .7t
-26. 4t
-21.18
-15.90
-10.61
-5.31
0.00
+5.32
10.66
16.00
21.36
26.73
32.11
37.51
42.92
48.35
53.79
59.24
64.71
70.20
75.71
81.23
86.77
92.34
97.93
103.54
109.18
114.85
120.54
126.25
131.99
137.75
127.40
143.54
149.36
1.55.21
161 .09
167.01
172.97
178.98
185 1
191 1
197 1
203 1
210t
216t
222 1
229 1
235 r
241 1
433 1
Btu ,1b.
L
633t
631t
628t
625t .
622t
619t
616t
613t
610.8
607.5
604.3
600.9
597.6
594.2
590.7
587.2
583.6
580.0
576.4
572.6
568.9
565.0
561.1
557.1
553.1
548.9
544.8
540.5
536.2
531.8
527.3
522.8
518.1
513.4
508.6
503.7
498.7
493.6
492.6
488.5
483.2
477.8
472.3
466.7
460.9
455.0
449 1
443 1
436 1
430 1
423 1
416t
409 1
401 1
394 1
386 1
Latent
Heat of
-Pressure
ibility
% Change
Ib./.n.'
100 /4»
(Properties of solid ammoaia)
tThese figyres were calculated
from empirical equations given in
Bureau of Standards Scientific
Papers Nos. 31.1 and 315. and
represent values obtuined by extra-
polation beyond the range covered
in the experimental work.
0.00044
.00045
0 00046
.00047
.00048
.00050
.00051
0.000.52
.00054
.00055
.00057
.00058
O.OOOi'O
00062
.00064
.00066
.00068
0 00070
.00073
.00075
.011078
.rO()81
0 00084
.00088
.11(091
.00095
.00100
n 00104
.00109
.00114
.00115
.00120
.00126
0 00133
.00141
.00149
00158
.00167
"loTES — \l the critical temperature
of 271,4° F. (Cardoso and Gil)
the pressure is 1,657 lbs., the
volunie .0686 cubic feet, the
density 14.6 lbs., and the heat
content 433 Btu.
\'a!ue3 for gage pressure (g p), abso-
lute ^essure (p). liquid volume (v).
and density (1/v), heat of the
liquid (h) and latent beat (L), are
given for single Fahrenheit de-
grees in Table 2.
-0 0016
0.0026
-.0016
.0026
-0.0017
0.0026
-.0017
.0026
- .0018
.0025
-.0018
.0025
-.0019
.0025
-0.0019
0.0024
- .0020
.0024
- .0020
.0024
-.0021
.0023
- .0022
.0023
-0.0022
0,0022
- .0023
.0022
-.0024
.0021
-.0025
.0021
- .0025
.0020
-0.0026
0.0020
- .0027
.0019
-.0028
.0019
- .0029
.0018
-.0030
.0017
-0.0031
0,0017
- .0032
.0016
- .0033
0015
- .0034
.0014
-0035
.0013
-0.0037
0.0012
-.0038
.0011
-.0040
.0010
.0040
.0010
- .0041
0009
-.0043
0008
-0.0045
OOOOti
- .0047
.0005
- 0049
0003
- .0051
.0001
- 0053
.0000
-107.8
-107.8
-100
^95
-90
-85
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
85
86
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
165
170
271.4
: standard atmosphere (29.92 in = 14 696 lbs. abs.)
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
63
TABLE XX— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SUPERHEATED AMMONIA VAPORS
Bureau of SUindards Circular No. H2, April 16, 1023. Rearranged and Extended for
The American Society of Refrigerntinrj Engineers, July, l!t25.
Abs. Pressure 5 ID. /in.'
Abs. Pressure 10 Ib./iii.-
Abs. P
ressure 1
J Ib./ln.^
Gage
Pressu.
e 19.7*
Gagc I'ressure 9.6*
Gage 1
^ress. 0.3 lb./in.=
(Safn
remp. —
33.11° F.)
(Sat'n Temi). —
11.34" F.)
li;ntroi).\'
(Safn '
remp.— 27.29° F.)
Heat
Entropy
Heat
Heat
Kntropy
Tein.
Volume
Content
Btu./lb.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Utu./lb.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Btu./lb.
°¥.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
"F.
°1''.
ft.Vlb.
litu./lb
°F.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb
°F.
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
(at
(at
(at
{.tat'n
U9.S1 )
(,588.3)
(,1.4857)
safn)
(35.S1)
(597.1)
(1.4276)
xat'n)
(17.67)
(60:3.4)
(1.S938)
—50
51.05
52.36
595.2
600.3
1 . 5025
1.5149
-40
-30
25 . 90
26 . 58
597 . 8
6().i . 2
1.4293
1.4420
-30
-20
-40
is'oi'
*666!4'
"l.ii)ii'l'
-30
53.67
605 . 4
1.5209
-20
27.26
60S. 5
1.4542
-10
18.47
611.9
1.4154
—20
54.97
610.4
1.53S5
-10
27.92
013.7
1 . 4659
— 10
66.26
615.4
1 . 5498
0
18.92
617.2
1.4272
0
28.58
618.9
1.4773
10
19.37
622 . 5
1 . 4386
0
57.55
620.4
1.5608
10
29 . 24
624.0
1.4884
20
19.82
627. S
1 .4497
10
58.84
625.4
1.5716
20
29 . 90
629.1
1 . 4992
:iu
20 . 26
633 . 0
1.4604
20
60.12
630 . 4
1 . 5821
30
30.55
634 . 2
1.5097
40
20.70
638.2
1 . 4709
:50
40
61.41
62.69
635 . 4
640.4
1 . 5925
1.6026
40
31.20
639.3
1 . 5200
50
21.14
643 . 4
1.4812
50
31.85
644.4
1.5.301
00
21 . 58
648 . 5
1 .4912
50
63.96
645 . 5
1.6125
60
32 . 49
649 . 5
1.5100
70
22 .01
22.44
653 . 7
(i58 . 9
1 . 50 11
60
65.24
650.5
1.6223
70
33.14
654 . 6
1.5497
80
1 . 5108
70
66.51
655.5
1.6319
80
33 . 78
659 . 7
1.5.593
90
22.88
664.0
1 . 5203
SO
67.79
660 6
1.6413
90
34.42
664.8
1.5687
100
23.31
069.2
1 . 5296
'JO
69.06
665.6
1.6506
no
23 . 74
074.4
1.5388
100
35.07
670.0
1.5779
120
24.17
679.6
1.5478
100
70.33
670.7
1.6598
no
35.71
075.1
1.5870
130
24.60
684 8
1 5567
110
71.60
675.8
1.6689
120
36.35
680.3
1.5900
140
25.03
090.0
1.5655
120
72.87
680 . 9
1.6778
130
36.99
685.4
1 . 6049
130
74.14
686. 1
1.6865
140
37.62
690.6
1.6136
150
25.46
695.3
1.5742
140
75.41
691.2
1.6952
160
25.88
700 . 5
1.5827
150
38.26
695.8
1.6222
170
26 . 3 1
705 . 8
1.5911
150
76.68
696.4
1 . 7038
160
38 . 90
701.1
1.6307
180
26.74
711.1
1 . 5995
160
77.95
701.6
1.7122
170
39.54
706 . 3
1.6391
190
27.16
716.4
1.6077
170
79.21
706.8
1 . 7206
180
40.17
711.6
1.6474
200
210
27 59
791 7
1 6158
180
80.48
712.1
1.7289
190
40.81
710.9
1 .6550
28^02
727.0
1 6239
200
41.45
722.2
1.6637
220
230
240
2.50
28.44
28 . 88
29.29
29.71
732.4
737.8
743.2
748.6
1 6318
1.6397
1.6475
1 . 6552
Abs. Pi
essure 2(
) lb. /ill. -
Abs. Pressure 25
lb./in.2
Abs. Pres.sure 30 Ib./in.^
Tem.
Gage I
'less. 5.3
lb./in.=
Tem.
Gage Press. 10..
<. lb./in.=
7.96* F.)
Tem.
Gage P
•e.ss. 15.
J Ib./in.'
0.57^ F.)
°F.
(Siit'n '
I'eini). —
6.64°F.)
°F.
(Sat'n Temp. —
°F.
(Safn
Temp. —
{at
(at
(at
safn)
a3.G0)
(.606.2)
(1.3700)
?(('■«)
(10.96)
(600.1)
(1.3515)
safn)
(9.336)
(611.6)
(1.3S64)
— 20
0
10
11.19
11.47
613.8
619.4
1.3610
1.3738
0
10
9 . 250
9.492
611.9
617.8
1 3371
-10
vi'.ii'
eioio'
'i;3784'
1.3497
20
11.75
625.0
1.3855
20
9.731
623 . 5
1.3618
0
14.09
615.5
1.3907
30
12.03
630.4
1.3967
30
9 . 966
629 . 1
1.3733
10
14.44
621.0
1.4025
40
12.30
635.8
1.4077
40
10.20
634.6
1 . 3845
20
14.78
626.4
1.4138
30
15.11
631.7
1.4248
50
12.57
641.2
1.4183
50
10 . 43
640 . 1
1.3953
40
15.45
637.0
1.4356
60
12.84
040.5
1.4287
60
10.65
645.5
1.4059
70
13.11
651.8
1.4388
70
10.88
650 . 9
1.4161
50
15.78
642.3
1.4460
80
13.37
657.1
1.4487
80
11.10
656 . 2
1.4261
GO
10.12
647.5
1.4562
90
13.64
662.4
1.4584
90
11.33
661.0
1.4359
70
10.45
6.52 . 8
1 . 4602
80
16.78
658 . 0
1.4760
100
13.90
667.7
1.4679
100
11.55
666.9
1.4456
90
17.10
603.2
1 . 4856
no
14.17
673.0
1.4772
no
11.77
672 , 2
1 . 4550
120
14.43
078.2
1.4864
120
11.99
677.5
1 . 4642
100
17.43
008 . 5
1 . 4950
130
14.69
683.5
1.4954
130
12.21
682 . 9
1 . 4733
no
17.76
673 . 7
1.5042
140
14.95
688. 8
1 . 5043
140
12.43
688.2
1.4823
120
18.08
078 . 9
1.5133
130
18.41
684 . 2
1.5223
150
15.21
694.1
1.5131
150
12.65
693.5
1.4911
140
18.73
689.4
1.5312
160
15.47
699.4
1.5217
160
12.87
698 . 8
1.4998
170
15.73
704.7
1.5.303
170
13.08
704.2
1 . 5083
150
10.05
694.7
1.5.399
180
15.99
710.1
1.5387
180
13. 30
709 . 6
1 5168
100
19.37
700.0
1.5485
190
16.25
715.4
1.5470
190
13.52
714.9
1.5251
170
19.70
705.3
1 . 5509
180
20.02
710.6
1 . 5653
200
16. 50
720.8
1 . 5552
200
13.73
720.3
1 . 5334
190
20.34
715.9
1.5736
210
16.76
726 . 2
1 . 5633
210
13 95
725.7
1 5415
220
17.02
731.6
1.5713
220
14 16
731 1
1 5495
200
20.60
721.2
1.5817
230
17.27
737.0
1 . 5792
230
14.38
736 6
1 5575
210
20 . 98
726.6
1.5898
240
17.53
742.5
1.5870
240
14.59
742.0
1 . 5653
220
21.30
7.32.0
1.5978
230
21.62
737.4
1.6057
250
17.79
747.9
1 . 5948
250
14.81
747.5
1.5732
240
21.94
742.8
1.6135
260
18.04
753.4
1 . 6025
260
15 02
753.0
1 . 5808
270
18.30
758.9
1.6101
270
15 23
758,5
1 . 5884
250
22 . 26
748.3
1.0212
280
15.45
764 1
1 5960
Note:-
Entropy. Btu
*luches c
Is Volume of Superheated Vapor, ft.Vlb.; "H" is Heat Content. Btu./lb., and "S" is
/lb. °F.
f mercury at 32° F. below one standard atmosphere (29.92 in. = 14,696 lbs. abs.1
64
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XX — BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SUPERHEATED AMMONIA V AT OUS— Continued
Bureau of Standards Circular Xo. I4J, April 16, 1923. Rearranged and Extended for
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, July, 1923.
Abs. Jt-ressure So ID., ln.=
Abs. Pressure -40 In., in.-
Aus. Pressure .iO Ib./in.=
Gage Pre.>s. 20.3 lo./in.'
Gage Press. 25.3 lb., in.'
Gage P
ess. S3.
} lb. /in.'
(Sat'n
leaip. 5.89° F.)
(Sat'u
Peinp. 11.06° F.)
(Safn
I'einp. 2
.67 °F.)
Heat
Entropy
ixeat
Kutroi)i
Heat
Kntropy
Tern.
Volume
Content
Btu./lo.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Btu./lo.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Btu./lb.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
°F.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
°1''.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
°1''.
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
{at
^a^
(at
safn)
(7.991)
(613.6)
(1 .3336)
-a; n)
(7.047)
(61S.4)
(1.3125)
safn)
(5.710)
(618.3)
(1.2939)
10
8.078
S.287
616.1
622.0
1.32S9
1.3413
10
10
30
40
5.838
5 . 988
623.4
629.5
1 . 3046
20
' 7 '. 203 '
'626!4'
'i!323i
1.3169
30
8.49J
627.7
1.35o2
;;o
7.087
6j6.3
1.33o.i
40
8.695
633.4
1.36^6
40
7.568
632.1
1.3470
50
60
0.135
6 . 280
635.4
641.2
1.3286
1.3399
50
8.895
638. 9
1.3756
50
7.746
637. S
1.3583
70
6.423
640 . 9
1.3508
60
9.093
644.4
1.3863
60
7.9J2
643.4
1 . 3092
SO
6.504
652.0
1.3613
70
9.289
649.9
1.3907
70
8.096
648.9
1.3797
90
6.704
658.2
1.3716
80
90
9.484
9.677
655.3
660.7
1.4069
1.4168
80
90
8.268
8.439
651.4
659.9
1.3900
1.4000
100
no
0.S43
6 . 980
663.7
669 . 2
1.3816
1.3914
100
9.869
666.1
1.4265
100
8.609
665.3
1.409S
120
130
140
7.117
7.252
7.387
674.7
680.2
685.7
1 . 4009
1.4103
1.4195
110
120
10 06
10.25
671.5
676.8
1 . 4360
1.4453
110
1..0
8.7/7
8 . 945
670.7
676.1
1.4P.M
1.42SS
130
10.44
682 . 2
1.4545
10
9.112
681.5
1.43S1
150
7.521
691.1
1.4286
140
10.63
687.6
1.4635
140
9.278
686.9
1.4471
100
170
7 . 655
7 . 788
690 . 6
702.1
1.4374
1 . 4462
150
10 . 82
692.9
1.4724
150
9.444
692.3
1.4.501
180
7.921
707 . 5
1.4548
160
11.00
698.3
1.4811
160
9 . 609
697.7
1.4048
190
8.053
713.0
1.4633
170
11.19
703.7
1.4897
170
9 . 774
703.1
1.4735
ISO
11.38
709.1
1 . 4982
180
9 . 938
70S . 5
1.4,S2()
200
8.185
718.5
1.4716
190
11.56
714.5
1.5006
190
10.10
714.0
1 . 4904
210
220
8.317
8.448
724.0
729 . 4
1.4799
1.4880
200
11.75
719.9
1.5148
200
10.27
719.4
1.4987
230
8.579
735.0
1.4901
210
11.94
725.3
1.5230
210
10.43
724.9
1.5069
240
8.710
740.5
1 . 5040
220
12.12
730.7
1.5311
220
10.59
730.3
1.51.)0
250
S.840
746.0
1 .5119
230
12.31
736.2
1.5390
230
10.75
735.8
1 . 5230
260
8 970
751 6
1 5197
240
12.49
741.7
1.5469
240
10.92
741.3
1.5309
270
280
9! 100
9 230
757 : 2
702.7
l!5274
1 5350
250
12.68
747.2
1.5547
250
11.08
746.8
1.5387
290
9 . 360
768.4
1.5425
260
12.86
752.7
1.5624
260
11.24
752.3
1.5465
270
13.04
758.2
1.5701
270
11.40
757.8
1.5541
300
9.489
774.0
1.5500
2S0
13.23
763.7
1.5776
I'SO
1 1 .".()
703 . 4
1.5017
310
9.018
779 6
1.5574
Abs. P
es.sure 00 Ih./iu.-
Al)s. Pi
ensure 7(
Hb./iii.2
Abs. P
essure 8(
)lb./in.2
Te"i.
Gage P
ress. 45.3 lb./ in. 2
Tem.
Gage P
re.ss. 55.
J 11), /in. 2
Tem.
Gage P
•e.ss. 65.
J lb. /in.'
°1'.
(Safn
Perap. 30.21° F.)
°F.
(Sat'n
Penip. 3"
.70° F.)
°F.
(Safn
I'emp. 44.40° F.)
««
(at
(at
sat'n)
U.SOB)
(630.5)
(1.27S7)
sat'n)
(4.1S1)
(633.4)
(1.365S)
sat'nf
(3.G55)
(624.0)
(1.2345)
30
40
4.177
623 . 9
1.2088
50
60
3.712
3.812
027 . 7
034.3
1.2619
40
'4:933'
'626!8'
'i!29i3'
1.2745
50
4.290
630.4
1.2810
70
3.909
640.6
1 . 2866
50
5.060
632.9
1.3035
60
4.401
630.0
1.2937
80
4 . 005
646.7
1.2981
60
5.184
639.0
1.3152
70
4 . 509
6 42.7
1.3054
90
4.098
652.8
1 . 3092
70
5 . 307
644.9
1.3205
SO
4.615
648.7
1.3100
80
5 . 428
650.7
1 . 3373
90
4.719
654.6
1.3274
100
4.190
658.7
1.3199
90
5.547
656.4
1.3479
no
4.281
6(>4.6
1.3303
100
4.822
660 . 4
1.3378
120
4.371
070.4
1 . 3404
100
5.665
662 . 1
1.3581
no
4.924
600 . 1
1.3480
130
4.400
076.1
1 . 3502
110
5.781
667.7
1.3081
P.'O
5.025
071.8
1 . 3579
140
4.548
681.8
1.3598
120
5.807
673.3
1.3778
130
5.125
077 . 5
1 . 3070
130
6.012
678.9
1.3873
140
5.224
683.1
1.3770
150
4.635
687.5
1.3692
140
6.126
684.4
1.3966
160
4.722
693.2
1.3784
150
5 . 323
088 . 7
1.3863
170
4.808
698.8
1.3874
150
6 . 239
689 . 9
1.40.58
100
5.420
09 4 . 3
1.3951
180
4 . 893
704.4
1.3963
160
6.3.52
695 5
1.4148
170
5.518
099 . 9
1.4043
190
4.978
710.0
1 . 4050
170
6.464
701 .0
1.4236
180
5.615
705.5
1.4131
180
6 . 576
706 . 5
1.4323
190
5.711
711.0
1.421
200
5.063
715.6
1.4136
190
6.087
712.0
1.4409
210
5.147
721.3
1.4220
200
5 . 807
716.6
1.4302
220
5.231
726.9
1.4304
200
6 798
717.5
1.4493
210
5.902
722 . 2
1.4386
230
5.315
732.5
1 . 4386
210
6 909
723.1
1.4576
220
5.908
727 . 7
1.4469
240
5.398
738.1
1.4467
220
7.019
728.6
1.46.58
2''0
6.093
733.3
1 . 45.50
230
7.129
734 . 1
1 . 4739
240
6.187
738.9
1.4631
250
5.482
743.8
1 . 4.547
240
7.238
739.7
1.4819
260
5.565
749.4
1.4626
250
6.2S1
744.5
1.4711
270
5.647
755.1
1.4704
250
7.348
745.3
1.4898
200
6.376
7.50 . 1
1.4789
280
5.730
760.7
1 .4781
260
7 . 457
750.9
1.4970
270
6.470
755.8
1 . 4866
290
5.812
766.4
1.4857
270
7.. 566
756.5
1.5053
2.S0
6 . .5(i3
761.4
1.4943
280
7 . 675
762.1
1.5130
290
6.657
767.1
1.5019
300
5.894
772.1
1.4933
290
7.783
767.7
1.5206
310
5.976
777.8
1 . 5008
300
6 . 7.50
772.7
1 . 5005
320
6.058
783.5
1.5081
300
7.892
773.3
1.52S1
310
0.844
778.4
1.5109
310
8,000
770 0
1.53.55
320
6 937
784.1
1.5243
Note: — "V" Is Volume of Superheated Vapor, ft.Vlb.: "H" is Heat Content. Btu./lb., and "S" Is
Entropy, Btu./lb. °F.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
65
TABLE XX BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SUPERHEATED AMMONIA VAPORS— Continued
Bureau of Standards Circular No. HZ, April 16, 1923. Rearranged and Extended for
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, Julu, 1025.
Abs. Pressure 90 lb. /in.'
Abs. Pressure 100 lb. /in.'
Abs. Pressure 110 Ib./ln.'
Gage Press. 75.3 lb./in.=
Gage Press. 85.3 Ib./in.-
Gage Press. 95.3 lb./ln.»
(Sat'n
Temp. 50.47" F.)
(.Safn Temp. 56.05° F.)
(Sat'n Temp. 61.21° F.)
Heat
Entropy
Heat
Entropy
Heat
Entropy
Btu./lb.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Btu./lb.
Tem.
Volume
Content
Btu./lb.
Tem.
Volume
Content
"F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
"F.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
°F.
°F.
ft.Vlb.
Btu./lb.
°F.
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
t
V
H
s
{at
(at
(at
sat'n)
(3.366)
(635.3)
(1.3445)
sat'n)
(3.953)
(636.5)
(1 .3.356)
sat'n)
(3.693)
(627.5)
(1.3375)
50
60
70
2.985
3.068
629 . 3
636.0
1.2409
1.25^9
60
70
60
'3!353'
'eii.s
'i!2.57i
i.ihi
ess!?'
■i;2392'
70
3.442
638.3
1.2695
80
3.149
642.6
1.2661
SO
2.837
640.5
1.2519
80
3.529
644.7
1.2814
90
3.227
649.0
1.2778
90
2.910
647.0
1.2640
90
3.614
6.50.9
1.2928
100
3.304
655.2
1.2891
100
2.981
6.53 . 4
1.2755
100
3 698
657 0
1 . 3038
no
3 . 380
661.3
1.2999
no
3.051
6.59 . 7
1.2866
110
3 780
663 0
1.3144
120
3.454
667.3
1.3104
120
3.120
665.8
1.2972
120
3 862
668 9
1 3247
i.;o
3.527
673 . 3
1.3206
130
3.188
671.9
1 . 3076
130
3.942
674.7
1.3347
140
3.600
679.2
1.3305
140
3.255
677.8
1.3176
140
4.021
680.5
1.3444
150
3.672
685.0
1..3401
150
3.321
683 . 7
1.3274
150
160
170
180
4.100
4.178
4.255
4 . 332
686.3
692.0
697.7
703.4
1 . 3539
1.3633
1.3724
1.3813
160
170
180
190
3 . 743
3.813
3 . 883
3.952
690 . 8
696.6
702.3
708.0
1..3495
1.3588
1.3678
1.3767
160
170
180
190
3.386
3.451
3.515
3.579
689.6
695.4
701.2
707.0
1.3370
1.3463
1,35.55
1.3644
190
4.408
709.0
1.3901
200
4.021
713.7
1.3854
200
3.642
712.8
1.3732
210
4.090
719.4
1 . 3940
210
3 . 705
718.5
1.3819
200
4.484
714.7
1.3988
220
4.1.58
725.1
1.4024
220
3.768
724.3
1 . 3904
210
4.560
720.4
1.4073
230
4.226
730 . 8
1.4108
230
3 . 830
730.0
1 . 3988
220
4.635
726.0
1.4157
240
4.294
736.5
1.4190
240
3.892
735.7
1.4070
230
240
4.710
4.785
731.7
737.3
1.4239
1 .4321
250
4.361
742.2
1.4271
250
3 . 954
741.5
1.4151
260
4.428
747.9
1.43.50
260
4.015
747.2
1.4232
250
4 859
743.0
1 4401
270
4.495
753.6
1.4429
270
4 . 076
7.52 . 9
1.4311
260
4 933
748 7
1 4481
280
4.562
7.59 . 4
1.4507
280
4.137
758 . 7
1.4389
270
5.007
754.4
1 . 4559
290
4.629
765.1
1.4584
290
4.198
764.5
1 . 4466
280
5.081
760.0
1.46.37
300
4 . 695
770.8
1.4660
300
4.259
770.2
1.4543
290
5.155
765.8
1.4713
310
4.761
776.6
1.47H6
310
4.319
776.0
1.4619
320
4.827
782 . 4
1.4810
320
4.379
781.8
1 . 4693
300
5.228
771.5
1.4789
330
4 . 893
788.2
1.4884
330
4.439
787.6
1 4767
310
5.301
777.2
1.4864
340
4.959
794.0
1.4957
340
4.500
793.4
1.4841
320
5.374
783.0
1.4938
350
5.024
799.8
1.5029
350
4 . 559
799 3
1 48.59
Abs. Pr
Bssure 12
0 1b./in.2
Abs. Pre.ssure 13
0 lb./in.2
Abs. 1-re.ssure 140 lb./in.«
Tern.
Gage Pr
ess. 105.
S lb. /In.'
Tem.
Gage Press. 115.
3 lbyin.2
).5.3'' F.)
Tem.
Gage Pr
ess. 125.
3 lb./in.2
"F.
(Sat'n '
remp. 6f
.02° F-)
"F.
(Sat'n Temp. 7(
°F.
(Sat'n '
remp. 7-
1.79'* F.)
(.at
(at
(at
sat'n)
(3.476)
(838.4)
(1.3301)
sat'n)
(3.391)
(639.3)
(1.3133)
sat'n)
(3.132)
(639.9)
(1.3068)
70
2 . 505
2 . 576
631.3
638 . 3
1.2255
1.2386
70
80
80
90
2.166
2 . 228
633.8
640.9
1.2140
80
2 :. 3.5.5'
'636'6'
'i'.2260
1.2272
90
2.645
645.0
1.2510
90
2.421
643.0
1.2388
100
2.288
647.8
1 . 2396
100
2.712
651.6
1.2628
100
2.484
649.7
1 . 2509
no
2 . 347
654.5
1.2515
110
2.778
658.0
1.2741
no
2 .546
6.56 . 3
1 . 2625
120
2.404
661.1
1 . 2628
120
2.842
664.2
1.28.50
120
2 606
662,7
1.2736
1^0
2.460
667.4
1.2738
130
2.905
670.4
1.29.56
130
2 . 665
668,9
1 .2843
140
2.515
673.7
1.2843
140
2.967
676.5
1.3058
140
2.724
675.1
1.2947
150
2,569
679.9
1.2945
150
3.029
682.5
1.3157
l.=>0
2.781
681.2
1.3048
100
2 , 622
686.0
1.3045
160
3.089
688.4
1 . 3254
160
2.838
687.2
1.3146
170
2 . 675
692.0
1.3141
170
3.149
694 . 3
1.3348
170
2.894
693.2
1.3241
180
2.727
698 0
1 . 3236
180
3.209
700.2
1.3441
LSO
2.949
699 . 1
1.33'i5
190
2.779
704.0
1.3328
190
3.268
706.0
1.3531
190
3.004
705.0
1.3426
200
2.8''0
709 9
1.3418
200
3.326
711. S
1.3620
200
3.059
710.9
1.3516
210
2 8, SO
715.8
1 3507
210
3.385
717.6
1.3707
210
3.113
716.7
1.3604
2'0
2.9U
721.6
1.3594
220
3.442
723 . 4
1.3793
220
3.167
722.5
1.3690
2"0
2,981
727 . 5
1 . .■'679
230
3.500
729.2
1.3877
230
3.220
728.3
1 3775
240
3.030
733 . 3
1.3763
240
3.557
734.9
1.3960
240
3.273
734.1
1.3858
250
3.080
7.39.2
1 , 3846
250
3.614
740.7
1.4042
250
3.326
739.9
1 3941
260
3.129
745.0
1.3928
260
3.671
746.5
1.4123
260
3 . 379
745.7
1 4022
270
3.179
750.8
1 . 4008
270
3 . 727
752.2
1 . 4202
270
3.431
751.5
1.4102
280
3.227
756.7
1.4088
280
3.783
758.0
1.4281
280
3.483
757 . 3
1.4181
290
3.275
762.5
1.4166
290
3.839
763.8
1.4359
290
3.535
763.1
1.4259
300
3 . 323
768.3
1.4243
300
3 . 895
769 6
1.4435
300
3.587
769.0
1.43:^6
310
3.371
774,2
1.4320
310
3.951
775 . 4
1.4511
310
3 . 639
774.8
1.4412
3?0
3.420
780 0
1.4395
320
4.006
781.2
1 . 4586
320
3.690
780 6
1.4487
3?0
3.467
785.9
1.4470
330
4.061
787.0
1.4660
330
3.742
786.5
1 . 4.562
340
3.515
791.8
1.4544
340
4.117
792.9
1.4734
340
3.793
792.3
1.4636
350
3.563
797.7
1.4617
350
4.172
798.7
1.4807
350
3.844
798.2
1.4709
360
3.610
803.6
1.4690
Xotr: — "V" 1? Volume of Superheated Vapor, ft.Vlb., "H" is Heat Content, Btu./lb.. and "S" l3
Entropy, Btu./lb. °F.
66
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XX BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SUPERHEATED AMMONIA VAPORS — Continued
Bureau of Standards Circular No. 142, April 16, 1023. Rearranged and Extended for
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers. July, 192o.
■Peni
°F.
SU
'JO
100
no
120
IM
140
150
100
170
ISO
I'JO
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
3C0
Abs. Pressure
150 lb./ in.'
Gage Pre.s.sure
135.3 lb. /in.-'
(Sat'n Temp.
78.81° F.)
V
H
U .99/,)
WS0.6)
2.001
631.4
2.061
638.8
2.118
645.9
2.174
052.8
2.228
659.4
2.281
665.9
2.334
672.3
2.385
67S.6
2.435
684.8
2.485
690.9
2.534
696.9
2.583
702.9
2.631
708.9
2.679
714.8
2.726
720.7
2.773
726.0
2.820
732.5
2.866
738.4
2.912
744.3
2.908
750.1
3.004
756.0
3.049
761.8
3.095
767.7
3.140
773.6
3.185
779.4
3.230
785.3
3.274
791.2
3.319
797.1
3.304
803.0
(.1.S009)
1.2025
1.2161
1.2289
1.2410
1.2526
1.2638
1.2745
1.2849
1.2949
1.3047
1.3142
1.3236
1.3327
1.3416
1.3.504
1.3590
1.3075
1.375S
1.3S4U
1.3921
1.4001
1.4079
1.4157
1.4234
1.4310
1.4385
1.4459
1.4.532
1.4605
Abs. Pressure
100 lb./iii.»
Gage Pressui'e
154.3 Ib./iu.'
(Sat'n Temp.
82.04° F.)
V
H
a. 872)
lesi.i)
1.914
630.0
1.969
043.9
2.023
651.0
2.075
057.8
2.125
064.4
2.175
670.9
2.224
077.2
2.272
683.5
2.319
689.7
2.365
695.8
2.411
701.9
2.457
707.9
2.502
713.9
2.547
719.9
2.591
725.8
2.035
731.7
2.679
737.6
2.723
743.5
2.706
749.4
2.809
755.3
2.852
7()1.2
2.H95
767.1
2.937
773.0
2.980
778.9
3.022
784.8
3.004
790.7
3.106
796.0
3.148
802.5
3.189
808.5
3.231
814.5
3.273
S20.4
3.314
826.4
U.19S1)
1.2055
1.2180
1.2311
1.2429
1.2542
1.2652
1.2757
1.2859
1.295S
1.305 1
1.314S
1.3240
1.3331
1.3419
1.3,506
1.3591
1.3675
1.3757
1.3838
1.3919
1.3998
1.4070
1.4153
1.4229
1.4304
1.4379
1.4452
1.4525
1.4597
1.4069
1.4710
1.4810
Abs. Pres.sure
170 lb./ in. 2
Gage I'ressure
155.3 lb./in.=
(Sat'n Temp.
86.29° F.)
V
H
a.76i)
(.6S1 .6)
1.784
634.4
1.837
641.9
1.889
649.1
1.939
656.1
1.988
662.8
2.035
669.4
2.081
675.9
2.127
682.3
2,172
688.5
2 216
(i94.7
2.2liU
700.8
2.303
706.9
2.346
713.0
2.389
719.0
2.431
724.9
2.473
730.9
2.514
736.8
2.555
742.8
2.596
748.7
2.637
754.6
2.678
760.5
2.718
766.4
2.758
772.3
2.798
778.3
2.838
784.2
2.878
790.1
2.918
796.2
2.957
802.0
2.997
808.0
3.036
814.0
3.075
820,0
3.114
82().0
1.1.1900)
1.1952
1.20S7
1.22 !.">
1.2336
1.2452
1.2563
1.2669
1.2773
1.2873
1.2971
1.3066
1.3159
1.3249
1.3338
1.3426
1.3512
1.3596
1.3079
1.3761
1.3841
1.3921
1.3999
1.4076
1.4153
1.4228
1.4303
1.4377
1.4450
1.4.522
1.4.594
1 .4065
1.4735
Abs. Pressure
180 lb./ in. 2
Gage Pressure
165.3 lb./in.2
(Sat'n Temp.
89.78° F.)
V
H
1,1 .607)
(ess.o)
1.068
032.2
1.720
639.9
1,770
647.3
1,M,S
054.4
l,8<i5
661.3
1.910
068.0
1.955
674.6
1 .999
681.0
2.042
087.3
2.084
693.6
2.126
699.8
2.167
705.9
2.208
712.0
2.248
718.1
2.288
724.1
2.328
730.1
2.367
736.1
2.407
742.0
2.446
748.0
2.484
753.9
2.523
759.9
2.561
765.8
2.599
771.7
2.637
777.7
2.675
783.6
2.713
789.6
2.7.50
795.0
2.788
801.5
2.825
807.5
2.803
813.5
2.900
819.5
2.937
825.5
(1.1860)
1.1853
1.1992
1.2123
1.2247
1.2304
1.2477
1.2586
1.2091
1.2792
1,2891
1.2987
1.3081
1.3172
1.3262
1.3350
1.3436
1.3521
1.3605
1.3687
1.3768
1.3847
1.3926
1.4004
1.4081
1.4156
1.4231
1.4305
1.4379
1.4451
1.4523
1.4594
1.4665
Tern
°F.
Abs. rre.ssure
190 lb./ in. 2
Gage I'ressure
175.3 Ib./in.'
(Sat'n Temp.
93.13° F.)
100
1.615
IK)
1.603
120
1.710
1 (0
1.755
1 10
1.799
150
1.842
160
1.884
170
1.925
180
1.966
190
2.005
2m
2.045
210
2.084
••>-.^o
2.123
230
2.161
240
2.199
250
2.230
260
2.274
270
2.311
•,^so
2.348
290
2.384
300
2.421
310
2.457
320
2.493
330
2.529
340
2.565
350
2.601
360
2.637
3V0
2.072
380
2.707
390
2.74,3
400
2.778
(.esu) U.1B02)
637.8
645.4
0.52.0
6.59.7
666.5
673.2
079.7
086.1
(i92.5
698.7
704.9
711.1
717.2
723.2
729.3
735.3
741.3
747.3
753.2
759.2
765.2
771.1
777.1
783.1
789.0
795.1
801.0
807.0
813.0
819.0
825.1
1.1899
1.2034
1.2160
1.2281
1.2396
1.2500
1.2012
1.2715
1.2815
1.2912
1.3007
1.3099
1.3189
1.3278
1.3365
1.3450
1.3534
1.3617
1.3()98
1.3778
1.3857
1.3935
1.4012
1.40S8
1.4168
1.4238
1.4311
1.4384
1.44,56
1.4,527
1,4,598
ml'n)
lUO
no
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
200
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
3.50
360
370
380
390
400
Abs. Pressure
200 lb./in.2
Gage Pressure
1S5.3 lb./ln.»
(Sat'n Temp.
90.34° F.)
(1 .603)
1.^20
1.567
1 612
1 .6.56
1.098
1.740
1.780
1.820
1.859
1.897
1.935
1.972
2.009
2.046
2.082
2.118
2.154
2.189
2.225
2.200
2.295
2.329
2.304
2.398
2.432
2.466
2.500
2.534
2.568
2.601
2.635
(ess.7)
643.4
650,9
(i58.1
665.0
671.8
678.4
684.9
691.3
097.7
703.9
710.1
710.3
722.4
728.4
734.5
740.5
740.5
7.52.5
758.5
704.5
770.5
776.5
782.5
788.5
794.5
800.5
806.5
812.5
818.6
824.6
U.1766)
1.1809
1.1947
1.2077
1.2200
1.2317
1.2429
1.2537
1.2641
1.2742
1.2840
1.2935
1.3029
1.3120
1.3209
1..3296
1.3382
1.3407
1.3550
1.3631
1.3712
1.3791
1.3869
1.3947
1.4023
1.4099
1.4173
1.4241
1.4320
1.4392
1.4464
1.4534
Abs. Pres.sure
210 lb. /in. 2
Gage Pressure
195.3 Ib./in.'
(Sat'n Temp.
99.43° F.)
Abs. Pressure
220 lb. /in. 2
Gage Pressure
205.3 lb./in.2
(Sat'n Temp.
102.42° F.)
(l.iSl)
{ess.o)
iuris)
(/.sen
(.ess.n)
U.1671)
1.480
641.5
1.1803
1.400
639.4
1.1781
1.524
649.1
1.1996
1.443
647.3
1.1917
1.566
650.4
1.2121
1.485
654.8
1.2045
1.608
063.5
1.2240
1.525
662.0
1.2167
1.648
670.4
1.2354
1.564
669.0
1.2281
1.087
677.1
1.2464
1.601
675.8
1.2394
1.725
683.7
1.2569
1.638
082.5
1.2501
1.762
690.2
1.2672
1.675
689.1
1.2604
1.799
696.6
1.2771
1.710
695.5
1.2704
1.836
702.9
1.2867
1.745
701.9
1.2801
1.872
709.2
1.2961
1.780
708.2
1.2896
1.907
715.3
1.3053
1.814
714.4
1.2989
1.942
721.5
1.3143
1.848
720.6
1.3079
1.977
727.6
1.3231
1.881
7-26.8
1.3168
2.011
733.7
1.3317
1.914
732.9
1.3255
2.046
739.8
1.3402
1.947
739.0
1.3340
2.080
745.8
1.3486
1.980
745.1
1.3424
2.113
751.8
1.3508
2.012
751.1
1.3507
2.147
757.9
1.3649
2.044
757.2
1.3588
2.180
763.9
1.3728
2.076
763.2
l.,3668
2.213
709.9
1.3806
2.108
709.3
1.3747
2.240
775.9
1.3884
2.140
775.3
1.3825
2.279
781.9
1.3961
2.171
781.3
1.3902
2.312
787.9
1.4037
2.203
787.4
1.3978
2.345
794.0
1.4112
2.234
793.5
1.4053
2.377
800.0
1.4186
2.265
799.5
1.4127
2.409
800.0
1.4259
2.296
805.5
1.4200
2.442
812.0
1.4331
2.327
811.6
1.4273
2.474
818.1
1.4403
2.358
817.6
1.4345
2.506
824.2
1.4474
2.388
823.7
1.4416
Note: — "V"
Entropy, Btu.
is Volume of Superheated Vapor, ft.Vlb.; '11" is Heat Content, Btu. /lb., and "S" is
/lb. °F.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
67
TABLE XX.— BUREAU OF STANDARDS TABLES OF PROPERTIES OF
SUPERHEATED AMMONIA VAFOS.S.— (.Continued.)
Bureau of Standards Circular No. 142, April 16, 1923. Rearranged and Extended jor
The American Society of Refrigerating Engineers, July, 1925.
no
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
100
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
120
130
140
ISO
160
170
ISO
190
200
210
220
230
250
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
Ab8. Pressure 230 lb. /in'
Gage Pressure 21S.J Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp. 103.30" F.)
1.328
1 .370
1.410
1.449
1.487
1.524
1.559
1.594
1.629
1.663
1.696
1.729
1.762
1.794
1.826
1.857
1 .889
1.920
1.95i
1.982
2 012
2.043
2.073
2 103
2.133
2.163
2 . 193
2.222
2.252
2.281
«
637.4
645.4
653 . 1
660.4
667.6
674.5
681.3
687.9
694.4
700.9
707.2
713.5
719.8
726.0
732.1
738.3
744.4
750.5
756.5
762.6
768.7
774.7
780.8
786.8
793.0
798.9
805.0
811.1
817.2
Abs. Pressure 270 Ib.,/in.J
Gaee Pressure 2S6.S Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp. 115.97° I')
{l.Ui)
1.128
1.166
1.202
1.236
1.26-
1 .302
1.333
1.364
1.394
1.423
1.452
1.481
1.509
1.537
1.565
1.592
1 620
1.646
1 073
1.700
1,726
1.752
1.778
1.804
1.830
1 .856
1.881
1.907
1.932
(«.«
9)
637
5
645
9
653
9
661
6
669
0
676
2
683
2
690
0
696
7
703
3
709
8
716
2
772
6
728.9
735.2
741
4
747
7
753.9
760.0
766
2
772
3
778
5
784
6
790
8
796
9
803
0
809
1
815
3
821
4
1.1544
1 . 1689
1 . 1823
1.1950
1 2071
1.2185
1 .2296
1.2401
1 .2504
1 2603
1.2700
1.2794
1.2885
1.2975
1.3063
1 3149
1 3234
1.3317
1 3399
1.3480
1.3559
1.3647
1.3714
1.3790
1 3866
1.3940
1.4014
I .4086
1.4158
Alls Pressure 240 lb, /in'
Gage Pressure 22S.3 Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp. lOS.O'J" F.)
• i)
1.261
1.302
1.342
1.380
1.416
1.452
1.487
1.521
1.554
1.587
1.619
1 651
1.683
1.714
r.745
1.77".
1.805
1.835
1.865
1.895
1.924
1 .954
1.983
2.012
2.040
2.069
2.098
2 . 126
2.155
2 . 183
H
(KM-K)
635.3
643.5
651.3
658.8
666.1
673 . 1
680 0
a86.7
693,3
699.8
706.2
712.6
718.9
725.1
731.3
737.5
743 6
749.8
755.9
762.0
768,0
774,1
780,2
786.3
792 , 4
798.4.
804.5"
810.6
816.7
822,8
1.1021
1 . 1764
1 . 1898
1 .2025
1 2145
1.2259
1.2369
1.2475
1.2577
1,2677
1 .2773
1 .2867
1 .2959
1.3049
1.3137
1.3224
1 .3308
1.3392
1.3474
1 3554
1 .3633
1.3712
1.3790
1.3866
1,3942
1,4016
1.4090
1.4163
1.4235
1.4307
Aba. Pressui
Cage Pressun
(Safn. Ten.i
e 280 lb. /in '
265.3 lb./in.>
,. 118.45° F.)
((,07?)
inmn-)
1,078
635,4
1,115
644.0
1.151
652.2
1.184
660.1
1 217
667,6
1.249
674.9
1.279
681 9
1.309
688.9
1 339
695 6
1.367
702.3
1 .396
708,8
1.424
715.3
1.451
721.8
1 478
728.1
1.505
734.4
1 532
740.7
1.558
747.0
1.584
753.2
1.610
759 4
1.635
765.6
1.661
771.7
1 686
777,9
1.712
784.0
1.737
790 3
1.762
796.3
1.787
802.5
1.811
808.7
1.836
814.8
1.861
821.0
1.1473
1 . 1621
1 . 1759
1 . 1888
1.2011
1.2127
1 .2239
1.2346
1.2449
1.2,550
1.2647
1 .2742
1 2834
1.2y24
1.3013
1.3099
1.3184
1.3268
1.3350
1.3431
1.3511
1.3590
1 3667
1.3713
1.-3819
1.3893
1 .3967
1.4040
1 4112
Abs. Pressure 250 Ib./in.'
Gage Prcs..urc 2SS.3 Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp. 110 80° F.)
V
H
(/.iU.-)
(iJ,f..>>
1.240
641.5
1.278
649.6
1.316
657.2
1.352
664.6
1.386
671.8
1.420
678.7
1.453
685.5
1.486
692.2
1.518
698.8
1.549
705.3
1.580
711.7
1.610
718,0
1.640
724.3
1.670
730 5
1.699
736.7
1.729
742.9
1.75S
749.1
1.786
755.2
1.815
761.3
1.843
767.4
1.872
773.5
1.900
779.6
1.928
785.7
1.955
791.9
1 .983
797.9
2.011
804.0
2.038
810.1
2.065
816.2
2.093
822,3
1.1690
1.1827
1 . 1956
1 .2078
1.2195
1 .2306
1.2414
1.2517
1.2617
1.2715
1.2810
1 .2902
1.2993
1 3081
1 3168
1.3253
1.3.337
1.3420
1 3501
1.3.581
1 .3659
1.3737
1.3814
1.3889
1.3964
1 4038
1.4111
1.4183
1.4255
Abs. Pressure 290 Ib./in,'
Gage Pressure 27S.3 Ib./in
(Safn. Temp. 120.80° F )
V-O^O (OmO) il.l4IS)
1.068
1.103
1.136
1 . 168
1.199
1.229
1.2.59
1.287
1 315
1.343
1.370
1.397
1.423
1.449
1.475
1.501
1 526
1.551
1.576
1.601
1.625
1.650
1.674
1.698
1.722
1.747
1.770
1.794
642.1
650.5
6.58,5
666.1
673.5
680.7
687.7
694.6
701.3
707.9
714.4
720.9
727.3
733.7
740.0
746,3
752.5
758,7
764,9
771.1
777.3
783.5
789,7
795.8
802.0
808.2
814.3
820 5
1.1.5.54
1 . 1695
1 . 1827
1.19.52
1.2070
1.2183
1.2292
1.2396
1 2497
1.2596
1.2691
1.2784
1.2875
i 2964
1 3051
1 3137
1 3221
1 3303
1.3384
1.3464
I 3543
1 3621
1 .3697
1.3773
1.3848
1.3922
1.3995
Abs. Pressure 280 Ih. /in'
C:t- IVessure MS.3 Ib./in.'
(S»fn, Temp. 11:1,12° F,)
(/./.M)
1.182
1.220
1.257
1.292
1.326
1.359
1.391
1.422
1.453
1.484
1.514
1.543
1.572
1 601
1.6.30
1.6.58
1.(586
1.714
1.741
1.769
1.796
1.823
1.850
1.877
1.904
1.930
1.957
1.983
2.009
^oi.^.l,)
639.5
647.8
655.6
663 . 1
670.4
677.5
684.4
691.1
697.7
704.3
710.7
717.1
723.4
729.7
736 0
742.2
748.4
754.5
760 7
766.8
772.9
779.0
785.2
791.4
797.4
803.5
,809.6
815.8
821.9
1.1617
1 . 17.57
1.1889
1 .2014
1.2132
1 .2245
1.2354
1.2458
1.2560
1 .2658
1 .2754
1.2847
1 .2938
1.3027
1.3115
1.3200
1.3285
1 .3367
1.3449
1.S529
1.3608
1.3686
1.3763
1.3839
1.3914
1.3988
1 .4062
1.4134
1.4206
Abs. Pressure 300 lb /in '
Gage Pressure 285.3 Ib./in.:
(Safn. Temp. lL>;i 21' F.)
(OMO) (.(ISli.n) 0-1
1 .023
1.058
1.091
1 . 123
1.153
1 . 183
1.211
1 239
1 267
1 294
1.320
1.346
1.372
1.397
1 422
1.447
1 472
1 496
1.520
1.644
1.568
1 592
1.616
1 639
l.()C2
1.6,S6
1.709
14067 1.732 ,820 1
640.1
648.7
6.56,9
(i64,7
672 2
679.5
680.5
693.5
700 3
706,9
713.5
720.0
726.5
732.9
739.2
745:5
751.8
758.1
764.3
770.5
770.7
782.9
789.1
795.3
801.5
807.7
813.9
1.1487
1.16.32
1 1767
1 . 1894
1.2014
1.2129
1.2239
1 2344
1.2447
1.2540
1.2642
1.2736
1.2827
1.2917
1.3004
1.3090
1.3175
1.3257
1.3338
1.3419
1.3498
1 .3576
1.3653
1.3729
1.3,804
1.3878
1.3951
1.4024
of Superhc.iled Vapur, (I,', lb.
, Btu,/lb,. and "S" is Entropy, Bin. /lb. °F.
68
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXI.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED CARBON DIOXIDE VAPOR—
CO2 (Temperature Table)
Mollier (Amagat), Hodsdon, Ice and Cold Storage, London (I9r4).
Temp.
Pressure
Volume
Denaity
Heat Content
Above 32« F.
Entropy
From 32" F.
Temp.
Aba.
Gaget
Atnios.
Gaget
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Uquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
Evap.
Vapor
«F.
Ib./in.>
al./io.'
lb. An.'
ft.'/lb.
ft.'/lb.
lb./(t.'
Ib./ft."
Btu./Ib.
Btu./lb
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb
Btu./lb
'F.
t
P
a.gp
8 P
0
V
1/c
1/V
A +
L =
H
*
L/T
5
t
-22
212.9
13.48
198.2
0.0155
0.4319
64.52
2.315
-24.78
126.7
102.0
-0.0633
0.2898
0.2365
-22
-21
216.7
13.74
202.0
.0155
.4242
64.43
2.358
-24.37
126.4
102.0
- .0524
.2883
.2369
-21
-20
220.6
14.00
205.9
0.01.55
0.4166
64.34
2.401
-23.96
126.0
102.0
-0.0514
0.2867
0.2353
-20
-19
224.4
14.27
209.7
.0156
.4091
64.25
2.444
-23.54
125.6
102.1
- .0505
.2852
.2348
-19
-18
228.4
14.53
213.7
.0156
.4018
64.15
2.489
-23.13
125.2
102.1
- .0495
.2837
.2342
-18
-17
232.3
14.80
217.6
.0156
.3946
64.05
2.534
-22.71
124.9
102.1
- .0486
.2822
.2336
-17
-16
236.4
15.08
221.7
.0156
.3876
63.94
2.580
-22.30
124.5
102.2
- .0476
.2807
.2331
-16
-15
240.5
15.36
225.8
0.0157
0.3807
63.84
2.627
-21.88
124.1
102.2
-0.0467
0.2792
0.2325
-15
-14
244.6
15.64
229.9
.0157
.3739
63.73
2.674
-21.46
123.7
102.2
- .0458
.2777
.2319
-14
-13
248.8
15.92
234.1
.0157
.3673
63.61
2.723
-21.03
123.3
102.2
- .0448
.2761
.2313
-13
-12
253.0
16.21
238.3
.0157
.3608
63.49
2.772
-20.61
122.9
102.3
- .0439
.2746
.2307
-12
-11
258.3
16.50
242.6
.0158
.3544
63.37
2.822
-20.18
122.5
102.3
- .0429
.2731
.2302
-11
-10
261.7
16.80
247.0
0.0158
0.34S2
63.25
2.872
-19.76
122.0
102.3
-0.0420
0.2716
0.2296
-10
- 9
266.1
17.10
251.4
.0158
.3420
63.13
2.924
-19.33
121.6
102.3
- .0410
.2700
.2290
- 9
- 8
270.6
17.41
255.9
.01.59
.3360
63.01
2.976
-18.90
121.2
102.3
- .0401
.2685
.2284
- 8
- 7
275.1
17.72
260.4
.0159
.3301
62.88
3.029
-18.47
120.8
102.3
- .0391
.2669
.2278
- 7
- 6
279.7
18.03
205.0
.0159
.3243
62.76
3.083
-18.04
120.3
102.3
- .0382
.2654
.2273
- 6
- S
284.4
18.35
269.7
0.0100
0.3186
62.63
3.138
-17.61
119.9
102.3
-0.0372
0.2639
0.2267
- 5
- 4
289.1
18.67
274.4
.0160
.3131
62.50
3.194
-17.17
119.5
102.3
- .0362
.2623
2261
- 4
- 3
293.9
18.99
279.2
.0160
.3076
62.37
3.251
-16.73
119.0
102.3
- .0353
.2608
.2255
- 3
- 2
298.7
19.32
284.0
.0161
.3022
62.23
3.309
-16.29
118. 6
102.3
- .0343
.2592
.2249
- 2
- 1
303.6
19.66
288.9
.0161
.2969
62.09
3.368
-15.85
118.1
102.3
- .0334
.2577
.2243
- 1
0
308.6
20.00
293.9
0.0161
0.2918
61.95
3.427
-15.41
117.7
102.2
-0.0324
0.2561
0.2237
0
1
313.7
20.34
299.0
.0162
.2867
61.80
3.488
-14.96
117.2
102.2
- .0314
.2545
.2231
1
2
318.7
20.68
304 0
.0162
.2817
61.65
3.550
-14.51
116.7
102.2
- .0304
.2530
.2225
2
3
323.9
21.03
309.2
.0163
.2768
61.51
3.612
-14.07
116.2
102.2
- .0295
.2514
.2219
3
4
329.1
21.39
314.4
.0163
.2720
61.36
3.676
-13.61
115.8
102.1
- .0285
.2498
.2213
4
JS
334.4
21.75
319.7
0 0163
0.2673
61.22
3.741
-13.16
115.3
102.1
-0 0275
0.2482
0.2207
5t
6
339.8
22.11
325.1
.0164
.2627
61.07
3.807
-12.71
114.8
102.1
- .0266
.2466
.2201
6
7
345.2
22.48
330.5
.0164
.2581
60.92
3.874
-12.25
114.3
102.0
- .0256
.2451
.2195
7
8
350.7
22.85
336.0
.0165
.2537
60.77
3.942
-11.79
113. 8
102.0
- .0246
.2435
.2189
8
9
356.2
23.23
341.5
.0165
.2493
60.63
4.011
-11.33
113.3
102.0
- .0236
.2419
.2183
9
10
361.8
23.61
347.1
0.0165
0.2450
60.48
4.082
-10.87
112.8
101.9
-0.0226
0.2402
0.2176
10
11
367.5
24.00
352.8
.0166
.2408
60.33
4.154
-10.40
112.3
101.9
- .0216
.2386
.2170
11
12
373.3
24.39
358.6
.0166
.2366
60.18
4.227
- 9.934
111.7
101.8
- .0206
.2370
.2164
12
13
379.1
24.79
364.4
.0167
.2825
60.03
4.301
- 9.464
111.2
101.7
- .0196
.2354
.2158
13
14
385.0
25.19
370.3
.0167
.2285
59.88
4.377
- 8.992
110.7
101.7
- .0186
.2338
.2151
14
IS
391.0
25.60
376.3
0.0167
0.2245
59.73
4.454
- 8.515
110.1
101.6
-0.0176
0.2321
0.2145
15
16
397.1
26.01
382.4
.0168
.2207
59.58
4.532
- 8.038
109.6
101.6
- .0166
.2305
.2139
16
17
403.2
26.43
388.5
.0168
.2168
59.42
4.611
- 7.557
109.0
101.5
- .0156
.2288
.2132
17
18
409.4
26.85
394.7
.0169
.2131
59.27
4.692
- 7.076
108.5
101.4
- .0146
.2272
.2126
18
19
415.7
27.28
401.0
.0169
.2094
59.11
4.775
- 6.591
107.9
101.3
- .0136
.2255
.2119
19
20
422.0
27.71
407.3
0.0170
0.2058
58.95
4.859
- 6.102
107.3
101.2
-0,0126
0.2239
0.2113
20
21
428.4
28.14
413.7
.0170
.2023
58.79
4.944
- 5.610
106.7
101.1
- .0115
.2222
.2106
21
22
434.9
28.58
420.2
.0171
.1987
58.64
5.031
- 5.117
106.1
101.0
- .0105
.2205
.2100
22
23
441.4
29.03
426.7
.0171
.1953
58.47
5.120
- 4.621
105.6
100.9
- .0095
.2188
.2093
23
24
448.1
29.48
433.4
.0172
.1919
58.31
6.211
- 4.121
104.9
100.8
- .0085
.2171
.2087
24
25
454.8
29.94
440.1
0.0172
0.1886
58.14
S.303
- 3.618 104.3
100.7
-0.0074
0,2154
0.2080
25
26
461.6
30.40
446.9
.0172
.1853
57.98
5.396
- 3.111 103.7
100.6
- .0064
.2137
.2073
26
27
468.5
30.87
453.8
.0173
.1821
5;. 81
5.492
- 2.601
103.1
100.5
- .0053
.2120
.2066
27
28
475.4
31.34
460.7
0174
.1789
57.64
6.589
- 2.087
102.5
100.4
- .0043
.2102
.2059
28
29
482.5
31.82
467.8
.0174
.1758
57.47 5.688
^ 1.570
101.8
100.2
- .0032
.2085
.2063
29
•Rearranged and symbols changed, to conform to A. S. R. E. Standard, by Editor
A. S. R. E. Data.
tCage pressure supplied by Editor A. S. R. E. Data.
(Standard ton temperatures.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
69
TABLE XXI.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED CARBON DIOXIDE VAPOR—
CO2 (Terrperntiire Tahlel — (Continued)
Temp.
Presaure
Volume
Density
Heat Content
■II 1 1 1 1 =s
Entropy
From 32" F.
Temp.
Above 32° F.
Abs.
Caget
Almoe.
Caget
Liijuid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
Evap.
Vapor
' 'F.
Ib./in.'
at. /in.'
lh,/in '
ff/lb
ft '/lb.
Ib./tt.'
Ib./tt'
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
•F
t
P
a-gp
g P
V
V
I/O
i/v
h +
L^
H
a
L/T
s
t
30
489.6
32 31
474.9
0 0175
0.1728
57.30
5.789
- 1.049
101.2
100.1
-0 0021
0.2067
0.2046
30
31
496.8
32.79
482.1
.0175
.1697
57.12
5 892
- 0.525
100.5
99.98
- .0011
.2049
.2039
31
32
504.1
33.29
489.4
.0176
.1668
56 95
5.996
0 000
99.83
99.83
- .0000
.2032
.2032
32
33
511.4
33.79
496.7
.0176
.1639
56.77
6.103
+ 0.531
99.16
99 ()9
+ .0011
.2014
.2025
33
34
518.9
34.30
504.2
.0177
.1610
56.59
6.212
+ 1.066
98.47
99.54
+ .0022
.1996
.2017
34
35
526.4
34.81
511.7
0.0177
0.1581
56.41
6.323
1.604
97.77
99.38
0.0033
0.1978
0.2010
35
36
534.0
35.33
519.3
.0178
.1554
56.22
6.437
2.149
97.07
99.22
.0044
.1959
.2003
36
37
541.7
35.85
527.0
.0178
.1526
56 03
6.553
2.697
96.35
99.05
.0055
.1941
.1996
37
38
549.5
36.38
534.8
.0179
.1499
55.84
6.671
3.248
95.62
98.87
.0066
.1922
1988
38
39
557.4
36.92
542.7
.0180
.1472
55.65
6.792
3.806
94.88
98.69
.0077
1904
1981
39
40
565.4
37.46
550.7
0.0180
0.1446
55.45
6.915
4.367
94.13
98.50
O.OOSS
0.1885
0 1973
40
41
573.4
38.01
558.7
.0181
.1420
55.25
7.040
4.932
93.37
98.31
.0099
.1866
.1965
41
42
581.6
38.56
566.9
.0182
.1395
55.04
7.169
5.503
92.60
98.10
0111
.1847
.1958
42
43
589.8
39.12
575.1
.0182
.1370
54.84
7.300
6.080
91.82
97.90
.0122
.1828
.1950
43
44
598.1
39.69
583.4
.0183
.1345
54.62
7.434
6.664
91.02
97.68
0134
.1808
.1942
44
45
606.5
40.26
591.8
0.0184
0.1321
54.41
7.571
7.251
90.21
97.46
0.0146
0.1788
0.1934
45
46
615.0
40.84
600.3
.0185
.1297
54.19
7.711
7.844
89.39
97.23
.0157
.1769
.1926
46
47
623.6
41.43
608.9
.0185
.1273
53.97
7.854
8.443
88.55
96.99
.0169
.1749
.1918
47
48
632.3
42.02
617.6
.0186
.1250
.53.74
8.000
9.049
87.70
96.75
.0181
.1729
.1910
48
49
641.1
42.63
626.4
.0187
.1227
.53.51
8.151
9.664
86.83
96.50
.0193
.1708
.1901
49
SO
650.0
43.22
635.3
0.0tl88
0.1204
53.28
8.304
10.28
85.95
96.24
0.0205
0.1687
0.1893
50
61
659.0
43.83
644.3
.0189
.1182
53.04
8.461
10.91
85.06
95.97
.0218
.1666
.1884
51
52
668.1
44.45
653.4
.0189
.1160
52.80
8.622
11.55
84.14
95.69
.0230
.1645
.1875
52
63
677.3
45.07
662.6
.0190
.1138
52.55
8.787
12.19
83.21
95.40
.0243
.1624
.1867
53
64
686.5
45.70
671.8
.0191
.1116
52.30
8.957
12.84
82.26
95.10
.0255
.1602
.1858
64
55
695.9
46.34
681.2
0.0192
0 . 1095
52.05
9.132
13.49
81.29
94.78
0.0268
0.1580
0.1849
55
56
705.4
46.98
690.7
.0193
.1074
51.79
9.313
14.16
80.30
94.46
.0281
.1558
.1839
56
67
714.9
47.63
700.2
.0194
.1053
51.53
9.497
14.84
79.30
94.13
.0294
.1536
.1830
57
68
724.6
48.29
709.9
.0195
.1032
51.26
9.686
15.53
78.27
93.79
.0307
.1513
.1820
58
69
734.3
48.96
719.6
.0196
.1012
50.99
9.880
16.22
77.22
93.44
.0321
.1490
.1811
69
60
744.2
49.63
729.5
0.0197
0.0992
50.71
10.08
16.93
76.14
93.07
0.0335
0.1466
0.1801
60
61
754.2
50.30
739.5
.0198
.0972
50.42
10.29
17.65
75.04
92.69
.0348
.1442
.1790
61
62
764.3
50.99
749.6
.0200
.0953
50.11
10.50
18.38
73.91
92.29
.0363
.1417
-.1780
62
63
774.5
51.68
759.8
.0201
.0933
49.80
10.72
19.13
72.75
91.88
.0377
.1393
.1770
63
64
'784.7
52.38
770.0
.0202
.0914
49.47
10.95
19.88
71.57
91.45
.0391
1367
.1759
64
65
795.1
53.09
780.4
0 0203
0.0894
49.14
11.18
20.66
70.35
91.01
0.0406
0.1342
0.174S
65
66
805.6
53.80
790.9
.0205
.0875
48.80
11.42
21.45
69.10
90.55
.0421
.1315
.1736
66
67
816.2
54.53
801-5
.0206
.0856
48.44
11.67
22.25
67.81
90.07
.0436
.1288
.1725
67
68
827.0
55.26
812.3
.0208
.0838
48.08
11.94
23.08
66.49
89.56
.0452
.1261
.1713
68
69
837.8
55.99
823.1
.0210
.0819
47.69
12.21
23.92
65.12
89.04
.0468
.1233
.1701
69
70
848.7
56.74
834.0
0.0211
0.0800
47.29
12.49
24.78
63.71
88.49
0.0484
0.1204
0.1688
70
71
859.8
57.49
845.1
.0213
.0782
46.87
12.82
25.67
62.25
87.92
.0501
.1174
.1675
71
72
870.9
58.25
856.2
.0215
.0763
46.44
13.10
26.58
60.74
87.32
.0518
.1143
1661
72
73
882.2
59.01
867.5
.0217
.0745
45.99
13.43
27.52
59.17
86.69
.0536
.1111
.1647
73
74
893.6
59.79
878.9
.0220
.0726
45.53
13.77
28.49
57.54
86.03
.0554
.1079
.1633
74
75
905.1
60.57
890.4
0.0222
0.0708
45.05
14.13
29.50
55.83
85.33
0.0573
0.1045
0.1618
75
76
916.7
61.36
902.0
.0224
.0689
44.. 56
14.51
30.54
54.05
84.59
.0592
.1010
.1602
76
77
928.4
62 . K)
913.7
.0227
.0671
44.06
14.90
31.62
52.17
83.80
.0613
.0973
.1585
77
78
940.3
62.96
925.6
.0230
.0652
43.55
15.34
32.76
50.20
82.96
.0634
.0934
.1568
78
79
952.2
63.78
937.5
.0232
.0633
43.04
15.81
33.95
48.11
82.06
.0656
.0894
.1550
79
80
964.3
64.60
949.6
0.0235
0 0613
42.50
16.32
.35.21
45.88
81.09
0.0679
0.0851
0.1530
80
81
976.5
65.43
961.8
.0238
.0592
41.95
16.90
36.54
43.49
80.03
.0704
.0805
.1509
81
82
988.8
66.27
974.1
.0242
.0570
41.30
17.53
37.98
40.90
78.88
.0731
.0755
.1486
82
83
1001.0
67.11
9S6.3
.0246
.0548
40.62
18.25
39.53
38.07
77.60
.0759
.0702
.1461
83
84
1014.0
67.97
999.3
.0251
.0524
39.81
19.07
41.25
34.90
76.15
.0791
.0612
.1433
84
85
1027.0
68.83
1012.3
0.0258
0.0500
38.76
20.00
43.18
31.29
74.47
0.a826
0.0575
0.1401
85
861
1039.0
69.70
1024.3
.0267
.0474
37.41
21.09
45.45
27.00
72.46
.0868
.0495
.1363
86:
87
1052.0
70.58
1037.3
.0283
.0446
35.34
22.42
48.32
21.52
69.84
.0921
.0.394
.1314
87
88
1065.0
71.47
1050.3
.0305
.0401
32.79
24.95
52.78
12.84
65.62
1002
.0235
.1237
88
88.43
1071.0
71.86
1056.3
.0346
.0346
28.90
28.90
59.23
0.00
59.23
.1120
.0000
.1120
88.43
tGage pressures supplied by Editor A. S. R. E.
{Standard ton temperatures.
Data.
70
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXII.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF BUTANE:— QHio
Lindc Air Products Company Laboratory. Refrigerating Engineering, June, 1926.
A. S. R. E. Data Book.
Temp.
Press iir«
Volwna
D«Mity
aeat Content
Entropy
Temp.
•F.
Above 0" K.
From
0° K.
•F.
Aba.
G«<.
Liquid
V.por
Liquid
V.por
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ib.Am."
Ib./in.'
It.'/lb.
ft.'/lb.
lb./tt.«
lb./lt.«
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.°F
Btu./lb.-F.
t
P
ip
V
V
l/t>
l/V
h +
L =
H
«
s
I
0
7.3
15 0*
0 02591
11.1
38.59
0 0901
0.0
170.5
170.5
0 000
0.370
0
1
7 5
14 7
02593
10.9
38.56
0917
0 5
170.5
171 0
001
370
1
2
7.7
14 3
.02596
10.7
38.52
.0935
1.0
170 0
171 0
.002
370
2
3
7 8
13 9
.02598
10 4
38.49
.0962
15
170 0
171.5
.003
370
3
4
8 0
13 6
.02601
10 2
38.45
.0980
2.0
170.0
172.0
005
370
4
St
8.2
13.2*
0.02603
9 98
38.41
0.100
2.5
169.5
172 0
0.006
0 370
St
6
8.4
12.8
02606
9.78
38.38
.102
3.0
169.6
172.6
007
370
6
7
8.6
12.4
■ 02608
9.57
38.35
.104
3 5
169.6
173.0
008
370
7
8
8.8
12 0
.026ro
9.37
38.31
.107
4.0
169.5
173.6
.009
370
8
9
9 0
11.6
.02612
9.16
38.28
.109
4.5
169 0
173.6
.010
.370
9
10
9.2
11. 1*
0.02615
8.95
38.24
0.112
6.5
168.5
174.0
0.011
0.370
10
u
9.4
10 7
.02617
8.78
38.21
.114
6.0
168.6
174.5
.012
.370
11
12
9.7
10 3
.02619
8.59
38.18
.116
6.5
168 5
175.0
.013
.370
12
13
9.9
9 9
.02622
8.41
38.14
.119
7 0
168.0
175 0
.016
.370
13
14
10 1
9 5
.02624
8.22
38.11
.122
7.5
168.0
175.5
.016
.370
14
IS
10.4
8.8«
0.02627
8.05
38.07
0.124
8.0
168.0
176.0
0.017
0.370
15
16
10 6
8.5
.02629
7.88
38.04
.127
8.5
187.5
176.0
.018
.371
16
17
10 8
8.0
.02632
7.72
38 00
.130
9.0
167.5
176.5
.019
.371
17
18
11.1
7.5
.02634
7.56
37.97
.132
9.5
167.5
177 0
020
.371
18
19
11.3
7 0
.02636
7.40
37.93
.135
10.0
167.6
177.5
.021
.371
19
20
11.6
6.3*
0.02639
7.23
37.89
0.138
10.5
167.0
177.6
0 022
0.371
20
21
11 8
6.0
.02641
7.10
37.86
.141
U.O
167.0
178.0
.023
.371
21
22
12.1
5.5
.02643
6.97
37.83
.143
11.5
167.0
178.5
.025
.371
22
23
12 4
4.9
.02646
6.82
37.79
.147
12.0
166.5
178.5
.026
.371
23
24
12 7
4.3
.02648
6.68
37.76
.150
12.5
166.5
179 0
.027
.371
24
2S
13.0
3.6*
0.02651
6.55
37.72
0.153
13.0
166.0
179.0
0.028
0.371
25
30
14 4
0.6*
.02664
5.90
37.54
.169
16.0
165.5
181.5
.033
.371
30
35
16.0
1.3
.02676
5.37
37.37
.186
19.0
164.5
183.5
.039
.371
35
40
17.7
3.0
.02(589
4.88
37.19
.205
21.5
163.5
185.0
.044
.371
40
4.')
19.6
4.9
.02703
4.47
37.00
.224
24.5
162.5
187 0
.050
.372
45
SO
21.6
6.9
0.02716
4.07
36.82
0.246
27.0
161.5
188.6
0.056
0.373
50
hh
23.8
9.1
.02730
3.73
36.63
.268
30 0
160.5
190.5
.061
.373
55
60
26 3
11.6
.02743
3.40
36.45
.294
33.0
159.5
192.5
.067
.374
60
65
28 9
14.2
.02759
3.12
36.24
.321
36.0
158.5
194.5
.072
374
65
70
31 6
16.9
.02773
2.88
36.06
.347
38.5
157.5
196 0
.078
.375
70
75
34.6
19.8
0.02789
2.65
35.86
0.377
41.5
156.5
198.0
0.083
0.376
7S
80
37.6
22.9
.02805
2.46
35.65
.407
44.5
155 0
199.5
.089
.376
80
85
40.9
26.2
.02821
2.28
35.45
.439
47.5
154.0
201.5
.094
.376
85
86 1
41.6
26 9
.02825
2.24
35.40
.446
48.5
153 5
202 0
.095
376
86 1
90
44.5
29.8
.02838
2.10
35.24
.476
51.0
152.0
203.0
.100
.377
90
•S
48.2
33.5
0.02854
1.96
35.04
0.510
54.0
151.0
205.0
0.105
0.377
95
100
52.2
37 5
.02870
1.81
34.84
.552
57.0
149.5
206 6
111
.378
100
105
56.4
41.7
.02889
1.70
34.62
.588
60.5
148 0
208,5
117
.380
105
110
60.8
46.1
.02906
1.58
34.41
.633
63.5
147 0
210.5
122
.380
110
115
65 6
50.9
.02925
1.48
34.19
.676
66 5
145.5
212.0
.128
.381
115
120
70.8
56.1
0.02945
1.38
33.%
0.725
70.0
143.5
213.6
0.134
0.382
120
125
76.0
61.3
.02966
1.30
33.72
.769
73.5
142 0
215.5
.139
.382
125
130
81 4
66.7
.02986
1.21
33 49
.826
76.5
140.5
217.0
145
.384
130
135
87.0
72.3
.03009
1.14
33.23
.877
80.0
139.0
219.0
.151
385
135
140
92 6
77.9
.03032
1.07
32.98
.934
83.6
137.8
221.0
157
.386
140
iaphere<29.82 in. " 14.696 Ibe./aq. in. aba.)
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
71
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF SEVERAL REFRIGERANTS
Starr, Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Pocket Book, Nickerson & Collins Co.
TABLE XXin.— ClAHBON BISULPHIDE— CSi TABLE XXIV.— CABBON TETRACHLORIDE, C CU
Ttmp
Preaure
Volume
Density
Heat Content above 32° K |
Vupur
\ apor
Abjo-
Oajte
Liquid
Latent
Vapor"
op
11, /Hi '
vac.
fl '/Ih
rt /U)>,
ntu /lb
Btu /lb
ntu /lb
(
P
g P'
V
IJV
h +
L =
H
0
1 10
27,7
53 70
0 0180
-8.00
105 5
150 90
St
1 28
27 32
48 07
0 0208
—7.20
165 0
157 80
10
1 4ti
26 95
43 47
0230
-5 60
104 . 5
15S 90
15
1 67
20 52
38 91
0257
-4 40
104 0
159.00
20
1 89
2(i 07
34 84
0287
-3 00
103 2
100 20
25
2 11
25 63
32.10
0 0324
-1 82
162.9
161 08
30
2 30
25.11
29 49
0339
-0 .50
102 2
101 70
35
2 47
24 89
28 .32
0353
0 00
102 0
102 00
40
3 03
23 75
23 .52
0425
+ 2 0.-,
101 2
103.25
•45
3 40
23 00
22 00
0454
2 40
100 7
103 10
SO
3 90 21.95
20 GO
0 0482
4.24
160.0
104.24
55
4 40
20 9S
19 20
0.i21
5. SO
1.59.8
105.0(1
60
4.95
19 84
IS 00
0555
7.20
159.2
100 40
65
5 40
18 93
15 00
.0660
8.50
158 S
107 30
70
5 85
18 03
13 20
0758
9 80
1.58.1
107 90
75
G.50
16 09
11 SO
0S74
10 SO
1.57 5
105,30
80
7.30
15.07
10 40
0.0901
11.70
1.56.9
108.00
85
S 21
13 21
9,80
1020
12 GO
150.2
108 8(1
86f
8 40 12 82
9 15
.1058
12 84
156 1
168 94
90
9 15 11 29
8 30
1204
13 80
153 0
109,40
95
10 00 9 54
7 00
1315
15 00
155 0
170 00
100
11 OS 7 37
7 03
0 1.309
IG 15
1.54 4
170. 55
105
12 30 4 89
G 40
1502
17 40
1.53 S
171.20
110
13 50 2 44
5 SO
1724
18,30
1,53.2
171. ,50
114 r,
14 70 0 no
5 4r.
1834
19 10
152 0
171.70
!ll5
14 80 0 lot
5 40
1851
19 25
152 6
171 85
120
16 10 1 40t
5 loio 1960
20.01
1.52 0
172 01
T-vn
Pre«ure
\V>lum(
\ apor
Density
Vapor
Heat Content above 32° V.
Abso-
Guee
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
'1-
11. /in :
v„c
rt vib
It /lb •
Btu /lb.
Blu./lb
Otu./lb
t
P
gP'
V
1/V
h +
L =
H
20
0 40
29 1
09 5
0.014.38
-2 00
94.45
92 45
25
50
2S,8
01 0
01039
-1.2(J
91 00
92.80
30
GO
28 7
.53 0
01886
-0 25
93 70
93 45
32
64
28 6
52 0
01917
0 00
93.00
93.60
40
84
28 2
10 0
02500
+ 1 GO
93 20
94 SO
45
0 05
28 0
35 0
0.02857
2.58
92.90
95.48
52
1 07
27.7
34 0
.03113
3.58
92 GO
96. IS
9G 70
55
1 25
27,4
27,0
03703
4.40
92 30
00
1 42
27 0
24.0
04166
5 95
92.20
98. 15
05
1 00
26 7
21 5
04651
6 .50
91 70
98 2U
70
1 85
26.2
19.5
0.05128
8.20
91 40
99.00
75
2.15
25 . 5
17 5
0,5714
8. 50
91.05
99 , 53
SO
2.40
25.0
10 0
.00345
9.80
90.07
99.87
85
2 70
24 4
14 5
00890
10.60
90 04
100 04
86}*
2 78
24 2
14 2
07037
10 80
90 04
100 83
90
3 12
23,5
13 0
07092
11,00
90.02
101 02
95
3.60
22 6
11.0
0 0909
12,40
89 70
102.10
100
4 00
21,8
10.0
.1000
13,4(1
89 41)
102 . SO
105
4 42
20 9
9 0
nil
14 00
S9 20
103.80
110
4.S9
20,1
8 5
1176
15 80
SS 70
104.50
115
5.35
19.1
8 0
12.50
10 95 88 30
105.25
120
5.95
17.8
7 5
0.1333
18.00 87 9O:lO5.90l
125
0,50
16.7
7 0
1428
18.90
87 . 50
106.40
107.0.5;
130
7 20
15 2
G 3
1587
19.95
87.10
135
7 90
13.9
5 5
1818
20.99
86 70
107.69
140
8 05
12 3
4 8
2006
21 40
86 32
107.78
170
14 70
0
2.8
0 3571
20 90
83 00
109 90
TABLE XXV.— CHLOROFORM— CH Cls
TABLE XXVII.— NITROUS OXIDE— N2O
t
P
«P*
V
1/V
h
L
.V*
20
0 08
29 76
,50,00
0.02012
-4 00
121 00
117 fiO
25
1.00
27 83
44, (K)
.0227
-2.5
120 20
117 70
32
1.15
27 . ,58
,38 10
02626
0 00
120 00
120 00
,50
2 03
25 79
23 65
04232
4 19
118 87
123 00
68
3 15
23.51
IS 50
10.50
06.505
8 40
117 14
125 54
86t
4 80
20 15
0 0952
12 63
115 38
128 0)
104
7.52
14 61
7 14
1403
16 SO
113 03
130.49
122
10 30
8 96
5 (h;
1979
20 13
111 83
131 90
140.5
14 70
0 00
4 95
2200
23 70
109 00
132 70
TABLE XXVI.— ETHYL ETHERS— (C2H6)20
t
P
gP
V
1/V
h
L
H'
0
1 3
27 . 28
38 0
0.0203
-18 00
171 0
1,53 (K)
5}
15
26 87
35 0
0285
-15 00
170 8
155 80
10
1.8
2G 26
32 5
.03.52
-12.00
170.4
1,'.8.43
15
■2.2
25 , 40
30 0
0332
-9.50
170 2
101.70
20
2.5
24.84
27.0
.0372
-6.50
170.0
103 ,50
25
2.9
24 03
24 3
0.0417
-4.00
169.6
165.60
30
3 4
23. (X)
21 4
,0408
-1.50
169.4
167.90
35
3.9
22 00
19 3
0518
+ 1.40
168.8
170.20
40
4.4
21 09
17.0
.0588
4.00
168 4
172.40
45
4.9
19 97
15 0
.0666
6.60
168.0
174.60
SO
5.5
18.72
13 2
0 0757
9.57
167.6
177.17
70
8.8
12 05
7.S
. 1280
20 04
165.4
185 44
75
9 8
10 02
7 0
.1430
23.40
1134 8
188 20
80
10 9
7 , 33
6 2
1020
20.40
101 2
190 (ill
85
12.2
5.09
5 5
1800
29.00
103 S
192 Ml
86- {
12 3
4 62
5 4
1880
29.50
163 5
193' 00
90
13.4
2.72
5.1
0.1960
31.50
163 0
194 . 50
95
14 7
0.(K1
4 8
.2130
.34 OC
162 2
196 20I
100
10 0
1 3t
4.5
2220
36 .50
161 5
197 50
Te.np.
Pressure
Volume
Density
Heat
Latent
Abso-
G.ige
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
°F
Ib./in.i
lb,/in.=
tt.'/lb.
ft.'/lb.
Ib./tt.'
lb,/ft.'
Btu.,,b.
(
P
gP'
V
■ V
1/v'
1/V
L
-130
14 2
0 5
0.01232
5.940
81.17
0.165
162.3
-121
19.6
4 9
.01248
4.370
80.13
23
168. 9
- 112
26,8
12 0
.01264
3.200
79.11
.30
165.0
-103
35,5
20 S
.01280
2.480
78 . 12
.40
162.3
-94
47,3
32.6
.01290
1.8S0
77.16
.53
158.9
-85
59.6
44.9
0.01312
1.510
76 22
0.66
155.0
-76
75.0
60.3
.01314
1 . 220
76.10
0.82
150.7
-67
92.3
77.6
.01370
0.9990
72.67
1.00
148.9
-.58
113 0
98 3
.01408
.8270
71.02
1.20
145.8
-49
135.0
120 3
.01440
.0900
09.44
1.40
142.5
-40
160.0
-145.3
0.01472
0.6000
67 93
1.65
139.1
-31
190 0
175 3
.01.504
. 5120
00.49
1.95
135.0
— 22
223 . 0
208.3
.01530
.4430
05.10
2 25
132.3
-13
257.0
242.3
.01,508
3950
63,77
2 50
129.0
-4
295.0
280.3
.01000
.3470
02 50
2.85
125 2
}+5
333.0
318 3
0 01632
0 3080
61 27
3 25
121 4
14
375.0
360.3
.01680
.2690
59 , 52
3 70
116.8
23
422.0
405.3
.01728
.2340
57,87
4 25
111.9
32
471.0
456 3
.01776
.2017
56.30
4 95
107 5
41
528.0
513.3
.01845
1744
54 19
5.70
103.2
SO
592.0
577.3
0.01920
0.1496
52.08
6.65
95.8
59
663.0
648.3
.02010
.1276
45,60
7.80
88 2
68
745 0
730.3
.02140
1076
46 , 73
9.30
73.6
77
832 0
817 3
.112300
. 0890
43 , 48
11 20
66 9
t86
930 0
915 3
02560
0726
39 06
13 80
51 1
95
1035 0
1020.3
0.0313G
0.0634
31 88
18.70
24.4
96
1055 0
1040.3
.03498
.0537
28. 58
23.50
13:2
97
1065 0
1040.3
.04080
.0408
24 51
24 50
0 0
72
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXVIII.- PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF ETHANE— CjHe
(H. D. Edwards)
Pressure \
Specific
Volume
Density |
Heat Content
Above — 40°
Temp.
Abs.
Gage
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Temp
op
"F
lb./in.5
Ib./in.s
ft.Vlb.
ft.Vlb.
Ib./ft.s
Ib./ft.s
Latert
t.
P-
g.p.
V
V
1/v
1/V
Btu./ib.;L=
t.
-150
7.0
*15.6
0.02849
16.7
35.10
0.060
242
-150
-145
8.0
*13.6
0.02865
14.1
34.90
0.071
240
-145
-140
9.7
*10.1
0.02888
12.1
34.63
0.083
238
-140
-135
11.2
* 7.1
0.02901
10.5
34.47
0.095
236
-135
-130
13.2
* 3.0
0.02924
8.85
34.20
0.113
235
-130
-125
15.5
0.8
0.02939
1.69
34.02
0.130
233
-125
-120
18.2
3.5
0.02961
6.89
33.77
0.145
231
-120
-115
21.4
6.7
0.02976
5.88
33.60
0.170
229
-115
-110
24.8
10.1
0.03001
5.27
33 . 32
0.190
227
-110
-105
28.5
13.8
0.03018
4.55
33.13
0.220
225
-105
-100
3-'. 4
17.7
0.0305
4.13
32.8
0.242
224
-100
-95
36.4
21.7
0.0307
3.57
32.6
0.280
222
-95
-90
41.0
26 . 3
0.0.309
3.23
32.4
0.310
220
-90
-85
46.0
31.3
0.0311
2.86
32.2
0.350
218
-85
-80
51.2
30 . 5
0.0313
2.56
31.9
0.390
216
-80
-75
56.8
42.1
0.0315
2.35
31.7
0.425
214
-75
-70
63.0
48 . 3
0.0318
2.10
31.5
0.477
212
-70
-65
70.3
55 . 6
0.0320
1.94
31.3
0.515
210
-65
-60
78.2
63.5
0.0322
1.75
31.0
0.570
208
-60
-55
80.6
75.9
0.0325
1.63
30.8
0.615
206
-55
-50
95.9
81 .2
0.0327
1.50
30.5
0.666
204
-50
-■15
105.0
90.3
0.0330
1.39
30.3
0.720
201
-45
-40
114.5
99.8
0.0333
1.28
30.0
0.780
199
-40
-35
124.5
109.8
0.0336
1.18
29.8
0.845
196
-35
-30
135.0
120.3
0.0339
1.13
29.5
0.875
194
-30
-25
146.7
132.0
0.0342
1.05
29.2
0.950
192
-25
-20
159.5
144. S
0.0345
0.976
28.9
1.03
190
-20
-15
172
157
0.0350
0 . 855
28 . 6
1.17
187
-15
-10
187
172
0.0353
0.819
28 . 3
1.22
185
-10
-5
202
187
0.0357
0.730
28.0
1.37
182
-5
0
219
204
0.0361
0.689
27.7
1.45
179
0
+5
236
221
0 . 0365
0.629
27.4
1.59
176
+5
*10
254
230
0.0370
0..581
27.0
1.72
174
+10
+15
272
257
0.0375
0.538
26.7
1.86
171
+15
+20
292
277
0.0379
0 . 495
26.3
2.02
168
+20
+25
307
292
0.0385
0,457
26.0
2 19
165
+25
+oO
335
320
0.0390
0.422
25.6
2.37
162
+30
+35
358
34 .S
0.0.397
0.389
25.2
2.57
158
+35
+40
383
3(18
0.0403
0 . 360
24.8
2.78
155
+40
+45
405
390
0 . 04 1 0
0.330
24.4
3 . 03
150
+45
+50
428
413
0.0417
0.305
24.0
3.28
146
+50
+55
453
438
0.0426
0.279
23 . 5
3.58
141
+55
+60
481
466
0.0435
0.256
23.0
3.90
136
+60
+65
511
496
0.0444
0.238
22 5
4.20
130
+65
+70
543
528
0.0461
0.214
21 '7
4.67
124
+70
+75
584
569
0.0478
0.182
20.9
5.50
115
+75
+80
625
610
0.0.508
0.163
19.7
6.14
107
+80
+85
672
6.=; 7
0.0.549
0.128
18.2
7.80
78
+85
+89 . 8
718
703
0.0775
0.0775
12.9
12.9
0
+89.8
* Inches of mercury below one standard atmosphere (29.92 in. =14. 697 Ibs./sq. in. abs.)
Note: — References: Vapor Pressures. From 7 to 32 Ibs./sq. in. abs. by Maass
& Wright, J. Am. Chem. Sec, 43, p. 1098. 1921. From 31 to 347 Ibs./sq. in. abs. by
Kuenen and Robson. Phil. Mag, (6) 3, p. 149. 1902. From 162 to 734 Ibs./sq. in. abs.
A. Hainlen, Lieb. Ann. 282, p. 229, 1894. Liquid and Vapor Densities. From — 162^°
F_ to — 101° F. experimental data on liquid by Maass & Wright, J. Am. Chem. Soc, l3,
p. 1104, 1921. Remainder of liquid and all of \'apor data as well as latent heats,
calculated by The Laboratory of The Linde Air Products Co., Buffalo, N. Y. Probable
accuracy of Density, Liquids, 1%; Vapor, 3'^: Latent Heats, 10%.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
73
TABLE XXIX.
-PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF ETHYL
CHLORIDE C2H5CI.
Hodsdon, igi^. Refrigerating World, Aug., (.1922). Henning, Oltnes, Regnuult and
others; compiled by Starr. Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Hand Book, Nick-
erson & Collins Co., Chicago, 1922.
Tem
Pressure
Vok
me
Density
Heat Content
Above- 32°F.
Abs.
Gage
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
°F.
lb. /in.'
Ib./in.J
ft.=/lb.
ft.'/lb.
lb./ft.>
Ib./ft.«
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
t
P
gP
V
V
l/»
1/V
A +
L =
H
-22
2.20
-12.5
0.01657
34.4
60.35
0.0291
-23.1
181.3
158.2
-13
2.85
-11.85
.01669
26.95
59.92
.0371
-19.2
179.9
160.7
- 4
3.66
-11.04
.OI6S2
21.33
59.45
.0469
-15.4
178.5
163.1
+ t5
4.65
-10.05
.01695
17.06
59.00
.0586
-11.6
177.0
165.4
14
5.85
- 8.85
.01708
13.77
58.55
.0726
- 7.7
175.5
167.8
23
7.28
- 7.42
0.01721
11.21
68.10
0.0892
- 3.8
174.0
170.2
32
8.99
- 5.71
.01735
9.21
57.64
.1086
0.0
172.5
172.5
41
11.01
- 3.69
.01749
7.62
57.18
.1311
+ 3.8
170.9
174.7
50
13.37
- 1.33
.01763
6.36
56.72
.1573
7.7
169.3
177.0
59
16.11
+ 1.41
.01777
5.34
56.27
.1873
11.6
167.7
179.3
68
19.29
4.50
0.01792
4.51
55.80
0.2215
15.4
166.0
181.4
77
22.94
8.24
.01807
3.84
55.34
.2604
19.2
164.3
183.5
t86
27.10
12.40
.01822
3.29
54.88
.3043
23.1
162.6
185.7
95
31.82
17.12
.01838
2.83
54.41
.3536
26.9
160.8
187.7
104
37.17
22.47
0.01854
2.44
53.94
0.4090
30.8
159.0
189.9
113
43.16
28.46
.01870
2.13
53.47
.4704
34.6
157.2
191.8
122
49.88
35.18
.01887
1.86
53.00
.5382
38.5
155.3
193.8
131
57.36
42.66
.01904
1.63
52.52
.6135
42.3
153.3
195.6
-22
2.13
-12.57
0.0163
34.2
61.5
0.029
-23.1
193.0
170.0
-13
2.80
-11.90
.0164
26.5
61.0
.038
-19.2
192.0
172.5
- 4
3.63
-11.07
.0164
20.9
60.6
.048
-15.4
191.0
175.5
+ t5
4.63
-10.07
.0167
16.7
60.1
.061
-11.5
190.0
178.5
14
5.84
- 8.86
.0169
13.5
59.7
.074
- 7.7
188.5
181.0
23
7.28
- 7.42
0.0109
11.0
59.2
0.091
3.85
187.5
183.5
32
9.00
- 5.70
.0170
9.1
58.8
.110
0
186.0
186.0
41
11.00
- 3.70
.0172
7.6
58.3
.132
+ 3.85
184.5
188.0
50
13.55
- 1.15
.0174
6.25
57.9
.160
7.7
182.5
190.0
54.5
14.70
0.00
.0175
5.6
57.6
0.179
9.52
181.5
191.5
59
16.10
+ 1.40
0.0176
5.35
.57.3
0.187
11.5
180.5
192.5
68
19.26
4.56
.0176
4.55
56.9
.220
15.4
179.5
194.0
77
22.90
8.20
.0177
3.90
56.5
.256
19.2
176.5
196.0
t86
27.05
12.35
.0178
3.35
56.0
.299
23.1
174.0
197.5
95
31.77
17.07
.0180
2.89
55.6
.345
27.0
172.0
199.0
104
37.11
22.41
0.0182
2.57
55.1
0.374
30.8
169.0
200.0
Gage pressures table supplied by Editor A. S.
{Standard ton temperatures.
R. E. Data Book.
74
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXX.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF ISOBUTANE—
C4H10
Lindc Air Products Company Laboratory. Refrigeration Engineering, June 1926
A. S. R. E. Data Book.
Temp.
PreMure
Volume
DenBity
Heat Content
Entropy
From O' F.
Temp.
-F.
Above 0" F.
°F.
Aba.
Gsn
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Ib.An."
Ib./in.'
ft.'/lb.
ft.'/lb.
lb./Jt.»
lb./tt.>
Btu./lb
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.'>F
Btu./lb.»F
t
P
gP
c
V
1/v
1/V
h +
L =
H
«
5
t
-20
7.50
14.6*
0.02610
11.00
38.36
0.0952
-9.0
166.5
156.5
-0.020
0.356
-20
-16
8.30
13. 0*
.02620
9.60
38.16
.101
-7.0
164.0
157.0
-0.016
.354
-15
-10
9.28
11. 0*
.02635
8.91
37.95
.112
-4.6
163.0
158.6
-0.010
.353
-10
- 6
10.4
8.8*
.02645
7.99
37.80
.126
-2.5
162.0
159.6
-0.008
.351
- 5
0
11.6
6.3*
0.02660
7.17
37.60
0.139
0.0
160.5
160.6
0.000
0.350
0
+ 1
11.9
5. 7*
.02663
7.02
37.56
.142
0.5
160.5
161.0
.001
.350
+ 1
2
12.2
5.1*
.02667
6.87
37.60
.146
+ 1.0
160.0
161.0
.002
.350
2
3
12.5
4, 6*
.02670
6.72
37.46
.149
1.5
160.0
161.5
.003
.350
3
4
12.8
4.0*
.02672
6.57
37.43
.152
2.0
159.5
161.5
.004
.350
4
5t
13.1
3.3»
0.02675
6.41
37.40
0.156
2.5
159.5
162.0
0.005
0.348
St
6
13.3
2.7*
.02677
6.28
37.35
.159
3.0
159.0
162.0
.006
.349
6
7
13.6
2.1*
.02680
6.15
37.31
.163
3.5
159.0
162.6
.007
.349
7
8
13.9
1.5*
.02683
6.02
37.27
.166
4.0
158.5
162.5
.009
.349
8
9
14.2
0.9*
.02686
6.88
37.23
.170
4.5
158.5
163.0
.010
.349
9
10
14.6
0.2*
0.02690
6.76
37.20
0.174
5.0
158.6
163.6
0.011
0.348
10
11
14.8
0.1
.02692
5.65
37.16
.177
5.5
158.0
163.5
.012
.348
11
12
15.2
0.5
.02695
6.52
37.11
.181
6.0
158.0
164.0
.013
.348
12
13
15.6
0.9
.02698
5.41
37.07
.185
6.5
157.5
164.0
.014
.348
13
14
15.9
1.2
.02700
6.30
37.04
.190
7.0
157.5
164.5
.015
.348
14
15
16.3
1.6
0.02705
5.18
37.00
0.193
7.5
157.0
164.5
0.016
0.347
15
16
16.7
2.0
.02706
6.08
36.96
.197
8.0
157.0
165.0
.017
.347
16
17
17.0
2.3
.02709
4.98
36.92
.201
8.5
156.5
165.0
.018
.347
17
18
17.4
2.7
.02711
4.88
36.88
.205
9.0
156.5
165.5
.019
.347
18
19
17.8
3.1
.02714
4.78
36.84
.209
9.5
156.0
165.5
.020
.347
19
20
18.2
3.5
0.02717
4.68
36.80
0.214
10.0
156.0
166.0
0.021
0.346
20
21
18.6
3.9
.02720
4.69
36.76
.218
10.5
156.5
166.0
.022
.346
21
22
19.0
4.3
.02723
4.50
36.72
.222
11.0
155.5
166.5
.023
.346
22
23
19.4
4.7
.02726
4.41
36.68
.227
11.5
155.5
167.0
.025
.346
23
24
19.8
5.1
.02729
4.32
36.64
.231
12.5
154.5
167.0
.026
.346
24
25
20.2
5.6
0.02730.
4.24
36.60
0.236
13.0
154.5
167.5
0.027
0.346
25
26
20.6
5.9
.02735,
4.15
36.56
.241
13.5
154.0
167.5
.028
.346
26
27
21.0
6.3
.02737
4.07
36.53
.246
14.0
154.0
168.0
.029
.346
27
28
21.5
6.8
.02741
4.00
36.48
.250
14.5
154.0
168.5
.030
.346
28
29
21.9
7.2
.02744
3.93
36.44
.254
15.0
153.5
168.5
.031
.346
29
30
22.3
7.6
0.02746
3.86
36.40
0.259
15.5
153.5
169.0
0.032
0.346
30
35
24.6
9.9
.02760
3.52
36.20
.284
18.0
152.5
170.5
.038
.346
35
40
26.9
12.2
.02780
3.22
36.00
.311
21.0
151.0
172 0
.044
346
40
45
29.5
14.8
.02795
2.96
35.80
.338
24.0
150.0
174.0
.049
.346
45
50
32.5
17.8
.02810
2.71
35.60
.369
27.0
148.5
175.5
.055
.346
50
55
35.5
20.8
0.02825
2.49
35.40
0.402
30.0
147.5
177.5
0.061
0.347
55
60
38.7
24.0
.02840
2.28
35.20
.439
33.0
146.0
179.0
.067
.348
60
65
42.2
27.5
.02855
2.10
35.00
.476
36.5
144.5
181.0
.073
.349
65
70
45.8
31.1
.02875
1.94
34.80
.515
39.5
143.5
183.0
.079
.350
70
75
49.7
35.0
.02890
1.79
34.60
.559
43.0
142.0
185.0
.086
.351
75
80
53.9
39.2
0.02910
1.66
34.35
0.602
46.5
140.5
187.0
0.092
0.352
80
85
58.6
43.9
.02930
1.54
34.10
.649
50.0
139.0
189.0
.098
.353
85
86t
59.5
44 8
.0293$
1 52
34 10
.658
50 5
139 0
189 5
.099
354
set
90
63.3
48.6
.02950
1.42
33.90
.704
53.5
137.5
191.0
.105
.356
90
95
68.4
53.7
.02965
1.32
33.70
.758
57.5
136.0
193.5
.112
.358
95
100
73.7
59.0
0.02990
1.23
33.45
0.813
61.0
134.5
195.5
0.118
0.359
100
105
79.3
64.6
.03005
1.14
33.25
.877
65.0
133.0
198.0
.125
.360
105
110
85.1
70.4
.03030
1.07
33.00
.935
69.0
131.0
200.0
.132
« .362
110
115
91.4
76.7
.03050
0.990
32.80
1.01
73.0
129.5
202.5
.139
.364
11,'-.
120
98.0
83.3
.03075
.926
32.50
1.08
77.0
127.5
204.5
.147
.367
120
125
104.8
90.1
0.03095
0.867
32.30
1.15
81.5
126.0
207.5
0.154
0.369
125
130
112.0
97.3
.03125
.811
32.00
1.23
86.0
124.0
210.0
.161
.371
130
135
119.3
104 6
.03145
.760
31.80
1.32
90.5
122.0
212.5
.169
.375
135
140
126 8
112 1
03175
.716
31 50
1 40
95 0
120 5
215.5
.176
.377
140
andard atmo,»phere (29.82
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
75
TABLE XXXI.— SATURATED METHYL CHLORIDE (CH3 CI) VAPOR
Calculated in English Units by Starr from work of Ohnes and Hoist.
''Fractical Refrigerating Engineers' Pocketbook" Published by Nickerson & Collins Co.
Chicago.
Temp.
Abs. Press.
Heat
Heat
Spec. VoL
Density
Deg.
Lbs. per
Content of
of Vapor-
Cu. Ft.
Lbs. per
Fahr.
Sq. In.
Liquid
ization
per Lb.
Cu. Ft.
-40
6.96
-34.0
183.3
12.57
0 07955
-35
7 60
-31.5
183.0
11.00
0.0909
—30
9 00
-29 0
182.6
9.70
0.103
-25
10.20
-26 7
182.0
8 60
0.1162
-20
11.80
-24.5
181.4
7.80
0.1282
-15
13 00
-22 3
180.9
7.00
0 1428
-10
15 10
-20 0
180.3
6.25
0 1 600
- 5
16.80
-17.5
180.0
5.60
0 1 785
0
18 00
-15 1
179.2
5 05
0.1980
5
20.70
-12.8
178.3
4.53
0.2207
10
23 00
-10 2
177.8
4.15
0 . 2409
15
24 90
- 8 0
177.03
3.70
0.2702
20
28 50
- 5 6
176.05
3.25
0 . 3076
25
32 00
- 3.2
175.8
2.90
0.3448
30
35.00
- 1.6
174.8
2.71
0.3690
32
36.62
0 0
174.6
2.67
0.3745
40
42 90
+ 3.7
173.0
2.25
0.4444
50
46.50
+ 8 5
171.0
1.94
0.5154
60
62 00
+ 13 2
169.0
1.62
0 9803
65
68.00
15.5
167.85
1.50
0.6666
70
73.10
17 8
166.8
1.39
0.7194
75
80 00
20.2
165.6
1.27
0 7842
80
87.00
22 5
164.2
1.15
0 8695
85
94.30
25 0
163.0
1.05
0.9523
SO
104.00
27.2
161.6
0.995
1.0051
95
110.10
29 6
160.4
0.938
1 0661
100
119.50
31.8
158.8
0.855
1 1695
110
137.50
36.3
156.1
0.77
1.2987
NOTE. — To get gauge pressures 14.7 lbs. are subtracted from tbe absolute pres-
sures given in the tables. When the absolute pressure is below 14.7 lb. the absolute
pressure is subtracted from 14.7 lbs. and _ this result is multiplied by 2.0355 (for
approximate results, 2.0 may be used). This gives the vacvium in inches of mercury
below the atmospheric pressure of 14.7 lbs.
76
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXXII.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF PROPANE— CaHg
Linde Air Products Company Laboratory. Refrigeration Engineering, June 1926.
A. S. R. E. Data Book.
Temp.
Pressure
Volu
me
De
isity
Heat Content
Entrop.v
Temp.
•F
dbove 0° F
From 0° F.
»F.
Abs.
Gage
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Latent
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
lb/in,'
Ib./in •
ft.Vlb.
ft.'/lb
Ib./tl."
Ib./It.'
Btu./lb.
Btu /lb.
Btu./lb
Btu./lb "F
Btu/lb°F
t
P
gP
V
V
liv
l/V
h +
L =
H
s
5
t
-75
0.37
17.0*
0 02660
14.5
37.59
0 0690
-39 5
190 5
151 0
-0 092
0 404
-75
-70
7.37
14.9*
02674
12 9
37.40
0775
-37.0
189 5
152 5
-0.086
400
-70
-65
8.48
12 7*
02688
11 3
37 20
0885
-34.5
188 0
153 5
-0 080
397
-65
-60
9 72
10.1*
02703
9.93
37 00
111
-32.0
187 0
155 0
-0 074
.393
-60
-55
11 1
7.3*
02717
8 70
36.80
115
-29.0
185,5
156 5
-0 067
391
-55
-50
12.6
4.3*
0.02732
7.74
36.60
0 129
-26.5
184.5
158.0
-0 061
0 389
-50
-45
14.4
0 6*
02748
6.89
36 39
145
-24.0
183 0
159 0
-0 055
386
-45
-40
16.2
15
02763
6.13
36 19
163
-21.5
181 5
160 0
-0 049
384
-40
-35
18 1
3 4
02779
5 51
35 99
181
- 19 0
ISO 0
161 0
-0 042
382
-35
-30
20 3
5.6
02795
4 93
35.78
203
-16.0
179 0
163 0
-0 036
380
-30
-25
22 7
8.0
0.02811
4 46
35.58
0.224
-13.3
177.5
164 0
-0 030
0 378
-25
-20
25 4
10 7
02827
4.00
35,37
250
-11 0
176 0
165 0
-0 024
377
-20
-15
28 3
13.6
02844
3.60
35.16
,278
- 8.0
175 0
167 0 ■
-0 018
.375
-15
-10
31 4
16 7
02860
3 26
34.96
307
- 5,5
173 5
IBS 0
-0 012
374
-10
- 5
34 7
20 0
02878
2.97
34 75
337
- 2.5
172 0
169 5
-0 006
372
- 5
0
38.2
23.5
0 02895
2.71
34.54
0.369
0.0
170 5
170.5
0 000
0.371
0
+ 1
39 0
24.3
02899
2.66
34.49
376
0.5
170 5
171 0
001
371
+ 1
2'
39 7
25 0
02903
2 61
34 45
383
10
170 5
171 5
.002
.371
2
3
40.5
25.8
02906
2.57
34.41
389
15
170 0
171 5
003
371
3
4
41 3
26 6
02910
2 52
34 37
396
2.0
170 0
172 0
004
371
4
51
42.1
27.4
0 02913
2 48
34 33
0 403
+ 3 0
169 5
172 0
+9 006
0.370
St
6
42.9
28.2
02916
2.43
34 29
411
3 5
169 0
172 5
007
.370
6
7
43.7
29.0
02920
2 39
34 25
418
4 0
168 5
172 5
008
370
7
S
44.5
29 8
02924
2.35
34.20
426
4 5
168 5
173 0
009
370
8
9
45.3
30 6
02927
2 31
34 16
433
5.0
168 0
173 0
010
370
9
10
46.1
31.4
0 02931
2.27
34 12
0.441
5.6
168 0
173 5
0 012
0 370
10
11
47.0
32 3
02935
2 23
34 07
448
6.0
168 0
174 0
013
370
11
12
47.9
33.2
02939
2.19
34 03
4.56
6 5
167 5
174 0
014
.370
12
13
48 8
34.1
02943
2 15
33 98
465
7.5
167 0
174 5
015
370
13
14
49 7
3a 0
02946
2 11
33 94
474
8.0
166 5
174.5
016
370
14
IS
50 6
35 9
0 02950
2 07
33 90
0 483
8.5
166.5
175 0
0 018
0.369
IS
16
51 C
36 9
02954
2 04
33 85
491-
9,0
1(')6 0
175 0
019
369
16
17
52 5
37 8
02959
2 00
33 80
500
9,5
166 0
175.5
.020
369
17
18
53 5
38 8
02963
1 97
33 75
.509
10 0
165 5
175 5
021
369
18
19
54.5
30.8
02966
1.93
33.71
518
10.5
165 5
176 0
022
369
19
20
55.5
40 8
0 02970
1.90
33.67
0.526
11.0
165.0
176 0
0 024
0 368
20
25
00 9
46 2
02991
1 74
33 43
.575
14,0
163 5
177.5
030
,368
25
30
66 3
51 6
03012
1 60
33.20
625
17.0
162 0
179 0
.035
366
30
35
72 0
57 3
03033
1 48
32 97
.676
20.0
160 5
180,5
041
.366
35
40
78 0
63 3
03055
1 37
32 73
730
23.0
1.59.0
182 0
047
366
40
45
84 6
69 9
0 03078
1.27
32 49
0.787
26.0
157,5
183.5
0 053
0 365
45
50
91 8
77 1
03102
1 18
32 24
.847
29 0
1.56 0
185 0
059
.365
50
55
99 3
84 6
03125
1 10
32 00
909
32.0
1,54 5
186 5
.065
365
55
60
107 1
92.4
031.50
1 01
31.75
990
35.0
153 0
188 0
070
.364
60
65
115 4
100 7
03174
0.945
31.50
1 06
38.0
151 5
189.5
.076
.364
65
70
124 0
109 3
0 03201
0.883
31.24
1.13
41.0
149 5
190 5
0 082
0.364
70
75
133 2
118 5
03229
825
30 97
1 21
44.0
148 0
192 0
088
364
75
80
142 8
128 1
03257
.770
30.70
1 30
47.5
140 0
193 5
093
.364
80
85
153 1
138 4
03287
722
30.42
1 39
50.5
144 5
195 0
099
.364
85
66 1
155 3
140 5
03292
717
30 38
1 40
51.0
144 0
195 0
100
364
set
90
164 0
149 0
0 03317
0.673
30.15
1 49
54.0
142,5
196.5
0 105
0 364
90
95
175 0
160 0
03348
.632
29.87
1,58
57.0
140 5
197 5
111
364
95
100
187 0
172 0
03381
591
29 58
1 69
60.5
138 5
199.0
116
,363
100
105
200 0
185 0
03416
553
29 27
1 81
63.5
136 5
200 0
122
363
105
110
212 0
197 0
03453
520
28.96
1 92
67.0
134 0
201 0
128
363
110
115
226 0
211 0
0 03493
0.4S8
28.03
2 05
70.5
131 5
202 0
0.134
0 363
115
120
240 0
225 0
03534
459
28.30
2 18
73 5
129 0
202 5
.140
.363
120
125
254 0
239 0
03.575
432
27 97
2 31
77.0
126 5
203 5
.145
361
125
B (29.82 iu. - 14,696 Ibs./sq. in. abs.)
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
n
TABLE XXXIII.
-PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE— SO2
L
avid L
. Fiske, Urba
la. III.
—1925.
A. S
. R. E
. Data
Book.
Tem
Pressure
Volume
Deosity
Heat Content
Above— 40'
Aba.
Gage
Liquid
Vapor
Liquid
Vapor
lb. /ft.'
Liquid
Latcntt
Vapor
"V.
lb./in.»
lb. /in.'
ft.Vlb.
ft.Vlb.
lb./ft.>
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
Btu./lb.
i
P
gp
0
V
I/O
i/v
h +
£ =
H
-40
3 . 136
23.54*
0.010440
22.42
95.79
0.04460
0.00
178.61
178.61
-35
3.693
22.41*
.010486
19.23
95.36
.05200
1.45
177.82
179.27
-30
4.331
21.10*
.0105.32
16.56
94.94
.06039
2.93
176.97
179.90
-25
5.058
19.03*
0.010580
14.31
94.52
0.00988
4.44
176.06
180.50
-20
5.883
17.93*
.010627
12.42
94.10
.08119
5. 98
175.09
181.07
-15
6.814
10.05*
.010674
10.81
93.68
.09250
7.56
174.06
181.62
-10
7.863
13.01*
.010721
9.44
93.27
.1025
9.16
172.97
182.13
- 5
9.0.38
11.52*
.010770
8.28
92.85
.1208
10.79
171.83
182.62
0
10.35
8.85*
0.010820
7.280
92.42
0.1374
12.44
170.63
183.07
1
10.63
8 . 27 *
.010830
7.099
92.33
.1408
12.79
170.38
183.17
2
10.91
7.34*
.010810
6.923
92.25
.14.14
13.12
170.13
183.25
3
11.20
7.11*
.0108.50
6.751
92.16
.1481
13.45
169.88
183.33
4
11.50
6..W*
.010800
6.584
92.06
.1591
13.78
169.63
183.41
St
11.81
5.87*
0.010870
6.421
92.00
0,1558
14.11
169.38
183.49
6
12.12
5.24*
.0108.80
6.266
91.91
.1596
14.45
169.12
183.57
7
12.43
4.61*
.010890
6.114
'91 .83
.1628
14.79
168.86
183.65
'8
12.75
3.96*
.010900
5.007
91.74
.1670
15.13
168.60
183.73
9
13.08
3.29*
.010910
5.822
91.66
.1717
15.46
168.34
183.80
10
13.42
2.59*
0.010920
5.682
91.58
0.1760
15.80
168.07
183.87
11
13.77
1.88*
.010930
5.548
91.49
.1803
16.14
167.80
183.94
12
14.12
1.17*
.010940
5.417
91.41
.1846
16.48
167.53
184.01
13
14.48
0.44*
.0109.50
5.289
91.33
.1890
16.81
167.26
184.07
14
14.84
.14
.010960
5.164
91.24
.1936
17.15
166.97
184.14
15
15.21
.51
0.010971
5.042
91.16
0.19S3
17.49
166.72
184.21
16
15.59
.89
.010981
4.926
91.07
.2030
17.84
166.44
184.28
17
15.98
1.28
.010992
4.812
90.98
.2078
18.18
166.16
184.34
18
16.37
1.67
.011003
4.701
90.89
.2127
18.52
165.88
184.40
19
16.77
2.07
.011014
4.593
90.80
.2177
18.86
165.60
184.46
20
17.18
2.48
0.011025
4.487
90.71
0.2228
19.20
165.32
184.52
21
17.60
2.90'
.011036
4.386
90.62
.2280
10.55
165.03
184.58
22
18.03
3.33
.011047
4.287
90.53
.2332
19.90
164.74
184.64
23
18.46
3.76
.011058
4.190
90.44
.2387
20.24
164.45
184.69
24
18.89
4.19
.011070
4.096
90.33
.2441
20.58
164.16
184.74
25
19.34
4.64
0.011082
3.994
90.24
0.2404
20.92
163.87
184.79
26
19.80
5.10
.011093
3.915
90.15
.2559
21.26
163.58
184.84
27
20.26
5.56
.011104
3. 829
90.06
.2611
21.61
163.28
184.89
28
20.73
6.03
.011116
3.744
89.96
.2671
21.96
162.98
184.94
29
21.21
6.51
.011128
3.662
89.86
.2731
22.30
162.68
184.93
30
21.70
7.00
0.011140
3.581
89.76
0.2800
22.64
162.38
185.02
31
22.20
7.50
.011152
3.503
89.67
.2854
22.98
162.08
185.0«>
32
22.71
8.01
.011164
3.437
89.58
.2909
23.33
161.77
185.10
33
23.23
S.53
.011176
3.. 3.55
89.48
.2980
23.68
161.46
185.14
34
23.75
9.05
.0111.88
3.283
89.39
.3046
24.03
161.15
185.18
35
24.28
9.58
0.011200
3.212
89.29
0.3113
24.38
160.84
185.22
36
24.82
10.12
.011212
3.144
,89.18
.3181
24.72
160.53
185.25
37
25.39
10.69
.011224
3.078
S9.09
.3249
25.07
160.21
185.28
38
25.95
11.25
.011236
3.013
89.00
.3319
25.42
159.89
185.31
39
26.52
11.82
.011248
2.949
,88.90
.3391
25.77
159.57
185.34
40
27.10
12.40
D. 011260
2.887
88.81
0.3464
26.12
159.25
185.37
41
27.69
12.99
.011272
2.827
88.71
.3538
26.47
158.93
185.40
42
28.29
13.59
.011284
2.769
88.62
.3611
26.81
158.61
185.42
43
28.90
14.20
.011296
2.712
88.52
.3687
27.16
158.28
185.44
44
29.52
14.82
.011308
2.656
88.43
.3765
27.51
157.95
185.46
45
30.15
15.45
9.011320
2.601
88.34
0.3844
27.86
157.62
185.48 '
46
30.79
16.09
.011.332
2.548
88.24
.3925
28.21
157.29
185.50
47
31.44
16.74
.011344
2.497
88.15
.4005
28.56
156.96
185.52
48
32.10
17.40
.011356
2.446
88.05
.4088
28.92
156.62
185.54
49
32.77
18.07
.011368
2.397
87.96
.4172
29.27
156.28
185.55
50
33.45
18.75
D. 01 1380
2.348
87.87
0.4259
29.61
155.95
185.56 '
51
34.15
19.45
.011392
2.302
87.78
.4345
29.96
155.61
185.57
52
34.86
20.16
.011404
2.256
87.67
.4433
30.31
155.27
185.58
53
35.58
20.88
.011416
2.2U
87.60
.4523
30.66
154 93
185.59
54
36.31
21.61
.011428
2.167
S7.51
.4615
31.00
1.54.. 59
185.59
• Inches of mercur>' below one standard atmosphere r29 92 in.) 14.fi9tf lb. nb^
t For Internal Latent heat see Re. Eng. Vol. II. No G.; p. 235. (Dec 1924 j
S Standard ton temperatures.
78
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXXIII.— PROPERTIES OF SATURATED VAPOR OF SULPHUR
'DIOXlBE—S02—(.CanH7iued)
Tern.
Pressure
Vok
me
Density
Heat Content
Above — iO"
"F.
Abs.
Ib./in.'
Gage
lb./in.>
I.iquul
ft.Vlb.
V.ip.,r
ft.Mb.
Liquid
Ib./ft.J
Vujior
Ib./ft.i
Liquid
Btu./lb.
Latent
Btu./lb.
Vapor
Btu./lb.
t
55
P
8P
22.35
V
V
1/v
1/V
h +
L =
H
37.05
0.011440
2.124
87.41
0.4708
31.36
154.24
185. 6«
56
37.80
23.10
.011452
2.083
87.31
.4801
31.72
153.89
185.61
57
38 56
23.86
.011464
2.043
87.22
.4894
32.08
153.54
185.62
5S
39.33
24.63
.011476
2.003
87.13
.4992
32.42
153 . 19
185.61
59
40 , 12
25.42
.011488
1.964
87.04
.5092
32.76
152.84
185.60
60
40.93
26.23
0.011500
1.926
86.95
0.5194
33.10
152.49
185.59
61
41.75
27.05
.011512
1.889
86.86
.5294
33.44
152.14
185.58
62
42.58
27.88
.011524
1.853
86.77
.5396
33.79
151.78
185.57
63
43.42
28.72
.011.530
1.816
86.68
.5507
34.14
151.42
185.56
64
44.27
29.57
.011548
1.7S3
86.59
^5609
34.49
151.06
185.55
65
45.13
30.43
0.011500
1,749
86.50
o'5717
34.84
150.70
185.54
66
46.00
31.30
.011.572
1.716
86.41
.5827
.35 . 19
150.34
185.53
67
46.88
32.18
.011.585
1.683
86.32
.5943
35.54
149.98
185.52
68
47,78
33.08
.011598
1 .6.-.2
86.22
.60.54
35.88
149.62
185.50
69
48.69
33.99
.011611
1.621
86.12
.6170
36.23
149.25
185.48
70
49.02
34.92
0.011626
1.590
86.02
0.6290
36.58
148.88
185.46
71
50.57
35.87
.011639
1.557
85.92
.6423
36.93
148.51
185.44
72
51.54
36.84
.011652
1.532
85.82
.6527
37.28
148.14
185.42
73
52.51
37.81
.011660
1.503
85.72
.6657
37.63
147.77
185.40
74
53.48
38.78
.011680
1.476
85.62
.6777
37.97
147.40
185.37
75
54.47
39.77
0.011693
1.448
85 . 52
0.6907
38.32
147.02
185.34
76
55.48
40.78
.011706
1.422
85.42
.7030
38.67
146.64
185.31
77
56.51
41.81
.011719
1.396
85.33
.7163
39.01
146.26
185.27
78
57.56
42.86
.011732
1.371
85.23
.7295
39.36
145.88
185.24
79
58.62
43.92
.011746
1.343
85.13
.7446
39.71
145.50
185.21
80
59.68
44.98
0.011760
1.321
85.03
0.7570
40.05
145.12
185.17
81
60.77
46.07
.011773
1 .297
84.93
.7720
40.39
144.74
185.13
82
61.88
47.18
.011786
1.274
84.84
.7850
40.73
144.36
185.09
83
63.01
48.31
.011800
1.2.53
84.74
.7980
41.08
143.97
185.05
84
64.14
49.44
.011814
1.229
84.04
.8140
41.43
143.58
185.01
85
65.28
50.58
0.011S2S
1.207
84 , 54
0.S2S5
41.78
143.19
184 97
86 1
66.45
51.75
.011841
1.185
84.44
.8440
42.12
142.80
184.92
87
67.64
52.94
.011854
1.164
84.35
.8590
42.46
142.41
184.87
88
68.84
54.14
.011868
1.144
84 .25
.8740
42.80
142.02
184.82
89
70.04
55.34
.011882
1.124
84.15
.8998
43.15
141.62
184.77
90
71.25
56.55
0.011896
1.104
84.05
0.9058
43.50
141.22
184.72
91
72.46
57.76
.011909
1.084
83.96
.9225
43.85
140.82
184.07
92
73.70
59.00
.011923
1.065
83.86
.9390
44.19
140.42
184.61
93
74.98
60.18
.011937
1.047
83.77
.9551
44.53
140.02
184.55
94
76.30
61.60
.011951
1.028
83.67
.9730
44.86
139.62
184.49
95
77.60
62.90
0.011965
1.011
83.57
0.9890
45.20
139.23
184.43
96
79.03
64.33
.011979
.9931
83.47
1.007
45.54
138.83
184.37
97
80.40
65.70
.011993
.9759
83.37
1.025
45.88
138.43
184.31
9S
81.77
67.07
.012008
.9591
83.27
1.043
46.22
138.03
184.25
99
83.14
68.34
.012002
.9425
83.17
1.061
46.56
137.62
184.18
100
84.52
69.82
0.012037
0.9262
83.07
1.080
46.90
137.20
184.10
105
91.85
77.15
.012110
.8498
82.57
1.176.
48.88
135.14
183.72
no
99.76
85.06
.012190
.7804
82.03
1.281
50.26
133.05
183.31
115
108.02
93.32
.012275
.7174
81.46
1.394
51.93
1.30.92
182.85
120
120.93
106.23
.012360
.6598
80.90
1.515
53.58
128.78
182.36
125
126.43
111.73
0.012445
0.6079
80.35
1.645
55.31
126.51
181.82
130
136.48
121.78
.012530
.5595
79.81
1.787
56.85
124.39
181.24
135
147.21
132.51
:012620
.5158
79.23
1.947
58.47
122.15
180.62
140
158.61 143.91
.012720
.4758
78.61
2.102
60.04
119.90
179.94
J Standard ton temperatures.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
19
TABLE XXXIV.
-PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOR OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE— SO.
David
L. Fiske, Urb
ana, 111.-192
5. A.
S. R
E. Data Book.
Temp.
Abe. Pressure 4 lb. /in. »
GagePressur&21.7in. vac.
(Safn. Temp. - 32 60° F.)
Abs. Pressure 6 Ib./inT
Gage Pressure 17.7 in. vac.
(Sal'n. Temp - 19:37° F.)
Abe. Pressure 8 lb./in.>
Gage Pressure 13.6 in. vac.
(Safn Temp. - S.9«° F.)
Abs. Pressure 10 Ib./io.'
Gage Pressure 9.6 in. vac.
(Safn. Temp. - 1.34° F.)
t
Volume
f..'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./lb.
H,
Entropy
Btu./lb.°F.
5
Volume
ft.'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu.,1h.
H
Entropy
Btu.,'Ib.°F-
5
Volume
ft.'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./lb.
H
Entropy
Btj./Ib.°F.
s
Volume
ft.Vlb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./lb.
H
Entropy
Btu./lb.°F,
s
(altclCn)
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
no
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
18.40
18.83
19.27
19.70
20.14
20.57
21.00
21.42
21.85
22.27
22.70
23 . 12
23.54
23.96
24.39
24.81
25.23
25.65
26.08
26.50
26.92
079.57)
181.5
183.0
184.6
186.1
187.7
189.3
190.9
192.5
194.1
196,7
197.3
198.9
200.5
202.1
203.8
205.2
207 . 1
208.8
210.4
212.1
213.8
0.42487
.42836
.43179
.43516
.43847
0.44161
.44491
.44806
.45116
.45421
0.45722
.46018
.46311
.46600
.46885
0.47167
.47445
.47720
.47991
.48259
0.48523
OlJl)
as'u)
{0.41 tSt)
(9JliO)
(.tS2S3)
(CiOiSl)
0.510)
USt.9S)
(.040000)
0^40046
.40432
.40802
0.41159
.41505
.41837
.42161
.42480
0.42795
.43104
.43407
.43705
.43997
0.44283
.44565
.44842
.45116
.45296
0 45651
.45913
.46171
12.75
13.04
13.34
13.63
13.93
14.23
14.52
14.71
15.11
15.40
15.69
15.97
16.26
16.54
16.82
17.09
17.35
17.62
17.88
18.13
18.38
184.3
185.9
187.5
189.1
190.7
192.3
193.9
195.6
197.2"
199.9
200.5
,202.2
203.8
205.3
207.1
208.8
210.4
212.1
213.7
215.4
217.0
.41850
.42198
.42538
0.42869
.43196
.43517
.43833
.44140
0.44443
.44741
.45035
. .45326
.45613
0.4589(5
.46176
.46451
.46722
.46990
0.47254
.47514
.47769
9.516
9.751
9.983
10.21
10.44
10,66
10.88
11.10
11.32
11.54
11.75
11.97
12.18
12.39
12.61
12.82
13.03
13.24
13 46
13.66
13.88
183.7
185.4
187»1
188.8
190.5
192.2
193.8
195.5
197.1
198.8
20O.4
202.1
203.7
205.4
207:0
208.8
210.3
212.0
213.6
215.3
216.9
0.40871
.41230
.41579
0.41922
.42256
.42582
.42903
.43216
0.43524
.43825
.44123
.44416
.44705
0.44990
■..45271
.45543
.45820
.46089
0.46353
.46614
^46871
7.545
7.744
7.939
8.030
8.316
•8.500
8.681
8.860
9.038
9.214
9.389
9.563
9.736
9 908
10.08
10.25
10.42
10.59
10.76
10.93
11.10
183.2
185.0
186.7
188.4
190.1
191.8
193.5
195.2
196.9
198.6
200.3
202.0
203.7
205.4
207.1
208.8
210.5
212.2
213.8
215.4
217.0
Temp.
°F.
20
30
,40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
Abs, Pressure 15 lb., 'in.'
Gage Pressure 0.30 lb.,in.'
(Sat'n. Temp. 14.43° F.)
Abs. Pressure 20 lb. An.'
Gage Pressure 5 30 Ib./in,'
(Safn. Temp. 26.44° F.)
Abs. Pressure 25 lb. /in.'
Gage Pressure 10.30 lb. /in.'
(Safn. Temp. 36.33° F.)
Aba. Pressure 30 lb /in,'
Gage Pressure 15.30 lb/in.'
(Sat'n. Temp. 44.75° F )
(o.UO)
5.192
5.333
5.470
5.604
5.734
5.862
5.988
6.112
6.233
6.353
6.471
6.588
6.705
6.821
6.937
7.052
7.167
7.282
7.396
usun
185.4
187.3
189.2
191.0
192.8
195.6
196.4
198.2
199.9
201.6
203.3
205.6
206.7
208.4
210.1
211.8
213.5
215.2
216.9
(0.30091)
0.39270
.39672
.40054
.40424
.40777
0.41116
.41443
.41765
.42076
.42383
0.42682
.42976
.43264
.43548
.43825
0.44097
.44366
.44630
.44889
(3.S7S)
USi.se)
icassm
(S.IBS)
Ossjse)
(0.S775O
(«.«/4)
USS.iS)
(0.S7169)
4.035
4.145
4.251
4.354
4.454
4.552
4.648
4.742
4.834
4.925
5.015
5.104
5.193
5.281
5.369
5.456
5.542
5.629
5.715
187.8
189.8
191.8
193.7
195.6
197.5
199.3
201.1
202 9
204.7
206.5
208.2
209.9
211.6
213.3
215.0
216.7
218.4
220.1
0.38959
.39346
.39719
0.40080
.40429
.40758
.41093
.41415
0.41726
.42027
.42322
.42613
.42898
0.43176
.43449
.43716
.43977
.44234
0.44488
3.181
3.273
3.363
3.451
3.536
3.618
3.696
3.772
3.848
3.923
3.998
4.073
4.145
4.216
4.287
4.358
4.428
.4.498
4.567
4.637
4.706
186.1
188.4
190.6
192.7
194.7
196.7
198.6
200.5
202.4
204.2
206.0
207.8
209.6
211.4
213.2
215.0
216.7
218.4
220.1
221.8
223.5
0.37927
,38372
.38795
0.39198
.39582
.39945
.40291
.40625
0.40949
.41261
.41568
.41866
.42156
0.42439
.42717
.42988
.43253
.43413
0.43769
.44023
.44275
2.747
2.830
2.907
2.980
3.052
3.122
3.189
3.254
3.318
3.381
3.443
3.504
3.565
3.625
3.685
3.744
3.803
3.861
3.919
3.977
4.035
i89.3
191.6
193.8
195.9
197 .9
199.9
201 8
203.7
205.6
207.5
209.3
211.1
212.9
214.7
216.5
218.3
220.1
221.9
223.6
225.3
227.0
0.37969
0 38428
.38848
.39236
.39603
.39955
0.40293
.40619
40935
.41241
.41539
0 41S29
.42112
M2387
.42657
.42921
0.43180
.43438
.43691
.43942
.44188
260
Note: V is Volume of Superheated Vapor, ft.'/lb.; H is Heat Content, Btu./lb., and S is Entropy, Btu./lb. °F.
8U
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XXXIV.— PROPERTIES OF SUPERHEATED VAPOR OF SULPHUR
DIOXIDE— S02.—(Cot,tiiiucd)
Temp.
Abe. PreMUlc 40 Ib.Am.'
Gage Pressure 25 .TO lb. /in.'
(Safn. Temp. S8.83° F.)
Abs. Pressure SO lb/in.'
Gage Pressure S.S.SO Ib./ip.'
(Sat'n, Temp. 70.40° F.)
Abs. Pressure 60 lb. /in.'
Gage Pressure 4.'i 30 Ib./in,'
(Sat'n. Temp. 80,29° F.)
Abs. Pressure 70 lb./in.«
Gage Pressure 5.1.30 Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp. 88.97° F.)
t
Volume
ft.'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./Ib.
H
Entropy
Btu./lb.-F.
s'
Volume
tt.'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./lb.
H
F.ntropy
ntu./lb.°F
s
Volume
fl.'/lb.
V
Heat
Content
Btu./lh.
H
Entropy
Rtu-/lb.°F
5
Volume
tt.'/lb,
V
Heat
Content
ntu./ib,
H
Entiopy
Btu./lb.°F.
5
iaisatn)
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
a 970)
1.980
2.064
2.121
2 185
2 246
2.304
2.360
2.413
2.465
2.515
2.565
2.614
2.662
2.709
2.755
2.800
2.845
2.889
2.933
2,977
3.021
(.iss.eo)
185.9
188.7
191.3
193.6
196.1
198.3
200.4
202.5
204.6
206.5
208.5
210.4
212,3
214.2
216.0
217.9
219.7
221.5
223.3
225.1
227.0
10.36470)
0.36544
.37064
.37544
.37992
.38415
0.38810
.39183
.39541
,39881
.40209
0.40525
.40831
,41127
,41416
,41694
0.41966
.42233
,42494
,42751
.43007
0,43262
VS77-)
U8S.-iS)
(.OSSSiS)
itSI44)
iiss.iey
i0.3S27i}
ii.ies)
(IS4.77)
(0.S47S9)
1.668
1.723
1.775
1.825
1.872
1.917
1.961
2.003
2,044
2.084
2.123
2.161
2.199
2.237
2.274
2.311
2.347
2.383
2 418
2.454
2.489
188.4
191,2
193,9
196.4
198.8
201.1
203.3
2Q5.4
207.5
209.6
211.6
213.4
215.4
217 3
219.2
221.1
223.0
224.9
226 7
228.5
230.3
.36366
. .36887
.37369
0.37815
.38234
.38627
.38998
.39353
0,39691
.40015
,40327
.40628
.40919
0.41200
.41477
.41748
.42015
.42275
0 42535
.42791
.43045
1.288
1.346
1.403
1.459
1.514
1.563
1.608
1.650
1.689
1.726
1.751
1 785
1.819
1.853
1 .885
1,917
1.948
1.979
2 010
2,040
2 070
191.4
194.3
197.0
199.5
201.9
204.2
206.5
'208.6
210.7
212.8
214.8
•216.8
218.7
220 7
2'22.6
2'24.5
226.4
228.2
230.1
232.0
233.8
0.36403
0. 36906
.37375
.37810
.38217
,38603
0.38963
.39310
.39639
,39956
,40260
0 40554
.40839
.41118
.41391
.41657
0.41917
.42175
.42431
.42685
0 4'2935
1.181
1.228
1.272
1.313
1.352
1.389
1.424
1.457
1.489
1.521
1.551
1.580
1.608
1.636
1 .664
1.691
1.718
1.745
1.771
1.798
1.824
187.6
191.6
194.8
197.6
220. 3
■202.9
205.3
207.6
209.9
212.0
214.1
216,1
218.1
220 . 1
•222 . 1
2-24.1
•226.0
•227.9
■229.8
231.7.
233.5
0,35443
0,36020
.3654,5^
.37028
.37478
.37897
0.38291
.38662
.39014
.39348
.39670
0.39978
.40275
.40564
.40843
,41120
0,41389
.41653
,41912
.42167
0.42418
Temp.
Abs. Pressure 80 lb. /in »
Gage Pressure 65.10 lb. /in.'
(Safn. Temp. 96.88° F.)
Abs. Pressure 100 lb"/in.'
Gage Pressure 83.30 lb/in.'
(Safn. Temp. 110.15° F.)
Abs. Pressure 120 lb. /in.'
Gage Pressure 10,V30 lb./in.»
(Sat'n, Temp, 121.52° F.)
Abs. Pressure 140 Ib./in.'
Gage Pressure 125.30 Ib./in.'
(Safn. Temp, 131.04° F.)
iattafit)
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
ISO
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340.
i0.9S09y
0.993
1.040
1.084
1.125
1.163
1.199
1.232
1.263
1.292
1 320
1.347
1.374
1.400
1.426
1.451
1,476
1 500
1.524
1.547
1.570
1.593
ilSi.SS)
185.6
189.1
192.5
195.7
198 6
201.3
203.9
206.4
208.7
211.0
213.3
215.5
217.5
219 6
221 6
223 6
225.6
227.6
229.5
231.5
233.4
(0.34557)
0.34571
,35214
.35797
,36330
,36819
0.37270
.37692
-.38093
.38461
.38813
0.39150
.39471
.39780
.40079
.40369
0.40651
.40926
.41195
.41459
.41719
0 41974
(0.77«o)
(ISSM)
W.sseoj)
{0.e4SO}
OSi.I9)
10.33954)
0J45I)
US1.04)
iO.Sl3SS)
0.8190
.8575
.8928
0.9255
.9561
.9848
1.012
1.03S
1.062
1.086
1.109
1 131
1.152
1.173
1 . 194
1 213
1 .232
1.251
1.268
1.284
1.299
187,3
191.0
194.6
197.9
200.9
203.7
206 4
209.0
211.5
213.8
216.1
218.4
220.5
222.6
224.7
226.8
228. S
230.8
2.'?2 8
234.8
236,7
0.34296
.34942
.35528
0.36061
.36558
.37009
.37431
.37829
0.38203
,38550
.38892
.39214
.39524
0.39824
.40114
.40397
.40673
.40944
0.41207
.41464
,41716
0.7085
0.7403
.7700
.7972
,8'228
.8470
0 8699
.8916
.9124
.9324
.9515
0.9700
.9.S'<0
l.f)06
1 .023
1.040
1.0.56
1.072
1.088
1.104
1.120
190.1
193.9
197.4
200.6
203.7
206 7
209.4
212.0
214.5
217.0
219.3
221 5
223.7
225.9
■228.0
230.1
233.2
2,34.3
■236.3
2.38.3
■240.3
0.34264
0.34904
.35484
.36012
.36494
.36936
0.37348
.37737
.38104
.38451
.38785
0.39106
.39416
,39713
40002
,40284
0.40,5.58
,40.825
0.5734
0.6055
.6345
.6613
,6861
,7092
0: 7.309
,7513
,7707
.7892
.8070
0.8241
.8405
.8564
.8720
,8970
0,9017
9161
185 i
189.7
193 6
196.3
200.8
■204.0
•207.1
210 0
212.7
215.4
217.9
220 3
222 6
224.9
227.1
229.3
231.5
2,33.6
2.35.7
237.7
239.7
0.33089
0 33777
.34442
.35041
.35588
,36088
0.36548
..36976
.37379
..37758
..38118
0.38461
.38789
.39105
.39408
.39701
0.39985
.40261
,40.529
,40791
0.41049
.41,ns5 i: .9302
.41338 1 .9441
0.41.T.S3 0.9,579
Note: V is Volume of Superheated Vapo» ft.'/lb.; H is Heat Content. Btu./lb.. aud-S is Entrop]'. Btu./lb. °F.
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
81
82
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
'S 'V ^ IC o
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
83
TABLE XXXVI.— SOLUBILITY OF AMMONIA IN WATER.*
Siebel — Compend of Mechanical Refrigeration. Nicksrson & Collins Co., Chicago.
Temp.
Content
Lb. NhJ
Vol.NHi
Lb.NHj
VoI.NHj
"F.
Lb.H.O
voi.n.o
°v.
Lb.HiO
Vol.HiO
320
0.899
1180
122.0
0.284
373
35.6
.853
1120
125.6
.274
3.59
39.2
.809
1062
129.2
.265
348
42.8
.765
1005
132.8
.2.56
336
46.4
.724
951
136.4
.247
324
soo
0.684
898
140.0
0.2.38
312
.53.6
.646
848
143.6
.229
301
.57.2
.611
802
147.2
.220
289
60.8
.578
759
150.8
.211
277
64.4
.546
717
154.4
.202
265
68.0
0.518
683
158.0
0.194
2.54
71.6
.490
643
161.6
.186
244
75.2
.467
613
165.2
.178
234
78.8
.446
.585
168.8
.170
223
82.4
.426
559
172.4
.162
212
86.0
0.408
536
1760
0.1,54
202
89.2
.393
516
179.6
.146
192
93.2
.378
496
183.2
.138
181
96.8
.363
478
186.8
.130
170
100.4
.350
459
190.4
.122
160
104.0
0.338
444
194.0
0.114
149
107.6
.326
428
197.fi
.106
139
111.2
.315
414
201.2
.098
128
114.8
.303
399
204.8
.090
118
118.4
.294
386
208.4
.082
107
1
(212.0
0.074
97)
PreM.
Abe.
Lb./in.>
32»F.
es^F.
1040 F.
212° F. 1
Lb. NH.
Lb.HtO
VoI.NH,
Vol.HjO
Lb. NHi
Lb.HiO
VoI.NH.
Vol.H^O
Lb. NHi
Lb.HiO
VoI.NH.
VoLHiO
Gm.NH,
Lb.HK)
Vol.NHi
Lb.HiO
14.67
15.44
16.41
17.37
18.34
19.30
20.27
21.23
22.19
23.16
24.13
25.09
26.06
27.02
27.99
28.95
30.88
32.81
37.74
36.67
38.60
40.53
0.899
0.937
0,980
1.029
1.077
1.126
1.177
1.236
1.283
1.336
1.388
1.442
1.496
1..549
1.603
1.656
1.758
1.861
1.966
2.020
1.180
1.231
1.287
1.351
1.414
1.478
1..546
1.615
1.685
1.754
1.823
1.894
1.965
2.034
2.105
2.175
2.309
2.444
2.582
2.718
0.518
.535
.5.56
.574
.594
0.613
.632
.651
.669
.685
0.704
.722
.741
.761
.780
0.801
.842
.881
.919
.955
0.992
0.683
.703
.730
.754
.781
0.805
.830
.855
.878
.894
0.924
.948
.973
.999
1.023
1.052
1.106
1.1.57
1.207
1.254
1.302
0.338
.349
.363
.378
.391
0.404
.414
.425
.434
.445
0.454
.463
.472
.479
.486
0.493
.511
.530
.547
.565
0.579
..594
0.443
.458
.476
.496
.513
0.531
.543
.559
.570
.584
0.596
-.609
.619
.629
.638
0.647
.671
.696
.718
.742
0.764
.780
0.074
.078
.083
.088
.092
0.096
.101
.106
.110
.115
0.120
.125
.130
.135
0.097
.102
.109
.115
.120
0.126
.132
.139
.140
.151
0.157
.164
.170
.177
1
*For convenience the bodies of the above tables give the ammonia content of ;he
saturated solutions at the various temperatures and pressures in both pounds of am-
monia per pound of water and volumes of ammonia per volume of water. — Editor A. S.
R. E. Data Book.
TABLE XXXVIl.— HEAT OF ASSOCIATION OF AMMONIA.*
MoHicr-.S(n
rr'tf
I Rcfrigcrat
ni) E
OinctT
,' Ha
nd Hna
k. ^
ickerson A'Collirn
Co..
Vhicano.
^
^
^
^
.,
K
K
s
a
X
X
X
33
X
X
B
33
i:
Z
z
z
z
2
z
Z
z
z
Z
Z
.£}
Xi
.a
j3
.a
^S
J3
L*
M
Si
j3
Si
Sl
ft?
JS
a
3
X
2
X
3
B
3
X
3
S
3
X
3
X
3
X
3
S
3
X
3
X
3
''•
a
<i
a
eg
Z
=0
a
a
»
A
S)
7.
CQ
z
n
z
03
03
n
347
s
329
in
307
l.'i
284
20
2,V)
?.s
232
30
203
3S
17.i
40
142
4S
100
so
70
5S
:!4
1
344
ti
323
11
303
1«
279
21
2.54
2li
220
31
19S
3li
108
41
135
40
99
h\
.S2
50
27
2
.■J40
7
321
12
29«
17
274
22
24 S
27
221
32
192
3;
102
42
128
47
92
Wi.
36
57
20
:i
337
X
316
r.(
294
1,S
269
2.1
243
2,S
215
33
180
3M
\i>^
43
121
48
85
.S3
49
58
14
4
333
H
311
14
2S0
19
204
24
23S
29
209
.14
180
39
149
44
113
49
77
.M
41
59
7
00 to 100-01
at of Association of Ammonia," gives the heat of
18 of variouB strengths. The iotcX heat liberated i
lutioiis of various strengthB ia the heat 0/ associatic
See tables of Properties of Anhytirous Ammonii
and disasaociatioD of one pound of
n up respectively when a pound of ami
tho latent heat of vipuristiti
84
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
85
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86
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
87
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88
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S
M r^ioiot-* ^» o-O^O^^^
too O tOt^-iOTtt^lOOO N CO
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
89
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HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
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VO ■^ Tf lo lOvO t^ O^ O CI T^ loOO M coo O CO lo O^ CI
tH o OOO t^\o to'^-^coci M o O o>oo t^ r^vo lo lo
COCOCiWCICICICIClClCICICICIl-IMtHWWMM
t^ 1-1
d o 00 too
VO CO O O •^
r^O t rt d d CO O CO
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CO CO
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3
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94
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
g
O W-) u-)nO 00io0»O<^iHTf POO O i'^ <^ O M O Tf
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2
0 *•* O <N loii^OO OOOOO O O <^0 MOOt^t^roO
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<N 1-H O OOO t^O uoio'^row »-• i-t O 0*00 00 t^sO O
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1
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<N HH o O^oo r^O lOiOTj-coM M 0 O O^oo 00 r^O O
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p.
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w w o OOO r^o lOTfpOPOM M O O OOO t^ r-*o m
POPOPO<NC^MCS<S<S«<NC*W<N)-iMI-il-IMtHM
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
95
3
<
I
1
vO t^ M ro r^ t^ 0 1^00 VO fOOO 10 •"too >- 0 C> 0 "1 0
fO <N M 0 OnOO t^sO lO-^t^Of^*^ >-' 0 0 0*00 t^ t>-vO
g
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00 M M 0 OvOO r^-O lotw^ivjtN " 0 0- O^CO t- ;^vO
s
t^ 0 fO "OOO t^MOCO t^l^O t^t^O -trOi-i fOt^rO
00000"'M<^ "^^ CO 0 >- fOO O* N VOCO M 10
ro <N M 0 000 r^vO lOTfr^fO'^' '-' O O O^CO I^ t^^O
r^
ro^ 00 0 f^ fOO 0 'i-co^N loc^ c<vo « o^r^o*^ O
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CO '-' 0 0 OCO r^O io«i-rOf^ ^i '-' O O O^CO r^ t^vo )
t
Ov w to 10 OvOO <N r^ O^OO t^wOO O>o I^lrirO'tO-t^
O^O^O^O^OvO i-< *N rnior^OvO <^ tooo t-» Tf t^ O ■t
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»
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1
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s
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a
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M
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m w w »H M C4 M c^ Ci M r0<^0<0f0f0tt^ttt0
96
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
97
^
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W
tOU5iOOOOO^^U30iOOO>OUdOOU^U3040iOU3Ud
U50irtU5000»OW3WDOUDO»OOiOOOOOOU5W50iO
OOOOiO»00»000«50U30»OOOOU5irtOOU3M5»0
oooosa>o5Qooooot*t>-t^r^«oco^Dco»o»o»oiow3'^'^'*
iOOOOOOOU5*flOU3*00»00»«»OOU300*0000
tQtQiAOoooioooudOOoudOusiou^iOiatQtooo
OOU)OOOu)U3000UMaOOUdOiCOU90000u9
OOOiOOOOOU^Oi/)^tCOudiOU90UdOO»CUMOO
r-oooofT'Or^-t' — ooiCJc — Ci<0'**'CJOooso^c^OQO^•
^*^»^•^o<;oo*o*o»0'v^'V9•c*^cocQccccc^cMO^c^^c^^N^M
oooudicu^i/dooo^ooooooooooiot^duso
iCkOtOOU3iOOOOOOOiOiOOOOu)OOkOU3U30kO
lO'fOrN.fO — ooiceoor^«MOooO'<*'C^ooo<o^©»^0
98
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
^
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C^C^— *^N-NOOOO>Oi0505QOCOOOOOt*t»r-t^«DOCO<C>CO
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C^^N_.OOO0»0>C5O000000t^t*l^r^t^Ot0eo<0«0*0W5
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■s.a
REFRIGERANTS— TABLES
99
*OW50000»000»n*COOOiOOw50iOOOO»Oi
'Ot00»0»0-*"'^'»<c
jC^-^^—t^OOOOC
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u^ooou^ot'dooooo^udoooudot'dtctdooo
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I OS O OO 00 00
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oco<Noo'<t' — ^*'f'-'00«ocso^-M'C^'?>'^^)*^^©t^*0'^?^
*0'^"<J'r5«'^0C^C->C^^-H-^-^OOO0J0>i^0>OT00000000
100 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XL.— SOLUBILITY OF GASES IN WATER AT ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
1 Vol. Water dis-
t^
fa
fa
fa"
fa'
solves Vols. Gas.
ca
Q
a
o\
O
o
o
n
ro
NO
i^
Air
0.0247
0.0224
0.0195
0.0179
0.0171
Ammonia
1049.6
941.9
812.8
727.2
654.0
Carbon Dioxide
1.7987
1.5126
1.1847
1.0020
0.9014
Sulphur Dioxide
79.789
69.828
56.647
47.276
39.374
Marsh Gas
0.0545
0.0499
0.0437
0.0391
0.0350
Nitrogen
0.0204
0,0184
0.0161
0.0148
0.0140
Hydrogen
0.0193
0.0193
0.0191
0.0193
0.0193
Oxygen
0.049
0.0372
0.0325
0.0279
0.0284
TABLE
XLI.— COMPRESSIBILITY OF
LIQUIDS.*
Temperature
Degrees F.
Ammonia
Sulphur
Dioxide
Carbon
Dioxide
32
59
77
0.000111
0.000130
0.000148
0.000118
0.000134
0.000149
0.000824
0.002259
0.008400
•Kalte Industrie, March, 1915.
CHAPTER V
HEAT TRANSFER
Heat Transmission. — Heat is transmitted through a sub-
stance when there is a temperature difference, and is caused by
the natural tendency of heat toward a temperature equiHbrium.
The heat flow is always from a region of higher temperature
to a region of lower temperature, and may occur in three
ways: Conduction, radiation and convection.
The rate of heat transfer from one region to another, de-
pends on the amount of surface, the difference in temperature
and the material through which the flow^ occurs. The rate
of transfer through various materials has been determined
experimentally by many scientists, the most reliable of which
are given in Table XLH as compiled by the Bureau of Stan-
dards.
From this table it will be noted that a coefhcient "C" is
given, which is the overall transmission of heat based on a
unit of time, surface, thickness and temperature difference
or B.t.u. per hour per square foot per inch of thickness per
degree F. As the heat transfer is practically proportional to
the thickness, the fundamental law can be expressed in a very
simple formula :
"C"
(1) Transmission in B.t.u./Hr. = X average sq. ft. X
thickness
temperature difference
From the foregoing it will be noted, that if the temperature
and area of a transmitting surface are known and held con-
stant, the heat transfer depends upon conduction, radiation
and convection.
101
102
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XEII. INTERNAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF VARIOUS
MATERIALS (c)*
Material
Description
B.t.u. perj
24 hours ,
4 2
Air Cell, 1 inch. .
Aluminum
Ammonia Vapor.
Aqua Ammonia .
Asbestos Mill Bd
Asbestos Paper . .
110
12.0
Air Ideal air space
Air Cell, Vi inch. . . Asbestos paper and air
spaces .
Asbestos paper and air
spaces
Cast 24.000
32°F 3.19
64° F 75.90
Pressed asbestos — not very
flexible .•••.■■■ 20.00
Asbestos and organic bind-
er 12.
Asbestos Wood Asbestos and cement 65 . 0
Balsa Wood Very light and soft— across
grain 8.4
EsS.^^^^^::::::::::::::::::;:::::::::::;|.ooo
Brick Heavy 120
Brick Light, dry »4
Brine Salt ,• • ■ v ' L' ' " ^'^
Cabot's Quilt Eel grass enclosed in bur- _
lap ' ■ '
Calorax Fluffy finely divided min-
eral matter 5.3
Celite Infusorial earth powder. . . 7.4
Cement Neat Portland, dry 150.0
Charcoal Powdered 10.0
Charcoal Flakes 14-6
Cinders Anthracite, dry 20. J
Concrete
125.0
B.t.u. per
hour
Concrete Of fine gravel 109.0
Concrete Of slag 50.0
Concrete Of granulated cork ;„„„„
Copper 50.000
Cork '".'.'. Granulated K-3/ 16 inch.. 8.1
Cork Regranulate X/Xd-Ys inch. 8.0
CorklDoard No artificial binder — low
density o- '
Corkboard No artificial binder— high
density ' -^
Cotton Wool Loosely packed 7.0
Cypress Across grain lo.O
Fibrofelt Felted vegetable fibers ... 7.9
Fire Felt Roll Asbestos sheet coated with
cement 15.0
Fire Felt Sheet Soft, flexible asbestos sheet 14.0
FlaxHnum Felted vegetable fibers ... 7.9
Fullers Earth Argillaceous powder 17.0
Glass 24.0
Glass 178.0
Granite 600
Granulated Cork . . About 3/16 inch 7.5
Gravel Dry, coarse 62 .0
Gravel Dry. fine 39.0
Ground Cork ' • i
Gvpsum Plaster ^f"
Hair Felt "^ ■ ^
Hard Maple Across grain 27.0
Ice 408
Infusorial Earth. . . Natural blocks 14.0
Insulex Asbestos and plaster
blocks— porous. ..... . 22.0
Insulite Pressed wool pulp— rigid. . 7.1
Iron Cast 7 740
Iron Wrought 11.600
Kapok Imp. vegetable fiber —
loosely packed . 5.7
Keystone Hair Hair felt confined with
building paper 6.5
Limestone Close grain 368
Limestone Hard 214. u
Lb. per
cu. ft.
0. 175
0 458
0 500
1000 000
0. 133
3.160
0.08
8.80
8.80
.62
0.21
56.50
0.830 61.00
0.500 31.0
3.700 123.0
0 350
12.700
625.000
5 000
3 . 500
1.130
0.321
0 221
0.308
6 250
0.417
0.613
0.845
5 200
4.540
2.080
1.790
2083 . 000
0.337
0.333
0 279
0.308
0.292
0.666
0.329
0.625
0.583
0.329
0.708
5.160
7.420
25.000
0.313
2.582
1.630
0.294
2.250
0 246
1.125
17.000
0.583
0.916
0.296
321.500
483.000
0.238
0.271
15.300
9.330
7.5
250' "
131.
115.
73.4
16.0
4 0
10.6
170.
11.8
15.0
40.0
136.0
124.0
94.5
7.5
556.0
5.3
10 0
6.9
29.0
11.3
43.0
26.0
11.3
33.0
150.0
185.0
166.0
8.1
115.0
91.25
9.4
44.0
57.4
43.0
29.0
11 .9
450.0
485.0
0.88
19.0
185.0
159.0
'From "Principles of Refrigeration," Nickerson & Collins Co., Chicago.
HEAT TRANSFER
103
TABLE XLII. — INTERNAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF VARIOUS
MATERIALS (c) — (CONTINUED)*
Material
Description
B.t.u. per
24 hours
B.t.u. per
hour
Lb. per
cu. ft.
.Soft
100.0
4.167
113 0
Linofelt
. Vegetable fiber confined
with paper
7.2
0.300
11.3
Lithboard
. Mineral wool and vegeta-
9.1
22.0
0.379
0.916
n 5
Mahogany
. Across grain
34.0
Marble
.Hard
445
18.530
175.0
Marble
.Soft
104
4.330
156.0
Mineral Wool. . . .
. Medium Packed
6.6
0.275
12.5
Mineral Wool. . . .
. Felted in blocks
6.9
0.288
18.0
Oak
. Across grain
24.0
1.000
38.0
Paraffin
."Parowax," melting point
52° C
38.0
1.582
56.0
Petroleum
.55°F
24.7
1.030
50.0
Plaster
132.0
5.500
105.0
Plaster
. Ordinary mixed
90
3.750
83.5
Plaster
.Board
73
3.040
75.0
Planer Shavings. .
.Various
10.0
0.417
8.8
. Stiff pasteboard
11 0
0 458
Pumice
.Powdered
11.6
0.483
20.0
Pure Wool
5.9
5.9
0.246
0.246
6 9
Pure Wool
6.3
Pure Wool
6.3
7.0
16.0
0.263
0.292
0.667
5 0
Pure Wool
2 5
Rice Chaff
10 0
Rock Cork
. Mineral wool and binder —
rigid
8.3
0.346
21.0
Rubber
.Soft
45
7.875
94.0 '
Rubber
.Hard, vulc
16.0
0.667
59.0
Sand
. River, fine, normal
188.0
7.830
102.0
Sand
. Dried by heating
54.0
2.250
95.0
Sandstone
265
11.100
138.0
Sawdust
.Dry
12.0
0.500
13.4
Sawdust
.Ordinary
25.0
1.040
16 0
Shavings
. Ordinary
17.0
0.707
8.0
Silicate Cotton. . .
14.0
18.0
0.583
0.750
8 55
Slag Wool
15.0
Snow on Ref . Coils
75
17 0
3.130
0 707
Tar Roofing
55 0
Vacuum
. Silvered vacuum jacket. . .
0.1
0.004
Virginia Pine
. Across grain
23.0
0.958
34.0
Water
.Still, 32° F
100
4.166
62.4
White Pine
. Across grain
19.0
0.791
32.0
Wool Felt
. Flexible paper stock
8.7
0.363
21.0
Conduction. — Heat transfer by conduction occurs by means
of molecular transmission due to the different intensities of ir-
regular vibration of the molecules, causing the higher tempera-
ture or more rapid moving molecules to strike the lower tem-
perature or slower moving molecules and cause them to move
at the same rate. Due to friction, adhesion, etc., the intensity
decreases as it passes from the faster to the slower molecules.
The interchange of heat in this way may occur between differ-
ent parts of the same body or between two separate bodies in
actual contact.
When one end of a bar of iron is held in a fire the other
end willsoon become too hot to hold in the hand. The heat
104 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
has been tiausierred by conduction. One end of a wooden
stick can be held in the fire without the other end becoming
warm. In general, metals are good conductors, while lighter
weight materials are poor conductors, so that comparative
transmission can be made from their densities. A recent the-
ory for the better insulating properties of substances contain-
ing air cells, is that there is a very intense atomic resistance at
the junction of a solid and gas, thus oftering greater retarda-
tion to the molecular activity transfer.
Radiation. — Radiation is the transfer of heat b} means of
continuous and irregular ether vibrations and the transforma-
tion, in whole or in part, of the energy of light into heat energy
by imjjact upon tlie surface of a substance. It is an electro-
magnetic phenomenon, in which the longest heat waves are
about 0.042 centimeters while the shortest solar waves that can
pass through the atmosphere are 0.00003 cm. The range of
the radio waves is about 3 meters to 20,000 meters. When
heat or solar radiation strikes a bod_\' it is in general partly
reflected, partly absorbed and partly transmitted. The part
which is transmitted is nil in case of metals, unless they are
made into exceedingly thin almost transparent foils, it is very
small in case of water and ice and large in case of quartz, rock
salt, etc. Thus in most practical cases part of the radiation is
absorbed and part of it reflected, the amount of which is smaller
the more dull and black the surface is. In the ideal limiting
case which is closely approached b\- lampblack, the entire
amount of radiation is absorbed.
The amount of heat transferred by radiation depends upon
the character of the radiating surfaces; whether hot or cold,
dark or light, temperature difiference, absorbing properties, etc.
The blacker an object the more heat it will lose by radia-
tion. Stoves and radiators intended to give out heat should
be black. Cooking utensils, coffee urns, etc., should be bright,
(tinned or nickeled) in order to lose as little heat as possible.
A stove nickel plated all over will give out only about half
as much heat as the same stove at the same temperature if
black. A brightly tinned hot air furnace pipe may lose less
heat than when covered with one or two layers of asbestos
paper, as the surface of the asbestos paper radiates heat much
HEAT TRANSFER 105
more rapidly than the bright tin. The pipe should be black
to prevent radiation to the inside surface of the asbestos
paper, then the asbestos would be more effective. If asbestos
paper of sufficient thickness is used, it will save heat, even on
bright tin pipes.
Further it has been found experimentally that a body as it
is heated radiates heat waves the amount of which is equal
to the amount absorbed. The table below gives the radiating
and absorbing power, and the reflecting power of a few com-
mon substances. It may be noted here that the radiating power
is also called the emissivity,
TABLE XLIII. — HEAT ABSORBING. RADIATING. AND REFLECTING
POWER OF SLTBSTANCES
' Absorbing & Reflecting
Substances Radiating Power Power
gl-^'^'x'^ :•:::::::;;:::: Ifo S;?S
i;le ;;;;;;;::;::::::::::::::.::: ss .is
Polished Cast Iron 25 -75
Polished Wrought Iron f^ ■''
Polished Brass 07 .V^
Copper Hammered -^ -^^
Silver Polished Qj ZL
According to Prevost's theory of heat exchanges a warm
body radiates more heat to the surrounding cold bodies than
it receives from them and thus its temperature drops, while a
cold body also radiates heat but it radiates less than it re-
ceives, and, therefore, its temperature rises. According to this
theory, a body in a refrigerator placed near the ice radiates
heat no faster than it would to a warmer body, but it receives
less from the ice in return and, therefore, becomes colder.
It is well established that the heat exchange by radiation
between two bodies is given by:
H = E (T2* — TiO X 16 X 10"
Where H = B.t.u. per sq. ft. per hour.
Ti & Tj = Absolute Temperatures of the two bodies in degrees F.
E = An empirical constant called the emissivity of the surface
considered: E = 1 for a black body.
Radiation Between the Sun and the Earth. — The heat and
light from the sun come to us through space in a form of wave
motion called radiation. The atmosphere offers considerable
106 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
obstruction to the passage of these waves. Even when the
sky is very clear, rarely more than 65 per cent of the radiation
penetrates to the surface of the earth, the part absorbed being
expended in raising the temperature. The region near the
upper limits of the atmosphere is one of intense cold. As the
sun, having a much higher temperature than earth, radiates
heat to the earth, so from the surface of the earth, heat is
radiated to the much colder upper limits of the atmosphere.
The radiation of heat from the earth is continuous both day
and night when there are no clouds or other obstruction be-
tween the earth and the upper atmosphere. During the day
the amount of heat received from the sun is so much greater
than the amount lost by radiation from the earth, that the tem-
perature rises. After the sun sets, however, no heat is re-
ceived to counterbalance the loss by outgoing radiation and
the temperature falls. — (U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin, No. 1096).
Convection. — Convection is the transfer of heat by displace-
ment of movable media ; the heated medium moves and car-
ries the heat energy with it. In other words heat is carried
from one place or object to another by means of some outside
agent, such as air or water or any moving gas or fluid. The
hot air and hot water heating systems work on this prin-
ciple. For example, in case of an ordinary household radia-
tor, steam or hot water heats the radiator and it establishes
a temperature differential between the metal and the adja-
cent layer of air, the layer of air is heated and consequently its
density is reduced as compared to the cooler layers of air.
Thus the denser and cooler particles of air begin to descend
while the warmer and less dense particles begin to rise and a
natural upward movement of heated particles sets in. If desired,
however, the movement of these heated particles can be ac-
celerated and the heat transfer greatly increased by means of a
fan or blower. In the first instance we have natural convec-
tion and in the second forced convection. It is also clear that
the increased heat transfer secured in the latter case is pro-
duced by the external mechanical work supplied and here as in
all other engineering work we pay for what we receive.
HEAT TRANSFER 107
The food and containers in a refrigerator are cooled mostly
by convection. The circulating air is the medium used to trans-
fer the heat from the food and walls of the food compart-
ment to the ice. This process of heat transfer is continuous.
The air in passing through the food compartment absorbs suf-
ficient heat to increase its temperature about 10° F.
It is well known in a general qualitative way that heat
flow by forced convection between a metal surface and a fluid
depends upon the following:
l_The velocity of the fluid; the higher the velocity the higher the
heat flow.
2 — The temperature difference between the metal and the fluid; the
higher this difference the higher is the heat flow.
3 — The thermal conductivity of the fluid.
4 Diameter of the tubes around or in which the fluid is assumed
to flow.
5— The density of the fluid.
6 — The viscosity of the fluid.
7 — The depth or length of the device measured along the path
in which the fluid flows.
8 — The temperature difference between fluid and body.
9 — The character of the surface.
The values given in Table XLIV are for inside surface
only, and are represented by the symbol K. Due to the more
exposed outside surface and rapid movement of air, the coeffi-
cient for this is much larger, generally 23^2 to 3 times, so that
K2 can be used as 3 times K.
TABLE XLIV. COEFFICIENTS OF RADIATION AND CONVECTION IN
B.T.U. PER HR. PER » F. SQ. FT.
University of Illinois Engineering Experimental Station.
Brick Wall 1.40 Glass 2.00
Concrete 1.30 Tile plastered on both sides. . 1.10
Wood 1.40 Asbestos board 1.60
Corkboard 1.25 Sheet asbestos 1.40
Magnesia board 1.45 Roofing 1-25
Comparison of Heat Insulators. — Table XLV gives a com-
parative idea of the thermal conductivity of insulators used in
household cabinets. Air which cannot circulate and carry heat
in that way (by convection) is one of the best heat insulators
108
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
to be found. Cotton, wool, feathers, cork, etc., are good in-
sulators because they contain a large amount of air in the
cells or in the spaces between the fibers. Clothing keeps in the
heat of the body chiefly because it contains air between the lay-
TABLE XLV. COMPARISON OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF HEAT
INSULATING MATERIALS USED FOR INSULATING HOUSE-
HOLD REFRIGERATORS
Relative Thermal
Material Conductivity
Vacuum jacket silvered 1
Mineral wool (medium packed) 66
Corkboard (low density) 67
Ground cork (ordinary) 71
Vegetable fibre (Linofelt) 12
Granulated cork (about 3/16 inch) 75
Eel grass (enclosed in burlap) 11
Balsa wood (medium weight) 92
Planer shavings ~ 100
White pine (across grain) 190
Oak (across grain) 240
ers and in the meshes of the cloth. Wlien the enclosed warm air
is displaced and is replaced by colder air, as is the case in
windy weather, the clothing no longer keeps one so warm.
FIG. 4.— SHOWING RADIATION AND CONVECTION LOSSES.
If the clothing is close-fitting, there is less room for an air layer
between the layers of the clothes and therefore, it is less warm.
To keep warm in cold, windy weather, the clothing should
consists of loosely fitting garments, preferably of wool, with
HEAT TRANSFER
109
some outside wrap which is nearly windproof, such as a very-
close woven cloth, or even leather or rubber. A fur coat is
very much warmer if the fur is on the inside, where the wind
cannot disturb the air which is held among the hairs.
Determination of Heat Loss Through a Wall or Refrig-
erator.— As shown in the previous paragraphs, heat is trans-
mitted through a substance from higher regions to a lower re-
gion by means of conduction, radiation, and convection. Re-
ferring to Fig. 4 it can readily be seen that the drop from T^ to
T, is radiation and convection losses from the outer surface,
13 "Brick W^Li-
2 Cem emt-
2 "Cork Bo>\rd
2"
— 2 PL-Asrcf?
FIG. 5.— STANDARD WALL.
T2-T3 the losses or transmission by conduction through the
material, and T3-T4 convection and radiation from the cold air
in the box to the inner surface. The convection and radia-
tion drop is caused by a very thin layer or surface film sur-
rounding each surface.
Fig. 5 shows a standard wall as used in many cold storage
buildings and ice storages. .The unit transmission through
the combination wall can very easily be determnied from the
followinsr formula :
B.t.u./ sq. ft./hr./°MD =
1
1 X X X 1
Ki C . Ci C2 Ca
110
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
X being the thickness of the material, C the unit coeffi-
cient for each material as in Table XLII, K^ and K^ surface
coefficients for the inner and outer surfaces respectively.
1
Substituting— B.t.u./sq.ft./hr./°MD=:
1 13 4 1 1
1.10 5 .279 6.25 4.2
If this value is now used as the factor
"C"
in the
thickness
fundamental formula (1) given on page 101 the total heat leak-
age through the walls can be obtained. It has been found
that the resistance to heat flow at the surface, due to radia-
POf?CEL/^IN LiNINQ
FIG. 6.— CROSS SECTION OF A STANDARD ICE BOX.
tion and convection is very small in comparison to internal
thermal conductivity of the material itself, so that these two
factors -can be omitted, particularly when good insulation of
normal thickness is used. This can be demonstrated by the
omission of the factors K^ and Kg in the above formula result-
ing in a final value of .0585 instead of .0548 or 6^% greater.
Referring to Fig. 6, a cross section of a standard ice box is
given. Assuming this to be a 9 cu. ft. refrigerator the outside
surface w^ould be 54 sq. ft. and the inside surface 34.5 sq. ft.
or an average of 44.25 sq. ft.
The unit heat transmission would be
= .1225 B.t.u./sq. ft./°MD/ hr.
.279
HEAT TRANSFER 111
"C"
Substituting in our fundamental formula for ^^.^^^^^^^
B.t.u./hr. = .1225 x 44.25 x V = 5.42
Actual tests on this box gave 5.75.
For practical results to obtain the compressor load, 50%
should be added for opening door, warm edibles, making ice,
etc.
Insulation. — The most important factors entering into the
choice of an insulator are as follows :
1. Thermal conductivity.
2. Odorless and sanitary.
3. Compact.
4. Vermin and fire resistant.
5. Not easy to disintegrate or settle.
6. Durable in service.
7. Reasonable in cost.
8. Structurally strong and easy to ship, handle, and install.
9. Conform to variation on surface of lining.
1. Thermal Conductivity. — The best insulator that could
possibly be found would be one that was an absolute non-con-
ductor of heat. Since this has not been discovered as yet we
must content ourselves with insulation which are good non-
conductors, or in other words, transmit heat at a very slow
rate. As heat loss through an insulated wall is a continuous
process, it must be the aim to reduce this loss to a minimum
by increasing the thickness to a maximum commensurate with
desired results. This is a question of first or initial cost.
2. Odorless and Sanitary.- — Since ordinary food products
are stored in the refrigerator, it is evident that the insulation
should be absolutely free from mould, rot, or odor and per-
fectly sanitary. The interior surfaces shoidd be so constructed
that they can be washed with water without effecting the in-
sulation.
3. Compactness. — An insulation in order to be favorably
considered must be compact or occupy a small amount of space
for the equivalent heat loss prevention. If it can be made very
thin, but at the same time give as good insulating value as
112 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
another 2 to 3 times as thick, it would naturally be given pref-
erence.
4. Vermin and Fire Resistant. — A desirable insulation
should be of such nature that it will exclude vermin of all
kinds, and should lend itself to fireproof construction of build-
ings. It should be slow burning and fire retarding and should
not support a flame.
5. and 6. Not Easy to Disintegrate or Settle. — The dura-
bility of insulating materials depends upon the life of the
materials used in their manufacture, the mode of manufacture
and the waterproofness.
The insulation of a refrigerator is called upon to with-
stand constant changes of temperature and humidity. The or-
dinary refrigerator using ice usually has a rather poor water
insulating material to protect the insulation. The greatest
trouble is experienced around the ice compartment where
water vapor will condense on the outside surface of the lin-
ing or rather between the lining and the insulation. If the
insulation is installed very tightly against the lining, this con-
dition is not likely to cause trouble. Moisture not only causes
the insulation to deteriorate rapidly, losing to a large extent
in heat insulating properties, but also may rust the lining and
absorb food odors which will make the refrigerator very in-
sanitary.
The moisture problem is especially important on mechani-
cal refrigerators where freezing temperature or temperature
below 32° F. are maintained in part of the cabinet. In this
case a much lower room humidity will deposit moisture on the
lining. There are very few ice refrigerators constructed
which are insulated in a suitable manner to be used for the
lower temperatures as usually supplied by mechanical refrig-
erating machines.
7. Reasonable in Cost. — An insulation to be universally
used depends on such factors as a reasonable initial cost of
material, cheap installation cost, minimum of repair charges,
as well as a minimum amount of ^pace for maximum retarda-
tion of heat flow.
HEAT TRANSFER 113
8. Structurally Strong and Easy to Ship, Handle and In-
stall. — Insulation should be compact and structurally strong
so that it may be used in walls, ceilings, and floors of any type
of construction. It should have sufficient strength to allow
for shipment and for installation by ordinary workmen. These
factors determine to a large extent, its application commer-
cially.
9. Conform to Variations on Surface of Lining. — Due to
unevenness of surfaces on which insulation is to be placed it is
essential that elasticity, to a certain extent, be embodied in the
insulator, or otherwise there will be resultant breaks when the
non-flexible insulation is jammed against an uneven surface.
Air Spaces. — Many refrigerators use air spaces for insula-
tion. Heat may be transferred across an air space by all three
methods of heat transfer : radiation, convection and conduc-
tion.
A very high vacuum is necessary to appreciably lower the
rate of heat transfer by convection. The heat transfer by con-
vection is greater when there is a large temperature drop, as
the air will then circulate more rapidly, carrying heat from
one wall to the other.
Air is a very poor conductor of heat when compared with
the usual insulating materials used in refrigerators. The con-
ductivity B.t.u. per day per sq. ft. per deg. F. per inch
thickness for various materials is given as follows :
Air, if radiation and convection could be prevented 4.2
Mineral wool 6.6
Corkboard 6.7
Flaxlinum 7.9
White pine 19.0
Oak 24.0
This tabulation shows that the amount of heat transferred
across air space by conduction is relatively low.
The amount of heat passing over an air space by radia-
tion is very large when there is a large temperature diflferential
between the two walls. The rate of heat transfer by radiation
is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
of the surface, enclosing the air space, providing the surfaces
114 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
are perfect radiators or absorbers. The blacker the object the
more heat it will lose by radiation. Bright tinned or nickeled
objects lose very little heat by radiation. The vacuum bottle
usually has bright polished surfaces to prevent heat entering
the walls by radiation.
The United States Bureau of Standards gives the following
tabulation on the heat conduction of air spaces, in which A is
the width of the air space in inches, B is the heat conduction
expressed in B.t.u. per square foot per degree F. per 24 hours
for the corresponding thickness stated, and C, the heat con-
duction expressed in B.t.u. per square foot per degree per 24
hours per inch thickness :
A B C
^ 50 6.3
% 32 8.]
^ 26 9.8
y2 23 11.6
^ 22 13.6
^ 22 16.4
% 22 20
1 22 22
2 21 43
3 21 62
The insulating value of air sjjaces is not proportional to
the thickness of the spaces.
The heat loss between walls of materials such as wood,
paper, etc., by radiation alone, is about 20 B.t.u. per day per
square foot per degree F. for ordinary temperatures. At
higher temperatures, the radiation loss is still larger. Air
spaces are not good insulators on account of this radiation
loss. This large heat loss by radiation may be greatly re-
duced by using polished surfaces for the walls between the
air spaces. Perhaps the best way to reduce this loss is to
use an insulating material such as cork, which eliminates the
heat loss by radiation almost entirely.
One authority describes the use of a heat insulating ma-
terial such as corkboard, as an air space insulation composed
of an almost perfect heat radiation screen. Each air cell in the
cork must radiate heat from one wall to another and as the
temperature differential is small, the amount of heat trans-
ferred by radiation is nearly negligible.
HEAT TRANSFER
115
Insulating Effect of Air Spaces. — The insulating effects of
air spaces, according to various authorities are given in Tablo.
XLVI. The effects are given in conductivities, expressed in
B.t.u. per square foot per twent}-four hours per degree of tem-
perature difference for various thicknesses of air spaces. It
will be noted that the increasing of the thickness of the air
space above a certain amount does not proportionately de-
crease the total conductivity.
TABLE XLVI. INSULATING EFFECT OF AIR SPACES
Authority
Conductivity
rrx • 1 B.t.u. per sq.
Thickness ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^
per Deg. Fahr.
Temp. Diff.
Inches
Remarks
Prof. L. A. Harding,
Pennsylvania State College
Refrigerating World
Prof. A. C. Willard,
Railway Age Gazette
Nusselt
Willard & Lichty
to 6
1
39.8
30.0
38.2
University of Illinois %
42.5
U. S. Bureau of Standards Yi
11.0
U. S. Bureau of Standards Ys
50
'A
32
H
26
V2
23
v»
22
54
22
H
22
1
22
2
21
3
21
U. S. Bureau of Standards 1
4.2
Pennsylvania State College 3 in. spaces
5.36
Wood & Grundhofer ^ in. each
7.68
3 spaces
1 in. each
5.28
5.29
4.26
Spaces greater give no
additional value.
Single and double box
test.
Corrugated asbestos pa-
per enclosing air space.
Air spaces bounded by
sheets of insulating paper.
Air spaces not widei
than f^ inch retard heat
about as well as an equal
thickness of sawdust.
A 3 inch air space has
nearly the same value as
as 1 inch space.
No heat transferred h\
radiation or conduction
Three air spaces.
Three air spaces.
Comparison, if 3 air spaces l/i in. each = 100%
Then 2 air spaces J4 in. each = 79%
and 1 air space 'A in. each = 59%
Comparison, if 3 air spaces 1^ in. each = 100%
Then 3 air spaces 1 in. each = 88%
and 3 air s-paces 'A in. each = 70%
Types of Insulating Material. — As can be noted in Table
XLII, many kinds of inaterials can be used for insulation. The
most commonly used materials are corkboard, granulated cork,
ground cork, mineral wool, rock cork, hair felt, kapok, lith-
board, sawdust and shavings.
116 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Cork.— Cork is the outer bark of a tree growing on the
Spanish Peninsula and in Northern Africa. In its natural
state, it is composed of a large number of minute air cells, sep-
arated by thin walls.
Corkboard is made by compressing pure granulated cork
in molds and baking. The baking process improves the in-
sulating value, first by driving ofif the sap, thus increasing the
volume of confined air; second, by coating the surface of each
separate granule with a thin film of the natural waterproof
gum or rosin, which cements the whole mass together firmly.
After the baking process, the boards are trimmed to size. Pure
cork contains 43% wood fibre and 57% entrapped air.
A cheaper and inferior grade of corkboard may also be man-
ufactured. In this process, granulated cork is mixed with hot
asphalt and pressed into sheets.
The boards are 12"x36" and are supplied in thicknesses
1-13/2-2-2^-3-4-6". The weight varies from 7 to 12 lbs. per cu-
bic foot, depending on the process. Regranulated cork of 8-20
mesh or fineness weighs 11 lbs. per cubic foot, and coarse
granulated weighs 5 to 6 lbs. per cubic foot. The regranulated
is baked and is made from savings trimmed from corkboard.
Because of its cellular structure, cork has little capillary at-
traction, which together with the coating of waterproof gum
for binder, makes it practically impervious to moisture. It
possesses essentially all of the requirements previously cited
for a good commercial insulator and is therefore the most uni-
versally used.
Mineral Wool. — Mineral wool is a vitreous substance made
of limestone which is melted at 3000° F. and then blown into
fine fibres by high pressure steam. It is a soft, pliable and
elastic material resembling wool or cotton, and due to the
fibres crossing and interlacing in every direction small air
spaces are formed which produce its insulating properties.
Mineral wool boards are made by mixing the wool with a par-
affin wax binder and other ingredients and then compressing
it into sheets. These are usually 16x36 inches and are made
from 3^ to 3 inches in thickness. The weight is approximately
18 lbs. per cubic foot in boards, but only \2y2 lbs. when loosely
HEAT TRANSFER 117
packed. The board contains about 90 per cent mineral wool
and 10 per cent binder and consists of approximately 80 per
cent entrapped air. Mineral wool board possesses many of
the essentials of a good insulator but is inferior to corkboard
as to structural strength, fire retardation and installation cost.
Flaxlinum or Linofelt.— This is a flax fiber product pressed
into a continuous sheet and covered with a waterproof char-
coal sheathing. It is customary to use two sheets of flaxlinum
with a dead air space between them. This insulation is also
made in .quilted sheets which are held in place by wooden
strips.
Mineral Felt. — Mineral felt is a combination of mineral
wool, asbestos, and hair felt. It is claimed that this material
will not settle like other loose feltings.
Balsa Wood. — Balsa wood is being used to some extent
for insulation on refrigerators. Its peculiar structure and
qualities which make it suitable for this purpose were first
realized about 1915.
The tree grows in certain parts of South America and the
West Indies. It grows very rapidly to a height of from thirty
to sixty feet and a diameter of from twelve to fifteen inches
in four or five years. This rapid growth is probably the cause
of the peculiar structure of the wood. The cells are large and
remote from one another, and the cell walls are exceedingly
thin, while in most other woods the cells are small, close to-
gether and have fairly thick walls. The balsa tree is now be-
ing cultivated in artificial groves. Balsa is a second growth
wood which is always found in clearings. The trees seldom
grow closely together.
In the natural state, balsa wood is not suitable for insulat-
ing material. Colonel Marr discovered a method of treating
the wood which renders it waterproof, prevents rot and keeps
it from changing shape. This process is a bath composed
mostly of paraffin, performed in such a way that the interior
cells are coated without clogging up the porous structure.
Lithboard. — Lithboard consists of mineral wool and vege-
table fibers. It is made into boards by using a waterproofing
118 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
binder and compressing. These boards have a composition
of approximately 40 per cent vegetable fibres (flax) and 60
per cent mineral wool, and are generally 18"x48" with a thick-
ness of 5^ to 3". It weighs about 12>2 lbs. per cubic foot.
Rock Cork. — Indiana limestone with a certain specified
content is heated up to 2800° F. and passed through a "V"
shaped steam jet. The heavier particles of blown rock drop
ofT right at the nozzle and are separated from the rock wool
that is picked up from the blowing chamber. This rock wool
still has some very small particles of blown rock in it. The
rock wool is taken to an agitator and here the rest of the par-
ticles are removed. The rock wool now is mixed with an oil
asphalt and some paper stock, at approximately 200° F. Water
is introduced and acts as a carrier agent for the mixture. The
mixture is poured into moulds, that have screens in the bot-
tom through which it drains, and the mixture is allowed to
settle. After the water has drained off the mould goes to a
drying kiln and stays there for about 72 hours.
Rock cork does not undergo any sort of compression dur-
ing the moulding process other than that due to its own
weight. The rock cork now is in slabs and is planed down
to any required thickness as desired. Rock cork weighs ap-
proximately 16 to 20 lbs. per cubic foot and possesses many of
the recjuirements of a good insulator.
Selection. — In selecting an insulation for a proposed instal-
lation a number of factors must be taken into consideration :
1. Type of construction
2. Character of refrigerated products
3. Temperatures to be maintained
4. Thickness of walls
5. Location of plant.
The following table gives the most economic thickness of
corkboard and other insulation of same unit transmission :
—20° to — ur 8"
—10° to — 0° 6"
0° to 15° 5"
15° to 35° 4"
35° to 45° 3"
45° and above , .2" ■
HEAT TRANSFER
119
Heat Transfer in Apparatus. — The heat transfer taking
place in a refrigerating apparatus is similar to that occuring
through insulation, in that the flow occurs from a region of
high temperature to a region of low temperature. Whereas, a
very slow rate of infiltration through insulation was desired just
the reverse is true in the apparatus; the fastest possible transfer
is wanted. Generally this transfer of heat is accomplished be-
tween two fluids separated by a solid wall of good conductivity.
,2
FIG. 7.
,■3 ,4 ^ ^ n & .9 l.a
-MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE CURVE.
Since the heat transfer may occur by means of conduction,
radiation or convection, the fundamental law of heat transfer
holds, the same as for insulation ; although the unit transmis-
sion as determined by experiment combines all three methods,
as well as the kind of material and thickness of separating
wall. The formula then becomes — (2).
120 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
B.t.u./hr. = "C" X sq. ft. of surface X temperature difference.
(C is given in Table XLVIII.)
The mean temperature difference for apparatus is some-
what different than for insulation due to the fact that the tem-
peratures on both sides of the insulation are comparatively
constant, whereas in the apparatus they are changing con-
stantly. Therefore in the first case an arithmetic degree mean
difference can be used but a logarithmic mean temperature
difference must be found in the latter case.
Due to the character of the formula as given by Hausbrand
and its attendent higher mathematics this logarithmic degree
mean difference method has been put in a simple curve form,
making it available to everyone.
TABLE XLVII. THICKNESS OF INSULATION FOR COLD PIPES
Thickness p Use With For Temperatures
of Cork
154 in. Ice water, liquid ammonia, brine Above 25° F.
and other cold lines.
2 in. to 3 in. Brine, ammonia and other cold 0° to 25" F.
lines.
3 in. to 4 in. Brine, ammonia and other cold Below 0° F.
lines.
Ti = Inlet temperature of substance to be cooled
T2 = Outlet temperature of substance to be cooled
ti= Inlet temperature of cooling substance
ta= Outlet temperature of cooling substance
Ti — U and T2 — ti = Differences
S = Smallest difference
L = Largest difference
S
Factor — = Ordinate
L
Coefficient obtained from Curve = Abcissa
Coefficient X largest difference = Mean temperature difference.
Example: To cool milk from 120° to 80° with 72° water heated to
80° during the process.
2o^
SO'
__c:
do'
S 8
L 40
FIG. 8.
72"
HEAT TRANSFER 121
Running across on the .2 factor line to the curve and then
projecting down at right angles the coefficient .5 is obtained.
Then the mean temperature difference is .5 X 40 = 20.
If an arithmetical degree mean difference had been used
the result would have been the difference of average tempera-
tures of
(120 + 80) (80 + 72)
= 24
( 2 ) ( 2 )
which would have been a 20 per cent error.
S
It has been found that for all practical purposes if — is
L
greater than .5 an arithmetic degree 7nean difference can be
used.
Coefficients of Heat Transfer in Apparatus. — In table
XLVIII is given overall unit heat transfer coefficients, as de-
termined by experiments. They hold good for the general
wall thicknesses found in refrigerating apparatus and when
the surface is comparatively free from frost scale, oil and other
foreign matter.
The best heat transfer is obtained from liquid to liquid
followed by liquid to gas and the worst transfer is from gas
to gas. Copper has a considerably higher rate of transfer than
steel while lead is very much worse than either. Some im-
portant factors on which the rate of heat transfer depends are :
1. Velocity of fluids
2. Density and kinds of fluids
3. Temperatures at which they are handled
4. Thickness and material of separating wall
5. Smoothness and cleanliness of wall as regards foreign sub-
stances, material, as well as gases.
As an example to show the amount of steel pipe to be in-
stalled in a small storage box having a load factor of 3000
B.t.u. hr. and held at a temperature of 40" with 15° average
expansion through the coil, using the fundamental formula
(2):-
3000 = 2.5 X sq. ft. X (40—15)
sq. ft. = 48.
122
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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"o'b'o'o'o'o'o'o'o'o^'o'o'o'o'o'o'o'S'o'Of -jt If V ) o o o
OOOOOOOOOooOOOOOOOOO o^^^^ o o o
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HEAT TRANSFER 123
Since it takes 2.3 ft. of 1^" pipe to make 1 square foot of
surface, it will be necessary to use 48 X 2.3 =110 ft.
From the foregoing it can readily be seen that many refrig-
erating problems are really heat transfer problems, and can
be solved by either formula — 1 or 2.
CHAPTER VI
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS.
History and Principles of Refrigerating Systems. — The
following chapter is devoted to historical data and the general
principles underlying the operation of the principal refrigerat-
ing systems. The air refrigerating machine works on a prin-
ciple of cooling by the absorption of sensible heat, and was
one of the first types given consideration. Absorption refrig-
erating machines were also given early consideration.
The inherent advantages of the compression refrigerating
machine, in which advantage is taken of the latent heat of
evaporization, were early recognized and this type of system,
consequently, was subjected to development and perfection
at an early date. A chemical method for producing refrigerat-
ing effects has been used for centuries, but of course, the com-
mercial application of such methods is limited, on account of
the high cost of producing such refrigerating effects.
Following a discussion of the refrigerating systems, atten-
tion is given to the requirements of a household system, in
which special attention is devoted to the design and construc-
tion of the different component parts of such systems.
Gorrie Air Machine. — The first air refrigerating machine
was invented by Doctor Gorrie at New Orleans about 1850.
Air was compressed in a cylinder and delivered to a chamber
which was immersed in the cooling water. The pressure in
the chamber was maintained at about 15 pounds per square
inch above the pressure of the atmosphere. Water injection
125
126 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
was used to partly cool the air during compression. Both air
and water were delivered to the receiver. The air in the
receiver was further cooled by the water on the outside. Then
the air was expanded in another cylinder discharging at about
atmospheric pressure. The expanding air was mixed with a
quantity of brine which was injected into the expansion cylin-
der. The expanding air cooled the brine to about 20* F. This
cold brine was used for ice making or refrigeration.
Kirk Air Machine. — Dr. Alexander Kirk invented a closed
cycle air machine about 1861. This machine used a confined
mass of air, operating always at pressure considerably above
atmospheric pressure. Machines of this same type were made
by Allen, an American, and Windhausen, a German.
Open Cycle Air Machine. — The open cycle air machine
consists of two cylinders called a compression cylinder and
an expansion cylinder. Air from the room which is to be
cooled is taken in the compression cylinder. It is compressed
and therefore warmed. This compressed air is then cooled by
circulating water. This air is then made very cold by expan-
sion to atmospheric pressure. Upon reaching this condition it
is returned to the cold room.
Open cycle air machines of this type were proposed by
Lord Kelvin and Professor Rankin about 1852. The first
actual machine operating on this principle was made by Gif-
fard in 1873. At a later date, machines of this type were made,
namely the Bell-Coleman and other improved designs by Mr.
Lightfoot, Messrs. Haslam and Hall.
The air machine has a relatively large power consumption
and is only used to any large extent on ships.
Allen Dense Air Machine. — The dense air machine is used
to some extent on boat installations.
In this system air is compressed to about 250 pounds and
then cooled by the cooling water. This cooling is usually
performed by a copper coil immersed in water.
The air is then passed through a moisture separator, after
which it is conducted to the expansion cylinder. In this
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 127
cylintlcr the air is expanded to about 60 to 70 lbs. ))ressure and
a very low temperature.
The 70 lbs. air is then passed through an oil separator
before being returned to the compressor to start another cycle.
A primer pump is used to automatically supply make up air.
Machines of this type require considerable attention to
eliminate trouble from ice forming within the evaporator, due
to freezing the water vapor supplied by the make up air.
Lubrication is rather difficult on a machine of this type.
This system of refrigeration has not proven successful
for small household machines, although the use of air as a
refrigerant has scjme important advantages in this particular
field of refrigeration.
Low Pressure Air Refrigeration System. — A recent de-
velopment in household refrigerating machines operates on
the principle of accelerating the evaporization of ammonia or
alcohol by blowing air through the liquid.
The air is compressed by a blower to a pressure of 10 to
15 lbs. gauge. The blower is usually direct-connected to the
motor and operates at motor speed.
This process is claimed to operate at efficiencies better than
those obtained in the usual compression system.
Water Vapor Absorption Machines. — In the absorption
type machine, two substances are used which have an affinity
for one another so that one unites or dissolves in the other
when they are cold, but they separate readily when heated.
Sulphuric acid when cold has a great affinity for water. Heat-
ing a sulphuric acid and water mixture drives off water vapor.
This vapor is condensed by the cooling water. The acid is
then cooled and reabsorbs the water vapor at a low tempera-
ture and a ver\' low pressure. There is a very low vacuum
during both parts of the cycle. The absorbing substance acts
like a pump and maintains a low pressure during the cooling
cycle. This principle was first used by Professor Leslie in
1810. A small machine of this type was made by M. E. Carre
in 1875 for household work. It consisted of an air pump, and
a chamber to contain the acid. A rod on the pump handle
served to agitate the surface of the sulphuric acid. Mr. ^^'ind-
128 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
hausen made a large machine of this type in 1878. A small
machine of this type is on the market at the present time, be-
ing manufactured by the Pulsometer Co., of Reading, Eng.,
and others.
Machines of this type have an overall thermal efficiency
of about fifteen per cent which is lower than the compression
type.
Ammonia Absorption Machines. — The ammonia absorp-
tion machine works on the principle of ammonia dissolving in
water. One quart of water will dissolve about 500 quarts of
ammonia gas. Ammonia has a higher vapor pressure than
water and the absorbing is accomplished under a pressure
considerably above atmospheric. Heating a water and liquid
ammonia mixture drives off ammonia gas. This gas is con-
densed by the cooling water. The water is then cooled and
reabsorbs the gas at a low temperature. In actual practice
only part of the ammonia is driven off from the aqua solution.
The ammonia absorption machine was invented by F.
Carre about 1858-1860. The original machine was a very
crude affair, consisting merely of two vessels — one surrounded
by cold water, the other containing the ammonia and water.
The original patent in the United States was issued October
2, 1860, the reissue being dated February 18, 1873. The Carre
machine, subsequently improved by Mignon and Rouart in
France, Vass and Littmann in Germany, Reece, Mort, Nicolle,
and others in England and Australia, marked a great era in
mechanical refrigeration.
The Carre machine was the first one to obtain a foothold
in the ice making industry in the United States. The first
machine was shipped through the blockade in 1863 to Augusta,
Ga., by Mr. Bujac of New Orleans. It was supposed to have
a capacity of 500 pounds per day. Due, mainly, to the parties
who had it in charge, the machine was not a success, and in
1866 it was shipped to Gretna, La., where it was run for ex-
hibition and experimental purposes. Three other Carre ma-
chines, purchased by the firm of Bujac & Girarde, New Or-
leans, La., and installed in that city, also proved unsuccessful
in operation.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 129
In the fall of 1865, the firm of Mepes, Holden, Mont-
gomery & Co. purchased the first of these machines and
shipped it to San Antonio, Tex., and put it in operation under
the supervision of D. L. Holden.
The absorption refrigerating machine is now manufac-
tured by the Carbondale Machine Co., Columbus Iron Works,
Henry Vogt Machine Co., York Manufacturing Co., and others
in the United States. Messrs. Haslam and Hall now manu-
facture a machine of this type formerly developed by Messrs.
Pontifex and Wood, in England. The overall thermal effici-
ency of the ammonia absorption system is about 25 per cent.
History of the Vapor Compression Machine. — The first
machine of the vapor compression type was invented by Jacob
Perkins, an American, and patented in England in August,
1834. It was further developed by Twining, who took out his
English patent in 1850. This machine was not a commercial
success.
It was not until 1857 that James Harrison of Geelong,
Australia, made a compression machine using sulphuric ether
which was of commercial value. Messrs. Siebe and Gorman
later manufactured these machines in England. This refriger-
ant is not used today.
In April, 1867, Prof. P. H. Van der Weyde of Philadel-
phia, Pa., obtained patents for the use of naphtha, gasoline,
petroleum, ether and condensed petroleum gas (chimogene)
as refrigerants, and obtained patent on his compression refrig-
erating machine.
Mr. D. L. Holden, after his successful experience in San
Antonio with the Carre ammonia absorption machine in 1865,
purchased the patent rights of Prof. Van der Weyde and built
his first compression machine at the Novelty Iron Works in
New York City. Several other compression refrigerating ma-
chines using ammonia were built and installed by Mr. Holden
in New Orleans, La., Bonham, Houston and Galveston, Tex.;
Mobile, Ala.; Thibodauxville, La.; Selma, Ala., and Charles-
ton, S. C. In September, 1869, and April 1870, and at various
later dates, Mr. Holden obtained patents on his "regaled" ice
making system.
130 HOUSEHOLD RETFRIGERATION
In 1868. Charles Tellier, of ,Passy, near Paris, took out
patents on his compression apparatus, whose refrigerating
agent was methylic ether, and which was designed to make
ice and to refrigerate air and liquids. The date of his letters
])atent in the United States was June 5, 1869, and one of his
machines was erected in the Old Canal Brewery, New Orleans,
by George Metz, with the object of producing cold, dry air,
and making ale and lager beer without the use of ice.
In the seventies appeared the inventions of Francis D.
Coppet of New Orleans; Franz Windhausen. Ciermany ; Prof.
C. P. G. Linde of Munich, Bavaria; Raoul P. Pictet, Geneva,
Switzerland; Thos. L. Rankin of Ohio; Martin & Beath, San
Francisco; A. T. Ballentine of Maine; James Boyle of Texas,
and David Boyle of Chicago.
In 1877 Mr. Enright designed and built a machine having
a vertical double-acting compressor, and in the fall of the year
one of this type was installed in the brewery of A. Ziegele of
Buffalo, N. Y. In 1878 patents were issued to the inventor,
not only for his double-acting com])ressor, but for the pipe
I'oint commonly known as the Arctic.
X'incent constructed a chloride of methyl compression ma-
chine in 1878. M. Raoul Pictet invented a sulphurous acid
machine about 1875. This machine is used in France and
Switzerland. Dr. Carl Linde, of Munich, introduced the am-
monia machine in 1876.
In 1878, the first compression machine made by C. J. Ball
was erected at Dallas, Tex. Upon his retirement he was suc-
ceeded by his son, P. D. C. Ball, who conducted the business
under the name of the Ice & Cold Machine Cc, until 1920, at
which time the name of the company was changed to the Ball
Ice Machine Co.
The first De La \'ergne refrigerating machine was placed
in the Hermann Brewery, New York City, in 1879. One of
the inventors of the original apparatus, John C. De La Vergne,
was engaged in the brewing industry in 1876, and in 1881 he
formed the De La A'ergne Refrigerating Machine Co., for the
manufacture of the so-called De La Vergne-Mixer Machine,
the second patentee being \\'illiam M. Mixer of New York.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 131
The refrigerating department of the Frick Co. originated
about 1881, when either Mr. Jariman or Mr. Ferguson of Balti-
more, Md., submitted plans of machinery to George Frick,
and plants were subsequently erected for several parties in
that city.
About 1882 Peter Weisel, the founder of the business now
conducted by the Vilter Manufacturing Co., Milwaukee, Wis.,
designed a double-acting horizontal refrigerating machine
which the firm of Weisel & Vilter commenced to build in that
year. The first machine was installed in the Cream Cit}'
Brewery, Milwaukee.
In 1885 W^ G. Lock, an engineer of Sidney, Australia,
patented a compound compressor for ammonia consisting of
two single-acting high and low-pressure pumps, side by side.
Patents covering the idea were issued as early as 1867, and
the Lock improvements, together with the St. Clair compound
machine, manufactured by the York Manufacturing Co., were
great improvements on the originals. Thomas Shipley, vice-
president and general manager of the company, made a num-
ber of most important changes and improvements on the origi-
nals, and also patented other improvements on ice making
and refrigerating plants.
The compression refrigerating machine is now produced
by a number of the leading manufacturers in the United
States.
The carbonic acid machine was patented by Raydt in 18S1
and later by \\'indhausen in 1886. This type machine is made
by Messrs. J. and E. Hall of Dartford, Eng., The Linde Co.,
Messrs. Haslam and Hall and the Pulsometer Co.
The carbonic acid machine was introduced in the United
States in the early eighties, and is now manufactured by
American Carbonic Co., Brunswick-Kroeschell Co., Frick Co.,
Norwalk Iron Works, ^\'ittenmeier Machinery Co., and others.
Vapor Compression Machines. — Most of the mechanical
refrigeration of today is performed by vapor compression ma-
chines. In this process, a liquid is used which can be alter-
nately liquefied and vaporized.
132
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The liquids in common use are ammonia, sulphur dioxide,
methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, ether, and carbon dioxide. The
refrigerating cycle may be divided into four different phases :
1. Throttling effect through expansion valve.
2. Vaporization process in cooling coils.
3. Compression of vapor in compressor.
4. Cooling and condensing of vapor in condenser.
Refrigeration is produced by the latent heat of vaporiza-
tion of these substances, all of which have a relatively low
boiling point. The vapor resulting from the vaporization of
the liquid in the cooling element is conducted to the suction
side of the compressor. This vapor usually reaches the com-
pressor in a slightly superheated condition. The compressor
then forces the gas into the condensing element, where it is
liquefied by cooling, usually by means of water or air. The
liquid refrigerant is then allowed to return to the cooling
element through an expansion valve or a restricted orifice.
This cycle is continuous.
The restricted orifice must always be sealed on the con-
densing or high pressure side with liquid refrigerant, in order
to function properly.
FIG. 9.— COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING SYSTEM.
The cooling element may operate either on a flooded or
dry system. In the flooded system, a relatively large amount
of the liquid is stored in the cooling element and a regulation
of the restricted orifice keeps this amount nearly constant.
In the dry system, the regulation of this orifice is usually con-
trolled by the pressure of the low or evaporating side.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 133
Statistics show that more than 90 per cent of all the re-
frigerating and ice making plants in the United States today
are operated on the ammonia compression system. This is
only true of the commercial or larger size plants as the house-
hold systems favor sulphur dioxide compression machines.
The compression refrigerating system is shown diagram-
atically by Fig. 9. The five essential parts shown are the
compressor, condenser, receiver, expansion valve, and evapo-
rator. An ordinary piston type of compressor is illustrated.
Chemical Methods. — It is a well known fact that when
ice melts the temperature remains constantly at 32° F. Heat
is supplied to cause this physical change of state from a solid
to a liquid, and if the rate of heat supply be increased or de-
creased there will be no change in the temperature of the ice
but simply a change in the rate of melting. Mixtures of some
salts with ice and of certain salts with water or acids do not
follow this same rule. For example, if salt is mixed with ice
the rate of melting will tend to increase more rapidly than
the heat is absorbed and the temperature will fall below that
of melting ice. The temperature will be depressed a certain
amount depending upon the per cent of salt used.
United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin Nd. 98
gives the temperature resulting from mixtures of ice and salt
as follows:
Per Cent Salt Degrees F.
0 32
5 21
10 20
15 11
20 1.5
25 —10.
Tlic temperature of water ma}- be lowered as much as
40° F. by dissolving ammonium nitrate in it. Ice may be
formed in this way.
The lowering of temperature by means of ice and salt mix-
tures is shown graphically in Fig. 10. This figure illustrates
how the temperature is reduced as the percentage of salt is
increased. This chart is for ordinary salt, sodium chloride.
134
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
PERCENTASE OF SALT (BY WEI(5 HT)
1,-lG. 10.— TEMPERATURES OBTAINED BY ICE AND SALT MIXTURES.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 135
Water for Cooling Food. — Farmers' Bulletin No. 375 of
the United States Department of Agriculture gives the fol-
lowing, in reference to cooling of foods, by means of water:
There are many ways of lowering temperature by utilizing the
fact that water when evaporating draws of? heat from surrounding
objects. If a pitcher of water be wrapped with a cloth which is kept
saturated and exposed to a draft of air, the temperatures of the water
in the pitcher will be lowered by several degrees.
A receptacle in which food is placed may be cooled in the same
way. Take a wooden box with a sound bottom made of one piece
and invert it. Tack a layer of cotton batting over it and cover with
some coarse cloth. It is now to be kept wet by some contrivance
that will furnish an automatic drip. The writer used for this purpose
an old aluminum pan which had in it a half dozen very tiny holes,
and when filled with water it supplied just enough water to keep the
cloth saturated. Under this box lettuce in cold water, a cold pudding,
a pat of butter, and other food were placed and kept in good condi-
tion. A pan of milk lowered into another of cold w^ater is kept from
souring many hours longer than if it was unprotected from the sur-
rounding air. Spring water of low temperature is used by many
farmers' wives to keep milk and butter cool, and a "spring house" is
a common thing on many farms, though less depended upon than was
the case before ice houses, refrigerators and ice chests became so
common.
It is also an old-fashioned practice to lower foods in covered pails
into the well and suspend them not far above the surface of the water.
Requirements, — The requirements of a household refrig-
erating machine ma} be summarized as follows:
1. Maintain food compartments between 40 — 50° F .automatic-
ally.
2. Freeze water and desserts in reasonable length of time.
3. Low initial cost.
4. Dependable operation without adjustments, hand controls, or
service.
5. Simplicity of design.
6. Simplicity of operation.
7. Efficiency of operation.
8. Quietness of operation.
9. Prevent leakage at stuffing box
10. Accessibility for repairs.
11. Safety of operation of exterior moving parts, of electrical
apparatus or fuel burners.
12. Adaptability for installing as a single unit with cabinet.
13. Freedom from wear of moving parts.
136 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
14. Positive operation of valves.
15. Insure necessary lubrication under all conditions of service.
16. Prevent misplacement of lubricant.
17. Limit the number of gasket and pipe connections whereby
refrigerating gas might escape.
18. Protect compressor from damage of pumping liquid refriger-
ant or lubricant.
19. Insure necessary cooling of compressor and motor.
20. Protect metals from rust and corrosion.
The household refrigerating machine has been under de-
velopment for the past forty years. This v^ork includes prob-
lems in mechanical, electrical, and chemical engineering. It
has proven very difficult to construct a machine which will
start and stop itself at required intervals, which will be self-
regulating and self-oiling under all conditions, and which will
be fool-proof and of such simplicity that a servant can oper-
ate it.
The machine should be entirely automatic as the advan-
tages gained over the use of ice are not sufficient to compen-
sate for a manually controlled system. Machines have been
proposed which would be started manually and stopped auto-
matically. Other plants have been proposed which would
operate all of the time, varying the speed of the compressor
according to the temperature in the food compartment. These
experiments have not proven successful commercially.
The machines should make ice in small quantities or
freeze desserts for table use. This feature assures the user
that it is functioning properly. Experience shows that ther-
mometers placed in food compartments are seldom under-
stood, but the fact that ice is frozen and stored in the brine
tank or cooling element is convincing proof that the machine
is operating satisfactorily. The time required to freeze ices
or desserts should not be longer than five hours, the usual
time between meals, unless there is a large ice storing capacity
insuring a reserve supply.
A large amount of work has been done on compressor de-
sign and development. It has been estimated that 90 per cent
of the experimental work performed on household refrigerat-
ing machines has been on compressor development. Many
concerns have met with financial difficulties before emerging
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 137
from the compressor development stage, while others have
placed their machines on the market without taking time to
develop the other important parts of the refrigerating system.
Some very satisfactory compressors have been built and efforts
are now being made to better the condensing, evaporating, ice
making, and automatic control features.
In Europe and the tropics where labor is cheap and elec-
tricity is not available, there is a demand for hand operated
machines. These are produced in large quantities, usually of
a small refrigerating capacity, just sufficient to cool a carafe
of water in a few minutes and make several pounds of ice in
a half hour. The larger sizes will make 20 to 30 pounds of
ice per hour. These are vacuum systems using sulphuric acid
to absorb the water vapor, an improved form of the Carre sul-
phuric acid freezing machine.
Household refrigerating machines will not be used in large
quantities until the mechanical features have been perfected,
and until they operate at a cost comparable with that of buy-
ing ice. It is merely an improvement on existing conditions.
The initial cost must be low as the average family uses
between 100 and 200 lbs. of ice weekly. The average yearly
cost of ice would be about $40.00.
The Compressor. — The reciprocating type of compressor
is in general use with refrigerants such as sulphur dioxide,
ammonia, methyl chloride, carbon dioxide, and high pressure
air.
Blowers and turbine compressors are mostly used with
refrigerants such as ethyl chloride, ether, formic-aldeliyde, and
low pressure air. With these gases, a relatively large amount
of gas must be handled.
Herringbone gear compressors have been used to some
extent on sulphur dioxide machines, but they have not as yet
met with success commercially.
Sulphur dioxide compressors are used most extensively
on household refrigerating machines. These compressors are
usually of the single-acting type with two vertical cylinders,
although some machines on the market today have one and
138 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
others three vertical single-acting cylinders. They operate at
from 250 to 500 r.p.ni.. the speed being limited mostly by noise
and efficiency of the valves. The multi-cylinder compressors
are favored in order to reduce the starting torcpie.
Some progress has been made with sulphur dioxide com-
pressors operating at motor speed or about 1750 r.p.m. The
cylinder on a machine of this type is usually less than one
inch in diameter, for use with a 1/4-hp. motor. Most machines
using these compressors ha\e been of the double-acting single
cylinder design. One manufacturer uses a four-cylinder com-
pressor operating at motor speed.
The displacement in cu. in. pt'v min. for a compressor of
a.verage efficiency necessary to ])roduce tlie refrigerating effect
equi\"alent to 100 lbs. of ice melting i)er day is approximately
as follows :
Ethvl chl.iridc 3,450 to 5,100
Sulphur dioxide 1,200 to 1,800
Ammonia 450 to 670
Carbon dioxide 90 to 130
Methyl chloride 900 to 1,340
An im])ortant ])art: of the com])res>or design is the ])ack-
ing gland which seals the dri\e shaft. Most of the first
models used a packing of fiber, asbestos, and graphite, forced
against the shaft by means of a spring acting against a metal
gland. The sjjring automatically compensates for wear. It
is advantageous to have oil on both sides of a packing gland
of this t}"pe.
A later de\cloi)ment is to use a ring of metal containing
grai)hite. This ring is forced by means of a spring against a
collar turned on the shaft. This ring may be attached to one
end of a metal l)ellows. thus having only one surface to seal
instead of two if the metal bellows is not used.
It is a decided ad\antage to have the packing gland on
the slower speed shaft when a reduced speed drive is used.
Some machines are entirely or ])artly enclosed, thus eliminat-
ing the packing gland.
The design of a compressor includes a system of lubri-
cation wdiich should function under many different operating
conditions. The lubricant usuallv has a tendencv to locate
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 139
and stay in the c\ aporatini^- coils. This (.ondition lowers the
rate of heat transmission in the evaporator. The return of
lubricant to the compressor through the suction line is usually
the result of some temporary unusual working condition. It
is difficult to design a refrigerating system in which the lubri-
cant returns regularly from the evaporation element to the
compressor.
The piston type compressor usually has sur])lus lubrica-
tion of the pistons and cylinders.
In the herringbone gear type compressor, it is necessary
to have generous lubrication of the gears in order to pump
gas. Small holes feed lubricant to the gears during part of
their rotation. If too much lubricant is supplied it decreases
the amount of gas pumped. Lubrication is one of the most
difficult problems in the gear type compressor.
The rotary compressor presents a difficult lubricating prob-
lem as the blades usually wear rajiidly when forced against
a surface.
TABLE XLIX. AIR PUMPING TEST ON A STANDARD TWO-CYLINDER
AIR-COOLED SULPHUR DIOXIDE COMPRESSOR.
iJischarge . Watt-minutes
Pressure Volumetric ^^^ ft p^^^
Pounds Efhciency ^j^ Delivered
Gauge Percent p^^ Minute
0 72J 253
20 65.8 330
40 58.7 402
60 52.1 481
80 45.1 573
Using ;4-hp-. 110-volt, a. c. R. I. Standard Motor.
Table XLIX gives the results of an air pumping test on a
standard two-cylinder air-cooled sulphur dioxide compressor.
The test results give the volumetric efficimcies as the dis-
charge pressure is increased from 0 to 80 pounds per square
inch gauge. The resulting watt-minutes per cubic foot of
free air delivered per minute are given also.
Table L gives similar results for an air pumping test on a
standard three-cylinder air-cooled sulphur dioxide compressor.
140
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE L.
-AIR PUMPING TEST ON A STANDARD THREE-CYLINDER
AIR-COOLED SULPHUR DIOXIDE COMPRESSOR.
Watt-minutes
per cu. ft. Free
Air Delivered
per Minute
Discharge
Pressure
Pounds
Gauge
Volumetric
Efficiency
Percent
0
70.8
20
61.3
40
56.6
60
52.5
80
49.7
238
342
432
526
620
Usini 1/6-hp., 110-volt, a. c. R. 1. Motor.
Table LI gives similar results for an air-pumped test on
a herringbone-geared t\pe compressor.
TABLE LL-
-AIR PUMPING TEST ON HERRINGBONE GEAR TYPE
COMPRESSOR.
Discharge
Cu.
Ft. Free
Watt-minutes per
Pressure
Air
Delivered
cu. ft. Free Air
Pounds Gauge
Pe
r Minute
Delivered per Min.
0
0.87
150
10
0.857
187
20
0.833
240
30
0.78
302
40
0.75
zei
50
0.75
413
60
0.74
440
70
0.732
512
80
0.69
610
Used '/i-hp., llO-volt a. c. R. 1. Standard Motor {\,1T3 r.p.m.).
The Condenser. — The condenser is used to cool and liquefy
the refrigerant gas as it leaves the compressor or blower. The
customary cooling medium is either water or air.
Some systems use tap water from the city mains. A suf-
ficient quantity of water should be used so that its outlet tem-
perature is not more than 15° or 20° F. higher than the inlet
or tap water temperature. If less water is used, an excessive
condensing pressure will likely result. On large plants it is
customary to use sufficient water for a 10° F. water inlet and
outlet differential.
Some household systems use the same water over and
over again. In a system of this kind, it is an advantage to
conduct the warm water leaving the condenser to a well or
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 141
tank which is in the ground. In this way the water is cooled
during the periods when the machine is not in operation.
The water supply is sometimes regulated by a valve which
opens automatically at a certain predetermined condensing
pressure. Then as the condensing pressure increases, the
valve opens wider allowing more water to flow through the
condensing coil. This system compensates for different tem-
peratures and pressure of condensing water and to some ex-
tent, for other variations in operating conditions. A machine
operating on this principle requires still another control to
prevent operation when water is not available, even though
this water-regulating valve functions properly.
Another water control system in use is a valve which
opens automatically when the machine is operating and closes
during the inoperative periods. This valve does not regulate
the amount of water used so that any change in pressure or
temperature of the water supply is not compensated for auto-
matically. This system may waste considerable water or may
cause the plant to operate inefficiently at times.
The packing on automatic regulating water valves has
given some trouble in service. This difficulty has been met
by using a copper bellows or rubber diaphragm to seal the
valve stem and eliminate the packing troubles.
There are three general types of water-cooled condensers
in use : The submerged type, in which the pipe containing the
refrigerant gas is submerged in the water, and the double-pipe
condenser in which one pipe is inside a larger one. The re-
frigerant gas flows through the annular space and the water
through the inside pipe. This gives the advantage of some
cooling by the atmosphere. A condenser of this type is usually
arranged to have counter-current heat flow, the cold water
entering the liquid outlet at the end of the condenser. The
other method is to submerge the cooling water pipe in the gas
space itself. The refrigerant gas condenses on the pipe and
drops into a sump or receiver.
When copper tubing is used for water-cooled condensers,
the usual practice is to use from two to three square feet of
cooling surface per 100 lbs. ice melting effect.
142 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
On a small household plant, the average cost of water is
less than two per cent of the total operating cost, so that it
is usually practical to use tap water which wastes to the drain.
Air-cooled condensers are rapidly gaining favor for small
household machines. Some of the more important advantages
of the air-cooled condenser are : Lower initial cost, reduced
cost of installation, simplified apparatus, no danger of water
lines freezing in winter, and water cooling limits location of
mechanical unit.
Air-cooled machines usually operate at condensing pres-
sures, twenty-five to thirty per cent higher than on water-
cooled systems. This of course lowers the efficiency of the
system, however the increased simplicity may compensate for
this loss in efficiency.
There are two svstems of air cooling in common use. In
the dead air system a relatively large amount of condenser
cooling surface is used. With the forced air system a smaller
amount of condenser surface is used. A fan or blower forces
the air o\er all or part of the condenser, thus procuring more
efficient use of the cooling surface and permitting the use of
less surface.
Machines using the dead air type condenser have been
used mostly on installations where the mechanical unit is
placed in the cellar. This assures a relatively low condenser
temperature, averaging between 7° and 10° F. lower than the
refrigerating cal)inet en\-ironment temperature.
The usual practice on dead air-cooled condensers is to use
from ten to twelve square feet condenser surface for each one
hundred pounds ice melting refrigerating capacity. Less than
half this surface is needed with forced air cooling, the exact
amount depending upon the amount of air used and the effici-
ency with which it is used.
Some air-cooled systems use a large capacity condenser
so that it also serves as a receiver for the liquid refrigerant.
This feature eliminates jnpe connections and adds to the sim-
plicity of the machine.
Table LII gives capacities and horsepower for different sizes
of Sirocco blowers. This table gives the cubic feet of air de-
livered per minute r.p.m. and brake hp., at various suction
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
143
pressures, expressed in inches of water for some of the small
blowers.
TABLE LII. SIROCCO BLOWER DATA, CAPACITIES AND HORSE
POWER.
Number of
Fan
Diameter
of Wheel,
Inches
Suction
Pressure
Inches of
Water
Cubic Feet
Air Deliv-
ered per
Minute
R. P. M.
Brake
Horse
Power
00
3
00
3
00
3
0
4/2
0
4/3
0
4/2
0
41/2
0
41/4
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
1
6
IH
7/2
Wa
7^2
Wa
7/2
1%
71/2
Wa
71/2
VA
71/2
'A
'A
K
A
V2
Va
1
I'A
V^
1
\Vi
2
A
A
H
1
1/2
2
40
57
69
90
127
155
182
222
160
226
276
325
394
464
250
354
431
507
616
725
2220
3160
3885
1480
2110
2590
3025
3700
1110
1580
1940
2270
2770
3240
885
1265
1555
1813
2220
2585
0.004
0.0115
0.0208
0.0087
0.0258
0.0466
0.0745
0.137
0.0155
0.046
0.083
0.1325
0.244
0.381
0.0242
0.072
0.1295
0.207
0.381
0.595
The following are some of the leading characteristics of
fans
Capacity varies as speed
Pressure varies as (speed)'
Horsepower varies as (speed)^
Horsepower varies as (capacityy'
Horsepower varies as (pressure) /"
Horsepower varies as (diameter)'
Speed varies inversely as diameter.
Speed varies as density.
Capacity varies as V absolute temperature.
Horsepower varies as V absolute temperature.
Table LIII gives the results of some tests of exhaust fans.
In this table, it will be observed that the size of the fan varies
from three inches to sixteen inches, and the corresponding
data are given for r.p.m, watts consumed, air velocity in feet
per minute, air delivered in cubic feet per minute, cubic feet
delivered per watt of electrical energy consumed, and charac-
teristic of electric current.
144
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
SO
60 ?o 80 So foo
FIG. II.— CONDENSING PRESSURE FOR AIR-COOLED SULPHUR DIOXIDL
MACHINE.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 145
TABLE LIIL— TESTS ON EXHAUST FANS.
Air
Air Deliv-
Diameter
Fan
Discharge
Outlet
R.P.M.
Watts
Velocity
per
Minute
ered Cu.
Ft. per
Minute
Cu. Ft.
per Watt
no Volt
2^4 in.
21/4 in.
3y& in.
2660
37
2355
80.1
2.16
D.C.
3 in
2075
29
1775
80.3
2.08
D.C.
4^ in.
6 in
1730
66
1780
125
1.89
A.C.
4Vi(> in.
1100
111
1680
201
1.82
A.C.
9 in
9 in.
1610
38
815
360
9.48
D.C.
9 in
9 in.
1550
66
1185
523
7.93
A.C.
12 in
12 in.
1140
58
818
643
11.08
D.C.
12 in
12 in.
1620
48
520
489
10.18
A.C.
12 in
12 in.
1400
67
1170
921
13.7
A.C.
16 in.
16 in.
1030
81.5
518
805
9.88
A.C.
Condensing Pressure for Air Cooled Compressors. — Fig.
11 shows the condensing pressure in pounds per square inch
gauge for air-cooled sulphur dioxide refrigerating machines,
equipped with copper tube condensers. The curves show
graphically how the condensing pressure increases with the
increase of the room temperature. The space between curves
A and B shows the result when the proper tube condensers
are exposed to still air, while the space between curves B and
C shows the results when forced air circulation over the con-
denser is used. The curve D is the saturated vapor curve for
sulphur dioxide and represents the corresponding condensing
temperatures for the pressures shown on the left-hand side of
the diagram. The relative distances between curve D and
the curves A, B, and C show how nearly the condenser pres-
sure approaches the theoretical possibilities.
Flintlock Condensers.— Fig. 12 shows a new type condenser
developed for air-cooled electric refrigerators by Flintlock
Corporation of Detroit, Michigan.
One lineal foot of this finned tubing has been found to
have the equivalent cooling capacity of ten feet of copper tub-
ing of equal size, when air is drawn through at an average
velocity of 500 feet per minute.
Tests have proven that draw fans are more efficient than
blow fans. Only that amount of air which can be drawn
through the free area of the condenser need be handled by
the fan.
146
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 13 sliows a cross section of tubes also the internal
fins. The construction i> of ])rass tinned inside and out. The
FIG. 12.— FT,l.\TI.orK .MR COOLED COXDEXSET?.
tubes are an integral part of the fins. Heat transmission does
not pass through a soldered joint.
Ay
Ik. A
FIG. U.— CROSS SECTIOX OF TUBES— SHOWING IXTERAL FIXS.
Fig. 14 is a t}pical installation of this type condenser on
a compressor unit.
Tubes and Spiral Fin Tubes. — The use of drawn seamless
tubes or coils made into simple, or sometimes fairly compli-
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
147
cated forms, is very extensive thrcnighmit the refrigerating
industry. Considering household machines, the conventional
condenser and evaporator consists of many feet of seamless
copper tubes, or steel tubes in case ammonia is used as the
refrigerant. The copper tubes used ordinarily are 1/4 inch
outside diameter, 5/16 inch up to 1/2 inch outside diameter
with a wall thickness of about 0.015 to 0.032 inch. These tubes
PIG. 14.— TYPICAL INSTALLATION OF FLINTLOCK CONDENSER.
have ample bursting strength, are soft, easy to work with and
when formed into coils present an attractive appearance.
In some designs the tubing is flattened before or while it
is being formed into a coil; the object in flatting the tubes i-.
of course, for a given tube spacing to increase the area of the
air passages between the tubes. For example, if a coil is
formed with 3/8 inch tubes the center lines of which are 5/8
inch apart, the air passage between the tubes will be 2/8 or
148
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
1/4 inch. However, if the same tubes are flattened to a thick-
ness of 3/16 inch the air passage will be increased from 1/4
inch to 7/16 inch. Further, if desired, the tubes can be placed
closer together so that the air passage is still 1/4 inch as be-
fore, but the overall dimensions of the coil, consisting of a
mm
1
:"'■ • ■i''i««wf((((((((„,
IIHb
1,
^^l
[^hHH
FIG. IS.— SPIRAL FIN TUBE CONDENSER.
given number of feet of tubing, will obviously be reduced.
In any case it is clear that there is a definite gain in the use
of flat tubes and whether or not this gain is sufficient to war-
rant the expense of flattening the tubes should be decided in
each case.
Instead of using plain tubing for condensers, evaporators,
etc., it is possible and very advisable under certain conditions
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
149
to use so-called spiral fin tubes. As the name indicates, a
spiral fin, about 1/4 inch wide and 0.006 to 0.008 inches thick,
is wound spirally around the tube and attached to it securely
•,u*4*J»;,^'
piatammmmmmimMiMm
^^tiH<
FIG. 16.— SHOWING HOW SPIRAL FIN TUBE CAN BE SHAPED.
by means of solder. The finished product is known as a spiral
fin tube. Such a tube can be wound and formed into various
shapes as shown in Figs. 15, 16 and 17 showing typical con-
150
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
densers made by the MoCord Radiator C()m|)any of Detroit,
Mich.
FIG. 17.— SPIRAL FIN TUBE.
A glance at Table LIV will .show that the total outside sur-
face of the spiral fin tubes is nearly seven times as large as
the surface of the plain tubes from which they are made.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
151
Since heat transfer from metal to a fluid such as air or brine
depends upon the surface, it is clear that the spiral fin tube
should have some advantage over the plain tube. 'I'his advan-
tage is particularly large in such cases as that of condensing
a refrigerant inside of a tube, over which a blast of air is di-
rected by means of a fan or a blower. In a case of this kind
the heat absorbed by the air per square foot of tube surface
is very small compared to the heat transferred by the refrig-
erant to the tube. For example, if the latter is 20 times as
large as the former it is clear that the factor limiting the over-
all heat transfer is the rate at which heat is absorbed by the
air. However, suppose we increase the surface exposed to
the air, while the surface in contact with the refrigerant is
maintained the same ; then one square foot of the inner sur-
face of the tube will furnish heat to seven square feet of the
outer surface of the tube, instead of one square foot of the
outer surface, and conditions will evidently be greatly im-
proved.
TABLE LIV STANDARD SIZES OF FLINTLOCK CONDENSERS
Square Inch
Size
Width
No. Tubes
ID. Tubes
No. Fins
Radiating
Surface
6"x 6"
II4"
IS
-K
43
609
7" X 7"
II4"
20
50
S14
8" X 8"
II4"
24
"32"
.37
1114
9"x 9"
V4"
26
64
1364
10" X 10"
iH"
30
1^32"
71
1682
10" X 12"
IM"
36
"•sV'
71
2016
12" X 12"
I'A"
36
^Ih"
S5
2415
14" X 14"
IV2"
32
''4^'
99
3778
16" X IS"
1 w
36
' (%"
113
4937
The heat transfer from the condensing refrigerant to the
tube can very aptly be compared to a boulevard 140 feet wide,
terminating at a large square which would correspond to the
tube which has a high conductivity ; if this square connects
only with one pavement, say 20 or 30 feet wide, we shall have
the case of the plain tube, but if we have seven such streets
radiating from the square, we shall have the case of a spiral
fin tube.
152 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
If the temeperature of the fin surface were the same as the
temperature of the tube surface then a square foot of the
fin surface would be equivalent to a square foot of the tube
surface. But this is not the case, and therefore, a spiral fin
tube having one square foot of tube surface and six square
feet of fin surface will have an effective heat transfer capacity
of 1 + (0.60 X 6) = (1 + 3.6) 4.6 instead of a capacity of
(1 _}_ 6) == 7, assuming that the efficiency of the fin surface is
60 per cent of that of the tube, while the plain tube would
have a heat transfer capacity of one.
Another advantage of the spiral fin tube is the adaptability to
compact designs. If 30 feet of spiral fin tubing replace 120
feet of plain tubing, as it has been done in practice, then it is
clear that there will result compactness of design, and econ-
omy of space.
Further this compactness of design makes possible the
improvement and control of the air flow through the coils. A
very good example of this is Fig. 18 where the round con-
denser can be made to cover the fan and thus use its air blast
very efficiently.
Calculation of the Surface of a Spiral Fin Tube. — Consider
a 3/8 inch outside diameter tube wound spirally with a fin
1/4 inch wide and 1/6 inch pitch. The surface per foot length
will be :
7r3/8 X 12 == 14.18 square inches per foot length of tube.
Suppose that in winding the ribbon around the tube the out-
side diameter is maintained at (1/4 -f- 3/8 -f 1/4) = 7/8 inch,
and the excess material next to the tube is crimped. Then,
the length of the ribbon, per turn will be practically, tt (7/8)
and its area, facing upward, tt (7/8) (1/4). Thus the total
fin or indirect surface, as it is sometimes called will be:
TT 7/8 X 1/4 X 2 X 6 X 12 = 99 square inches per foot
length of tube. Where the factor 2 is introduced because
there are two surfaces, one facing upward and the other facing
downward; the factor 6 is used because we have 6 turns per
inch length of tube and 12 in order to get the surface per foot
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
153
fength of tube. Adding the direct and indirect or fin surface
we have
14.18 + 99=113.18 square inches per foot length.
= 0.785 square feet per foot length.
FIG. 18.— ROUND CONDENSER. DESIGNED TO COVER THE FAN.
Next suppose that instead of crimping the fin on the inside,
we draw it through a die, and force it to assume a flat ring-
like shape around the tube. The surface of the ring will be
^{7/2>y (1/4) -.(3/8)^' (1/4) or
Approximately tt (5/8) (1/4)
154
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Where 5/8 is the average diameter of the ring and 1/4 its
width. Thus the total indirect surface will be
TT 5/8 X 1/4 X 2 X 6 X 12 = 70.7 square inches per foot
length.
The total surface of the spiral fin tube will be 70.7 + 14.18
= 84.88 square inches per foot length. Thus the total surface
TABLE LV — DATA ON COMMERCIAL FIN
TUBES
Tube Sizes
•>i'6
^8
'ie
Vi
^
Outside Diameter of Tube.s.
inches
0.312
0.375
0.437
0 . .'0 )
0.625
Outside surface oi tubes,
square inches per foot
length.
11 . 78
14.18
16.49
18.85
23.56
Fins per inch length of tube
6
6
6
6
6
Width of fins, inches
0.1S7
0.2.50
0.250
0.250
0.250
Outside surface of fins when
crimped, square inches per
foot length
58.31
99.0
106.0
113.1
127.2
Total outside surface
(crimped fins), square
inches per foot Iciigth. . . .
Square feet per foot length. .
70.09
4.85
113.18
7.87
122.49
8.50
131.95
9.15
150.76
10.46
Outside surface of fins when
not crimped, square inche.-
per foot length
42.3
70.7
77 . 7
S5
•>9
Total outside surface (fins
not crimped) , square inches
per foot length
54.08
3.76
84.98
5.9
94.19
6.54
103.85
721
122.56
Square feet per foot length..
, 8.72
of the crimped spiral fin tube is 113.2 square inches i)er foot
length of tube, while that of the uncrimped spiral fin tube is
84.9 square inches or 75 per cent of the former.
Table LV gives in detail data on commercial spiral fin
tubes, which were calculated as those outlined above.
The Evaporator. — There are two types of evaporator or
cooling elements in general use. The type operating with an
expansion valve is sometimes called the "dry" system. The
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 155
other type, in which a relatively larger amount of liquid re-
frigerant is retained in the evaporator, is the "flooded" system.
The "flooded" system has several important advantages.
H'eat transfer is more rapid through surfaces contacting with
liquid than through surfaces contacting with a gas or a mix-
ture of a gas and a liquid. The additional liquid refrigerant
in the evaporator has a certain heat storage capacity which
may prove advantageous.
A direct expansion system for a household machine usually
requires a much smaller quantity of refrigerant. This is
an advantage, if any danger is involved should the gas escape
in the home. The direct expansion system has an advantage
in giving an easier starting load when the machine is first
placed in operation. This condition is very important when
an air-cooled condenser is used. This system usually oper-
ates with a more uniform suction pressure, thus automatically
regulating the refrigerating load more closely than with the
flooded system.
It is customary to control the supply of liquid refrigerant
to the flooded system by a float valve. A float on the liquid
refrigerant surface drops when the liquid refrigerant is vapor-
ized and removed by the compressor. This opens a valve,
allowing sufficient liquid to enter the evaporator to maintain
the liquid level required by the float to close the valve.
This valve may be placed in a reservoir forming part of
the flooded evaporator, or in the liquid sump or reservoir
below the condenser. When the valve is placed outside of
the refrigerator, it is necessary to insulate the liquid line to
the evaporator. In order to avoid this insulated line, most
designs show this valve located in a header forming part of
the cooling unit.
An evaporator in common use consists of pipes or tubes
immersed in a solution of calciurii or salt brine contained
in a sheet-metal tank. This tank is placed in the ice compart-
ment of a refrigerator and usually functions at a surface tem-
perature colder than ice.
The average brine temperature found to be suitable for
household refrigerators is about 20° F. The temperature may
vary as much as 10° above or below this amount during the
156 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
operating period without any objectionable results in oper-
ation. It has been found that with a 20° F. average brine tem-
perature, ice and desserts can be frozen in quantities sufficient
for household use within the shortest time intervals between
meals, that is, five or six hours.
Experience has indicated that the food compartment of
the average ice refrigerator will accommodate a large enough
brine tank for the cooling with a 20° brine tank surface.
There are three principal factors involved in determining
the amount of cooling performed by the evaporator :
1. Amount of effective evaporator surface.
2. Temperature of evaporator surface.
3. Rate of air circulation in the cabinet.
A brine tank will usually maintain a food compartment
temperature under 50° F. under usual service conditions. If
the brine tank has a surface equivalent to the average ice sur-
face, it should, of course, produce lower food compartment
temperatures, as the 20° F. brine tank surface is 12° colder
than ice.
Some manufacturers use an evaporator made of pipes or
tubing directly exposed to the air. This system eliminates the
brine. Much difficulty has been experienced in making tanks
to hold the brine solution, as there is a chemical and electro-
lytic action which frequently causes tanks to leak. This effect
is especially bad with copper and solder exposed to the action
of calcium chloride brine.
The brineless evaporator usually has a smaller heat stor-
age capacity. However, with an automatic machine, this is
not considered so important, as frequent operation is not ob-
jectionable. Sometimes this heat storage condition is im-
proved by the addition of a heavy cast-iron sleeve to contain
the ice trays and to also serve as a heat storage element.
A large amount of refrigerant is stored in the evaporator
by some manufacturers to function as a heat storage capacity.
When the heat storage capacity of the evaporator is rela-
tively low, the cycles of operation are usually lengthened by
increasing the temperature differential of the evaporating
unit. A brine system might operate with a brine differential
temperature of 4° (22° — 18°). Nearly the same results would
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 157
be obtained on a brineless evaporator, say of half the heat
storage capacity, but with a temperature diflferential of 8°
(24° — 16°). There would be some loss in efftciency in the lat-
ter case, as the compressor operates at lower efficiency at the
lower suction pressure required to cool to 16° F. rather than
18° F.
It is very important to properly place the evaporator in
the ice compartment. It should not project above or block
the warm air flues. The warm air entering these flues should
pass over the top of the evaporator with little or no restric-
tion, so that it can drop along the four sides of the brine tank
to replace the cold air passing out of the compartment. The
sides of the evaporator should clear all side walls by at least
two and, preferably, three inches. The clearance at the bot-
tom should be at least three inches and preferably more.
The frost collecting on the evaporator sometimes inter-
feres with the normal operating of the refrigerating system.
As the evaporating surface is usually below 32°, moisture
from the circulating air is deposited and freezes .to the cold
surfaces of the evaporator. This frost will gradually build up
unless the evaporating surface temperature reaches 32° F.
during the inoperative period of the cycle. This layer of frost
acts as a heat insulator and increases the temperature in the
food compartments. It is customary to stop the mechanical
unit for certain periods every few weeks to permit this frost
to melt off the evaporating surface.
It is an advantage to have an evaporator which will func-
tion so that the surface will have a high enough temperature
to defrost each inoperative period of the refrigerating cycle.
Some of the most important advantages are :
1. Eliminates food odors from cabinet.
2. Cooling element operates more efficiently.
3. Cooling effect more uniform.
The water vapor in the circulating air absorbs large quan-
tities of gases and odors from the foods. Some of this water
vapor is constantly being condensed on the surface of the
cooling element. It is preferable to discharge this water to
the drain as soon as possible. Freezing the water liberates a
large per cent of the gases. Therefore the circulating air
158 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
will be greatly benefited if the condensed water vapor is dis-
charged to the drain each inoperative period.
B.t.u. per pound
water vapor
1. To cool water vapor (50° to 32°) 18
2. To condense water vapor 970
3. To freeze water vapor 144
4. To cool ice or frost (32° — 20°) 6
Total 1,138
It recjuires a relativel>" large qnantity of heat to condense,
freeze, and cool the water vapor deposited on the evaporator
surface, as shown in the table on the preceding page.
The heat loss under Items 1 and 2 are necessary in order
to have a dry food compartment with a relative humidity of
approximately 60 to 80 per cent.
The heat loss under Items 3 and 4 could be saved by
operating the evaporator at a surface temperature so that it
will automatically defrost during the inoperative part of
the cycle.
The efificiency of the evaporator surface for cooling the
circulating air gradually decreases as the thickness of the
layer of frost on it increases. The ice acts as a heat insulator.
It is estimated that a layer of frost ]/> inch in thickness will
decrease the effectiveness of the cooling surface about twenty
per cent.
Much difficulty has been experienced in returning lubri-
cant from the evaporator to the compressor. In the usual
household system there is a tendency for the lubricant to
enter the evaporator, while if no special method is used for
its return to the compressor it may collect in excessive quan-
tities in the evaporator. An excessive amoimt of lubricant in
the evaporator will reduce its heat-absorbing efficiency. Some
household plants have a special oil return system, while others
use oil traps to prevent this condition. It is an advantage to
have the evaporator located above the compressor so that any
oil in the suction line will drain to the compressor.
The rate of heat transmission between the coil and the
brine in a direct expansion type of brine tank is from ten to
fifteen B.t.u. per square foot per degree F. per hour. In a
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 159
flooded type tank the rate of heat transfer is about double this
amount.
When direct expansion coils are used to cool unagitated
air the rate of heat transmission is I/2 to 2 B.t.u. per square
foot per degree F. per hour. With brine pipes the rate is 2 to
21/ B.t.u.
In designing an evaporator it is of importance to note the
relative thermal conductivity of the following materials:
Corkboard ^ \' ca
Half inch air space = J- ^4
One inch air space = 1-5d
Water = J^-
Brine (calcium or sodium) — lo.
Ice = ^'^•
Iron = 1-100-
Copper =8600.
Brine Tank Data.— Table LVI gives the properties of
solution of calcium chloride in water. The gravity expressed
in degrees Beaume and in degrees salometer, per cent of cal-
cium chloride, freezing point in degrees F., and the corre-
sponding ammonia gauge pressure in pounds per square inch
(corresponding to the freezing point) are given.
Table LVII gives data on the properties of solutions of
common salt (sodium chloride) in water.
Table LVIII gives interesting brine tank data, relative
to the heat-storing capacity and cost of various materials,
which might be used to replace calcium chloride or sodium
chloride brine. Specific gravity, specific heat, B.t.u. heat-stor-
ing capacity per pound of material in cents, and B.t.u. stored
for each cent cost of material are given for some common sub-
stances, such as calcium and salt brine, water, cast iron, lead,
copper, aluminum, concrete, sandstone, paraffin, oil, and kero-
sene. In reference to the heat stored per pound of material,
it will be noted that water has the highest value. This is, of
course, due to the high specific heat. Oil and kerosene are
lowest, with approximately 0.4 B.t.u. per pound of material.
In reference to the cost of material, it will be observed that
the sandstone has the smallest cost, with sodium and calcium
chloride brine next, and with aluminum as the highest cost.
In reference to the B.t.u. stored for each cent cost of materials.
160
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
it will be noted that lead has the lowest value, this being 0.006,
and that sandstone is the highest, with the value of 4.4 B.t.u.
TABLE LVI. — PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION OF CALCIUM CHLORIDE IN
WATER
'
Lbs. of Calcium
Specific O-avitv
I'er Cent Pure
Freezing Temp.
Chloride Crystals
Weight, .Ijs. per
at bO°F.
Calcium Chloride
Degree F.
(73 to 75';,) in one
Gal. of Brine
Gal. at 60°F.
1 000
0 00
32.00
8 33
1 0!0
1 40
31 50
8 44
1 020
2 30
30 50
8 50
1.030
3 80
29 50
8.59
1.040
5 00
27 50
8.67
1.050
6 20
26 00
8.76
1.060
7,20
24 75
8.84
1.070
8.20
23 75
8.92
1.080
9 60
22 50
9.00
1.090
10.60
21.00
9.10
1.100
11.80
18,50
1 43
9 18
1.110
12 80
16 50
1 60
9.25
1.120
13 80
14 50
1,75
9.34
1.130
15 00
12 00
1 88
9.42
1.140
16 00
10 30
2 05
9.49
1.150
17.20
+ 7,52
2.18
9,58
1.160
18 30
+ 3 75
2.35
9.67
1.170
I'J 20
+ 1 50
2.50
9.77
1.175
19 85
- 1 50
2.56
9.80
1.180
20 20
- 2 50
2.65
9.85
1.190
21.20
- 5 50
2.80
9 93
1.200
22 20
- 9 50
2.95
10 00
1.210
23.20
-14.00
3.10
10.09
1.220
24.20
-18.00
3.30
10.10
1.230
25.10
-23.50
3.45
10 22
1.240
26.00
-27.04
3 60
10.34
1.250
27.00
-32.62
3 76
10.42
1.260
27.85
-39.00
4 00
10.52
1.270
28.80
-44.50
4.10
10.60
1.280
29.70
-52.50
4.35
10.68
1.290
30 60
-54.40
4.50
10.76
1.300
31.60
-42.50
4.70
10.84
1.310
32 40
-32.50
4.90
10.92
1.320
33 40
-17.00
5 10
11.00
1.330
34.20
- 4.00
5.25
11 08
1.340
34.50
+ 3.50
5 40
11.16
1.350
36.10
+ 14.37
5 60
11.23
From "Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Pockethook." Xickerson & Collins Co.
The freezing points of some brine tank solutions arc given
by Fig. 8. Curves showing the freezing points as the percent-
age by volume of solute are given for glycerin, denatured
alcohol, calcium chloride, and one-half wood alcohol and one-
half glycerin.
Prime Mover. — Electric motors are used to drive practically
all household refrigerating machines. Most of the machines
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
161
TABLE LVII.— PROPERTIES OF SALT (SODIUM CHLORIDE) SOLUTIONS
IN WATER
Specific Gravity
at 39°F.
1.010
1.020
1.030
1.040
1.050
1.060
1.070
1.080
1.090
1.100
1.110
1.120
1.130
1.140
1 . 150
1.160
1.170
1.180
1.190
1.191
1.200
1.204
Pb.- Cent of
Sodium Chloride
15
2.6
4 0
5 2
6.5
7.8
9.1
10.4
11 8
13 0
14 1
15 5
16.8
18 0
19 2
20 5
21.8
23 0
24 . :i
24 .i
25 6
26 U
Freezing Temp.
Degree F.
30.25
28.40
26.60
J5.20
23.40
21.60
19.90
18.40
16 40
14.60
13.4
11.6
10.0
8.0
7.0
5.9
3.8
2.4
1.0
+ 0.8
+ 0.2
- 1.1
Weight, Lbs.
Specific Heat
per Gallon
8.44
0.986
8 50
0.979
8.59
0.968
8.67
0.958
8.70
0.945
8.84
0.938
8 . 92
0.922
9 OU
0.912
9 10
0.902
9.18
0.886
9.25
0 876
9.34
0.865
9.42
0.856
9.49
0.846
9.58
0.832
9.67
0.824
9.77
0.817
9.85
0.806
9.9:i
0.794
9.91
0.792
10 00
0.776
10.04
0.771
This table varies sHghtly from 4°F. to 20°F. from those usually pubhshod, which are
considered more correct. The differences would affect, only calculations on congealing
tanks, as it is customary in ice making to make the brme as strong as possible, or u^ar
25% or 26%.
From "Practical Refrigerating Engineers' Pocketbook," Nickerson & Collins Co.
TABLE LVIII. — BRINI
: TANK DA
TA
Relative heat
storing capacity-
and cost of
various materials which
might replace
calcium or salt brine.
B.t.u.
Heat
B.t.u.
Storing
Cost per
Stored
Specific
Specific
Capacity
Pound of
for Each
'^'•avity
Heat
per
Material
Cent
Pound of
Cents
Cost of
Material
Materials
Salt brine
1.2
0.78
0.93
0.5
1.9
Calcium Brine
1.2
0.70
0.84
0.5
1.68
Water
1.0
1.00
1.00
Cast Iron
7.1
0.13
0.92
5.0
0.18
Lead
11.4
0.03
0.34
6.0
0.006
Copper
8.9
0.093
0.83
20.0
0.041
Aluminum
2.6
0.22
0.57
30.0
0.019
Concrete
2.2
0.25
0.55
0.14
3.9
Sandstone
2.2
0.20
0.44
0.1
4.4
Paraffin
0.9
0.69
0.62
10.0
0.062
Oil
0.9
0.4
0.36
6.0
0.06
Kerosene
0.8
0.5
0.40
2.0
0.20
162 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
on the market today use Y^ horse power motors. This size
motor with a reasonably efficient refrigerating system should
be capable of refrigerating properl} fifty cubic feet of food
storage space. Refrigerating systems of this capacity in use
todav recjuire from three to six times the amount of current
necessary to ])erform this duty on a large commercial plant.
More efficient machines should be developed; however, it is
not necessary to ver}- closely approach the efficiency of the
large plant.
Some machines have been placed on the market using 1/6
horse power motors. This size has now proven successful
for the smaller units up to twenty cubic feet of food storage
space.
It is assumed that the food storage spaces are properly
insulated. For fotul compartment temperatures of 4O°-50° F.,
the insulation should be at least o inches thickness of cork-
board or its equivalent.
The starting torque and the overload capacit} are impor-
tant features in the choice or design of the motor. The over-
load may l^e double the normal operating load and it may
be necessary to operate at this overload for several hours.
This condition usuall}- occurs when the machine is i)laced in
operation in a warm environment temperature. The starting
torque is high when the unit is first placed in operation on
account of the high pressure on the evaporating side of the
system. In normal operation the starting torque may be
greatl}- increased if either the expansion valve or the com-
pressor discharge valve leaks. Air-cooled machines have a
more severe starting condition than water-cooled machines
especially Avhcn a dead air condenser is used.
It is customary to use repulsion-induction t>pe of a.c.
motors for driving household refrigerating machines because
of their rclati\"cly high starting torque. Split-phase motors
have been used to a \'ery limited extent on some of the
smaller machines.
Some machines have been made with the entire motor
housed inside a gas tight metal casing, thus eliminating the
packing of a drive shaft. Considerable difficultv has been
experienced, however, in operating a motor enclosed with the
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 163
refrigerant gas. A later design has the stator outside a thin
metal casing, the rotor being inside, thus eliminating pack-
ing a drive shaft.
Lubrication of the motor is an important feature as it usu-
ally operates from six to twelve hours a day. With this
service condition, the motor should be oiled at least once a
month. Some motors are oiled automatically through copper
tube lines from a gear case pump ; the oil is forced or splashed
into the tube by the rotating gear. This method is only ap-
plicable on a direct-connected motor compressor unit.
The efficiencies of fractional horsepower alternating' cur-
rent motors of the repulsion-indution type at full rated load
are usually ^^•ithin the following limits:
Horsepower Efficiency per cent
Yf, 50-60
^ 60-75
y. 65-80
Direct current motors should have efficiencies considerably
higher than given in this table.
It is customary to limit the normal operating load to 300
watts on the )4 hp. and to 200 watts on the 1/6 hp. size.
These motors will usually stand 100 i)er cent overload for
short periods of operation.
Table LIX gives the amjK-re ratings of alternating current
motors of capacities ranging from ^ to 5 h]). on both single
and three-phase current, at 110 and 120 volts.
TABLE LIX — AMPERE RATING OF ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS
SINGLE PHASE
THKEE
pha.se
Horsepower
no Volts
220 Volts
110 Volts
220 Volts
"34
4
2
^
7.5
3.75
4.4
2.2
H
10
5
1
12.5
6.25
8
4
IV2
18
9
10.3
5.1
2
- 24
12
12.5
6.25
3
34
17
18
9
4
43
22
24
12
0
55
28
30
15
164 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The Drive. — Some of the more important types of drives
in use are : belt, gear, and direct.
The belt drive has several important advantages. It gives
an easier starting torque than a direct-connected or gear drive.
Some motors operate at a rather small load and therefore at a
low efficiency, simply because they must be large enough to
insure starting under all conditions of service. The belt also
gives a certain protection to the motor, as it will sometimes
slip or come of? the pulleys with an excessive overload on the
motor. Another important advantage of a belt drive is that it
can be easily repaired or replaced without the services of an
expert mechanic.
A belt drive generally costs less than a gear drive. The
belt drive is easier to manufacture and assemble as it does not
require such close limits on lining up the motor.
Some machines use a series of from two to five small
belts. If one breaks it does not greatly ailect operation. This
multiple belt system has not proven very satisfactory in actual
use, probably because one of the belts is usually driving more
than its share of the load.
A belt drive is ordinarily from 95 to 98 per cent efficient.
This is a much higher efficiency than is usually obtained with
a gear drive.
An exposed belt drive is dangerous on a machine which
starts automatically, and every precaution should be taken to
safeguard it. One method of obtaining this result is to make
the condenser coil of tubing and arranging it so as to form
a guard around the belt and its pulleys.
Flat belts have been used on a large number of successful
machines. They are generally made of either leather, canvas,
or fabric.
An idler is generally used with a flat belt drive. It is
necessary in order to increase the angle of contact on the
motor pulley. The idler is usually operated by a spring or a
weight. It also serves another purpose in automatically keep-
ing the belt tight by compensating for any stretching of the
belt in service. One cannot depend upon attention being given
to a belt by the user, especially in the way of making adjust-
ments. One of the difficult features on a flat belt drive is to
insure necessary lubrication of the idler pulley.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 165
The V-type rubber or fabric belt as developed for use in
driving" the radiator fan on automobiles is being used with
success on household plants. It has most of the features of a
flat belt with the added advantage of not requiring an idler
pulley. A belt of this type drives by means of friction on the
side of the V-shaped groove. The inside face of the belt
should not touch the pulley. These belts are generally of the
endless type, they run quite loose and do not stretch enough
in service to require any adjustment of pulley centers.
Spiral gear drives arc used on compressors both with par-
allel and right angle shafts.
Spiral gears have an advantage over worm gears in that
they do not require as close limits on shaft centers and can
be made without a hob.
Gear drives produce end thrust on the shafts which is
usually carried on a thrust or ball bearing. It is difficult to
keep the end clearance on shafts, subjected to a thrust load,
to a small enough limit so that the noise from end play on the
shafts will not be objectionable.
The thrust bearings should be well lubricated. The start-
ing torque ma}' sometimes be greatly increased when the
thrust bearings have not received instant lubrication on start-
ing. This may occur when the thrust bearings are lubricated
by a splash system which does not function until the machine
has started to operate. '
It has been difficult to build gear drives for the recipro-
cating type compressors so that excessive noise would not
result on account of backlash caused by the necessary clear-
ance between the teeth.
Gear drives usually operate at an efficiency of 70 to 90
per cent.
The direct-connected drive is in common use on machines
having a gear or rotary pump and on machines with the mov-
ing parts enclosed in the refrigerant gas space. Most of the
designers have placed the packing gland on the relatively
slow-speed compressor shaft, as it is more difficult to pack
the motor shaft which rotates at a much higher speed. When
the motor or the moving part of the motor is enclosed in the
gas space, this packing gland trouble is eliminated. Diffi-
culties have been experienced in starting machines which have
166 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
a thin metal shell between the rotor and field of the motor,
especially on three-phase, alternating-current motors.
The direct-connected unit has proven more successful
comnierciall>- in Europe than in the United States.
Valves. — The suction and discharge ^'alves should be de-
signed for service, quietness, positive opening and closing ac-
tion, and efficiency.
The suction vahe is usualU' simi)ly a port or slot in the
cylinder wall which is uncovered b\- the piston during its
relatively slow rate of travel at the end of the stroke. This
type of valve has a relatively low efficiency but is free from
service troubles, operates quietly, and is positive in action.
The port valve has a loss in efficiency due to the necessity
of producing a vacuum in the cylinder, as the top of the piston
returns on the suction stroke. The gas rushes in the cylinder
at the end of the stroke during the short interval of time that
the port is unco\'ered by the piston sometimes causing wire
drawing, a further loss in efficiency.
The port valve c;in be used to good advantage on com-
pressors with lapped ])istons, as some difficulty has been expe-
rienced in using piston rings which must pass over ports in
the cylinder walls.
A floating val\-e of the poppet type is used in the pistons
of some of the larger compressors. These valves have not
proven so successful as the port type, as a small particle of
scale, sand, carbon or dirt can be de])osited on the seat and
will prevent the valve closing tightly. This frecpiently hap-
pens on a new machine and is prevented to a certain extent
by placing a fine mesh screen in the suction line of the com-
pressor.
Some designs use a slight rotating movement of the cyl-
inder itself to uncover ports.
Many varieties of discharge valves are used. These are
simph' check valves permitting low-pressure gas to enter the
cylinder on the suction stroke.
The poppet type valve has proven successful with a light
spring to assist in closing. Disc steel valves are also used.
These are more difficult to manufacture than the poppet type,
however the\' make less noise.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 167
The steel spring flapper valve is used to a considerable
extent. These valves require very close limits in manufacture.
They give good service once they are assembled properly, and
are not easily affected by corrosion or dirt.
The discharge valve should be capable of opening more
than the normal lift, in order to discharge liquid refrigerant
or lubricant which is sometimes pumped by the compressor.
An important feature to be considered in valve design, is
to construct a valve which Avill give service for years without
requiring adjustments or service of any kind. A service call
is quite expensive and with most of the refrigerating gases in
common use, such repairs can only be made by a trained serv-
ice man. This is probably the fundamental reason for using
port suction valves even at large loss in ef^ciency, by some
of the most successful manufacturers.
Shut-off valves are very important in order to facilitate re-
pairs to a certain part of the refrigerating system. It is
customary to use three of these valves, one on the suction or
inlet line to the compressor, one on the discharge line between
the compressor and condenser, and the third between the con-
denser and expansion valve. The valves near the compressor
usually have double seats so that they nia\- be closed against
a gauge or charging connection.
It is important to have the valve stem opening limited by
a stop to prevent backing out the stem and thus losing some
of the refrigerant. When the refrigerating system is not used
for a period of weeks, it is sometimes advisable to close the
two valves on the compressor, suction, and discharge lines, to
prevent loss of refrigerant through the packing gland.
Alco Liquid Control Valve. — Fig. 19 is a cross-section of
the automatic liquid control valve manufactured by the Alco
Valve Company, at St. Louis, Mo.
The liquid refrigerant enters at F. In operation the valve
needle J opens from the valve seat G and the liquid refrigerant
discharges through tube K.
These discharge tubes are furnished in different sizes for
different capacity machines.
Expansion of the refrigerant is prevented in the valve body
by using the small discharge tube K. It is claimed that this
168
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
feature eliminates the following troubles experienced with the
regular type expansion valve.
1. Frost forming on the valve.
2. Water freezing on the diaphragm.
3. Oil congealing in the valve.
4. Scoring of pin or seat.
FIG. 19.— CROSS SECTION ALCO LIQUID CONTROL VALVE.
American Automatic Expansion Valve. — Fig. 20 shows the
automatic expansion valve made by the American Radiator
Company of Buffalo, N. Y.
These valves are designed for use with the following re-
frigerants : Methyl chloride, sulphur dioxide, ethyl chloride,
or any refrigerant not having a detrimental effect on brass.
Fig. 21 is a sectional view of this valve. Adjustment is
made by turning the adjusting screw, regulating the spring
pressure against the bellows.
The valve closes against pressure, thereby eliminating
chattering and wire drawing, and making the valve seat self-
cleaning.
Pressure is on the outside of the bellows, a desirable con-
struction feature.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
169
Valves are supplied with 3/8-inch pipe thread or flanged
connections.
FIG. 20.— AMERICAN AUTOMATIC EXPANSION VALVE.
FIG. 21.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF AMERICAN AUTOMATIC EXPANSION
VALVE.
American Float Valve and Refrigerating Section. — Fig. 22
shows the float valve which may be used either as a low or
high pressure float.
170
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The float is cylindrical, thereby making the vah'e more
compact than is the case when the nsual bulb t} pe is used.
FIG. 22.— AMERICAN FLOAT VALVE.
A new style of domestic refrigerating section is now manu-
factured as in Fig. 23. This section is made in two types, one
as illustrated, containing the float chamber, and a similar type
FIG. 23.— AMERICAN REFRIGERATING SECTION
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
171
without the float chamber. These are made for fi\'e or seven
ice travs, each tray containino- eig'ht cubes, one cube wide and
eight cubes dee]).
FIG. 24.— A.\[ERIC AX RKFK ICERATIXG SKCTIOX IXSTAT.LKD.
Fig. 24. shows one of these refrigerating sections installed
in a cabinet. This design gives more space in the refrigerator
for the storage of food than cooling units of conventional
design.
Flow of Air Through Orifices. — Table LX gives the
amount of free air in cubic feet which will flow through circu-
lar orifices in a receiver into air at atmospheric pressure, cor-
responding to various air gauge pressures in pounds per square
inch in the receiver. The diameter of the orifices varies from
1/64 in. to 2 ins.
172
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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§?-
QO
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 173
Temperature Control. — The automatic temperature control
is an important part of the refrigerating system.
The food compartments should be maintained at a tempera-
ture never warmer than 50° F. and never colder than 40° F.
These temperature limits have been definitely established by
experience. Perishable foods keep well at a temperature below
50° F. Food compartment temperatures below 40° F. will
cause unnesessary heat losses even with a well-insulated cab-
inet, and the outside surface of the cabinet will frequently be
damaged by sweating.
The automatic control should be arranged to freeze water
or desserts in a reasonable length of time, and to constantly
maintain the food compartment temperatures between 40° and
50° F.
It is desirable to freeze water or desserts in less than the
shortest time interval between meals which is about six hours.
An average brine temperature of 20° F. will freeze water in
the ordinary cube form in from four to six hours. The tem-
perature should not vary more than four degress from thi^i
value. It is more difficult to freeze desserts than water, espe-
cially if the ice tray grids are removed.
Some of the first mechanical refrigerators sold had the
Hquid tube of the thermostat line suspended in the cold air
flue. This liquid tube was connected by tubing to a diaphragm
or metal bellows which operated the motor switch.
A 1/4-hp. motor was generally used and this required a
quick make and break type of switch. This was called the food
compartment temperature control system.
Some of the volatile liquids used in these thermostat sys-
tems were : Sulphur dioxide, methyl chloride, ethyl chloride,
and ether.
The usual method of operating the switch is by means
of a violatile liquid. This liquid is trapped in a closed gas
system, so that the liquid tube itself is always immersed in
the brine or in close contact with the place where the tempera-
ture is to be regulated. The diaphragm or metal bellows can
be placed above or below this liquid trap. The gas pressure
in the closed system is always definitely determined by the
temperature of the volatile liquid. The switch can be adjusted
174
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
to operate at any desired temperature, within the working
range of the liquid used.
An improvement in the l:)rine temperature regulating sys-
tem is to use an automatic damper in the cold air flue. This
FIG. 25.— PEXX ELECTRICAL CONTI^OL.
damper opens and increases the air circulation when the food
compartment temperature increases.
Another method of improving this temperature control,
is to have the liquid tube located close to the last turns of the
evaporating coil. Then if the evaporating coil frosts through,
the liquid controlling the temperature in the thermostat will
be rapidly cooled, thus stopping the compressor.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS 175
Other manufacturers use a temperature control partly in-
fluenced by the temperature of the brine and partly by the
temperature of the circulating air. This kind of regulation
has advantages of both of the systems previously described.
Some machines are operated by a time clock. The clock
operates a switch and can be set for a certain number of
cycles per day. Usually this type of control is adjusted for
a summer or winter condition. This system does not com-
pensate for cold nights and gives rather unsatisfactory food
compartment temperature regulation.
Some switches are operated by using a bimetallic thermo-
stat. The small temperature differential, usually from 4° to
10° F., makes the design of a bimetallic thermostat a difficult
problem. Swatches of this type have not proven a success
commercially.
An improvement in the bimetallic sw'itch is being used
now. It consists of mounting to a bimetallic member a glass
tube, containing a small amount of mercury which flows from
one end to the other. In this way a quick make and break
contact is secured. These tubes have the air exhausted from
them and contain an inert gas so that any arcing will not
affect the mercury or terminal contact points.
Fig. 25 show^s a switch made by the Penn Electric Machine
Co., of Des Moines, la.
This swutch is provided with a bellows type diaphragm,
which can either be filled with a volatile fluid or attached to
a bulb, which contains the volatile fluid and which causes the
diaphragm to expand, closing the switch contacts when the
temperature increases to the predetermined amount.
The switch may be placed inside or outside the refrigera-
tor. When placed outside, the bulb containing the volatile
fluid is inside at the desired location for proper temperature
control. This installation simplifies the wiring connections.
The contacts are of the two-pole double break per line
type. The swatch is approved by Underwriters for use on
motors up to 5 hp., 3-phase, 550-volts.
This type switch is compact, easily installed, and conven-
ient for wiring.
176
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Thermostat Operation. — Figs. 26 and 27 show the opera-
tion of a volatile liquid thermostat.
The volatile Hquid is contained in a tube immersed in the
brine. Sufficient liquid is placed in this tube so that at the
highest operating temperature there will still be liquid in the
thermostat bulb. In this way, the pressure in the thermostat
line is always the corresponding pressure for the temperture
of the liquid in the bulb.
(3A5 AT HIGH PRESSURE.
THERMOSTAT BULB
M TEMP 24 F
brihe: tank
METAL BELLOWS RELEASED
SWITCH CLOSED
5PRIHQ
HIGH PRESSURE IN thermostat Lm.E
CL05E5 SWITCH AGAINST SPRING
FIG. 26.— OPERATION OF VOLATILE LIQUID THERMOSTAT.
In Fig. 26 the brine temperature has increased to 24°,
vaporizing some of the liquid in the thermostat bulb and in-
creasing the gas pressure, until finally the metal bellows ex-
pands against the spring, closing the motor switch.
The motor then operates the compressor cooling the brine.
The thermostat bulb is cooled decreasing the gas pressure in
the thermostat system. The gas pressure is decreased as gas
is condensed into liquid form in the thermostat bulb.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
177
Finally the pressure is lowered to a pressure so that the
spring will compress the metal bellows and open the motor
switch.
By adjusting the compression of the spring, the motor may
be started or stopped at any desired brine temperature.
When too much liquid is charged into a thermostat sys-
tem of this kind, the pressure will be a function of the thermo-
GAS AT LOW PRESSURE
THERMOSTAT BULB
Mtehp ig°p
BRINE TANK
HETAL BELLOWS CONTRACTED
SWITCH OPEN
SPRING*
LOW PRESSURE IN THERMOSTAT LIME
PERMITS SPRiNQ TO OPEH SWITCH
FIG. 27.— OPERATION OF VOLATILE LIQUID THERMOSTAT.
Stat line temperature and the control will not operate satis-
factorily.
If the volatile liquid charge is too small, all the liquid will
vaporize at the higher brine temperature and the control will
not function properly.
Air or foreign gases in the thermostat system will produce
an abnormally high pressure at all times. Oil in the thermo-
stat will cause a sluggish action.
178 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Water Controls. — When a water-cooled condenser is used
with the compression ty])e household machine, it is desirable
to have the following controls.
1. Open the water valve when the compressor starts to operate.
2. Close the water valve when the compressor shuts down.
3. Regulate the amount of water supplied to the condenser com-
pensating for a warmer or colder tap water temperature.
4. Regulate the amount of water supplied to compensate fur
different loads on the compressor.
5. Compensate for different water supply line pressures.
6. Prevent the compressor from operating when the water sup-
ply fails.
7. Permit the compressor to function normally when the water
supply is again available.
A method of water control in common use is to open,
close, and regulate the water valve l)y means of a diaphragm
or metal l)ellows responsive to the condensing pressure.
The valve is set to open at a certain pressure slightly
higher than the pressure ever obtained in the condenser dur-
ing the inoperative part of the c}cle. An increase in con-
densing i^ressure will open the water valve still more. This
increase in condensing pressure may be due to an increased
load on the compressor or to a higher tap water temperature
or to a decrease in the water supply line pressure.
Another system of water control is to use a water valve
opened and closed 1)\' means of a solenoid coil. This coil is
placed in the motor circuit and holds the A'alve open while
the compressor is operating. This system does not compen-
sate for dififerential water tem])eratures and changes in the
refrigerating load.
A water cooling system used to some extent consists of
a val\-e opened l)}' the centrifugal force of weights mounted on
the compressor or motor shaft. This gives a control function-
ing in a wav similar to the electric val\e but entirely mechan-
ical in operation. This system does not regulate the amount
of water supplied, in accordance with the requirements due to
changes in temperature, pressure, and load.
A dead w-ater tank has been used to some extent. The
condenser is immersed in a rather large tank of water. Dur-
ing the inoperative part of the cycle, this water is cooled to a
temperature ap})roaching that of the room. As a household
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
179
machine usually (jperates about 25 i)er cent of the time, there
is a sufficient time interval between runs for the condensing
water to cool to nearly the room temperature.
Mercoid Control. — Fig. 28 and 29 shows a special control
for domestic refrigerating machines made by the American
Radiator Company of Buffalo and the Federal Gauge Com-
])an} of Chicago.
v_J U I
FIG. 28.— MERCOID CO.XTKOL, FLKXIIU.K TlliE TVl'E.
The Alercoid Switch cctnsists of a glass tuljc in which are
sealed leads of sjjecial material. A cpiantity of mercury makes
or breaks the circuit when the tube is tilted. Hermetically
sealed within the tube are inert gases which stifle the arc
instantly. There is no oxidation or corrosion. The contact
is permanently clean and instantaneous in operation.
Fig. 28 shows the remote control, flexible tube type. Fig.
29 shows the ])ressure type thermostat.
180
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
This control can be furnished to automatically open or
close an electric circuit with a change in temperature. The
circuit is controlled directly to the motor or other electric
equipment.
Ordinary lighting or power current can be run through the
control.
The operation of this control is very simple. A power ele-
ment is expanded automatically by temperature, which in turn,
FIG. 29.— PRESSURE TYPE THERMOSTAT.
tilts the switch with a snap action. A spring throws the switch
in the opposite direction as pressure or temperature decreases.
A special feature of the thermostatic power element is its
dependability. The operation remains constant and does not
change; years of service will not affect its power or sen-
sitivity.
The power element consists of a seamless metallic bellows,
the folds of which are so made that expansion and contraction
will not affect the life of the metal. When used thermostati-
cally the bellows contain liquids of various boiling points as
determined by the desired operating temperatures.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
181
Refrigerator Control Switch. — Fig. 30 is a sectional view
ot the electric refrigerator control unit made by the Automatic
Reclosing Circuit Breaker Company of Columbus, Ohio.
The expansion bellows is filled with a freezing solution.
When this solution freezes the bellows expand and close the
T£/?Al//^m5
coA/r/Fcr D/sc
3f/LLOyVS
O/L
FIG. 30.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF ELECTRICAL REFRIGERATOR CONTROL.
electric circuit by forcing the dish-shaped contact against the
two electric terminal inserts.
There is no adjustment for temperature as this setting is
obtained by changing the proportions of the materials used
for making the freezing solution.
This design affords a control free from outside adjust-
ments and of very simple construction.
182
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Multiflex Bellows. — Fig. 31 shows the seamless one-piece
multiflex metal bellows made by the Bishop & Babcock Sales
Compaii}".
These bellows are used in many different parts of electrical
refrigerating systems, usually in connection with the thermo-
stat while some manufacturers use them Uj seal the compres-
sor shaft.
A — IiisidL- Diameter P. — Outside Diameter.
FIG. 31.~SEAMLESS OXE-PIECE MULTIFLE.X METAL i'.EIJJ^WS.
Table LXI gives standard sizes of bellows. Wall thick-
ness can be supplied for external or internal pressure to 500
pounds per scjuare inch.
The Fedders Manufacturing Company oi Buffalo, New
York, make ai)pliances for household refrigerating machines.
Fig. 32 shows a condenser and receiver unit. The con-
denser consists of coils of coi)])er tubing with a special type
of copper fins to increase the cooling efficiency.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
TABLE LXI aTANDAKD BELLOW.s
183
Outside
Inside
Free
No. of
Norniul
Diameter
Diameter
Movenioiit
Convolutions
I.engtli
1"
M"
M"
18
Us"
IM"
^Vx^'
5^6"
16
l-Ke"
IH"
1"
y^'
18
IM"
VA"
11^2"
Vs"
18
1^"
1^"
1%"
y^"
18
IM"
I'Hg"
1^^"
^"
18
2"
2"
l^/fe"
Ke"
16
2!'i'6"
2W
IJ^"
y,"
14
2M"
2%"
1«^"
Ke"
15
2M"
w%
2M"
M"
18
33^"
43^"
3^"
M"
17
25^"
7^"
6K"
J^"
10
2M"
Fig. 2)C> is a photograph of the expansion vahe which may
be used with any of the refrigerants ifi common use in house-
hold machines. A change of springs is necessary with very
low pressure refrigerants.
FIG. 32.— CONDENSER AND RECEIVER UNIT.
Fig. 34 is a tubular liquid strainer used in the inlet connec-
tion to the expansion valve. A liquid filter, Fig. 35, is used
to filter out the small particles of scale or oxide which may
accumulate in the refrigerating system. This filter contains
two circular pieces of fine meshed screen with wool felt be-
tween them.
(V
184
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 36 shows a typical brine tank. These tanks are made
of tinned copper with lock seams. The wall thickness of the
copper is .028 inches. These tanks are made in standard sizes
FIG. 33.— EXPANSION VALVE.
to suit the requirements of the different styles and types
refrigerators in use today.
FIG. 34.— TUBULAR LIQUID STRAINER.
REFRIGERATING SYSTEMS
185
FIG. 35.— A LIQUID FILTER.
FIG. 36.— A TYPICAL BRINE TANK.
CHAPTER VII
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATING MACHINES
COMPRESSION TYPE
Household Refrigerating Machines. — In this chapter, at-
tention will be given tc) the general types and characteristic
construction of a number t)f household compression refrigerat-
ing machines. The makes of the various household refrigerat-
ing machines which are described here have been selected
promiscuousl}-, and represent the characteristic design of
the different classes of machines. It does not include descrip-
tions of all of the different kinds of household machines, since,
at present, there are several hundred different concerns pro-
ducing or developing machines of this type.
FIG. .^7.— .\BSOPURE AIR-COOLED MECHANICAL UNIT.
In the following, attention has been given to the mechan-
ical design of the different parts of the compression type.
Absopure. — Fig. Z'J shows a % hp. air-cooled mechanical
unit used on the household machine manufactured by the Gen-
187
188
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 38.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF ABSOPURE COMPRESSOR.
FIG. 39.— HALF-HORSEPOWER ABSOPURE CONDENSING UNIT FOR I€K
CREAM CABINET.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 189
eral Necessities Corporation of Detroit, Michigan. This ma-
chine uses methyl chloride as the refrigerant.
A sectional view of the compressor is shown in Fig. 38.
The motor drives the compressor by means of a "V" type belt.
The discharge valve is of a disk type. The shut-off valves are
made of forged brass.
FIG. 40.— TYPICAL ABSOPURE FREEZING UNIT I\ VARIOUS SIZE.S.
The Yz hp. air-cooled mechanical unit is shown in Fig. 39.
This is one of the condensing units used for ice cream cabinet
work. The condensing unit is placed in a compartment which
mav be fastened to the ice cream cabinet.
190
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 40 shows a typical freezing unit. These are made in
sizes suitable for use in all types of household refrigerators.
FIG. 41.— TYPICWL Ai?S01'LRE KEFKIGF.R.\TOR.
Fig. 41 is a topical refrigerator in which the mechanism
ma}- be installed as a complete self-contained unit.
Audiffren. — Fig. 42 gives a sectional view of the household
machine manufactured by the Audiffren Refrigerating Ma-
chine Company of New York Cit}'. A view of a cabinet equip-
ment with this machine is shown in Fig. 43.
This machine has an enclosed sulphur dioxide compressor.
All of the o])erating parts are sealed up within this revolving
"dumbbell," consisting of two bronze bells on a hollow shaft.
The Rotor consists of two hollow bronze bells connected
by a hollow steel shaft. One bell containing the compressor
also acts as the "condenser" ; in the other the liquid boils oiT
under reduced pressure and this is the "evaporator" where in-
tense cold is produced. The hollow shaft contains a tube
through which the liquid refrigerant is carried from the con-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
191
denser to the evaporator, and an annular space around the
tube throug-h which the spent gas is drawn back by the com-
pressor. Thus compressor, condensing surface, Hc[uid re-
ceiver, oil separator, expansion valve and refrigerating sur-
face are all represented in this hermetically sealed Rotor.
The compressor rides on the shaft inside of the spherical
bell, being held in an approximately vertical position against
the turning of the Rotor by means of a heavy lead counter-
weight. The compressor has two double acting, oscillating
cylinders. The compressor pistons are driven by an eccen-
tric secured to the shaft.
SCOOP FOB SUPPLYING SO. TO
DECANTING TAN ^
EQUALIZING
CCCENTRC RE\Ol.Vt5l
WFTM 5KAF
CSaLLATINCCYLINDtR
SUBMtRCEO
REFRCERATING END PRESSUPC
WITHIN DEPENDS ONTEMPERATURE
SO.CMARCfD
TMROUCH HCXLOV
SHAf I KFORC
FIG. 42.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF AUDIFFREN HOUSEHOLD MACHINE.
As the Rotor revolves, this compressor, being held in posi-
tion by the counterweight, draws gas from the evaporator,
compresses and discharges it under pressure into the condenser
bell within which the compressor is located.
The condenser bell runs partly immersed in cooling water
and the compressed gas is cooled and condenses on the inner
walls of this bell. The operating pressure is about 50 pounds
per square inch, varying with the cooling water temperature.
The condensed refrigerant and the oil are held out against
the shell of the condenser bell l^y centrifugal force and are
finally caught by means oi a small scoop mounted on top of
the frame of the compressor and poured down into a decanting
cup where the oil is separated and poured back over the com-
pressor cylinders to lubricate and cool them. The refrigerant
is then passed by means of a float valve, which serves for an
192
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
automatic "expansion valve," to the evaporator bell of the
machine, again to boil off and continue its cycle.
The evaporator is a simple bell providing a chamber for
the liquid to evaporate and produce cold. The lubricant that
reaches the cold end of the machine is automatically sepa-
rated and returned to the condenser end through the cylinders,
providing internal lubrication for the cylinders and the pistons.
FIG. 43.— VIEW OF CABINET EQUIPPED WITH AUDIFFREN MACHINE.
The temperature and pressure in the condenser will, ob-
viously, be dependent upon the temperature of the condensing
w^ater. Consequently the position assumed by the compressor
under the control of the counterweight will be dependent upon
the temperature of the condensing water. If the supply of
condensing water gives out so that the temperature rises above
the normal operating limit, the counterweight will finally rise
to the horizontal position and any increase in pressure beyond
this point will cause the counterweight to revolve with the
machine, so that no increase of pressure beyond that for which
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
193
the counterweight is designed can be caused by the operation
of the machine. This acts as a safety device absolutely pro-
tecting the machine from dangerous pressures as a result of
failure of condensing water. Until the law of gravity fails,
this machine is absolutely safe.
To freeze ice, the ice cans are placed directly in the brine
tank. To cool refrigerators, this cold brine is circulated
through pipe coils placed in the refrigerators.
frPICAl. ARRAIMSEMENT
AUDIFFREN REFRIGERATING SYSTEM
V/ITM COLO ROOM AMD PAMTRV REFRIGERATOR
FIG. 44.
Fig. 44 shows a typical arrangement for cooling a large
cold room, a pantry refrigerator and an ice making plant. A
circulating brine system is used. During the last 15 years
many systems similar to this have been used for large resi-
dences and country estates.
Autofrigor. — This machine, Fig. 45, is manufactured by
Esher Wyss & Company of Zurich, Switzerland.
The refrigerant is methyl chloride. The compressor "5"
is double-acting, operating at motor speed. Gas from the suc-
tion chamber "6" is compressed into the pressure chamber
194
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
"7." The compressed gas then passes through the vertical
pipe to the high pressure gas chamber ''8" and into the annular
space surrounding the chamber. The condensed liquid col-
lects in chamber "9." The gas is condensed by circulating
water which enters by connection "H" and leaves by outlet "12."
Nozzle "13" is used in place of an expansion valve to the
evaporator "R."
Abb. 2 Abb. 3
FIG. 45.— AUTOFRIGOR.
The motor "M" has its rotor "3" enclosed by a steel shell
"4," which seals the gas chamber "8." This machine is man-
ufactured in several sizes.
Brunswick-Kroeschell. — Fig. 46 shows one of the small
self-contained units made by the Brunswick-Kroeschell Com-
pany of New Brunswick, New Jersey, who have been making
household refrigerating machines continuously for more than
25 years. Self-contained units are supplied for full automatic
control, semi-automatic or manual operation.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
195
The ammonia or carbon dioxide system can be supplied for
either direct expansion of the refrigerant or cooling through
brine circulation.
FIG. 46.— SMALL SELF-CONTAINED BRUNSWICK-KROESCHELL UNIT.
Fig. 47 shows a large self-contained unit. This consists
of a compression side, electric motor with its starting equip-
FIG. 47.— LARGE SELF-CONTAINED BRUNSWICK-KROESCHELL UNIT.
ment, special power transmission for short center operations,
and interconnection for ammonia, water and electric supply;
196
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
these are all mounted on a cast iron pedestal and intercon-
nected ready for service.
The compressor is of the enclosed, vertical, single acting
type. Splash lubrication is used.
The condenser is of the shell and tube multi-pass type.
Removable heads permit convenient cleaning of the condenser
tubes when required in cases where the water leaves a sedi-
FIG. 48.
-BRUNSWICK-KROESCHELL RESIDENCE INSTALLATION,
INCLUDING ICE-MAKING SET.
ment. The shells are of ample size for the combined purpose
of service as condenser and ammonia receiver.
Fig. 48 shows a typical residence installation including an
ice-making set.
Carbondale. — Fig. 49 shows a self-contained unit made by
the Carbondale Machine Company, Carbondale, Pa. Am-
monia is the refrigerant used.
The compressor is of the vertical, single-acting type.
Worthington feather valves are used in the compressor. The
cylinder is ground and honed to size. All the bearings are of
the die cast type and are interchangeable.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
197
The condenser is of the horizontal, tubular type with re-
movable heads and straig-ht tubes, making" it conveniently
cleaned and inspected. The water passes through seamless
drawn steel tubes, which are expanded into forge welded
heads.
FIG. 49.— CARBOXDALE REFRK .KKA i l.NG IMT.
The one ton unit is driven by a three horse power motor
at 265 r.p.m. when operated at standard suction and dis-
charge pressures. The same machine is rated at two tons
when operated at 530 r.p.m. by a five hp. motor. This ma-
chine has a vertical compressor of 3j/j inch diameter and 3^
inch stroke.
The unit is equipped with the following automatic dexices :
Automatic starting panel.
High pressure cut out switch.
Ammonia pressure water control valve.
Automatic expansion valve, with strainer.
The high pressure cut out is arranged with hand reset, so
that in case it acts, the machine will not start itself until the
198
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
cause for the high ammonia pressure is determined and cor-
rected.
The thermostat operates at full voltage and is fitted for
two connecting wires. The thermostat is very accurate, and
with a properly designed room, or box, the temperature may
be held within a few degrees of the desired temperature.
The water regulating vahe is mounted on the front end
of the condenser. It is of the pressure actuated type and con-
trols the flow of water by the ammonia pressure of the con-
denser. When the ammonia pressure drops, the flow of water
ceases; and as it rises, the flow is increased, thus obtaining
maximum economy in the use of water.
The ammonia connections, both to this \ alve and to the
high pressure cut out, are short and protected by other parts
of this unit. Valves are provided in both connections, so
that the appliance can be removed for repairs or adjustment.
The automatic expansion \alve is of the spring and dia-
phram controlled type, selected for the service that it has given
hundreds of users, and of a type that will operate satisfactorily
under the most adverse conditions.
Champion. — The Champion Electric leer is made by the
Champion Electric Company of St. Louis, Missouri, a division
of the Champion Shoe Machinery Com pan v.
FIG. 5U.— ••JUNIOR" .MODEL, CHAMPION ELECTRIC ICER
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
199
Fig. 50 shows the Junior Model. This compressor is of
the single cylinder reciprocating type. A belt drive is used.
FIG. .SI.— CHAMPION COOLING UNIT.
The cylinder block is lined with tool steel bushing hardened
and ground. The pistons are semi-steel equipped with two
piston rings. The crankshaft is drop forged in one piece.
FIG. 52.— "SENIOR" MODEL, CHAMPION ELECTRIC ICER.
Large eccentric bearings are used which are of semi-steel.
Model No. 6 Junior Compressor has 1^^ inch diameter cylin-
der, 1% inch stroke, and operates at 500 r.p.m. Model No. 8
200
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Junior compressor has 1^ inch diameter cylinder, 1^/4 inch
stroke, and operates at 500 r.p.m.
The condenser consists of a double coil of V^ inch co])]>er
tubing". Natural air circulation is used for cooling the con-
denser.
FIG. S3.— CHAMPION "SENIOR" MODEL WITH COOLING i:NIT INSTALLED.
The automatic control is of the adjustalde pressure ty])e
on the suction line.
The motor is 1/6 hp. and is of the induction-repulsion type.
Fig. 51 shows the cooling unit which operates on the
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
201
flooded system. This uses 'direct expansion in open type coils.
The refrigerant is sulphur dioxide.
Fig. 52 shows the Senior Model which consists of a two-
cylinder reciprocating type compressor geardriven. The ^ hp.
motor drives the compressor by means of completely enclosed
gears. The gear drive consists of a composition pinion on
the motor shaft, driving a helical cut semi-steel gear on crank
shaft. All moving parts are enclosed and run in oil. The
compressor has a 1^ inch bore, 1-^^ inch stroke, and operates
at 500 r.p.m.
The condenser, automatic control and cooling units are sim-
ilar in type to those used on the Junior Model.
Fig. 53 show^s the Senior Model and cooling unit complete
with the cabinet.
Chilrite. — This machine, Fig. 54 is made by the Narragan-
sett Machine Company in I'awtucket, R. I.
FIG. 54.— CHILRITE REFRIGERATING UNIT.
The compressor is of the multi-stage rotary gear ty[)e and
uses sulphur dioxide as the refrigerant. The condenser con-
sists of a coil of finned tubing.
The cooling unit is of the dry system- consisting of a coil
connected with an expansion valve and submerged in a tinned
copper tank filled with alcohol and water. In some installa-
tions the tank is dispensed with and the open coil system is
used.
202
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The temperature is controlled by an immersion type of
thermostat of the tilting tube variety.
The machine is made in three sizes using 34. Ya and Yz hp.
motors and is adaj^ted to operate with any standard make of
cabinet.
Climax. — Fig. 55 shows the self-contained refrigerating
unit manufactured by the Climax Engineering Company of
Clinton, Iowa. The refrigerant used is methvl chloride.
cli:max refrigerating umt.
The condenser, comi)ressor and motor are all mounted on
the same base. The compressor is direct connected to the
electric motor. A rotary type of compressor is used, consist-
ing of only three moving parts. The rotating element oper-
ates on bronze bearings submerged in oil, tints providing posi-
tive lubrication.
The refrigerating unit is made in four different sizes:
Model
Model G
Model F
Model E
Model D
Motor
% hp.
% hp.
K3 hp.
K' hp.
Weight
86 lbs.
127 lbs.
204 lbs.
224 lbs.
Ue -Melting Effect
75 lbs.
150 lbs.
300 lbs.
500 lbs.
The condenser is of the radiator type and is mounted under
the l^ase. The air is drawn through the radiator and does dou-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
203
ble duty by being blown against the compressor case. A float
valve is used for the liquid control.
The operation of this unit is controlled by a thermostat or
pressure control and is entirely automatic.
Coldmaker. — In Fig. 56 is illustrated the Coldmaker house-
hold refrigerating machine manufactured in Toledo, Ohio. The
machine is installed in the basement or other out of the way
place and the cooling coils are installed in the ice compartment
of anv box.
FIG. 56.— COLDMAKER REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
Coldmaker consists of a water cooled ammonia system of
automatic refrigeration. The comi)ressor is motor driven by
means of a flat leather belt.
The compressor has two cylinders, 1^4 inches in diam-
eter by 1^^ inch stroke made of a semi-steel casting. Suc-
tion port openings are located near the center of the cylinders.
The pistons have long ports on each side to admit the
suction gas. The suction valve is located in the upper end of
the piston. The top end of the piston has four piston rings
204 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
and the lower end three rings. The wrist pins arc made of
nickel steel. The eccentrics are made of gray iron castings
and are cast integral at an angle of 180°. They are shrunk
and pinned to the shaft. The shaft is made of forged steel
and is ground to size after the eccentrics have been shrunk on.
The discharge valves are made of nickel steel, light in
weight, and cup shaped. They give full area opening of the
cylinder and permit the compressor to handle saturated gas or
liquid without endangering the safet}^ of the machine.
The suction valves, located in the head of the pistons, are
made of nickel steel. They have a large suction area and op-
erate with a minimum lift.
Both suction and discharge valves are provided with
springs to hold the valves snugly to seats when the pressure
is released.
The end plates containing the shaft bearings are made of
semi-steel, bored and reamed accurately, and fitted with die
cast bearings.
The stuffing box is provided with an oil gland, or ring,
with soft packing on both sides. The gland has a direct con-
nection with an oil reservoir, entirely separate from the oil in
the crank case. This in realit}', forms an oil storage in the
center of the stuffing box, which keeps the packing soft and
resilient, and effectively seals the stuffing box so that no gas
can get past this oil seal. A threaded packing nut or gland
forms the outer end of the stuffing box proper.
The rings are made of soft, close grained gray iron. Each
ring is cast individually and the inner surface is left unfinished
to give toughness and resiliency to the ring. The rings are
cast eccentric.
The cylinder heads are made of semi-steel. The discharge
port is located in the cylinder head. The water jacket sur-
rounds the compressor, condenser and liquid receiver. Any
leak which might occur will be absorbed by the water. The
condenser is made of extra heavy ^2 inch steel pipe bent to
shape and surrounding the compressor cylinders.
Some advantages of the water jacket surrounding the com-
pressor, condenser and liquid receiver are:
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 205
1. It absolutely assures splendid operating conditions for
the compressor, preventing any contraction or expansion of
the metals.
2. It prevents the oil from vaporizing in the crank case.
3. The bearings are kept at a uniform temperature and
prevented from overheating.
4. It keeps the stuffing box in excellent condition at all
times.
5. It gives additional condensing surface on the receiver.
6. Provides a direct outlet to the sewer in case of leaks.
The expansion valve is of the diaphram pressure type. It
is screened to prevent dirt and scale from getting to the valve
seat.
The automatic control consists of a small 1/50 hp. motor
which is reduced in speed by worm gears. One of these is
directly connected to a rotating shaft, which contains on one
end the rotary switch with three terminals corresponding to
the three terminals on the thermostat, and the two terminals
for the power motor switch. On the one end is fixed the
water cock for regulating the flow of water to the condenser
shell. As both switches and water valve are firmly fastened
to the same shaft and rotate at the same time, it is plainly evi-
dent that both water and current must be on or off at the
same time.
If the water supply fails, a diaphram pressure switch di-
rectly connected to the water line cuts off the motor instantly.
If the pressure falls below a safe margin, the motor will not
start again until the water pressure has been again restored
to normal.
With alternating-current, a repulsion-induction motor is
used, continuous duty type. With direct current, a compound
wound continuous duty motor must be used. The size fur-
nished is Ys horse power, 1200 r.p.m.
The capacity of the Coldmaker with the usual allowances
for compressor inefficiencies, plus an additional allowance
because of the small size of the equipment, figures out approxi-
mately 279 pounds of refrigeration when operating 24 hours.
The machine is rated at 250 pounds of refrigeration.
206
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Cooke Refrigerating Machine. — The Cooke Household Re-
frigerating Machine is manufactured by Mr. George J. Cooke,
Sr., of Chicago, Ilhnois.
The compressor is of the single cylinder, vertical, single-
acting type. A cross-section and longitudinal section is shown
in Fig. 57. The cylinder diameter is 1^4 inches and the stroke
is 13/2 inches. The compressor operates at 450 r.p.m. normally.
The suction valve is of the port type ; the discharge valve
is of the disc plate t3-pe. The compressor crank shaft and
FIG. 57.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF COOKE REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
connecting rod are provided with ball bearings to reduce the
friction losses to a minimum. The crank shaft is packed by
means of the patented seal ring. The packing is submerged
in oil while the machine is in operation. A small but heavy
flywheel is keyed to the crankshaft. A glass-covered observa-
tion port is provided opposite the end of the crank shaft for
observing the condition of the lubricating oil.
The condenser consists of a spiral pipe coil around the com-
pressor cylinder, as shown by Fig. 57. An exterior casing en-
closes the water circulation for the condenser and water jacket
for the compressor cylinder. The ammonia gas is discharged
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 207
into the top of the spiral condenser coil and the liquefied am-
monia drains out of the bottom of the coil into a combined
ammonia receiver and oil trap which is cast integral with the
compressor frame. An automatic oil return valve is used.
The compressor is driven by means of a ^ hp. electric
motor running- at 1,750 r.p.m. It is belted to the compressor
by a "V" type belt. Proper belt tension is obtained by mount-
ing the motor upon a hinged base. The compressor and motor
are mounted upon a substantial cast-iron base. The compressor
and motor unit is 20 inches long, 10 inches wide, and 15 inches
high overall and weighs 150 pounds.
The cooling element consists of a brine tank containing
direct expansion coils. Trays are provided for the freezing
of seventy-two 1^ inch ice cubes for table use. The expan-
sion valve is of the angle standard orifice type, protected from
foreign matter by a small strainer in the lic^uid line just
ahead of the valve. It is located just above the brine tank.
The machine is self-contained, simple in construction, and
all parts are readily accessible. The operation of the machine
is positively and automatically controlled by means of a mer-
coid electric switch which is actuated by a thermostatic ele-
ment submerged in the brine of the main tank. The controls
may be adjusted to maintain any reasonable temperature in
the refrigerator. The condenser water supply is controlled
by a diaphram valve which is actuated by the condenser
pressure.
The total charge of the ammonia in the system is said
to be 3y2 ounces. The capacity of the machine, it is claimed,
is 350 pounds of ice melting effect per day. It may be in-
stalled on or adjacent to any refrigerator having a maximum
of 35 cubic feet.
The refrigerating machine has in connection with it an
ice cream freezer of the domestic size. This is mounted on
the side of the refrigerator. The ice cream freezer has a brine
tank containing a submerged spiral direct expansion coil.
Operation of the freezer requires only a one-quarter turn of
a hand lever located just above the main brine tank. It is
claimed that one gallon of ice cream may be frozen in ten to
fifteen minutes.
208
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Copeland. — Fijj-. 58 shdws tlie household refrigerating ma-
chine mafle 1)\ Co])elan(l Troducts, Incorporated, of Detroit,
Michigan.
The compressor has one cylinder and is of the single-acting
reciprocating piston t3'pe. The motor is ]/(, hp. and drives the
compressor by means of the "\'" tyi)e belt.
The refrigerant used is Freezol or Iso-Butane, a hydrocar-
bon gas which is odorless, non-corrosive and non-poisonous.
FIG. 58.~COPELAXn RKFRTGER.\TIXG UNIT.
The condenser is made of thin copper tubing and is cooled
by forced air obtained by means of a fan attached to the motor
shaft.
The cooling units are made entirely of copper and brass;
Copper tubing is used for the expansion coils. This tubing
encircles the ice tray sleeves, thus reducing the time required
to freeze water t)r desserts. Cooling units are made in various
sizes suitable for different sizes and types of refrigerating
cabinets.
The expansion valve, Fig. 59, is located on top of the
cooling unit and is of the balanced type using a diaphragm
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 209
FIG. 59.— COPELAND EXPANSION VALVE.
FIG. 60.— COPELAND ONE-PIECE FREEZING UNIT AND MACHINE.
210
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
between the outside adjusting' spring- and the reguhiting
needle inside the valve.
The temperature control is automatic and is obtained by
means of a thermostat responsive to the cooling unit tem-
perature.
A line of all-metal cabinets is supplied.
Fig. 60 shows the freezing unit and machine all in one
piece, mounted on an insulated base which forms the top of
the refrigerator. This unit sets down into the top of the
refrigerator, resting on an insulated base, and forms an air-
tight seal with its own weight.
FIG. 61.— COPELAND CABINET AND REMONABLE UNIT.
Fig. 61 shows the cabinet in which the removable unit
operates. This cabinet is 62^/^ inches high. 26^4 inches wide
and 21 inches deep.
The exterior is covered with steel and the walls are insu-
lated with XYz and 2 inches of solid cork. The exterior is of
steel finished in white pyroxylin.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 211
The cooling unit has an ice capacity of 6.6 pounds and a
capacity of 108 cul)es at one freezing-. The food space is 5^
cubic feet and the shelf area is 8 scjuare feet.
CP Refrigerating Machine. — Fig. 62 shows the self-con-
tained refrigerating machine made by the Creamery Package
Manufacturing Company, Chicago, Illinois.
FIG. 62.— CREAMERY PACKAGE REFRIGERATING :MACHINE.
The refrigerant used is ammonia. The compressor, liquid
receiver, condenser, necessary valves, oil gauge and strainer
are all mounted on one base. The compressor is of twin
cylinder construction. The compressor has adjustable crank
pin bearings, drop forged connecting rods and crankshafts,
and improved type valves which are easily removable.
A y2 hp. motor is used to drive the compressor. This
machine has a capacity of ^ ton refrigeration per day.
The machine is entirely automatic in operation. A ther-
mostat is used to maintain any desired temperature.
Delphos. — Fig. 63 shows the complete self-contained re-
frigerating unit made by the Delphos Ice Machine Company,
at Delphos, Ohio.
Ammonia is the refrigerant used. This unit consists of a
complete high-side including a compressor, scale trap with
212
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
relief valve, oil trap, condenser, receiver, low and high pres-
sure gauges, gauge and purge valves and electric motor. A
cast iron base is used.
The compressor is of the enclosed crankcase type and all
of the moving parts and bearings are lubricated by the splash
of the eccentrics passing through the oil contained in the
reservoir at the bottom.
FIG. 63.— DELPHOS REFRIGERATING UNIT.
All the compressors are two cylinder with the exception of
the three-fourths ton size which is single cylinder.
The ammonia condenser is of the double pipe, counter-
current type with all ammonia joints welded. The water
pipes are connected by means of return bends and lip unions
to permit ready access for cleaning and removing water sedi-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
213
ment. This can be done without disturbing the ammonia.
The condenser is made up of bhick steel pipe with steel heads
securely welded. The condenser and receiver are mounted
integral with shut-off valve placed between condenser and
receiver.
Electrical Refrigerating Co. — Fig. 64 shows a cross-section
view of the compressor used in the machine manufactured bv
FIG. 64.— WILLIAMS REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
214 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
the Electrical Refrigerating Company at Brooklyn, New York.
This is a water-cooled type using ethyl chloride as the
refrigerant. The flow of the refrigerant is controlled by
means of a float valve.
Four sizes of this machine were developed including V^, 3/2,
1 and 2 hp. Most of the parts of all these sizes are inter-
changeable in the same housing, the outside diair "^.ter of all
compressors being the same while the variations in their
capacity is obtained by changing the bore and depth dimen-
sions.
The capacity of the larger size condenser is j'fovided by
increasing the height of the dome.
ElectrlCE. — Fig 65 shows the top view of the rotary com-
pressor used on the household refrigerating machine made
b}' the American bZlectrlCE Corporation at Belding, Michigan.
FIG. 65.— TOP VIEW OF ELECTRICE ROTARY COMPRESSOR.
The compressor is of the rotary type, using one set of
gears operated at motor speed. The motor is direct connected
to the compressor, eliminating the use of belts.
The compressor consists of two coils of thin tubing cooled
by forced air obtained by means of a fan mounted on a motor
shaft. The refrigerant control valve is mounted on the com-
pressor base.
The motor control is responsive to a mercoid thermostat,
starting and stopping the compressor, and is necessary to
maintain a constant temperature in the refrigerator.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
215
The ice-melting capacity of this unit is 125 pounds per
twenty-four hours at 85° F. temperature.
Electro-Kold. — Figs. 66 and 67 show compressor units
made by the Electro-Kold Corporation of Spokane, Wash.
Compressor units are made in three sizes.
FIG. 66.— ELECTRO-KOLD COMPKESSOR UNIT.
FIG. 67.— ELECTRO-KOLD COMPRESSOR UNIT.
216
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 68.-ELECTRO.KOLD FROST TANK.
mm ^
FIG. 69.
-COMPLETE ELECTRO-KOLD SELF-CONTAINED UNIT.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
217
The refrigerating capacity and size of motors are as fol-
lows :
Size Number Refrigerating
Type Motor Cylinder Capacity
C 14 hp. 1 10 cu. ft.
F ■ y2 hp. 1 40 cu. ft.
A Yz hp. 60 cu. ft.
Sulphur dioxide is the refrigerant used.
The condenser consists of copper tubing and it is cooled
by forced air.
A pressure control is used instead of a thermostat to regu-
late the operation of the machines.
Fig. 68 is a view of a typical frost tank with a capacity
for cooling ten cubic feet of food space. It has four ice
trays of eighteen cubes each.
Fig. 69 shows a complete self-contained unit. The exterior
is of steel with Duco finish. The insulation is of l^^ inch
corkboard. Several other larger self-contained models are
produced.
Everite. — The Everitc Products, Inc., Dayton, ( jhio, manu-
factures the motor drixen air cooled refrigerating machine,
Fio. 70.
FIG. 70.— EVERITE REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
218
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
This machine may be used in the standard home refrigera-
tor or in special all-steel, porcelain lined refrigerator cabinets
furnished in five sizes from seven to twenty cubic feet food
storage capacity.
Both single and double cylinder compressors operated by
Yd and Y hp. motors are manufactured. These have refrig-
erating capacity of twelve to twenty-five cubic feet re-
spectivel}".
YXC 7i._EVERITE FLOODED TYPE COOLIXG UNIT.
Commercial systems are also manufactured in ^4 and ^-4
ton sizes.
Sulphur dioxide is the refrigerant used.
The Everite cooling unit, Fig. 71 is of the flooded type
employing a float valve in its header. These are of cast con-
struction built up in sections similar to a radiator which pro-
vides maximum cooling surface and permits the building up of
suitable size cooling units for various size refrigerators from
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
219
the smallest to the largest within the capacity of the com-
pressors.
The outstanding feature in this S}stcm is the condenser
which is mounted directly in front of and covering the entire
area of the fan pulley thus causing all the air drawn in by the
fan to pass through the condenser rendering it very efficient
and i)ermitting neat and compact construction.
FIG. 72.— ALL-STEEL CABINET WITH EVERITE UNIT.
The control is the pressure type (no thermostat is used)
thus eliminating difficulties usually experienced in this type
of control.
Fig. 72 shows one of the all-steel cabinets supplied as a
self-contained unit.
Frigidaire. — Two general types of Frigidaire household and
commercial refrigerating machines are made by the Delco-
Light Company at Dayton, Ohio. These are air-cooled and
water-cooled units using sulphur dioxide as the refrigerant.
220 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 7Z shows the model "G" air-cooled condensing unit
comprising the compressor, condenser, receiver, motor and
automatic control, mounted (in a steel base. The compressor
FIG. 73.— FRIGID.MRE MODEL "G" AIR-COOLED UNIT.
is a two cylinder, vertical, single-acting type. The discharge
valve is of the flaj^per valve construction. A disc suction
valve is used in the top of the piston. An eccentric keyed to
the shaft dri^■es the pistons by means of the eccentric rods.
FIG. 74.— LARGER SIZE FRiulDAlKh AIR-COOLED COMPRESSOR.
The compressor shaft is sealed by a special metal ring which
automatically compensates for wear. The compressor pulley
contains fan blades which force air over the copper condenser
coils located on opposite sides of the compressor. The con-
denser coils are made of flattened copper tubing. The ^ hp.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 221
FIU. 75
-FRIGIDAIRE AIR-COOLED COMPRESSOR FOR HOUSEHOLD ANI»
COMMERCIAL INSTALLATIONS.
i£=t^
FIG. 76.— FRIGIDAIRE WATER-COOLED CONDENSING UNIT FOR COM-
MERCIAL INSTALLATION.
FIG.
77.— FRIGIDAIRE WATER-COOLED CONDENSING UNIT FOR
COMMERCIAL INSTALLATION.
222
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
motor drives the compressor by means of a "V" type belt.
The automatic control switch is actuated by a change of pres-
sure on the low side of the refrigerating system.
FIG. 78. — TYPICAL FRIG-
IDAIRE COOLING UNIT,
FLOODED PRINCIPLE.
FIG. 7y.— TYPICAL FRIGIDAIRE COMMER-
CIAL SIZE COOLING COIL. COPPER FINS.
FIG. 80.— TYPICAL FRIGIDAIRE COMMERCIAL SIZE COOLING COILS,
COPPER FINS.
Figs. 74 and 75 show larger sizes of air-cooled compressors
used on household and commercial installations.
Fig. 76 and 77 are water-cooled condensing units used
mostly for commercial work.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
223
Fig. 78 shows a typical cooling unit which operates on the
flooded principle. The header contains a float valve which
controls the supply of liquid refrigerant to the cooling unit.
A series of copper coils terminate in the header. Copper
FIG. 81.— TYPICAL FRIGIDAIRE COMMERCIAL SIZE COOLING COILS,
COPPER FINS.
sleeves are used inside the coils to accommodate the ice trays.
This provides direct frost-coil cooling and the ice containers
are of the self-sealing tray front type. Cooling coils are made
FIG. 82.— FRIGIDAIRE METAL CABINET.
in various sizes to fit in any household or commercial refrig-
erator.
Figs. 79, 80 and 81 show typical commercial size cooling
coils wath copper fins. The copper fins greatly increase the
effective cooling surface. The copper tube is soldered to the
fins and in some cases the copper tubes are flattened.
224
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
..
-.-™~— ,
— . . *
% smm
If
FIG. 83.— FRIGIDAIRE METAL CABINET.
FIG. 84.~FRIGIDAIRE METAL CABINET.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
225
226
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Figs. 82, 83 and 84 show typical metal cabinets. The re-
frigerating mechanism may be placed in the bottom of any
of these cabinets. These are made with 5, 7, 9, 12 and 15
cubic feet of food compartment space. One line of cabinets
is made with the exterior finished in white Duco on steel.
FIG. 87.— FKIGIDAIKK CABINET FOR SELF-CONTAINED UNIT.
Another complete line has the exterior of porcelain on steel,
trimmed with monel metal. The front is of highly polished
monel metal. These cabinets are insulated with corkboard
and the linings, with the exception of one model, are made of
porcelain on steel. The linings are of the one piece construc-
tion with rounded corners fitting flush above the door sills.
Fig. 85 shows the ice-maker which is used where a greater
amount of ice is rccjuired than is provided 1)\' the cooling coil
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 227
installed in a regular refrigerator. The ice-maker contains six
large capacity freezing trays and a storage compartment un-
derneath.
Fig. 86 shows the specially designed model including the
motor, compressor, condenser, and cooling coils arranged as a
self-contained unit. A copper finned cooling coil is used.
The compressor is mounted on a special spring suspension to
eliminate vibration and afford c^uietness in operation.
Fig. 87 shows the cabi-net in which the self-contained unit
is used.
General Electric. — The General Electric Refrigerator is
made by the General Electric Com])any of Schenectady, N. Y.
Fig. 88 shows the complete refrigerating unit installed in a
refrigerator cabinet.
The refrigerant used is sulphur dioxide. All moving parts
are hermetically sealed in a drawn steel case containing the
refrigerant — sulphur dioxide — and the lul:)ricant. The con-
denser and evaporator coils are brazed to the steel casing.
Specially developed insulated leads, similar to spark plugs,
are used for the electrical connection to the motor. This
construction permits complete enclosure and the elimination
of the stuffing box through which gas or oil might leak. There
is no external piping, cooling fan, belt or other external mov-
ing part.
The essential operating parts consist of:
1. A %-hp., 110-volt, 60-cycle, split-phase motor mounted ver-
tically. This motor is exceedingly simple in design and sturdy in con-
struction— without brushes or other moving contacts.
2. A two-cylinder, single-acting compressor having oscilating
cylinders.
3. A discharge valve of spring steel so arranged as to eliminate
noise.
4. A copper tube condenser coil of circular cross section.
5. A float valve to regulate the amount of refrigerant passing to
the evaporator coils.
6. An evaporator coil of copper tubing immersed in the brine
tank.
7. An automatic regulating control.
The cooling tank, which is suspended within the cabinet
itself, is covered inside and out with white, fused-on vitreous
228 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
porcelain— long wearing- and easy to clean. The freezing
trays, having a capacity of seven pounds of ice cubes, can
be slipped into compartment in the tank. These trays are
FIG. S8.— GENERAL ELECTRIC REFRIGERATOR.
of heavily tinned copper and are furnished with removable
dividers to provide twenty-one cubes for each tray, or a total
of sixty-three cubes for the three trays.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 229
Complete automatic temperature and current control are
provided. A control box on the front of the unit contains a
manually-operated switch for disconnecting the machine, for
defrosting or any other purpose.
The control box also contains an automatic thermostatic
switch for starting and stopping the machine in response to
temperature changes, a relay for transferring motor connec-
tions from starting to running position and a thermal, time-
limit relay for protecting the motor from overload damage,
also a reset button for a resumption of operation.
The automatic control is so adjusted that a brine tempera-
ture is maintained between 16° and 24° F., thereby maintaining
a continuous cal^inet temperature of from 40° to 50° F., which
is admittedly the most satisfactory temperature for food
preservation.
Installation is extremely sim])le as the refrigerator need
only be moved to the desired position and attached to the near-
est electric outlet. It can be installed wherever it will prove
most convenient as there is no special )3lumbing or permanent
fixtures to be connected to it. The cooling tank is placed in
the cabinet, filled with a solution of salt brine and the re-
frigerating unit set into place. It is thoroughly portable and
can readily be moved.
Fig. 88 shows the Model P-5-2 installed in a 5 cu, ft. refrig-
erator. This cabinet is of white porcelain exterior and inte-
rior. The exterior has fiat polished metal trim strips. The
exterior dimensions are height overall, 65^ inches; width
over hardware, 2S^.'i inches ; depth over hardware, 22% inches.
(Legs may be removed and the height reduced 11^ inches.)
The cooling unit contains one small tray for making ice
cubes and one large tray for making cubes or frozen dessert.
The total ice-making capacity is 56 cubes or approximately
7 pounds of ice. The food storage capacity is 5.37 cubic feet
and the food shelf area is 7.9 square feet.
Hall Refrigerating Machine. — Fig. 89 shows the compres-
sor of the ammonia machine manufactured by Thomas Hall &
Son, Ltd., Rotherham, England.
The piston is of the truncated type and contains the sue-
230
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
tion valve. The discharge valve is of a special type. It is
not affected by the heat of the compression. The valve is con-
tained in a safety head which allows any liquid ammonia or
oil to pass without damage.
FIG. S9.— HALL REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
The crank case gland screws u\) like a nut, wliich prevents
the gland from being pulled on one side and thus scoring the
shaft. Metallic packing is used. The connecting rod is of
forged steel. The dirt separator is fitted on the suction pipe,
thus preventing any scale which may become loosened in the
room coils from entering the machine and interfering with the
working of the valves.
An oil sight glass is fitted in the end cover, wdiich enables
the level of the oil to be seen at a glance.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
231
The stop valves are double seating^, allowing the valves to
be packed while the machine is running. The machine is
fitted with a purge valve on the cylinder head to enable air
and foul gases to be purged out of the system.
An oil trap is fitted on the discharge and is equipped with
an oil return valve which enables the oil carried over through
the valve, to be returned to the crank case, thus preventing it
from going into the system.
A liquid ammonia receiver is fitted underneath the con-
denser making a compact unit.
The method of cooling usually adopted is by means of di-
rect expansion coils immersed in a brine accumulator tank,
w^hich acts as a reservoir of cold and keeps the room down
in temperature after the plant has been stopped. For some
requirements air circulation is added. For frozen meat, direct-
expansion coils are placed on the ceiling or on the walls.
This small size machine is capable of cooling a properly
insulated cold room of 400 to 500 cubic feet to a temperature of
35° to 38° F.
Ice Maid. — The household refrigerating unit, Fig. 90, is
made by the Lamson Company, Inc., at Syracuse, New York.
FIG. 90.— ICE MAID HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATING UNIT.
The compressor is a direct connected rotary type running
at motor speed and using ethyl chloride as a refrigerant. The
compressor has a 2-bladed rotor mounted eccentric to the
bore and is carried on annular ball bearings. The stuffing
232 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
box is of the sylphon bellows type, the bellows revolving
with the shaft thereby carrying away any heat that may be
generated by the seal.
The discharge valve is of the flapper valve type and con-
sists of two flat steel discs riveted to the seat on one side.
An efficient oil separator is an integral part of the oil reservoir,
it is located in the dome of the pump and oil is fed by the
]>ressure of the gas through holes drilled in the pump casting
to the bearings and the rotor. This gives the effect of a full
pressure system and is fully automatic, as the load on the
pump increases the quantity of oil fed to the bearing also is
increased. Oil is used as a lubricant increasing the efficiency
of the i)ump considerably.
Suction and discharge shut-off valves are of the double-
seated type permitting removal of pump without losing the
charge of refrigerant. A check valve of the flat disc tyi)e
is located on the suction side of the pump to obxiate the
possibility of oil running back into the suction line.
The compressor is driven through a flexible coupling of
the fabric disc type which is self-aligning. Coupling and fan
hub are integral.
The motor is of the induction repulsion type, both Vs and
14 liP- being used. For remote control the motors run at
1750 r.p.m. and for self-contained installation they run at 1165
r.i).ni. The motor is directly connected to the C()m])ressor by
means of the fan and coupling assembly.
The condenser is of the Honeycoml) Radiator type and
has a cooling capacity equal to about 120 feet of 3^ -inch cop-
per tubing. This is mounted between the pump and the fan.
The fan running at motor speed throws a current of air
directly through the radiator and thence around the pump.
This direct positive cooling system is so effective that the
machine usually operates under several pounds less head pres-
sure than ordinary ethyl chloride systems using a copper tube
condenser.
The compressor, radiator and motor are mounted as a unit
on a rigid cast iron base. The base is drilled in such a
manner that any standard motor that may be used can be
mounted upon it readily. The base rides on sponge rubber
balls which effectively absorb any slight noise or vibration.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
233
"" Attached to the side of the base is a receiving tank of a
capacity sufificient to hold the entire charge of refrigerant,
thus making the entire condenser available for condensing
purposes.
The dimensions of the entire unit are 24 inches long, 18
inches high and 12 inches wide. Due to this extreme com-
pactness, the standard unit may be mounted in much less space
than that occupied by the average machine and this can be
installed in the base of a comparatively small refrigerator,
FIG. 91.— ICE MAID FREEZING UNIT.
without any changes whatsoever. The weight of the entire
mechanical unit is approximately 100 pounds.
The freezing unit. Fig. 91, is of the brine tank type having
a copper expansion coil of ell-shaped form and is equipped
with compartment for ice trays. The tanks are nickel plated
and are furnished in a variety of sizes sufficient to accommo-
date all standard refrigerators. The ice trays have a capacity
of 24 cubes of ice.
The tray compartment is equipped with a cover which is
so designed that it will not freeze to the tank and thus make
it difficult to remove the ice tray.
234
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The expansion valve is of the bahmced type having only
one spring- which is the adjusting spring. It is constructed
with a sylphon bellows and is fully automatic in its action.
It is readily adjustable from the outside and is provided with
an efficient means preventing moisture freezing and inter-
fering with the operation of the bellows.
FIG. 92.— ONE OF THE TWKLN'E ICE MAID MODELS.
Control of the machine is effected by means of a mercoid
switch located outside the refrigerator. It is connected to
the refrigerator by means of a capillary tube which is attached
to a bulb immersed in the brine, the other end of the tube
being connected to a sylphon bellows actuating a tilting glass
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
235
tube containing" mercury, which makes or breaks the circuit
as the bulb is tilted l)ack and forth. A brine temperature of
16° or 20° is maintained.
This method of control gives uniform brine temperature
regardless of outside temperature. Only one size compressor
is furnished, but by substitution of butane for ethyl chloride
comparatively large restaurant, butcher boxes and other com-
mercial applications can be handled.
A complete line of refrigerators with self-contained units
are furnished in both wood and all metal comprising twelve
different models from 5 to 20 cu. ft. food storage capacity.
Fig. 92 shows one of these models.
Installation is simple as there are no electric wires enter-
ing the refrigerator and the standard mechanical unit is read-
ily installed either as a remote or self-contained unit.
Iroquois. — Fig. 9i show^s the compressor-condenser unit,
made by the Iroquois Refrigeration Company, associate of the
FIG. 93.— FRONT VIEW. IROQUOIS COMPRESSOR-CONDENSER UNIT.
Barber Asphalt Company of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Ethyl chloride is used as the refrigerant.
Fig. 94 shows the rotary type compressor used with this'
236
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
unit. The condenser, Fig. 96, is of the double header type
consisting of a series of copper tubes arranged so as to form
a guard for the compressor. The condenser is cooled by two
FIG. 94.— IROQUOIS ROTARY TYPE
COMPRESSOR.
FIG. 95.— IROQUOIS PRESSURE
CONTROLLED SWITCH.
FIG. 96.— REAR VIEW, IROQUOIS COMPRESSOR-CONDENSER.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 237
FIG. 97.— IROQUOIS COOLIXG UNITS. APARTMENT HOUSE UNIT AT LEFT.
FIG 98— IROQUOIS SYPHON ALL-METAL CABINET EQUIPPED WITH
COMPLETE SELF-CONTAINED REFRIGERATING UNIT.
238
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
fans, one on the motor shaft and the other on the compressor
flywheel.
The automatic pressure controlled switch is shown in Fig.
95. This device consists of the pow^erful snap, switch actuated
FIG 99.-
-IROQUOIS ELECTRICAL REFRIGERATOR, APARTMENT HOUSE
TYPE.
by a diaphragm subjected to a pre-determined pressure in the
cooling unit.
The cooling units, as Fig. 97, are constructed of heavy
tinned copper and brass material. A float valve is used to
control the flow of liquid refrigerant to the cooling unit.
Figs. 98 and 99 show a typical cabinet equipped with the
refrigerating unit forming a complete self-contained model.
COMPRESSIOiM REFRIGERATING MACHINES 239
Isko — First Model. — The first model Isko machine is de-
scribed as follows :
The motor operates the compressor and is controlled
through the thermostat and the circuit breaker. When the
refrigerator gets warm the themostat starts the motor, which
runs until a predetermined low temperature is attained and
then stops. The thermostat is located in the cooling coil
where the greatest variation of temperature is, there being
nearly 32° of variation under a\erage conditions. The
thermostat alternates on from 2° to 4° of variation.
Isko cools the refrigerator by abstracting the heat through
the tinned copper ice-making coils in which liquid sulphur
dioxide is being l^oiled by the heat extracted from the re-
frigerator.
This sulphur dioxide steam, unlike the steam with which
we are most familiar, is cold (14° F.). This is sucked into the
compressor at atmospheric pressure and elevated in both
temperature and pressure to the corresponding temperature
of the room.
In the condenser (which is a coil of pipe surrounding the
apparatus as a guard), this warm sulphur dioxide steam loses
its heat by radiation to the surrounding atmosphere, causing
it to liquefy becase it is under pressure.
The liquid coming out of the bottom of the condenser is
fed automatically into the tinned coil inside the refrigerator
by means of an expansion valve, which works intermittently
to step down these condenser pressures to a pressure above
atmospheric pressure.
Moisture abstracted from the refrigerator is deposited on
the coil, and freezes because the coil is at 14° F. The machine
operates intermittently so that this frost does not accumu-
late. On the stand-still period the frost will melt and run off
through the drain pipe of the refrigerator.
In the ice-making compartment it is possible in warm
weather to make 32 cubes of ice in a day of twenty-four
hours, automatically. Ice can be made in winter only when
the refrigerator is in a well-heated room ; otherwise the ma-
chine will run too small a percentage of the time.
The complete machine is supplied as a unit readv to run
when connected to an electric light socket. The number 1
240
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
size will take care of an ordinary refrigerator not to exceed
fifty-five square feet of internal exposed area when set over
a hole thirteen inches 1)\- thirteen inches in the top of the
refrigerator. The actual weight of the apparatus is 175
pounds.
Isko — Present Model. — The present model of the Isko ma-
1
ff
Oi&gr&m of ISKO
Refrigerating
Machine
ig course o'
--cfrigerant
FIG. 100.— ISKO REFR]GER.\TrXG M.\CHIXE.
chine is shown in Fig. 100. This machine was formerly man-
ufactured in large quantities b\' the Isko Company at Chicago.
The compressor was of the herringbone gear type, operat-
ing at motor speed submerged in a sealed chamber of oil.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 241
The gears were supplied with a small amount of oil to seal
them so that they would compress the sulphur dioxide gas,
this being the refrigerant used.
The cylinder and motor were mounted on a single base
to be placed on the top of the refrigerator or in the basement,
if desired. The motor was directly connected to the gear
shaft through a flexible coupling.
Brine tanks were made in various sizes. An expansion
\alve was used, expanding into a copper tube immersed in
the brine.
A small header was used on the suction line between the
evaporating coil and the compressor to prevent frosting back
to the machine.
The condenser was water-cooled by means of a copper coil
inside the condenser cylinder. Part of the cooling water
circulated through a coil in the compressor cylinder, in order
to cool the oil in which the gears operate.
Full automatic controls were used to maintain a uniform
temperature inside the refrigerator.
Kelvinator. — Fig. 101 shows the Model Senior (2 cylinder)
refrigerating machine made by the Kelvinator Corporation,
Detroit, Michigan. This is a motor-driven refrigerating ma-
chine designed for installation with any refrigerator of stand-
ard construction of not over 70 cubic feet contents.
The condensing unit consists of the motor, compressor,
and condensing coil mounted on a single base and is installed
in the basement or other out-of-the-way place.
The compressor is of the reciprocating, single-acting type.
Piston valves and discharge valves are of the disc type. The
pistons slide in steel sleeves. Instead of a stuffing box a
sylphon gas seal of self-aligning, self-lubricating, anti-friction
metal is used. It is driven through a combined flywheel and
fan by a "V" belt. The motor is of the repulsion induction
type, y^ hp.
The condenser is a continuous coil of ^ inch seamless
copper tubing wound spirally and charged with sulphur diox-
ide. It is air-cooled and therefore is not dependant on any
water supply for its proper operation.
242
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 102 shows the Model Junior (1 cylinder) refrigerating
machine. This is similar to the Model Senior except that it
is installed with refrigerators of not over 20 cubic feet con-
tents.
The refrigerating element consists of the brine tank, the
expansion coils inside the brine tank, the expansion valve, the
thermo-coil and the thermostat. Eighteen standard sizes of
brine tanks are made, one of which is shown in Fig. 103 and
tit practically all ice chambers.
FIG. 101.— KELVIXATOR TWO-CVLIXDER REFRIGKRATIXG :M.\CHIXE.
The brine tank is of sheet copper tinned on the outside.
It has two to four freezing compartments, according to the
tank size. Each 21-cube tray will freeze two and one-half
pounds of ice, while the large tray will freeze an eight and
one-half pound cake of ice. The tank is filled with a solu-
tion of calcium chloride. Expansion coils are placed in the
tank in such a way as to surround each freezing compartment.
The liquid refrigerant is admitted to the expansion coils
through an automatic expansion \ahe which lowers its pres-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 243
1-10. !''.v KELVIXATOK ('(XJUXG IWIT.
244
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
sure from two inches of vacuum to three pounds per square
inch, depending on the size of brine tank and number of feet
of tubing in the expansion coil. The valve is of the balanced
pressure type. Increasing pressure on the low side caused by
the boiling refrigerant, acts against the pressure on the liquid
side and automatically shuts off the supply of liquid when suf-
ficient has been admitted. The valve automatically opens
when the suction of the compressor sufficiently reduces the
pressure on the low side.
FJG. 104.— KELVINATOR CONDENSING UNIT.
The system is automatically controlled by the thermostat
placed within the thermo-coil on top of the brine tank. The
thermostat opens and closes the motor circuit as the tempera-
ture within the refrigerator falls and rises. It is of the sylphon
type, a corrugated metal bellows filled with sulphur dioxide,
which by the contraction and expansion caused by changing
temperatures operates the quick make and break switch.
The actual running time of Kelvinator will vary, of course,
with the room temperature, the quality and degree of refrig-
erator insulation, the size of refrigerator, etc. Under ordinary
conditions, however, the machine will run 6 or 7 hours a day.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
245
The box temperatures will be at least 10° colder than ice
would keep the same box. The reason for this is that the
surface of the brine tank is kept constantly at 20° to 22° while
the surface of a cake of ice is 32° F.
Fig-. 104 shows the condensing unit Model 12800. This
unit includes a yi hp. motor driving a reciprocating type,
FIG. 105.— SPECIAL STEEL CABI.XET EQUIPPED A\1TH COXDEXSIXG
UNIT SHOWN IN FIG. 104.
single-cylinder compressor by means of a "\" type belt. The
condenser is made of finned tubing. It is cooled with forced
air circulation. A small receiver is used. The weight of this
unit is 80 pounds.
This unit is supplied with a special steel cabinet. Fig.
105. The food storage space is 4.7 cubic feet and 7 square feet
shelf area. The exterior is gray lacquer on steel. The lining
246
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 106.— KELVINATOR TYPE "LB" LARGE CAPACITY AIR-COOLED
CONDENSING UNIT.
FiG. 107.— KELVINATOR, TYPE "BB".— COMPRE.SSOR HAS TWO
CYLINDERS.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 247
is white enamel on g-alvanized iron. The hardware is nickel-
plated brass. The insulation is corkboard. The dimensions
of the cabinet are :
Width Depth Height
Overall 26J^ in. 22i4 in. 56^/^ in.
Food Compartment 22 in. 15Ji in. ZAy^'in.
Condensing Unit Compartment 26^ in. \9^-2\n. 16^2 in.
The cooling unit has two 15-cube ice trays. The shipping
weight of this unit is 300 pounds.
Fig. 106 shows the type LB large capacity air-cooled con-
densing unit.
The compressor has one cylinder and is of the vertical, re-
ciprocating, single-acting type. A ^4 hp. motor drives the
compressor by means of a "V" type belt. The condenser is of
the radiator type. It is cooled by forced air circulation, from
the fanned motor pulle}'. The \^■attage is approximately 800
at rated capacity.
A similar larger type BB, Fig. 107, is manufactured. The
compressor has two cylinders. A 1^ hp. motor is used. The
wattage of this model is approximately 1200 at rated capacity.
Both of these units have extensive use for apartment house in-
stallations.
Kold King. — Fig. 108 shows the household refrigerating
machine manufactured by the Kold King Korporation at De-
troit, Mich. It is reported this company is out of business.
FIG. 108.— KOLD KIXG REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
248 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
A single-c} Under, sulphur dioxide compressor is used. The
condenser is air-cooled and consists of sixty feet of copper
tubing", forming a spiral coil around the compressor. A fan
in the compressor fly wheel forces air over the condenser coil.
The suction and discharge valves are of the flat steel flapper
type. They are both located in the cylinder head plate. The
compressor is driven by a ^ hp. phase, repulsion-induction
motor. A "V" type belt is used for the means of driving.
A float valve system of expansion has been developed for
regulating the cooling compartment. The thermostat is at-
tached to the crank case and is controlled by pressure. A
brine tank is used which is placed in the ice compartment of
the refrigerator.
The mechanical unit is sui)])lied to refrigerate any standard
tabinet.
Lipman Refrigerating Machine. — Fig. 109 shows the house-
hold size refrigerating machine, which is made by the Lipman
Refrigerator Car & Mfg. Com])an\-, Beloit, Wis.
This conii)any has specialized for years in producing re-
frigerating machines using ammonia as a refrigerant and oper-
ating with full automatic controls.
The mcjtor, compressor, condenser, water valve, and high
pressure cut-out, are mounted on a simple base to form a com-
pact unit. A "V" belt drive is used, thus eliminating the need
of an idler pulley.
The condenser is water-cooled. The water valve is au-
tomatically opened when the machine is operating, by an at-
tachment on the outer end of the compressor shaft. A safety
feature is included so that the machine will not operate should
the supply of cooling water fail.
The operation of the machine is controlled b\' a thermostat
placed in the food compartment. The motor starts or stops
automatically when the temperature in this compartment va-
ries only a few degrees.
An expansion valve is used to control the supply of re-
frigerant to the cooling coil. The household model uses only
a few ounces of liquid ammonia in the entire system.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
249
This machine is supplied with a cooling element to be
placed in the ice compartment of the customer's refrigerator.
This cooling element consists of a direct-expansion coil and a
sharp freezer of steel pipe in which ice cubes or frozen desserts
may be made. A cast iron sleeve is inserted in the horizontal
part of this direct-expansion coil to form the sharp freezer.
FIG. 109.— LIPMAN REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
Larger automatic machines arc built for installations re-
quiring a larger capacity machine.
Merchant and Evans. — Fig. 110 shows the electrical refrig-
erating system manufactured by Merchant and Evans Com-
pany of Philadelphia, Pa.
A low temperature liquefying gas is compressed (G), into
coils (C), which are cooled by a fan on the pulley and thus
250
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
becomes a liquid which flows into the freezing chamber (F)
through the Control Valve (V).
Here the licjuid boils b}' absorbing heat from the interior of
the box, cooling it to a temperature of 45° F. The thermostat
THERMOSTAT CONTROL
FIG. 110.— MERCHANT & EVANS ELECTRICAL REFRIGERATING SYSTEM.
then turns off the current automatically until the box tempera-
ture rises to 50° F. The thermostat then again starts the mo-
tor and the whole process is repeated until the box tempera-
ture again drops to 45° F.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
251
The compressor is a single cylinder of the single-acting ver-
tical reciprocating type, with long stroke.
The condenser consists of two coils of copper tubing placed
on opposite sides of the compressor. Fan blades in the com-
pressor flywheel are used to force air over the two condenser
coils.
M&E FREEZING CHAMBER
il i J J JmJL.
"MfcE'COMPRESSOR
FIG. 111.— MERCHANT & EVANS REFRIGERATING SYSTEM INSTALLED.
The freezing chamber is made of galvanized cast iron and
tested to 350 pounds pressure per square inch.
Fig. Ill shows a typical installation in a cabinet. Steel
cabinets are supplied in sizes from 7 to 20 cubic feet inside
capacity.
Norge. — The Detroit Gear & Machine Company manufac-
ture an electric refrigerating machine for the Norge Corpora-
tion, Detroit, Michigan. This machine has been adopted for
domestic use by McCray Refrigerator Company of Kendalville,
Ind. The refrigerant used is sulphur dioxide.
252
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 112.— NORGE UNIT MOUNTED ON STEEL BASE.
FIG. 113.— NORGE ROTARY TYPE COMPRESSOR.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 253
FIG. 114.— ^ORGE FREEZER COILS.
FIG. 115.— NORGE FREEZER COILS.
254
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig-. 112 shows the condensing unit consisting of the com-
pressor, motor, condenser and automatic control mounted on
a steel base.
The compressor, Fig. 113, is of the rotary type. The rotor
is driven by an eccentric on the crank-shaft. It moves with a
gyratory motion, opening the intake and permitting entrance
FIG. 116.— NORGE ELECTRICAL UNIT IN McCRAY REFRIGERATOR.
of the Sulphur Dioxide gas into the compression space. The
gas escapes through the discharge valve. An oscillating blade
always maintains contact with the rotor, and separates the suc-
tion chamber from the discharge chamber. This blade, as well
as all other moving parts, is submerged in oil under pressure.
The rotor fits into the cylinder in such a way that it auto-
matically adjusts and takes up whatever wear may occur.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
255
Figs. 114 and 115 show freezer coils of various sizes.
These are equipped with white enameled swing doors which
cover the ice tray openings. This prevents frost forming in
the trays and eliminates food odors from the freezing pans.
Fig. 116 shows an electrical unit installed in a McCray re»
frigerator.
Odin. — The Odin refrigerating machine is made by the
Automatic Refrigerating Company of Hartford, Conn.
FIG. 117.— ODIN REFRIGERATING UNIT.
This machine uses air under very low pressure for a re-
frigerating medium. The machine is entirely automatic. A
thermostat in the food compartment automatically starts and
256
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
^tops tlie refrigerating^ machine. This system is air-cooled,
thus eliminating cooling water connections.
The cabinet, Fig. 117, has fifteen cubic feet of food com-
partment space. An ice making compartment is included.
This box has a gray enamel finish on the outside and porcelain
fused on a metal lining.
Rice. — A Complete line of fourteen distinct models of re-
frigerating units for domestic use are manufactured l)y Rice
Products, Inc., of New York City.
fk;
18.-r<]CE COMPRKSSOR I'XIT.
Nine of these are designed for installation in conjunction
with refrigerators ranging from five to sixty cubic feet in size,
and consist of a compressor unit and a cooling unit. The lat-
ter is placed in the ice compartment of the refrigerator to be
cooled and the compressor unit can be placed in the base-
ment immediately beneath the refrigerator or other con\e-
nient location. The compressor and cooling units are con-
nected by two small copper tubes. Five models known as
D-5, D-7, D-9, D-12, and D-15 are complete self-contained elec-
trical refrigerators ready for electrical connection to the light-
ing mains.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 257
in:, ii'i, Axo'i'iiKi^ \ii:\\ oi iiiK RU1-: (omi'rkssor umt.
FIG. 120.— RICE GRID SECTIONS, MADE OF SEMI-STEEL CASTINGS,
TONGUE AND GROOVE CONNECTED.
258
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 118 and 119 show two views of the coini)ressor unit.
This consists of a compressor, motor, fly-wheel, fan pulley,
belt, condenser, receiver with the necessary shut-off valves
FIG. 121.— SECTIONAL VIEW OF RICE COMFKESSOR.
and strainer, all mounted on a substantial iron base. Both
single and double cylinder compressors are furnished. The
former is driven by j4 liP- motor at 360 r.p.m. and the latter
by a ^ hp. motor at the same speed.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 259
Fig. 121 is a sectional view of the compressor. Com-
pressors are of the single-acting, vertical reciprocating type,
air-cooled and lubricated by splash from the crankcase. They
are belt driven by means of a moulded rubber and canvas "V"
belt passing over the compressor fly-wheel which is 14^
inches in diameter. Crank shafts are of forged steel, heat
treated and ground and are 1^ inches in diameter on both
types. Main bearings are of cast iron l}i inches x 1^4 inches.
An approved ball thrust bearing, to take the thrust of the seal
s])ring is provided. Connecting rod bearings are babbitt
broached to size and measure li% inches x 1^4 inches. Bunt-
ing (bronze) bushings are used in the wristpin bearings.
Pistons are of cast iron with suction valve mounted flv!^l^
with the head. They are fitted with six piston rings; two in
each of the three ring slots. Both suction and discharge
valves are of the feather type, of new and improved desip; i.
Valves are individually lapped to their seats and are noise-
less in operation. TIic discharge valve plate is a die castiTg.
.V metallic stuffing box of si^ecial design has been pro-
vided. The seal ring is lapped to a seat formed by a shoulder
on the crankshaft and is kept in contact by means of a sixty-
pound spring. The bar and stroke on both compressors is
Ijf inches x Ijj} inches.
Motors are regularly sup[)lied for either 110 Or 220 volt,
60 cycle, single phase alternating or 110 or 220 volt direct cur-
rent. Motors wound for other voltages, frequencies or phases
can be furnished to order at additional cost. Motors, as regu-
larly supplied, are furnished with sliding bases to facilitate
belt adjustment and dispense with idlers.
Condensers are of the Flint-lock type and are mounted at
the back of the compressor unit. They are cooled by a fan
mounted directly on the motor-shaft. The condenser as-
sembly is self-supporting and mounted on the base. Condens-
ers furnished with the Type "A" Compressor Unit measure
9 inches x 9 inches. Those furnished with the T}'pe "B"
measure 12 inches x 12 inches.
260
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Compressor Units are linished in dark blue Duco. Dimen-
sions are as follows, overall :
Type "A"
25 in. long
17K' i"- deep
\9]4 in. higli
Type "B"
29 in. long
18->4 in. deep
\9% in. high
FIG.— 122.— RICE METAL CABINET.
Net Weights : Type "A" 140 lbs. Type "B" 185 lbs.
TTie cooling unit, Fig. 121 consists of a series of grid sec-
tions made of semi-steel castings, tongue and groove con-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
261
nected. These various sections can be assembled in grids to
meet any domestic requirement.
Grids are galvanized both inside and out and are tested
to 300 pounds air pressure under water and 350 i)ounds hvdro-
FIG. 123.— RICE METAL CABINET.
Static pressure. Grids are dehydrated under a vacuum at the
factory and sealed prior to shipment.
Ice trays arc of tinned copper and measure 10^ x 3^ x
ly^- inches deep and hold a])i)roximatcly one pound of water.
Each trav is provided with a removable irrid for forming cubes.
262 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
There are twelve 1>4 x 1>4 x 1^ inch cubes per tray. This is
the standard ice tray furnished with all cooling units
A particularly interesting feature consists in the elimina-
tion of the float or expansion valve, and the substitution there-
for of a capillary tube, having no moving parts and no adjust-
ment.
The thermostat is a Mercoid Control manufactured by the
American Radiator Company. It is temperature controlled
and is provided with both temperature and differential range
adjustments. The circuit is controlled direct to the motor and
accordingly no relays, transformers or other intermediate con-
trols are required. Contacts are sealed within a glass tube
containing an inert gas which prevents oxidation or corro-
sion, a common fault with most thermostatic controls.
Figs. 122 and 123 show typical metal cabinets. The
standard construction is an exterior of steel finished in white
Duco and an interior of porcelain on steel. Doors are pro-
vided with double gaskets. The insulation is of corkboard
two inches thick sealed between interior and exterior metal
with hydrolene cement. The cabinet specifications of the five
self-contained models are as follows :
CABINET SPECIFICATIONS
Model
D-S
D-7
D-9
D-12
D-15
Width
27^ in.
343^ in.
34H in.
45 in.
54^ in.
Depth
243/i in.
28^ in.
28^ in.
28^ in.
28 H in.
Height
60 in.
63 in.
69 in.
69 in.
69 in.
Weight
460 lbs.
530 lbs.
612 lbs
665 lbs.
781 lbs.
Gr. Capacity
6.5
10.3
12
16
19.3
Food Storage
5
7
9
12
IS
Shelf Space
8.3
9.2
12.2
17
23.2
No. Cubes
36
48
60
72
120
Compr. Unit
Type "A"
Type "A"
Type "A"
Type "A"
Type "A"
Cool. Unit
No. 6
No. 10
No. 15
No. 25
No. 30
Sanat. — The Sanat machine, Fig. 124, is made by Sanat Re-
frigerating Co., Inc., 331 Madison Avenue, New York City.
The machine consists of a motor, a worm and worm gear
drive, a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve, a cool-
ing tank, a temperature control, and the necessary piping and'
wiring to connect the units. The other elements are the re-
frisrerant and the brine.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
263
The refrigerant is chloric ether, a solution of ethyl chloride
and alcohol. The pressure of condensation is relatively low,
16 to 20 pounds gauge.
A y^ hp, motor is used to drive the compressor by means
of a worm and worm gear drive. Radial and thrust ball bear-
ings are used for mounting the worm, and friction is thereby
greatly reduced.
FIG. 124.— SAXAT REFRIGERATING UNIT.
The compressor is a single cylinder, double acting, slow
speed machine operating at forty strokes per minute, or eighty
compressions. Poppet valves are used throughout — bakelite
operating on brass seats, eliminating metal to metal contact
with its attendant sticking. The bearings on the crank shaft
and connecting rod are of hardened steel and amply large.
The stuffing box is of the double gland stype. The compressor
is lubricated automatically by the mineral oil which is formed
when the refrigerant is expanded into the brine.
The condenser is air cooled and consists of a hundred feet
of ^-inch copper tubing. No forced draught is required over
these coils to condense the refrigerant, therefore, the need
for a fan is eliminated.
264
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The expansion valve is a simple device which runs into the
brine within a few inches of the bottom of the tank. This
valve releases the chloric ether into the brine from the high to
low pressures. The expansion member of this mechanism is a
sylphon bellows, which expands or contracts through verv
narrow limits, thus eliminating or keeping adjustments to a
minimum.
I-IG. 125.— COMPLKTE SAXAT UNIT IXCLUDIXG CAl'.lNKT.
The cooling tank, made of ' s-inch steel, occupies the
space in the ice compartment of the refrigerator and con-
tains the solution of calcium chloride brine and alcohol. The
refrigerant is expanded directly into the brine causing an agi-
tation which produces an even temperature throughout the
brine and results in a constant crisp dry-cold in the refrigera-
tor. A marked advantage of this system lies in the fact that
the agitation resulting from the direct expansion of the refrig-
erant into the brine produces an emulsion, which is equivalent
to a medium grade mineral lubricating oil. This lubricant is
formed in small but sufficient cj;uantities and is drawn back
into the compressor and automatically solves the lubricating
problem.
The temperature control operates on a ten volt circuit ;
a rela}^ mounted in a convenient location being used to reduce
the voltage from the usual liome pressures. This arrangement
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
265
requires the mininuiin of attention. The thermostat is gov-
erned by the temperature of the brine and can be set to operate
accurately between small variations of temperature.
Fig. 125 shows a complete unit including the cabinet. Fig.
126 shows the cabinet with vegetable storage space at bottom
as arranged when tlie machine is located in the basement.
■Hi. 1J(.. SAXAT MKTAL CAIUXKI' W 111 1 \' Kl.KTA I'.l.K SIORAGE.
Savage. — Fig. 127 shows the mercury refrigerating ma-
chine made by the Savage Arms Corporation, Utica, New
York, suitable for ice cream cabinet and household fields.
Fig. 128 shows the machine with the condenser removed.
This machine operates on a new system of mercur\^ compres-
sion.
The screw pumj), invented by Archimedes about 250 B C,
266
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
using mercury as the compressing fluid, is the basis of the
design. Following are the most important advantages :
There are no internal moving parts. There is no lubricant
within the refrigerating cycle.
FIG. 127.— SAVAGE MERCURY REFRIGERATING MACHINE.
The drive is external to the refrigeration cycle, requiring
no stuffing box or gland joint. The system is sealed by weld-
ing, and is leak proof.
The machine is exceptionally quiet in operation, due to
purely rotary motion at relatively low speeds.
Mercury compression, because of its inherent freedom
from power losses, makes possible an exceedingly low power
consumption per unit of refrigeration.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
267
Excessive pressures cannot be generated, since the critical
point of the mercury compressor is reached only a few pounds
above the working ]:)ressure of the machine. It then blows
back, short circuiting itself.
FIG. 128.— SAVAGE MERCURY REFRIGERATING MACHINE WITH
CONDENSER REMOVED.
A force feed oiling system provides adequate lubrication
to the four external bearings with oil storage capacity suf-
ficient for many years of operation.
An automatic temperature speed control gives the machine
added refrigerating capacity as the room temperature rises.
The machine automatically operates at the most efficient speed
for all room temperatures, an exclusive feature.
Service may be performed upon any mechanical or elec-
trical part of the machine without disconnecting or disturbing
the refrigeration system, and without losing any refrigerant.
268
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
It is obvious that llu-ic can be no piston leakage, since
each mercury piston seals itself in the helical passageway.
Neither can there be an\ clearance or re-expansion loss, since
each gas volume is pushed completely through from the low
to the high pressure chamber. There is no internal wear.
Fig. 129 is a typical cabinet for preserving ice cream. This
cabinet is of angle iron frame construction with tongue and
groove spruce flooring.
FIG. 129.— SA\'AGE ICE CREAM CABINET.
Cork insulation is used and all joints flooded with sealing
compound. Two thicknesses of waterproof paper are used
as an additional ])r()tection against air leakage. The lining
is of heavy gahanized sheet steel. 'J'lie top is of laminated
wood, covered with non-C()rr()si\e metal. The sides are of
black-enameled sheet steel, bound in by metal corner angles.
The cabinets may be installed either as a unit with the
compressor or as a remote system. In the latter case the com-
pressor unit is generally installed in the basement or in some
other convenient i)lace separate from the cabinet.
Servel. — Figs. 130 and 131 shows the Model 21-A refrig-
erating machine manufactured by the Servel Corpc^ration
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 269
whose main offices are at 51 Jiasl 42nd Street, New York City.
Methyl Chloride is the refrigerant used in this system.
The compressor, condenser, pressure control and ^ hp.
motor are mounted on a pressed steel base. The 21-A is used
in all complete Servel refrigerators, as well as all remote
FIG. 130.--SERVEL MODEL 21-A REFRIGERATING UNIT.
household installations. The compressor is of the vertical,
twin cylinder, single acting, reciprocating type. It is free from
vibration and practically noiseless. The bore is 1^ inch and
the stroke 1^4 inch. The compressor runs at a comparatively
low speed — 375 r.p.m. The drive is accomplished through
a "V" belt. Both the inlet and outlet valves are flapper valves.
270
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Leakage around the compressor shaft is prevented by use of
a special sylphon seal of the rotating type.
The temperature control, Fig. 132, is accomplished by
means of the action of the copper bellows connected to the low
FIG. 131.
-CUTAWAY VIEW OF SERVEL COMPRESSOR SHOWING MOVING
PARTS AND SYLPHON PACKING.
pressure side of the system. The inflation and deflation of the
bellows operates a quick make and break switch, opening and
closing the motor circuit, and is adjustable for different pres-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
271
sure to give any desired temperature. A special feature of
the control device is that it limits the pressure of the suction
gas to the compressor at the time of start so that no overload
is placed on the motor.
FIG. 132.— SERVEL PRESSURE CONTROL CUT OPEN TO SHOW OPERATION'
OF PISTON.
The condenser is trombone shaped, cooled by two fans
running in opposite directions. The four bladed fan on the
motor pulley blows directly into and across the condenser.
The large fan on the compressor flywheel draws the air out
of the condenser. Exhaustive tests show^ conclusively that
272
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
this arrangeincnt is superior to two fans operating in the
same direction and materially reduces the head pressure where
boxes are so located as to make air circulation difficult. The
motor mounting- plate is of pressed steel and adapted to Gen-
FIG. 133.— FLOAT VALVE, SER\EL REFRIC.ERATIXG IMT.
era! Electric, Century, Emerson and Westinghouse motors.
The adjusting (jf the motor for belt tension is controlled by
one nut. making this a very simple operation.
In the complete refrigerator the float valve is placed in
the machine compartment. The sturdy construction of this
float is clearly shown in Fig. 133. When sufficient liquid
meth} 1 chloride has accumulated in the float it raises the ball,
opens the needle valve and enters the expansion coils. A
c\lin(h-ical screen is used as a strainer both on the inlet to
the float and as a cage surrounding the needle valve. This
prevents any foreign matter clogging the needle valve.
All shutofl: valves are made from bronze forgings and are
provided with caps which completely inclose the valve stem,
thus eliminating leaks through the valve packing.
Fig. 134 shows the Model S-7, suitable for the family of
medium size, one of the three all steel models now being man-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
273
ufactured by Servel. The other two models are the S-5, for
the small family, and the S-10, suitable for the more preten-
tious household. (Fig. 135 and 136.)
\-\(\.
134.— SERVEL AIJ^STEEL REFRIGERATOR FOR ^rEFlT^^T SIZED
FAMILY.
The cabinets are constructed of especially selected
"Armco" Ingot Iron carefully lead-coated as a positive pro-
tection against rust. The metal shell is given an application
of oil base primer coat, after which this coat is slowly and
carefully baked on under a low temperature, pr(iducing a
274
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
finish which will neither peel nor scale. Next, several coats
of surfacer and two coats of genuine Du Pont White Duco
Lacquer are applied and allowed to air dry. The slow process
of air drying, while it creates an additional factory cost, pro-
FIG. 13S.— SERVEL ALL-STEEL REFRIGERATOR F(^R SMALL lA.MlLi' ISL,
duces a much better appearing and more lasting finish than
can ever be expected under artificial or forced drying.
The porcelian liners are of the box type, and are so con-
structed, with double lock flanges, that bolt holes or screw
holes are entirely eliminated except those required for tank
and shelf supports. This produces an absolutely sanitary liner
and eliminates all chance of flaking of the porcelain finish, due
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
275
to uneven strain such as results from the use of screws or
bolts.
The chilling units are of tinned copper and have front
FIG. 136.— SERVEL ALL-STEEL REFRIGERATOR FOR LARGE SIZED
FAMILY.
panels and ice-cube-tray fronts of genuine porcelain. Each
ice-cube-tray holds 12 cubes.
The insulation is pure compressed corkboard thoroughly
impregnated with hydrolene, 1^-inch thick on top and sides
276
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
on the S-5, 2-inch thick top and sides on the S-7 and S-10:
with a 3-inch bottom thickness on all models.
All seams in tlie C()rkl:)oard arc filled with Hydrolene.
\\^ater])roof paper is then aj^plied over the corkboard as added
FIG. 137.— SERVEL SEMI-COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATING UNIT.
seal against air leaks. An air space of 34"^i'ich to 3^-inch is
used between the outer metal shell and the insulation sur-
rounding the liner.
The semi-commercial machines are shown in Figs. 137
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
277
and 138. The 15-A is ])articularly ada])ted for ice cream cabi-
nets and low temperature work. The rated capacity of the
FIG. 138.— SERVEL SEMI-COMMERCIAL REFRIGERATING UNIT.
15-A is 350 lbs. The 18-A has a rated capacity of 300 lbs.,
and is used on large household or small commercial boxes.
Socold. — Fig. 139 shows the compressor unit used in the
electric refrigerator manufactured by the Socold Refrigerat-
ing Corporation of Boston, Massachusetts. The refrigerant
used is sulphur dioxide.
The compressor has two vertical cylinders. The pistons
arc driven by connecting rods operated by a walking beam.
The drive shaft oscillates on an arc of 12 to 15 degrees each
side of center at slow speed. A plate of special metal seals
against a shoulder on this shaft. Thus the wear on the pack-
ing is very slight. The discharge valves are in the cylinder
head and are made of three monel discs. The suction valves
are single parts in the cylinder walls.
278
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The condenser consists of a coil of one tube mounted on
the same base with the compressor. Forced air cooling is
obtained by a fan in front of the motor and in the compressor
drive wheel.
FIG 139.— SOCOLD REFRIGERATING UNIT.
m
FIG. 140.— SOCOLD FROST UNIT OF HEAVY SEMI-STEEL CONSTRUCTION.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
279
Fig. 140 shows the frost unit which is of heavy galvanized
semi-steel construction and operates on the direct expansion
system. An expansion valve of single construction is used
to reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant.
FIG. 141.— SOCOLD TYPICAL STEEL CABINET.
A Mercoid thermostat is used for temperature control. It
is responsive to the temperature of the frost unit and not by
temperature of the food compartments, which issues a con-
stant supply of ice cubes without making seasonal adjust-
ments necessary. The thermostat is set to maintain a tem-
perature in the frost unit of from 20 to 24 degrees F. This
280
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
produces a temperature of from 45 to 50 degrees F. in the
food compartment.
Fig-. 141 and 142 show typical steel cabinets.
The construction provides one air and moisture tight steel
^^sss^UBsaa,
zz-ji
%ss^msm
FIG. 14:
-SOCOLD STEEL CABINET SHOWING REFRIGERATING AND
FROST UNITS INSTALLED.
case inside another which will not permit the penetration of
moisture and odors into the insulation.
-Balsam-wool is used to insulate the cabinets. This ma-
terial is manufactured from the fibers of northern coniferous
woods. The process is somewhat similar to that employed in
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 281
pulp making, as the wood is first reduced by mechanical means
and then chemically treated so the wood fibers are separated
from one another. The individual fibers are fine, hairlikc, hol-
low tubes, and at this stage are saturated with chemicals that
render them non-inflammable and proof against decay. These
fibers are handled by air and felted into a fleecx mat lujund
together with cement. An imp(_)rtant feature of this mat is
that its fibers extend in all three cubical dimensions, with the
result that the blanket is remarkably light in weight and con-
tains millions of dead-air cells.
To increase the mechanical strength of the fibrous Ijlanket.
a layer of water-proofed Kraft ])aper is cemented to each side
of the blanket with asi^halt. This method of applying the
liner does away with stitching and leaves the surface of the
material impervious to water and air.
The cold storage type of balsam-wool is particularlx
adapted for these small boxes because it is easily fitted in
around the corners, is odorless either wet or dry, and will not
support mildew or mold. A complete line of cabinets in por-
celain or white baked enamel are manufactured.
Universal Refrigerating Machine. — Fig. 143 shows the
household compressor unit manufactured by the Unixersal
Ice Machine Company of Detroit.
The refrigerant used is ammonia. A y^ hp. motor drives
the comjjressor by means of a 'A'" type leather belt and idler
pulley. The compressor has a special type aluminum piston,
designed to assure good lubrication and eliminate wear on
the sides of the cylinders.
Disc plate suction and discharge valves are used. These
are located in tlie head of the compressor and are easily ac-
cessible. The cylinder head is water jacketed. Metallic pack-
ing is used on the compressor crankshaft. The condenser is
made of a double spiral coil with welded ends. Water flows
through the inner coil.
Utility Refrigerating Unit. — Fig. 144 shows the mechanical
unit used in the Utility Electric Refrigerator which is manu-
factured at Adrian. Michigan b}- the Utility Compressor Com-
pany. It is reported this company is now out of business.
282
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
IO?60
FIG. 143.— UNIVERSAL KEFRIGERATIXG MACHINE.
The electric motor and pump are enclosed in the dome at
the right, hermetically sealed. This eliminates a packing
gland for the shaft of the compressor.
The thermostat and the cooling coils, which absorb the heat
from the atmosphere in the refrigerator are situated in the
chamber at the left.
The condenser is of the radiator t} pe and is located behind
the dome and coil chamber. This condenser is air-cooled.
The complete mechanical unit is interchangeable and easily
removed from the cabinet.
In case service is required, it is claimed that the complete
mechanical unit can be removed and another put in place in
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 283
fifteen minutes. This eliminates the need of mechanics work-
ing on repairs in the home. The small door is for the ice
freezing chamber.
FIG. 144.— UTILITY REFRIGERATING UNIT.
The mechanical unit is placed in the upper part of a special
cabinet. The cabinets are of white porcelain or natural wood
exteriors. A one-piece porcelain lining is used. The cabinets
are seventy inches high, thirty-eight inches wide, and twenty-
three inches deep.
Ward. — Fig. 145 shows the condensing system of the
household refrigerating machine made by the Ward Electric
Refrigerator Corporation of Buchanan, Michigan.
FIG. 145.— WARD HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATING SYSTEM.
284
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
A ^i hp- motor drives the compressor by means of a "V"
type belt. The condenser consists of a coil of copper tubing.
Air is forced over the condenser b\- a fan on the motor shaft.
FIG. 146." A\AKD EN'APOKATI XG SYSTEM.
Fig. 146 shows a ty])ical evaporating s}stcm consisting of
a brine tank. exi)ansion valve and necessar\' connections. The
thermostat control is mounted on the brine tank.
i;! ^^
=&^*%i
^«
FIG. 147.— SMOWIXG SPLIT-VALVE CONNECTIONS, W.\RD REFRTGER.
ATING SYSTEM.
The system is connected together by means of tubing con-
taining split-valves on each end as in Fig. 147. This arrange-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 285
inent eliminates the need to dehydrate, pull a vacuum or
charge the machine when making an installation. The valves
on each end of the tubing are shut off when charged at the
factory and after dealer has connected up same with machine,
they are then turned on by a ratchet wrench which operates on
the end of each valve and thus the dealer does not lose the
charge when installing unit.
^1'
4|» *--SiS- ^
FIG. 148.— WARD STEEL HOUSEHOLD CABINET.
One of the cabinets is shown in Fig. 148. The cabinet has
a steel exterior and is insulated with corkboard. Various sizes
and types of cabinets can be supplied.
286
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Warner. — Fig. 149 and 150 show compressor units made
by the Warner Stacold Corporation of Ottawa, Kansas.
Air-cooled sulphur dioxide compressors are made in the
lie. 1-19. WAK.N'EK STACOLD C OMi'RESSOK VKiV.
following sizes: 1-cylinder com|)ressors driven by % and
34 hj). motors; 2-c}"linder compressors driven by _^ and ^3 hp.
motors; 3-cylinder compressors driven by Jj, .)4 'ind 1 hp.
motors.
These compressors are of the slow speed reciprocating
type. A special "V" belt is used. The compressors have
crank shafts which oi)eratc with less friction tlian eccentrics.
FIG. 150.— WAKNKR SlWCOLl) Cd.\l I'R I'SSOK I'Nl'l'.
Ground removable cylinder sleeves are used. The commercial
compressors have pistons equipped with 4 rings.
A series of 8 sizes of cooling tanks are made suitable for
the various refrigerators.
Flooded t> pe cooling coils are also made. These coils are
used in apartment houses and commercial installations where
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
287
it is necessary to have more than one cooling coil connected
to one compressor.
Metal cabinets are manufactured from 4.6 to 10.5 cubic feet
food storage space. These cabinets are insulated with cork.
The exterior has a lacquer finish. The interior is of white
enamel or porcelain.
Welsbach. — This machine, Fig. 151, is manufactured by
the Welsbach Company at Gloucester, N. J.
The refrigerant used is "Alcozol," which has been de-
veloped in the Welsbach chemical laboratories. "Welcolub,"
FIG. 151.— WELSBACH COMPRESSOR UNIT.
another product of the Welsbach laboratories, is used as the
lubricant.
The compressor is of the horizontal, double acting type.
The compressor cylinder has a bore of 3 inches, with a stroke
of 1 inch. It operates at low speed — 280 revolutions per min-
ute. In normal operation in a 90° F. room the condensing
pressure is 20 to 25 lbs., while the suction pressure is a
vacuum.
General Electric and Century ]/^ hp. motors are used,
operating at 1750 revolutions per minute, with an average
288
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
connected load of 210 watts. The motor drives the compres-
sor by means of a ruliber-fa'bric "A"' t\i)e belt.
FIG. 152.— WF.LSHArir FUKFZiNT, T'XIT.
The condenser is made of ^-inch copper tubing. Forced
air cooling is obtained by means of a two-blade fan on a motor
pulley, and fan blades in the compressor pulley. The con-
denser supplies liquid refrigerant to a receiver of sufficient
size to hold the entire charge.
Fig. 152 shows the freezing unit made of tinned copper,
containing a non-freezing solution of glycerine and water.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
289
The c.\i);iiisi()n <(iils arc made ot ^^-inch copper tul)ing-, pan-
cake vvindinj^. A downward pitch in the evaporator permits
the draina.^e of circulated luliricant Iiack to the com])ressor.
An expansion Aalvc is used and automatically maintains
a predetermined \acuum, regardless of the condensing pres-
stirc.
K;. 153.— WELSr.ACII STEEI. CABINET.
The automatic tem[)eraturc control consists of a mercury
switch mounted on a bi-metallic coil sealed in a bakelite case.
The control is mounted on the u])per right-hand corner of
the cooling tank.
Fig. 153 shows a ty])ical steel cabinet as manufactured b}-
the Welsbach Comi)any. Mg. 15-f shows a typical hardwood
cabinet made of S'])\\ Inininated wood, using flush i)anel con-
290
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 154.— WELSBACH HARDWOOD CABINET.
structioii. Both the steel and wood cabinets are supplied in
various models. The dimensions, food storage space, number
of trays and number of ice cubes vary with different models.
Whitehead. — Fig. 155 shows the compressor unit used with
the household refrigerating machine manufactured by the
Whitehead Refrigeration Company of Detroit, Michigan.
The compressor is of the reciprocating type. It is con-
nected directly to the motor shaft and operates at motor speed,
thus eliminating belts or gears. A flexible coupling is used
to connect the motor and compressor shafts.
The condenser is made of finned tubing and is cooled by
forced air. The fan is mounted on the compressor motor shaft.
Methvl chloride is used as the refrigierant. The receiver
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
291
FIG. 15S.-WHITEIIEAD COMPRESSOR UNIT.
a i\ iimi
FIG. 1S6.-WHITEHEAD COOLING UNIT.
292 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
contains a visililc gauiic slmwing the amount of rcfris^erant
contained in the receiver.
^fhe temperature control is of the mercury tube type.
Fig. 156 shows a ty])ical coolint^' unit. 'Jliis is made in
five sizes as follows :
Maximum Cube
Tank Ice Box Capacity per
Size Width Dcjitli Height Capacity Freezing
1
10 in.
11 in.
10 in.
5-7 cu. ft.
96
2
10 in.
11 in.
13 in.
8-10 en. ft.
96
3
10 in.
11 in.
16 in.
11-15 en. ft.
144
4
11 in.
1 1 in.
19 in.
16-20 cu. ft.
144
5
11 in.
11 in.
23 in.
20-30 cu. ft.
192
Williams Simplex. — An air cooled refrigeratino- machine
was develo]>ed tor household use called the \\'illiams Simplex.
Ethyl chloride is used as the refrigerant.
The compressor is of the rotary tyi)e, directly connected
to the motor shaft without employment of intermediary gear-
ing or belting. The comi)ressor has a xolumetric efficiency
ranging from 82 ])er cent to 85 per cent, and a mechanical
ef^ciency comparing favorabl) with the best reciprocating
types of many times greater cajjacit}-.
.\ ground steel collar is used to seal the drixe shaft. This
collar is self-aligning and automaticall} takes up \\ear. as
it is attached to the com])ressor b\ means of a corrugated
metallic tube. A spring, assisted 1)\ the condensing pressure,
holds these mend)ers in firm contact. This forms a tight joint,
which will run indefinitely without a tendenc}' to wear or
break down.
The compressor is mounted integrally with and supported
by the mentor. Positive ])ressure feed of lubricant is main-
tained to all moving elements of the compressor while in
operation.
The compressor and condenser are cooled entirely by main-
taining a current of air over their surfaces. The air is circu-
lated by means of a Sirocco type of blower mounted between
the motor and the compressor, the blower casing forming
the supporting bracket for the compressor.
The air is first drawn through the condenser chamber
which cr)ntain-; a continuous coil of cop])er tubing into which
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 293
the refrigerant \ap<»r is compressed, taking u\) the hitent heat
of vaporization ; it then passes over the heat radiating lins of
the compressor, from which it discharges through a flue ex-
tending through the top of the machine cover. Air is also
simultaneously drawn from the opposite direction through
and around the motor and discharged from the fan as above
described.
The so-called flooded system is employed, in which the
expansion or cooling coils are filled with liquid refrigerant.
These coils connect into a vertical header from the toj) of
which the \ aporized refrigerant is drawn. This \aiJor, after
being licjuetied in the condenser, is discharged into a small
chamber fitted with a float \alve, whicJT ])ermits it to feed
back into the expansion coils at the same rate at which it is
Deing condensed.
These features are important, in that the radiating surfaces
of the cooling coil have a much higher heat transmitting
capacity when full of lic^uid. The ratio to the usual method
of gas expansion at constant ])ressure is about 1.56 to 1.
A still more important advantage is that the expansion
pressure is automatically varied to maintain constant balance
between the compressor capacity and the radiating surfaces
as the temi)erature changes. This provides maximum efiiciency
operating conditions throughout any range of temperature,
while in the usual gas expansion method the pressure is neces-
sarily set and held for the lowest temperature required, which
is alwa\s the condition of lowest efficiency.
The machine is controlled by means of a thermostat, ar-
ranged to operate responsive to the temperature of the brine
surrounding the coils in the brine tank. The switching appa-
ratus and its actuating motor are located on the machine base,
while the bulb of the instrument only is located in the tank.
The advantage of placing the thermostat bulb in the brine
tank is due to the fact that the maximum temperature change
occurs in the brine.
A safety pressure switch is also used, which is operated
directly responsive to the refrigerant condensing pressure.
The machine has a capacity when operating at 15° F. of
about 150 lbs. ice equi\-alent per 24 liours. The power con-
294
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
sumption, including motor losses, is from 190 to 200 watts with
direct current, and from 260 to 300 watts with alternating
current, the difference being due to the larger losses in the
alternating current motor.
Zerozone. — The Zerozone Household Electrical Refrigerat-
ing Unit is manufactured by the Iron Mountain Company of
Chicago, Illinois.
This is an air-cooled compressor type unit using a cooling
unit of the indirect type. The refrigerant used is sulphur
dioxide.
FIG. 157.— ZEROZONE ELECTRICAL REFRIGERATING UNIT.
The compressor unit consists of a one-cylinder reciprocat-
ing type compressor which is used on all well insulated re-
frigerators up to 20 cu. ft. and is shown in Fig. 157. The
bore and stroke is 1^ inch and the compressor operates at 330
r.p.m. The compressor is driven by a 34 hp. repulsion induc-
tion electric motor by means of a "V" type belt.
A two cylinder type compressor is used on all refrigera-
tors from 20 to 50 cu. ft. and is shown in Fig. 158. The bore
and stroke is 1^ inch and the compressor operates at 265
r.p.m. driven by a 5^ hp. repulsion induction electric motor by
means of a "V" type belt.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 295
a j^
FIG. 158.— ZEROZONE TWO-CYLINDER TYPE COMPRESSOR.
FIG. 159.— ZEROZONE AUTOMATIC CONTROL.
296
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The condenser in each case is a double copper coil cooled
by forced air by means of a fan attached to pulley end of
the motor shaft.
The control used on the individual installation is an auto-
matic thermostat, Uxg. 159. and is responsive to the tempera-
I'lG. 160.— ZEROZONE COOLING UMT.
ture in the cooling unit. The thermostat tube in the cooling
unit connects to a sylphon which operates a mercury tube
switch, by means of a suitable lever mechanism.
The control used on the Multiple installation is of the low
pressure type, and is responsive to the pressures in the low-
side of the refrigerant system. This lo\\- pressure control.
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
297
controls the oijcration of the conii^ression unit itself, the tem-
perature of each cooling unit in the multiple installation being
controlled indixidually l)y a Idw side, thermostatic actuated
valve. commi)iil\' referred to as a teni))erature g•o^■ern(Jr.
FIG. 161.— ZEROZONE SELF-COXTAIXED METAL CABINET.
A diaphram type expansion valve is used to automatically
meter the correct supply of liquid refrigerant to the expansion
coils.
The cooling units are made of 20 ounce sheet copper, made
in \-arious sizes, one of which i> shown in Fi^. 160. and con-
298 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
tains ^-inch copper tubing for the expansion coil. The non-
freeze solution is calcium chloride.
Fig. 161 shows a typical self-contained cabinet, the ex-
terior of which is metal, finished with white lacquer. Cork-
board is used to insulate the walls and doors. The lining is of
the one piece porcelain on steel type. The cabinets are made
in A^arious stvlcs and sizes.
CHAPTER VIII
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATING MACHINES
ABSORPTION TYPE
Household Absorption Refrigerating Machines. — In this
chapter, attention will be given to the general types and char-
actertistic construction of a number of household absorption
refrigerating machines.
Ice-O-Lator. — Fig. 162 shows an absorption type refriger-
ating machine manufactured by the Winchester Repeating
Arms Company for the National Refrigerating Company at
New Haven, Conn.
The "absorbent" which was the result of so many years
of research by Prof. Keyes is the basis of the machine. Other
absorbents have been known. Charcoal is an efficient absorb-
ent and is frequently employed to absorb gases of various
kinds. A good example is in gas masks. But charcoal can-
not be employed in refrigeration because it is such a poor con-
ductor of heat that no practical degree of efficiency can be
obtained in the operation of a machine using it. You can get
the gas into it well enough, but you can't get it out again
without the expenditure of a prohibitive amount of energy.
This absorbent combines the highest known absorbing quali-
ties together with the quality of high heat conductivity.
Following are the qualities which the inventors set out to
embody in their absorbent. They are the properties of an
ideal material :
1. Cheapness and unlimited supply.
2. Should absorb at least 100 per cent of its own weight of re-
frigerant.
299
300
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
3. Should ha\ c :i lii,L;li heat coiuluctivity in urder to facilitate the
removal of heat of absorption and also the application of heat for
driving off the refrigerant.
4. Cellular, or porous structure, in order to present necessary
working surface.
5. Stability. There should be no diminution of operating effi-
ciency, or no disintegration or decomposition after continued use.
^ I
FIG. 162.— XATIONAL UEFRIGEUATINC MACHINE.
In three >ears of contintiotis oiieration. no si^n of decreased
efficiency has developed.
A brief comparison with water, the best known absorbent,
forms a favorable basis for com])arison. Water rom])els the
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 301
use of aqueous ammonia. This material is absolutely dr\,
making" possilile the use of pure anhydrous ammonia. Water
absorbs 40 per cent of its own weight of ammonia. This
material absorbs a])i)r(jximately 110 per cent of its own weight
of ammonia gas and in addition loses its working charge on
the application of about half the amount of heat necessary
to dri\-e the much smaller charge from water. Result — much
less bulk and much more economical operation.
As the efficiency of the material has been steadily increased
by constant scientific research since its discovery, there is con-
siderable possibility th.it it may be still further increased.
The small hcjusehold machine operates as follows: A steel
tube is filled with a material which will absorb a large quantity
of ammonia gas. When heat is applied the pressure is in-
creased and the NH, gas is liberated and passes through a
filter and check vahe to the condenser. When the pressure
reaches a point that corresponds to the temperature of the
cooling water, condensation takes place and liquid NH3 is de-
livered to the liquid valve float chamber. The purpose of this
chamber is to insure complete condensation by the cooling
water. The liquid NH, is then delivered through a small orifice
and tube to the refrigerating chamber and coils. The heating
continues until enough liquid NH3 has collected in the re-
frigerating chamber and coils to make a contact by means of
the float contacting mechanism at the top of the refrigerating
chamber. \Mien this contact is made the relay switching sys-
tem is tipped to the opi)osite position, the heating circuit is
broken, and the water is shifted by means of the valve from
the condenser to the generator. As soon as the pressure over
the material in the generator has dropped to the point which
is less than the vapor pressure of the liquid ammonia in the
refrigerating chamber and coils, boiling in this chamber com-
mences and continues until all the liquid has evaporated. This
evaporation may require from one hour to five hours depend-
ing upon the temperature in the refrigerator. A\'hen the tem-
perature is high, the evaporation is very rapid and when it is
low the boiling requires a much longer period of time. The
temperature in the refrigerator, then is regulated by the rate
of evaporation of the liquid. The brine tank maintains the
302
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
low temperature during- the heat i)eriod when no refrigeration
is taking place so that the temperature ;n the refrigerator is
practically constant. When the entire quantity of liquid has
evaporated a contact is made at the bottom of the refrigerating
chamber which tips the relay to the heating position, the heat-
ing circuit is made, the water is shifted back to the condenser,
and the cycle repeats.
Fig. 163 shows a diagramatic drawing of the gas-fired Ice-
O-Lator. This model has electrical controls and is water-
tifTTfOiinrr rp^euiAM^fif
'"'"
"■"*
"""
BtlT-
B,,.,.
-r;:
<• v.lrt
i/^rrfi/
r«
(ifM*f*Tar
(fupr««c
SlAm
v<.
Ovrtir
-flt««'<7r
rPv
FIG. 163.— DIAGRAMMATIC DRAWING OF THE GAS-FIRED ICE-O-LATOK.
cooled. The unit is placed in the cellar or any convenient
place outside of the refrigerator cabinet.
The following information concerning the cost of operating
this unit is of interest.
Illuminating or coal gas delivers 520 B.t.u. per cubic foot
and natural gas an average of 1100 B.t.u. per cubic foot. One
kw-hr. of electricity at 110 volts delivers 3415 B.t.u. Taking
coal gas for comparison, 6.56 cu. ft. of gas is equivalent to one
kw-hr. of electricity for heating purposes.
The cost of gas per 1000 cu ft. ranges from $0.40 to $1.50
in various localities. Many cities have a rate under $1.00.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 303
Natural gas, with about double the B.t.u. of coal gas, can be
purchased for as low as $0.40 per 1000 cu. ft. in some localities
As against this, the cost of electricity averages about $0.55
per kw-hr.
Heat for heat, the difference will readily be seen. At $1.00
per thousand cu. ft. for coal gas the same number of B.t.u.
can be obtained for three-fifths of a cent as from five and one
half cents' worth of electricity at the above rate.
The following table shows the approximate cost of opera-
tion, for the equivalent of 100 lbs. of ice refrigeration, of a
machine using gas at the various rates.
Cost of Gas Per Cost Per 100 Lbs.
1000 Cu. Ft. of Refrigeration
$0.40 $0.05
.80 10
1.00 125
1.50 187
2.00 25
2.80 35
It will probably have been observed that the small house-
hold machine is cyclic and subject to peaks. Whereas this
has not proven an objection in any of the machines at present
in operation, still in the event that continuous refrigeration
should be desired to meet some special conditions, such can
easily be obtained by the use of two generators, one absorb-
ing while the other distills.
Keith. — Fig. 164 shows an ammonia absorption type house-
hold refrigerating machine made by the Keith Electric Re-
frigerator Division of the Canada Wire and Cable Company,
Ltd., at Leaside, Ontario, Canada.
Referring to Fig. 164, which shows the unit in the cooling
position, on the left hand side in the generator, is about two
quarts of ordinary "ammonia" as used in the home. Within
the tank there is also a small electric heater. When the heater
is started the gas is driven out of the water, just as you can
see gas or bubbles of air driven out of the water in your tea
kettle as it begins to boil. This gas is not very warm, as
ammonia is easily driven ofif, and when it flows over into the
pipes shown on the right hand of the illustration, it is chilled
by a trickle of cold water which is flowing over the pipes of
304
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
the cc)n{len>er. W hen it is chillt'd, the gas is deposited on the
inside of the condenser, about the same as dew is deposited by
the chill of the morninci: air. This dejiosit is pure liquid am-
monia.
When the condenser is nearly full of pure liquid ammonia,
in approximately one hour's time, it ])egins to weigh more
than the generator, and swings down, ])ulling the generator
ui) and shutting off the electric heater. Almost immediately
the pure licpiid ammonia ])egins to c\a])orate and chills the
FTC. 164. —KEITH .\.\l M ( ).\ 1 .\ .M'.SORl'l'lO.X lYI'E KK KKICK k.ATI .\( i
MACHINE.
pipes to apj^roximately zero temperature. This chills the sur-
rounding air, which flows do\\n into the food comi)artment
of the refrigerator.
As the pure liquid ammonia evaporates, it flows l)ack as a
gas into the tank of water, where it is once more cjuickly
absorbed. As soon as all the ammonia is returned to the
generator, the pipes of the condenser naturallx" become lighter
and the tank (or generator) heavier, and the unit gently tilts
back to the original position, the electric heater starts and the
operation commences all over again.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
305
The u])crati()n, as has been cxphiined is inircl) automatic,
requiring no attention and maintains an even cold tt'm])eraturc
at all times, ideal for the jM-eservation of food. The amount of
electrical energy consumed axerages about 3^/2 kilowatt hours
per da}' for continuous ojjeration, depending on the weather
and other conditions.
FIG. K. 5.— KEITH REFRIGERATING UNIT INST.\LLED IN COMP.XR'l MEN 1
OX CABINET.
Heater — 900 watt resistance coil, porcelain core, inserted in steel
tube through generator.
Ice lock — Holds the condenser down until all ammonia is in the
generator. Is released by temperature rising above freezing
point.
Tip switch — A safety device tf> disconnect the electricity should the
water be shut off.
306 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Mercury seal — Contains mercury, which runs to lowest point with the
tilting of the unit opening and closing the ammonia pipe to
condenser.
Dehydrator — Eliminates water vapor from ammonia gas as it rises to
the condenser.
The cabinet, Fig. 165, shows a complete self-contained
unit with the machine in the compartment at the top.
Master. — An absorption machine of simple design is made
by the Master Domestic Refrigerating Company, Inc., at
Flushing, N. Y. It comprises a cylindrical generator, water
cooled condenser and evaporator, connected by a single pipe
to form the complete machine. It is made entirely from steel
pipe and sheet steel.
Only water and ammonia are used as the means of produc-
ing refrigeration. These substances are charged in the gen-
erator in the correct proportions. Ammonia in the form of
gas is released by applying heat to the generator. The gas
is then cooled and liquefied in the condenser from which it
flows by gravit} to the evaporator in the cooling compartment
of the refrigerator. By the subsequent cooling of the gener-
ator a reduction in tlie pressure is produced and the ammonia
slowly evaporates thus producing the required refrigeration.
The gas is re-absorbed by the cooled water in the generator.
When the evaporation of the ammonia is practically completed
a new cycle automatically begins.
The necessary reduction of the pressure is attained solely
by the cooling of the generator, no check, float, or expansion
valve, restricted orifice or other device is used in the machine
and the pressure is always the same at any given time in all
parts of the machine. The generator, condenser and evapora-
tor freely communicate with each other at all times with pipe
of full orifice.
The machine requires no attention as it is completely auto-
matic. The automatic control consists of a power element
actuated by the temperature of the generator, and a further
power element which is placed in contact with the evaporator.
The cooperation of these two power elements, by means of a
simple mechanical principle, which is novel in its application
to this machine, regulates and establishes the heating and cool-
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 307
ing" periods and assures the proper and continual functioning
of the machine in a simple and positive maner.
Should for any reason the supply of water to the condenser
be interrupted, the heating means is automatically 'cut ofif.
Simple and effective means are provided for automatically
returning to the generator any water which may be carried
over by the ammonia gas to the evaporator.
The machine and refrigerator are built as a complete self-
contained unit, but, if desired, the machine may be installed
outside of the refrigerator. Defrosting of the evaporator is
automatic. Provision is made for an ample supply of ice cubes
for table use.
The present machine is used to cool refrigerators of any
size up to eight cubic feet inside capacity.
The Electrolux Servel. — The first practical continuous
operating absorption refrigerating machine was made about
the year 1860 by a Frenchman named Carre. His apparatus
consisted first of a source of heat, generator, condenser cool-
ing water, expansion valves, evaporator, absorber and pump.
The heat liberated the ammonia gas from the aqua ammonia,
so called "rich solution or strong liquid" leaving a weak liquid
or water in the generator. The gas passing to the condenser
is cooled off by the cooling water and condensed into a liquid.
The liquid ammonia flows through the throttle or expansion
valve into the evaporator, where the liquid ammonia is vapor-
ized into a gas. During the evaporation heat is withdrawn
from the surroundings, and thus cold is produced. The cold
vapor passes into the absorber where it is sprayed by weak
liquid from the generator. By the expulsion of the ammonia
from the aqua-ammonia solution in the generator, the remain-
ing liquid is to a large extent water. This poor solution be-
ing exposed to the high pressure passes through an expansion
valve into the absorber. In this way the poor solution,- meet-
ing the ammonia vapors, absorbs them, so that in the bottom
of the absorber a mixture collects as a "rich or strong solu-
tion." This solution is continually forced into the generator
by the pump, which is operated by outside mechanical forces.
A line drawn from the expansion valves t! rough the pump
308 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
separates the machine into a liigh pressure side and a low
pressure side.
In the apparatus of Carre's there are two cycles. The
ammonia circulates from the generator through the condenser,
the vaporizer and the absorber l)ack to the generator. It
therefore passes through all four recei)tacles. The water cir-
culates from the generator to the abs<,)rber and vice versa.
The water therefore only passes through these two receptacles.
The Carre machine was built in great numbers, being used
in breweries, distilleries and similar ])lants where large
amounts of heat vapor was available for vvliich at that time
no particular use was made.
However as the steam technique further developed and
afforded numerous uses for exhaust steam for other purpv)ses,
the employment of the ab>ori)tion machine became less and
less. This was further augmented b}' the high efficiency of
the newdy develo])ed compressor system. Meclianical difficul-
ties also played a role as with small units as were used, the
expansion valves were necessaril}- small and the orifice wa>
<:ontinualh' clogging uj) with dirt ; then tcjo the ])um])s were
d source of constant maintenance and had to be operated by
auxiliar}- power, independent of this source of heat used in
evaporating the aqua-ammonia.
There therefore arose a demand for small continually oper-
ating absorption machines, from which the above said defects
of the machine of Carre were eliminated, said machines to have
neither expansion \alves nor pump, but which could be oi)er-
ated merel}" by the heat supply.
This was the aim of Geppert. In order to reach this aim
he dispensed with the difference of the total pressure for the
]>ur])ose of \apori/cation. W'itli the same total pressure in
the entire apparatus he tried to effect the vaporization neces-
sary for refrigeration, as well as the reuniting of the ammonia
gases with the w^ater, and returning the mixture to the boiler
without a pump or other mechanical energy. To this end,
Geppert, in adition to the cooling medium (ammonia) and the
absorbing liquid (water) used in the vaporizer a third medium,
to wit. a gas. in the presence of wdiich according to physical
laws (due to tlie difference of so called partial pressures of
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES oU9
the gases) liquid ainnionia exajjorates without a (h'op of the
total pressure being required.
In the year 1899, Geppert built such an ap]>aratus. In the
boiler the ammonia gas is expelled as in tlie Carre machine.
After being liquihed in the condenser the licpiid ammonia flows
through a conduit into the upper pan of the evaporator. In
this liquid is immersed a porous material which is so placed
as to extend over the rim of the inner o])ening and extend-
ing completely under the pan. The porous material with its
large exposed surface facilitates the evaporation of ammonia
in the presence of the second gas contained in the receptacle.
The second gas used by Geppert was air. At a slight distance
below the porous pad on the bottom of the upper pan is a
bath of poor solution, whicli flows fr(jm the boiler, being
cooled by passing through a cooler on its way to the absorber.
It will thus be seen that Geppert combined the eva])orator and
absorber into one vessel. The ammonia gases resulting from
the evaporation at the surface of the porous material difl:use>
downward through the second gas filling the receptacle and
is then absorbed by the absorption liquid. The rich liquid then
flows back to the generator where l)y the a])])lication of heat
ammonia gas is again expelled.
The machine of Geppert is based on the theoreticall}' cor-
rect idea that a pressure drop requiring throttle valves and
pump becomes unnecessary in a refrigerating machine, if in
the evaporator the lic^uid ammonia meets with a gas in whose
presence the ammonia evaporates. The machine as designed
refused to work and Geppert has himself seen the drawbacks
of a design in which the ammonia has to dittuse through a
thick layer of inert gas. This is apparent from other draw-
ings later on submitted by him. In the next design he reduced
the thickness of this layer and emplo_\ ed a fan to aid the evapo-
ration, by having the lower parts of the fan blades dip into
the liquid. By doing this he was able to further separate the
cold evaporator from the warm absorber therebv' reducing the
refrigerating losses. The fan had to be operated by a motor
and this was one of the pieces of equi])ment that (je]jpert had
set out to eliminate. Another reason \vh}- the machine proved
impractical was that when the ammonia \ ap(ir> are absorbed
310 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
by water heat is liberated. The absorber therefore acts as a
heater. Cooling water had to be provided in pipes located
within the absorber. Notwithstanding this, heat liberated
during the absorption rose into the evaporator space above,
thus either entirely or partially counteracting the heat with-
drawn from the surroundings by the evaporation of the am-
monia. Effective refrigeration therefore cannot take place,
or only in a very limited degree.
In the year 1901, Geppert attempted another design which
was somewhat of an improvement over the two previous
models. He still maintained the combined vaporizer and ab-
sorber. The receptacle was provided with a double. wall, cool-
ing water circulating in its hollow space. Into the receptacle
is inserted a cylinder at a very slight distance from the inner
face of the double wall of the receptacle. The cylinder con-
tains salt water. The cylinder does not extend to the bottom
of the receptacle. Into the free space flows from the boiler
"poor solution." The operation was as follows :
The ammonia which had become expelled from the rich
solution and liquified in the condenser flows through a small
pipe to the outer surface of the wall of the cylinder, which
wall is covered with porous material. There the ammonia
becomes distributed and evaporates. Heat is therefore with-
drawn from the salt water contained in the receptacle and
cold is produced. The produced ammonia vapors diffuse
through the small intermediate space to the opposite inner
surface of the double wall of the receptacle. This surface is
sprayed by poor solution which by means of a small pump is
continually pumped through the pipes from the lower portion
of the receptacle upwards into the space between the double
wall of the receptacle and the c\ linder. The surface on which
the poor solution flows down is cooled by the cooling water
in the hollow space of the double wall. As the poor solution
flows down, it absorbs the ammonia gases which are diffused
in its direction from the opposite surface and thereby is en-
riched with ammonia. Thus the outer surface of the cylinder
acts as a vaporizer, and the inner surface of the wall of the
receptacle as an absorber. The absorber therefore, is, not like
in his previous patent, below the vaporizer, but the absorber
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 311
and vaporizer located in one and the same vessel, at the same
level side by side. It will be noted that Geppert had to take
recourse to the pump, which is one of the pieces of equipment
he started out to eliminate. While he succeeded in producing
cold, with his last design, the efficiency was small — also he
failed to attain one of his objects, namely to eliminate the
pump.
After Geppert failed, no trace can be formed of any prac-
tical and useful small refrigerating machine of any importance,
operating according to the absorption principle in a continuous
manner, until the year 1922 when two students, Baltzar Carl
Von Platen and Carl George Munters of the Royal Swedish
Institute of Technology developed and designed a working
model which dispensed with all moving and mechanical parts.
This unit was later developed by the Electrolux Aktie-
bolaget in Europe and the Electrolux Servel Corporation in
the United States, so that today we have a workable and
saleable refrigerating unit that is indeed marvelous. In order
lo develop the present day product a large laboratory for re-
search work was established in Stockholm, Sweden, and in
Brooklyn, New York. In these laboratories developments and
experiments are taking place so as to develop new types for
further commercial applications. How well this unit with
refrigerator has been developed was evidenced at the American
Gas Association Convention at Atlantic City, where three
complete refrigerators and an exposed unit were presented for
the inspection of the gas industry.
Platen-Munters, independent of Geppert had like him the
idea to have in the entire system, by the introduction of a
second gas, everywhere the same uniform total pressures and
to efifect the pressure difference required for the vaporization
of the refrigerating medium. Contrary to Geppert, however,
they carried out this idea in a manner which at once resulted
in a practical solution. They recognized what has remained
concealed to Geppert that in such a system into which is in-
troduced a pressure compensating gas there occurs within the
system inner fores, i. e., physical actions which can be utilized
in order to efifect the circulation required for such a system.
Furthermore, they recognized that this peculiar action can be
312 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
still considerably im])r()Vfd upon if the pressure compensating
gas possesses special characteristics, for instance, as regards
its specific weight differing considerably from that of the
vapors of the refrigerating medium. There were ways of
avoiding the pitfalls of Geppert.
First.- — As regards the puni]). B}- applying heat from a
source the solution rich in ammonia, is made to boil in a tube
and by the thermo-syhon action thus established, the liquid
is raised from the lower level of the absorber to the high level
of the generator.
Second. — Stagnation and poor circulation, instead of using
air as Geppert had done hydrogen gas was used. Absorber
and evaporator are placed at about the same level or the latter
somewhat higher than the former. When the ammonia vapor
has been absorbed in the absorber, pure hydrogen flows
through the upper ]3ipe into the evaporator, where it mixes
with the vapors from the evaporating liquid ammonia. The
mixture of ammonia vapor and hydrogen being specifically
lighter the greater its ])ercentage of h}clrogen, it follows that
the column of gas in the evaporator will be heavier than that
in the absorber. An automatic circulation of gas consec{uentl}
takes place, giving an upward fiow in the absorber and a down-
ward flow in the eva])orator. If instead (jf hydrogen, the inert
gas had been nitrogen the flow would have been reversed.
The api)aratus comprises the generator, condenser, evapo-
rator, absorber, heat exchanger, the^'mo-syphon, which are
interconnected by pipes. In all portions of the completely
and tightly closed apparatus exists the same total pressure.
The boiler is to a large extent filled with aqua ammonia (so
called rich solution) only the upper vapor space of the boiler
is free from liquid.
Into the Ijottom of the generator is inserted an electric
heating element, connected to a source of electrical energy.
From the upper free space of the generator leads a pipe to the
condenser and said pipe continues on into the top of the evapo-
rator. The latter is filled with hydrogen gas. At the bottom
as well as at the top there is a connecting pipe to the absorber.
The absorber i> surrounded b}- a jacket through which circu-
lates cooling water, \\hicli then passes to the condenser. From
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 313
the bottom of the abs()rl)ei- a ])ii)e runs to and coils around the
heating element. In addition there is a i)ii)e connecting the bot-
tom of the generator with tlie top of llie abscjrber. This i)ii)C
where it is horizontal surrounds the pipe which i)asses from
the absorber to the upper space of the generator.
The apparatus is (jperated as follows: Current sui)]jlied
to the heating- element heats the rich solution in the generator.
The ammonia gas expelled from the ricli solution fills the
upper free space of the generator and flows througli the pii)e
into tlie water cooled condenser. Because of the cooling the
hot ammonia gases are condensed to pure ammonia liquid.
This licjuid flows to the eva])orator. There in the presence of
h}(lrogen the liquid ammonia exaporatcs. Through the e\a])o-
ration heat is withdrawn from the brine tank surrounding
the evaporator and consequently cold is produced. The am-
monia gases in the evaporator diffuse into the hydrogen, and
the mixture, sinks downward, liecause as compared to the gas
mixture in the absorber it is lieavy. In its downward move-
ment it passes on to the absorber, fn this \essel the gas mix-
ture meets with the water (i)oor solution) coming from the
generator. The liquid level in the generator is higher than
the "poor solution" pipe to the absorber; there is therefore, a
continual flow of poov liquid into the absorber. In the ab-
sorber the poor solution absorbs from the gas mixture the
ammonia gas and collects at the bottom of the absorber as
"strong or rich liquid," while the lighter hydrogen free from
ammonia ascends and through the pipe connecting the ab-
sorber with the evaporator, again enters the top of the evapo-
rator.
The rich solution is conveyed through the coils of the pipe
around the lower end of the heating element and is thereby
preheated so that the ammonia gas bubbles around the pipe.
These bubbles carry along globules of liquid, which thereby
reach the upper portion of the generator, from which we
began the cycle of operation.
Outside the cycle of the ammonia which takes place in all
four vessels (generator, condenser, evaporator and absorber)
there occurs in the apparatus still two other cycles. On the
one hand the circulation of the water, or poor solution from the
314 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
bottom of the generator, to the top of the absorber down to
the bottom of that vessel as strong solution, then to the top
of generator, through the thermosyphon pipe. On the other
hand, the circulation of the hydrogen gas from the bottom of
the evaporator to bottom of absorber, and from top of ab-
sorber to top of evaporator.
The above description covers the machine as originall\
designed. Rarely, has an invention required less time to per-
fect. On August 18, 1922, the first patent was deposited in
Sweden and in 1925 a great number of refrigerating machines
were in commercial service.
The Electrolux Servel Cori)oration has by exhaustive tests
and experiments developed a machine somewhat different than
the original Swedish design. These changes have practically
doubled the "ice melting capacity of the machine" and have
greatly increased its efficiency. They have in addition per-
fected the machine for gas heat instead of electric heat and
have reduced the quantity of cooling water needed to properly
operate the unit. In order to do this several changes had to
be made to the apparatus.
1. Inner flue placed in generator to permit the use of a gas flame
for heat.
2. Rectifier — to catch water that may be carried over with
aninionia gas.
3. New type condenser — simplified construction.
4. Gas heat exchanger — placed between rectitier and the
absorber and the evaporator, where _,the cold ammonia hydrogen
mixture coming from the evaporator is warmed by the hot ammonia
coming from the rectifier and the hot hydrogen from the absorber.
5. The liquid heat exchanger. The two pipes located between
the absorber and the generator the one being placed inside the other,
act as a heat cxcJianger on the counter flow principal, by means of
this the hot, weak liquid, which flows from the bottom of the genera-
tor into the absorber, is pre-cooled by the comparatively cool strong
liquid that flows from the absorber to the thermo-syphon. Thi-
solution is at the same time pre-heated before entering the generator.
The unit before being charged with ammonia, distilled
water and hydrogen is given a careful air and hydraulic test
under the most rigid factory supervision and after being
charged is heremetically sealed by welding. The original
charge does not have to be renewed, as there is no leakage.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 315
The unit is equipped with a thermostatic safety burner
which automatically shuts off the gas supplied if for any rea-
son the supply is interrupted. One of the features of the unit
is that the operation involves absolutely no danger even if the
condenser water supply should be interrupted for any length
of time.
Inasmuch as there are no moving parts and being rigidly
constructed, no serviceing is necessary, and that is saying a
lot.
The refrigerator is a steel box of approximately 6>4 cubic
feet of food space — finished with several coats of duco over
baked white lacquer. The cooling section inside the box is of
cast aluminum having five trays with a capacity of about fifty
cubes. The box is insulated with three inches of high grade
corkboard, thus bringing the thermal losses and operating
costs down to a minimum. (From address delivered by F. E.
Sellmann before the New York Section of the American So-
ciety of Refrigerating Engineers in October, 1926.)
The original ice melting capacity of the Swedish machine
was about forty-five pounds per twenty-four hours while its
thermal efficiency was about 18 per cent. The Swedish public
were apparently content to utilize a manually controlled ma-
chine, the control simultaneously regulating both gas and
water. It was found that in order to make the machine salable
in this country it would have to be designed so as to operate
and give sufficient refrigeration where room temperatures of
100° F. and cooling water of 90° F. were encountered. It
further had to be developed so that the machine would
have to give desired refrigerating effect automatically, and
with controls making. the unit serviceable for use with either
manufactured gas, natural gas, electricity or oil. A laboratory
was established in Brooklyn where exhaustive developments
were made by united effort of engineers of the American and
Swedish companies. During the next 3^ear these men were
able to redesign the machine so as to bring about an ice
melting capacity of seventy-five pounds per twenty-four hours
and to raise the efficiency to 32^^ per cent when operated by
gas. When operated electrically the efficiency rose to 38 per
cent. The machine was also capable of producing sufficient
3]6 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
refrigerating effect to take care of the designed refrigerator
under conditions of 100° F. room temperature and 90° F.
cooling water.
The maximum efficiency of the original Swedish unit was
reached when an input of 730 B.t.u.'s per hour was furnished,
while the maximum efficiency of the machine developed in
America was reached when 1350 B.t.u.'s were used. The
capacity reached its maximum at aliout 1300 B.t.u.'s Avith the
Swedish machine. l)ut with about 1650 for the American ma-
chine. These improxements l)oth as to cajjacity and efficiency
were brought about by many developments including a new
type of rectifier, improved Thermo-syphon, and the use of a
gas heater exchanger. The figures quoted above were fur-
nished from tests conducted b}- the Consolidated Gas Com-
pany of New York.
As the efficiency and cai)acity increased with the increase
in B.t.u.'s furnished the unit, it was therefore necessary to con-
trol the heat in]:)ut so as to get a i)redetermined refrigerating
effect. Using gas of 540 B.t.u. ])er cubic foot heating value the
minimum gas required to assure satisfactory i)umping througli
the Thermo-syphon was l}^ cubic feet per hour and this flame
had to be increased to a maximum of three cul)ic feet per hour
when maximum refrigeration was desired. This meant there-
fore a development of a burner that would burn satisfactorily
between the ranges of iVj cubic feet and three cubic feet per
hour and that the burner in addition must be of the safety type
so that, if for an\" reason the gas flame were extinguished that
the gas supply to the burner would be automatically shut off".
The first burner developed possessed these characteristics but
was designed for a gas pressure of about 2}^ inches of water
and 540 B.t.u. gas. U'ith the sending of refrigerating units
into districts where gas pressures and B.t.u. values vary con-
siderably it was necessary to develop burners suitable for both
water coke-oven and natural gases and to test and ap])rove gas
pressure regulators.
As the minimum gas required at an_\" time was 1^ cubic
feet per hour the gas thermostat was therefore designed so
as to always allow that quantity of gas to pass through it.
but when the thermostat acted on the gas supply it augmented
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 317
gradually the flow until three cubic feet capacity was reached.
The thermostat is of simple construction easily set and ad-
justed. It consists of a six inch bulb located within the food
chamber. The operating- mechanism of the thermostat is
located in the machine compartment and is inter-connected by
capillar) tubing. The bulb is partly filled with a licjuid which
when expanded int«j a gas, actuates by pressure throug-h the
tube a diaphragm located in the body of the thermostat.
With operating the machine electrical!} . similar conditions
must of course be taken care of so that the machine will con-
tinually ])ump. With this in mind a double lieating' element
was developed which furnished a minimum wattage to kee])
up pumping but increased the wattage to take care of maxi-
mum load. From the consumption curve of the cooling water
needed it will be noticed that after a certain amount of water
had been used further increase in water consumption becomes
unnecessary and wasteful. This therefore clearl\- indicated
that no desirable control could be de\'eloped for controlling
water simultaneously with the gas and that any water control
developed would have to be designed using as a ccmtroUing
factor a predetermined cooling water outlet temperature. Such
a device was developed and with the outlet water temperature
maintained at 90° F. the water consumption was practicalh'
halved as compared to that which was used prior to the de-
velopment of this water control. The machine is now operat-
ing satisfactorily with about three gallons of water per hour
with water inlet temperature of 70° F. The machine will oper-
ate and produce ample refrigerating effect with cooling water
up to 90° F. With temperatures above this, the water would
flow through unrestricted parts in the \ah-e and the \alve be-
come unnecessary, but where cooling water is encountered
below 90° F. the saving in water is very material. Those
familiar with early tests must realize the material saving made
in the water consumption and that the objections raised to
water cooling, both as to waste of water and costs has been
overcome.
The machine unit comprising the generator, evaporator,
absorber, rectifier and gas heat exchanger is made of heavy
steel tubing inter-connected by steel pipes, all joints being
318 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
uxy-acelyline welded. This produces a completely sealed unit
from which there is no danger of leakage. The units are de-
signed to withstand a pressure of 3100 pounds per square inch
although only about 200 pounds charging pressure is used,
and a certain proportion of the run of units are tested to this
pressure at the factory. Each unit, however, is subjected to
a high pressure test in order to detect any possible imperfec-
tions in welding.
From time to time one hears many stories reflecting on the
safety of gas-fired absorption machines. This all emanated
from experiences of ten to fifteen years ago when a few gas-
fired intermittent absorption machines were being marketed,
most of them of large capacity for commercial use. A few
serious accidents practically eliminated further progress in this
type of machine, and produced adverse legislation. The cause
of this trouble was largely due to a lack of understanding as to
the necessary safety devices that are required on a large in-
termittent machine. In other words, a machine of this kind
requires automatic mechanism to shut off the fuel at the end
of the boiling period, to apply cooling water at the right time
both for condensing and absorbing purposes, and a pressure
limiting device in the event that the gas fuel or condensing
water did not function properly. The fact is these variously
needed devices had not been properly perfected before the
machines were marketed. Since that time there has been con-
siderable progress made in small intermittent machines, so
that in some cases for certain types of work the objections
of the past have as a rule been overcome.
The Electrolux-Servel unit incorporates features which
make safety devices not only unnecessary but undesirable.
The fuel burns continuously, and continued operation of the
maximum burner adjustment would merely produce an ex-
tremely cold box. In practice this is prevented by making
the gas consumption depend upon box temperature. If, for
any reason, the cooling water were to fail nothing would
happen other than that the refrigeration would cease. The
reason that no safety device is required to meet this condi-
tion is due to the design of the machine, which provides so
much radiating surface, in proportion to the heating surface,
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 319
that all parts, with the exception of the generator will throw
off the heat as fast as it is applied, through all the surfaces
as represented by the evaporator, heat exchanger, absorber,
condenser and rectifier, and a state of equilibrium will be
reached when these surfaces will throw ofif the heat at the
same rate as heat is applied to the generator. These two
features absolutely eliminate the need of any safety devices
whatsoever for the purpose of safe operation.
For an entirely different reason, however, a fusible plug
is installed on the absorber end of the gas heat exchanger.
This w^as made at the suggestion of the New York Fire De-
partment, as well as the National Board of Fire Underwriters,
and is to provide for that emergency which would be brought
about by intense exterior heat being applied to all parts of
the machine as would be the case if a fire occurred in the
room in which the refrigerator were installed. To meet this
emergency the fusible plug set to melt at 200° F. would
simply relieve the refrigerator charge. This is a precaution
which would be just as important if the machine were simply
tilled with either water or air, as the unlimited heat supply
would simply produce an internal pressure which would event-
ually rupture the machine. These facts are borne out by the
approval of the machine by the National Board of Fire Under-
writers' Laboratory in Chicago, and by recent changes in the
proposed code for the city of New York.
This machine has long since passed its experimental stage.
When first brought out into production 250 sample boxes were
sold to the various gas and public utility companies for the
purpose of having them conduct tests and determine if the
machine and box w-ere what they desired and what was
claimed it would do. Apparently the machine and boxes de-
signed met with instant approval as is evidenced by the large
order placed for this machine. The machine lends itself to
and is particularly suitable for apartment house service espe-
cially in large and congested cities where the fact that it is
absolutely noiseless, safe and serviceless has been deciding
factors in its reception.
The unit may also be used in specially built boxes of vary-
ing sizes, built to fit into particular niches as seems to be the
growing demand in new apartment house construction. There
320 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
is also a combination of a gas stove and refrigerator where
a gas stove is mounted on a refrigerator box the same gas
service line serving both. There are operating right now in
the Eastern districts embracing environment of Metropolitan
district of New York approximately one thousand machines.
The servicing of these machines, in case it were necessary,
would, of course, be done b\- the gas company, and from the
information received the\' advise that so far they ha\'e not
experienced any servicing whatsoever.
One question has undoubtedly occurred to a good many
of you. "What effect has the gas flame with its products of
combustion on the interior of the gas flue which passes
through the generator?" In view of the fact that the gas
flame is not extinguished but ranges in degrees from IJ/^
cubic feet per hour to 3 cubic feet per hour results in the gas
flue always being kept at a temperature higher than the dew
point.
Numerous people have asked the question, "What corro-
sion will take place within the unit?" Before the unit is
charged with ammonia, distilled water and hydrogen, a high
vacuum is pumped. Practically all oxygen is therefore re-
moved. The machine, of course, has not been in service more
than a few years so we can go back no further — but machines
that have operated for this length of time in Sweden have
l)een cut open and no trace of corrosion has been found.
The dissociation of ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen
is an old story in absorption systems where numerous joints
and connections are used. In the Platen-Munters Refrigerat-
ing unit — there are no joints, no possibilities of air leakages.
Then, too, if there should be a tendency to break down the
ammonia into nitrogen and hydrogen — -it must be remem-
bered that the unit has already a heavy charge of hydrogen
and this would tend to repel the dissociation.
Another question that has apparently been causing some
comment by refrigerating engineers has been the possibility
of leakage of hydrogen through the steel. As long ago as
about 1860 it became known that hydrogen is absorbed by
certain metals and can be diffused through them. This matter
has since this time been subject to a large number of investi-
gations which have mostly centered on the diffusion of hydro-
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 321
gen through iron and steel, as this for several reasons is of
considerable technical interest.
It was known from these investigations that gaseous
hydrogen easily penetrates and diffuses into steel at red heat.
This diffusion, however, is sharply reduced with the lowering
of the temperature and has seldom been observed at a tem-
perature below 300° C or 572° F., wherefore some investi-
gators have assumed a discontinuity of the diffusion at this
temperature, or a "hydrogen point" of the steel. On the other
hand it was shown that hydrogen which had been introduced
into the steel electrolytically would diffuse through the metal
at even room temperature.
As the Platen-Munters refrigerating unit contains hydro-
gen at ordinary room temperature under relatively high pres-
sure, it was desired to determine if any appreciable loss of
hvdrogen would occur under these conditions. Earlier inves-
tigations had indicated that the losses would be quite small,
but as no figures were available regarding their actual mag-
nitude, tests were arranged and conducted by Professors
Borelius and Lindblom at the Royal Technical School at
Stockholm.
Applying the data obtained to the Platen-Munters refrig-
erating unit, we find that no danger exists of loss of hydrogen
through the wall of the apparatus. For instance, if we take
a 60 cal. refrigerator which contains 1.5 gr. hydrogen and
which will still operate if 0.3 gr. of this hydrogen were lost,
we would find that it would take one hundred eighty years
before sufficient hydrogen escaped making the apparatus in-
operative. This certainly gives a wide margin of life.
Thousands of people have examined this machine, among
them a large number of engineers ; in fact, generally speaking,
the more technical a person is, the greater appeal has been
made by the machine. The fact that the machine is noiseless,
free from moving parts, compact, economical in operation and
has apparently unlimited life, cannot but make us reflect on
its effect on domestic refrigeration.
When we consider that this machine is the first of its kind,
and if we compare it with other developments in the past, we
can readily visualize that the continuous absorption machine
will also follow in the path of progress.
322
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Does this not make us wonder if the absorption principle
will not soon be a vital factor in domestic refrigeration?
(From an address delivered by F. E. Sellmann at the Ameri-
can Society of Refrigerating Engineers meeting in May,
1927.)
l-IG. 166.— ELECTROLUX SERVEL KEFRIGKRATOR CABINET.
Fig. 166 shows the refrigerator cabinet. The exterior is
made of lead coated steel finished with white duco. Fig. 167
shows the cooling unit and food compartment space. The
food capacity is 6^^ cubic feet. The box is insulated with
three inches of corkboard. The lining is of porcelain and the
cooling section is of cast aluminum having five trays with a
capacity of fifty cubes of ice.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES
323
Fig. 168 shows the machine mounted on the side of the
cabinet. The water control valve is mounted on an outlet
water line. The purpose of the water control is to throttle
FIG. 167.— SHOWING COOLI.N'G UNIT AND FOOD COMl'ARTMENT SPACE.
the water used in the condenser so as to maintain a constant
outlet temperature under all conditions of inlet temperature
and pressure. The gas thermostat automatically regulates
the supply of gas responsive to the temperature of the food
compartment.
324
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
A safety gas burner is used so that the gas supply is auto-
matically shut off if for any reason the gas flame is ex-
tinguished.
FIG. 168.-
-SHOWING ELECTROLUX SERVEL MACHINE MOUNTED ON SIDE
OF CABINET.
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 325
Sorco Gas Absorption Refrigerator. — The new Sorco Gas
Absorption Refrigerator (Figs. 169 and 170) which is manu-
factured by the Gas Refrigeration Corporation, with sales
office at 18 East 41st Street, New York City, has a great num-
IIG. 169.— SORCO GAS ABSORPTION REFRIGERATOR.
ber of new features not shown in their old construction de-
scribed heretofore.
The boiler absorber contains a solution of auiuionia and
water. As cold water attracts and absorbs or dissolves am-
monia, the rate at which it does so and the amount it absorbs
depend on the temperature of the absorbent. On the other
326
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
hand, hot water repels ammonia in the form of a gas. Hence
during the heating period, ammonia is liberated from the
boiler, liquefied in the condenser and fills the evaporator. Dur-
ing the refrigerating or absorbing period of the cycle which
FIG. 170.— SUKCO GAS ABSUKPTIOX UNIT INSTALLED
IX REFRIGERATOR.
may last from eight (8) to se\'enteen (17) hours, according
to the required amount of cold, the liquid anhydrous ammonia
gasifies from the evaporator and returns to the boiler absorber
where it is reabsorbed by the weak liquor. The heat absorbed
by the evaporating ammonia as well as the heat of association
generated by the absorption of the ammonia gas in the weak
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES 327
liquor in the boiler absorber are carried off by the cooling
water.
The patented construction and design of the Sorco Boiler
Absorber are extremely simple as it contains no moving parts
such as valves of any kind, floats, by-passes, packing or stuff-
ing boxes or anything that can possibly get out of order. In
all intermittent absorption machines ammonia gas must be ex-
pelled from the top of the liquid level and re-absorbed under-
neath the surface of the liquid. We accomplish this by an
application of gas heat to the boiler as well as the absorber,
at which time an over pressure is created in the absorber dur-
ing the boiling period which keeps the aqua ammonia floating
in the boiler compartment until a predetermined maximum is
reached in the boiler when the required amount of ammonia
gas is expelled to the condenser.
Shortly after the beginning of the absorption period the
remaining weak liquor in the boiler flows back to the absorber
to a lower pressure created by the cooling water flow which
is diverted through the absorber at the same time the heat
is turned off.
A number of novel patented features are embodied in the
Evaporator construction. As shown in the diagram attached,
there is no moveable part in the ammonia system which is
hermetically sealed in steel vessels and seamless steel tubing
welded to the tanks. As the same pressure exists during the
boiling period in all parts of the evaporator a great part of
the ammonia would condense in the cold evaporator which
would warm it up so that the food compartments and the ice
in the evaporator would melt. Condensation in the evaporator
is reduced to a minimum in the construction shown. The first
entering fluid ammonia fills above the coils. Condensation
cannot take place in the coils as they never become empty.
Condensation must then first take place in the evaporator in
the reduced surface area inside the main upper vessel which
quickly increases the temperature of this vessel at the begin-
ning of the heating period. But as soon as the temperature of
this main vessel reaches a certain temperature slightly above
the cooling water temperature, condensation stops there auto-
matically. This is due to the fact that only a small part of
328 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
the latent heat can escape through the air insulation between
the main vessel and the housing of the evaporator. Conden-
sation thereafter takes place only in the condenser. The evap-
orator housing remains unaffected by this heat which cannot
circulate. The ice evaporator is able to make six (6) pounds
of ice in form of 72 ice cubes, within the short time of two to
three hours.
There is alwavs a small amount of moisture in the dis-
tilled ammonia when it enters the evaporator during the heat-
ing period. This moisture not only has the tendency to in-
crease the boiling point of the ammonia in the evnporator,
thereby preventing the e\ aporator from reaching its minimum
possible temperature, but it also would gradually accumulate
in the evaporator because it does not evaporate back in the
boiler absorber with the evaporating ammonia. The amount
of moisture generally increases with increasing cooling water
temperature and has to be removed automatically. The Sorco
evaporator is equipped with a marvelously operating patented
return suction tube cup which has no moveable part and is
based on two functions. First, a continuously separating op-
eration, and, second, a removing operation. The first one
is performed by the ice tray supporting coils in combination
with the vertical tube during the whole absorption period.
The lower ends of these coils are over orifices in communica-
tion with the vertical tube, so that liquid circulation between
the vertical tube and the two coils is avoided. At the start
of the boiling period the remaining aqueous solution in the
vertical tube and in the lower part of the coils is forced
through an orifice into the sump at the bottom of the evap-
orator. Due to the drop in pressure shortly after the end of
the boiling period a small predetermined amount of liquid
in the tube cup is drawn back into the absorber. This takes
place shortly after the end of each boiling period with an
astonishing regularity and without returning an appreciable
amount of ammonia.
The Sorco is now as formerly 100 per cent automatical}}
operated. The attractive feature, however, is that electricity
is no longer required to operate the control of the gas heated
unit. The movement of the few parts in the patented control
ABSORPTION REFRIGERATING MACHINES .^29
is so simple and slij^ht, that noise and wear are reduced to
practically nil. The two thermostatic power elements, one
in the boiler and one in the evaporator, control the water flow
by a snap action in a simple and unique manner. The start-
ing and stopping of the boiling period as well as three dif-
ferent water flows are accomplished: First, the water flf)w
during the boiling period ; second, a strong flow during the
first part of the absorption period through the absorber to cool
the machine down quickly, and third, a minimum amount of
water flows during the most of the absorption period to extract
the heats of evaporation and association.
The advantages of this non-electric control are manifold.
First, it regulates the length of the cycle automatically accord-
ing to the required amount of cold. Second, it is completely
foolproof^ — if for example the power element in the evaporator
should not operate due to an overload in the evaporator, the
control of the machine would automatically be operated by
the thermostat in the boiler. The length of the absorption
period would be determined by the rate of radiation from the
boiler. This condition would last as long as there is an over-
load in the evaporator and thereafter the evaporator thermo-
stat would automatically start its normal operation again.
Third, it is selfstarting, that is, it does not matter during
which operating condition the machine was shut ofl^ as it shifts
automatically to the proper starting position. Fourth, the
elimination of the necessity for any electric connections in the
machine, or the elimination of the possible failure of the elec-
tric current. Fifth, the elimination of the possible failure of
the many intricate electrical parts such as wiring, contacts,
switches, pilot wires, etc., all of which also require an elec-
trical knowledge in the servicing.
There is a safety pilot light which automatically lights the
gas whenever it is turned on. Unburned gas cannot escape,
due to the automatic gas shut-off of the safety pilot; if for
instance, the pilot light should go out. The gas burner can-
not be lighted unless cooling water flows through the system.
As long as the cooling water flows through the system it is
impossible to attain abnormal or dangerous pressures in the
system, and in order to comply with the Safety Code there
330 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
is a rupture device which would exhaust the refrigerant with
the cooling water in closed pipes at a safe pressure below
the bursting pressure of the weakest part of the system, which
bursting pressure is more than twelve times the maximum
normal working pressure. The normal working pressure dur-
ing the refrigeration period range from 10 to 35 pounds gauge.
The maximum normal working pressures during the heating
periods are from 125 to 175 pounds per square inch, all of
which vary according to room and cooling water temperatures.
The machine can be manufactured in all sizes. One size
is on the market which has an ice making capacity of about
23 pounds per cycle. The maximum capacity is therefore
about 92 pounds in 4 cycles per 24 hours.
The Sorco machine automatically defrosts the evaporator
each cycle. The box tem[)erature increases 5 to 6 degrees
Fahrenheit during the boiling period.
The Sorco needs little ser\icing as it contains no movable
parts beside the control and every machine, even when it is
continuously operating, must have a control unless it is not
fully automatic.
The average operating cost of the Sorco refrigerator is
11 cents per day, on one dollar gas and water at one dollar
per thousand cubic feet. The third of this cost is for water
and two-thirds for gas.
The Sorco Model E consumes from 40 to 80 cubic feet of
gas per day according to conditions and the required refrig-
erating eflfect. Tlie a\erage water consumption is under 200
gallons per day.
CHAPTER IX
TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATORS
Household Refrigerators. — The following pertains to the
description of the general type and a detailed description of
some of the leading household refrigerators on the market at
present. The different makes of household refrigerators which
are described have been selected promiscuousl}-, and do
not include all of the makes which are produced at present.
However, the description of the following makes will convey
an idea of the general types, as well as the various details of
construction used in some of the leading makes at present.
Special attention is given to wall construction, linings, outer
case construction, construction of doors, etc.
Bohn. — In Fig. 171 is shown a typical refrigerator made
by the Bohn Refrigerator Compan}- of St. Paul, Minnesota,
for electrical refrigeration.
The exterior is of white porcelain on steel. The lining also
is made of porcelain. The walls and doors contain eleven
insulating members, including two thicknesses of flaxlinum.
The insulation is framed in with heavy members, insuring
permanency of position and long life. It is so constructed
as to present a complete refrigerator before the outer steel,
porcelained case is installed. The porcelain steel case is
added to beautify its appearance and as an added protection to
the inner walls. The walls are SYi inches thick and the
doors 3}i inches.
Doors are built on the safe door principle, with several
rabbets to hold back the air leakage and in addition are fur-
nished with cushion gaskets.
331
332
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
All hardware is solid brass, nickeled in the company's
plant. Corners are trimmed with solid brass tubing, heavily
FIG. 171.— TYPICAL BOHN REFRIGERATOR.
nickeled. Underneath this trim are white wood mouldings,
which seal the porcelain plates together— an additional mois-
ture proofing.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS 333
The food chamber lining is one-piece heavy steel, porce-
lained, with full rounded corners and rolled door edges. All
porcelain steel, inside and outside, has one ground coat on
both sides of the sheet and then two additional coats of white,
each coat fused on separately, in its own plant, in ovens
carrying two thousand degrees of heat.
The cooling chamber is lined with the highest quality
galvanized steel with a copper alloy base.
The drain pipe is solid brass, with a spun copper funnel
top and solid brass base, all heavily nickeled. The drain trap
is double — a large opening if ice should be used, and an
auxiliary, removable, smaller trap within the larger trap, for
defrosting drainage. Defrosting drainage should be carried
away from the inside of the refrigerator and never be left in
a pan inside the refrigerator because of the high content of
bacteria and food d "^ay in the melted frost. The provision
shelves are meshed wire, heavily tinned.
There are proper circulation principles, inbuilt, leading the
air in a complete circulating course throughout every part of
the provision and cooling chambers.
Equipment includes a porcelain shield for cooling chamber
door opening. Stud bolts in ceiling of cooling compartment
with basket hanger, where necessary, and a sleeved hole in
back; complete equipment for installation of cooling unit.
A full line of household refrigerators, with or without sub-
bases, is manufactured.
The porcelain base may be used to house the refrigerating
machine. When the machine is not placed in the base, the
base can be used for the storage of water bottles, kitchen ware
or canned goods.
Cavalier. — Fig. 172 shows the construction of a refrigerator
made by the Tennessee Furniture Corporation, Richmond, In-
diana. This view has the walls cut away to show steel frame
construction. A structural frame of angle iron is used. The
joints are electrically and acetylene welded.
There is an exterior case of porcelain enameled steel
sheets, backed up by wall board and bolted to the steel frame.
Next is a ^-inch air space, and Ij/^ inches of corkboard. The
interior porcelain lining is encased in an airtight envelope of
334
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
insulation. The corkboard walls are entirely covered with a
special preparation. Seal Tight, which is waterproof, closes
all air-cells, and prevents deterioration.
A removable plate at the back of the ice chamber is for
the convenience of those who wish to install an electric refrig-
erating unit.
Doors are made with a heav} wood case, to which the cork
insulated door pans and wood moulding are firmly fastened.
FIG. 172.— C.WALIER REFRIGERATOR, SHOWING CONSTRUCTION.
The door surface is covered with a metal case held firmly in
place by flanges folded over the edge of the wood core. All
doors are of the heavy, overlap type and are fitted with
"Wirfs" insulating gaskets to prevent air leakage and to give
cushion action at the door jamb.
Fig. 173 shows one of the white porcelain lining and ex-
terior models. These refrigerators are so constructed that an
electrical refrigerating unit may easily be installed.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
335
FIG. 173.— CAVALIER REFRIGERATOR, WHITE PORCELAIN EXTERIOR.
Crystal Refrigerator. — Fig. 174 shows an all-metal refrig-
erator made by the Crystal Refrigerator Company, Fremont,
Neb.
Some new and interesting features of construction are in-
corporated in the design of this cabinet.
336 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The walls both outside and inside are made of one-piece,
galvanized sheet metal with a hard, baked white enamel finish.
Porcelain linings can also be supplied.
The walls are insulated with from 2 to 5 inches of pure
FIG. 174.— CRYSTAL REFRIGERATOR
granulated cork. A wooden frame is used to strengthen the
walls and to support the door latches and hinges.
Aluminum moldings and corner pieces at the top and an
aluminum band at the bottom add to the appearance and pro-
tect the enamel.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
337
Solid glass shelves are used. The ends of the shelves
are square while the ends of the cabinet are oval, thus form-
ing a passageway for the air circulation. Part of the air goes
across the shelves and the balance to the bottom of the food
compartment.
The doors are constructed of metal. The ice chest, shelves,
and all inside parts can be easily removed for cleaning.
The trap is aluminum and located inside the refrigerator.
i
i ■
fl
,k '^ __.
'j
Xr.l
r
FIG. 175.— CRYSTAL STEEL REFRIGERATOR
Both apartment and side icer cabinets are built in ice
capacities from 50 to 250 lbs. Cubical contents range from
3.6 cu. ft. to 20.2 cu. ft.
"White-Steel" Refrigerator, Fig. 175, shows an all-steel
refrigerator of the square type by the Crystal Refrigerator
Company, Fremont, Neb.
The walls are constructed the same as the Crystal but
are not so heavy. They are insulated with Ij^ in. to 3>^ in.
of pure granulated cork.
Wire shelves are used.
The doors are constructed of metal. The ice chest, shelves
and all inside parts can be easily removed for cleaning.
338 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The trap is aluminum and located inside the refrigerator.
Made in apartment and side icing styles in ice capacities
from 50 to 150 lbs. Cubical contents range from 4.2 cu. ft.
to 9.6 cu. ft.
Jewett Refrigerator. — The Jewett Refrigerator Company
of Buffalo, N. Y., has been building refrigerators since 1849.
Fig. 176 shows a typical Jewett side icer cabinet.
FIG. 176.— JEWETT REFRIGERATOR.
The lining is of solid porcelain 1^ in. thick. This lining
is of earthenware which is fused at 2500° F. The ice com-
partment is lined with the same material. A modern pottery
is used to make these linings and they form an ideal interior
surface for a refrigerator. This lining has some heat insulat-
ing value and has a certain heat capacity which acts as a
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
339
stabilizer of temperatures in the food compartment. The
amount of ice in the refrigerator may vary consideraby with-
out appreciable effect on the temperature of the food com-
partment. The doors are lined with white opal glass. The
flues are formed in the porcelain linings and are of generous
size insuring good circulation.
The drain, shelf supports, flues, and ice compartment floor
are all cleverly molded into the lining, affording a simplicity
FIG. 177.— JEWETT REFRIGERATOR WALL SECTION.
of design which greatly adds to the appearance of the in-
terior of the cabinet.
The insulation is shown in Fig. 177. The total thickness of
this wall is 5}i in. The interior case is of solid ash, doweled
and glued ; next comes two layers of waterproof insulating
paper, then 1 inch of pure sheet cork, two more courses of
heavy waterproof insulating paper, a course of }i in. tongued
and grooved lumber. 1% i"- of pure cork, one course of in-
sulating paper and then 1^ in. of solid porcelain lining. This
340
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
construction insures a wall of low heat conductivity, and a
wall which will not be damaged by very low food compart-
ment temperatures.
The ice is supported in a heavy mesh container, which is
held by rods bolted firmly to the ceiling. This container is
easily removed for cleaning.
FIG. 178.— TEWETT REFRTGERATOR.
The door construction is very rigid. The design includes
a door of good appearance which will close tightly and not
warp out of shape under severe humidity conditions. Cab-
inets are constructed with holes through the lining so as to
accommodate mechanical refrigerating units.
Another line of refrigerators, Fig. 178, is made having a
lining of one piece seamless steel coated with white vitreous
enamel baked on at high temperature. The corners are
rounded.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
341
The insulation is 3 in. of pure sheet cork bonded to the
lining- with moisture-proof hydrolene. This prevents any dead
air spaces between the lininj^: and corkboard.
The exterior mav be obtained in natural ash or white
FIG. 179.— SHOWING SPECIAL COMPARTMENT JEWETT REFRIGERATOR.
enamel finish. The partition around the ice compartment is
easily removable. The shelves are made of heavy woven wire
coated with pure block tin.
A special utility space, Fig. 179, is located directly under
the ice compartment to be used for cooling bottles, storing
extra ice cubes, or chilling fruit or vegetables.
342
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
FIG. 180.— JEWETT REFRIGERATOR WITH MoM I, Mi;i,\l. EXTERIOK.
FIG. 181.— JEWETT KEI' KIGER ATOR, XATURAE COLOR EXTERIOR FINISH.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
343
Another line of refrigerators, Fig. 180, is made. This
model has a porcelain enamel and monel metal exterior. The
lining is of solid porcelain.
Two other standard exterior finishes are furnished. Nat-
ural color, brown ash, Fig. 181, with three coats of varnish,
satin finish. The hardware is of solid cast brass. The other
standard exterior finish is five coats of white enamel, with
nickel hardware.
Cabinets are made in side and to],i icer types with ice
capacities from 75 to 240 lbs. The Jewett Company also
makes a specialty of building cabinets to order.
Leonard Refrigerator. — Fig. 182 shows a typical refriger-
ator as built by the Grand Rapids Refrigerator Company,
Grand Rapids. Michigan.
FIG. 182— LEONARD REFRIGERATOR.
344
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The Leonard refrigerator has been built for over 43 years
and represents the latest cabinet construction for large quan-
tity production.
The exterior case on the different models is made of porce-
lain on steel, white enamel on steel, 5-ply laminated wood or
quarter-sawed oak.
OUTSIDE PORCELAIN
WOOL FELT
WOOD WALL
WOOL FELT
FIG. 183.— SECTION OF LEONARD REFRIGERATOR WALL.
The better grade of cabinets have corkboard insulatioiL
A typical wall construction is shown in detail in Fig. 183.
One-piece porcelain linings are used. These linings are
made of Armco ingot iron. The sheets of iron are first cut,
punched, and welded, forming one piece of steel, thus pro-
ducing a lining with a smooth, hard surface which eliminates
cracks and sharp corners. They are next immersed in acid
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
345
to remo\e all grease or dirt, through other cleaning processes
and then thoroughly dried. The steel linings are then dipped
in a dark-blue porcelain composition which is fused on to the
steel at a temperature of about 1800° F. Two coats of white
FIG. 184.
-LEONARD OAK REFRIGERATOR WITH DETACHABLE BASE EOK
ELECTRICAL REFRIGERATING UNIT.
porcelain are then applied and baked on in a similar way.
This forms a white surface which is impervious to ru.st and
disintegration.
The cold-air flue construction between the bottom of the
ice chamber and the top of the small porcelain provision
.346 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
chamber is such as to allow for a free circulation of air into
and through the provision chambers, there being a circular
opening in the porcelain lining.
Many different types and sizes of refrigerators are made
with ice capacities from 20 to 495 pounds.
Fig. 184 shows an oak cabinet with a special detachable
base for electrical refrigerating machines. In this refriger-
ator the necessary bolts and perforations have been inserted
to make it convenient to install the cooling unit in the ice
chamber.
This cabinet is made in all-porcelain, oak-porcelain, ash-
porcelain and steel-klad lines. Openings are provided for
ventilation.
Many other different types and sizes of refrigerators are
made with ice capacities for 20 to 495 pounds.
McCray Refrigerator. — The McCray refrigerator has been
built at Kendallville, Indiana, for over thirty-five years. Fig.
185 shows one uf the side-icer type McCray cabinets.
The standard exterior construction is quarter-sawed oak
made of 5-ply laminated wood. The top and bottom of the
refrigerators are so constructed that the plywood is not ex-
posed to the outside.
The linings are made of one-piece porcelain enamel on
steel. The inside of the doors is also covered with porcelain.
Some of the larger refrigerators are made with both lining
and exterior case constructed of ■j'^-inch white opal glass.
The floor is of hexagon vitreous tile laid in special cement.
The insulation consists of 2 inches of pure corkboard
scaled with hydrolene cement. The Avall section comprises:
1. Porcelain enamel linin;-;.
2. Dead air space.
3. Inside wood lining.
4. Waterproof paper.
5. Two in. of corkboard .sealed with hydrolene cement.
6. Waterproof paper.
7. Exterior case of 5-ply laminated wood.
Every model has studs in the ceiling of the ice compart-
ment on which cooling units may be hung for electrical re-
frigeration.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
347
A sub-base for any stock model may be supplied so that
the electrical refrigerating unit may be installed under the
refrigerator cabinet. This base is slatted to permit using an
air-cooled refri iterating machine.
FIG. 185.— :McCRAY KEFKIGERA'IOK.
Cabinets of various types with ice capacities from 60 to 840
pounds are made.
Fig. 186 shows one of the all-metal exterior refrigerators
for electrical refrigeration.
The exterior of these all-metal refrigerators is covered
with automobile steel. The joints of this steel are braced
together making this exterior practically one piece. A py-
roxyline lacquer white finish is applied making a beautiful
white exterior. This is the same finish as used by high-grade
automobile body manufacturers.
348
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The doors are flush paneled. They have a ^-inch raise,
and are provided with gaskets which make this refrigerator
practically air tigrht. The hardware and hinges are of heavy
FIG. 186.— McCRAY ALL-METAL REFRIGERATOR FOR ELECTRICAL UNIT.
brass, nickel plated. Fasteners are of the self-closing type.
All refrigerators are mounted on piano casters.
The interior of these all-metal exterior refrigerators is of
the highest quality one-piece porcelain.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
349
The insulation consists of 2 inches of pure corkboard. all
joints being carefully sealed with hydrolene cement.
Reol Refrigerator.— The accompanying illustration shows
the Reol, manufactured by the Reol Refrigerator Company of
Baltimore, Md., in process oi construction. The section in
.;u
FIG. 187.— THE REOL REFRIGERATOR IN PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION.
the small ring shows the mortised and tenoned method of
joining the framework. A view of the finished refrigerator is
also shown.
350
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The framework of the Reol Refrigerator is very strong,
very rigid, and very durable. It is made with ash, corner
posts in one continuous piece from top to bottom. The lower
ends of the corner posts extend about 8 inches below the floor
FIG. 188.— REOL REFRIGERATOR.
of the refrigerator, to form a sanitary base. The framework
of the Reol is mortised and tenoned, glued, and fastened
solidly together to form a rigid foundation on which to build
up the completed refrigerator.
The exterior finish is of solid oak, free from knots and
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS 351
imperfections, with the long boards of the side panels held
together with deep tongues and grooves. The oak is filled,
stained, and rubbed down coat after coat, to a hard satin
smoothness, beautiful and enduring.
The insulation in the Reol Refrigerator consists of pure
corkboard 2 in. thick, securely fastened to the framing. The
insulation is continuous over all of the refrigerator surfaces.
and is broken only by the casings of the doors on the sixth
surface. The corkboard is covered with a coat of protective
water-proofing on both sides, to prevent any possibility of
dampness getting into it either from the outside or the inside,
thus eliminating decay or odors.
The food compartment is lined with vitreous porcelain
which is extremely durable and sanitary. It does not chip
unless exposed to hammer blows and it will last a lifetime if
given just ordinarv good care. Snow white, glassy, and free
from all imperfections and discolorations.
The hardware used on the Reol is of solid brass, heavy and
durable. It is handsome in appearance, and will give a real
lifetime of service.
The doors of the Reol contain the same insulation as the
sides of the box, and in the same amount. They are made
specially air tight with a series of rabbets on the door, which
fit into corresponding ledges in the door casings. As a further
precaution, around the uttermost ledge is a gasket of rubber
and compressible cotton wick. When the door is closed, the
gasket compresses and keeps the warm air out.
Rhinelander Refrigerator. — The refrigerator shown in Fig.
189 is manufactured by the Rhinelander Refrigerator Com-
pany, Rhinelander, Wisconsin.
The exterior is of white porcelain with trim strips of
polished metal. Fig. 190 shows the interior of the same cab-
inet. Other models are made with hardwood exteriors in
various finishes.
The lining is of the one-piece porcelain type. Cabinets are
also made with white enamel linings. Corkboard is used to
insulate the walls and doors.
352
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 191 is one of the refrigerators designed for mechanical
refrigeration units. This cabinet has a white porcelain inte-
rior lining with exterior case of steel, white lacquer finished.
It is cork insulated. The equipment includes hanger bolts
and pipe opening in the rear.
The different models include side and top icers, grocery
and meat refrigerators of ice capacities from 50 to 575 pounds.
YX,G. 189— RHINELANDER REFRIGERATOR.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
353
FIG. 190.— INTEKIOK OF REFRIGERATOR SHOWN ON OPPOSITE PAGI
354 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
I'lG. 191.— KHINPXAXDEK KEFRKIERATOH DESIGNED FOR MECHANICAL
UNIT.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
355
Seeger Refrigerator.— Fig. 192 shows a typical refrigerator
made by the Seeger Refrigerator Company of Saint Paul,
Minnesota, for electrical refrigeration.
The exterior and interior are of white porcelain on steel.
They are equipped with porcelain defrosting pan and insu-
FIG. 192.— SEEGER REFRIGER.^TOR FOR MECHANICAL, UNIT.
lated removable porcelain baffle wall. The insulating material
used is corkboard.
Vegetable storage compartments can be supplied for all
models. These are shipped as separate units complete with
fittings. The >-egetable storage compartment opens forward
like a flour bin.
356 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The insulation consists of waterproof insulating paper,
heavy insulating board and pure sheet corkboard, hydrolene
sealed. 2 inches or more in thickness.
White Frost. — Fig. 193 shows one of the White Frost re-
frigerators manufactured by the Home Products Corporation,
Jackson, Michigan, who have been building them for twenty-
five vears.
FIG. 193.— WHITE FROST REFRIGERATOR.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
357
It is built of special rust-resisting steel and insulated with
pure granulated cork in sealed air space. Cork is introduced
by a special method to prevent settling. The construction is
all steel. The seams and joints arc sealed to be permanently
air and moistureproof.
This cabinet is round with re\ol\ ing food shelves, making
entire shelf area accessible for storage. Shelves and ice cham-
ber lift out for cleaning.
Construction makes it easy to maintain correct refrigera-
tion temperatures and secure efificicnt circulation of pure, cold,
dry air to each part of the food chamber.
The illustration shows a water-cooler ty])e. Two sizes
are available of 100 and 50-pound ice capacit}'. Kach size is
furnished with or without water-cooling system. The cab-
inets are finished in laccjuer or white or grey enamel.
Wall Construction. — Fig. 194 shows a refrigerator wall
using mineral wool insulation and a metal lining. The nir
1(1
m
W '
Metal Lmme.
Wood.
Rosin 5ized Paper.
Mineral Wool.
Paper,
Air SPAC&.
Wood Outer Cas^.
FIG. 194.— TYPICAL REFRKrER.\TOR WALL COXSTRUCTIOX
space is placed well out from the inside lining. With u^ual
service conditions, the air space in this position would be
effective as a heat insulator.
Fig. 195 shows another wall using mineral wool and air
spaces. The air spaces are placed near the inside lining.
Water vapor in the dead air spaces would condense, collecting
on the surface of the lining. This design is ver\" poor from
an insulation standpoint.
358
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fig. 196 shows a solid wall insulated with corkboard. The
inside wooden frame strengthens the cabinet and prevents
breaking the opal glass lining in shipment. The wooden frame
Wood Case.
fZ
f-
Insulating Paper.
ll
iiiilllll
\^
z:r-
s?c
Mineral Wool
^
—
Insulating Paper.
Wood.
in
Insulating Paper.
Dead Air Space.
Insulating Paper.
'
Dead Air Space.
- — ___ Porcelain Lining
FIG. 195.— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL CONSTRUCTION
also provides a place for the screws necessary to hold the
lining in place. This construction is used on some of the
best quality cabinets.
Fig. 197 shows a wall construction used for a cabinet with
a composition lining. The lining must be well supported to
'\V%^
ft
\ ^
■<!'!
In.
Wood.
WATERPRoor Paper.
Corkboard.
Waterproof Papelr.
Wood.
I N SULATING FELT.
Opal Glass,
FIG 196.— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL CONSTRUCTION
prevent breakage in shipment. This type lining because of
its large heat holding capacity, tends to keep the food com-
partment temperature uniform.
Fig. 198 shows a wall using fiber board insulation. This
type cabinet is easily assembled at the expense of being poorly
insulated. The dead air space near the lining would condense
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
359
^U CpMP05mON_J_iNiN^.
Wood.
FIG. 197.~TYP]CAL REFRIGERATOR WALL CONSTRUCTION
Wood Sheathing.
Waterproof Paper.
JVoolFelt Paper.
Air Space:.
Vegetable Fibre.
FIG, 198,— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL CONSTRUCTION
360 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
water vapor which would, in time, wet the insulation, thus
lowering its efficiency. The solid wooden corners produce
large heat losses by conduction from the outside case to the
lining.
Linings. — The lining is a very important part of the house-
hold refrigerator. It represents from 10 to 25 per cent of the
total cost of the refrigerator.
The lining material should have a smooth, hard, and pref-
erably white surface. The surface should be stain and acid-
proof and must not chip, crack, discolor, peel or craze. The
surface should be such that dirt or grease will not adhere to
it. The material itself should be free from joints and cracks,
non-porous and should not absorb moisture or odors. It is
also desirable to have a material suitable for making rounded
corners.
Following is a list of the different linings in common use
in refrigerator construction :
Baked white porcelain on sheet iron.
Solid porcelain.
Solid stone.
White opal glass.
Galvanized iron.
Enamel on steel.
Wood spruce, oak, \>mv.
Ceramic tile (floor).
Rust resisting meta!.
Cement.
Porcelain on Iron Lining. — The standard lining for refrig-
erators is porcelain on iron. The sheet iron for the base is
carefull}- selected, otherwise blisters may result. The sheet
is cut. punched, and formed. The necessary welding is per-
formed. It is then treated with acid to remove all grease and
dirt. Sometimes other "pickling" baths are used. The lining
is then dipped into a bath of blue porcelain. This porcelain
composition usually consists of feldspar, borax, china clay,
and other chemicals, in accordance with carefully prepared
and tested formulas.
These materials are fused or melted in a smelting furnace.
The melted mass is drawn off into a tank partly filled with
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS 361
water. When it comes in contact with the water, it is in-
stantly cooled and broken into small pieces of porcelain grit.
This is placed in a revolving mill and ground as fine as flour.
When taken from the mill it is thinned to cream-like consist-
ency, and then taken to the dipping room where it is poured
into metal vats.
The steel linings are first dipped into dark blue liquid,
both inside and outside being covered with this first coat.
This blue coat renders the surface impervious to rust and
disintegration.
After the linings are dipped they are placed in drying
chambers of high temperature where they remain for several
hours to remove the moisture. If the moisture is not re-
mioved, the coating would run off when the lining is placed
in the furnace.
After drying, these linings are placed on compressed air
machinery in front of the furnace. The operator, who is
forced by the intense heat to stand some distance from the
furnace, by means of compressed air levers, raises the furnace
doors and sends the linings forward in the furnace, where the
porcelain is melted and fused onto the steel at a temperature
of about 2000° F.
Two more coats of white porcelain are usually applied to
the interior of the lining, the second being dried and melted on
as ?bove described before the third is applied.
This type lining gWes a very good surface which fulfills
most of all the various requirements. The surfaces, however,
are not flat, as the baking process causes the metal to expand
and warp. Considerable difficulty is experienced by the porce-
lain cracking at corners and welded joints.
Solid Porcelain Linings. — Solid porcelain linings are used
in some of the better grade refrigerators. They are very
heavy and require a solidly constructed cabinet to prevent
breaking the lining in shipment. Most of the refrigerators
using solid porcelain linings have an extra frame work of
wood to make a rigid construction necessary with this type of
lining. The walls are more than one inch thick.
The manufacture of solid porcelain linings is an art to
which modern machinery has given very little assistance. The
362 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
clay is very carefully selected and is molded by hand in a
form. These are placed in drying rooms for weeks where the
temperature is gradually increased. The enamel is then ap-
plied with a brush ; many coats are required with a period for
drying between each coat, then several coats of glaze are
applied. The linings are placed in the kiln and each one must
be completely enclosed with fire brick. The baking lasts for
about one week and a temperature of 2500° F. is reached.
This entire process requires several months, so that this type
lining is expensive to make, and is not well suited to quantity
production.
The solid porcelain lining has a rather large heat storage
capacity and the temperature in the food compartment will
not change quickly wdth an increase or decrease in the amount
of ice. These linings have an irregular surface on the insula-
tion side so that it is necessary to apply a loose insulating
material to fill up these irregularities.
White Opal Glass. — White opal glass lining has extensive
use in refrigerators. The usual construction is to use the
white opal glass lining on the sides, ceiling and doors. It is
not suitable for the floor. A'itreous tile is usually used for
lining the floors as it stands the rather severe service much
better. Opal glass in common use is /« inch or ^% inch thick.
This type of lining presents a flat surface on both sides and
this lessens insulation troubles. The corners and joints are
usually covered with strips of metal. Other manufacturers
use cement and in some cases wooden strips are used to cover
the joints. White opal glass is used to line the doors in
cabinets having solid porcelain linings.
Galvanized Iron.— Galvanized iron is not used to any great
extent for linings except on a few of the cheaper boxes. It
has been found that this material does not resist corrosion
and rust as well as the other linings. Some manufacturers
use galvanized iron for lining the ice compartments ; however,
it is losing favor even for this service.
Wood Linings. — Wood linings are being used more ex-
tensively even on some high-grade cabinets. An odorless
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS 363
wood is used. The surface keeps dry. The wood lining must
be carefully made to avoid crevices between the boards.
Some manufacturers use a white enamel paint over the wood,
while others use varnish.
General Considerations. — The one-piece porcelain or steel
lining is gradually losing favor with the refrigerator manu-
facturers. This is probably due to the difficulty of making
and handling these linings. When the porcelain coating cracks
or chips at corners it cannot be repaired satisfactorily.
An additional disadvantage is experienced in assembling
cabinets with the single-piece lining. The insulation and outer
walls of the cabinet must be built around the lining.
Sheet porcelain is now being used extensively for lining
cabinets. Metal strips are used to hold the sheets in place
and to seal around the corners. With this method of con-
struction, it is possible to make the various cabinet walls on
benches in quantities. The final assembly of the cabinet is
then a simple process, requiring very little labor. This method
of construction is preferable for quantity production.
Outer Case Construction. — The outer wall of most refrig-
erators is of wood. The best wood for this purpose is ash.
Oak, fir, spruce, and pine are also used to some extent.
Most manufacturers use a panel wood construction for the
outer case. These panels have a clearance at the edges great
enough to allow for expansion and contraction, due to tem-
perature and humidity changes. A careful study of these
panels in service will show that they actually expand or con-
tract, frequently breaking the paint or finish around the edge
of the panel.
Some advantages of panel construction are :
1. Constructed of short pieces of light boards reducing waste
lumber.
2. Less weight.
3. Heavy wall at corners where it is needed for structural
strength.
4. Panels properly proportioned give an attractive appearance.
5. Reduces warping troubles.
364
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Some of the more expensive cabinets use a veneer panel
which it is claimed eliminates warping. Metal outer cases are
used, such as porcelain enamel on steel, baked white enamel
on steel, sheet steel zinc plated with a white baked enamel
surface, white opal glass and monel metal.
Some troubles are experienced with the metal boxes in
joining the lining with the outer case at the doors. There is
usually a large heat loss here, and trouble with the moisture
collecting on the outer metal case around the doors. Sheet
steel is being used extensively for the outer case, the usual
finish is white duco enamel.
Doors. — ^The door construction is a very important part
of refrigerator design. The frame for the door and the door
opening is usually of wood several inches thick. This double
wooden frame has a poor heat insulating property, which is
less than half that of corkboard. Figs. 199, 200, 201, and 202
shew methods of refrigerator door construction in common
use.
Wood.
Door.
FIG. 199.— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL AND DOOR CONSTRUCTION
The insulation is usually less on the front of a refrigerator
than on any other side. This has been determined by tests
using thermo-couples on the outside surface of the cabinet to
obtain the surface temperature. Another indication of insuf-
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
365
ficicnt insulation around the doors is the fact that moisture
condenses on these parts first when there is a high room
humidity.
The door heat loss is especially large when metal is used
to line the door frame or the edges of the door itself. There
is need for a new material to make the door opening frame
and the door frame. Wood does not have sufficient heat
Wood.
W<kTCgPROOr PikPEg.
iNSULWirSS Mw£giM.
Jua_SR^c^
—Door.—
FIG. 200.— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL AND DOOR CONSTRUCTION.
insulating property. Following are some of the more impor-
tant points to be considered in door design :
1. Increased heat loss by conduction through solid or metal
framework.
2. Heat loss due to doors not closing tightly causing too rapid
ventilation with outside air. This loss is especially large if the door
does not fit properly at the top and bottom and varies according to
the room or environment humidity, being greater with higher
humidity.
3. Damage to the finish and the exterior surface around the
doors caused by the condensation of moisture.
4. Warped doors due to constant changes in moisture, tempera-
ture and humidity, and the difference in these conditions on the out-
side and inside surfaces of the door.
5. Heat loss due to improper design of angle and clearance
allowing large air wedge between edge of door and frame.
366
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The refrigerator door has to stand a severe surface con-
dition of humidity and temperature. The humidity frequently
attains such conditions as 90 per cent on one side and 40 per
cent on the other. The temperature usually has a differential
of from 20 to 40 degrees on the outside and inside of the box.
Ash is one of the best woods to use for this severe service.
Various kinds of gaskets are available for making a tight
seal around the door. Some of the materials for this purpose
are rubber, felt, rubberized cotton, and thin copper metal
strips. The high grade boxes do not depend upon gaskets
for a close fit. Most gaskets are afifected by moisture or lose
their resiliency after a few months of service. Gaskets are
used very efi'ectively on large cold storage doors where it is
not practical or necessary to make a good wood-to-wood fit.
When a well-made door is fitted properly it will close tightly
on all four sides against a strip of ordinary writing paper.
Some manufacturers use a series of steps in the door and
Wood.
vyATERpRoor Paper.
Hnsulating Matepial As 1 ' ■
r| Granulated Cork, Air Space. | -i^ \ \
! '^Mineral Wool. Corkbqard P-gj
I wATERPRoor Paper
fWOOD.
— Door. —
FIG. 201.— TYPICAL REFRIGERATOR WALL AND DOOR CONSTRUCTION.
the door frame. The better boxes have only one or two steps
and fit well against the outside surface of the box. No at-
tempt is made to fit closely between any of the other surfaces.
The door-facing strip should have a slope on the side of
the door opposite the hinges. This slope is usually applied to
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
367
the other three sides of the door and door opening, although
this is entirely unnecessary except for symmetry. The angle
of this slope is easily determined by the radius from the center
of the hinge to the inside of the door stop on the opposite side.
Wood.
Loose Insulating Material Aal
Granulated Cork.
HiNERAL Wool E""-.
Wood.
Loose Insulating Material.
Solid Porcel/vih. ; "'
Composition Lining g., "'
I Wood. ''
r Loose Insulating Material
. [TIWOOD.
Door.
FIG. 202.— TYPICAL KEFRIGERATOR WALL AND DOOR CONSTRUCTION.
The door construction is one of the most difficult problems
encountered in making an all-metal box. Even at a room
humidity of 50 or 60 per cent, condensation will probably
form around the doors of an all-metal box. This may damage
tlic exterior finish of the metal.
The door to the ice compartment should always have an
opening at least 12 inches wide. This will allow the thickest
end of a manufactured cake of ice, 11>4 inches on a 300-pound
size and 11^ inches on a 400-pound cake, to enter without
chipping.
Shelves. — The shelf arrangement is an important design
feature frequently neglected in refrigerator construction.
The ratio of shelf area to food storage volume is a good
method of checking this part of the design.
Tables LXII and LXIII show that the top icer and ell type
refrigerators have practically the same shelf surface for the
.same rated ice capacity.
368 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Shelves are usually made of small mesh wire heavily
tinned. Glass shelves are used to a limited extent. Some
TABLE LXII.— SHELF AREA OF TOP ICER REFRIGERATORS.
Rated Ice Capacity (Founds) SO 75 100
Shelf Area Square Feet
Box 1
" 2
" 3
" 4
" 5
" 6
.. 7
Average 4.3 5.6 6.8
All of these boxes have three shelves.
>helves are constructed of small steel bars welded together
into a unit and hea\ily tinned. Some of the advantages of
w ire shelves are :
1. Cheapness of construction.
2. Light weight.
3. Easily removed and cleaned.
4. Allow free air circulation.
5. Permit seeing through them to locate articles underneath.
6. Surface not damaged by heavy food containers.
7. Do not rust or corrode readily.
TABLE LXIIL— SHELF AREA OF ELL TYPE OF REFRIGERATORS.
4.8
6.2
7.0
4.2
5.1
5.9
4.9
5.4
7.2
4.0
5.6
8.1
3.4
4.3
6.1
3.6
6.5
7.8
5.2
5.3
5.4
Rated Ice Capacity (Pounds) 75 100 200
Shelf Area Square Feet
Box 1
" 2
" 3
" 4
" 5
" 6
" 7
5.8
8.7
16.0
6.6
8.3
10.5
5.3
6.0
12.0
6.2
6.5
16.0
5.6
7.8
10.0
5.0
8.5
16.2
4.0
7.4
18.0
Average 5.5 7.6 14.1
Some refrigerators are made with shelf supports adjust-
able for height. It has been found in actual service that this
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS M
feature is not used, as the owner evidently does not appre-
ciate the advantage of spacing the shelves to conform with
certain requirements.
TABLE LXIV.— INSULATORS USED IN REFRIGERATORS.
Wood 42
Air Space 28
Paper 28
Granulated Cork 13
Mineral Wood 12
Corkboard 8
Flax Composition 6
Felt Paper 2
Cocoa Fiber 1
Vegetable Fiber 1
Eel Grass 1
Hairfelt 1
Wood Fiber 1
Sea Grass 1
The shelf spacing in cabinets using mechanical refrigera-
tion is usually closer than on refrigerators using ice. This
close spacing is permissible because of the colder temperature
and more active circulation.
Materials for Refrigerators. — The insulating materials
used in 50 standard refrigerators are listed in Table LXIV.
The foregoing indicates the number of times each insulat-
ing material was used in the construction used by 50 different
manufacturers.
Table LXV shows the woods used in 50 standard refrig-
erators for outside case and linings :
TABLE LXV.— WOODS USED IN REFRIGERATORS.
Oak 21
Ash 13
Fir or Spruce 7
Yellow Pine ,
White Pine
Black Ash
Poplar
Cypress
Birch
Table LXVI gives a list of some of the woods which are
suitable for refrigerator construction. The botanical name
and localitv where such wood grows are included also.
•^70 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE LXVI— WOODS MOST SUITABLE FOR REFRIGERATORS.
Common Name
H = Hard
S = Soft
or Coniferous
Botanical Name
Locality
Where Grown
Ash, black H
Ash, Oregon H
Ash, white, forest grown H
Ash, white, second growth H
Basswood H
Beech H
Birch, sweet H
Birch, yellow H
Birch, black H
Birch, white H
Butternut H
Butternut, white walnut H
Buttonwood, sycamore
Chestnut H
Cottonwood H
Cottonwood, black H
Cypress, bald S
Cypress, yellow S
Douglas fir — also called
Oregon pine S
Dogwood, flowering H
Dogwood, western H
Elm, gray H
Fir, white S
Fir, red S
Fir, yellow S
Gum, black H
Gum, red H
Gum, sap H
Hackberry H
Hemlock, black S
Hemlock, eastern S
Hemlock, western S
Locust, black H
Locust, honey H
Maple, Oregon H
Maple, red H
Maple, silver H
Maple, sugar H
Maple, rock H
Maple, hard H
Maple, soft H
Oak, California black H
Oak, canyon live H
Oak, chestnut H
Oak, cow H
Oak, laurel H
Oak, Pacific post H
Oak, post H
Fraxinus nigra
Fraxinus oregona
PVaxinus americana
Fraxinus americana
Tilia americana
Fagus atropunicea
Betula lenta
Betula lutea
Juglans cinerea
Castanea dentata
Populus deltoides
I'opulus trichocarpa
Taxodium distichum
Chamaescyparis
nootkatenis
l^seudotsuga taxifolia
Cornus florida
Cornus muttaim
Abies concoler
Nyssa sylvatica
Liquidambar
styraciflua
Celtis occidentalis
Tsuga mertensiana
Tsuga canadensis
Tsuga heterophylla
Robinia pseudacacia
Gleditsia triacanthos
Acer macrophyllum
Acer rubrum
Acer saccharinum
Acer saccharum
Quercus californica
Quercus chrysollpsis
Quercus Prinus
Quercus nichaurii
Quercus laurifolia
Quercus garryana
Quercus minor
Mich. Wis.
Oregon
Ark. W. Va.
New York
Penn. Wis.
Ind. Penn.
Pennsylvania
Penn. Wis.
Tenn. Wis.
Md. Tenn.
Missouri
Washington
La. Mo.
Oregon
Wyoming. Mo.
Wash. Ore.
Tennessee
Oregon
Tennessee
Missouri
Wis. Ind,
Montana
Tenn. Wis.
Washington
Tennessee
Mo. Ind.
Washington
Penn. Wis.
Wisconsin
Ind. Pa. Wis
Cal. Oregon
California
Tennessee
Louisiana
Louisiana
Oregon
Ark. La.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS 371
TABLE LXVI.— WOODS MOST SUITABLE FOR REFRIGERATORS— (Ctwjfd)
H = Hard
Common Name S = Soft
or Coniferous
Botanical Name
Locality
Where Grown
Oak, red
H
Quercus rubra
Ark. La. Ind.
Tennessee
Oak, Spanish liighland
H
Quercus digitata
Louisiana
Oak, Spanish lowland
H
Quercus pagodaefolia
Louisiana
Oak, white
H
Quercus alba
Ark. La. Md.
Oak, willow
H
Quercus phellos
Louisiana
Oak, yellow
H
Quercus velutina
Ark. Wis.
Oak, English
H
Pine, jack
S
Pinus heterophylla
Florida
Pine, longleaf
S
Pinus palustria
Fla. La. Miss.
Pine, Norway
S
Pinus resinosa
Wisconsin
Pine, pitch
Pine, shortleaf
S
Pinus rigida
Tennessee
S
Pinus echinata
Ark. La.
Pine, sugar
S
Pinus lambertiana
California
Pine, table mountain
S
Pinus pungens
Tennessee
Pine, western white
S
Pinus monticola
Montana
Pine, western yellow
S
Pinus ponderosa
Colo. Mont.
Ariz.
Wash. Calif.
Pine, white
S
Pinus strobus
Wisconsin
Pine, northern yellow
s
Pine, southern 5 ellow
s
Pine, Georgia
s
Pine, spruce
s
Poplar, yellow
H
Liriodendron
tulipifera
Tennessee
Poplar, white
H
Poplar — also called
whitewood
H
Redwood, California
Sassafras
H
Sassafras sassafras
Tennessee
Spruce, Engelmann
S
Picea engelmanni
Colorado
Spruce, red
S
Picea rubens
N. H. Tenn.
Spruce, litka
S
Picea sitchensis
Washington
Spruce, white
S
Picea canadensis
N. H. Wis.
Sumac, staghorn
H
Rhus hirta
Wisconsin
Sycamore
H
Platanus occidentalis
Ind. Tenn.
Tamarack
S
Larix laricina
Wisconsin
Willow, western
H
Salix lasiandra
Oregon
Ice Capacity of a Refrigerator. — The ice capacity of a
refrigerator is an arbitrary figure at the best, inasmuch as
the pieces of ice that are put into it vary considerably in size
and so make more or less waste space. Ice capacities in
refrigerators are usually figured in the following way :
The cubic inches of ice chamber divided by 1,728 gives
total cubic feet and this multiplied by 57.5, which is the weight
372
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
of a cubic foot of ice, gives the total ice capacity in terms of
pounds of ice. From this deduct 25 per cent, considered as a
fair allowance for waste space or irregular shaped ice, and
the remainder is the figure of ice capacity of a refrigerator.
TABLE LXVll.— RATED ICE CAPACITIES OF REFRIGERATORS.
Summary of Data on 473 Different Standard Models. (.Side leers.)
Total Inside j Average Rated | Maximum Rated I Minimum Rated
Volume I Ice Capacity ; Ice Capacity ) Ice Capacity
Cubic Feet. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
4— S
58
75
40
5—6
81
110
50
6—7
93
110
50
7—8
103
125
50
8—10
126
200
65
10—12
142
200
75
12—16
177
250
85
16—20
204
300
150
20—24
244
375
170
24—30
284
350
235
30—40
310
425
190
40—60
420
550
300
Table LXVII gi\es the rated ice capacities of refrigerators
obtained from the data on 473 different standard models of
side icer refrigerators. Data are given for refrigerators hav-
ing volumes varying from 4 cubic feet to 60 cubic feet. It is
interesting to note the difference in the minimum rated ice
capacity, average rated ice capacity, and the maximum rated
ice capacity. Table LXVIII gives similar rated ice capacities
from data on 88 different models of the top icer lift lid icing
door construction.
TABLE L.WIIL — RATED ICE CAPACITIES OF REFRIGERATORS.
Summary of Data on 88 Different Models (Top leers, Life Lid Icing Doorj,
Total Inside | Average Rated | Maximum Rated I Minimum Rated
Volume I Ice Capacity 1 Ice Capacity | Ice Capacity
Cubic Feet. | Pounds. ( Pounds. | Pounds.
3—4
56
120
40
4—5
69
151
65
5—6
92
117
75
6—7
106
133
69
7—9,
133
188
100
8—9
105
110
100
9—10
124
150
100
10—11
150
150
150
Table LXIX gives additional rated ice capacities of refrig-
erators. The data in this table was obtained from an average
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS ,?7.^
of information on 282 different models of the top icer con-
struction, includinj^ both lift lid and front door icers.
TABU-: I. MX. RATED 1 CK CArAClTlES OF KKFRIGERATOKS.
Siiiiunary of IJata on JXJ Diflferint Models (Top Icers Including Lift f-ifl ami Front
Door Icers.)
Total Inside
Average Kafed
; Maximum Rated
Minimum Rated
Volume
Ice Capacity
1 Ice Capacity
Ice Capacity
Cubic Feet.
1 Pounds.
1 Pounds.
1 Pounds.
3—4
62
120
40
4—5
74
151
55
5—6
85
135
60
6—7
101
190
65
7—8
122
188
60
8—9
121
165
75
9—10
144
175
100
10—11
165
224
125
11—12
142
220
110
12—15
194
235
160
15—22
224
420
150
Table LXX g'ives the rated ice capacities of refrigeratcHS
obtained from 194 dift'erent standard models of the top icer
construction, with the icing door on the front.
TABLE LXX.— RATED ICE CAPACITIES OF REFRIGERATORS
Summary of Data on 194 Different Standard Models. (T'op Icers, Icing Door on Front).
Total Inside I Average Rated | Maximum Rated I Minimum Rated
Volume I Ice Capacity | Ice Capacity 1 Ice Capacity
Cubic Feet. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
3-^
59
100
50
4—5
81
104
,-)o
5—6
95
135
60
6—7
113
190
65
7—8
120
176
60
8—9
125
165
75
9—10
154
175
140
10—11
172
224
125
11—12
142
220
110
12—15
194
235
160
15—22
224
350
150
Table LXXI gives some interesting information on ice
refrigerators of the ell type construction. Three sizes, 75, 100,
and 200 pounds rated ice capacity, are included. It is inter-
esting to note the variation of shelf area, per cent of ice stor-
age space used at rated ice capacity, per cent of inside volume
used for ice storage, and the ratio of the shelf area to the
food storage volume. Similar ice refrigerator cabinet data
374 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE LXXI.^-ICE REFRIGERATOR CABINET DATA: ELL TYPE.
Rated Ice Capacity
Pounds
75
100
200
Outside Dimensions
Ice Compartment
Width Inches
Depth
Height
Width Inches
Depth
Height
Cu. Ft.
Cu. Ft.
Ft.
Total Volume Overall
Food Storage Space
Ice Storage Space Cu.
Shelf Area. Sq. Ft.
Percent Ice Storage Space
used at Rated Ice Capacity
Percentage of Inside Volume
for Ice Storage
Shipping Weight (Pounds)
Ratio of Shelf Area to Food
Storage Volume
32.0
18.6
43.0
12.4
13.6
17.3
14.9
3.6
1.7
5.5
77.1
32.
214
1.53
34.6
20.6
46.4
13.1
15.0
19.7
19.2
5.0
2.2
7.2
79.6
31.
293
1.45
43.4
24.6
56.0
17.3
18.9
26.1
35.5
10.5
5.9
14.1
59.1
36.
477
1.34
This table is computed from ten standard refrigeratort with baked porcelain
one piece linings.
are given in Table LXXII for refrigerators of the top icer
construction, having rated ice capacities of 50, 75, and 100
pounds. These data are shown graphically by Figs. 203 and
204.
TABLE LXXn.--ICE REFRIGERATOR CABINET DATA: TOP ICER.
Rated Ice Capacity
Pounds I
SO
75
100
Outside Dimensions
Ice Compartment
Width
Depth
Height
Width
Depth
Height
Cu. Ft
Cu
Cu
Inches
Inches
Ft.
Ft.
Total Volume Overall
Food Storage Space
Ice Storage Space
Shelf Area Sq. Ft.
Percent Ice Storage Space
used at Rated Ice Capacity
Percent of Inside Volume
used for Ice Storage
Shipping Weight, pounds
Ratio of Shelf Area to
Food Storage Volume.
23.4
26.3
29.1
16.3
17.7
18.9
41.4
43.7
48.1
15.8
18.9
21.7
10.8
12.4
13.3
10.3
11.7
12.9
9.1
12.3
15.3
1.94
2.9
3.8
1.02
1.59
2.15
4.3
5.6
6.8
85.8
82.4
81.3
34.5
35.5
36.2
43
173
215
2.22
1.93
1.79
This table is computed from ten standard refrigerators with baked porcelain
one piece linings.
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
375
ICE REfRKERATOR CABINET OATA
From 10 Standard Make. Refriqelrators of each type
5 00
RATED iCEXAPACITY (pounds)
FIG. 203.— ICE REFRIGERATOR CABINET DATA.
ll(i
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
ICE REFRIGIRATOR CABINET DATA
From 10 Standard Make. Refrigerators of each type
HEMFirajHtl^
SO 15
RATED ICE CAPACITY (pounds)
FIG. 204.--ICE REFRIGERATOR CABINET DATA.
CHAPTER X
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS.
Temperature. — The usual method of solving the househoM
refrigeration prolilem is by the use of ice in any of the stand-
ard type refrigerators.
The refrigerator using ice will have a temperature in the
food storage compartments 20 to 30 degrees lower than room
temperature.
The better type refrigerators with very good insulation
will approach the 30 degree temperature diflference when there
is a good supply of ice.
A temperature difference of about 10 degrees between the
coldest and warmest part of the food storage compartments
is necessary to insure good circulation of the enclosed air. In
this way heat is transferred from the food to the ice compart-
ment. This heat transfer is mostly by convection, the circu-
lating air acting as the carrier.
The coldest part of the food storage space is the lower
part directly under the ice compartment. The circulating air
becomes warmer as it rises in the food compartment, absorb-
ing heat from the walls, food and food containers.
The temperature in the warmest part of a refrigerator
should never be higher than 50° F. for the proper preserva-
tion of food.
The temperature of the coldest air dropping into the food
compartment is usually between 40° and 50° P., depending
m
.]78 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
upon the amount of ice. the type and construction of the box
and the temperature of the air entering the top of the ice
compartment. The melting- ice, of course, is always at a tem-
perature of 32° F.
It is necessary to have a well-insulated refrigerator to
obtain by the use of ice a temperature suitable for the storage
of perishable food products.
The desirable temperatures which are recommended for
refrigerators by different authorities are given in Table
LXXIII. The authorities quoted are as follows: New York
Tribune Institute, United States Department of Agriculture.
Dr. L. K. Hirschberg, and Dr. John R. L. Williams.
It will be further noted that the recommendations for
the most desirable temperatures for refrigerators varies from
40° to ."^O", with 45° as an average.
Operating Conditions. — The eftect of room temperature on
the amount of refrigeration recjuired for a refrigerator can be
easily approximated.
For example, if the average operating condition is at 45°
F., food compartment temperature in a 70° F. room, the tem-
perature difference is 25° F. The increase in refrigeration
required in higher temperature rooms would be as follows:
Increase in
Food Compartment Room Tempera- Refrigeration required
Temperature Temp. ture Diff. per cent
45 70 25
45 80 35 40
45 90 45 80
Usuallv at a higher room temperature the food compart-
ment temperature will be higher and the increase in refrigera-
tion will be somewhat less than the amount indicated by this
table.
Circulation of Air. — There is a constant circulation of air
in refrigerators as long as the ice lasts. For the preservation
of food, it is equally as necessary to have good air circulation
as it is to maintain a low temperature in the food compart-
ment. No matter how cold the air is, it will not preserve the
food properly unless the air is in active circulation.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 379
TABLE LXXIIL— DESIRABLE TEMPERATURE FOR REFRIGERATORS.
Temperature I
Recommended 1 Authority
iJeg. F. I
Published in
Extracts.
40°— 50° New York New-
Tribune York
Institute Tribune
50^ or U. S. Depart- Farmers"
less ment of Bulletin
Agriculture No. 1207
45° or Dr. L. K.
u-ss Hirshberg
Chicago
Evening
Post
40° — 50° U. S. Depart- Farmers'
ment of Bulletin
Agriculture No. 375
M. H. Abel
50° or U. S. Depart- Bulletin
less ment of No, 98
Agriculture
J. T. Brown
50° or
less
John R.
Williams,
M. D.
Report at
3rd. Int.
Ref. Con-
gress
40" to 50° averaging 45°; these
are the aims of a super refrig-
erator. A temperature of 40° to
45° is considered ideal for home
refrigerator purposes. It should
not go above 50°.
The best temperature for keep-
ing milk is 50° or less. If a ther-
mometer placed inside a refrig-
erator registers more than 50°,
the fault cannot be laid entirely
to the quality of the milk. Even
a te'mporary rise in the tempera-
ture of milk will help the devel-
opment of bacteria.
Refrigerators, ice boxes, cold
storage, etc., which keep food
well below 45°, help to keep it
free of any great increase and
growth of bacteria.
If on a warm summer day you
put your hand into an ice box
well filled with ice you may
think that the temperature is
very low, and yet it is in all
probability nearer 50° than 40°
F. The ice box no matter
how well cooled, is and must be
damp, and dampness is one of
the requirements for bacterial
growth.
Proper refrigeration is of the
utmost importance in the pres-
ervation of milk. Without thor-
ough cooling it is impracticable
to keep milk for any consider-
able length of time in a condi-
tion that would justify its use
for household purposes. It
should be cooled to 50° F. or
below.
A box or room for the storage
of perishable foods to be at all
efificient, must have a tempera-
ture not in excess of 50° F., pre-
ferably below 4^° F.
380 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
It is a well-known fact that cold air falls while warm air
rises. The cold air cooled by contact with the surface of the
ice is carried down by its own weight, forcing ahead of it
warmer air in other parts of the food compartment. This
warmer air taking heat from the food, food containers and
walls, rises to the top of the refrigerator where it passes into
the ice compartment. It is cooled again and repeats this
cycle, thus establishing continuous circulation.
Circulation is very important as it distributes the cool air
to all parts of the refrigerator. The circulating air in passing
the ice loses some of the moisture and the odor which it has
taken up from the food.
The opening for the air to enter and leave the ice com-
partment should be as large as possible as the maximum
velocity of the circulating air is relatively quite low.
Government tests on nine standard refrigerators of aver-
age quality or better, give the rate of air circulation as 10.1 to
21.4 cubic feet per minute at 60° F.
Melting ice has a temperature of 32° and the best circu-
lation which can be obtained will not keep the warmest part
of the food compartment at a temperature less than 50° in a
room of 90°. Therefore, it is desirable to have as rapid a cir-
culation as possible.
A good indication of the rate of air circulation in the refrig-
erator is the difference in temperature between the lower or
coldest, and the upper or warmest part of the food compart-
ment. This value is usually 10° or 15° in the average house-
hold refrigerator of from 50 to 150 pounds ice capacity.
Some typical refrigerator boxes are shown in Figs. 205
and 206 with arrows indicating the path of the circulating
air. A gain in efificiency can be made by having the warm air
flues against the exterior wall getting the path of the cold
air in the center of the box. This will make an appreciable
saving in the amount of ice used.
It is advantageous to have the ice compartment so con-
structed that the ice will never prt)ject above the lower level
of the warm-air opening into this compartment. Careful tests
have shown that there is a real gain in efificiency by doing
this.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
381
.1
\ct ^w
V
3
^
let.
r
FIG. 205,— AIR CIRCl'LATION IX REFRIGERATORS.
382
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
IIG. 206.— AIR CIRCULATION IN REFRIGERATORS.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 383
Good air circulation in a refrigerator prevents the mixing
of food tastes to a large extent. Foods such as onions, lem-
ons, and brussels sprouts, which have the property of mixing
their tastes with other foods, should be placed in the upper
part of the refrigerator as most of the gases will then be
absorbed by the water on the surface of the ice.
Circulation in Ice Chambers. — Fig. 207 shows various
methods of producing circulation in a refrigerator.
In the upper figure there is no bafifle plate. Local circu-
lation is produced near the surface of the cake of ice. This
condition is not satisfactory for storing food as the humidity
would be unusually high in the food storage compartment.
This construction causes food odors and favors high tempera-
tures.
The center figure shows a metal bafifle plate. This im-
proves the condition in the iood compartment. The baffle
plate would probably be covered with condensation on the
food compartment side. This construction would insure lower
and more uniform temperature in the food compartment than
obtained with the pre\i()us method.
The lower figure shows an insulated baffle plate. This is
the ideal construction, afifording a still better condition of
lower and more uniform temperature, lower humidity and
good air circulation. The baffle plate usually requires insula-
tion equivalent to one-half or one-third of that used in the
walls of the cabinet.
Air Circulation Tests.— A simple method of measuring
the rate of air circulation is to place an anemometer in a flue
opening in various positions to find the average velocity.
Knowing the velocity of the air through this opening and its
area, the amount of air circulating can be calculated.
A heat balance method is sometimes used to determine
the approximate rate of circulation. The heat loss through
the walls is determined by an ice-melting test. It is then
assumed that this loss is due to the circulating air carrying
the heat by convection from the walls of the cabinet to the
ice. The heat transfer by radiation and conduction from the
walls to the ice is relativelv small and therefore not consid-
384
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
'^^^Avmv^^iv^fwmvj,
FOOD
COMPARTMENT
1 N 5 U L ATI ON
^ia v^^.
FOOD
J COMPARTMENT
I N SU LATIO N
/-———- — ^-.^^
iJ FOOD
/ .CE
;
ScOMPARTMENT
1
5
V*. -^
1 NSU l-AT\ O N
•IG. 207.— AIR riRCULATION IN ICE CHAMBERS.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 385
ered. The temperature difference of the circulating air enter-
ing and leaving the ice compartment can easily be determined
by thermometers in the flue openings.
The following equation will approximate the amount of
air circulating per hour :
Pounds of Temp.
I'ounds of Ice Melted = Air circu- X Specific XDiffer-
per hour X 144 lating per Heat ence
hour
Pounds of Air Pounds of Ice Melted per hour X 144
circulated per hour = ;
0.24 X temp, difference of air entering and
leaving ice compartment
The humidity of the circulating air will have an effect on
its heat-carrying capacity. However, this is a relatively un-
important factor and is not usually considered, as this differ-
ence in the final result is less than other variables which are
not taken into account.
Air circulation tests on a well-insulated cabinet cooled
with a mechanical system show that the circulation through
the food compartment varies from 1.0 to 5.0 feet per minute.
As the flue opening has an area equivalent to 1/10 of the food
compartment, the rate of air circulation througli the flue open-
ing varies frorn 10 to 50 feet per minute.
Humidity. — Humidity is the water vapor in the air. At-
mospheric air always contains a certain amount of water
vapor mixed with it. Air at a certain temperature and pres-
sure can contain a definite amount of water vapor. A\^hen this
amount is exceeded, the excess water vapor will condense.
Perfect refrigeration depends as much upon dryness as
it does upon cold. It is very essential to have a circulation of
so-called "dry" air in order to properly preserve food in a
refrigerator. It is just as important that the humidity be low
as it is that the temperature be low. A practical example is
the poor results obtained by keeping foods in the ordinary
ice chest where there is considerable moisture and poor air
circulation. Foods will spoil more rapidly in an ice chest
than in the ordinary refrigerator, even though the temperature
in the ice chest be as low or even lower than that in the
refrisrerator.
386 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Most cellars are un^uilahle ii>r storing ])ei"ishable foods
because of the dampness or hij^li humidity in the air.
( )ne hundred cubic feet of air at atmospheric pressure
can contain the definite amounts of water \apor at the tem-
peratures ^ijivcn in Table l.XXIV.
TABLE LXXIV. WATER \AP0K IN AIR.
Temperature Weight of Water Vapor
Deg. F. per 100 cu. ft. of air.
32 0.0304
40 0.0410
50 0.0587
60 0.0827
70 0.1 145
80 ...0.1564
100 0.2850
The amount of water vapor which the air can contain
increases with the temperature and decreases with pressure.
Relative humidity is the per cent of water vapor actual!)-
present in the air in relation to the maximum amount of water
\apor which the air can contain at a definite pressure and
temperature.
Example: Suppose atmospheric air at 80° F. had a relative hu-
midity of 60 per cent. The amount of water vapor in each 100 cubic
I'eet of air would be
60
X 0.1.564 or n.0Q384 pounds
1 00
The relative huinidity inside a refrigerator is highest where
the cold air drops out of the ice compartment. The relative
humidity is lowest at the top of the food compartment where
the warm air enters the ice compartment. There is a gradual
increase between these two points as the circulating air be-
comes warmer.
The average relative humidity within the food storage
compartment in refrigerators using ice is from 50 to 80 per
cent. The humidity is increased by ])lacing in the refrig-
erator foods or liquids which ha\e a high moisture content.
In summer the humidity in the kitchen is usually higher
than in the refrigerator. Opening the refrigerator doors will
then temporarily increase the huiniditv inside.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 387
Example: y\ssmnc a refrigerator of 10 cubic feet inside capacity
containing 50° air at 60 per cent relative Inmiidity. The kitchen tem-
perature is 80° with 80 per cent humidity. The refrigerator doors
are left open long enough to reidace half the cold dry air with warm
vapor laden room air. What is the loss in refrigeration by this
change?
Cool 5 cu. ft. dry air 80° to 50":
5 cu. ft. or 5 X 0.071 = 0.355 pounds.
0.355 X 0.238 X 30 = 2.5347 B.t.u.
Amount of water vapor cooled:
At 80 degrees 0.001564 pounds per cu. ft.
5 X 0.001564 X 0,80 = 0.006256 lbs.
Cooling water vapor (80° to 50°);
30X0.006256 = 0.18768 B.t.u.
Amount of water vapor condensed:
At 50° and 60 per cent humidity
5X0.000587X0.60 = 0.001761 pounds
0.006256 — 0.001761 =0.004495 pounds
Heat required to condense 0.004495 lbs. of water vapor:
0.004495 X 1000 = 4.495 B.t.u.
Total heat loss:
Cooling air 2.5347 B.t.u.
Cooling water vapor 1877 B.t.u.
Condensing water vapor 4.495 B.t.u.
Total ..7.2174 B.t.u.
This problem shows the important part humidity plays
in ordinary household refrigeration problems.
The results of the humidity tests in a mechanical house-
hold refrigerator are shown in Table LXXV. From the sec-
ond and third columns of Table LXXV. it will be observed
that the food compartment relative humidity increased grad-
ually as the relative humidity of the room increased, although
not in the same proportion. The temperatures of the room,
top of food compartment, and bottom of food compartment
were maintained approximately constatit during the test.
Humidity Test. — This test was made on a well-insulated
cabinet, cooled with a brine tank. The temperature of the
brine during the test varied from 18° F. to 22° F. Several
tests similar to this one indicate that the relative humidity
of the food compartment can be approximately determined
bv computation. It is only necessary to know the tempera-
388
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
ture of the cooling- element and the temperature of the food
compartment. I'he air in contact with the cooling element is
nearly saturateil with moisture.
TABLE LXXV. — HUMIDITY TEST ON A MECHANICAL HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATOR.
To detciiuinc tliL- cflc-ct on tilt food cunipartnuiu luuiiiility wiicn the luuuidity
in the room is gradually increased.
Percent Relative Humidity
Temperature
Bottom
Food Compart.
Top Food F
cod Com-
Time
Room
ment — Bottom
Room
Compartment
partment
9:30 A. M.
28
28
80
54.5
44
9:45
35
29
80
54
44
10:15
40
34
81
53.7
44
10:45
45
40
80
53.5
43.6
11:15
50
42
80
53.3
43
11:45
55
45
80
53.1
42.5
1:30 P.M.
60
48
80
52.8
42.5
2:00
65
49
80
52.8
42.5
2:30
70
50.5
80
53
42.5
3:00
75
51.5
80
53
42.5
4:00
80
52.5
80
53
42.5
5:00
85
52.5
80
53.5
42.7
6:00
90
54
80
53.8
43
6:15
93
54.2
80
54
43.1
Following Day
4:00 P.M.
90
56.5
80
53.3
43
With a 20° F. brine tank temperature, the circulating air
passing through the cold-air flue is at least 10° F. warmer
than the brine-tank temperature, as only part of this air actu-
ally comes in contact with the 20° F. brine-tank surface.
If we then assume that the air is saturated with moisture
at a temperature of 10° F. warmer than the surface of the
cooling unit, this value will closely approximate the actual
condition in service. Then knowing the higher temperature
at any part of the food compartment, the relative humiditx
can easily be obtained from the liumidity tables.
The warmer air having a greater water vapor capacity
therefore, the per cent relative humidity gradually decreases
as the circuiting air passes up through the food compartment.
Desirable Humidity Indoors, — Humidity control in homes
is becoming more and more important, especiall}' in localities
where the outdoor temperature in winter drops to below freez-
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
389
ing. The average relative humidity in heated rooms ranges
from 10 to 20 per cent in winter. This is a dryness greater
than that of the deserts. The relative humidity should not
be below 40 per cent for good conditions in regard to health
and comfort. The usual practice in buildings where the
humidity is controlled is to regulate the relative humidity to
between 40 and 50 per cent.
TABLE LXXVI. -WEIGHT PEK CUBIC FOOT OF AIR, WATER AND SATU-
RATED MIXTURES OF AIR AND WATER VAPOR AT DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES AND UNDER ORDINARY ATMOSPHKKIC
PRESSURE OF 29.921 INCHES OF MERCURY.
Weight of
Weight of
Weight of
Temp.
the Air
the Vapor
Mixture
Deg. F.
ill Pounds
in Pounds
in Pounds
0
0.0863
0.00079
0.08709
12
0.0840
0.000130
0.084130
22
0.0821
0.000202
0.082302
12
0.0802
0.000304
0.080504
42
0.0784
0.000440
0.078840
52
0.0766
0.000627
0.077227
60
0.0751
0.000830
0.075930
62
0.0747
0.000881
0.075581
70
0.0731
0.001153
0.074253
72
0.0727
0.001221
0.073921
82
0.0706
0.001667
0.072267
92
0.0684
0.002250
0.070650
100
0.0664
0.002848
0.069248
102
0.0659
0.002997
0.068897
112
0.0631
0.003946
0.067046
122
0.0599
0.005142
0.065042
132
0.0564
0.006639
0.063039
142
0.0524
0.008473
0.060873
152
0.0477
0.010716
0.058416
162
0.0423
0.013415
0.055715
172
0.0360
0.016682
0.052682
182
0.0288
0.020536
0.049336
192
0.0205
0.025142
0.045642
20^
0.0109
0.030545
0.041445
212
0.0000
0.036820
0.036820
Table LXXVI gives the weight per cubic foot of air.
water and saturated mixture of air and water vapor at dif-
ferent temperatures, and under the normal atmospheric pres-
sure of 29.921 inches of mercury for tempertures ranging from
0° F. to 212° F. The second column shows how the weight
of the dry air in the mixture decreases when the temperature
increases. The last column shows how the total weight of
the mixture in pouncjs decreases with the increase in tem-
perature.
390 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The relation of the air temperature and the difference
between the wet and dry bulb thermometer readings, as
affecting the relative humidity of air, is shown by Fig. 208.
The various curves in this figure, labed 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70,
80, and 90, are relative humidity curves of air in per cent of
the saturated condition at 30 inches of mercury as the atmos-
pheric pressure. The data shown on this figure were taken
from reports of the United States Weather Bureau, The air
temperature which is plotted on the left-hand side of the
diagram corresponds directly to the temperature of the dry-
bulb thermometer. The figure shows graphicall} how the
relative humidity increases with the relative increase of the
dry-bulb temperature and the relative increase of the differ-
ence between the wet and dry-bulb thermometer readings.
Placing of Food and Ice in Refrigerators. — The National
Association of Ice Industries has recently published bulletins
in reference to the operation of household refrigerators, in
which attention is given to "Where to Place Food in House-
hold Refrigerators" and "How to Use Ice." These bulletins
haN'C been extracted as follows:
WHERE TO PLACE FOOD IN THE HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATOR
The home refrigerator is really the food warehouse of the family,
just as the ^reat, clean cold warehouses in the big cities are the
refrigerators of the people of the cities, to keep food clean, sound,
and wholesome, between the time the refrigerator car brings it from
the country and the time that the people are ready to eat it. Just
as the house manager must keep some food supplies for the near
future, so must the food distributing industry in the cities keep a food
supply ahead of food consumption. One is just a magnification of the
other.
The big warehouses have great rooms where low temperatures
which do not vary the year around, are adapted to the kinds of food
to be kept. For instance, eggs are kept at 29° to 31° F., while butter
is frozen hard and kept about 5° below zero. All the rooms are very
clean.
Just so should we plan for the home refrigerator. The refriger-
ator should be spic and span. Everything that goes into it should be
as clean as possible. This will help in two ways: First by J^eeping
out bacteria, and second, by making the cleaning of the refrigerator
a much more simple matter.
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
391
(9r^ff- /><?-;
s<^>r?jb'<>>'je/A'z/ i^/y
392 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Foods requiring the lowest temperatures obtainable should be
placed in the coldest part of the food chamber, while those commodi-
ties which do not demand such care may be placed in less cold loca-
tions.
Let us consider the placing of food in the refrigerator on this
basis. First, look critically at the construction of your refrigerator.
Is it an "over-head" or a "top-icer" type? In an "over-head" icer
type, the coldest place is in the middle of the top shelf where the cold
air drops down from the ice chamber, and the warmest place is on
the sides of the lower shelves where the warmed air travels back to
the ice chamber. In a refrigerator of the "side-icer" type, the coldest
part is in the compartment directly under the ice chamber.
Keep Air Ducts Open. — When food is placed in the household
refrigerator, be careful not to shut ofJ the exit of cold air from the
ice and the entrance of warm air into the ice chamber. There must
be circulation in order to insure a steady supply of clean, dry, cold
air. Fur this reason, leave enough room between containers on the-
shelves to enable the air to flow freely.
How to Use the "Side-Icer." — Foods that are delicate and absorb
odors should be placed directly under the ice chamber where they will
be coldest and get fresh, clean cold air. Milk, butter, meat broths,
and moist cooked foods such as cereals, custards, and cream sauces
come under this head.
Of all the perishable foods going into the refrigerator, milk needs
the most intelligent care. It is an ideal medium for bacterial growth
at favorable temperatures. Because milk is a food depended upon by
young children and invalids, the decomposition of products produced
by bacteria should be especially guarded against. Fortunately low tem-
peratures are excellent deterrents to bacterial multiplication and unless
the milk freezes — which does not happen until below 28° F., they do
not alter it either chemically or physically. Therefore, place the milk
in the coldest part of the refrigerator which, as stated before, is just
l^elow the cold air down drop. Milk bottles may take some dirt into
this most important compartment of the refrigerator. They should
be washed, but care must be taken that the cap is not soaked nor
water permitted to remain on the cap because if it gets wet, bacteria
can easily enter the bottle.
Next to milk, meat broths are probably the most delicate foods
to be cared for. They should be placed, while hot, in sterilized con-
tainers, covered tightly, and allowed to cool to room temperature, then
placed in as cold a location as your refrigerator affords. In fact, all
these delicate foods should be placed in sterilized covered containers.
Butter should he ])laced here for two reasons. First, the tem-
jK'rature tends to liold back rancidity; second, liutter absorbs odors
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 393
and flavors very readily. Therefore, give it a tight container or hold
it in the original package.
Drinking Water. — During warm weather some people want drink-
ing water cold but not iced. Choose clean containers such as quart
fruit jars, fill them with water and place them just below the ice cham-
ber. Sometimes spring water is purchased or the water supply must
be boiled to make it fit for human consumption. If water must be
boiled do so, then put it into sterilized containers, let it cool to room
temperature and place the covered jars in the refrigerator just under
the ice chamber. This gives a supply of well cooled water.
Desserts. — Jellies, charlottes, and heavy cream desserts go in the
coldest compartment until they are set, then if space is scarce they
may be transferred to the meat compartment.
Meats. — Uncooked meats should have the next coldest place.
Always remove the paper wrapper from the meat when it comes from
the market. Paper left on meat sticks, and becomes very difficult to
remove, and a slime may develop. Place the meat on a clean dish
and put it on the bottom of the food compartment. Cooked meats
dry out very quickly, so if you wish to keep them in the best condition,
put them in tightly covered containers. Space is valuable in this
compartment, so use containers that are relatively high and narrow.
Use as few plates as possible. While large pieces of meat, such as
roasts and poultry, must be put on plates, many meats such as steaks,
chops and meat for stews, may be placed in tall containers that require
less room. This applies in general to all parts of the refrigerator. If
containers that are as tall as will fit well on the shelves are used, the
space in the refrigerator will be utilized to much better advantage.
Fish. — Fish may be kept in the refrigerator safely if it is placed in
a tightly covered vessel. The purchase of a white enameled container
for this purpose will be a wise one because fish should be a frequent
food in the home.
Left-overs. — The question of left-overs is a very important one.
They should be placed in the coldest location space permits if they
contain cream sauces or custards, or are some delicate vegetable such
as asparagus. All others should go in the meat compartment or
directly over it. In any case, do not place the left-overs in the refrig-
erator in the dishes in which they were served at the table. It is hard
on the china and also takes up more room than is necessary. Try
putting left-overs in the various jars that accumulate in the household
from the purchase of mayonnaise and other products, adapting the
size of the jar to the quantity to be salvaged. Save these small por-
tions, mix them with originality and imagination, two of the finest
394 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
iiiyrediciitN in the food catalog, and ntilize tlieni as attractive dishes
for lunch or supper or even another dinner.
Berries and Cherries. — On the shelf above the meat compartment
place berries and cherries. They are especially subject to a white
mold which causes quick decay. Dry cold air checks the growth of
this mold. Do not wash the berries until ready to use them. Put them
in a well-ventilated container, such as a wire sieve with the handle
removed, or in the original wooden Liox if clean and dry, but remember
not to crowd the berries, for they will resist mold longer if the dry
air can circulate freely around them.
Eggs. — On the same shelf place eggs and such fruits and vege-
tables as do not have a decided odor or flavor. Contrary to the gen-
eral opinion, eggs do not need the coldest place in the refrigerator.
It they are placed on the middle shelf of the food compartment they
will keep well.
Vegetables and Fruit. — Try washing lettuce and celery when it
i-i>incs from the market. Shake it free of water, and then put it in a
tightly covered jar. It will keep fresh and crisp for days and does
not get broken so readily as when stored in a towel or paper. It also
makes a neater appearance in the refrigerator. Try, also, keeping new-
carrots, fresh pea'", string beans, and other succulent vegetables cold
until needed for use. Set the bunch of asparagus in a shallow pan
of water and give it refrigerator room.
Place all foods with strong odors high up in the food compart-
ment where the air current strikes them just before it returns to the
ice chamber. Then the odors will i)e absorbed by the film of water
on the melting ice and pass of? with the meltage. Foods such as
melons, oranges, peppers, cabbages and apples are on this list. They
all dry out readily so do not remove the oiled or tissue paper wrapper
that comes on the fruit.
How to Use the "Over-head" leer. — When tlie ice in the refriger-
ator is above the food compartment, the cold air otitlct may be a long
narrow opening at the back of the ice chamber, or there may be an
opening in tiic middle of this floor through whicli the cold air is dis-
charged. Generally the warmed air rises along the side walls and
passes through ducts or flues into the ice chamber. The path which
the air takes shows us where to j^lace the various foods depending
upon their susceptibility to the effect of temperature.
Of course the coldest place is ju>t under the cold air drop and
the warmest is usually at the extreme edge of the bottom shelf. The
top shelf in this type of construction just reverses the "side-icer" rule
and is our low temperature location. Each succeeding shelf shows a
slight increase in temperature, but, ordinarily, the extremes of high
OPERATION OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 395
and low are not so far apart as when ice is placed in the upper side
quarter.
With these fundamentals clearly in mind, we readily see that milk,
butter and broths and other very delicate products should have the
middle portion of the top shelf; meats, fish and the delicate desserts
should occupy the middle of the shelf just below, while fresh vege-
tables and rather resistant foods should be placed on the floor of the
refrigerator. Foods with pronounced odors such as cabbage, oranges
and apples should be placed near the side walls where the air currents
are traveling quickly to the ice chamber. There they discharge their
load of heat and odors and the moisture which the expanding air
gathers from the food.
Don't forget that the well constructed refrigerator, well filled
with ice, maintains an active circulation and so causes some evapora-
tion of moisture. Therefore, heed the advice about keeping the tissue
paper wrapping on such fruits as oranges and apples.
Remember too, that the wrapped orange has never been touched
by human hands. Good fruit handling demands gloves on all pickers
and graders. Just think! Forty-seven per cent of our people arc
engaged, in one way and another, in the feeding of us all. It is one
of the wonders of the modern world — this production and distribution
of foods. The home refrigerator is the last link in the long chain
necessary- for the proper distribution of food.
HOW TO USE ICE.
We are all interested in knowing about the proper use of ice — how
to get the most benefits from its use — how to make sure of food and
health protection, but how much thought, frankly, have you ever
given to the importance of using ice the year round? If yours is the
average family, you have given it little thought indeed, because the
average family lets the weather decide its use of ice.
The people In the business know that the high-climbing thermome-
ter will always be the greatest ice salesman, but we also know that
more and more thoughtful people are using ice every month and day
in the year.
Ice is the only certain, sure, positive protector of food's purity —
no matter whether the day be New Year's or the Fourth of July.
Doctors will tell you this. Domestic science authorities confirm the
fact. No cellar, window box or back porch can keep and protect the
foods which cost so much more than the few cents of ice needed to
keep them properly.
You are taking chances when you try to keep food outside of a
well-iced refrigerator. You are exposing it to all manner of danger-
ous, sickness-breeding bacteria. You are exposing it to dust, grime
396 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
and the imevenness of temperatures that never gives real food pres-
ervation.
How to Keep Food Properly. — A refrigerator furnishes an even,
bacteria-destroying low temperature. The housewife who tries to keep
food in any other way is continually risking the family health.
Bacteria multiply in all foods when the temperature is above a safe
point. Most authorities agree that the dividing line between danger
and safety in food temperatures is 50 degrees. Only in a refrigerator
will you find the low temperature that precludes danger of contamina-
tion, spoilage and germs.
How to Gain Real Economy. — While many housewives grant the
fact that food can be kept properly in refrigerators — and in that way
alone — they fail to keep their food properly by taking less ice than
they need. They let the ice chamber get so low that it is frequently
less than half full. Then the refrigerator cannot do its part; it takes
ice and plenty of it to obtain proper refrigeration. Also, from the
pocketbook standpoint, ice melts rapidly when the supply gets low —
more rapidly than when you keep the ice chamber comfortably filled.
If you let your refrigerator get warm, it takes much more ice to chill
it again than it would to keep it cold. Ice is an article you cannot
economize on by skimping.
Simple Rules for Preventing Waste. — Keep the ice chamber of
your refrigerator well filled. The ice melts more slowly.
Have the refrigerator large enough. Do not crowd it full of food.
It is not the size of the box so much as the quality of food which
consumes the ice.
Keep the refrigerator in a cool spot, away from draft.
Close the doors tightly to prevent warm air from seeping in.
Open the doors as little as possible.
Don't put any food on the ice or in the ice chamber; leave the
ice uncovered.
You may have been told that wrapping your ice in newspapers,
cloths or blankets, tends to keep it from melting. This practice is bad,
because it prevents the free circulation of air around the ice, and that
in turn prevents the purification of the air. The whole surface of the
ice is needed to purify the air properly.
Never put hot food in the refrigerator. Let it cool a bit first.
It is a great mistake to have too small a refrigerator for the
amount of food in it. There is not room for enough ice. The food
is a heating element, and melts the ice faster than the ice can chill the
food. Too much crowding of food also obstructs the air circulation
so essential to keeping the flavor fresh and appetizing.
Operation of ice refrigerators .w
Placing the Refrigerator. — Your refrigerator may look stout and
tough, but in reality, great care must be taken to see that it is properly
placed. Few people realize the importance of this.
Place the refrigerator where it won't overheat or be exposed to
moisture, draft or sudden changes of weather.
A porch, even though protected, and a cellar are bad places for
it. The best place is in the kitchen near the rear entrance. This may
not be as convenient as a little nearer the working section; but it
saves the iceman crossing your kitchen. The ideal arranucment, ct
course, is an outside icer opening on the porch.
Opening and Closing Refrigerator Doors. — One of the quickest
ways of spoiling the efficiency of your refrigerator as a preserver of
food is to open the doors too often and keep them open too long.
Tests have shown that in opening the door the temperature inside
rises at least two degrees.
Some housewives open the box every time they want a single
article of food, instead of taking out several articles at once which
may be needed about the same time.
Refrigerator doors should be kept tightly closed. When not quite
shut they leave a crack between the door and its frame and warm air
seeps in or the cold air pours out. Under such conditions, it is im-
possible to keep the inside cold. It is also bad for the doors. The
meeting of warm air on one side and cold on the other develops
moisture and that makes the door warp and swell. This "sweating"
is especially noticeable on warm, damp days.
Keeping the Refrigerator Clean. — It is very important to keep
your refrigerator spotlessly clean. That is literally true. A single
drop of spilled milk or of other food can contaminate a refrigerator in
a few days. One drop of milk can develop millions of bacteria if
the temperature is right for it.
In cleaning a refrigerator use a sponge or soft cloth and clean
water. Don't use any sponge or cloth and any water. You do not have
to give your refrigerator a weekly hot scald. You can clean it thor-
oughly with lukewarm or cold water and washing soda, followed by a
rinse with clear cold water and tTien a thorough drying. Hot water
heats the wall unnecessarily. Be sure to leave them perfectly dry.
Moisture is bad.
A friction powder or steel wool may be used on the ice compart-
ment and drain only. The drain is the most difficult part to clean;
use a long handled brush with steel wool packed into it.
To be thoroughly clean a refrigerator should have no cracks or
crevices in which dirt or germs can lodge. It is almost impossible to
clean them out. In purchasing a new refrigerator, be sure to get one
that may be easily and thoroughly cleaned.
CHAPTER XI.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS.
Constant Temperature Room. — A constant temperature
room is necessary to accurately test the heat leakage of a
refrigerator. Electrical thermostats and heaters are of con-
siderable value for tests of this kind. It is easily possible to
maintain a room temperature which will vary not more than
1° F.
Fig. 209 shows an arrangement which has proven very
satisfactory for a constant temperature rocjm. The electrical
heaters are screened so that radiant heat ^vill not pass directh^
from the heaters to the outside surface of the refrigerator
being tested. It is always difficult to measure radiant heat.
AN'ith high room temperature, the heaters must be on a greater
l)ercentage of the time, therefore the heat exchange by radia-
tion would increase greatlj' unless the heaters are screened.
An asbestos curtain is used for this purpose. There is a
circulation of air as indicated by the arrows, insuring a uni-
form temperatvu-e in dififerent parts of the constant tempera-
ture room.
Fig. 210 shows another arrangement for a constant tem-
])erature room using a double wall. The heaters are placed
between the walls and the warm air circulates under the floor,
over the ceiling and along the walls. This method reduces
variation in radiation and convection, due to using the heaters
in order to operate at a high room temperature.
In order to obtain accurate results, it is best to use as
little electrical heat as possible and yet keep the temperature
of the test room constant. In this way the heat losses due
399
400
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
to radiation and abnormal convections are reduced to a mini-
mum.
It is also desirable to control the humidity of the constant
temperature room. This factor is not as important on a heat
insulation test as with an ice melting test.
Ice Melting Method. — -A simple method of measuring the
heat leakage is by the ice melting method. The refrigerator
-^ -^ -*•
ELECTRIC
sv
THERMOSTAT,
}
/
\
VITC H AND
^
f
\
FUSES FOB. HEATERS 1
^
1
\
i=x
>
—
-ELECTRIC \
HEATERS
REFPUQERATOR
^
ASBESTOS \
— BAFFLE
\
CURTAIN /
;
V
■^f^-^
^v
y
-»- -^
r \
1 NSULATVON
FTC;. 209.- CONSTANT TE.M I'KRATU k K TESTINC ROOMS.
must be in use at least 24 hours in order to have the lining
and insulation cooled to about the same temperature as they
will be during the test. The author has found that a cabinet
insulated with three inches of corkboard required three days
to establish a temperature eciuilibrium in the walls.
A weighed block of ice is then placed in the ice compart
ment, noting the shape of the block so that on a subsequent
test a similar shape can be used. Then after a certain period,
say 24 to 48 hours, the ice block is weighed again to detect
the amount of ice melted. Suppose the pounds of ice melted
per 24 hours to be W . Then the heat leakage for the cabinet H
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
401
would be 144xn' in B.t.u. per 24 hours. The heat leakage h,
per sq. ft. per degree F. per day would be :
144 X W .
Sq. ft. mean area X (room temp. — average cabinet temp.)
Temperatures should be taken of the coldest and warmest
part of the food compartment. It is very important to have
—
^- ^ — ,
-
1
i
^ — >.
.
A^ 1
THE«MOST>CT SWITCH AND
.1
FOSES FOR HEATERS "'
-
ASBESTOS-^
LIMED —
•
ELECTRIC - ►
HEATERS
REMOVABLE 1
REFP-IGERATOC^
1
1
^J
ooetK -^
f A
INSULATION m. —
FIG. 210.— CONSTANT TEMPERATURE TESTING ROOMS.
a certain amount of dishes and food on the shelves in makin.u
a test if the actual service conditions are desired. Service
conditions can be closely duplicated by having plates of pota-
toes in 10 or 20-pound units. Two or three times a day a
certain number of cold units are removed from the cabinet
and the same number of warm units (at room temp.) are
used to replace them.
Some of the more important variable factors entering into
a heat leakage test by ice melting are as follows :
1. Constantly changing weight, surface and form of ice cake.
2. Circulation is afifected by size and position of ice cake.
3. The water from the melting ice may assist in cooling cabinet.
4(L' HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The instruments required for a test are thermometers,
preferably of the recording type. If regular glass stem mer-
cury thermometers are used, it is advisable to place them in
a small flask tilled with oil. The flask should have a cork
with the thermometer held in place in a small hole through
the cork. This eliminates the error of reading a rapidly rising
temperature when the door of the cabinet is opened.
Electrical Heater Method. — The electrical heater has ad-
vantages o\er the ice-melting method of testing the heat leak-
age of a refrigerator cabinet. The circulation is not changed
by a different shape of the ice cake, and the rate of heat supply
may be kept quite uniform and may be measured accurately
even without opening the doors of the cabinet under test.
Suppose an ice test indicates that a cabinet would be used
with an average food compartment temperature of 45° F. in
a 75° F. room. The temperature differential through the wall
is therefore 30° F. To conduct a heat test, say in an 80° F.
constant temperature room, a heating element is placed in
the cabinet so that it will have the same wall differential
temperature of 30° F. Therefore, the food compartment tem-
perature is maintained at 80° F. plus 30° F. or 110° F.
If the electrical heating element requires 20 watts in order
to maintain this 30° F. temperature difference through the
walls of the cabinet, then the total heat leakage in B.t.u. per
24 hours=20X 24X3.416= 1640. (1 watt hour of electrical
energy is equi\alent to 3.416 B.t.u.)
The heat leakage is usually rated by the number of B.t.u.
lost per square foot per degree temperature difference per day.
.Suppose the average surface of the inside and outside walls
to be 20 sq. ft., then
1640
=r2.73 B.t.u. heat leakage per sq. ft. per degree F. per 24 hours.
30 X 20
Sources of Heat Losses in Refrigerators.— The following
pertains to a test on an ice refrigerator to determine rate of
ice melting due to heat loss of insulation, opening doors, and
changing food.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 4UJ
The object of this test was to determine the relative
amount of ice melted by the three principal heat losses which
occur in an average household refrigerator. These are:
1. Heat transfer through the insulated walls.
2. Opening doors allowing warm air to enter, and cold air to drop
(tut of the refrigerator.
3. Changing food or placing in the refrigerator, food and dishes
111 be cooled.
The refrigerator was a top icer witli panel construction
throughout and had the following specifications:
Inches Inches Inches
Height Depth Width
Outside Cunipartmenl 60 21 29
Food Compartment 28 15^ 22J/2
Ice Compartment 16^ 16^ 20^
Food Compartment Door Opening 26 .. 20K'
Ice Compartment Door Opening 14 • .. 20J^
\'olume Food Compartment 5.7 cubic feet
\'olume Ice Compartment 3.2 cubic feet
Total Inside Surface 28.9 square feet
I'otal Outside Surface 40.0 square feet
The in,>-.ulation consisted of the following:
1. Oak case.
2. J/2-inch mineral wool.
3. 2 air spaces.
4. Layers insulating ])aper.
5. 5^-inch spruce wall.
6. Porcelain on steel lining.
The rated ice capacity of the refrigerator was 120 pounds
and the net weight of the refrigerator was 280 pounds. The
flue opening was 1^ inches wide on both sides of the ice com-
])artment and extended the total dei)th of the compartment.
There was a 2-inch air space under the ice shelf.
The test was conducted in a constant temperature room.
The room had double walls on all six sides. The effect of
heat transfer by radiation from the electric heaters used to
maintain a constant temjjerattire was eliininated l)y placing
the heaters between the double walls of the room. The oper-
ation of these heaters was controlled by a thermostat. The
humidity of the room was controlled by an electric humido-
stat.
It was found necessary to maintain constant condition of
temperature and humidit}- for several days before an accurate
404 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
reading could be obtained of the amount of ice melted for
each particular test condition.
Throughout the entire test, the room temperature was
maintained at 75° F.. while the relative humidity was main-
tained at 40 per cent. The quantity of ice, as well as the ice
surface exposed. wa> kept as nearly uniform as possible
throughout the test.
The refrigerator was first oi)erate(l without any food
changes or door opening process. The food compartment was
empty so that the heat losses were due entirely to the heat
transfer through the insulation of the cabinet. Of course, a
very small percentage of this heat h^ss was caused by cooling
and dehumidifying warm air which leaked into the cabinet,
replacing cold drier air A\hich leaked out. and a small loss
due to heat transfer by radiation which could not easily be
measured.
The food change tot was then conducted, the food which,
in this case, was ])otatoes, l^eing changed three times each
day. The potatoes were remo\'ed at the temi)erature of the
food comi>artment, while the potatoes ])laced in the box at
each change were at room temperature. The food change
consisted of remoxing a china plate weighing 2.4 pounds
holding 8.6 pounds of potatoes, and then placing a similar
cfuantity of plate and potatoes in the food compartment.
Finally, a door opening test was conducted in conjunction
with the food changing test. This approximated the average
liousehold service condition, indicating the difference between
a laboratory test and actual household service conditions.
During this test, the relative humidity of the room was
maintained at 40 per cent, while the relative humidity in the
lower part of the food compartment of the refrigerator varied
from 62 to 68 per cent.
The results of the ice-making tests indicated that 93 per
cent of the ice was melted, due to heat transmitted through
the insulation, 4 per cent was required for cooling the food
at the rate of 33 pounds per day, and that 3 per cent was lost
in the opening of the doors which occupied one minute per
liour, or a total of ten minutes during the test. These losses
are shown graphically by Fig. 211. The foregoing data, to-
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
405
gether with Fig. 211, illustrate the great importance of having
a refrigerator efificientl}' insulated.
IT)
O
-J
INSULATION
COOLING FOOD
OPENINQ
DOORS
FIG. 211.— COMP.\RISOX OF REFRIGERATOR HEAT LOSSES.
Effect of Room Humidity. — The following test was on an
ice refrigerator to determine the eftect of room humidity on
the rate of ice melting. The refrigerator used in this experi-
ment was the top icer described in the previous report. The
test was conducted in a constant temperature room in which
the humidity could be regulated and controlled very closely.
The room temperature was maintained at 75° F. during the
entire test which lasted 22 days.
During this test the food storage space in the refrigerator
contained only a recording thermometer and a recording
humidostat. The quantity of ice as well as the amount of ice
surface was maintained as nearly ccmstant as possible. The
iiom lemperatuif
Degrees F.
75
75
Food
rompartment
65
65
Room
40
75
406 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
following results were obtained with two different conditions
of room humidity :
Per cent Relative Humidity
Ice melte<t
per day,
pounds
17.75
22.56
This test shows that the rate of ice melting was increased
about 27 per cent, simply by changing the relative humidity
of a 75 degree room from 40 to 75 per cent. This difference
would be greater in actual service conditions as the doors are
opened more frequently and sometimes not closed tightly,
thus greatly increasing the amount of air leakage.
It is therefore very important in refrigerator tests to know
the rehitive Inimidit}- Ix^th of the air inside the refrigerator
and of the room in which the refrigerator is located.
Room or refrigerator environment air is constantly leak-
ing into tlie upper part of a refrigerator, replacing the cold air
leaking out of the lower part. This warm air circulates and is
cooled to the food compartment temperature by coming in
close contact with the ice or cooling element. Heat must be
absorbed, either by melting ice or evaporating the liquid re-
frigerant, to counteract the following heat losses :
Heat losses due to air leakage or refrigerator ventilation.
1. To cool incoming dry air.
2. To cool moisture of incoming air.
3. To condense jiart of moisture of incoming air.
4. To freeze the condensed moisture. In a mechanical refriger-
ator the surface temperature of the cooling element is usually below
32° F.
5. To cool the frozen moisture.
It is then readily understood that with a nearly constant
supply of warm room air entering the refrigerator, it will re-
quire more heat to cool and dehumidify to the same dryness
the 75 per cent humiditx air than it -wotdd to cf)ol and dehu-
midify the 40 per cent humidity air.
Humidity Diagram for Room and Refrigerator. — Fig. 212
shows the relation between room and food compartment hu-
midities. This test was made in a constant temperature room
held at 86° F.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
407
The mechanical refrigerator maintained a temperature ot
42° F. in the lower and 50° F. at the top of the food compart-
FIG. 212.— RELATINE HUMIDITY IN RKFKIGERATOR.
ment. The refrigerator contained only the recording instru-
ments. The average brine tank temperature was 20° F.
The test was started with a warm refrigerator so that the
temperature and humidity of both room and food compart-
ment were equalized.
408
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Calorimeter Testing. — There is a great difference of opin-
ion as to the proper method of determining" the exact or com-
parative rating of household and small commercial compressor
units.
From tests compiled by various manufacturers of house-
hold machines, the simplest and by far the most practical for
every day usage, was found to be actual measurement by vol-
ume of the refrigerant circulated, usually in a calibrated drum
with sight glass, located directly under the condenser. By
using the pressure on this drum at the beginning and end of
the test, the mean pressure is obtained for determining the
exact density of the liquid from authoritive tables on
refrigerants.
CoTid<inse.r
CalihrateJ
■Drums '
FIC.. _'lo.
After the actual pounds of refrigerant circulated has been
found, the net available B.t.u. per pound of refrigerant can be
determined from the table. This value multiplied by the
pounds circulated gives the total B.t.u. of refrigerating work
done in the evaporator.
As numerous tests haAC demonstrated, superheating of the
suction gas to the compressor has very little effect on com-
pressor capacity under normal operating conditions, so that
the volume of gas per pound of liquid can be obtained from
the refrigerant table for the suction pressure noted near the
compressor. This volume per pound multiplied by the pounds
circulated will gi^'c the x^olume of gas handled by the
compressor.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 409
If the volume of gas handled by the compressor is divided
by the piston displacement of the compressor for the same
interval of time, the actual efficiency of the compressor is
obtained. It has been found that the error between this de-
termination method and the use of a calorimeter or B.t.u.
measurement box around the evaporator is practically neg-
ligible, and is much simpler.
As a general rule, the determination which is most desired
by all users of refrigeration is how much power must be paid
for at the end of each month for holding the refrigerator at a
temperature which best conserves food. The problem then
becomes, how many kilowatts or their equivalent B.t.u.s must
be paid for in power consumption for a definite number of
B.t.u.s actually abstracted from the refrigerator?
If a unit B.t.u. per hour abstraction is used as a basis, the
machine requiring the minimum B.t.u. input for this work
would be the most efficient overall, which, in the end, is the
determining factor, provided the machines rate equal mechan-
ically in construction. This value has been given the name
"Performance Factor" and from the consumer's viewpoint is
the most important, if other considerations such as appear-
ance, size, arrangement, ice cubes, etc., are basically equal.
A unit of comparison sometimes used is B.t.u. per Watt hour.
From the manufacturer's standpoint, however, the prob-
lem is somewhat different, as it is the individual parts and
their efficiencies which affect him, so that each piece of equip-
ment, compressor, evaporator, condenser or motor must be
brought up to its maximum efficiency, which in turn will auto-
matically take care of the overall efficiency or "Performance
Factor."
Looking at it from this angle the testing must include
such factors as discharge pressure, compressor r.p.m. and size,
size and type evaporator, size condenser and quantity of air
to be blown over it, type drive, type motor and size, arrange-
ment of parts, noise, vibration, lubrication, control, type suc-
tion and discharge valves, kind of refrigerant, etc.
Tests are subject to a great many variations which cause
duplication of determined data to often be a difficult problem.
In tests on a refrigerator load some of the variables that occur
410 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
wcnild be: door leakaj^^e, air circulation, insulation efficiency,
cooling chamber shape and size, location of coolinjj unit with
its shape, size and arrang"ement, and the important factor of
frost accumulation.
As one or more of these variables are always present, test
results are subject to numerous interpretations. consequentl\'
the least possible number of \ariation factors that can be
included in a test, the more correct Avill be the analyzed
results.
If comparative tests are to be run, the factors entering
into the results need only be considered and held the same
for all tests and the resultant values will give a true
comparison.
When running a comparatix e test on various makes of
equipment and boxes, it is a>sumed that each manufacturer has
made each part of his a])paratus as efficient as he knows how,
commensurate with cost, consequently the "Performance
Factor" test api)ears to be the most logical and at the same
time, the mcjst acceptable method of true accomplishment.
A comparative method for determining compressor effi-
ciency and at the same time, a very simple one, is the so called
"Pump* up" test. By using the same receiver on the discharge
side of the compressor, and finding the inter\'al of time neces-
sary to pump a pressure of, say, 75 pounds on the receiver, a
quick and comparatively accurate comparison is obtained on
compressors of the same bore, stroke and r.p.m.
This method can be carried somewhat further and by re-
ducing the volume of 75 pounds compressed air to 0 pounds
or atmospheric intake pressure, assuming the temperature to
remain the same, the volumetric efficiency of the compressor
can be found by dividing this volume by the actual piston
displacement f(^r the "Pump up" time interval.
Another method for obtaining approximate compressor
efficiencies, is by means of metering the discharge of air
through an air meter for atmospheric intake and varying dis-
charge pressures, using compression ratios for conversion
into an equivalent amount of refrigerant gas.
A suggestion for standard conditions of testing for all
makes of household refrigerating equipment would be the
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 411
power consumption of the motor, where an average tempera-
ture of 45° is maintained in the food compartment with 80°
average outside air temperature. Another test should be
made with an average outside temperature of 100".
Earlier Research on Refrigeration in the Home. — Research
on refrigeration in the home was carried out by John R.
Williams, M. D., to obtain data in order to present a paper
before the Third International Congress of Refrigeration, on
the subject of "A Study of Refrigeration in the Home and
the Efificiency of Household Refrigerators."
Dr. Williams has obtained some interesting information
in reference to the construction of household refrigerators in
actual use, the temperatures prevailing in the rooms and in
the refrigerators, the relative amounts of ice used, etc. Dr.
Williams' paper was as follow^s :
A STUDY OF REFRIGERATION IN THE HOME, AND THE
EFFICIENCY OF HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS.
The problem of preserving fresh food from decomposition is one
which every household is called upon to solve. The cheapest, most
efficient, and most available agency for this purpose is refrigeration
or storage at low temperature. In the home the pantry, cellar or
an ice-box is depended upon to furnish the low temperature required
for proper food preservation.
There is scientific as well as practical basis for this use of cold.
It has been demonstrated by laboratory' experts that bacteria, which
are the cause of food decomposition, are markedly retarded in their
growth by temperature below 45° F., and that temperatures between
45° and 50° inhibit to a slightly less extent the propagation of these
organisms. Above 50° F. bacteria multiply prolifically. This means
that foods favorable for the growth of bacteria, as milk, meat, etc.,
undergo very slight decomposition when kept at temperatures rang-
ing below 50° F., but above that temperature they spoil very rapidly
It follows, therefore that a box or room for the storage of perishable
foods, to be at all efficient, must have a temperature n(jt in excess
of 50° F., preferably below 45° F.
Even the most favored cities in the United States, in the matter
of climate, have periods of from 5 to 7 months when the temperature
averages above 50° F. Thus the northern city of Rochester for
more than six months of the year has a mean monthly- temperature
above 50°, as will be seen by the following tabulation, showing the
mean monthly temperature of Rochester, N. Y., from 1872 to 1911,
inclusive, for the warm months of the year:
412 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Degrees F. Degrees F.
May 56.7 August 68.9
June 66.2 September 62.8
July 70.9 October 50.0
During these warm months, artificial means must or should be
employed to protect fresh foods from decomposition. House tempera-
tures, even in the cellar, are rarely much lower than those of the out-
side air. The mean temperature for the month of August, 1912, was
68.9°., while the average temperature of 266 cellar bottoms was 63° F.
The importance of these facts will be better appreciated when it is
understood that nearly half of the homes in Rochester rely upon the
cellar for the protection of their perishable foods. In an investigation
of more than 5,450 homes, it was discovered that 2,450 families do
without ice the year round and depend upon the cellar or pantry to
afford the proper temperature conditions for food preservation. Yet
in the study of cellar temperatures in several hundred homes not one
was found having a temperature below 55° F. Pantries and kitchens
were observed to be even warmer, for not one of either was found
having a temperature below 60° F. The obvious conclusion from
this investigation is that every home should have artificial means of
refrigeration.
As has just been indicated, about 55 per cent of the homes in
Rochester use ice during a part of the year, and most of these homes
are provided with some kind of an ice box. The endeavor was made
to determine how efficient are these refrigerators, and also to learn
with some accuracy to what extent ice is used, its cost, etc. Investi-
gation of the problem was undertaken in various sections of the city,
each dififering from the others in social or economic conditions. These
distinctions are indicated in the accompanying tables. Upwards of
100 homes in each district were studied in the following manner:
A trained investigator, equipped with a set of accurate and deli-
cate thermometers and other measuring devices, visited the homes
and made the observations. Cellar temperatures were taken approxi-
mately twelve inches from the cellar bottom; refrigerator tempera-
tures were taken in the food chamber. Each temperature observation
lasted at least fifteen minutes. In making the test the refrigerator
door was opened, the instrument placed inside, and the door closed
as quickly as possible. When a box was low in ice, or when condi-
tions were discovered which affected the validity of the test, another
observation was made on the following day or the questionable data
was rejected.
In this study of ice boxes, a large number were examined and the
data from 300 accepted as trustworthy. Of these, only 123 had tem-
peratures below 50° F., the other 177 registered above that tempera-
ture and were therefore worthless for preserving food.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 413
The main reason for the inefficiency of these refrigerators is to
be found in their defective construction and insulation. Most of them
are wooden boxes built of half inch lumber, and are lined with tin,
galvanized iron, or zinc. The walls vary in thickness from less than
two inches to more than four inches. The space between the metal
lining and the wooden sides is supposed to contain some insulating
material, as felt, mineral wool, vegetable fibre, or some preparation
of cork. In many of them nothing more is to be found than a sheet
or two of paper. Since the efficiency of a refrigerator depends in
large part on the character and thickness of the insulating material,
consideration must be given to these factors.
It has been proven both experimentally and practically that con-
fined air is the best insulator. The property of retarding or resisting
the transmission of heat by an insulating agent rests largely in the
fact that air is incarcerated within its fibers or cells. The more com-
pletely the air is confined, the more efhcient is the insulation. An
insulating agent, to be of value, must not permit of the circulation of
air, nor must it absorb moisture. Moisture and air currents are
fatal enemies to good insulation. A refrigerator wall which contains
a space large enough to permit of air circulation, will be found
defective because the air then carries the heat by convection. Wood,
felt, mineral wool, charcoal, sawdust, etc., are fairly efficient when
they are dry, but as soon as they absorb moisture, as most of them do,
their efficiency markedly declines. When there is inferior or inade-
quate insulation in the wall of the refrigerator, the heat percolates
through, warms the air next to the metal lining and thus favors the
condensation of moisture on the metal within the wall. The poorer
the insulation, the greater is the precipitation of moisture. This damp-
ness not only serves to corrode the metal lining, but also becomes the
medium for the growth of germs and filth. If the insulation has the
property of absorbing moisture, as have most of the cheap insulating
agents, this water of condensation is soaked up and the efficienc\- of
the insulation is correspondingly lowered. Furthermore, this absorbed
moisture serves to warp and rot the wood casing, with the result that
doors become ill fitting, permitting warm air to leak into the box,
still further lowering the efficiency of the refrigerator, besides uselessly
melting the ice. Some manufacturers avoid the corrosion of the metal
lining by the use of glass, tile, or vitreous enameled metal. The manu-
facturers of shoddy boxes are imitating these by coating the cheap
metal linings with white paint. Such refrigerators usually have little
or no insulation, and are worthless for food protection.
The conditions just described were commonly noted in the exam-
ination of refrigerators, particularly in the cheap boxes found in the
homes of working people. Many w^ere discovered where the door
could not be closed tightlv. The eflfect of these evils is evidenced in
414 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Tables LXXVII and LXXVIII. The average temperature inside of
the food chamber in practically all of the cheap boxes was above 50°
I-., and the lowest temperatures noted, taken usually soon after icing
and under the most favorable conditions, were not low enough to be
of dependable value. A properly constructed and operated ice box,
with reasonable ice consumption, should constantly maintain a differ-
ence of at least 25 degrees between the temperature of the food
chamber and that of the outside air when the latter is 70° F. or
thereabout. As the outside temperature goes down, this difference
will diminish. A box which will not maintain an average difference
of more than 20 degrees is not much good, and those with even
smaller differences.
TABLE LXXVII.— SHOVVIAG TEMPERATURE OF REFRIGERATORS, LINING
ROOMS AND CELLLARS DURING MONTH OF AUGUST, 1912.
ROCHESTER, N. Y.
Refrigerators | Living Rooms | Cellars
Section
o a c
Well-to-do American 29 43 62 4 0 64 61 0 6 78
American laboring 3 17 19 10 0 24 21 0 22 31
Jewish laboring 9 20 47 8 0 28 63 0 0 75
German-American laborincr 1 0 49 2 0 4 18 0 4 29
Italian laboring 01 600 0 700 10
Totals 42 81 153 24 0 120 170 0 32 253
Since the writer undertook to study the problem of home refrig-
eration, he has been deluged with inquiries as to the best makes of ice
boxes and how it can be determined whether or not a given box is
a good one. The answer is neither easy nor simple because the prob-
lem deals with the combined complexities of economies and the
physics of refrigeration. It seems worth while, however, to discuss
simply and briefly the technical questions involved.
The amount of money a family can afford to pay for a refriger-
ator or for proper insulation depends largely upon the cost of ice. If
ice can be procured Tor nothing, then there is little need to pay much
to prevent it from wasting. If, however, it is costly, then it will be
found economical to pay for good refrigerator construction. The
average retail price of ice in Rochester is $8.50 per ton, and this will
be used as a basis of calculation in the following discussion. Next
in order of importance to the cost of ice, is the cost and efficiency of
the insulating agent used in the wall of the box. The purpose of
the insulation is to prevent the passage of heat from the outside to
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 415
the inside of the box. As said before, the chief value of an insulator
depends upon the amount of air entrapped within its cellular struc-
ture, and upon its freedom from moisture. If an insulator disin-
tegrates so as to lose its cellular character or air spaces, its efficiency
correspondingly declines. If it becomes wet, its value is almost cut
in two. In the study of an ideal refrigerator for the home, two factors
must be seriously considered, the cost of ice and the cost and
efficiency of insulation.
TABLE LXXVIII.— SHOWING THE COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE OF
DIFFERENT MAKES OF REFRIGERATORS IN USE IN
ROCHESTER, N. T., AUGUST, 1912.
o. o
va
e« B- ^t.-
H « 3 bi Insulation.
<u s
.5 hoc til Mn hcQ
O ^ >. h '" ^3 ^C
\y2-\n. mineral wool, I'/^-in- Aax and
paper, 3-in. board.
1-in. mineral wool, 3-%-in. boards,
^-in. felt.
1-in. vegetable fiber, 2-^8-in. boards,
felt sheathing.
U-^-in. board, M-i"- vegetable fiber.
Paper, 2-%-in. boards.
Paper, air space, ?^-in. boards.
Paper, and board.
Paper, and board. Air space.
Paper, air space.
Paper, air space.
Paper, air space.
Home-made boxes, built-in boxes and
those unnamed.
Miscellaneous boxes, more than 70
different makes.
The average working man who uses a refrigerator spends between
$5.00 and $10.00 for the ice he uses during the four or five warm
months of the year. See Table LXXIX showing the amount spent for
ice by various classes of people. Well-to-do families spend between
$15.00 and $40.00 a year for ice. The cost to families in moderate
circumstances varies between these extremes.
Refrigerators in the homes of working people cost, at retail,
between $10.00 and $20.00. In the homes of those in better circum-
stances, ice boxes costing from $25.00 to $150.00 are to be found.
Most of the low-priced boxes are built more with regard to appear-
39
48.4
70.9
22.5
P.cst
9
46.3
69()
22.7
Best
7
45.5
69.1
23.6
Best
6
47.6
69.7
22.1
Best
7
52.2
69.7
17..^
Medium
13
51.7
70.4
18.7
Medium
13
52.7
72.3
19.6
Medium
11
54.5
73.6
191
Medium
21
53.7
73 1
19.4
Cheap
6
54.9
70.0
15.1
Cheap
8
52.6
73.8
21.2
Cheap
9
52.2
68.9
16.7
Cheap
6
57.0
74.4
17.4
Cheap
7
56.6
71.5
14.9
Cheap
7
50.9
66.5
15.6
Cheap
22
510
71.3
20.3
Mixed
104
53.3
71.3
18.
Mixed
416 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
ance than efficiency. The majority of them contain practically no
insulation. It is not within the province of this paper, nor has the
writer the qualifications which would enable him to intelligently dis-
cuss the cost of making refrigerators, but it is within the scope of
this discussion to consider the economic value to the consumer of
improving the quality of the boxes now in use.
TABLE LXXIX.— SHOWING PRICE PAID FOR ICE PER YEAR.
DATA FROM 321 FAMILIES.
Under $5.00 $10 to $15 to $20.00
Section $5.00 to $10.00 $15.00 $20.00 and ovei
Well-to-do 6 36 ZZ 13 34
American laboring 34 16 5 1 4
Jewish laboring 22 72 10 6 1
German-American laboring 8 14 1 1 0
Italian laboring 4 0 0 0 0
Total 74 138 49 21 39
NOTE: By this table it will be seen that working people spend from less
than $5.00 to $10.00 or more for ice in the four or five months of the year in
which they use it. Those in better circumstances spend correspondingly more. At
least 60 per cent of this money is wasted and lost in the inefficient and uneconom-
ical refrigerators in use. Were this loss applied to the purchase of a good ice box,
these families in a short time would have adequate and economical refrigeration,
in pl.ici> of the present wasteful and unsanitary methods.
This point can best be illustrated by considering a specific exam-
ple. In Table LXXX is shown the relation between the amount of
insulation, ice consumption, and cost of operation. The refrigerator
is of medium size (42x30x18), of good make, and, as ice boxes go, is
well insulated. It retails for about $20.00, more or less, depending
upon the trimmings. To be efficient, this box should maintain a fairly
constant temperature of 45° F. within the food chamber. To do this,
it must maintain an average dif?erence of 20 degrees temperature
between the inside and outside of the box. To overcome the heat
radiation from a box of this size, and with the kind of insulation
within its walls, it would require an ice meltage of approximately 158
pounds per week, or 3,400 for the five warm months. This ice would
cost the consumer, at current prices, $14.45.
If one inch of high grade insulation were added to the walls
(corkboard is used as an illustration and is the basis of calculation),
it would reduce the quantity of ice necessary to maintain this tem-
perature difference to 90 pounds weekly, or 1,950 pounds for the sum-
mer. This would mean a saving of 1,450 pounds in ice and $6.15 in
cost of operation. This added insulation would increase the initial
cost of the ice box about $3.50, but it would pay for itself in about
three months.
If two inches of corkboard were added to the insulation in box
No. 1, the weekly ice meltage to overcome the radiation would amount
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 417
to but 65 pounds, or 1,370 pounds for the summer. This would mean
a saving of about one ton of ice during the summer and would reduce
the ice bill $8.65. To get this increased efficiency would add approxi-
mately $5.80 to the initial cost of refrigerator. Obviously, a good
refrigerator will pay for itself in the ice it saves in three or four years.
TABLE LXXX.— SHOWING HOW THE EFFICIENCY OF A REFKIGERATOK
MAY BE INCREASED, THE COST OF OPERATION REDUCED AND
THE SAVING TO THE CONSUMER BY ADDING MORE INSULATION.
. 3 „ n^ rt u, 12 -a a,
•« .W S nO . ^ o ^ ^ -o 3
i^ Si So ^ n^ ^ ^ ^d
m
c
1 2-%-in. boards,
2 sheets water-
proof paper, 1-in.
mineral wool 4.60 3,400 lbs. 158 lbs. $14.45
2 Insulation of box
No. 1, plus 1-inch
corkboard -2.64 1,950 90 8.30 $3.50 1,450 $6.15
3 Insulation of box
No. 1, plus 2-inch
corkboard 1.85 1,370 65 5.80 5.80 2,030 8.65
NOTE: Were the refrigerators in Rochester brought up to a state of efficiency
they would save in lower ice bills to the consumer at least $350,000 yearly.
Conclusions: Neither the cellar nor pantry in the home are suf-
ficiently cold to keep perishable foods from spoiling during the warm
months of the year; therefore, every home should have a good
refrigerator.
Only about half the homes in the city have refrigerators; the
other half are compelled to depend upon the inadequate protection
afforded by the cellar.
The majority of domestic refrigerators are inefficient because they
consume too much ice and do not maintain a temperature low enough
to prevent food from spoiling.
The chief explanation of their inefficiency is to be found in the
lack of sufficient and proper insulation.
There are a large number of shoddy refrigerators on the market
which contain no other insulation than a sheet or two of paper. They
are sold chiefly to working people who can ill afiford to use them,
because they are both unsanitary and grossly uneconomical in the
consumption of ice.
41 S
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
The waste from ice meltage because of improper insulation of
refrigerators in Rochester homes (population of city, 230,000) amounts
to 60,000 tons yearly, or about $350,000.
At least $100,000 more is wasted yearly in the present competitive
system of delivery.
Unnecessary waste is now making refrigeration cost consumers
from three to five times as much as it should.
There are certain simple directions which will be of assistance in
selecting a refrigerator. If they are observed, the purchaser can at
least avoid being defrauded.
One should insist upon seeing a section of the wall of the refrig-
erator which he contemplates buying. Honest manufacturers are
always willing to let customers know the character of their wares.
Do not buy a box which does not bear the name and address of
the maker, nor one sold only under the name of a retail dealer. If
the manufacturer is ashamed to acknowledge his handiwork, you are
justified in suspecting fraud.
TABLE LXXXI.— SHOWING THICKNESS OF WALLS OF REFRIGERATORS.
Well-to-do 5
American laboring 9
Jewish laboring 17
German-American laboring.... 4
Italian laboring 0
Totals 35
36
34
19
23
4
3
42
8
1
13
3
1
0
0
0
114
49
24
Do not buy a box which contains less than three inches of good
insulation, not including the wooden cases or the metal or tile lining.
Beware of impossible "vacuum," doubtful "dead air space," and
no-good paper insulation.
Money invested in insulation will be returned many times in the
saving of ice bills. Added insulation means not only economy in ice
consumption, but also lower temperature in the refrigerator and the
less spoiling of food.
A refrigerator is of little value which will not operate with rea-
sonable care and ice consumption at 45° F. during the summer
months.
There is a big field for the manufacturer who will put on the mar-
ket an efficient ice box which can be sold at a price within the means
of people in moderate circumstances.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
419
Not one cellar was found cold enough to prevent the rapid decom-
position of milk and meat. Living rooms were found to be even
worse, therefore refrigerators are really a necessity. Only forty-two
refrigerators of 300 examined were found as cold as they should be,
while 177 of them were above 50° P., at which temperature they are
of little value.
TABLE LXXXII.— SHOWING A NUMBER OF HOMES USING VARIOUS
AMOUNTS OF ICE WEEKLY.
Section
• <n
»
XI
U3
O.C
X>
o
o
tr,
o
o
oo
o
^^
tM
cq n
fO
3 O
Well-to-do 0 3 24 79 28 15 149
American laboring 11 16 18 32 3 4 84
Jewish laboring _. 5 18 8 26 3 0 60
German-American laboring 3 5 10 19 0 0 37
Italian laboring 4 0 0 5 0 0 9
Totals 23 42 60 161 34 19 339
A good refrigerator should maintain an average inside tempera-
ture of not higher than 45° F., because food spoils rapidly at 50° F.
This means a temperature difference of from 20° to 30° during the
summer. A box which will not average 20° difiference for the five
warm months, with a reasonable consumption of ice, is no good. All
of the better class of refrigerators use some efficient insulation. None
of them use enough. The poorer makes use little or none, excepting
a sheet or two of paper. Some manufacturers attempt to obtain cheap
insulation by creating small air chambers of paper and wood, which
they call "dead air space," a physical and practical impossibility in
refrigerator construction. Such boxes are usually worthless.
A properly constructed ice box, to be economically operated,
should have a wall of efificient insulating material at least six inches
thick. Such a box at the current prices of ice, will have a theoretical
I'fficiency of about 80 per cent The 149 refrigerators whose wall
thickness is less than 2% inches, even were they made of the best
possible construction, could not have an efficiency above 40 per cent.
The remaining seventy-eight refrigerators with walls averaging less
than three inches, could not have an efficiency of above 50 per cent.
As a matter of fact, with the shoddy and imperfect insulating materials
used, most of the ice boxes in common use rate far below their
theoretical efficiency.
It is interesting to note that Italian working people use very little
ice. It was observed that they avoid very largely the use of perishable
foods requiring refrigeration in the home. Thus, condensed milk is
used largely in place of fresh milk and preserved meat in place of
fresh meat. Jewish people use much milk and therefore much ice.
420-
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Unfortunately these people get the benefit of not much more, than
20 to 30 per cent of the ice they buy because of the defective ice boxes.
There are about 55,000 families in Rochester. They use approxi-
mately 100,000 tons of ice yearly in their homes. Beyond all ques-
tion more than 60,000 tons of this ice is wasted, entailing a loss to
these consumers of at least $350,000.
TABLE LXXXIII— SHOWING NUMBER OF MONTHS ICE IS USED DURING
YEAR BY HOMES IN VARIOUS SECTIONS OF ROCHESTER.
Section
6
6
6
6
6
O
6
^1
£
E
S
a
s
E
-
pg
'--
-^
lO
^
■^
CO
Well-to-do 0
American
laboring 1
Jewish
laboring 0
German- American
laboring 1
Italian
laboring 0
Totals 2 13 37 63 105 42 24 13
2
5
15
22
24
15
8
33
6
10
14
21
3
4
4
3
4
16
26
47
15
5
1
1
1
4
8
15
0
0
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
38
Note:— TTiis table shows, amonc: other things, the seasonal character _ of the
use of ice. This adds greatly to the cost of distribution, because it necessitates a
large investment in equipment, most of which is idle during one-half of the year.
There is a different dealer for each five to fifteen consumers on
every street in Rochester, a tremendously wasteful and uneconomical
method of distribution. If an economical system of distribution were
to replace the present method, a saving could be made to the con-
sumer of at least $1.00 per ton or $100,000 yearly for the whole city.
TABLE LXXXIV.— SHOWING THE OVERLAPPING OF ROUTES OF DEALERS
IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF ICE.
Number of Number of dealers
Street consumers supplying consumers
Dartmouth 39 5
Baden „ 48 8
Frank 17 7
Kenwood 47 6
Adams 21 7
Oxford 25 3
Table LXXXV gives a sumniar}- of the data on weekly
amounts of ice, cost of ice per year and relative temperatures.
From the "Study of Refrigeration in the Home and the Efifi-
ciencv of Household Refrigerators," bv John R. Williams.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
421.
TABl^E LXXXV.-
-DATA FROM STUDY OF HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATORS
IN ROCHESTER, N. Y.
Weekly Amounts Ice
50 lbs or less 7%
51 to 75 12%
Id to 100 18%
101 to 200 47%
201 to 300 10%
301 and over 6%
100%
Cost of Ice per Year
Under $5 ...._. 23%
$ 5 to $10 43%
$10 to $15 15%
$15 to $20 7%
$20 and over _ 12%
100%
TEMPERATURES
Living Rooms
14% Below 60° 0% Below 55'
27% 60 to 70° 42% Below 60=
51% Above 70° 58% Above 60°
8%
In Refrigerators
Below 45° .—
45 to 50°
50 to 60°
Over 60°
Cellars
.. 0%
.. 8%
.92%
Bureau of Standards' Tests on Refrigerators. — The United
States Bureau of Standards has conducted certain tests on re-
frigerators. This was reported in the Bureau of Standards
Circular No. 55. The following extract and Table LXXXVI
gives the principal data in this bulletin :
TABLE LXXXVI. RESULTS OF TESTS OF REFRIGERATORS.
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Deg. F.
Deg. F.
Lbs.
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Cu. Ft.
Lbs.
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52.7
64.4
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0.14
21.4
16.5
42.2
2
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41.2
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55.9
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1.54
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18.2
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1.63
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17.1
41.8
8
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44.1
64.0
1.59
0.14
13.0
17.3
41.7
9
93.1
51.8
66.6
1.65
0.19
18.5
19.0
40.7
Table LXXXVI gives some results of tests on nine refrigerators
of average quality or better, where the air in the refrigerator averages
nearly as much warmer than the ice as it '\i cooler than the ?iir out-
422 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
side; thus, with a room at about 90°, the lowest temperatures inside
the refrigerators range from 44° to 57° and the highest 64° to 72°.
It has been found (Bulletin No. 98 of United States Department of
Agriculture) that in milk kept at 60°, about fifteen times as many
bacteria will develop in one day as in milk kept at 50° F., and much
the same is true of many other foods. It is important, therefore, to
find the coldest places in a refrigerator (usually near where the air
leaves the ice chamber) and use these places for foods such as milk
and meats which need to be kept as cool as possible to prevent
spoiling.
The outside dimension of the refrigerators listed in Table
LXXXVI averaged 24 inches deep, 40 inches wide, and 50 inches high.
The figures in the column headed "Heat transmission" gives the
amount of heat in British thermal units (B.t.u.) that passes through
every square foot of the outside surface of the refrigerator in an hour
when the room temperature is one degree F., higher than the average
inside temperature of the refrigerator. If the room temperature were
ten degrees higher than the inside of the refrigerator, ten times this
amount of heat would pass through every square foot of the walls.
The sixth column of Table LXXXVI, headed "Heat Transmis-
sion," illustrates the relative merits of the different refrigerators, since
it tells directly how much cooling is wasted, that is, how much heat
enters the refrigerator through the walls per hour for each square
foot of wall, and for each degree difference in temperature between
the inside and outside. For instance, to hold the average temperature
inside refrigerator No. 1, 30 degrees below the temperature outside
would require two-thirds as much ice for No. 2. To be sure. No. 2,
though a much poorer refrigerator, used only about one-fifth more
ice than did No. 1, but its inside temperature was not nearly so low,
and therefore it would not have kept food fresh so long as No. 1.
Slow melting of the ice does not necessarily indicate a good
refrigerator. Unless the ice melts, it can absorb no heat, and is there-
fore of no use in a refrigerator. Protecting the ice in a refrigerator
by covering it up is a good way to save ice but a poor way to save
food. The only proper way to use less ice is by using a refrigerator
with better insulated walls, and by opening the doors as seldom and
for as short a time as possible.
N. Y. Tribune Institute Tests.— The N. Y. Tribune Insti-
tute reports the ice consumption, as determined by twenty-
seven tests on well known standard refrigerators, to be be-
tween 0.00407 and 0.0100 pounds of ice melted per hour per
cubic foot of food storage space, per degree of difference in
temperature between room and refrigerator. These values in
B.t.u. would be 0.58608 and 1.44 respectively. The results of
these tests are shown by tables LXXXVII and LXXXVIII.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
423
Tests of Balsa Refrigerators. — Household refrigerators of
an improved design constructed entirely of balsa wood, with
an interior and exterior coating of a magnesite composition
applied in plastic form, were built by the American Balsa Co.
The tests described in the following were made on the 100-lb.
ice capacity side icer type, by Dr. M. E. Pennington in Febru-
ary, 1923. The results are shown graphically in Figs. 131, 132,
and 133. The summary of the performance test of the balsa
refrigerator of the household type is shown in Table
LXXXIX. From the last column of this table, it will be
noted that an average of 3.16 B.t.u. were transmitted per 24
hours per degree of temperature difference per square foot of
radiating surface.
TABLE LXXXVIL— TESTS BY NEW YORK TRIBUNE INSTITUTE.
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Heat Los
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Heat Los
Sq. Ft. p
Degree T
Difference
Fibre Board and Air
74.6
55.3
0.746
33
123
4.7
Granulated
69.6
43.1
0.826
44.5
127
2.6
Cork and Wood
71.0
45.4
1.085
44.5
168
3.5
Flaxinum, Wood,
68.1
46.6
0.691
33
108
3.85
Felt and Paper
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47.5
0.792
33
125
4.05
7.9
49.7
1.279
40.6
198
4.0
79.7
49.8
1.539
40.6
253
4.9
Fibre Board and Air
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47.0
0.763
28.2
120
4.6
70.8
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0.750
28.2
118
4.4
Mineral Wool, Paper
67.5
47.6
0.739
36.9
117
3.P
and Wood
68.4
48.0
0.741
36.9
117
3.7
Wool Felt, Paper,
67.6
48.2
0.582
21.2
92
5.4
Air and Wood
66.7
46.5
0.511
21.2
80
4.5
Flax Fibre, Wood
69.3
47.8
0.891
39.9
141
4.0
and Air
70.5
48.0
1.085
39.9
171
4.6
Iron, Cork, Air
72.3
47.2
0.828
32
124
3.7
and Wood
Note: — Radiation area is the average between the outside and inside surfaces
of the cabinet. The he.'.t loss includes both the effect of melting ice and heatinK
the resulting ice water.
424
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE LXXXVIIl.— ICE REFRIGERATOR TESTS BY NEW YORK TRIBUNE
INSTITUTE.
Test Method
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Test A, Fibre Board and Air
Ice 55.3 74.6 33. 123. 4.6
Non-Circulating Heat 102. 77. 33. 169 4.9
Test B, Granulated Cork and Wood
Non-Circulating Heat 99. 71.4 35.2 185.5 4.6
Circulating Heat 95. 68.0 35.2 215. 5.4
Test C, Granulated Cork, Air and Wood
Ice 47.2 72.3 32. 124. 3.75
Circulating Heat 104. 62.6 32. 221. 4.0
Note: — Each set of readings is the average value of two tests. Radiation area Ja
the average between the outside and inside surfaces of the cabinet.
Heating element is shielded to reduce heat loss to walls by radiation.
In heat tests a "dummy" ice cake was used to offer similar resistance to
air circulation as in ice meltmg test.
A small fan was used in the circulating heat test.
These tests indicate that the non-circulating heat method of testing gives
results corresponding very closely to the results by the ice melting test.
The electric heating element is placed in the food compartment and, of
course, produces some air circulation inside the cabinet. The electrical
has many advantages over the ice melting method.
The purpose of the test was to determine ice meltage, box tem-
peratures, and efficiencies under several conditions of icing as indi-
cated in the three following tests:
Test "A" was an average of four consecutive 24-hour test periods.
Ice was replaced at beginning of each test period by new cake of same
approximate, original weight. Results graphically shown on Fig. 211.
Test "B" was an average of two consecutive 48-hour periods. Ice
replaced at beginning of each test period by new cake of same ap-
proximate original weight. Results graphically shown on Fig. 212.
Test "C" was a continuous 96-hour test period without re-icing.
The results are graphically shown on Fig. 213.
Box Specifications. — Box was designed and built by the American
Balsa Co., for the National Association of Ice Industries, Dr. M. E.
Pennington, consulting and advisory technical expert for the associa-
tion:
DIMENSIONS OF REFRIGERATOR
Width Depth Height
Outside dimensions over all 35H-in. 21 -in. 50 -in.
Inside dimensions 30^-in. ISf^-in. 385^-in.
Ice compartment (Including Baffle) .... 14^-in. IS^^-in. 27 -in.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 425
Milk compartment |3 -in. j-'f^-}"- U?^'-"-
Food compartment 16 -m. lo^/^-in. ^S^-m-
DOOR OPENINGS IN REFRIGERATOR
Width Depth Height
Ice compartment 12 -in. 25 -in.
Milk compartment 12 -in ioi?"-""
Food Compartment 13H-in J^^-m-
The box is lined and covered by American Balsa Company's syn-
thetic stone, applied directly to 2-inch Balsa insulation, making a seam-
less lining and covering finished in v^'hite enamel inside and out.
Baffle, shelves ice tray and pan, bunker and drain pipe are entirely
removable.
The tests were made at the Bronx Plant of the American Balsa
Co., in experimental refrigerator test room where room temperatures
could be reasonably controlled.
Temperature Observations. — Room temperatures and averages
were determined from S. & B. recording thermometer. Reading aver-
aged hourly from recording chart. Leads & Northrup resistance ther-
mometers and reading box were used to determine all box tempera-
tures. These thermometers read to 0.1 degree and were calibrated
before and after tests. Box temperatures were observed at the fol-
lowing locations:
1. Warm air inlet.
2. Middle food compartment.
3. Bottom food compartment.
4. Cold air drop.
5. Middle milk compartment.
6. Middle top shelf.
Average temperature, middle food compartment, was determined
by averaging middle milk compartment and middle top shelf com-
partment temperatures. This average temperature was used in all cal-
culations.
Ice Meltage. — Rates of ice meltage were determined from actual
meltages, by removing ice from box at end of 24-hour periods and
weighing. After weighing, cake was replaced or new cake substi-
tuted as conditions of test demanded. Check meltages were taken by
weighing drip water, but these figures were not used in calculations.
Readings were taken at 9 a. m. and 10 a. m., at noon and at 3 p. m.
and 5 p. m. Twenty-four hour test and ice weighing intervals were
from 10 a. m.
10 a. m.
Results. — Results of tests are shown graphically in Figs. 214, 215
and 216 and Table LXXXIX, and comprise the complete results of
this test, which is the American Balsa Company's Laboratory Exper-
iment No. 258.
426
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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B.t.u. Loss per 24 Hrs. per Deg. per
Sq. Ft. Rad. Surf.
Ice Melted per Hr. per Deg. per Sq. Ft. Rad. Sui I
Ice Melted per Hr. per Deg. per
Cu. Ft. Food Comp. Vol.
Ice Melted Lbs. per Hr.
Average Temperature Difference
Average Food Compartment Temperature
Average Room Temperature
Duratimi of Test llrs
Rad. Surf. Total Inside Area
Per Cent Ice to Food Compartment
Per Cent Ice Comp. to Total \"ol.
\'ol. Food Comp. Cu. Ft.
\'ol. Ice Cump. Cu. Ft.
Total \-ol. Cu. Ft.
Ice Cap. Lbs.
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TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
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428
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TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS
429
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FIG. 216.— BALSA REFRIGERATOR TEST CHART.
430 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Tests at University of Illinois. — An exhaustive test in the
University of Illinois laboratories compared three refriger-
ators purchased from the stock of local dealers. One was
with granulated cork insulation, while the other two used
mineral wool and other insulations. The lower melting rate
per hour, proved that the refrigerator with its granulated cork
insulation was the most economical refrigerator for general
use. The figures are as follows :
Hours Ice Melt Rate
Tested Melt Per Hour
No. 1. (Graulated Cork) 219.0 hours 109^4 lbs. 0.498 lbs.
No. 2. (Mineral Wool) 1199 hours 71 lbs. 0.592 lbs.
No. 3. (Mineral Wool) 168.95 hours 141^4 lbs. 0.839 lbs.
Assuming that a refrigerator is used for six months of
each year, and that the ice will cost fifty cents per cwt., the
cost of the ice for the year will be as follows :
No. 1—2,151 lbs. of Ice at 50c $10.75
No. 2—2,557 lbs. of Ice at 50c 12.79
No. 3—3,624 lbs. of Ice at 50c 18.12
Tests by Good Housekeeping Institute. — The Good House-
keeping Institute, conducted by the Good Housekeeping
Magazine of New York City, reports the following result of
a test on Bohn Syphon refrigerator :
The refrigerator is well-constructed throughout, and provided
with a one-piece seamless lining with rounded corners, that is, a
smooth, hard surface, easily kept clean and in a sanitary condition.
In tests of one hundred consecutive hours duration, the following
results were obtained.
Average Food Average Averae Ice
Compartment Room Consumption
Tempetature Temperature Lbs. Per Hour
45.5 F. 75.1 F. 0.750
41.2 F. 68.1 F. 0.613
The method of rating was as follows:
Construction Good
Efficiency of Design Very Good
Efficiency of Operation Very Good
Initial Cost Medium
Upkeep Cost Low
The refrigerator scores 94 points.
The detailed specifications of this cabinet are as follows:
Width Depth Heic;ht
Inches Inches Inches
Outside 36 21 47
Large Provision Chamber '13^4 14^ 32
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 4,M
Small Provision Chamber 15 14J4 9^
Ice Chamber 13^ 15^ 18
Ice Chamber Door Opening 11J4 •••• 14%
Ice Chamber Capacity, 100 pounds
Shipping Weight, 335 pounds
Total Volume Overall 20.5 Cu. Ft.
Food Storage Space 4.7 Cu. Ft.
Ice Storage Space 2.2 Cu. Ft.
Shelf Area 6.7 Sq. Ft.
Insulation: Wood, flax fibre, dead air space, wool felt, paper, and
waterproof paper.
The pounds of ice melted per hour per cu. ft. food storage space
per degree temperature difference were as follows:
First Test 0.0054
Second Test 0.00484
Tests on Ice Refrigerators. — The following data, on test-
ing of ice refrigerators, has been published by the Davison
AU-Steel Refrigerator Co., in Montreal, Canada. The room
temperature during the test was 68" F. ; one piece of ice
weighing initially sixteen pounds was used, and the refriger-
ator tested was the Frost River type No. 24. The piece of ice
lasted for sixty-eight hours and the lowest temperature ob-
tained in the food chamber was 48° F., the insulation consist-
ing of linofelt and air space. The outside volume of the re-
frigerator was seventeen cubic feet. The food compartment
was 5.65 cu. ft. The shelf area was 8.2 sq. ft. and the total
shipping weight was 162 pounds.
TABLE XC— REFRIGERATOR TEST.
Date 1
Time |
Temperature of Food Chamber |
1 Amount of Ice
May 9
2 P. M.
10 P. M.
2 p. M.
66
54
52
16 Pounds
4 P. M.
52
(Temp. Ice Chamber 42)
May 10
12 Noon
Midnight
7 P. M.
50
50
48
May 11
7 A. M.
12 Noon
48
49
May 12
7 A. M.
58
12 Noon
60 Out of Ice
Tests on Average Household Refrigerators. — Table XCI
gives the result of the tests on fifteen average household
refrigerators used in homes. From this, it is interesting to
note that the average temperature inside of the refrigerator
432 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
at the middle shelf was 55°, that the average number of
pounds of ice consumed per day was 29.6 and that the average
cost of ice per day per refrigerator was 14.8 cents.
TABLE XCI. TEST ON FIFTEEN AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD
REFRIGERATORS IN USE IN HOMES.
Average Room Temperature 79 degrees
Average Temperature Inside Refrigerator at Middle Shelf.. 55 degrees
Average Pounds of Ice Consumed per Day 29.6 lbs.
Cost of Ice 56 cents per 100 lbs.
Average Cost of Ice per Day for Each Refrigerator 14.8 cents
Refrigerator Score Card. — A refrigerator score card for
the purpose of comparing dififerent kinds of refrigerators has
been prepared by F. O. Riek, of the Rhinelander Refrigerator
Co., who has used some data and suggestions contained in a
score card for refrigerators originally published in the Chicago
Tribune by Dr. W. A. Evans, and is as follows :
REFRIGERATOR SCORE CARDS
Name of manufacturer
Name or other method of designating refrigerator
Points of Score Perfect Score
1. Temperature of Food Chamber 45
2. Ice Economy or Efificiency 20
3. Humidity 8
4. Circulation 7
5. Interior Finish 12
6. Drainage 3
7. Exterior Finish 5
Total 100
Explanation of Score Card:
1. Temperature Test: Standard conditions for test demand refrig-
erator to be in a room free from drafts and at an even temperature.
Box should not contain food. Door should not be opened except
when taking readings. Refrigerator should be cold throughout. Have
the ice chamber full. Place thermometer in the center of the food
chamber. Make four readings at intervals of not less than one hour.
Take room temperature four times.
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 433
Rate as follows:
When temperature is: The score will be under:
40° F. 45
45 43
SO 36
55 23
60 9
over 60 0
2. Ice Economy : Refrigerator should be cold when test is begun.
Weigh ice at the beginning of test. Weigh ice left at termination of
test. Obtain data:
(a) Temperature of food chamber.
(b) Temperature of room.
(c) Square feet of surface exposure calculated on exterior
dimensions.
To determine substitute in the following formula:
I 144 where R equals "efficiency" of rate of heat trans-
R= mission which may be defined as the number of
S (T — t) B.t.u. which pass through one square foot of surface
daily when the difference between the surface is 1° F.
I equals the number of pounds of ice melted daily.
144 equals B.t.u. required to melt one pound ice.
S equals surface exposure.
T equals average atmospheric temperature,
t equals average temperature of food chamber.
Rate as follows:
Where R equals 1.13 rate 20
1.63 rate
18
2.00 rate
16
2.33 rate
14
2.66 rate
12
3.00 rate
10
3.33 rate
8
3.66 rate
6
4.00 rate
4
4.33 rate
2
4.66 rate
1
5.00 rate
0
3. Humidity: In making humidity tests a wet and dry bulb ther-
mometer should be used. At least four readings are to be taken at
intervals of one hour.
See Bureau of Standard tables for readings calculated upon dif-
ferences in temperatures of wet and dry thermometers. Score as
follows:
Percentage humidity ranges
55 to 65 rate 8.0
65 to 75 rate 7.5
45 to 55 rate 7,5
434 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
40 to 45 rate 7.2
75 to 80 rate 6.4
30 to 40 rate 6.0
80 to 85 rate 4.8
20 to 30 rate 4.8
85 to 95 rate 2.4
90 and over rate 0.0
20 and under rate 0.0
4. Circulation of Air : Note W^hether the box can be ventilated.
Credit for possibility for ventilating. Credit for probability that cold
air will pass from ice to food and air returns from the food to the
ice. If any wall is moist substract at least two. If air cannot reach
ice, subtract two.
5. Interior Finish: Ease of cleaning refers to cleaning of food
chamber, all shelves therein, and the drain pipes. If ease of cleaning
is ideal, value six. If finish is hard and non-absorbent, value three.
If color is white, value five.
6. Drainage : A. See that the trap in the drain pipe works. If
there is proper trapping, value two. If there is proper tubing, value
one.
B. Construction of Refrigerator:
1. Arrangement of chamber — show diagram.
2. Temperature maintained.
a. — Ice chamber.
b. — Food chamber side.
c. — Food chamber below.
3. Insulation — show diagram.
4. Economy of space in food chambers.
C. Cost:
1. First Cost.
2. Maintenance Cost.
D. Manufacturer's Claims:
Does the manufacturer over-emphasize minor details in ad-
vertising his refrigerator?
Keferences:
Lynde, "Household Physics."
Bureau of Standards Circular No. 55, Measurements for the Household.
Manufacturers' Catalogs.
Good Housekeeping Institute.
Good Housekeeping Magasine, May, 1914.
A study of Refrigeration in the Home and the Efficiency of Household Refrigera-
tors.— J. R. Williams.
Determining the Efficiency of a Refrigerator Wall.* — To
determine the heat transmission value of a wall in B.t.u.'s per
square foot per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference, it
"From Rhinelander "Handbook of Refrigeration."
TESTING OF ICE REFRIGERATORS 435
IS necessary to know three things. That is, when structure
of wall is not known.
These three factors are :
1. Square feet of surface exposure calculated the mean trans-
mission surface on exterior dimensions and also interior surface.
2. The weight of ice melted in 24 hours.
3. The difference between the average temperature of inside
refrigerator food chamber and room temperature.
To find the a^■era.^e or "mean transmission surface" get,
first of all, the square feet of surface calculated on exterior
dimensions. Then get total square feet inside by measuring
inside surface. Average of two square surfaces — exterior and
interior is mean transmission surface.
The weight of ice melted is determined by weighing the
empty water pan at start of test, then at conclusion of 24 hour
test weighing the water and pan, deducting the initial weight
of empty water pan.
To get temperature tests outside and inside standard con-
ditions for test require refrigerator to be in a room free from
drafts and at fairly even temperature. Box should not con-
tain food. Doors should not be opened ; except when taking
readings. Refrigerator should be thoroughly chilled, at least
48 hours before inaking test. Have ice chamber full. Place
thermometer in the center of food chamber and make at least
four readings at about three hour interval. Take room tem-
perature at same time. Average all food temperatures and
outside room temperature and then find difiference between
the two averages.
Use following formula :
I 144
X equals
S (T— t)
I equals ice nK-lted.
144 equals B.t.u. required to melt one pound of ice or Latent Heat.
S equals mean transmission surface.
T equals average room temperature,
t equals average temperature of food chamber.
X equals number of B.t.u.'s passing through one square foot of
surface per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference.
CHAPTER XII.
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME
Influence of Temperature on Bacteria in Foods. — Tem-
perature has an important influence on the growth of bacteria.
Most bacteria, yeasts, molds, and related organisms grow best
at a temperature between 68° and 122° F., and do not grow
at a temperature below 45° to 55° F. Cold retards their
growth and tends to preserve these microorganisms as well as
the food unchanged. It is well known that foods removed
from cold storage are inferior in keeping qualities to the cor-
responding fresh foods. Freezing decreases the number of
bacteria but does not immediately kill them. Most molds are
easily destroyed by freezing.
Bacteria will multiply in milk as long as it is not frozen
entirely solid. Milk of good quality will stay sweet and in
perfect condition for more than a week if it is held at a tem-
perature slightly above the freezing point. The temperature
at which it is held determines the rate and kind of decompo-
sition which takes place. Milk should stay sweet when stored
properly for at least ten days.
Heating milk to 212° F. for about fifteen minutes will kill
all except a few spores of bacteria. Several heatings are nec-
essary to kill all vegetative cells.
Most of the living bacteria in butter diminish when it is
refrigerated — a few kinds may multiply. There is a slow in-
crease in acidity. The bacteria and chemical composition re-
main practically the same in frozen butter. The keeping qual-
ities of butter depend largely upon the cleanliness and the
quality of the materials used in making it.
437
438 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Fruits and vegetables are usually adapted to preservation
for short periods at ordinary temperatures. The best storage
conditions for them is at temperatures slightly above the
freezing point and a humidity of 60 per cent saturation. A
higher humidity favors the development of molds.
Bacteria do not multiply in ice as they have nothing upon
which to feed. When liquids are frozen solid the number of
bacteria decreases very slowly.
Effect of Refrigeration Upon Foods. — Cold does not de-
stroy the microbes in food but retards their activity and
growth. The decomposition of foods is caused by the action
of their own enzymes and more frequentl}' by the activity of
bacteria, yeast, and molds.
Fruits and vegetables should be stored at a temperature
slightly above 32° F. and in a humidity at about 60 per cent
of saturation, in order to diminish evaporation without devel-
oping molds. The best storage condition to prevent the
development of bacteria and molds, is to keep the fruits and
vegetables in a very constant humidity and a very constant
temperature, slightly above 32° F.
Laboratory tests prove that the bacteria which cause food
decomposition have their growth greatly retarded below a
temperature of 45° F. Between 45° and 50°, they grow at a
slightly greater rate, and above 50° F. the bacteria multiply
prolifically. Perishable foods should be stored in a tempera-
ture not over 50° F. and preferably below 45° F.
It is important that foods be used shortly after they are
removed from cold storage. Cold foods often condense mois-
ture from the atmosphere on their surface, and it is well
known tliat their keeping qualities are then inferior to corre-
sponding fresh foods.
Ice and Its Relation to Food. — ^Dr. Leonard Keene Hirsch-
berg, writing in the Chicago Evening Post, gives the following
on the use of ice as a means of preservation of food :
Ice checks the growth of living thini:;s to tlie extent that it almost
causes the smallest forms of vegetable and animal creation to cease
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 439
to exist as life. Usually, it does not kill, but it produces a condition
of latent life, like the winter sleep of bears, beavers, snakes, and other
creatures.
Ice thus becomes a help to man. It checks the birth, growth,
multiplication, vitality, virulency, and noxious activity of bacteria,
molds and other such living things which spoil foods, and especially
those such as the typhoid bacilli.
The reason milk and so much food spoils in summer is because
these unseen colonies of bacteria and other vegetation multiply and
incubate in the warmed food. Its texture, appearance, color, taste,
flavor, odor, and value thus depreciate.
Bacteria arc everywhere on even the cleanest hands, but many
more are on soiled hands and dirty nails. Flies, ants, roaches, dust,
wind, and water carry them.
Ice keeps down the growth of bacteria, but you can only prevent
them from spoiling food or causing disease by being sure of pure milk,
pure water, sterile vessels, and dishes. You should scald everything,
including linens.
Even where foods are apparently not spoiled, such germs as
those of dysentery, scarlatina, colds, tuberculosis, typhoid, diphtheria,
influenza, botulism, and others may be germinating, just as a seed
does in summer in fertile soil.
Scrupulous cleanliness or surgical cleanliness means more than
soap and water cleanliness. It means freedom of everything from
germs by asepsis and sterlization.
Sunlight, harmless disinfectants, sterlization or boiling keep down
to a minimum the growth of germs.
Ice boxes, refrigerators, cold storage, porous earthenware, coolers,
vacuum jacketed bottles, and other measures to keep food in summer
well below 45°, all help to keep it free of any great increase and
growth of bacteria.
Perhaps more difficult to keep and most important in the summer
kitchen is milk. If there are infants about, their very lives depend
upon milk free of bacteria.
Sour milk is not the only milk teeming with bacteria. Indeed,
the sweetest and richest milk is often alive wTth deadly germs, whiclr.
becomes planted in the little one's intestines.
Unless milk goes directly into sterlized bottles from a cow whose
hide is made germ-free by disinfectants, by the time it passes through
hands, cans, bottles, and nipples it has millions of dangerous bacteria
in it.
The only safe way to keep milk in summer is to boil it twenty
minutes and put it on ice at once, and keep it there until given to
the child.
440 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
In summer especially, but also in the winter, ice should not be
spared around the house. It is one of the cheapest and most useful
of modern conveniences. As a health preserver, it is seldom given
its due need of praise.
Care of Milk in the Home. — Farmers' Bulletin No. 1207
of the United States Department of Agriculture gives the fol-
lowing dissertation on the care of milk in the home:
No matter how well milk has been handled up to the time it is
delivered to the consumer, it can not be expected to keep well if it
is then carelessly treated. Milk should be kept clean, covered, and
cool, these three points, consumer as well as producer should never
disregard.
In towns and cities, the best way of buying milk is in bottles.
In this form it can be kept clean and cool more easily during delivery
and is much more convenient to handle. Dipping milk from large
cans and pouring it into customers' receptacles on the street with the
incident exposure to dusty air, is bad practice. Drawing milk from
the faucet of a retailer's can is not quite so bad as dipping, but the
milk is not kept thoroughly mixed and some consumers will receive
less than their share of cream. By whichever of these methods the
milk is measured, it should be delivered personally to some member
of the household, if possible, or a covered vessel may be set out, such
as a bowl covered with a plate, or better still a glass jar, used for no
other purpose, with a glass lid but without a rubber. Under no circum-
stances should an uncovered vessel be set out to collect thousands
of bacteria from street dust before the milk is poured into it. Money
and paper tickets are often more or less soiled; hence neither should
be put into the can, bowl or jar.
Sometimes milk is delivered as early as 4 o'clock in the morning,
remains out of doors in a place exposed to sunshine and perhaps
accessible to cats and dogs until 9 or 10 o'clock. This is wrong.
If the milk cannot conveniently be brought into the house at once,
the delivery man should be asked to leave it in a sheltered place
or in a covered box provided for the purpose. Even a temporary
rise in the teinperature of milk will help the development of bacteria
that have been held in check by keeping the milk cool, and domestic
animals rubbing against a milk container may contaminate it with
bacteria dangerous to health.
As soon as possible after delivery, milk should be put in a cool,
clean place and kept there until used. It deteriorates by exposure to
the air of pantry, kitchen, or nursery. Unless it is in the bottle into
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 441
which it was put in the dairy, it should be poured into a freshly scalded
vessel and covered.
The best temperature for keeping milk is 50° F. or less, and good
rnilk kept that cool should remain sweet for 12 hours at least, and
ordinarily 24 hours or more, after it reaches the consumer. If ice
cannot be obtained, an iceless refrigerator or some such device is a
help even though a temperature as low as 50° F. can rarely be main-
tained in it.
In the ordinary refrigerator, unless the milk container is in actual
contact with the ice, the milk will be colder at the bottom of the re-
frigerator than in the ice compartment, for cold air settles rapidly.
The refrigerator should be kept clean and sweet at all times. Inspect-
ing it thoroughly at least once a week is a good plan, to see that outlet
for water from the melting ice is open and that the space under the
ice rack is clean. Also the food compartments should be scalded every
week. A single drop of spilled milk or a particle of neglected food
will contaminate a refrigerator in a few days.
Sometimes in very hot weather housekeepers complain that, in
spite of all precautions, milk sours' quickly, even in the refrigerator,
which, although cool in contrast with the heat outside, is really not
cold enough to check the growth of the bacteria in milk. If a ther-
mometer placed inside registers more than 50° F., the fault cannot be
laid entirely to the quality of milk.
Milk should be kept covered to exclude not only dirt and bacteria
but also flavors and odors, which it readily absorbs. It should be
kept away from foods of strong odor, such as onions, cabbage, or fish.
Bottled milk should be kept in the bottles in which it is delivered
until needed for use. In fact, from a sanitary standpoint, serving
milk on the table in the original bottles is excellent practice. In any
case a milk bottle, especially the mouth, should be cleaned carefully
before the milk is poured from it, and only what is needed for im-
mediate use should be poured out at a time. This bottle should be
kept covered with a paper cap or an inverted tumbler as long as
there is milk in it.
New milk should never be mixed with old unless it is to be used
at once; the old milk is likely to contain a larger proportion of bac-
teria. Some persons even go so far as to say that milk or cream that
has been exposed to the air by being poured into other vessles for
table or cooking use should not be poured into the general supply.
As soon as a milk bottle is empty, it should be rinsed first in
cold water, and then in warm water until it appears clear; then set
bottom up to drain. It should not be used for any other purpose
than for milk.
All utensils with which milk comes in contact should be rinsed
in cold water, washed, and scalded with water at or near the boiling
442 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
point every time they are used. It is a good plan to set them away
unwiped. In no case should they be cleaned in water that has been
used for other dishes since it was scalded.
The A.pplication of Refrigeration to Milk. — The following
data on the application of refrigeration for cooling and storing
milk is taken from United States Department of Agriculture
Bulletin No. 98 :
Effect of Freezing on Milk. — While the action of cold on milk at
a temperature above the freezing point has no other effect than that
of varying the density and viscosity at a temperature below the freez-
mg point, it changes the chemical and physical composition.
According to Kasdorf, when raw milk which was partly frozen
at a temperature of 10.5° P., in the ordinary container, during trans-
portation, it was found that ice first formed around the sides and at
the bottom of the can; the central core contained most of the casein,
sugar, and other mineral ingredients, while most of the fat was found
in the top layer of the liquid portion.
When milk has been frozen gradually, without agitation, and
thawed out, clots will be found floating in the liquid, composed mostly
of albumen and fat, which may be dissolved by cooking; on the
other hand, if the milk is preserved in a frozen condition for three
or four weeks, these clots will be very hard to dissolve, and the diffi-
culty experienced in dissolving them increased as the length of time
the milk is preserved in a frozen state. For this reason, the freezing
of milk, for the purpose of transportation, has hitherto been little used.
If the milk is held at 32° F., for a few days, some types of bac-
teria may grow and multiply slowly. With a good quality of milk,
i. e., that containing few bacteria, it may take weeks or even months
for them to gain great headway. What few bacteria develop at low
temperatures are of different species from those ordinarily found at
the higher temperatures, and they may produce marked changes in
the chemical composition of the milk, without especially changing
its appearance. Consequently, it is unsafe to assume that milk which
has been held for several days at a low temperature is in good con-
dition. According to Pennington, milk exposed continually to a tem-
perature of 29° to 32° P., causes, after a lapse of from 7 to 21 days,
the formation of small ice crystals which gradually increase until the
milk is filled with them, and there may be an adherent layer on the
walls of the vessel. The milk does not freeze solid. In spite of the
fact that the milk was a semi-solid mass of ice crystals, an enormous
increase in bacterial content took place. Though the bacterial con-
tent was numerically in the hundreds of millions per cubic centimeter
there was neither taste nor odor to indicate that such was the case.
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 443
Neither did the milk curdle when heated, and the unhtness of the
milk for household purposes would not ordinarily 'be detected until
the lactic acid bacteria decreased in numbers and the putrefactive
bacteria began to develop.
Influence of Temperature on the Bacteriological Flora of Milk,—
Each species of bacterium found in milk and each particular variety
has an upper and lower temperature limit beyond which it does not
grow, and a certain temperature, called the optimum, at which it
grows best.
The optimum temperature of most forms occurring in milk is
between 70° and 100° F. As the temperature of milk is lowered, the
rate of growth is diminished until at 40° F., the multiplication is very
slow, and at a temperature just above the freezing point the develop-
ment practically ceases; in fact, there is an apparent decrease in the
number, at least for a short time. The action of cold at this tem-
perature, however, does not totally destroy life in the bacteria, but
causes them to lie dormant. When the temperature of the milk is
raised, they again begin to multiply. As an illustration of the relative
variation in the growth of bacteria in milk held at different tempera-
tures, one writer gives the data found in Table XCII, in which
"I" is assumed to represent the number of bacteria in the fresh milk,
and the relative numbers which will be found at the end of 6, 12, 24,
and 48 hours, at the two temperatures, are shown in the succeeding
columns. The figures are based on a number of actual counts and
illustrate the effect of a difference of 18 degrees on the multiplication
of bacteria. IT the milk had contained at the beginning 1,000 bac-
teria, the part held at the lower temperature would have contained
at the end of 24 hours only 4,100 bacteria, while the other would have
contained at the same stage 6,128,000. Table XCIII from Bulletin
133 (Extension Bulletin 8) of the Agricultural Experiment Station
of Nebraska, illustrates the importance of holding cream at low tem-
peratures.
TABLE XCII. — MULTIPLICATION OF BACTERIA IN MILK HELD AT
DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.
,.,, ^^ ,, Relative Number of Bacteria Held at
Milk Held at 0 hrs. 6 hrs. 12 hrs. 24 hrs. 48 hrs.
50° F 1 12 Ts 4A 62
68° F 1 1.7 24.2 6,128. 357,499.
Rogers, Lore A., Bacteria in Milk. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bulletin 490. Washington, D. C.
Influence of Time on the Bacteriological Flora of Milk. — The in-
fluence of temperature and time bear certain definite relations to each
other; hence, a study of one necessarily includes a study of the other.
Table XCIV serves to illustrate the effect of time as well as tern-
444
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
perature on the keeping qualities of milk. If the table is read down-
ward, we note the effect of temperature and if read across, the effect
of time. When milk is first drawn from the cow it usually contains
bacteria, even though it is produced under sanitary conditions, and
if held at the ordinary temperature of the surrounding air, in a short
while the bacteria will grow and increase in numbers so rapidly, that
when such milk reaches the consumer it will contain many thousand
bacteria per cubic centimeter.
TABLE XCIII.— THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE GROWTH OF
BACTERIA IN CREAM.
Temperature of | Time
Cream I Held
Number of
Bacteria
per C C.
rp X f I m. Number of
Temperature of Time | Bacteria
Cream | Held | per C. C.
Degrees Fahr.
32 ..._
Hours
10
50 _
10
60
ioy2
Degrees Fahr Hour's
3,300 70 11 188,000
11,580 80 11 2,631,000
15,120 90 WA 4,426,000
Conn furnishes an example of milk, giving the following results:
Bacteria per c. c.
Milk drawn at 59° F 153,000
After 1 hour 616,000
" 2 hours 539,000
" 4 hours 680,000
" 7 hours 1,020,000
•• 9 hours 2,040,000
" 24 hours 85,000,000
According to Park, two samples of milk maintained at different
temperatures for 24, 48, 96 and 168 hours, respectively, showed the
development of bacteria as indicated in Table XCIV. The first sample
was obtained under the best possible conditions, while the second
sample was obtained in the usual way. When received, the first sample
contained 3,000 bacteria, and the second 30,000 per cubic centimeter.
In Table XCIV, it will be noted that at 32° F., there is an
actual decrease in the number of bacteria in both samples of milk
during the 168 hours, while at all other temperatures there is an
increase in the numbers of bacteria. Ordinarily, the consumer receives
milk when it is from 24 to 48 hours old; hence, it becomes an easy
matter to deliver the milk in good condition, providing the milk is
produced under sanitary conditions and is properly cooled and held
at a temperature of 50° F., or below. An examination of the tables
and figures will show how intimately the two influences of time and
temperature act and interact in relation to the multiplication of
bacteria in milk.
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME
445
From the foregoing, it is obvious that proper refrigeration is
of the utmost importance in the preservation of milk. In fact, without
thorough cooling, it is impracticable to keep milk for any considerable
length of time, in a condition that would justify its use for household
purposes. It should be cooled at 50° F. or below as quickly as pos-
sible after it is drawn from the cow, as such cooling will at once
check the increase of bacteria.
TABLE XCIV. — EFFECT OF TIME AND TEMPERATURE ON THE
GROWTH OF BACTERIA IN MILK.
Temperature
24 Hours
48 Hours
96 Hours
168 Hours
32°
F.
(0 C.)
2,400
2,100
1,850
1,400
30,000
27,000
24,000
19,000
39°
F.
(4 C.)
2,500
3,600
218,000
4,200,000
38,000
56,000
4,300,000
38,000,000
42°
F.
(5 C.)
2,600
43,000
3,600
210,000
400,000
5,760,000
46°
F.
(6 C.)
3,100
42,000
12,000
360,000
1,480,000
12,200,000
50°
F.
(10 C)
11,600
89,000
540,000
1,940,000
55°
F.
(13 C.)
18,800
187,000
3,400,000
38,000,000
60°
F.
(16 C.)
180,000
900,000
28,000,000
168,000,000
68°
F.
(20 C.)
450,000
4,000,000
25,000,000,000
25,000,000,000
86°
F.
(30 C.)
1,400,000,000
14,000,000,000
94°
F.
(35 C.)
25,000,000,000
25,000,000,000
Bacteria in Milk.— Farmers' Bulletin No. 1207 of the
United States Department of Agriculture gives the following
discussion on the development and growth of bacteria:
Besides the chemical compounds, milk also contains large num-
bers of minute organisms called bacteria. Few, if any, are normally
present in the milk within the udders of clean, healthy cows, but
they are so abundant everywhere in the air, especially about the
stable and barnyard, and cling in such numbers to the bodies of the
cows, that they are almost always found in milk as soon as it leaves
the udders or even just inside the teats. Utensils that have not been
sterilized are another very common source of bacteria in milk. Bac-
teria reproduce very rapidly in a favorable medium, such as warm
milk, and the number present 'becomes very large unless measures
are taken to hinder their increase. The amount in milk of a given
age varies of course with the conditions.
446 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
A oreat many kinds of bacteria have been found in milk, each
of which occasions a special set of changes as it develops. Perhaps
the most prevalent kinds are those that cause the ordinary sourmg
of milk and are the first to produce any noticable change in the
taste and odor. In their growth they feed upon the milk sugar and
convert it into lactic and volatile acids, which give slightly soured
milk its peculiar taste and odor. When enough of this lactic acid has
formed it acts upon the casein, causing it to separate into loose, light
flakes and to form, upon standing, the ordinary "clabbered" milk.
Other 'bacteria developing in sour milk may give it a strong, un-
pleasant odor or flavor, and still others, w-hich occur occasionally color
It very brightly or give it a slimy or ropy consistency. Some of the
products of bacterial action on milk are desirable, however, — for in-
stance, those that give to butter and cheese the characteristic flavors
and odors.
Since there is frequently more or less dirt in freshly drawn milk
(most of it fine particles of litter and manure that fall into the pail
from the body of the cow), milk should always be strained directly
after the milking is over. Of course, the amount of dirt varies with
the condition in which the cow and her surroundings are kept. Under
ideal dairy conditions only very small quantities are found, while milk
from untidy establishments may contain enough in a quart to form
a noticeable sediment. Milk with enough dirt to be visible indicates
a badly kept dairy and should not be tolerated. Moreover, visible
dirt does not tell the whole story; some of the manure that "falls into
milk is dissolved and it sometimes carries disease-producing bacteria.
Consumers should always insist upon having clean milk, and they
should also remember that cleanliness should not stop at the dairy
but should be scrupulously maintained at every step of the way to
the final consumption of the milk.
Ice Chests. — Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel, under the beading
"Care of Food in the Home," gives the following considera-
tions in reference to ice chests and refrigerators:
There are many varieties of ice chest or refrigerator, all built
on one of two general plans. In one kind, both ice and food are
kept in one large compartment. In the other, the ice is placed in a
top compartment, below which are cupboards for the food; the prin-
ciple here utilized is that cold air seeks a lower level and that the
air cooled by the melting ice w'ill sink to the shelves below. It
probably better utilizes a given amount of ice, for the further reason
that the ice compartment may remain tightly closed except when
being filled. In both cases, the air space between the outside wall
and the zinc lining is filled with some non-conducting material as
cork or asbestos.
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 447
It is of great convenience to have the ice chest built against the
outer wall of kitchen or pantry, so that it may be filled from the
outside by means of a small door cut for that purpose. In such
a case, it is of course advisable to choose a wall on which there is
little or no sunshine. The ice box may also be drained by a pipe
leading to the outside and then properly cared for, thus saving much
labor in the emptying of pans. It is not considered safe to connect
it with the house sewer, because of the danger of sewer gases back-
ing into it, even if a good trap is provided.
Care of Ice Chests. — Farmers' Bulletin No. 375 of the
United States Department of Agriculture gives the following-
instructions in reference to care of ice chests :
If on a warm summer day you put your hand into an ice box
well filled with ice you may think that the temperature is very low,
and yet it is in all probability nearer 50° than 40° F. As low a
temperature as 40° or 45° is only to be obtained in a very well-con-
structed box with a large receptacle for ice, and then only for a
short time after it is filled. A box that maintains but 60° is, however,
very useful in keeping food from day to day.
The ice box, no matter how well cooled, is and must be damp,
and dampness is one of the requirements for bacterial growth. It
must be remem'bered, also, that some varieties of bacteria grow at
low temperatures. Therefore, the interior of an ice chest should be
wiped every day with a dry cloth and once a week everything should
be removed, so that sides, shelves, and drain may be thoroughly
scalded. The water must be actually boiling when it is poured in,
and the process repeated several times.
It must 'be remembered that refrigerator ice is often dirty, and
that it may bring in putrefactive or even typhoid bacilli, for most
bacteria are resistant to low temperature and are not destroyed by
freezing. On this account, no food should be brought in direct con-
tact with it, nor should it 'be put into drinking water, unless its
purity is above suspicion.
All cooked food should be cooled as soon as possible before being
placed in the ice box. Butter may 'be kept from taking up the flavors
of other food by keeping it in a tightly covered receptacle. Milk
requires more access of air, but in a clean ice box in which no strong-
smelling food is kept, milk should remain uninjured in flavor for
twelve to twenty-four hours. If vegetables or other foods of pro-
nounced odor are kept in glass jars with covers, or in covered earthen-
ware receptacles, there will be a fewer odors to "be communicated.
Portions of canned food should never 'be put into the ice box in the
tin cans. Such food does not of necessity develop a poisonous
product, as has sometimes been claimed, but experiments show that
448 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
ptomaines are particularly liable to develop in such cases. Casting
out this somewhat remote possi'bility, the "tinny" taste acquired by
such keeping is enough to condemn the practice.
Foods that are to be eaten raw, such as lettuce and celery, should
be carefully cleaned before being placed in the ice box, and may with
advantage be wrapped in a clean, damp/rloth. If they e ;e to be kept
for some days they should, however, Tie put in without removing the
roots, the further precaution being taken to wrap them carefully in
clean paper or to put them into grocers' bags.
Keeping of Vegetables, Fruits, and Meats. — The Farmers'
Bulletin No. 375 of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture gives some additional considerations in reference to the
keeping of vegetables, fruits, and meats in the home. These
are as follows :
The following hints regarding the keeping of different kinds of
food may be found useful:
Potatoes are kept without difficulty in a cool, dry, and dark place.
Sprouts should not be allowed to grow in the spring.
Such roots as carrots, parsnips, and turnips remain plump and
fresh if placed in earth or sand filled boxes on the cellar floor.
Sweet potatoes may be kept until January if cleaned, dried, and
packed in chaff so that they will not touch each other.
Pumpkins and squash must be thoroughly ripe and mature to
keep well. They should be dried from time to time with a cloth and
kept not on the cellar floor, but on a shelf, and well separated from
each other.
Cabbages are to be placed in barrels, with the roots uppermost.
Celery should be neither trimmed nor washed, but packed, heads
up, in long, deep boxes, which should then be filled with dry earth.
Tomatoes may be kept until January, if gathered just before
frost, wiped dry, and placed on straw-covered racks in the cellar.
They should be firm and well-grown speciments, not yet beginning
to turn. As they ripen they may be taken out for table use, and
any soft or decaying ones must be removed.
Apples, for use during the autumn, may be stored in barrels
without further precaution than to look them over now and then
to remove decaying ones; but if they are to be kept till late winter
or spring they must be of a variety known to keep well and they
must be hand-picked and without blemish or bruise. They should
be wiped dry and placed with little crowding on shelves in the cellar.
As a further precaution they may be wrapped separately in soft paper.
Pears may be kept for a limited time in the same way, or packed
in sawdust or chaff; which absorbs -the moisture which might other-
wise favor molding.
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 449
Oranges and lemons are .kept in the same way. Wrapping in soft
paper is here essential, as the uncovered skins if bruised oflfer good
feeding ground for mold. Oranges may be kept for a long time in
good condition if stored where it is very cold, but where freezing is
not possible. Lemons and limes are often kept in brine, an old-fash-
ioned household method. t
Cranberries, after careful looking over to remove soft ones, are
placed in a crock or firkin and covered with water. A plate or round
board placed on top and weighted serves to keep the berries under
water. The water should be changed once a month.
In winter, large pieces of fresh meat may be purchased and hung
in the cellar. Thin pieces, as mutton chops, are sometimes dipped
in mutton suet, which keeps the surface from drying and is easily
scraped off before cooking.
Turkeys, chickens, and other birds should be carefully drawn as
soon as killed and without washing hung in the coolest available place.
Smoked ham, tongue, beef, and fish are best put in linen bags
and hung in the cellar.
Salt pork and corned beef should be kept in brine in suitable
jars, kegs, or casks, and should be weighted so as to remain well
covered. A plate or board weighted with a clean stone is an old-
fashioned and satisfactory device.
Eggs may be packed for winter use in limewater or in water-
glass solution, methods which are described in an earlier bulletin of
this series. Many housekeepers have good success in packing them
in bran, in oats, or in dry salt, but according to experiments sum-
marized in the aforementioned bulletin, the preference is to be given
to the 10 per cent solution of water-glass. Exclusion of the air with
its accompanying microorganisms and the prevention of drying out
are what is sought in all cases. Packed eggs are not equal to fresh
eggs in flavor, but when they are well packed are of fairly good qual-
ity and perfectly wholesome.
V-
Apples.^ — The United States Department of Agriculture,
in Farmers' Bulletin No. 1160, gives the following informa-
tion in reference to the keeping of apples:
Apples will stand a temperature several degrees below freezing
(32° F.). The danger point is at about 28° F. The effect of freezing
is to cause brown spots which extend to the surface and are easily
seen. These spots may appear on any part of the apple, but usually
occur at places where the water content is highest. Freezing has
about the same effect on either green or ripe fruit. Slightly frozen
apples may be thawed out slowly without injury except to the quality.
Apples should be packed in barrels, allowing good ventilation when
stored for long periods. Some of the common diseases of apples are:
Scab, blotch, fruit spot, Jonathan spot, bitter pit, drought spot, stig-
450 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
nonose, water core, bitter, anthracnose, black rot, altervaria rot, blue
mold, pink rot, spongy dry rot, brown rot, gray mold, soft scald, and
scald.
Drinking Water. — The desirable temperature for drinking
water is 45° to 50° F. Tests have proven that at this temper-
ature it is a mild heart stimulant and slightly reduces the in-
ternal temperature of the body. When drinking water colder
than 45° F. is used there is danger of cramps.
The amount of drinking water required in industrial plants
is usually considered to be approximately % gallon per man
per working hour. This amount is based on using fountains
and includes the waste.
The amount of refrigeration required to cool drinking
water varies from 0.0003 to 0.0005 tons refrigeration per hour
per man.
Fig. 217 shows the refrigerating effect due to placing one,
two, and three cubes of ice in a glass of drinking water. The
weight of the water in the glass was 0.4 lbs. ; the weight of the
ice cube was 0.1 lb.; the size of the glass was three inches in
diameter at the top, 2.3 inches in diameter at the bottom and
five inches high; the room temperature was 7S° , and the glass
was placed on a wooden table. Inasmuch as 50" is the desir-
able temperature for the water, it will be observed that this
temperature is practically obtained by the use of two cubes
of ice per glass of water. It is further noted from Fig. 134,
that the use of three cubes of ice, maintained the temperature
of the water at a fairly low temperature at a considerable
length of time, and that one cube does not produce the desir-
able refrigerating effect.
Specific and Latent Heat of Foods. — Table XCV gives
the specific heats and latent heats of some of the common
foods. The second column gives the specific heat of the foods
before freezing, expressed in B.t.u. per lb., while the third
column gives the corresponding specific heat after freezing.
The latent heat of fusion which is liberated during the freez-
ing process is given in the last column of this table.
Ice Cream Making in the Home. — The National Associa-
tion of Ice Industries has recently published a small bulletin
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME
451
entitled "Ice Cream Making and Appliances in the Home,"
which was prepared by M. A. Pennington, director of House-
hold Bureau. The following extract on the subject of "Ice
Cream Making in the Home" is taken from that bulletin :
The most satisfactory temperatures for the freezing of ice cream
range from about 16° F. to about 6° F. These temperatures are ob-
FIG. 217.— REFRIGERATING EFFECT OF ICE IN DRINKING WATER.
tained by the use of from 12 to 17 per cent of salt by weight, which
is from 12 to 1 to 8 to 1 parts by volume. For uniformly good results,
the ice and salt must be really measured, not just dumped in.
A great variety of flavors and ingredients can go into the making
of ice creams and ices. Very palatable and nourishing "creams" can
be made from very inexpensive materials. Again, however, propor-
tions must be exact and directions must be followed.
The ice cream freezers on the market would seem to be suffi-
ciently varied in capacity, operation, and price, to fill the need of
452
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
most individuals. The woman with the longer pocket-book can make
the electric current do the churning for her. By substituting for the
extra money outlay, exact attention to small details of manipulation
TABLE XCV.— SPECIFIC AND LATENT HEATS OF FOODS.
Specific
Heat
Latent
Article
Before
After
Heat
Freezing
Freezing
Apples
.92
Beans (green)
.91
Beef (fresh)
.75
.40
100
Beef (salt)
.60
Beer
.90
Berries
.91
Butter
.60
.84
84
Cabbage
.93
.48
129
Cantaloupes
.92
Carrots
.87
.45
iis
Cherries (fresh)
.92
Cherries (dried)
.84
Cheese
.64
Chicken
.80
.42
io5
Celery
.91
Cider
.90
Cream
.68
.38
84
Dates
.84
—
Egg?
.76
.40
100
Eels
.69
.38
88
Fish (fresh)
.80
.42
100
Fish (dried)
.58
Fruits (dried)
.89
—
—
Game
.80
.40
105
Grapes
.92
Grape Fruit
.92
Ice Cream
.78
.42
80
Lemons
.92
Lobster
.81
.42
108
Milk
.90
.47
124
Mutton
.67
.81
Onions
.91
Oranges
.92
Oysters
.84
.44
114
Peaches
.92
Pears
.92
PRESERVATION OF FOODS IN THE HOME 453
TABLE XCV.-
-SPECIFIC
FOODS.-
: AND LAT]
-(Continued).
ENT HEATS
OF
Specific Heat
Latent
Article
Before
Freezing
After
Freezing
Heat
Pigeon
Pork (fresh)
Potatoes
Poultry
.78
.50
.80
.80
.41
.30
.42
.40
102
70
105
102
Sausage
Sausage (smoked)
Strawberries
.70
.60
.92
—
—
Veal
.70
.39
90
Watermelons
Wines
.92
.90
and using mixtures, comparatively rich in cream, the crankless type of
freezer can be made to produce excellent results. The athletic
woman, who doesn't mind turning a crank nor shifting a staunchly
made tub around, can get a freezer that will withstand hard knocks
and long wear and tear; while the kitchenette apartment woman can
buy a little, light appliance, that takes almost no room and is so in-
expensive that she can leave it behind when she moves without qualm
of conscience. First of all, the woman must understand her own
problem well enough to make an intelligent selection. Such under-
standing can only come from a knowledge of the facts of the case.
Food Arrangement in Refrigerators. — Fig. 218 shows one
of the suggested arrangements of food in household refrig-
erators. From this, it will be noted that the foods are stored
with reference to two considerations. In the first place, spe-
cial consideration is given to the temperature in different
parts of the refrigerator. Those foods requiring the lowest
temperatures are placed immediately under the ice compart-
ment, and in the bottom part of the refrigerator, while those
which require a higher temperature are placed in the top food
compartment. A second consideration is the storing of foods
which give off characteristic odors. Foods such as onions,
lemons, cabbage, cheese, etc., are placed in the uppermost
food compartment, so that the air in passing directly into the
ice chamber from this food compartment, carries with it the
odor from such foods. Thus the air allows part of the odors
to be condensed and eliminated.
454
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
MlL((dBLTTERlN
Covered IVessels.
Deserts As
Cii)5TAi?D9& Jellies.
♦ Milk,
Buttelr&IEggs
BOTU.ED Mik,
Meat^ Egss.
Strong \ Foods As
Onions. Lemons.
\ CABBASE:\CliE£SE.
CAntaloupes.Melons
USA
Berries, Frvits.
Cei
Oranges, Celery, Bananas
•' ' •' r 'I
Vegetables,
CoQKED Meats
Et'.
Vegetables,
Cooi^ED Meats
ijED^^ Meats
44i44U\jji^^y'sVv,^^
/Meat £X
bottl^ Milk
FIG. 218.— FOOD ARRANGEMKNT IN REFRIGERATORS.
CHAPTER XIII.
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Miscellaneous Tables. — The following miscellaneous tables
may be classified into two divisions. In the first division
are those tables which are especially related to the design,
construction, and operation of both ice and mechanically
cooled household refrigerators. In the second division are
those which are only indirectly related to the subject of "House-
hold Refrigeration." They pertain mostly to physics and
mechanics.
Table XCVI gives some summer temperatures for the
different states in the United States. The second column
gives the average summer temperature in degrees F., while
the third column gives the maximum temperature in degrees
F. Some temperatures by months in various cities of France
are given in Table XCVII. The temperatures in this table
are degrees Centigrade. The average annual humidities for
various cities in the United States are shown by Table
XCVIII. Table XCVIX shows average summer and yearly
tap water temperatures for a number of cities.
Table C gives the domestic water rates for a number of
cities in the United States. This table includes the popula-
tion of the various cities, the highest domestic rate per gallon
of water, and the minimum annual water charge.
Table CI gives some average figures for the household
consumption of water per year for a number of cities. It will
be noted that the average consumption of water for the cities
stated per household is 6369 cubic feet. This is equivalent to
17.5 cubic feet per day or 131 gallons per day.
455
456
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XCVI.— SUMMER TEMPERATURES IN THE
UNITED STATES.
(U.
S. Weather Reports.)
Average
Maximum
Summer Temp.
Summer Temp.
State
Deg. F.
Deg. F.
Arizona
92
120
Oklahoma
83
114
Texas
83
112
Louisiana
83
110
Arkansas
83
106
Georgia
82
108
Connecticut
82
106
Delaware
82
102
North Carolina
81
109
South CaroUna
81
109
Florida
81
109
Alabama
81
105
Mississippi
81
105
Missouri
80
113
Tennessee
80
107
Kansas
79
116
Nevada
79
110
Maryland
79
106
Utah
79
106
New Mexico
79
105
Iowa
78
111
Kentucky
78
97
California
77
117
Virginia
76
104
Nebraska
75
112
West Virginia
75
102
Pennsylvania
74
105
Colorado
72
106
Ohio
71
105
Indiana
7Z
104
Illinois
7Z
102
New Jersey
71
102
Washington
71
114
New York
71
104
Michigan
71
104
Massachusetts
70
105
New Hampshire
70
105
Wisconsin
70
103
Wyoming
69
108
Rhode Island
69
99
Maine
68
105
Montana
67
106
North Dakota
67
102
South Dakota
67
102
Vermont
65
102
Minnesota
63
102
Idaho
63
94
Oregon
62
99
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 457
Table CII gives the quantities of water which are dis-
charged by house service pipes in gallons per minute. This
table is for various diameters of pipes, with certain initial
water pressures, no back pressure, and through 100 feet of
service pipe.
Table CIII gives the list of cities which use electric cur-
rent different from the standard alternating current, 60
cycles and 110 or 220 volts.
TABLE CXVII.— TEMPERATURES BY MONTHS IN FRANCE.
(1912-1917 Inclusive.)
Angers
Auxerre
Bordeaux
Chaumont
Degrees C.
Degrees C.
Degrees C.
Degrees C.
January
4.
2.
5.
0.5
February
5.
4.
6.
2.
March
7.
6.
8.5
5.
April
10.5
10.5
11.5
9.5
May
14.
13.
14.5
13.
June
17.
18.
17.5
16.5
July
19.
19.5
20.
18.5
August
19.
19.
20.
18.
September
15.5
15.5
17.5
14.5
October
11.
10.5
13.
9.5
November
7.
6.
8.5
5.
December .
4.
2.
5.
1.1
Average
11.0
10.5
12.0
9.5
From French Government Weather Reports.
Summer and Winter Tap Water Temperatures. — Table
C shows the relative importance of tap water temperature
and density of population in the important cities of United
States and Canada.
It is readily seen that the summer water temperatures
are mostly under 75° F., while 80° includes nearly all of the
important cities.
In winter 65° is the maximum temperature reached in
nearly all of the larger cities.
In some parts of Texas summer tap water temperatures
as high as 120° are reported.
458
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XCVIII.-RELATIVE HUMIDITIES IN VARIOUS CITIES.
TABLt AL,vix ^^ ^ Weather Reports.)
Albany, N. Y.
Asheville, N. C.
Atlanta, Ga.
Atlantic City, N. J.
Augusta, Ga.
Baltimore, Md.
Boston, Mass.
Hartford. Conn.
Jacksonville, Fla.
Key West, Fla.
Macon, Ga.
New Haven, Conn.
New York, N. Y.
Norfolk, Va.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Portland, Me.
Providence, R. I
Savannah, Ga.
Washington, D. C.
Wilmington, N. C.
Birmingham, Ala.
Galveston, Texas
Mobile, Ala.
Montgomery, Ala.
New Orleans, La.
Pensacola, Fla.
San Antonio, Texas
Tampa, Fla
Buffalo, N. Y.
Chattanooga, Tenn.
Chicago, 111.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Columbus, Ohio
Detroit, Mich.
Duluth, Minn.
Grand Rapids, Mich
Indianapolis^ Ind.
Louisville, Ky.
Dayton, Ohio
Milwaukee, Wis.
Nashville, Tenn.
Pittsburgh, Pa.
Rochester, N. Y'.
Svracuse, N. Y.
Toledo, Ohio
Davenport, Iowa
Des Moines, Iowa
Kansas City, Mo.
Memphis, Tenn.
St. Louis, Mo.
St. Paul, Minn.
Springfield, 111-
78
72
85
71
79
65
80
79
82
66
72
66
73
70
74
68
83
77
78
77
83
....
75
72
75
62
80
75
74
66
75
73
74
71
81
75
76
68
81
77
79
65
84
78
84
74
82
64
83
72
80
75
81
53
84
76
77
73
80
63
78
71
76
62
77
70
79
66
80
71
81
71
82
70
77
64
76
61
80
67
78
72
80
62
77
66
75
71
77
....
79
69
80
65
80
63
77
62
79
65
11
63
80
63
79
65
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
459
TAIU.E XCVIII.— RELATIVE HUMIDITIES IN VARIOUS CITIES.
(U. S. Weather Reports.)— (Continued).
Average Annual Humidities for Various Cities of United States.
City
8 a.m.
8 p. m.
Fort Worth, Texas
78
Lincoln, Neb.
79
59
Oklahoma City, Okla.
80
59
Omaha, Neb.
78
60
Sioux City, Iowa
81
61
Wichita, Kan.
78
57
Denver, Colo.
63
41
El Paso, Texas
54
26
Helena, Mont.
68
SO
Phoenix, Ariz.
54
28
Pueblo, Colo.
64
37
Reno, Nev.
72
39
Salt Lake City, Utah
60
45
Santa Fe, N. Mex.
58
40
Spokane, Wash.
n
50
Los Angeles, Cal.
n
62
Portland, Ore.
86
63
Sacramento, Cal.
82
52
San Diego, Cal.
79
70
San Francisco, Cal.
87
72
Seattle, Wash.
87
67
TABLE XCIX.— TAP WATER TEMPERATURES.
City
Average Summer
Temp. Deg. F.
Average Yearly
Temp. Deg. F.
Augusta, Ga.
Atlanta, Ga.
Albany, N. Y.
Allentown, Pa.
Akron, Ohio
Birmingham, Ala.
Buflfalo, N. Y.
Boston, Mass.
Columbus, Ohio
Charleston, W. Va.
Cleveland, Ohio
Cincinnati, Ohio
Cambridge, Mass.
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
Dayton, Ohio
Detroit, Mich.
Davenport, Iowa
Duluth, Minn.
Des Moines, Iowa
Decatur, 111.
Erie, Pa.
East Orange, N. J.
Elizabeth, N. J.
Fort Wayne, Ind.
Gary, Ind.
81
81
76
60
74
80
71
69
74
70
72
80
70
68
70
67
55
65
73
70
58
60
62
66
62
56
57
55
65
52
54
56
40
56
62
50
55
60
50
56
45
58
53
53
58
50
50
52
460 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE XCIX.— TAP WATER TEMPERATURES.— (Continued).
Average Summer
Average Yearly
City
Temp. Deg. F.
Temp. Deg. F.
Grand Rapids, Mich.
74
55
Galveston, Texas
85
80
Hamilton, Canada
55
43
Haverhill, Mass.
58
40.7
Johnstown, Pa.
65
50
Jackson, Miss.
65
45
Jacksonville, Fla.
82
76
Kansas City, Kan.
n
62
Lincoln, Neb.
60
55
Louisville, Ky.
70
60
Little Rock, Ark.
70
50
Los Angeles, Cal.
62
60
Lowell, Mass.
56
54
Lexington, Ky.
67.8
57.4
Lawrence, Mass.
60
55
Milwaukee, Wis.
52
50
Montreal, Ont., Can.
67
51
Minneapolis, Minn.
72
54
Mt. Vernon, N. Y.
11
55
Maiden, Mass.
69
54
Mobile, Ala.
70
60
New Brunswick, N. J.
60
57
New York, N. Y.
65
55
New Haven, Conn.
65
58
Nashville, Tenn.
75
60
New Orleans, La.
80
65
New Bedford, Mass.
69
55
Oklahoma City, Okla.
75
60
Ottawa, Ont., Can.
77
54
Omaha, Neb.
86
60
Oakland, Cal.
70
55
Providence, R. I.
74
53
Portland, Maine
70
50
Patterson, N. J.
60
50
Pawtucket, R. L
72
55
Pittsburgh, Pa.
72.5
52.8
Portland, Ore.
50
42
Pasadena, Cal.
63
57
Roanoke, Va.
60
60
Rochester, N. Y.
69
51
Richmond, Va.
' 74
70
Rockford, 111.
58
58
Springfield, Mass.
64
49
Superior, Wis.
60
47
Springfield, Mo.
65
60
Spokane, Wash.
52
50
Salt Lake City, Utah
50
45
Sommerville, Mass.
69
53.5
Springfield, Ohio
58
57
St. Joseph, Mo.
77
54
St. Paul, Minn.
65
54
Sioux City, Iowa
51
49
St. John, N. B.
65
51
San Francisco, Cal.
65
57
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
461
TABLE XCIX.— TAP WATER TEMPERATURES.— (Continued).
Average Summer
Average Yearly
City
Temp. Deg. F.
Temp. Deg. F.
Seattle, Wash.
55
49
Toledo, Ohio
76.4
56
Terre Haute, Ind.
76
57
Tacoma, Wash.
60
40.5
Troy, N. Y.
70
60
Utica, N. Y.
68
55
Waterbury, Conn.
71
54
Winnipeg, Man., Can.
70
56
Woonsocket, R. I.
70
50
Worcester, Mass.
72
68
Washington, D. C.
75.4
60.5
Youngstown, Ohio
90.8
68.7
TABLE C— DOMESTIC WATER RATES.
(American City Magazine.)
City
Population
Highest Domestic
Rate per 1,000 Gal.
69,151
43,464
15c
iSc
578,000
74,683
40,296
13.3c
14.7c
25c
30,105
15c
143,538
138,036
29,842
59,316
29,685
35,086
18c
16c
ISc
10c
26.7c
20c
110,168
10c
437,571
10c
29,549
20c
200,616
52,548
83,252
13.3c
25c
12c
83,327
10c
28,000
27c
28,725
44,995
43,818
37,215
35c
13.3c
8c
6.8c
Minimum
Annual
Charge
Mobile, Ala.
Montgomery
Los Angeles, Cal.
San Diego
Stockton
Colorado Springs, Colo.
Bridgeport, Conn.
Hartford
Meriden
New Britain
Norwich
Stamford
Wilmington, Del.
Washington, D. C.
Miami, Fla.
Atlanta, Ga.
Augusta
Savannah
Honolulu, Hawaii
Boise, Idaho
Bloomington, 111.
Cicero
Decatur
Evanston
6.00
12.00
9.00
12.00
12.00
10.00
5.00
7.50
5.00
5.00
6.00
10.00
5.65
12.00
9.60
9.00
6.00
12.00
3.25
6.00
4.00
6.00
462
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE C.
-DOMESTIC WATER RATES.
(American City Magazine.)
-(Continued).
Minimum
Highest Domestic
Annual
City
Population
Rate per 1,000 Gal.
Charge
Peoria
76,121
30c
3.20
Quincy
35,978
50c
10.00
Rock Island
35,177
18.7c
8.10
Evansville, Ind.
85,549
20c
2.00
Fort Wayne
86,549
16c
6.00
Richmond
26,765
20c
6.00
South Bend
70,983
12c
7.20
Terre Haute
66,083
25c
9.00
Cedar Rapids, Iowa
45,566
25.3c
9.00
Council Bluffs
36,162
35c
6.00
Des Moines
126,468
30c
4.00
Sioux City
71,227
25c
None
Topeka, Kan.
50.022
45c
4.80
Covington, Ky.
57,121
24c
8.00
Lexington
41,534
25c
6.00
Louisville
234,891
40c
12.00
New Orleans, La.
387,408
10c
3.00
Shreveport
43,874
25c
7.80
Bangor, Maine
25,978
33.3c
12.00
Biddeford
28,000
26.7c
16.00
Baltimore, Md.
738,826
8.7c
Cumberland
29,837
7c
8.00
Hagerstown
28,066
30c
6.00
Hyattsville
50,000
12c
4.00
Brookline, Mass.
37,748
16c
None
Brockton
66,138
25.3c
Cambridge
109,694
10c
5.00
Chelsea
43,184
14.7c
6.00
Chicopee
36,214
20c
10.00
Everett
40,120
16.7c
6.00
Fall River
120,485
28c
None
Fitchburg
41,013
24c
5.00
Haverhill
53,884
21.3c
10.00
Lawrence
94,270
24c
8.00
Lowell
112,759
28c
10.50
Lynn
99,148
20c
10.00
New Bedford
121,217
ISc
5.00
Quincy
47,876
33c
8.00
Revere
28,823
20c
10.00
Salem
42,529
20c
3.00
Somerville
93,091
16c
6.00
Springfield
129,563
30c
None
Taunton
i7,U7
25c
6.00
Waltham
30,915
27c
5.00
Worcester
179,754
20c
4.00
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
463
TABLE C— DOMESTIC WATER RATES.— (Continued).
(American City Magazine.)
Minimum
Highest Domestic
Annual
City
Population
Rate per 1,000 Gal.
Charge
Battle Creek, Mich.
36,164
13c
3.00
Bay City
47,554
lOc
6.00
Highland Park
46,499
70c
5.00
Jackson
48,374
13.3c
3.20
Lansing
57,327
16c
7.80
Saginaw
61,903
He
10.00
Duluth, Minn.
98,917
20c
6.00
Minneapolis
380,498
8c
St. Paul
234,595
8c
3.60
Joplin, Mo.
29,855
35c
12.00
Lincoln, Neb.
54,934
15c
6.00
Manchester, N. H.
78,384
13.3c
8.00
Nashua
28,379
24c
16.00
Belmar, N. J.
25,000
23.3c
10.50
Camden
116,309
25c
8.00
Jersey City
279,864
12c
None
Kearney
26,724
20c
6.76
Montclair
28,810
30c
10.00
Newark
414,216
13.3c
6.00
New Brunswick
32,779
20c
15.00
Paterson
135,866
30c
12.00
Albany, N. Y.
113,344
13.3c
Binghamton
66,800
10c
4.00
Buffalo
506,775
8c
10.00
Elmira
45,305
40c
6.00
Jamestown
38,917
20c
6.00
Kingston
26,688
22.2c
14.00
Mt. Vernon
42,726
40c
12.00
New York City
5,621,151
13.4c
None
N. Y. C. Brooklyn
2,022,262
13.3c
N. Y. C. Queens
172,775
N. Y. C. Richmond
115,959
13.3c
None
Niagara Falls
50,760
8c
6.00
Poughkeepsie
35,000
26.7c
1.00
Rochester
295,750
14c
4.00
Rome
26,341
20c
5.00
Schenectady
88,723
7c
3.00
Syracuse
171,717
14.8c
4.00
Troy
72,013
Utica
94,156
40c
Yonkers
100,226
21.3c
8.00
Charlotte, N. C
46,338
26c
6.00
Wilmington
33.372
21.6c
13.00
Akron, Ohio
208,435
Cincinnati
410,247
16c
4.80
464
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE C-
-DOMESTIC WATER RATES.— (Continued).
(American City Magazine.)
Minimum
Highest Domestic
Annual
City
Population
Rate per 1,000 Gal.
Charge
Cleveland
796,836
5.3c
2.50
Columbus
237,031
16c
4.00
Dayton
152,559
12c
6.60
Lakewood
41,732
12c
5.40
Lorain
37,295
2.00
8.00
Mansfield
27,824
26.7c
6.00
Newark
26,718
24c
6.00
Springfield
60,840
10c
4.00
Steubenville
28,508
40c
5.00
Toledo
243,109
13.3c
8.50
Youngstown
132,358
26.7c
None
Zanesville
29,569
ISc
6.00
Oklahoma City, Okla.
91,258
32c
7.00
Tulsa
72,075
25c
9.00
Portland, Ore.
258,288
10.7c
6.00
Allentown, Pa.
73,502
106.70
.72
Chester
58,030
34.5c
6.96
Harrisburg
75,917
5.7c
4.00
Johnston
67,327
27c
12.00
Philadelphia
1,823,158
13.3c
Pittsburgh
588,193
18c
8.00
Newport, R. I.
30,255
40c
Providence
237,595
20c
8.00
Charleston, S. C.
67,957
24.7c
12.00
Sioux Falls, S. D.
25,176
40c
9.00
Knoxville, Tenn.
77,818
18c
10.08
Memphis
162,351
33.3c
12.00
Nashville
118,342
17.7c
6.00
Austin, Texas
34,876
20c
6.00
Dallas
158,977
25c
El Paso
77,543
27.5c
15.00
Fort Worth
106,482
60c
13.80
Galveston
44,255
26.7c
3.00
Waco
38,500
37.5c
9.00
Salt Lake City, Utah
118,110
7.3c
6.00
Danville, Va.
25,000
10c
6.00
Lynchburg
29,956
28.8c
Richmond
171,667
13.Sc
7.20
Bellingham, Wash.
25,570
23.3c
12.00
Seattle
315,652
13.3c
6.00
Spokane
104,437
10c
9.60
Tacoma
96.965
13.3c
6.00
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
465
TABLE C— DOMESTIC WATER RATES.-^( Continued).
Minimum
Highest Domestic
A nnual
City
Population
Rate per 1,000 Gal.
Charge
Charleston, W. Va.
39,608
30c
12.00
Clarksburg
27,869
35c
9.00
Huntington
50,177
20c
9.00
Wheeling
54,322
15c
Kenosha, Wis.
40,472
16c
6.00
La Crosse
30,363
20c
Madison
38,378
10c
4.00
Milwaukee
457,147
8c
None
St. John, New Brunswick
60,000
Noni
e
12.00
Sydney, Nova Scotia
27,000
25c
8.00
Brantford, Ontario
32,700
35c
4.00
London
60,000
16.8c
8.00
Ottawa
112,000
Toronto
499,278
13.8c
Montreal, Quebec
694,000
12.8c
Quebec
120,000
60c
TABLE CI.— AVERAGE HOUSEHOLD
CONSUMPTION OF
WATER.
City
Cubic Feet Per Year
Boston, Mass.
6,000
Cincinnati, Ohio
6,000
Cleveland, Ohio
9,000
Dayton, Ohio
3,600
Flint, Mich.
7,200
Grand Rapids,
Mich.
8,000
Milwaukee, Wis.
5,300
Peoria, 111.
6,400
Pontiac, Mich.
8,000
Richmond, Ky.
2,400
Rockford, 111.
8,400
Average: 6,391 cubic feet yearly, 17.5 cubic feet per day, 131 gallons per day.
TABLE CIL— QUANTITY OF WATER DISCHARGED FROM HOUSE
SERVICE PIPES IN GALLONS PER MINUTE.
Through 100 Ft. of Service Pipe, No Back Pressure.
Pressure in
Main
Nominal Diameter of Pipes in
Inches.
Lbs. per sq. in.
J4
H
^
1
1^
2
30
4.94
8.65
13.8
28.2
77.7
15.9
40
5.76
10.0
15.8
32.6
90.0
184.
50
6.44
11.2
17.7
36.4
100.5
206.
60
7.04
12.3
19.4
39.9
110.
225.
75
7.85
13.8
21.7
44.6
123.
252.
100
9.12
15.9
25.1
51.6
142.
291.
130
10.4
18.1
28.6
58.8
162.
352.
466
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE cm.— CITIES USING ELECTRIC CURRENT DIFFERENT FROM
THE STANDARD A. C. 60 CYCLES, 110-220 VOLTS.
(Cities of 50,000 population or over.)
Location.
D. C.
A.C.
Cycles
Volts
Mobile, Ala.
X
X
60
118
Little Rock, Ark.
X
X
60
110
Los Angeles, Cal
X
X
50
110-220-440
Pasadena, Cal.
X
50
115
Glendale, Cal.
X
50
110-220
Canon City, Colo.
X
30
120
Denver, Colo.
X
X
60
110
Bridgeport, Conn.
X
X
60
110
Hartford, Conn.
X
X
60
110-220
Wilmington, Del.
X
X
60
110-115
Atlanta, Ga.
X
25&60
110-220
Savannah, Ga.
X
X
60
110
Chicago, 111.
X
X
60
115
Alton, 111.
X
25
110
Indianapolis, Ind.
X
X
60
118
Richmond, Ind.
X
X
60
116 A. C. & 500 D. C.
Des Moines, Iowa
X
X
60
115-230
Sioux City, Iowa
X
104
Topeka, Kan.
X
X
60
115
New Orleans, La.
X
X
60
110-220
Portland, Maine
X
X
60
116
Baltimore, Md.
X
X
60
120
Boston, Mass. i
X
X
60
113
Detroit, Mich.
X
X
60
120 & 240
Crookston, Minn.
X
X
60
110
Kansas City, Mo.
X
X
60&25
110&220
Kearney, Neb.
X
60
125
Portsmouth, N. H.
X
60 & 25
117
New Egypt, N. J.
X
220
Albany, N. Y.
X
40
115
Borough of Brooklyn
X
X
25 & 62.5
120
Borough of Manhattan
X
X
60
110 A. C. & 120 D. C.
Niagara Falls, N. Y.
X
25
110
Rochester, N. Y.
X
X
60&25
117
Syracuse, N. Y.
X
25 & 60
110
Spray, N. C.
X
220
Cincinnati, Ohio
X
X
60
118
Toledo, Ohio
X
X
60&25
110
Portland, Ore.
X
X
120-240
.\ltoona, Pa.
X
X
60
110
Philadelphia, Pa.
X
X
60
110
Scranton, Pa.
X
X
60
115
Columbia, S. C.
X
40
115
Dallas, Texas
X
X
60
110-220
Galveston, Texas
X
X
60
110
Rutland, Vermont
X
25&60
115
Norfolk, Va.
X
X
60
112
Milwaukee, Wis.
X
X
25&60
120-240
Laramie, Wyo.
X
X
60
110
Brandon, Canada
X
X
60
120
Hamilton, Ontario, Can
X
662/3
110-220
Stratford, Ont.
X
25
110-220
Toronto, Ont.
X
25
115
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
467
TABLE cm.— CITIES USING ELECTRIC CURRENT DIFFERENT FROM
THE STANDARD A. C. 60 CYCLES, 110-220 VOLTS. -^(Continued.)
(Cities of 50,000 population or over.)
Location. D. C.
A. C. Cycles
Volts
Quebec
X 64
104
Guadalajara, Mexico
X 100
104-1040
Victoria, Mexico
X 125
104
Mexico, Mexico
50
210-3000
Barbados, West Indies
X 50
210
Havana
X
62^2
110
Santo Domingo
X 133
104
Georgetown, British Guiana
X 125
104
TABLE CIV.— TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CENTIGRADE
TO FAHRENHEIT.
C.
F.
R.
C.
F.
R.
C.
F.
R.
+^T
+212.0°
+80.0°
+53°
+127.4°
+42.4°
+ 6°
+42.8°
+4.8"
99
210.2
79.2
52
125.6
41.6
5
41.0
4.0
98
208.4
78.4
51
123.8
40.8
4
39.2
3.2
97
206.6
77.6
50
122.0
40.0
3
37.4
2.4
96
204.8
76.8
49
120.2
39.2
2
35.6
1.6
95
203.0
76.0
48
118.4
38.4
1
33.8
0.8
94
201.2
75.2
47
116.6
37.6
Zero
32.0
Zero
93
199.4
74.4
46
114.8
36.8
- 1
30.2
- 0.8
92
197.6
73.6
45
113.0
36.0
2
28.4
1.6
91
195.8
72.8
44
111.2
35.2
3
26.6
2.4
90
194.0
72.0
43
109.4
34.4
4
24.8
3.2
89
192.2
71.2
42
107.6
33.6
5
23.0
4.0
88
190.4
70.4
41
105.8
32.8
6
21.2
4.8
87
188.6
69.6
40
104.0
32.0
7
19.4
5.6
86
186.8
68.8
39
102.2
31.2
8
17.6
6.4
85
185.0
68.0
38
100.4
30.4
9
15.8
7.2
84
183.2
67.2
37
98.6
29.6
10
14.0
8.0
83
181.4
66.4
36
96.8
28.8
11
12.2
8.8
82
179.6
65.6
35
95.0
28.0
12
10.4
9.6
81
177.8
64.8
34
93.2
27.2
13
8.6
10.4
SO
176.0
64.0
33
91.4
26.4
14
6.8
11.2
79
174.2
63.2
32
89.6
25.6
15
5.0
12.0
78
172.4
62.4
31
87.8
24.8
16
3.2
12.8
77
170.6
61.6
30
86.0
24.0
17
1.4
13.6
76
168.8
60.8
29
84.2
23.2
18
-0.4
14.4
75
167.0
60.0
28
82.4
22.4
19
2.2
15.2
74
165.2
59.2
27
80.6
21.6
20
4.0
16.0
73
163.4
58.4
26
78.8
20.8
21
5.8
16.8
72
161.6
57.6
25
77.0
20.0
22
7.6
17.6
71
159.8
56.8
24
75.2
19.2
23
9.4
18.4
70
158.0
56.0
23
73.4
18.4
24
11.2
19.2
69
156.2
55.2
22
71.6
17.6
25
13.0
20.0
68
154.4
54.4
21
69.8
16.8
26
14.8
20.8
67
152.6
53.6
20
68.0
16.0
27
16.6
21.6
66
150.8
52.8
19
66.2
15.2
28
18.4
22.4
65
149.0
52.0
18
64.4
14.4
29
20.2
23.2
64
147.2
51.2
17
62.6
13.6
30
22.0
24.0
63
145.4
50.4
16
60.8
12.8
31
23.8
24.8
62
143.6
49.6
15
59.0
12.0
32
25.6
25.6
61
141.8
48.8
14
57.2
11.2
33
27.4
26 4
60
140.0
48.0
13
55.4
10.4
34
29.2
27.2
468
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE CIV.— TEMPERATURE CONVERSION CENTIGRADE
TO FAHRENHEIT.— (Continued).
c.
F.
R.
C.
F.
R.
C.
F.
R.
59
138.2
47.2
12
53.6
9.6
35
31.0
28.0
58
136.4
46.4
11
51.8
8.8
36
32.8
28.8
57
134.3
45.6
10
50.0
8.0
37
34.6
29.6
56
132.8
44.8
9
48.2
7.2
38
36.4
30.4
55
131.0
44.0
8
46.4
6.4
39
38.2
31.2
64
129.2
43.2
7
44.6,
5.8
40
40.0
32.0
Fahrenheit degrees = 1.8 X Centigrade degrees + 32".
Centigrade degrees = (Fahrenheit degrees) — 32°-:-1.8.
TABLE CV.— DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF FRACTIONS OF ONE INCH.
1/64 — .015625
1/32 —.03125
3/64 — .046875
1/16 —.0625
5/64 — .078125
ZIZ2 — .09375
7/64 — .109375
1/8 —.125
9/64 — .140625
5/32 —.15625
11/64 — .171875
3/16 —.1875
13/64 — .203125
7/32 —.21875
15/64 — .234375
1/4 —.25
17/64 — .265625
9/32 — .28125
19/64 — .296875
5/16 —.3125
21/64 — .328125
11/32 —.34375
23/64 — .359375
3/8 — .375
25/64 — .390625
13/32 — .40625
27/64 — 421875
7/16 —.4375
29/64 — .453125
15/32 —.46875
31/64 — .484375
1/2 — .5
33/64— .515625
17/32 —.53125
35/64 — .546875
9/16 — .5625
37/64 — .578125
19/32 — .59375
39/64 — .609375
5/8 — .625
41/64 — .640625
21/32 — .65625
43/64 — .671875
11/16 —.6875
45/64 — .703125
23/32 —.71875
47/64 — .734375
3/4 — .75
49/64 — .765625
25/32 —.78125
51/64 — .796875
13/16 —.8125
53/64 — .828125
Zim — .84375
55/64 — .859375
7/8 — .875
57/64 — .890625
29/32 — .90625
59/64 — .921875
15/16 — .9375
61/64 — .953125
31/32 —.96875
63/64 — .984375
1 1.
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
469
TABLE CVI.— TEMPERATURES, CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT
FRACTIONAL EQUIVALENTS.
Degrees
Centigrade
Degrees
Fahrenheit
0.55
0.1
0.11
0.17
0.2
0.22
0.28
0.3
0.33
0.39
0.4
0,44
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.10
0.18
0.20
0.30
0.36
0.40
0.50
0.54
0.6
0.7
0.72
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.08
1.26
1.44
1.62
1.80
TABLE CVIL— PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS.
Unit
Equivalent Value in Other Units
1 lb. per sq. inch =
1 atmosphere (14.7 lbs.)
144 lbs. per square foot.
2.0355 in. of mercury at 32°
2.0416 in. of mercurv at 62°
2.309 ft. of water at' 62° F.
. 27.71 in. of water at 62° F.
= I
1 inch of water at 62° F.
1 inch of water at 32° F. — [
1 foot of water at 62° F. =
1 inch of mercury at 62° F.
2116.3 lbs. per square foot.
33.947 ft. of water at 62° F.
30 in. of mercury at 62° F.
29.922 in. of mercury at 32° F.
0.0361 lb. per square inch.
5.196 lbs. per square foot.
0.0736 in. of mercury at 62° F.
5.2021 lbs. per square foot.
0.036125 lb. per square inch.
0.433 lb. per square inch.
62.355 lbs. per square foot.
0.883 in. of mercury at 62° F.
r 0.49 lb. per square inch.
J 70.56 lbs. per square foot.
1.132 ft. of water at 62° F.
13.58 ins. of water at 62° F.
470
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE CVIII.— POWER EQUIVALENTS.
Unit
Equivalent Value in Other Units
1 Kilowatt Hour Equals=
1 Horse-Power Equals = i
British Thermal Unit
Equals =
I Pound of Water Evap-
orated from and at
212 degrees Fahren-
heit Equals =
1 ,000
1.34
2,654,200
3,412
■ 367,000
r 746
0.746
33,000
550
2,545
42.4
0.707
1,055
778
107.6
0.000293
0.000393
0.283
0.379
970.4
103,900
751,300
Watt Hours
Horse-Power Hours
Foot-Pound,'; per Hour
Heat Units per Hour
Kilogram Meters
Watts
Kilowatt
Foot-Pounds per Minute
Foot-Pounds per Second
Heat Units Per Hour
Heat Units Per Minute
Heat Units per Second
Watt Seconds
Foot-Pounds
Kilogram Meters
Kilowatt Hour
Horse-Power Hour
Kilowatt Hour
Horse-Power Hour
Heat Units
Kilogram Meters
Foot-Pounds
TABLE CIX.— METRIC CONSTANTS.
EQUIVALENT OF LIQUIDS
One cubic meter of water 220.1 Imperial gallons.
One cubic meter of water 61028 Cubic inches.
One cubic meter of water 1000 Kilograms.
One cubic meter of water 1 Ton (approximate.)
One cubic meter of water looO Litres.
One cubic meter of water 2204. pounds.
Column of water 1 foot high 0.434 pounds per square inch.
Column of water 1 meter high 1.43 pounds per square inch.
Column of water 2.31 feet high 1 pound per square inch.
One imperial gallon of water 277.274 Cubic inches.
One imperial gallon of water 10 pounds.
One cubic inch of water 0.3607 pounds.
One cubic foot of water 62.35 pounds.
One cubic foot of water 0.577 Hundredweight.
One cubic foot of water 0.028 Ton.
One pound of water 27.72 Cubic inches.
One pound of water 0.1 Imperial gallon.
One pound of water 0.4537 Kilograms.
One litre of water 0.22 Imperial gallon.
One litre of water 61 Cubic inches.
One litre of water 0.0353 Cubic feet.
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 471
TABLE CIX.— METRIC CONSTANTS.— (Continued).
METRICAL EQUIVALENTS (WEIGHTS AND MEASURES)
Meters Reciprocals
Inch 0.02539954 39.37079
Foot 0.3047945 3.280899
Yard 0.91438348 1.093633
Pole 5.029109 0.1988424
Chain 20.11644 0.0497106
Furlong 201.1644 0.004971
Mile 1609.3149 0.00062138
METIUCAL EQUIVALENTS (WEIGHTS AND MEASURES)
1 Inch 2.54 centimeters.
1 Meter 3.281 feet.
1 Square inch 6.452 square centimeters.
1 Square meter — 10.76 square feet 1.196 square yard.
1 Cubic inch 16.39 centimeters.
1 Cubic meter 35.31 cubic feet.
1 Kilogram 2.205 pounds
TABLE ex.— AVERAGE TAP WATER TEMPERATURES OF (SUMMER)
FOR CITIES OF UNITED STATES AND CANADA.
City State Deg. F. Population
Youngstown Ohio 90. S 132,358
Dallas Tex. 90 158,976
Omaha Neb. 86 191,601
Galveston Tex. 85 42,000
Jacksonville Fla. 82 91,543
Atlanta Ga. 81 200,616
Augusta _...Ga. 81 52,548
Cincinnati Ohio 80 401,247
Birmingham Ala. 80 172,270
New Orleans La. 80 387,408
Kansas City Mo. 11 345,000
Ottawa Can. 11 112,000
St. Joseph Mo. 77 77,735
Toledo Ohio 76.5 243,109
Albany N. Y. 76 113,344
Washington D. C. 75.4 437,571
Nashville _...Tenn. 75 118,342
Oklahoma City „ Okla. 75 91,258
Charleston - S. C. 75 71,500
Providence - R. I. 74 275,000
Columbus Ohio 74 237,031
Akron - Ohio 74 208,435
Richmond Va. 74 158,700
Grand Rapids Mich. 74 137,634
Springfield - Mass. 74 129,563
Decatur - 111. 73 43,618
Mount Vernon N. Y. 73 42,726
Pittsburgh - Pa. 72.5 588,193
Cleveland _ Ohio 72 796,836
Minneapolis Minn. 72 380,498
Worcester _ Mass. 72 179,741
Pawtucket _ R. I. 72 64,248
Buffalo „ _ _ -..N. Y. 71 505,875
Waterbury - Conn. 71 91,410
Philadelphia - - - -Pa. 70 1.823,158
472 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE ex.— AVERAGE TAP WATER TEMPERATURES— (SUMMER)
FOR CITIES OF UNITED STATES AND CANADA— (Continued.)
City State Deg. F. Population
Louisville _ Ky. 70 23-4,891
Oakland Cal. 70 216,361
Dayton Ohio 70 153,830
Paterson N. J. 70 135,856
Winnipeg Can. 70 135,430
Cambridge Mass. 70 109',450
Erie ~ Pa. 70 93,372
Troy N. Y. 70 78,000
Little Rock Ark. 70 64,997
Mobile _ Ala. 70 60,124
Woonsocket _ R. 1. 70 43,496
Charlestown W. Va. 70 39,608
Boston _ - Mass. 69 749,923
Rochester N. Y 69 295,750
New Bedford Mass. 69 121,217
Somerville - Mass. 69 93,033
Maiden ~ - Mass. 69 49,103
Utica ..— N. Y. 68 94,136
Cedar Rapids _ Iowa 68 45,566
Lexington _ Ky. 67.8 41,534
Detroit _„ Mich. 67 993,739
Montreal Can. 67 466,197
Milwaukee Wis. 67 457,147
St. John N. B. 65.5 60,000
New York - N. Y. 65 5,621,151
Brooklyn N. Y. 65
St. Paul Minn. 65.5 235,595
Des Moines Iowa 65 126,468
San Francisco Cal. 65 508,410
New Haven Conn. 65 162,390
Johnstown _ Pa. 65 67,327
Jackson Mich. 65 48,374
Pasadena ,..Cal. 65 45,334
Los Angeles Cal. 62 575,490
Gary Ind. 62 55,453
Taconia Wash. 60 96,965
Elizabeth N. J. 60 95,682
Lawrence - Mass. 60 94,270
Allentown _ Pa. 60 73,502
Portland Maine 60 69,000
Lincoln .— - Neb. 60 54,934
Roanoke Va. 60 50,842
Seattle Wash. 60 315,362
Rockford 111. 58 65,651
Springfield _ Ohio 58 60,840
Haverhill _ Mass. 58 53,884
East Orange N. J. 58 50,587
Lowell ...._ Mass. 56 112,479
Davenport Iowa 56 56,727
Duluth M.inn. 55 98,917
Hamilton Can. 55 81,881
Peoria - 111. 54 76,121
Spokane Wash. 52 104,204
Sioux City _ Iowa 51 7L227
Portland Ore. SO 258,288
Salt Lake City Utah SO 118,110
Galveston Tex. 80 42,000
Jacksonville Fla. 76 91,543
Youngstown Ohio 68.7 132,358
.'\ugu5ta Ga. 66 52,548
New Orleans.... La. 62 387,408
Birmingham Ala. 65 172,270
Charleston S. C. 65 74,500
Cincinnati Ohio 62 401,247
Kansas City _ Mo. 62 345,000
Atlanta Ga 62 200,616
Philadelphia Pa. 61 1,823,158
Washington ! D C 60.5 4,^7. .S7I
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 473
TABLE CX.-^VERAGE TAP WATER TEMPERATURES (WINTER)
FOR CITIES OF UNITED STATES AND CANADA.— (Continued.)
City State
Los Angeles _ „ Cal.
Dayton Ohio
Louisville Ky.
Omaha Neb.
Nashville Tenn.
Oklahoma City _ Okla.
Troy N. Y.
Mobile Ala.
Springfield Mass.
Roanoke Va.
New Haven Conn.
Des Moines Iowa
Rockford 111.
East Orange...- N. J.
Lexington Ky.
San Francisco Cal.
Allentown Pa.
Terre Haute Ind.
New Brunswick N. J.
Pasadena _ Cal.
Springfield Ohio
Cleveland _ Ohio
Toledo Ohio
Winnipeg Can.
Albany _ N. Y.
Columbus Ohio
Davenport Iowa
New York N. Y.
Brooklyn N. y!
Lincoln Neb.
Akron _ Ohio
Pawtucket _ R. I.
Utica N. Y.
Oakland Cal.
Cedar Rapids Iowa
Grand Rapids Mich.
Lawrence _ _ Mass!
New Bedford Mass.
Mt. Vernon N. Y.
Boston _ Mass.
Ottawa Can.
St. Joseph ...„ „ Mo.
Maiden _ Mass.
Minneapolis Minn.
St. Paul _ Minn.'
Waterbury Conn.
Lowell ...„ Mass.
Sommerville Mass.
Providence R I
Erie ; _ „ .Pa'.
Decatur „ Ill_
Pittsburgh „ ......Pa'
Buffalo _ N. y!
Gary ind.'
Montreal Can.
Rochester N. y.
St. John N. B.
Detroit „ Mich!
Elizabeth N. J
Ft. Wayne _ I„d!
Little Rock Ark.
Johnstown Pa!
Cambridge Mass!
Portland Maine
Paterson N. J.
Spokane „ Wash.
Woonsocket R. l!
Milwaukee _ .........'.....!. Wis!
Seattle ...„ !._ !wash!
Deg. F.
Population
60
575,490
60
153,830
60
234,891
60
191,601
60
118,342
60
91,258
60
78,000
60
60,124
60
129,563
60
50,842
58
162,390
58
126,468
58
65,651
58
50,710
57.4
41,534
57
508,410
57
73,502
57
66,082
57
24,000
57
4S,334
57
60,840
56
796,836
56
243,109
56
135,430
56
113,344
56
237,031
56
^(,,121
55
5,621,151
55
55
54,934
55
208,435
55
64,248
55
94,136
55
216,361
55
45,566
55
137,634
55
94,270
55
121,217
55
42,726
54
749,923
54
112,000
54
77,735
54
49,103
54
380,498
54
235,595
54
91,410
54
112,479
53.5
93,033
53
275,000
S3
93,372
53
43,618
52.8
588,193
52
505,875
52
55,433
51
466,197
51
295,750
51
60,000
50
993,739
50
95,682
50
86,549
50
64,997
50
67,327
SO
109.450
50
69,000
50
33,856
50
104,204
SO
43,496
50
457,147
49
315,362
49
36,162
49
71,227
47
39,674
45
118,110
45
98,917
45
48,374
4S
81,881
42
258,288
40.7
53,884
40.5
96,965
40
71,500
474 HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE ex.— AVERAGE TAP WATER TEMPERATURES (WINTER)
FOR CITIES OF UNITED STATES AND CANADA.— (Contined.)
City State Deg. F. Population
Council Bluflfs Iowa
Sioux City Iowa
Superior Wis.
Salt Lake City Utah
Duluth Minn.
Jackson Mich.
Hamilton Can.
Portland Ore.
Haverhill Mass.
Tacoma Wash.
Charleston S. C.
TABLE CXI.— DENSITY AND WEIGHT OF WATER.
(Rosetti Table and D. K. Clark Manual).
Temperature Relative Weight per
Deg. F. Density Cubic Foot
32 0.99987 62.416
35 0.99996 62.421
39.3 1.00000 62.424
40 0.99999 62.423
43 0.99997 62.422
45 0.99992 62.419
50 0.99975 62.408
55 0.99946 62.390
60 0.99907 62.366
70 0.99802 62.300
80 0.99669 62.217
90 0.99510 62.118
100 0.99318 61.998
110 0.99105 61.865
120 0.98870 61.719
130 0.98608 61.555
140 0.98338 61.386
150 0.98043 61.203
160 0.97729 61.006
170 0.97397 60.799
180 0.97056 60.586
190 0.96701 60.365
200 0.96333 60.135
212 0.95865 58.843
230 59.4 (Sat. Pressure)
250 58.7
270 58.2
290 57.6
298 57.3
338 56.1
366 55.3
390 54.5
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
475
TABLE CXII.— WEIGHT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES PER CUBIC FOOT.
Name Pounds
Mercury 847.7
Brine 77.4
Milk 64.3
Sea water 64.05
Pure water 62.425
Linseed oil 58.7
Whale oil 57.4
Sugar 100.37
Soap 66.9
Salt 45.
Dry fruits 45.
Lime 50.
Olive oil 57.1
Turpentine 54.3
Petroleum 54.9
Naphtha 53.1
Alcohol 57.4
Benzine 53.1
Wine 62
Ash 34.3
Ice 57.5
Earth 93
Soft coal 80
Name Pounds
Tobacco 80.
Oil, average 56
Eggs 25
Fruit 22
Butter 58.7
Fat 58.5
Oak, white 48
Pine, yellow 38
Vinegar 67.5
Beef fat 57.68
Hog Fat 58.50
Hard coal 85
Stone 118
Masonry 143
Sand 110
Cast iron 450.54
Wrought iron 480
Brass 511
Charcoal 18
Lead 709.7
Beer 64.62
Snow 5.2
TABLE CXIIL— VOLUME AND WEIGHT OF DRY AIR AT DIFFERENT
TEMPERATURES.
I'nder a Constant Atmosi). I'res. of 29.92 ins. of mercury, the vol. at 32° Fahr. being 1.
Temp.
Deg. F.
Volume
Weight
per cu. ft.
0
.935
12
.960
22
.980
32
1.000
42
1.020
52
1.041
62
1.061
72
1.082
82
1.102
92
1.122
102
1.143
112
1.163
122
1.184
132
1.204
142
1.224
152
1.245
162
1.265
172
1.285
182
1.306
192
1.326
0.0864
0.0842
0.0824
0.0807
0.0791
0.0776
0.0761
0.0747
0.0733
0.0720
0.0707
0.0694
0.0682
0.0671
0.0659
0.0649
0.0638
0.0628
0.0618
0.0609
•From HofiFman's Handbook for Heating and Ventilating Engineers, published
by McGraw Hill Co., Inc.
476
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE CXIV.
-SPECIFIC HEATS, WATER AT 32" F. = 1.
(Frick Co.)
Name Spec. Heat
Cast iron 0.130
Brass 0.094
Mercury 0.033
Tin 0.056
Zinc 0.095
Chalk 0.215
Stone 0.270
Masonry 0.200
Oak wood 0.570
Pine 0.650
Glass 0. 194
Name Spec. Heat
Coal 0.241
Sulphur 0.202
Coke 0.203
Alcohol 0.659
Oil 0.310
Vinegar 0.920
Strong brine 0.700
Ice 0.504
Water 1 .000
Air 0.238
TABLE CXV.— COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION FOR VARIOUS
SUBSTANCES.
Coefficient of Linear
Substance Expansion in inches
per Deg. F.
Aluminum 0.00001140
Brass 0.00001040
Brick _ 0.00000306
from 0.00000550
Cement and Concrete to 0.00000780
Copper 0.00000961
from 0.00000399
Glass to 0.00000521
Gold 0.00000841
Granite _ 0.00000460
Iron, cast 0.00000587
Iron, wrought 0.00000677
Lead 0.00001580
Marble 0.00000400
from 0.00000206
Masonry to 0.00000490
Mercury 0.00000334
Platinum 0.00000494
Porcelain 0.00000200
from 0.00000400
Sandstone to 0.00000670
Steel, untempered 0.00000599
Steel, tempered 0.00000702
Tin 0.0000 1 1 60
Wood, pine 0.00000276
Zinc 0.00001634
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
477
TABLE CXVI.— SPECIFIC HEATS OF GASES.
Specific Heat
Name of gas
Constant Volume
Pressure Constant
Air 0.23751
Carbon dioxide 0.21700
Carbon monoxide 0.24500
Hydrogen 3.40900
Nitrogen 0.24380
Oxygen 0.21 75 1
0.16902
0.15350
0.17580
2.41226
0.17273
0.15507
TABLE CXVII.— COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION AND COEFFICIENTS
OF TRANSMISSION OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS.
Substance
Coefficient of
Expansion
Coefficient of
Transmission
Antimony 0.00000602
Copper 0.00000955
Gold 0.00001060
Wrought Iron D.00000895
Glass 0.00000478
Cast Iron 0.00000618
Lead 0.00001580
Platinum 0.00000530
Silver 0.00001060
Tin 0.00001500
Steel (soft) 0.00000600
Steel (hard) 0.00000689
Nickel steel 36% 0.00000003
Zinc 0.00001633
Brass 0.00001043
Ice 0.00000375
Sulphur 0.00006413
Charcoal 0.00007860
Aluminum 0.00002313
Phosphorus 0.00012530
Water 0.00008806
Mercury 0.00003333
Alcohol (absolute) 0.00015151
0.00022
0.00404
6760089
0.0000008
0.000659
0.00045
0.00610
0.00084
0.00062
0.00034
6"66T7o
0.00142
0.000024
0.000002
0.00203
aooooos
0.00011
0.000002
*From Hofifman's Handbook for Heating and Ventilating Engineers, published
by McGraw Hill Co., Inc.
478
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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Miscellaneous tables
479
TABLE CXX.— PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF METALS.
Metal
Specific
Gravity
Specific
Melting
Point
Heat
Degrees F.
0.218
1216
0.051
1166
0.081
1472
0.047
1562
0.031
518
0.056
610
0.048
79
0.170
1481
0.045
1152
0.120
2741
0.103
2714
0.071
0.093
1981
0.079
86
0.621
0.031
i'945
0.057
311
0.033
4172
0.110
2768
0.045
1490
0.031
621
0.941
367
0.250
1204
0.120
2237
0.032
—38
0.072
4532
0.108
2642
0.031
4530
0.059
2822
0.032
3191
0.170
144
0.058
3452
0.077
100
0.061
3270
0.056
1762
0.290
207
1472
a036
5252
0.049
825
0.033
578
0.028
0.055
Tso
0.130
3362
0.034
5432
0.028
4352
0.125
3182
0'094
"786
0.066
2700
Aluminum
2.56
Antimony
6.71
Arsenic
5.67
Barium
3.78
Bismuth
9.80
Cadmium
8.60
Caesium
1.87
Calcium
1.57
Cerium
6.68
Chromium
6.50
Cobalt
8.50
Columbium
12.70
Copper
8.93
Gallium
5.90
Glucinum
1.93
Gold
19.32
Indium
7.42
Iridium
22.42
Iron
7.86
Lanthanum
6.20
Lead
11.37
Lithium
0.54
Magnesium
1.74
Manganese
8.00
Mercury
13.59
Molybdenum
8.60
Nickel
8.80
Osium
22.48
Palladium
11.50
Platinum
21.50
Potassium
0.86
Rhodium
12.10
Rubidium
1.53
Ruthenium
12.26
Silver
10.53
Sodium
0.97
Strontium
2.54
Tantalum
10.80
Tellurium
6.25
Thallium
11.85
Thorium
11.10
Tin
7.29
Titanium
3.54
Tungsten
19.10
Uranium
18.70
Vanadium
5.50
Yttrium
3.80
Zinc
7.15
Zirconcium
4.15
485
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
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MISCELLANEOUS TABLES
481
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482
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
TABLE CXXIII.— COPPER TUBES.
Weight per Lineal Foot.
Gauge No.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Wall
Thickness
Inches
0.095
0.083
0.072
0.065
0.058
0.049
0.042
0.035
0.032
0.028
Outside
Diameter
of Tube
Inches
0.048
0.047
0.045
0.042
0.038
0.036
Vs
0.033
v„
O.lOl
0.097
0.091
0.082
0.073
0.065
0.060
0.054
54
0.178
0.168
0.155
0.146
0.135
0.120
0.106
0.091
0.084
0.076
v„
0.250
0.231
0.210
0.195
0.178
0.156
0.138
0.118
0.109
0.097
H
0.322
0.294
0.265
0.245
0.223
0.193
0.169
0.144
0.133
0.118
v«
0.395
0.357
0.319
0.293
0.267
0.231
0.202
0.171
0.1 57
0.139
'A
0.466
0.420
0.374
0.342
0.311
0.268
0.233
0.197
0.182
0.160
^
0.610
0.546
0.483
0.441
0.399
0.342
0.297
0.250
0.230
0.203
y4
0.754
0.672
0.591
0.540
0.486
0.416
0.360
0.303
0.278
0.245
1
1.04
0.92
0.81
0.73
0.66
0.57
0.48
0.408
0.376
0.330
NOTE : Stubs or Birmingham gauge used.
Formula for determining the proper thickness of copper
tubing is given as follows :
PXD
T =
.0625
6,000
Where T = thickness in inches
P = working pressure
D = Inside diameter of the tube in inches
This was prescribed by Board of Supervising Inspectors
of Steamboats. (1911).
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 483
TABLE CXXIV.— SHEET METAL DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS.
Wt. per sq. ft. in lbs.
Iron
Steel
Decimal
480 lbs.
489.6 lbs.
U. S. Gauge
Gauge
per cu. ft.
per cu. ft.
numbers
0.002
0.08
0.082
0.004
0.16
0.163
0.006
0.24
0.245
38-39
0.008
0.32
0.326
34-35
0.010
0.40
0.408
32
0.012
0.48
0.490
30-31
0.014
0.56
0.571
29
0.016
0.64
0.653
27-28
0.018
0.72
0.734
26-27
0.020 -
0.80
0.816
25-26
0.022
0.88
0.898
25
0.025
1.00
1.020
24
0.028
1.12
1.142
21
0.032
1.28
1.306
21-22
0.036
1.44
1.469
20-21
0.040
1.60
1.632
19-20
0.045
1.80
1.836
18-19
0.050
2.00
2.040
18
0.055
2.20
2.244
17
0.060
2.40
2.448
16-17
0.065
2.60
2.652
15-16
0.070
2.80
2.856
15
0.075
3.00
3.060
14-15
0.080
3.20
3.264
13-14
0.085
3.40
3.468
13-14
0.090
3.60
3.672
13-14
0.095
3.80
3.876
12-13
0.100
4.00
4.080
12-13
0.110
4.40
4.488
12
0.125
5.00
5.100
11
0.135
5.40
5.508
10-11
0.150
6.00
6.120
9-10
0.165
6.60
6.732
8-9
0.180
7.20
7.344
7-8
0.200
8.00
8.160
(>-1
0.220
8.80
8.976
4-5
0.240
9.60
9.792
3-4
0.250
10.00
10.200
3
From Hoffman's Handbook for Heating and Ventilating Engineers, published
by McGraw Hill Co., Inc.
TOPICAL INDEX.
A
Page
Absolute Pressure 12
Absolute Zero 12
Absopure Machine 187
Absorption Machines 299
Absorption Machines, Ammonia .... 128
AbsoTOtion Machines, Water Vapor.. 127
Air, Circulation of 378
Circulation Tests 383
Cooled Compressors, Condensing
Pressure for 145
Flow through a Circular Orifice
(Table) 172
Flow through Orifices 171
Machine, Allen Dense 126
Machine, Gorrie 126
Machine, Kirk 126
Machine, Open Cycle 126
Properties of 47
Pumping Test on a Compresor
(Table) 139, 140
Refrigerating system. Low Pres-
sure 127
Spaces 113
Spaces, Insulating Effect of 115
Weight and Volume of (Table) . . 475
Alco Liquid Control Valve 167
American Radiator Automatic Expan-
sion Valve 168
American Radiator Evaporator 169
American Radiator Float Valve 169
Ammonia Absorption Machine 128
Ammonia, Heat of Association of
(Table) 83
Properties of 40
Properties of Aqua Solutions
(Table) 84, 99
Properties of Liquid (Table)... 62
Properties of Saturated
(Table) 54, 61
Properties of Superheated Va-
por (Table) 63, 67
Solubility in Water (Table) 83
Amount of refrigerant to be Evapora-
ted 38
Ampere Rating of A. C. Motors
(Table) 163
Apples 449
Application of Refrigeration to Milk 443
Atmospheric Pressure Equivalents
(Table) 16
Audiffren Machine 190
Automatic Reclosing Circuit Breaker
Company Control 181
B
Tiacteria in Foods 437
Bacteria in Milk 443, 445
Balsa Refrigerator Tests, (Table) ... 426
Balsa Wood 117
Belts 164
Berries 394
Blower Data (Table) .......'. '. '. .'.'.'. 142
Bohn Refrigerator 331
Brine Tanks 156
Brine Tank Data 156
Brine Tank Data (Table) 161
Brine Tank, Fedders 184
Brunswick-Kroeschell Refrigerator . . 194
Bureau of Standards Tests on Re-
frigerators 421
B. t. u 11
Butane, Properties of 41
Properties of (Table) 70
485
C
Page
Calculation for Spiral I'in Tubes.... 152
Calorimeter Testing 408
Carbon Bisulphate Properties of
(Table) 71
Carbon Dioxide 42
Carbon Dioxide, Properties of Satu-
rated Vapor (Table) 68, 69
Carbon Tetrachloride Properties of
(Table) 71
Carbondale Machine 196
Care of Ice Chests 447
Carre 20
Carre Machine 128
Cavalier Refrigerator 333
Champion Machine 198
Characteristics of Refrigerants 37
Charging Refrigerants 49
Chemical Methods of Refrigeration.. 133
Chilrite Machine 201
Chloroform, Properties of (Table)... 71
Choice of Heat Insulators Ill
Circulation of Air 378
Circulation in Ice Chambers 383
Climax Machine 202
Coefficient of Heat Transfer in Ap-
paratus 121
Coefficient of Radiation and Convection
(Table) 107
Coldmaker Machine 203
Comparison of Heat Insulators 107
Comparison of Refrigerants 36
Comparative Cylinder Displacement.. 39
Compressor 137
Condenser 140
Condenser Flintlock 145
Condenser, McCord 150
Condensing Pressure for Air-cooled
Compressor 145
Conduction of Heat 103
Constant Temperature Room 399
Convection 106
ControL Automatic Circuit Breaker
Company 181
Control Switch 181
Control. Penn Electric 175
Cooke Machine 206
Copeland Machine 208
Copper Tubing (Table) 482
Cork 116
Cork Insulation Data (Table) 16
Corrosion of Metals 35
Cost of Harvesting Ice 26
Cost of Ice (Table) 416
Creamerv Package Machine 211
Crystal Refrigerator 335
Cullen Machine 20
Cutting Ice Into Blocks 27
Cylinder Displacement (Table) 40
D
Decimal Equivalents of Fractions of
One Inch (Table) 468
Delivery of Ice (Table) 420
Delphos Machine 211
Density of Water (Table) 474
Desirable Humidity Indoors 388
Desirable Temperature for Refriger-
ators (Table) 379
Desserts 393
Determination of Heat Losses thru
a Refrigerator Wall 109
Direct Expansion System 155
Discharge Valves 166
486
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Page
Displacement, Comparative Cylinder. 39
Displacement for Various Refriger- ^^
Domes?^'\vi;j?'^ter(fab{;>-;.4Vi:465
Door Construction ■ • • • ,^
Drinking Water ^yj, -ioi
Drive, Belt ^55
Direct ■•• 165
Gear
E
Efficiency of Refrigerator Wall. . . ... 434
Efficiency of Refngerator with In-
creased Insulation . . . • • y
Effect of Refrigeration on Foods . ... -tJe
Effect of Room Humidity on Ke-
frigerator Tests ^^^
Electrical Heater Method of Test-
ing Refrigerators ^'^-^
Electrical Refrigerating Company . . - j^i
Electrice Machine ^ij
Electro-Kold Machine ^'^
Electrolux Servcl Machine ^^^
Equivalents, Horsepower ^°
Ethane ." • ' " "f" Vt^' Vi' ^ 7^
Ethane, Properties of (Table) ^-
Ether 44
Ethyl Chloride ■-■■■■■:■••/
Ethyl Chloride, Properties of
(Table) •••••• V WkV -l ' ' 71
Ethyl Ether, Properties of (Table).. ^7^
Evaporator • ■ .0
Explosion Data on Gases '*°
Everite Machine ••■••••; us
Exhaust Fan Tests (Table) '^.i
F
„ 143
Fans : ■ • • A,' • ■, 184
Fedders Brine Tank . |°
Condenser and Receiver |»^
Expansion Valve \°i^
Liquid Filter }°-
Liquid Strainer \°-.
Fin Tubing (Table) 1^4
Fish 217
Flaxlinum ,4c
Flintlock Condensers .....-..■■•■• • ^^''
Flintlock Condenser Data (Table)... 1^1
Flooded System . . . • ■ ■ \^^
Flow of Air thru Orifices ....•••• ■ J^'
Food Arrangement in Refrigerators^. ^^^
Foreword -, 0
Frigidaire Machine t'^
Frost on Evaporator ^ ^'
Fruits, Keeping of
G
Gas Refrigerator Corporation Data. . 325
Gases, Coefficients of Expansion and
Heat Transmission (Table) ... 4A6
Explosion Data 48
Non-condensible ,":„
Solubility in Water (Table) .... 00
Specific Heat of (Table) f^
General Electric Machine ^^^
Geppert Machine • •'^0
Good Housekeeping Institute Re-
frigerator Tests 430
Gorrie ,• : • • ,4-,
Grand Rapids Refrigerator Company. o4„
H
Page
299
Heat, Absorption and' Radiation of
(Table) ^y.,
and Temperature ^■
Conduction of !:Ti
Insulation '■^^
Latent ••; ^no
Losses in a K^^frigerator . . . . • • . 4U/
Losses through Refrigerator Wall 109
Mechanical Equivalent of '^J
Sensible j^
l?^^r-:::^;v.v;.;^\.;.v.WLi2i
Transfer Coefficient (Table) ... 12-
Transfer in Apparatus i^^
Units r-^y-
History and Principles of Retrig-
crating Systems -"^^
History of Refrigeration
History of Vapor Compression
Machine ;-i^'i,\ " ' ' 1 r
Horsepower Equivalents (iable) ... i<
Household Refrigerators . . . • • ^^^
Household Refrigerating Machine
Requirements I^^-
How to Use Ice ^^i
Humidity • : ■■6' i'" '
Diagram for Room and Retrig-
erator ,00
Desirable Indoors •••••;•• f°?
Effect on Refrigerator Tests ... 4US
in United States (Table) .. .458, 459
rr> . 00/
Tests on Househoid Refrigerator
(Table) ^'^^
I
Ice and Its Relation to Food 438
and Salt Mixtures, Temperatures
Obtained By (Chart) ....... . 134
Ice Cans, Standard Sizes (Table) ... ^/
Ice Capacity of a Refrigerator i/l
Ice Chest ; ^2?
Ice, Cost of Harvesting A]l
Ice Cream Making in the Home 4S^
Ice, Cutting into Blocks ^'
for Dairy Farms ^^
How to Use •'"
Industry : ■ ■ ; r^''" " i,' ' ' '
Ice Melting Method of Testing Re-
frigerators ^"^
Ice, Natural iX
Properties of .... • f^
Properties of (Table) j6
Ice Refrigeration in the Home t'l
Ice Refrigerator Cabinet Data,
(Table) 374
Ice Refrigerator Tests .... • ^^^
Ice Used in Homes (Table) ^^^
Icemaid ,qn
Ice-O-Lator '^^
Illustrations .gg
Absopure Compressor ........ J»b
Absopure Condensing Unit for
Ice Cream Cabinet ., ||^
Absopure Freezing Unit i»^
Absopure Mechanical Unit i»/
Absopure Refrigerator ^^i-'
Air Circulation in ^ef"3«|[^*^^| 384
Alco*Liquid Control 1^8
American Automatic Expansion
Valve • ]^l
.\merican Float Valve .......... WU
American Refrigeration Section ^_^
TOPICAL INDEX
487
Illustrations (Continued) Page
Amount of Liquid Refrigerant
Used ; 38
Arrangement of Food in Re-
frigerators 454
Audittren Cabinet with Machine. 192
AudifTren Household Machine . . 191
Audiffren Refrigerating System. 193
Autofrigor Machine 194
Balsa Refrigerator Test Chart
427, 428. 429
Bohn Refrigerator 332
Brine Tanks ,.. 185
Brunswick-Kroeschell Ice Making
Installation 196
Brunswick-Kroeschell Machine . 195
Calorimeter Testing 408
Carbondale Machine 197
Cavalier Refrigerator 334. 335
Charging of Refrigerants SO
Champion Cooling Unit 199
Champion Junior Model 198
Champion Machine 200
Champion Senior Model 199
Chilrite Machine 201
Climax Machine 202
Coldmaker Machine . 203
Comparison of Refrigerator
Heat Losses 405
Compression Refrigerating .System 132
Condenser and Receiver Unit. . 183
Condenser Pressure for Air
Cooled SO- Machines 144
Constant Temperature Testing
Room 400. 401
Cooke Machine 206
Copeland Cabinet and Remov-
able Unit 210
Copeland Expansion Valve .... 209
Copeland Machine 208
Copeland One Piece Freezing
Unit and Machine 209
Creamery Package Machine .... 21]
Crystal Refrigerator 336. 337
Delphos Machine 212
Drinking Water Cooled Bv Use
of Ice Cubes .' 450
Electrical Refrigerator Control.. 181
Electrice Machine 214
Electro-Kold Frost Tank 216
Electro-Kold Machine 215
Electro-Kold Self-contained
Unit 216
Electrolux Servel Cabinet
322, 323. 324
Everite Cooling Unit 218
Everite Cabinet and Cooling
Unit 219
Everite Machine 217
Expansion Valve 184
Flintlock Air-Cooled Condenser
146. 147
Frigidaire Cabinet 223,224
Frigidaire Cabinet and Self-
contained Unit 226
Frigidaire Cooling Coils 222, 223
Frigidaire Ice Maker 225
Frigidaire Machine 220, 221
Frigidaire Self-contained model. 225
General Electric Refrigerator... 228
Hall Machine 230
Heat Temperature Diagram for
Ice, Water and Steam 28
Humidity Curves 39 1
Humidity in Refrigerator 407
Ice Refrigerator Cabinet Data
375, 376
Icemaid Cabinet 234
Icemaid Freezing Unit 233
Illustrations (Continued)
Icemaid Machine
Ice-0-Lator .Absorption .System . .
Iroquois Cabinets 237,
Iroquois Compressor
Iroquois Cooling Units
Iro(|Uois Machine
Iroquois Switch
Isko Machine
.Tewett Refrigerator ...340, 341,
Jevyett Wall .Section
Keith Absorption Machine . . . .
Keith Cabinet
Kelvinator Cabinet
Kelvinator Condensing Unit . . . .
Kelvinator Cooling Unit
Kelvinator Large Capacity Con-
densing Unit
Kelvinator Machine 242,
Kold King Machine
Leonard Refrigerator 343,
Leonard Wall Section
Lipman Machine
Liquid Filter
Liquid Strainer
McCray Refrigerator 347,
Mean Temperature Difference
Curve
Merchant & Evans Cabinet . . .
Merchant & Evans Machine . . .
Mercoid Control
National Absorption Machine . . .
Norge Cabinet
Norge Freezer Coils
Norge Machine
Odin Refrigerating Unit
Operation Volatile Liquid Ther-
mostat 176,
Penn Electric Control
Pressure Type Thermostat
Radiation and Convection Losses
Reol Refrigerator 349,
Rhinelander Refrigerator
352, 353,
Rice Cabinet 260,
Rice Compressor
Rice Cooling Unit
Rice Machine 256.
Sanat Cabinet 264,
Sanat Machine
Savage Ice Cream Cabinet
Savage Machine 266,
Seamless Metal Bellows
Seeger Refrigerator
Servel Cabinets 273, 274,
Servel Commercial Machine. 276,
Servel Compressor
Servel Float Valve
Servel Machine
Servel Pressure Control
Socold Cabinet 279.
Socold Frost Unit
Socold Machine
Sorco Absorption Refrigerator
^ 325,
Spiral Fin Tube Condenser
148. 149, 150.
Standard Ice Box Construction . .
Standard Wall Construction . . .
Temperatures Obtained by Ice
and Salt Mixtures
Universal Machine
Utility Machine
Wall Construction
...357, 358, 359, 364. 365. 366.
Ward Cabinet
Ward Evaporating Svstem ....
Ward Machine ....."
Ward Valve Connections
Warner Machine
Page
231
302
238
236
237
235
236
24(1
342
339
304
30 S
245
244
243
246
243
248
345
344
249
185
184
348
119
251
250
179
300
254
253
252
255
177
174
180
108
350
354
261
258
257
257
265
263
268
267
182
355
275
277
270
272
269
271
280
278
278
326
153
110
109
134
282
283
367
285
284
283
284
286
488
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Illustrations (Continued) Page
Welsbach Cabinet 289, 290
Welsbach Freezing Unit 288
Welsbach Machine 287
White Frost Refrigerator 356
Whitehead Cooling Unit 291
Whitehead Machine 291
Williams Machine 213
Zerozone Automatic Control .... 295
Zerozone Cabinet 297
Zerozone Cooling Unit 296
Zerozone Machine 294, 295
Influence of Temperature on Bac-
teria in Foods 437
Insulating Effect of Air Spaces 115
Insulation for Cold Pipes (Tables).. 120
Insulation for Refrigerators 369
Iroquois 235
Isko 239, 240
Isobutane, Properties of (Table) ... 74
J
Jewett Refrigerator 338
K
Keith Absorption Machine 303
Kelvinator Machine 241
Kirk Air Machine 126
Kold King 247
L
Latent Heat 11
of Evaporization 34
of Foods 452
Leonard Refrigerator 343
Linde 2l
Linings 360
Galvanized Iron 362
Porcelain on Iron 360
Solid Porcelain 361
White Opal Glass 362
Wood 362
Lipman Machine 24S
Liquids, Compressibility (Table) .... 100
Lithboard 117
Low Pressure Air Refrigerating
System 127
M
Machine, Vapor Compression 131
Manufactured Ice 21
Master Machine 30()
Materials for Heat Insulation IIS
Materials for Insulating Refrigerat-
ors 369
McCord Condensers 150
McCray Refrigerator 346
Meats 393. 448
Care of in the Home 440
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat .... 113
Mercoid Control 179
Merchant & Evans 249
Metals, Corrosion of 35
Method of Determining the Density
of a Gas 51
Methyl Chl9ride 44
Properties of (Table) 75
Metric Constants 470, 471
Mineral Felt 117
Mineral Wool 116
Miscellaneous Tables 455
Molecular Weight of Gases (Table).. 51
Multiflex Bellows 182
N
Page
National Refrigerator 299
Natural Ice 19
New York Tribune Tests on Re-
frigerators 422
Nitrous Oxide, Properties of
(Table) 71
Non-condensible Gases 47
Norge Machine 251
o
Odin Machine 255
Open Cycle Air Machine 126
Operating Conditions 378
Operation of Ice Refrigerators 377
Orifice, Flow of air Thru 17]
Outer Refrigerator Wall Construc-
tion 363
P
Penn Electric Control 175
Perkins 20
Physical Constants of Metals
(Table) 479
Pipe Dimensions (Table) .480, 481
Piston Displacement for Refriger-
ants 48
Placing of Food in Refrigerators .... 390
Platen-Munters Machine 311
Power Equivalents (Table) 470
Pressure 32
Absolute 12
Equivalents (Table) 470
of Condensation 32
of Evaporization 32
Pressures for Air-cooled Compres-
sors 145
Prevost's Theory 105
Prime Mover 160
Principles of Refrigerating Sys-
tems 125
Propane 45
Properties of (Table) 76
Properties of Air 47
Ammonia 40
Calcium Chloride in Water
(Table) 160
Carbon Dioxide 42
Butane 41
Ethane 43
Ether 43
Ethyl Cniloride 44
Ice, 25, 16
Methyl Chloride 44
Propane 45
Sodium Chloride in Water
(Table) 161
Sulphur Dioxide 46
R
Radiation 104
Radiation Between Sun and Earth.. 105
Rated Ice Capacities of Refrigerators
(Tables) 372, 373
Refrigerants
Air ..' 47
Ammonia 40
Amount to be Evaporated 38
Butane ...... : .^ . .' 41
Carbon Dioxide ". - • 42
Character of . .'. '. 37
Charging of 49
Comparison of 36
Constants .■.-;.,.'.-■.■ 14
TOPICAL INDEX
489
Refrigerants (Continued) Page
Ethane ^i
Ether 43
Ethyl Chloride 44
for Household Systems 31, 36
General Requisites ^ 1
Methyl Chloride 44
Propane 45
Sulphur Dioxide 40
■ Use in United States (Table) ... 39
Refrigerated Cars 23
Refrigerating Conversion Factors.-., o
Machine Capacity Rating 13
Systems, Low Pressure Air 12/
Refrigerating Machines
Absopure J°'
Audiffren 190
Autofrigor 93
Brunswick-Kroeschell 194
Carbondale 196
Champion 198
Chilrite 201
Climax 202
Coldmaker 203
Cooke 206
Copeland 208
Creamery Package 211
Delphos 211
Electrical Refrigerating Co ... 213
Electro-Kold 215
Electrolux-Servel 307
E verite 217
Frigidaire 219
General Electric 227
Hall 229
Icemaid 231
Ice-0-Lator 299
Iroquois 235
Isko 239, 240
Keith 303
Kelvinator 241
Kold King 247
Lipman 248
Master 306
Merchant & Evans 249
National 299
Norge 251
Odin 255
Rice 256
Sanat 262
Savage 265
Servel 268
Socold 277
Sorco 325
Universal 281
Utility 281
Ward 283
Warner 286
Welsbach 287
Whitehead 290
Williams Simplex 292
Zerozone 294
Refrigeration by Chemical Methods.. 133
History of 17 126
in the Home _. . 411
per Cubic Foot Cylinder Dis-
placement (Table) 40
Required to Make Ice 26
Tonnage 12, 15
Refrigerator Control Switch.. 181
Doors, Opening and Closing.... 397
Heat Losses 403
How to Qean 397
Insulation (Table) .;.... 369
Placing of 397
Score Card ....;.-... 432
Tests by New York Tribune In-
stitute ,....423, 426
Wall Construction 359
Page
Wall Construction (Table) 402
Refrigerators
Bohn 331
Cabalier 333
Crystal 335
Tewett 338
Leonard 343
McCray 346
Reol 349
Rhinelander 351
Seeger 355
White Frost 356
Relation of Refrigeration Tonnage to
Ice Making (Table) 15
Relative Piston Displacement for Re-
frigerants . 48
Requirements of Household Refrig-
erating Machines 135
Research on Refrigerator in the
Home 411
Rice Refrigerator 256
Rock Cork 118
s
Sanat Machine 262
Savage Machine 265
Seeger Refrigerator 355
Selection Insulation 118
Sensible Heat 1 1
Servel Machine 268
Sheet Metal Dimensions and Weight.^?
(Table) 483
Shelves 367
Shelf Area of Ell Type Refrigerator 368
Shelf Area of Top leer Refrigerator
(Table) 368
Side leer Type Refrigerator 392
Socold Refrigerator 277
Sorco Absorption Machine 325
Specific and Latent Heat of Food
(Table) 451, 452
Specific Heat 12
Spiral Fin Tubes 146,152
Standard Bellows (Table) 183
Standard Ton Data of Various Re-
frigerants (Table) 81,82
Strength of Materials (Table) 478
Suction Valve 166
Sulphur Dioxide 46
Properties of Saturated (Table)
77, 78
Properties of Superheated Vapor
(Table) ,. 79, 80
Summer Temperatures in the United
States (Table) 456
Tables
Air Flow through Circular Orifice 172
Air Pumping Test on a Compres-
sor 139, 140
Ampere Rating of A. C. Motors 163
Atmospheric Pressure Equival-
ents 16
Bacteria in Milk 443,444,445
Balsa Refrigerator Test 426
Blower Data 143
Brine Tank Data _. 161
CoeflBcients of Expansion and
Heat Transmission of Gases. 476
of Expansion and Heat Trans-
mission of Solids and Liquids 477
of Expansion for various Sub-
stances _ 477
of Radiation and Convection. . . 107
Compressibility of Liquids 100
Conversion Factors 15
Copper Tubing 482
(Zork Insulation Data 16
490
HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATION
Page
Tables (Continued)
Cost of Ice 416
Cylinder Displacement 40
Decimal Equivalents of Fractions
of One Inch 468
Delivery of Ice 420
Density of Water 46-t
Desirable Temperature for Re-
frigerators 379
Displacement for Various Refrig-
erants 49
Domestic Water Rates 46!, 465
Efficiency of a Refrigerator with
Increased Insulation 447
Electric Current Different from
Standard 466, 467
Exhaust Fan Tests 145
Explosion Data on Gases 148
Fin Tubing 1S4
Flintlock Condenser Data 151
Heat Absorbing and Radiatiny:
Power of Svibstances 105
Heat of Association of Ammonia 83
Heat Transfer Coefficients 122
Horsepower Equivalents 16
Humidity in the United State>
458, 459
Humidity Test on a Household
Refrigerator 388
Ice Cans, Standard Sizes 27
Ice, Properties of 16
Ice Refrigerator Cabinet Data. 374
Ice Used in Homes 419
Insulating Effect of Air Spaces 115
Insulation for Cold Pipes 120
Insulation Used in Refrigerators 369
Metric Constants 470, 471
Mollecular Weight of Gases.... 51
Physical Constants of Metals. . 479
Pipe Dimensions 48(1,481
Power Equivalents 470
Pressure Equivalents 469
Properties of Aqua Ammonia
Solutions 84, 99
Ammonia, liquid 62
Ammonia, Saturated 54, 6]
Ammonia, Superheated Va-
por 63, 67
Butane 70
Calcium Chloride in Water.... 160
Carbon Bisulphide 71
Carbon Dioxide Vapor 68, 69
Carbon Tetrachloride 71
Chloroform 71
Ethane 72
Ethyl Chloride 73
Ethyl Ether 71
Ice 16
Isobutane 74
Methyl Chloride 75
Nitrous Oxide 7l
Propane 76
Sodium Chloride in Water... 161
Sulphur Dioxide. Saturated
Vapor 77. 78
Sulphur Dioxide, Superheated
Vapor 79, .'^0
Rated Ice Capacities of Refrig-
erators 372. 37. >■
Refrigerants for Household Ma-
chines 36
Refrigerants, Use in United
States 139
Refrigeration per Cubic Foot of
Cylinder Displacement 40
Refrigeration Tonnage 15
Refrigerator Insulation 369
Refrigerator Tests by Bureau of
Standards 421
Page
Tables (Continued)
by New York Institute. . .423, 424
Refrigerator Wall Construction. 418
Sheet Metal Dimensions and
Weights 483
Shelf Area of EU Type Refrig-
erator 368
Shelf Area of Top leer Refrig-
erator 368
Solubility of Ammonia in Water 83
Solubility of Gases in Water. . . . 100
.Specific Heat of Gases 476
Specific and Latent Heat of
Foods 451, 452
Standard Bellows 183
Standard Ton Data of Various
Refrigerants 81, 82
Strength of Materials 475
.Summer Temperatures in the
United States 456
Tap Water Temperatures
459, 460, 461
Temperature Conversion ...467, 4/9
Temperatures in Refrigerators,
Living Rooms, and Cellars...
414, 421
Temperatures of Refrigerators
for Use in Homes 415
Temperatures in France 457
TTiermal Conductivity of Vari-
ous Materials ._ 102, 108
Thermometry Fixed Points 16
Tons and Pounds of Refrigera-
tion 16
Water, Average Household Con-
sumption of 465
Capacity of Service Pipes 465
Specific Heat of 476
Temperatures of Cities in
United States 471, 474
Vapor in the Air 386
Weight of Dry Air 475
of Water, Vapor and Air 389
of Various Substances 475
Woods Suitable for Refrigerator
Construction 370
Woods used in Refrigerators. . 369
Tap Water Temperatures (Table)
459, 460, 461
Temperature Control . 173
Temperature Conversion (Table)
_ 467. 469
Temperature in Refrigerators 377
Temperatures Obtained by Ice and
Salt Mixtures (Chart) 134
Temperatures of City Water Supply. 457
Temperatures in France (Table) . . . 457
Temperatures of Refrigerators in Use
in Homes (Table) 415
Temperatures of Refrigerators, Liv-
ing Rooms and Cellars (Table)
414, 421
Tennessee Furniture Corporation... 333
Testing for Gas Leaks 35
Testing of Refrigerating Units by
Use of Calorimeter 408
Tests on Air Circulation 383
Tests on Refrigerators by Bureau of
Standards (Table) 421
Theory of Refrigeration 14
Thermometry Fixed Points 16
Thermal Conductivity of Various
Materials (Tables) 102, 108
Thermostats 173
Thermostat Operation 176
Tonnage, Refrigeration 12
TOPICAL INDEX
491
Page
Tons and Pounds of Refrigeration
(Table) 15
Tubes, Spiral Fin 146, 152
Types of Insulating Material 115
u
Unit of Heat 11
Universal Machine 281
University of Illinois Refrigerator
Tests 430
Use of Refrigerants in United States 39
Utility Atachine 281
N'alves
Alco Liquid Control 167
Discharge 16(i
Expansion 168
Float 169
Suction 166
Vapor Compression Machines 131
Vegetables -148
^^
Wall Construction 357
Ward 283
Warner 286
Page
Water 29
As a Refrigerant^ 47
Capacity of Service Pipes
(Table) 465
Controls 178
Density of (Table) 464
For Cooling Food 135
Rates (Taole) 461-465
Temperatures (Table) 457-461
Temperatures of Cities in the
United States and Canada
(Table) 471-474
Vapor Absorption Machines. . . . 127
Vapor in the Air (Table) 386
Weight of Dry Air (Table) 475
of Various Substances (Table) . 474
of Water (Table) 16
Welsbach Machine 287
What Ice Can Do 22
Whitehead Machine 290
White Frost Refrigerator 356
Williams Simplex Machine 292
Wood, P.alsa 117
Woods Suitable for Refrigerator
Construction (Table) 370
Woods Used in Refrigerators (table)
369
z
Zerozone, Machine 294
GOOD BOOKS YOU SHOULD HAVE
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The Compression Refrigerating Machine
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The Absorption Refrigerating Machine, Elementary Theory and Prac-
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The Absorption Refrigerating Machine, Advanced Practice and Theory
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Refrigerating Machines, Compression — Absorption
By Gardner T. Voorhees. Comparison of capacities and economies of
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Indicating the Refrigerating Machine (Second Edition)
By Gardner T. Voorhees. A textbook on the application of the in-
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Practical Refrigerating Engineer's Pocketbook
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Principles of Refrigeration
By W. H. MoTz. A complete treatise on fundamental principles of
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Cloth $5.00 Morocco $6.00
Refrigeration Memoranda (10th Edition)
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Ammonia Compression Refrigerating Machine
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N Household Refrigeration (Third Edition, revised and enlarged)
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The Modern Packing House (Second Edition, revised and enlarged)
By F. W. WiLDEu and David I. Davis. A complete treatise on the
design, construction, equipment and operation of meat packing houses, according
to present American practice, including formulae for the manufacture of lard
and sausage, the curing of meats, etc., and methods of converting all by-products
into commercial articles.
Cloth $10.00 Morocco $12.00
Packing House and Cold Storage Construction
By H. Peter Henschien. A general reference work on the planning,
construction and equipment of modern American meat packing plants with special
reference to the requireme:its of the United States Government and a complete
treatise on the design of cnld storage plants, including refrigeration insulation
and cost data. Fully illustratd.
Cloth $5.00 Morocco $6.00
Cork Insulation
By P. Edwin Thomas. A complete textbook on cork insulation, for
students, engineers, contractors, managers and owners. The origin of cork and
history of its use for insulation; complete directions for the proper application
of corkboard insulation in ice and cold storage plants and other refrigeration
installations; the insulation of household refrigerators, etc.
Cloth $3.50 Morocco $4.50
Warehouse Laws and Decisions (Second Edition)
By Barry Mohun. A compilation of warehouse laws and decisions,
containing an annotated copy of the uniform warehouse receipts act, the statutes
of each of the states and territorial possessions pertaining to warehousemen,
together with a digest of the decisions of the state, federal and territorial courts,
in all cases affecting warehousemen, with an analytical index.
Full Law Binding $7.50
Law of Draymen, Forwarders and Warehousemen
By GusTAV H. BuNGE. A compilation of and commentary on the laws
concerning draymen, freight forwarders and warehousemen.
Full Law Binding $5.00
Selling Ice
By Walter R. Sanders. A compilation of all the good articles pub-
lished on the subject written by men who have spent most of their lives selling
and increasing the sale of ice. Selling ice from wagons, at platform, cash-and-
carry stations, ice depots and in carloads. Sales methods dsecribed. Advertis-
ing ice.
Cloth $3.50 Morocco $4.50
Ice Delivery
By Walter S. Sanders. A complete treatise on the delivery of ice to
the consumer, compiled by a man v/ho has had twenty years' practical experience
from the back step of an ice wagon to the assistant general managership of a
$1,000,000 company. Dealing with inefficiency and waste in delivery methods
and how to remedy them, organization, personnel and duties of employees, oper-
ation, costs, accounting systems, service, equipment.
Cloth $3.50 Morocco $4.50
Ice and Refrigeration Blue Book and Buyers' Guide (10th Edition)
The only directory of the ice making, cold storage, refrigeration and
auxiliary trades. A complete list of ice factories, cold stores, packing houses,
breweries, dairies, creameries, meat markets, hotels, restaurants, and all estab-
lishments using mechanical refrigeration in the United States and Canada, in-
cluding valuable statistical data concerning the refrigerating industries.
Cloth $12.00 Morocco $14.00
NICKERSON & COLLINS CO., Publishers
5707 W. Lake Street, Chicago
Dili
Q-i
;V(-';e; in its
S/ih year of
publication.
AND
(KICAJSO^ano NevvYokh.
The Recognized Authority
in all matters relating to
Mechanical Refrigeration
A monthly Review of the he, Ice Making Refrig-
erating, Cold Storage and Kindred Industries
THE oldest publication of its kind in the world and the only
medium through which can be obtained all the reliable, technical
and practical information relating to the science of mechanical
ice making and refrigeration. It is invaluable to anyone own-
ing, operating, or in any way interested in ice making, cold
storage or refrigerating machinery.
The advertising sections contain the illustrated announce-
ments of the leading manufacturers of ice making and refrig-
erating machinery, accesf-ories and supplies.
SUBSCRIPTION PRICE:
In U. S. and Possessions $3.00 per year
In all other countries 4.00 per year
NICKERSON & COLLINS CO.
Publishers, 5707 West Lake Street, Chicago
DATE DUE
Demco
TP492.6.H8 1927.
3 9358 00018855 4
TP4 92.6
H8
1927
Huli, Harry Blair, 1890-
Household refrigeration; a complete
treatise on the principleSf types,
construction, and operation of both ice
and mechanical iy cooled domestic
refrigerators, and the use of ice and
ref r ii^erat ion in the home, by H« B»
Hull ••• 3dL ed», rev. and enl* Chicago,
Nickerson £ Collins co« [cl927 3
491 p« incl* illus«f tables, dia^rs*
24 cm*
BNU
ir^ OCT 7 8
1721658 NEDDbp
27-2376
TP492.6.H8 1927
3 9358 00018855
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