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BEKGAL    DISTRICT    GAZETTEERS. 


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[Priee—In   India,  Bs.  3  ;   in  England,  4s.  6d.2 


BENGAL  DiBTHlCT  GAZETTEEHS. 


HOWEAH 


BY 

L.  S,  S.  O'MALLEY, 

INDIA»^CIVIL     8EBTICB, 

AND 

MONMOHAN  CHAKBAYARTI, 

PROVINCIAL     CIVIL     BBRVICE, 


CALCUTTA- 
BKNGAL    SECRETARIAT    BOOK    DEPOT. 

1909. 


PLAN  OF  CONTENTS. 


Chapter  pages 

I.     Physical  Aspects  ...  ...  ...         1  —  16 

II.     History       ...  ..  ...  ...      17 27 

III.  The  People  ...  ...  ...       28—51 

IV.  Public  Health  ...  ...  ...       52 64 

V.    Agriculture  ...  ...  ...       66 75 

VI.    Canals,  Drainage  and  Embankments  ...      76—82 

VII.     Natural  Calamities      ...  ...  ...      S3— 88 

Rents,  Wages  and  Prices  ...  ...      89 95 

Occupations,  Manufactures  and  Trade  ...     96 103 

X.    Factory  Industries       ...  ...  ...  104 117 

XI.    Means  of  Communication  ..,  ...  us 127 

General  Administration  ...  ...  128 132 

Local  Self-Q-overnment  ...  ...  133 ^37 

XIV.    Education    ...  ...  ...  ...  138—146 

XV.     Gazetteer     ...  ...  ...  ...  i47_iso 

Index  ...  ...  ...  181—189 


VIII. 
IX. 


XII. 
XIII. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
PHYSICAL  ASPECTS. 

PAGES 

General        descbiptxon— Boundaries — Configuration — Rivkb        3T3TE1I 

Hooghly-  The      reaches — Navigation —Tides — The       bore — .SaraswatI 

Damodsir — KTina      Damodar— Hupnarayan — Giiighata       Bakshi     Khal — 

Changes  iv  tbe  river  couesbs — DAmodar — Rfipnarayan — Saraswati 

Qbiloot— Botany— Fauna— Climate — Rainfall  ...  ...  1— IG 

CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY. 

Early  history — Muhammadan  hulk— European  trade— Eaely  strfg. 
gles  of  the  Hritis-? — Last  days  of  Mughal  rule — Early  British 
Eni.E— Mutiny  of  1857— Formation  of  district— Arch^eology     ...        17 27 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  PEOPLE. 

Growth  of  population — Density  of  population — Migration— Towns  — 

Villages — Social         conditions — Dress— Houses — Pood—  Drinking 

Marriage  customs  — Village  life — Language — Religion .s — Christians- 
Christian  missions — Miihanimadans— Animists — Hindus — Brahmans  — 
Kayastlis — .^adgops — Goalas— Kaibarttas— Bagdis — Tiyars — Pods — Kaoras 
—  Some  fopulab  beliefs — Dharmaraj — Bankura  Rai— Manasa — Panch- 
Snan  —  Sastlii  —  Sitala  — Ola-Bibi —  Ghantiikarna —  Jwariisur  —  Satya- 
Narayau — Snbachani — Mang.1l  Chandl — Hu — Ramkrisiina  Mission      ...         28—51 

CHAPTER  IV. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH. 

Itrneral  conditions— \itai  statistics  — Births— Deaths— Infantlio  mor- 
tality—Diseases— Fever — Burdwan  fever — Small-pox—Cholfiva— Dysen- 
tery and  diarrhoea — Plague — Vaccination— Sanitation— Village  sani- 
tation- Urban  sanitation  — Water-supply  -  DraiuMge — Ba.ttis — Conser- 
vancy—  frivate  sanitary  works — Medical  INSTITUTIONS       ,,,  ...         52— G4 


*"  TABLE   OF    0ONTRNT8. 

CHAPTER  V. 
AGRICULTURE, 

Qhnbbal  0ONDITI0K8— Rainfall— Ibbigation— Water-lifts— Soils— PaiM- 
CIPAL  0B0P8— Rice— Joro  and  5«#— Winter  rice— PuUee—Oil-seeds— Jute 
— Sugarcane— Tobacco  and  betel-leaf— FBriTS— Vkobtablbs— Miscblla- 

WBOUS      PBOD0OT8— KxTEVaiON     OP      CULTIVATION— iMPHOVBMENTa      IN 

pbactiob—Cattlb— Pasturage— AoaicpiTUBAL  olassbb     ... 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CANALS,  DRAINAQK  AND  EMBANKMENTS, 

Canals— Dbainaqb  ohannbls— Howrah  drainage  scheme— Hajapur  drainage 

•ch«nie— EstBANKMHNTS    .,.  .,.  ...  _^  ^         7g 82 


CHAPTER  VII. 

NATURAL  CALAMITIES, 

Eabthqcakes—Ctolonss— Famines— Famine  of  1866— Floods— Floods   of 

1886— Floods  of  1900— Floods  of  I904r— Floods  of  1905         ...  ...         88—88 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

RENTS,  WAGES  AND  PRICES. 

Rents- Produce  rents — Cash  rents— Wagbb-Pbioes — Mathbial  condition 
OF  THE  PBOPiE— Professional  classes -Trading  classes— Cultivators- 
Artisans— Labourers — Beggars  ...  ...  ...  _         89—95 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OCCUPATIONS,  MANUFACTURES  AND  TRADE, 

Occupations- M ANUPACT0BB8— Hand  industries— Weaving—  Chikan  work 
—Silk  spiuninjf—Pottory— Minor  industries— Fisheries— FishiuK  appara- 
tus-Ji^#3  and  mango  fish— Carp— TBADB—J5'3«r  ...  ...     96—108 


TABLE   OF   CONTKNTS. 

CHAPTER  X. 
FACTORY  INDUSTRIES. 

Development  of  laroe    inuustbies—Dockyabds— Ropbbies — Ibon    and 
engineering    works —railway     workshops— cotion    mills — jcte 

MILLS     AND     PBE88E8— PLOUH    MILLS- OlL   MILLS — OTHER   yAOTORIliS — 

Sugar  factobies    and  distilleries— Hioe  teaoe— Bbick  mancfac- 
TUKB— Suppir  OF  labour — Conditions  of  factoey  life 


Zlll 


paobb 


1U4— 117 


CHAPTER  XL 
MEANS  OP  COMMUNICATION. 

AR  LT    MEANS    OF      COMMUNICATION — EARLY     ROADS MODBBX     BOADfl— Pro- 

vjncial  roads — District  roads — Municipal  load*— Staging  buiiguJows — 
Bridges — Howrah  Bridge — W  ateewats— Rivers— Creeks — Canals — 

Pbreies— Steambb  sebvioes— Boats  —  Railways — East  Indian  Rail- 
way— Bengal-Nagpur  Railway— Light  Railways —  Electric  tramway — 
POBTAL  STATISTICS 

CHAPTER  XII. 


118-127 


GENERAL  ADMINISTRATION. 

ADM1N18THATIVB  CHABGBS  AND  STAFF— REVENUE— Land  revenue— Stamps— 
ExciBe— Income-tax — Registration — Administration  of  ju stick— Crime 
— PoiiiOB— Jails 


128—182 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT. 

Dibtbiot  BoiBD— Local  Boards — Union  Committebs— MtrKioiPALiTiHs— 

B»lly— Howwh  ..  ...  ...  ...  ..     188—187 

CHAPTER  XIV. 


EDUCATION. 

Indigbnous  SYSTEMS— Pd^^-jAaZa*  and  maitahs-  Toh-' Maclra4a»—TemB]e 
education — Pboghess  of  modebn  education — English  schools  — Verna- 
cular schools — Special  schools  for  Europeans — Colleges — Girls'  English 
•chools  — Peesent  STATE  of  education — Collegiate  education—Secondary 
•chools — Primary  schools— Girls'  schools— Special  gchools— European 
•doeation- MisOBlLANBOUB 


188—140 


HIV  TABLE   OF    CONTEKIfl. 

CHAFrEK  XV. 
GAZETTER. 


FAQEe 


Anita  —  Andnl  —  Bai,'u5n  —  Bally  —  Bator —  Bauria^Bhot-bagan — Botanic 
Garden,  Sibpur — Duuijor — Fort  Morniugtou  Point — Ghusuri — Howrah — 
Howrab  Subdivision —Jagatbalhiblipur — Janes  and  Mary  stands — Liluah 
— Mahiafi — -Mahishrekba  — Mandalgbat  Panchla  —  Sfilkhia — Sankrail  — 
Santragachhi — Shalimai  —  Sibpur  -  Singti — Syauipur  — Tauna  or  Thana 
Muckwa — Uluberia — Uluberia  Subdivieion  ,,,  ...  ...     147 — 180 

Index  ...       ...       ...       ...       ...  181—189 


GAZETTEER 


OF    THE 


HOWRAH    DISTRICT 


CHAPTEE  I. 

PHYSICAL  ASPECTS. 
The   district   of  Howrah   is   situated   in    the  soutli-east   of  the  Genera t 

DKSCR 
TION. 


Burdwan  Division  between  22°  13'  and  22°  47'  north  latitude  and 


between  87°  51'  and  88°  22'  east  longitude.  With  an  area  of 
510  square  miles  and  a  population  of  850,514  persons,  it  is  the 
smallest  district  in  Bengal  and  has  a  less  numerous  population 
than  any  district  in  the  Province  except  Angul,  Palamau,  Singh- 
bhum  and  Darjeeling.  Its  area  is  less  than  that  of  an  average 
Bengal  subdivision,  but  the  district  is  slightly  bigger  than  Bed- 
fordshire and  contains  58,000  more  inhabitants  than  the  county 
of  Middlesex. 

The  district  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arambagh  and  Bonnda- 
Serampore  subdivisions  of  the  Hooghly  district  ;  on  the  east  by  *'^^' 
the  Barrackpore,  Alipore  and  Diamond  Harbour  subdivisions  of 
the  24-Parganas  ;  on  the  south  by  the  Tamluk  subdivision  of 
Midnapore  ;  and  on  the  west  partly  by  the  Tamluk  and  Gh&tal 
subdivisions  of  the  latter  district  and  partly  by  the  Arambagh 
subdivision  of  the  Hooghly  district.  The  boundaries  are  partly 
natural  and  partly  artificial.  On  the  west  and  south-west  the 
river  Rupnaraygm,  and  on  the  east  and  southeast  the  river 
Hooghly  constitute  natural  boundaries,  while  on  the  north  the 
boundary  is  formed  by  the  Bally  (Bali)  Elidl  and  an  artificial 
line  marking  the  southern  limit  of  the  Hooghly  district. 

In  general  shape,    the   district   of   Howrah   is   an    irregular  Coiifigum- 
triangle  bounded  on  two    sides   by  great    rivers,    the    apex   of  *^^'""' 
which  lies  at  their  confluence  near  Fort  Mornington.    Its  extreme 
length  from  east  to  west  is   about  28  miles,   and  its   extreme 


'6  HOWRAH. 

length  from  north  to  south  is  nearly  40  miles.  Hemmed  in  be- 
tween the  Hooghly  on  the  east  and  the  Rfipnarayan  on  the  west, 
and  intersected  by  the  Damodar,  the  lIoAvrah  district  consists  of  a 
flat  alluvial  plain,  with  a  gradual,  almost  imperceptible,  rise 
towards  the  nortli  and  north-west,  the  general  flow  of  drainage 
being  coaisequently  to  the  south  and  south-east.  The  product  of 
these  rivers  and  their  branches,  it  comprises  two  main  divisions, 
viz.,  the  raised  river  banks  and  the  large  marshes  or  lowlands 
that  separate  them.  In  this  way  three  distinct  tracts  are  formed, 
each  with  a  depression  in  the  centre  bounded  by  the  high  banks  of 
the  rivers,  viz.,  an  eastern  tract  streti^hing  away  from  the  Hooghly 
and  its  branch  the  SaraswatT,  a  central  tract  traversed  by  the 
Damodar  and  its  branch  the  Kana  Damodar  or  Kausiki,  and  a 
western  tract  consisting  of  the  country  between  the  Damodar  and 
the  Rfipnarayan.  The  upper  courses  of  the  Damodar  and  the 
Eupnarayan  are  somewhat  higher  than  the  Hooghly  ;  and  in  the 
intervening  country  are  numerous  watercourses  or  creeks,  called 
khdls,  which  run  dry  or  are  very  shallow  in  the  hot  weather. 

In  the  interior  the  country  is  broken  up  into  extensive 
swamps  ijhih),  or  depressions,  wliich  form  a  vast  sheet  of  water 
in  the  rains.  There  is  little  high  land  except  on  the  banks 
of  the  rivers,  whose  windings  the  villages  follow.  These 
villages  have  a  quiet  beauty  of  their  own,  being  surrounded  by  a 
dark  belt  of  mangoes,  feathery  palms  and  clustering  bamboos,  while 
rich  rice  fields  stretch  to  the  verge  of  the  reed-bordered  marshes. 
Between  Maknrdah  and  Bargachhia  (Bargechhe),  however,  the 
country  is  so  low  that  for  miles  not  a  single  house  or  tree  is  visible, 
the  monotonous  sameness  of  this  flat  fen  being  broken  only  by 
the  banks  of  the  Rajapur  channel.  South  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur 
line,  from  Kolaghat  to  Uluberia,  tlie  scenery  changes.  The 
rivers  become  broader,  the  currents  stronger,  and  the  land  more 
fluvial  in  nature.  The  villages  are  situated  at  greater  dis- 
tances, while  the  country  has  to  be  protected  from  inundation 
by  long  embankments.  Roads  are  few  in  number,  and  boats, 
or  tlio  paths  along  iha  embankments,  are  the  chief  means  of 
communication.  In  the  rains  the  floods  often  burst  through  the 
embankments  or  pour  in  through  the  creeks,  spreading  far  and 
wide  over  the  country.  This  tract  then  resembles  an  inland 
sea,  from  which  the  scattered  villages  stand  out  like  islands  ; 
while  tlie  rivers  sweep  on  with  increasing  velocity,  cutting  away 
their  banks  and  carrying  an  enormous  volume  of  nilt  to  the  sea. 
HivRB  The  chief   rivers   are  (1)  the    Hooghly   and   its   branch  the 

8T8TEM.      Saraswati ;  (2)  the  Damodar  witli  two  branches,  the  Kana  Damo- 
dar, or  Kausiki,  and  the  Old  Damodar  ;  and  (3)  the  Rupnarayan. 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS.  3 

The  district  is  also  intersected  by  numerous  tributaries  or 
effluents  of  the  main  rivers,  which  are  generally  called  khdh  or 
creeks.  In  the  case  of  the  Hooghly,  tliese  are  the  Bally  (Bali), 
I^ajganj,  Sankrail,  Sijberia  and  Champa  Khdh,  which  are  mostly 
tidal  offshoots  navigable  by  boats  of  4  to  5  tons  burden  for 
short  distances  inland.  The  Scinkrail  and  Sijberia  Khdh  are  the 
lower  reaches  of  the  SaraswatT  and  Kana  Damodar  respectively. 
Into  the  Damodar  fall  a  dozen  channels,  and  into  the  Riipna- 
rayan  about  half  that  number,  the  more  important  being  the 
Madaria,  Banspati  and  Gaighata  (or  Giaghata)  Khdh  among  the 
former,  and  tlie  Bakshi  Khdl  among  the  latter.  The  Bakshi  and 
Gaighata  Khdh  join  one  another  forming  a  tortuous  passage 
between  the  two  rivers,  wliieh  is  much  used  by  country  boats. 
The  following  is  an  account  of  the  principal  rivers  of  the  district. 

The  Hooghly  is  the  main  westerly  channel  by  which  the  Hooghly. 
waters  of  the  Ganges  enter  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  its  easterly  chan- 
nel being  the  Padma.  It  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Bhagirathl,  Jalangi  and  Matabhanga  ;  but  among  Hindus  the 
name  Bhagirathl  is  commonly  given  to  the  whole  branch  from 
Murshidabad  southwards.  It  is  so-called  after  king  Bhagirath, 
who,  according  to  Hindu  mythology,  induced  Ganga  to  come 
down  from  heaven.  The  legend  runs  that  king  Sagar  being 
childless  went  to  the  Himalayas  and  underwent  severe  penances 
in  order  to  obtain  a  son.  The  gods  granted  him  60,000  sons, 
and  he  commenced  to  perform  the  traditional  horse  sacrifice 
called  Amimedha  jajna.  A  horse  was  turned  loose  to  roam  at 
will,  and  the  whole  Indian  world  was  challenged  to  arrest  its 
progress.  If  at  the  end  of  a  year  the  horse  returned  safely 
and  its  retinue  unconquered,  the  supremacy  of  the  challenger 
would  be  patent,  and  as  acknowledged  suzerain  over  the  whole 
country,  he  would  solemnly  sacrifice  the  horse  to  the  gods.  This 
crowning  sacrifice  could  not  be  performed  by  king  Sagar,  for  the 
god  Indra  in  jealousy  stole  away  the  horse  and  hid  it  in  the 
Pdtdla,  i.e.,  the  Indian  hell,  where  the  holy  sage  Kapila,  an  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu,  was  absorbed  in  meditation.  The  army  of 
60,000  princes,  which  escorted  the  horse,  traced  it  up  hill  and  down 
dale,  till  at  last  they  found  it  grazing  near  Kapila.  Suspecting 
him  to  be  the  thief,  they  rushed  upon  him,  but  fire  darted 
from  the  angry  eyes  of  the  outraged  sage,  and  they  were  burnt 
to  ashes.  After  many  long  years,  a  descendant  of  Sagar 
named  Bhagirath,  by  his  austere  penances,  induced  Siva  to 
permit  the  holy  goddess  Ganga  {i.e.,  the  Ganges)  to  come  down 
from  the  heavenly  heights  and  bring:  salvation  to  his  ancestors. 
Bhagirath  led  the  way  till  near  the  sea  and  then  declared  that  he 

b2 


4  HOWRAH. 

knew  not  the  rest  of  the  rond.  Thereupon  Ganga,  in  order  to 
make  sure  of  reacliing  the  ashes  of  the  dead,  divided  herself  into  a 
hundred  streams,  one  of  which,  by  washing  the  ashes,  completed 
their  atonement  for  sin  and  redeemed  their  souls.  Thus  was  the 
delta  of  the  Ganges  formed. 

The  name  Bhagirathi,  which  commemorates  this  legend, 
literally  means  the  Ganges,  but  in  Bengal  the  name  and  sanctity  of 
the  river  attach  only  to  the  westerly  and  most  southerly  branch  now- 
known  as  the  Hooglily,  for  the  worship  of  which  the  Dasahara 
day  is  specially  set  apidc.  The  portion  below  JSankrail  is  not 
considered  sacred,  however,  perhaps  because  it  was  little  used  by 
boats  in  early  times.  Boatmen  avoided  this  part  of  the  main 
channel  because  of  the  difficulties  of  navigation  and  the  danger 
of  piratical  raids,  and  went  south-east  by  the  branch  flowing 
opposite  Bator,  which  still  survives  as  a  small  creek  near  Kalighat. 
It  is  called  the  Adi  Ganga  or  the  original  Ganges,  and  has  all 
the  sanctity  of  that  river.  The  river  is  also  held  sacred  among 
Buddhists,  and  we  find  that  Warren  Hastings  gave  the  Tashi 
Lama  of  Tibet  some  land  at  Ghusuri  in  answer  to  his  request 
that  he  might  have  "  some  land  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges 
to  which  he  might  send  his  people  to  pray."*  The  monastery 
erected  on  this  land  may  still  be  seen  at  Bhot-bagan. 

The  river  first  touches  the  district  at  Bally,  and,  after  flowing 
past  Ghusuri  and  between   the    cities   of   Calcutta  and  Howrah, 
turns  due  west  at   Shalimar   Point  for   a   short   distance    along 
Garden  Reach  as  far   ns   Hangman    Point.     It   then  pursues   a 
south-easterly  course  as  far  as  Uluberia,  after  which   it    describes 
another  w'ide  arc  and  then  flows  almost  due  south,   receiving  tlie 
Damodar    opposite    Falta    Point   and    the    Riipnar&yan  opposite 
Hooghly  Point.     These  great  tributaries  deflect  the  stream  to  th 
east  for  no    less   than  8    miles  and  have  set  up  in  it,  just  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Efipnarayan,  the  dreaded  moving  shoals  known 
as  the  James  and  Mary  Sands. 
The  The    deep    channel   alternates   from   left   to   right   and   vice 

roadies,  fcna  according  to  tlie  windings  of  the  river,  except  where 
deflected  by  the  large  tributaries  which  debouch  into  it  at  the 
Eouthern  limit  of  this  district.  Proceeding  from  Howrah  Bridge, 
the  deep  channel  runs  on  the  Calcutta  side  in  the  Calcutta  Reach 
past  the  Fort  and  Kiddeqiore  to  Garden  Reach.  At  Rajganj, 
opposite  Hangman  Point,  it  crosses  over  to  the  Howrah  side,  and 
follows  the  Sankrail  Reach  as  far  as  Melancholy  (Manikhali) 
Point.     It     then     zigzags     from    left    to   right    at   each   bend, 


•  ProceetlingB.jAsiatic  Society  of  Bengal,  1890,  pages  140-143, 


Physical  aspects.  5 

viz.,  to  Jarmaker's  Eeach  (left)  to  Coffrey  Reach  (right)  and  to 
Budge-Budge  Reach  (left).  Thence  a  long  bend  brings  the 
channel  to  the  right  through  the  Uluberia  and  Mayapur  Reaches, 
the  latter  of  which  has  a  dangerous  bar.  The  subsequent  changes 
are  to  Rayapur  Reach  (left),  to  Hog  River  Reach  (right),  and 
thence  to  the  Fisherman's  Anchorage  or  Reach  (left).  The  influx 
of  the  Damodar  now  causes  it  to  shoal  up  on  the  right  bank, 
forming  the  Falta  Sands  in  the  centre,  so  that  there  is  only  a 
narrow  channel,  the  Falta  Reach,  on  the  left  bank.  The  next 
reaches  are  Nainan  and  Nurpur,  both  on  the  left,  and  after  them 
come  the  notorious  James  and  Mary  Sands,  with  a  narrow 
channel  on  each  side  called  the  Eastern  Gut  and  the  Western  Gut. 
An  account  of  these  sands  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XV.  The  dis- 
tances from  Fort  William  are : — to  Rajganj  G^  miles,  to  Uluberia 
19^  miles,  to  Falta  Point  3 5i  miles,  and  to  Hooghly  Point  opposite 
the  mouth  of  the  Rupnarayan  42|^  miles.* 

The  chief  perils  to  navigation  are  the  James  and  Mary  Sands  v^  . 
and  the  Mayapur  Bar.  Direct  efforts  to  manipulate  the  channels  tion. 
across  these  shoals  have  not  yielded  favourable  results.  In  18G8 
experiments  were  conducted  on  the  Mayapur  Bar,  and  spurs 
were  run  some  distance  below  high  water  line  from  both  banks 
of  the  river  ;  but  they  were  found  inadequate  to  guide  the  flood 
and  ebb  tide  into  one  channel,  and  no  improvement  resulted. 
In  1896  an  engineering  expert  was  brought  out  to  consider  the 
feasibility  of  improving  the  river,  and  he  suggested  that  training 
walls  should  be  built  to  regulate  the  channels  across  the  James  and 
Mary  Sands  and  the  Mayapur  Bar  ;  but  his  recommendations  were 
not  considered  practicable.  A  great  deal  has,  however,  been  done 
of  late  years  by  the  Port  Commissioners  to  reduce  the  dangers  of 
navigation. 

All  the  available  evidence  tends  to  show  that  the  Hooghly 
is  not  deteriorating  as  a  waterway,  but  rather  that  it  is  improving. 
The  rules  for  the  Pilot  establishment  laid  down  in  1826  show 
that  the  draft  of  water  at  which  pilots  were  authorized  to  take 
charge  of  ships  in  the  river  was  from  March  to  September  16^  feet 
fi'om  Calcutta  to  Diamond  Harbour  and  18  feet  from  Diamond 
Harbour  to  Saugor  ;  while  from  October  to  February  the  depths 
were  17  feet  and  18^  feet  respectively.  Four  years  later  a  revised 
rule  was  issued,  by  which  vessels  drawing  20  feet  were  allowed  to 
navigate  the  river  "  with  the  aid  of  competent  steamers  at  all  times 
of  the  year  up  and  down."  Pilots  were  "  strictly  forlidden  on 
pain  of  dismissal  from  the  service  from  moving  a  vessel  in  the  river 


S.  R.  Elson,  The  River  Hooghly,  Calcutta  to  Saugor  Island,  1884. 


6  HOWRAH. 

on  any  account  at  a  greater  draft  -^  and  vessels  of  greater  draft 
•were  to  be  moored  at  Saugor  or  Diamond  Harbour,  as  the  ease 
might  be,  until  Hghtened  to  the  proper  draft.  Since  that  time  the 
draft  of  vessels  moving  up  and  down  the  Hooghly  has  greatly 
increased.  The  di-aft  of  the  ten  most  deeply*  laden  vessels  up  to 
March  l!)U(i  was  27  feet  6  inches,  but  vessels  of  over  28  feet  draft 
have  navigated  the  river;  and  in  June  1909  alone  three  steamers 
drawing  27  feet  to  27  feet  11  inches  left  the  Port  of  Calcutta. 

Tidpg^  The   Hooghly  is   regularly  aifected  by  the   tides,  which  rise 

at  Kidderpore  15^  feet  above  the  lowest  tide-level  in  spring 
and  lU^  feet  in  neap  tides,  During  floods  the  mean  springs  rise 
as  high  as  19^  feet  and  the  mean  neaps  14-|^  feet.  The  tide 
travels  to  Calcutta  from  the  Sagar  Roads  in  4  hours  and  9 
minutes,  and  from  Diamond  Harbour  in  a  little  more  than  two 
hours,  running  at  the  rate  of  17  miles  an  hour  at  Diamond 
Harbour,  22  miles  at  Mayapur  and  18  miles  an  hour  at  Fort 
\Villiam.  in  addition  to  tides,  the  Hooghly  waters  are  affected 
by  several  other  factors,  such  as  the  seasonable  low  readings  of 
the  barometer  between  March  and  September,  the  forcing  of 
water  into  the  river  by  strong  southerly  winds  from  March 
to  August  and  out  of  it  by  northerly  winds  from  November 
to  February,  and,  lastly,  by  the  floods  which  bring  down  a 
large  body  of  fresh  water  from  July  to  October.  The  difference 
due  to  these  causes  is  about  four  feet,  the  highest  level  being  in 
August  and  September,  and  the  lowest  in  February  and  March. 

The  bore.  Bores   of   moio   or  less   violence    occur   at    perigee  springs, 

especially  in  February,  March  and  April.  The  bore  is  not  felt 
much  until  it  enters  the  more  tortuous  and  contracted  reaches 
above  Hooghly  Point,  where  it  not  only  capsizes  and  swamps 
boats  that  have  not  been  hauled  off  into  deep  water  in  time,  but 
also  affects  vessels  at  anclior,  forcing  them  to  run  upstream  of 
their  anchors  with  straightened  cables,  more  especially  if  there  is  a 
strong  southerly  breeze.  The  following  graphic  description  of  the 
bore  is  given  by  a  writer  m  the  Calcutta  Review  of  1859  :— "Upon 
the  approach  of  this  wave  a  dibtant  murmur  is  heard,  which  turns 
into  the  cry  bun !  bdn  !  ban !  from  the  mouths  of  thousands  of 
people,  boatmen,  sailors  and  others,  who  are  always  on  the  look 
out  for  this  much  dreaded  wave.  This  cry  is  the  signal  for  all 
sorts  of  craft  to  push  out  into  the  centre  of  the  river,  the  only 
ppot  where  the  wave  does  not  curl  over  and  break.  Should  any 
boat  or  larger  cralt  be  caught  in  that  portion  of  wave  that  breaks, 
instant  destruction  is  inevitable.  Numerous  boats  from  the 
upcountry  provinces  are  lost  every  year  from  the  crews  being 
ignorant  either  of  the  existence  of  the  bore,  or  from  not   knowing 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS.  7 

the  correct  position  to  take  up  so  as  to  meet  it.  Ships  at  anchor 
in  Calcutta,  though  not  exposed  to  the  breaking  portion  of  the 
wave,  frequently  part  their  cables  when  struck  with  the  wave. 
Standing  on  the  shore  during  the  rapid  rushing  passage  of  the 
bore,  it  is  a  curious  sight  to  see  the  lower  portion  of  the  river,  or 
that  nearest  to  the  sea,  six  or  eight  feet  higher  than  the  upper 
portion  of  the  river,  the  tide  rising  that  number  of  feet  in  an 
instant.  The  height  of  the  bore  iu  the  Hooghly  varies  from  five 
to  twelve  feet ;  it  is  exceedingly  dangerous  in  some  parts  of  the 
river,  but  more  moderate  in  others  ;  it  never  breaks  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  at  the  same  time.  Deep  water  destroys  its  force,  but 
shallow  water,  or  a  sand  bank,  brings  out  all  its  power  and  fury." 

Accretions  {chars)  have  been  formed  at  various  places  on  the 
Howrah  side  of  the  river,  r.r/.,  at  Grhusuri,  Eamkristapur,  Sibpur 
(near  the  Engineering  College),  Sarenga  and  Uluberia.  These 
chars  are  very  valuable,  especially  those  at  liamkristapur,  which 
have  been  the  source  of  a  considerable  income  to  the  Port 
Commissioners.  Elsewhere  the  bank  is  sloping  and  is  largely 
utilized,  outside  municipal  limits,  for  brick-making.  A  retired 
line  of  embankments  runs  along  it  up  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Damodar,  but,  being  under  the  charge  of  a  number  of  co-sharing 
zammdars,  is  more  or  less  in  decay  with  many  unrepaired  breaches 
caused  by  floods.  In  19U6-U7  a  part  of  the  line  near  Uluberia 
had  to  be  repaired  by  Government,  at  the  cost  of  the  landlords, 
to  prevent  floods  causing  serious  damage  to  crops  in  the  interior. 
The  embankment  between  the  mouths  of  the  Damodar  and 
the  Bupnarayan  is  kept  up  by  the  Public  Works  Department. 

The  Saraswati,  known  locally  as  the  Sarsati  or  Sarsuti,  branches  Saraswati. 
out  from  the  Hooghly  at  Tribeni  a  few  miles  above  Hooghly 
town,  and  enters  the  Howrah  district  near  Baluhati  (Baluti) 
as  a  small  shallow  stream.  It  then  meanders  on  to  the  south  in 
a  tortuous  course,  and,  keeping  the  Eajapury/wV  on  the  west,  flows 
past  Dumjor  and  Andul,  falling  into  the  Hooghly  just  abovo 
Sankrail.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Andul,  but  only  by  boats  of 
5  tons  burden.  Its  high  banks,  and  the  remains  of  large  boats 
occasionally  dug  out  from  its  bed,  show  that  once  it  must 
have  been  a  broader  and  deeper  stream.  This  inference  is 
confirmed  by  the  numerous  large  pools,  called  dahas,  found  in  its 
bed,  from  which  many  river-side  villages  take  their  name,  e.g.y 
Makardah,  Jhapardah,  Bhandardah,  etc.  The  silting  up  of  the 
river  began  some  centuries  ago,  and  its  causes  will  be  dealt  with 
later  in  the  section  on  changes  in  river  courses. 

The   Damodar  is   the  only    large  river   passing   through   the  Damodar. 
district.    After  forming  the   north-western   boundary  for   seven 


8  IJOWRAU. 

miles,  it  enters  the  district  near  the  village  of  Akna  and  then 
flows  south  to  Anita,  below  which  it  receives  the  Gaighata  creek 
on  its  right  bank.  Leaving  Amta,  it  follows  a  winding 
southerly  course  to  Bagnau,  and  then  flows  to  the  south-east 
falling  into  the  Hooghly  opposite  Falta  Point.  Its  total  length 
within  or  touching  the  district  is  45  miles.  The  Damodar  is 
influenced  by  the  tide  as  far  as  Raspur  two  miles  north  of  Amta. 
At  Amta  the  epring  tide  rises  2  to  2^  feet  in  summer ;  ten  miles 
lower  down  at  Mahishrekha  the  rise  is  5  feet  at  neap  and  8  feet 
at  spring  tides.  During  the  summer,  i.e.,  from  March  to  May, 
bores  are  felt  as  far  up  as  Amta,  especially  when  strong  southerly 
breezes  are  blowing.  The  height  of  the  bore-wave  varies  aocord- 
iuo-  to  weather  and  tides,  but  does  not  usually  exceed  4  feet. 
The  river  has  in  summer  G  to  8  feet  of  water  at  Mahishrekha  and 
is  not  usually  fordable  below  the  junction  of  the  Gaighata  Khdl. 
Above  this  point  the  river  narrows  rapidly,  and  at  Amta  shrinks 
in  the  hot  weather  to  a  width  of  only  10  to  12  feet  and  a  depth 
of  a  foot  or  so.  Cargo  boats  do  not  ply  as  far  up  as  Amta  after 
October,  except  during  spring  tides. 

No  important  change  in  the  course  of  the  Damodar  has  taken 
place  for  many  years  past,  but,  on  account  of  a  large  breach  at 
Begua  in  the  Burdwan  district,  the  volume  of  water  passing  down 
it  has  been  much  diminished,  a  large  quantity  being  diverted 
from  its  present  channel.  No  islands  have  been  formed  in  the 
channel,  except  near  Bansberia,  but  several  large  chars  have 
sprung  up  along  the  banks,  all  more  or  less  covered  with  grass, 
while  a  few  are  under  cultivation.  The  banks  are  well-defined 
and  vary  from  6  to  15  feet  in  height.  The  river  has  been 
embanked  on  both  sides,  but  the  embankments  on  the  upper  part 
of  the  western  side  have  not  been  maintained.  It  has  been  found 
that  inundations  on  that  side  cause  less  damage,  while  the 
existence  of  embankments  on  both  sides,  by  walling  in  the  river 
and  raising  its  bed,  tends  to  cause  heavy  losS  when  breaches 
occur.  The  eastern  cmbankineut  is  now  kept  up  by  Government 
throughout,  and  also  that  portion  of  the  western  embankment 
which  extends  from  the  junction  of  the  Gaighata  Khdl  up  to  the 
iiooghly  river.  The  flooded  tracts  produce  excellent  cold  weather 
crops,  e>pecialiy  pulses  and  tobacco.  The  Damodar  is  crossed  at 
Mahishrekha  by  the  Orissa  Trunk  Hoad,  a  little  lower  down  near 
Bagnau  by  the  Bengal-Nagpur  liailway,  and  about  half  a  mile 
f  mther  dowu-stream  by  the  Kigh  Level  Canal. 

Of   the    several   branches   of   the  Damodar,  two  only  call  for 

PRmodur.  special  mention,  viz.,  the  ICana  Damodar  or  Kauaiki  and  a  branch 

ou  tue    west  albo   called    the   Damodar.      The   Kaua   Damodar 


Kk 


PHYSICAL    ASP1':0T8.  9 

enters  this  district  on  the  east  of  Ichhanagar  village,  and  flows 
south,  winding  its  way  to  the  west  of  the  Eajapurj/riV.  Finally, 
turning  south-east,  it  falls  into  the  Hooghly  a  mile  north  of 
Uluheria  town,  after  a  course  of  nearly  20  miles  in  the  district. 
A  small  stream  now,  it  must  have  been  more  important  in  old 
days,  as  several  large  villages  inhabited  by  the  bhudralok,  or 
respectable  Hindu  castes,  lie  along  its  course. 

The  western  branch  issues  from  the  main  channel  of  the 
Damodar  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  district,  and  after  a  winding 
course  of  some  14  miles  rejoins  the  Damodar  3  miles  north-west 
of  Amta. 

The  Eupnarayan  first  touches  this  district  on  the  south-west  Rup- 
near  Bhatora  village.  It  then  flows  south-east,  receiving  an  "^rayan. 
accession  of  water  from  the  Bakshi  Khdl,  and  follows  a  generally 
south-easterly  course  to  Tamluk.  Here  it  bends  to  the  east  and 
finally  falls  into  the  Hooghly  opposite  Hooghly  Point.  The 
river  nowhere  intersects  the  district,  but  has  a  tortuous  course 
along  the  boundary  for  some  35  miles.  The  stream  widens 
considerably  towards  the  mouth,  and  has  at  places  a  breadth  of 
nearly  3  miles.  The  Bupnarayan  is  influenced  by  the  tide  through- 
out this  portion  of  its  course,  and  a  heavy  bore  ascends  it  in  the 
hot  weather  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Bakshi  Khal.  It  is  nowhere 
fordable  and  is  navigable  by  boats  and  small  steamers  all  through 
the  year.  Several  islands  are  found  in  the  river  channel,  while 
accretions  in  the  shape  of  grass-covered  chars  are  not  infrequent, 
especially  on  the  right  side.  From  the  confluence  of  the  Bakshi 
Ehdl  down  to  its  mouth,  the  river  is  embanked  along  the  left 
bank.  The  embankment,  however,  is  what  is  known  as  a  retired 
line  ;  and  in  April  and  May  the  lands  between  it  and  the  bed 
are  inundated  by  spring  tides  and  rendered  unfit  for  cultivation 
by  saline  impregnations,  except  where  minor  embankments  have 
been  thrown  up  roimd  the  fields  to  keep  out  the  brackish  water. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Eailway  line  at 
Kolaghat  (in  the  Midnapore  district),  and  within  a  short  distance 
of  that  place  by  the  Orissa  Trunk  Road  and  the  High  Level 
Canal. 

TheGaighata  (or  Giaghata)  Bakshi  Klidl  i^&n  improved  natural  Gaighsta 
waterway,  7\  miles  in  length,  forming  a  connecting  link  between  BaJ^h* 
the  D&modar  and  Eupnarayan  rivers.     The  channel  was  taken  ^^'^^' 
over  by  the  Public  Works  Department  from  the  District  Board 
of  Howrah  in  1894,  and  tolls  are  levied  on  it. 

Within  historic  times  great  changes  have   taken   place  in   the  Changes 
courses   of  the  principal  rivers.     The  changes  have  been  greatest  ^^'  ."""^ 
in  the  case  of  the  Damodar.     Formerly  it   discharged  its   waters  coubses. 


Damodar. 


10  HOWRAH. 

into  the  Hooghly  near  Nayasarai,  3  miles  above  Tribem  and 
about  39  miles  north  of  Howrah.  This  channel  appears  gradually 
to  have  silted  up,  and  in  Reunell's  map  (1779-81)  it  is  shown  as 
the  "  Old  Dummodah,"  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  the 
volume  of  the  main  stream  had  been  diverted  from  it.  This 
diversion  appeai-s  to  have  been  the  chief  cause  of  the  silting  up  of 
the  Saraswati  at  its  head  and  of  the  decay  of  the  port  of  Satgaon. 
The  channel  must,  therefore,  have  deteriorated  by  the  middle  of  the 
16th  century,  for  in  the  Ain  i-Ahbarl  Hooghly  is  mentioned  as  a 
port  superior  to  Satgaon,  though  it  does  not  appear  in  early  maps, 
such  as  those  of  Grastaldi  (1561;  and  De  Barros  (1553-1613), 
which  show  only  Satgaon. 

The  main  volume  of  the  Damodar  water  appears  next  to  have 
flowed  south  along  the  channel  now  called  the  Kana  Damodar, 
De  BaiTOS,  followed  by  Blaev  (1650),  shows  the  Damodar  as 
debouching  by  two  mouths  above  Pisolta,  which  has  been  identified 
with  the  modern  village  of  Pichhaldaha  close  to  Fort  Mornington 
Point.*  One  of  these  mouths  is  the  present  mouth  of  the 
Damodar  opposite  Falta  Point,  and  the  other  is  the  Sijberia  Khdl 
above  Uluberia,  by  which  the  Kana  Damodai  falls  into  the 
Hooghly.  In.  the  maps  and  accounts  of  the  17th  century  and 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  latter  river  was  called  the 
Jan  Perdo,  "  a  river  for  great  ships  "  according  to  the  chart  of 
1701.  In  Bowrey's  map  of  the  river  Hooghly  (1687)  it  is  shown 
with  small  islands  at  its  mouth,  and  these  are  also  mentioned  in 
1676  by  Streynsham  Master.  In  llennell's  map,  however,  it  is 
shown  as  a  small  stream  without  connection  with  the  Damodar 
and  without  islands  at  its  mouth  ;  and  at  present  it  is  a  shallow 
silted-up  stream,  serving  only  to  carry  off  local  drainage.  But  it 
seems  clear  that  it  formed  the  main  southerly  channel  of  the 
Damodar  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  and  its  size  and 
importance  are  still  attested  by  the  long  marshes  on  either  side,  as 
well  as  by  the  populous  villages  crowded  along  its  banks. 

The  present  channel  of  the  Damodar  can  be  traced  to  the 
second  half  of  the  Kith  century  in  Do  Barros'  map,  while  in 
Bowrey's  chart  it  appears  as  the  Raspas,  and  in  the  pilot  chart  of 
1703  astheMondfclghat,  after  the  Mandalghat />«r^rt(<a  through 
which  it  flows.  Gradually,  as  the  eastern  branches  t-ilted  up  at 
their  mouths,  it  became  the  main  channel.  The  Madaria  Khal 
between  the  present  channel  and  the  Kana  Damodar  is  another 
old  branch  of  the  Damodar.  Tliis  channel  is  shown  in  Rennell's 
Atlas  of  1779  as  branching  off  above  Rajbalhat  and  rejoining  the 

«  C.  K.  Wilson,  J.  A.  S.  B.,  1892.  p.  112. 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS.  11 

Damodar  near  Bagnan,  whereas  it  now  falls  into  the  parent 
stream  above  Amta.  Traces  of  the  old  course  still  survive  in 
the  Banspati  Khdl  and  a  number  of  pools  {dahas),  each  about 
half  a  mile  long  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  at  Dudkhali,  Chota 
Maira,  Bara  Maira,  Jagannathpur,  Mansmari,  Dhapa  and  Milki. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  navigable  by  ships,  and  it  is  reported  that 
on  its  bank,  at  the  village  of  (iobardhanpur  1^  miles  from 
Bagnan,  there  was  formerly  a  place  called  Jahajghata,  i.e.,  the 
anchorage  for  ships.  There  v/as  formerly  also  a  branch  to  the 
west  from  Rajbalhat  to  Amta,  but  this  also  has  silted  up. 

The  changes  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  Rupnarayan  are  also  Rupnara- 
considerable.  This  river  was  known  to  Europeans  up  to  the  ^^^' 
18th  century  by  a  number  of  different  names.  It  was  called  Ganga 
in  the  maps  of  Gastaldi  and  De  Barros,  Guenga  in  Blaev's  map, 
Tamalee  in  Bowrey's  chart,  Tomberlie  in  the  pilot  chart  of 
1703,  Patraghatta  by  Valentijn  (1670),  and  finally  the  Rup- 
narayan by  Rennell,  who  referred  to  it  as  "falsely  called  the 
Old  Ganges."  Similarly,  in  the  older  accounts,  such  as  the 
Da  Asia  of  De  Barros,  it  went  under  the  name  Ganga,  and  in 
the  later  accounts  of  the  17th  century  it  waa  designated  Tumbolee 
(Hedges),  Tumberleen  (Master),  and  Tombolee  (Bowrey).  From 
Valentijn's  map  it  appears  that  a  large  branch  of  the  Damodar  fell 
south  into  the  Rupnarayan  above  Mandalghat  and  Tamluk,  while 
another  branch  running  east  fell  into  the  Hooghly  near  Kalna, 
The  main  channel  of  the  Damodar  is  still  connected  with  the 
Rupnarayan  by  the  Kana  Dwarakeswar,  and  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  a  large  stream  joined  the  Rupnarayan  somewhere  near 
Ghatal.  By  these  two  branches  boats  could  have  come  from  the 
Bhagirathi  to  the  Rupnarayan  without  difficulty,  and  this 
probably  led  to  the  idea  of  its  being  a  branch  of  the  Ganges.  The 
next  prominent  fact  is  that  the  Rupnarayan  is  shown  in  older 
maps  (Gastaldi,  De  Barros  and  Blaev)  as  discharging  itself  by  two 
channels  enclosing  a  large  island  at  its  mouth.  The  westerly 
channel  disappears  in  Yalentijn's  map,  Bowrey's  chart  and  the 
pilot  map  of  1703  A.D.;  and  it  appears,  therefore,  that  it  must 
have  silted  up  and  that  the  island  became  more  or  less  joined  to 
the  mainland  in  Midnapore.  The  combined  result  of  its  dis- 
charging all  its  silt- laden  water  through  the  eastern  channel 
alone  and  the  close  proximity  of  the  main  stream  of  the  Damodar 
was  the  formation  of  the  James  and  Mary  Sands  in  the  Hooghly. 

It  remains  to  note  the   deterioration  of  the  Saraswati,   which  Saraswati. 
seems   to   have   been   due    to    the    diversion    of    the   Damodar 
water  from  the  upper   reaches  of  the   Hooghly.     By    ReuneU's 
time  (1779-81)  it    had  so  far  silted  up,  that  it  was  quite  a  small 


12  HOWRAH. 

stream  ;  and  now  it  is  merely  a  shallow  nan-ow  creek,  except 
for  a  few  miles  above  its  outfall.  It  is  shown  as  a  large  river 
in  old  maps  as  late  as  Valentijn's  (based  on  information  gathered 
in  166(1-70)  and  was  formerly  used  by  country  boats  and  small 
sloops  for  inland  traffic,  but  there  appear  to  be  no  good  grounds 
for  the  common  belief  that  it  was  onco  the  main  channel  of 
the  Ilooghly  or  Ganges. 
Geology.  The  district  is  composed  of  alluvium  and  presents  no 
featui-es  of  special  geological  interest.  Judging  from  the 
results  of  the  boring  made  in  Calcutta  in  1835-40,  the  depth  of 
the  deposit  is  very  great.  The  boring  reached  a  depth  of 
481  feet  without  signs  of  either  a  rocky  bottom  or  marine  beds. 
At  a  depth  of  30  feet  below  the  surface,  i.e.,  about  10  feet  below 
sea-level,  beds  of  peat  witli  wood  were  found,  which  indicate 
the  existence  of  ancient  land  surfaces.  The  wood  in  the  upper 
peat  beds  was  examine  1  and  found  to  be  of  two  kinds,  one 
of  which  was  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  sundrl  tree 
{Htritiera  litf oralis),  which  grows  in  abundance  on  the  muddy 
flats  of  the  Ganges  delta,  while  tlie  other  was  probably  the 
root  of  a  climbling  plant  resembling  Briedelia.  At  considerable 
depths,  bones  of  teri'estrial  mammals  and  fluviatile  reptiles  were 
found,  but  the  only  fi-agraents  of  shells  noticed,  at  380  feet,  are 
said  to  have  been  of  fresh- water  species.  At  a  depth  of  175  to 
185  feet,  and  of  300  to  325  feet,  and  again  throughout  the  lower 
85  feet  of  the  bore-hole,  pebbles  were  found  in  considerable 
quantities.  The  inference  drawn  is  that  the  present  site  of 
Calcutta  was  near  the  margin  of  the  alluvial  plain,  and  that  the 
land  has  undergone  depression  and  has  subsequently  been  covered 
by  an  accumulation  of  alluvial  material.  The  geological  formation 
of  Howrah  may  be  presumed  to  be  the  same. 

The  present  conformation  of  the  district  is  due  to  the  action 
of  its  silt-laden  rivers.  "  When  the  whole  country  is  covered 
with  water,  moving  rapidly  towards  the  sea  in  the  river 
channels,  and  stationary  throughout  the  intervening  marshes, 
the  dead  water  of  the  luarshes  prevents  the  floods  of  the  rivers 
from  breaking  out  of  the  channels,  and,  by  stopping  the  course 
of  the  silt-charged  water  along  the  edges  of  the  creeks  and 
streams,  forces  it  to  dcposil  the  sediment  it  has  in  suspension. 
Hence  gradually  arises  a  system  of  river  channels,  traversing 
the  country  in  many  directions,  between  banks  which  are  higher 
than  the  intervening  ilats,  and  these  flats  form  persistent 
marshes,  known  in  the  Ganges  delta  slsJ/iHh  or  bi/s."* 

•  K.  D.  Oldhauj,  Manual  of  the  Geology  of  India  (Calcutta,  1893), 
payes  4b:i.a4,  440-11. 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS.  13 

Outside  the  Royal  Botanic  Garden  at  Sibpur,  of  which  a  Botany. 
description  will  be  found  in  Chapter  XV,  there  is  little  of 
especial  interest  to  a  botanist.  The  vegetation  is  composed 
almost  exclusively  of  the  aquatic  and  marsh  plants  to  be  met 
with  in  the  alluvial  rice  fields  of  Bengal,  such  as  Hydrilla,, 
Utrkuliiria,  Caesn/ia,  or  of  those  semi* spontaneous  plants  that 
form  the  village  shrubberies  of  Central  Bengal,  such  as  0/i/cosmis, 
Trema,  Urena,  Solrouini,  Datura,  Leo7ioiis  and  the  like.  Waste 
places  are  generally  covered  by  a  weedy  vegetation,  and  one  of 
the  striking  features  of  the  district  is  the  extent  to  which  the 
weeds  which  occur  in  these  places  are  exotic  so  far  as  Bengal  is 
concerned.  Many  of  them,  indeed,  such  as  8coparia,  Arjeraium, 
Evolvulus  nummularim  and  Peperomla  peUucida,  though  now 
remarkably  abundant,  were  originally  natives  of  America. 

The  district  being  fringed  with  factories  and  under  cultivation  FArNA. 
elsewhere,  wild  animals  are  scarce.  The  larger  species  are  practi- 
cally unrepresented,  for  there  is  no  jimgle  which  could  furnish  cover 
for  big  game.  One  or  two  leopards  have,  however,  been  reported 
in  the  district  within  recent  years.  One  was  killed  by  a  local  shikari 
at  Baltikri  3  or  4  years  ago,  and  another  was  reported  to  have 
been  seen  on  some  Iwyld  jungle  in  the  grounds  of  the  Civil 
Engineering  College  at  Sibpur  2  years  ago ;  but  they  were  pro- 
bably only  stray  visitors  from  the  adjoining  districts.  Wild  pig 
abound  in  parts  of  the  Uluberia  subdivision,  and  a  few  are  said 
to  be  found  in  the  Jagatballabhpur  thana.  Crocodiles  are  some- 
times to  be  seen  on  the  banks  of  the  Hooghly  and  Damodar 
rivers  during  the  winter  months;  and  during  the  rains  they 
frequently  find  their  way  into  tanks  and  flooded  lowlands  near  the 
river.  In  the  cold  weather  snipe  of  two  or  three  varieties  are 
fairly  numerous  in  the  paddy  fields  within  the  Dumjor,  Sankrail 
and  Jagatballabhpur  thanas  in  the  headquarters  subdivision,  and 
also  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision.  The  common,  whistling  and 
cotton  teal  are  found  in  fair  numbers  in  the  flooded  area  between 
Maju  and  Arata,  and  sometimes  two  or  three  of  the  commoner 
varieties  of  duck. 

The  principal  varieties  of  river  fish  netted  in  the  Hooghly 
river  are  hihd,  bhetki,  t'iujrd,  and,  during  the  season,  fapsi  or 
mango-fish  [Polynemus  immdiseus).  The  Hooghly  from  Uluberia 
to  Diamond  Harbour  is,  in  fact,  noted  for  the  delicious  fish  last 
named,  which  is  described  by  Walter  Hamilton  (1820),  "as  the 
best  and  highest  flavoured  fish  not  only  in  Bengal,  but  in  the 
whole  world."  It  is  caught  with  or  without  roe  in  large  numbers 
from  April  to  June ;  and  Uluberia  is  a  centre  for  its  export. 
Members  of  the  carp  family  are  found  in  almost  every  tank,  and 


14  HOWRAH. 

t'ui,  mirgef  and  Jcnf/d  spawn  are  reared  extensivly.  The  impreg- 
nated eggs  float  in  smnll  lumps  near  the  shallow  edges  of  rivers 
and  are  collected  in  pieces  of  cloth  by  certain  low  caste  people  and 
also  by  fishermen.  They  are  bought  by  the  rearers  at  the  rate  of 
lis.  5  to  Ks.  8  for  a  handful,  and  put  in  shallow  ponds,  where 
they  hatch  in  a  few  days.  In  about  a  month's  time,  it  becomes 
possible  to  distinguish  the  various  kinds.  The  fry  are  then  caught 
with  fine  nets,  sorted  and  put  in  different  tanks  ;  some  also  are 
disposed  of  to  hawkers,  who  carry  them  about  for  sale  to  stockers 
of  tanks.  Amta  is  a  centre  of  this  business. 
Climate.  The  climate  of  Howrah  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Calcutta 
For  practical  purjDOses  the  year  may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of 
two  seasons,  the  dry  season  from  November  to  May  and  the  wet 
season  from  June  to  October  ;  but  the  dry  season  may  be  further 
subdivided  into  the  cold  weather  and  the  hot  weather,  and  the 
■  wet  season  into  the  advancing  south-west  monsoon  (June  to 
September)  and  the  retreating  monsoon  (September-October). 

In  the  cold  weather  there  is  but  little  cloud  or  rain,  the 
fall  varying  from  0*13  inches  in  December  to  0-99  inches  in 
February.  Humidity  gradually  diminishes  from  70  per  cent,  of 
saturation  in  November  to  60  per  cent,  in  February.  Heavy 
dews  fall  in  November  and  the  first  half  of  December ;  but 
gradually  they  too  become  less  frequent  and  less  heavy,  the 
pressure  of  aqueous  vapour  diminishing  from  0*600  in  November 
to  0*400  in  February.  At  this  season  cold  winds  blow  from  the 
land  side,  veering  from  noi*th-north-east  to  north-west,  while  the 
mean  barometric  pressure  rises  to  30*05  in  December  and  January. 
The  temperature  falls  very  perceptibly,  the  coldest  month  being 
January,  when  the  range  of  the  thermometer  is  from  85°  to  50° 
in  the  shade,  the  mean  diurnal  variation  being  considerable,  viz., 
20°  to  25°.  The  beginning  of  November  is  affected  by  the  re- 
treating monsoon,  and  is  often  stormy,  while  a  few  cold- weather 
land-storms  occur  later ;  but  Howrah  does  not  lie  in  the  usual 
track  of  storms  and  cyclones. 

The  hot  weather  begins  in  March  and  continues  till  the  first 
week  of  Jime.  Clouds  now  begin  to  appear  more  frequently,  and 
the  rainfall  increases  to  about  5  inches  in  May.  Humidity  does 
not  rise  much,  being  only  70  to  80  per  cent,  in  May  ;  but  the 
aqueous  vapour  pressure  rises  to  about  0*850  in  that  month.  The 
temperature  rises  steadily,  until  in  May  it  goes  up  to  105",  with  a 
mean  diurnal  variation  of  15'-'  to  20*^.  The  heat  in  the  evening  is 
fortunately  lowered  by  a  steady  sea-breeze  from  the  south  and 
occasionally  the  south-west,  and  also  by  "  nor'westers "  with 
sudden  showers.      Hail-storms   in   March   and   Ai^ril   sometimes 


PHYSICAL    ASPECTS.  15 

occur ;  buf  other  storms  are  ooraparatlvely  few,  breaking  mostly 
in  May.  Just  before  the  monsoon  bursts,  the  winds  frequently 
fail  altogether  and  the  weather  becomes  humid  and  sultry. 

The  south-west  monsoon  usually  bursts  in  the  second  week 
of  June,  witli  heavy  rain.  The  wind  blows  steadily  from  the 
south  and  occasionally  from  the  south-south-east,  while  the 
barometric  pressure  falls  from  29-60  to  20-45,  but  rises  slightly 
to  29-75  in  September.  The  temperature  slowly  falls  having  a 
maximum  of  105°  in  early  June  and  of  95°  in  September,  the 
minimum  in  the  latter  month  being  70°.  Humidity  and  the 
aqueous  vapour  pressure  are  now  at  their  highest,  rising  to  90  per 
cent,  and  0-950  respectively.  The  heaviest  rainfall  occurs  in  July 
and  August,  when  it  is  over  1 1  inches,  with  15  to  20  rainy  days 
in  each  month.  Storms,  chiefly'  originating  in  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal  are  frequent  in  these  months  ;  while 
a  few  land  storms  come  up  in  July  and  August,  but  cyclones  are 
comparatively  rare.  Owing  to  heavy  rafeifall  and  high  humidity, 
the  weather  becomes  oppressive  in  September,  which  is  undoubt- 
edly the  most  trying  and  unhealthy  month  in  the  year. 

The  second  period  of  the  wet  season  marks  the  retreat  and  final 
disappearance  of  the  monsoon.  The  wind  now  changes  gradually 
to  north  and  the  barometric  pressure  becomes  variable,  but  rises  to 
29*90.  The  mean  temperature  slowly  falls  to  70°  early  in 
November  and  the  nights  become  cooler,  the  mean  diurnal  varia- 
tion being  15"^.  Rainfall  diminishes  to  i  inches  in  October,  and 
there  are  only  5  to  10  rainy  days  in  the  month  ;  humidity  falls  to 
80  per  cent,  and  the  aqueous  vapour  pressure  is  from  0*800  to 
0-850,  Rain  gives  place  to  dews  at  night ;  but  the  chief  pecu- 
liarity of  this  period  is  that  in  the  wake  of  the  retreating  monsoon 
follow  numerous  storms. 

Generally  speaking,  the  healthiest  season  is  from  the  middle 
of  January  to  the  middle  of  March,  when  it  is  mildly  cold  and 
fairly  bracing.  In  the  hot  weather  from  the  middle  of  March  to 
the  middle  of  May,  the  heat,  though  great  in  the  day-time,  is 
alleviated  in  the  afternoon  by  a  southerly  sea-breeze.  This  season 
is  consequently  not  unpleasant,  and  is  fairly  healthy.  The  most 
unhealthy  season  is  from  September  to  the  middle  of  January, 
when  dews  fall  and  the  air  and  earth  are  charged  with  moisture 
malarial  fevers  and  bowel  complaints  being  common. 

'I'he  district  receives  an  abundant   rainfall,   but   the   quantity  Kainfall. 
often  varies  greatly,  rising,  for  instance,  to  78  6  inches  in  1900-01 
and   falling  to  35-7    inches  in  1895-J)6.     The   bulk    falls  in  the 
season  of  the  south-west  monsoon,  i.e  ,   from  June  to  September  ; 
and  the  smallest  fall  is  in  the  cold  weather,   i.e.,    from  November 


16 


HOWRAH. 


to  February.  The  folloTsing  table  gives  the  average  rainfall 
at  the  tliree  recording  stations  for  the  cold,  hot  and  rainy 
weathers. 


Station. 

Years 
recorded. 

November 

to 
February. 

March  to 
May. 

June  to 
October. 

Annual 
average. 

Howrah 

MahiRhrekha  ... 
Uluberia 

32-3H 

25-26 

9—10 

2-2.S 
?-31 
1-21 

8-21 

8-09 
7-49 

49-03 
4775 
44-64 

5947 
5815 
63  24 

HISTOBY.  17 


CHAPTER  II. 


HISTOEY. 

The  history  of  Howrah,  prior  to  the  advent  of  European  Eablt 
merchant  adventurers,  is  praotically  unknown,  and  any  attempt 
to  trace  it  must  necessarily  lead  along  a  wide  and  somewhat 
insecure  track  of  conjecture.  It  may,  however,  be  assumed  that 
it  was  inhabited  long  before  the  Christian  era,  for  adjoining  it 
to  the  south  lay  Tamralipti  (Tamluk),  a  famous  sea-port  of 
Eastern  India,  often  mentioned  in  the  Mahabhdrata,  in  the 
old   scriptures  of  the  Jainas   and  Buddhists,    and   in  Ptolemy's  , 

Geography.  It  may  also  be  inferred  from  the  nature  of  the 
country,  a  low-lying  fen  land  bounded  by  great  waterways, 
that  its  earliest  inhabitants  belonged  for  the  most  part  to 
fishing  and  boating  tribes.  Even  now  Kaibarttas,  the  great 
Bengali  caste  of  fishermen  and  boatmen,  form  nearly  a 
third  of  the  total  population  of  the  district.  At  the  dawn  of 
history,  it  probably  formed  part  of  the  territory  of  either  the 
Suhmas  or  Tamraliptas,  and  eventually  became  attached  to 
Tamralipti,  which  is  mentioned  as  a  separate  kingdom  up  to  the 
time  of  Yuan  Chwang  (Hiuen  Tsiang),  «>.,  until  the  close  of 
the  first  half  of  the  seventh  century  A.D.  On  the  decline  of 
Tamluk  it  probably  passed  under  the  rule  of  the  more  powerful 
Sahraas,  or,  as  they  were  called  later,  the  Radhas. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  12th  century  A.D.  the  area  now 
included  in  the  district  may  have  acknowledged  the  suzerainty  of 
Chodaganga,  the  first  Ganga  king  of  Orissa,  who  is  credited  in 
inscriptions  with  having  conquered  Mandar  and  pursued  its  king 
to  the  bank  of  the  Ganges.*  Mandar  is  evidently  the  earlier  form 
of  Mandaran,  which  is  called  distinctly  in  a  late  Sanskrit  work 
ManddrdmiUof  Presumably,  therefore,  the  Gangas  conquerei  and 
annexed  Mandaran,  and  with  it  at  least  a  part  of  this  district. 
Moreover,  in  the  palm-leaf  chronicles  of  the  Jagannath  temple, 
King  Anangabhimadeva  {circa  1300  A.D.)  is  quoted  as  boasting 
that  he  extended  the   northern   frontier  of  his  kingdom  from  the 

*  AF.  M.  Chakvavarti,  J.A.S.H.,  1903,  p.  110. 
t  Bhavishyat  Turana,  Ind,  Ant.,  XX,  420. 


18  HOWRAH. 

river  Kansb&ns  (near  Bliadrakh  in  the  Bnlasore  district)  to  the 
river  Danei-budiift.  The  latter  is  apparently  the  old  Damodar, 
which  as  late  as  the  17th  century  was  ctilled  Jan  Perdo,  d  and  7' 
being  interchangeable  in  the  Oriya  language.  If  credence  may  be 
given  to  these  records,  the  Ganga  kingdom  estea:Jed  up  to  the 
old  Damodar  and  included  the  Ulubetia  subdivision,  leaving  the 
ITowrah  subdivi-ion  ptill  in  Radha. 
McHAu-  Towards  the  end  of  the  13th  century  the  Muhammadans  took" 

bui'f^  possession  of  8atgaon,  and  in  all  probability  extended  their 
conquest  southwards  as  far  :is  the  mouth  of  the  Dauiodar.  But 
no  early  Muhammadan  remains  have  been  3'efc  found  in  the 
district,  and  the  distance  from  their  capital,  Lakhnauti  or 
Pandua,  must  have  precluded  their  exercising  any  effective 
rule  over  this  outlying  part  of  their  dominions.  The  real  rule 
of  the  Muha.nmadans  probably  began  in  the  time  of  Husain 
Shah  {circa  14!^4-152U),  who  consolidated  his  power  over  Bengal 
and  Bihar,  and  whose  generals  invaded  A<sam,  Orissa  and 
Chittagong.  A  generation  later  the  district  appears  to  have 
been  overrun  by  the  Oriyas,  for  their  last  Hindu  king, 
Makundadev.i  Hari  Chandau,  was  apparently  in  possession  of  the 
country  as  far  north  as  Tribeai,  where  abroad  flight  of  steps  lead- 
ing down  to  the  Ganges  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  under  his 
orders.  His  hold  over  the  country  was  soon  lost,  for  in  1068  the 
army  of  the  Bengal  Sultan,  Sulahnan  Kararaui,  drove  him  out, 
and  finally  conquered  the  whole  country  as  far  as  the  Ohilka  lake. 
During  the  reign  of  ihis  latter  king  a  part  of  Howrah  district, 
with  the  adjoining  mo/id's,  was  grouped  into  a  new  sarhdr  called 
after  him  Sulaimanabad. 

On  the  defeat  and  death  of  his  son  Daud  Kararani  in 
1576  A.D.,  Bengal  formally  became  a  part  of  Akbar's  empire. 
In  1582  Todar  Mai  drew  up  his  famous  rent-roll,  which  so  far 
as  the  subah  of  Bengal  was  concerned  merely  accepted  the 
state  of  things  as  it  existed  during  Afghan  rule  from  the  reign 
of  8her  Shah  to  that  of  SuLiiman  Kararani,  From  this  rent- 
roll  the  district  appears  to  have  been  distributed  between  three 
sarkdrs,  Satgaon,  Sulaimanabad  and  Mandaran,  and  the 
following  mahdh  can  still  be  traced  :— in  Satgaon  \l)  Purah 
(the  modern  Boro,  in  which  lies  Howrah  town),  (2)  Balia,  (3) 
Muzaffarpur,  (4)  Kharar  i^the  modern  Khalor)  ;  in  Sulaimanabad, 
(5)  Basandhari,  (6)  Bhosat  (the  modern  Bhursut^  (7)  Dharsa  ; 
and  in  Mandaran,  (8)  the  great  mahal  of  Mandalghat.*  Judging 
from   the   location   of   those   ninhdls,    the   original    sarkdrs   were 

•  Ain-i-Akhari,  Jarrott,  II,  140-1. 


HISTORY.  19 

Satg-aon  and  Mand&rau,  which  were  separated  by  the  old 
Dfimodar  ;  and  sarkdr  Sulaimanabad  was  made  up  of  portions 
of  them,  e.g.,  in  this  district  Balia,  Basandhari  and  Dharsa 
were  detached  from  Satgaon,  and  Bhosat  on  the  west  of  the 
Damodar  from  Mandaran.  SarJidr  Satgaon  had  a  large  general 
revenue  from  duos  on  ports  and  hats,  and  a  small  one  from 
vegetable  markets  and  timber  yards,  of  which  a  portion  would 
have  been  realized  from  the  area  now  comprised  in  the  district 
of  Howrah. 

A  few  local  details  of  the  district  at  this  early  period  of  its 
history  may  be  gathered  from  an  old  Bengali  poem  and  from 
the  old  maps  of  Q-astaldi  and  De  Barros.  The  Bengali  poem 
of  Bipradasa,  dated  1495  A.D,,  describes  the  voyage  of  a 
merchant  called  Ohand  SaudSgar  from  BurdwSn  to  the  sea.* 
Chand  went  by  Ariadaha  on  the  east  and  Ghiisuri  on  the  west, 
and  then  rowing  along  the  eastern  bank  passed  by  Calcutta, 
and  at  Bator  worshipped  its  presiding  goddess  Betai  Chandi. 
Ghusuri,  a  place  not  mentioned  in  any  other  old  work,  is  now 
the  northernmost  portion  of  Howrah  city,  and  Bator  is  a  part 
of  the  city  south  of  Sibpur.  In  the  old  maps  we  find  two  more 
places  called  Fisacoly  (De  Barros)  and  Picalda  (Gastaldi)^  or  Pisol- 
ta  (De  Barros),  Pisacoly  (Bengali  Pichhakuli  ?),  which  is  shown 
as  a  place  between  the  mouths  of  the  Damodar  and  Rilpnarayan, 
has  not  yet  been  identified,  and  does  not  appear  in  maps 
published  in  the  second  half  of  the  17th  century.  Pisolta  has 
been  identified  with  the  modern  village  of  Pichhaldaha,t 
2  miles  north-north-west  of  Fort  Mornington  Point  in  the 
extreme  south  of  the  Uluberia  subdivision.  Here  boats  used  to 
cross  the  Rupnarayan,+  and  it  must  formerly  have  been  a  trade 
centre  of  some  importance  ;  now  a  /idt  (market)  is  held  there. 

The  first  mention  of  any  place  in  the  district  by    a   European  Eueo.' 
writer  occurs  in   the   journal  of  the  Venetian   Oesare   Federici.  ■^^^^ 

1  1     Ci  •  •  /-I  T-1  '   TRADE. 

who  left  an  interestmg  account  of  Bator.  Gesare  Federici 
visited  the  place  about  1578  and  described  it  as  follows: — 
"  A  good  tide's  rowing  before  you  come  to  Satagan  you  shall 
have  a  place  which  is  called  Buttor,  and  from  thence  upwards 
the  river  is  very  shallow,  and  little  water.  Every  year  at  Buttor 
they  make  and  unmake  a  village  with  houses  and  shops  made  of 
straw,  and  with  all  things  necessary  to  their  uses,  and  this  village 
stand eth  as  long  as  the  ships  ride  there,  and  till  they  depart  for 
the   Indies ;    and  when   they  are   departed,  every  man  goeth  to 

*  H.  P.  Sastri,  Proc.  A.S.R.,  1892,  p.  123. 

t  C.  R.   Wilson,  J.A.S.13.,  1892,  p.  112. 

t  It|is  mentioned  in  the  I7th  century-biographies  of  Chaitanya. 

o2 


20  HOWRAH. 

liis  plot  of  houses  and  then  Betteth  fire  on  them,  which  made  me 
to  marvel.  For,  as  I  passed  up  to  Satagan,  I  saw  this  village 
standing  with  a  great  number  of  people,  with  the  infinite  number 
of  ships  and  bazars,  and  at  my  return  comic  g  down  with  my 
captain  of  the  last  ship,  for  whom  I  tarried,  I  was  amazed  to  see 
puch  a  place  so  soon  razel  and  burnt,  and  nothing  left  but  the 
sign  of  the  burnt  houses."* 

From  this  account  it  is  clear  that  Bator  was  a  rendez- 
vous for  trading  ships  unable  to  proceed  higher  up  the  shallow 
reaches  of  the  river,  and  that  what  is  now  called  a  liat  or 
periodical  market  was  held  there.  The  centre  of  this  trade  was 
Satgaon,  from  which  were  exported  in  the  IGth  century  "  rice, 
cloth  of  Bombast  of  diverse  sorts,  Lacca,  great  abundance  of 
sugar,  mirabolans,  dried  and  preserved,  long  pepper,  oyle  of 
zerzeline,  and  many  other  sorts  of  merchandise."  The  same 
impression  of  Satgaon  as  a  thriving  port  fed  by  numerous 
subsidiary  marts  is  gathered  from  the  account  of  Ralph  Fitch 
(1586).  "  Satagam  is  a  fair  city  for  a  city  of  the  Moors,  and 
very  plentiful  of  all  things.  Here  in  Bengala  they  have  every 
day  in  one  place  or  other  a  great  market,  and  they  have  many 
great  boats,  wherewithal  they  go  from  place  to  place  and  buy 
rioe  and  many  other  things." 

This  trade,  originally  monopolized  by  the  Portuguese,  was 
gradually  shared  in  by  the  Dutch,  the  tnglish  and  the  French. 
As  European  trade  in  Bengal  expanded,  it  led  to  an  extension 
of  cultivation  and  to  the  settlement  of  weavers  and  other  arti- 
sans along  the  river  bank,  so  much  so  that,  after  the  capture  of 
Hooghly  from  the  Portuguese,  a  Faujddr  had  to  be  specially 
posted  to  Hooghly  to  control  the  growing  trade  along  the  river. 
The  large  increase  in  the  river  and  sea-going  traflfic  also  attracted 
pirates,  particularly  Arakanese  and  Portuguese  half-castes. 
These  pirates  infested  the  estuary  of  the  Hooghly,  but  gradually 
became  more  daring,  and  sailed  higher  up.  To  check  their  raids, 
the  Musalman  Government  built,  apparently  about  1666,  a  iort 
on  the  west  bank  known  as  Tanna  Fort.  It  is  shown  in  Valen- 
tijn's  and  subsequent  maps,  and  is  thus  described  in  the  diary  of  the 
Agent,  Streynsham  Master,  under  the  date  30th  November  1676: — 
"  Tannay  is  distant  from  Hooghly  about  forty  miles  by  water 
and  twenty  miles  by  land.  There  stands  an  old  fort  of  mud 
walls,  which  was  built  to  prevent  the  incursions  of  the  Arracanese, 


•  Original  cdiiion  of  1.587,  traiislate<I  in  llichard  Hakluyt's  Prmcipil  Navi- 
gations, Voyages,  etc.,  Glaagow  Keprint,  Vol.  V.,  |)p.  410-411.  The  English  has 
bj«a  slighlly  uioJeriiized,  as  tli-re  appears  to  be  no  particular  object  in  reproducing 
the  archaic  forms  of  an  old  truoslation. 


lilSTORY.  21 

for  it  seems  about  ten  or  twelve  years  since  they  were  so  bold 
that  none  duist  inhabit  lower  down  the  river  than  this  place, 
Arracanese  usually  taking  the  people  of  the  shore  to  sell  them  at 
Pipley."*  This  fort  was  frequently  mentioned  in  the  European 
accounts  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  and  played  an  import- 
ant part  in  the  early  struggles  of  the  English. 

In  December  1686  the  rupture  with  the  Viceroy  Shaista  Khan  Eaklt 
led  to   the   retreat   of    the   British   from   Hooghly    under    Job  ^'^^^'^- 

GLES  OY 

Charnock.  The  refugees  found  temporary  shelter  at  Sutanuti,  the 
the  present  site  of  Calcutta,  but  the  country  was  up  in  arms  and  ^^itish. 
a  large  army  was  advancing  against  them.  It  was  accordingly 
decided  to  fall  back  on  Hijili  further  down  the  river.  On  the 
way  they  stormed  and  took  the  fort  of  Tanna,  an  exploit  laconi- 
cally described  by  Ghamoek  as  follows  : — "On  tho  11th  February 
1687  assaulted  aud  took  his  fort  at  Tanna  with  the  los3  only  of 
a  manne's  legg  and  some  wounded. "t  Not  satisfied  with  this, 
they  plunderei  and  destroyed  everything  between  Tanna  and 
Hijili  including  several  granaries  and  salt  depots  belonging  to 
the  Nawab  They  also  seized  and  carried  off  a  number  of 
Mughal  vessels,  which  they  met  in  the  river,  and,  sending 
several  of  their  own  ships  to  Balasore,  burned  and  destroyed 
about  forty  more  native  merchant  vessels.  The  war  was  concluded 
in  August  1687  by  a  treaty  under  which  the  British  were  allowed 
to  move  up  from  Hijili  and  settle  on  a  tract  of  land  near 
Uluberia,  to  erect  magazines  and  construct  a  dock  for  ship- 
ping ;  but  they  were  forbidden  to  go  beyond  the  Tanna  forts 
and  had  to  restore  all  the  ships  they  had  seized.  This  treaty  was 
received  coldly  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  which  reminded  (Char- 
nock that  "  it  is  of  vanity  to  fancy  that  your  prudence  or  subtlety 
procured  those  good  terms  ...  It  was  not  your  wit  or  contri- 
vance, but  God  Almighty's  good  providence,  which  hath  always 
graciously  superintended  the  affairs  of  this  Company." 

Charnock  and  his  little  band  now  moved  on  to  Uluberia  (on 
the  17th  June),  but  after  a  short  time  went  to  Little  Tanna,  from 
which,  with  the  permission  of  the  Mughal  authorities,  they 
returned  to  Sutanuti.+  At  first  Charnock  had  recommended  that 
the  British  should  make  their  headquarters  at  Uluberia,  but 
afterwards  the  Bengal  Council  changed  their  minds  and  reported 

*  Diary  of  William  Hedges,  Yule  II,  237. 

t  Chariiock's  letter  to  Court,  dated  10th  September,  1687,  Yule,  II,  65 ;  Patna 
Factory  Letter,  dated  25th  June,  1687,  id.  II,  62. 

X  According  to  Broome,  Charnock  commenced  making  docks  at  Uluberia  for 
careening  the  ships,  which  by  this  time  were  greatly  in  need  of  repair,  aud  stayed 
there  three  or  four  months.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  the  stay  at  Uluberia 
was  so  long. 


22  HOWKAH. 

in  favour  of  Sutanuti,  as  we  learn  from  a  subsequent  letter  referring 
to: — "Our  Generall  Letter  by  the  Beanjort,  and  Our  Diaries  of 
that  Yeare  wherein  we  have  layd  downe  Our  reasons  for  the  altering 
oiu'  opinion  about  Ulubarreah  and  pitching  on  Chuttanuttee  as 
the  best  and  fittest  up  the  River  on  the  Maine,  as  we  have  since 
experienced,  and  likewise  been  sattisfyed  that  Ulubarreah  was 
misrepresented  to  us  by  those  sent  to  survey  it."*  This  letter 
was  written  from  Madras  where  the  Bengal  Council  had  been 
forced  to  retire.  The  subsequent  adventures  of  Chamock  and 
his  followers  took  place  outside  this  district,  and  it  will  be 
sufiacient  to  say  that  at  length  on  24th  August  1690  Chamock 
arrived  for  the  third  time  at  Sutanuti  and  founded  the  present 
city  of  Calcutta.  To  those  curious  about  such  things  it  is  a 
quaint  reflection  that  Uluberia,  now  a  quiet  provincial  town, 
might  have  been  the  capital  of  India. 

Six  years  later  the  existence  of  the  infant  settlement  was 
threatened  by  the  rebellion  of  Subha  Singh.  One  party  of  the 
insurgents  laid  siege  to  Fort  Tanna,  but  the  British,  at  the 
request  of  the  Fnu/ddr  of  Hooghly,  sent  a  vessel  with  some  guns 
to  assist  the  garrison,  and  the  insurgents  were  compelled  to  retreat. t 
For  some  years  after  this  the  district  had  peace,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  Calcutta  assisted  its  development.  Bator  indeed  declined, 
most  of  its  trade  being  transferred  to  the  other  side  of  the 
river;  but  new  villages  sprung  up,  docks  were  opened  for  repair- 
ing ships,  while  gardens  and  villas  were  built  in  Howrah  city  as 
suburban  retreats.  Captain  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  visited 
Calcutta  about  1706,  thus  described  Howrah: — "On  the  other 
side  of  the  River  are  Docks  made  for  repairing  and  fitting  their 
ships'  Bottoms,  and  a  pretty  good  Oardeu  belonging  to  the 
Armenians,  that  had  been  a  better  place  to  have  built  their  Fort 
and  Town  for  many  Reasons.  One  is,  that  where  it  now  stands, 
the  Afternoon's  Sun  is  full  in  Front  of  the  Houses,  and  shines  hot 
on  the  Streets,  that  are  both  above  and  below  the  Fort.  The  Sun 
would  have  sent  its  hot  Rays  on  the  I'ack  of  the  Houses,  and  the 
Front  had  been  a  good  shade  for  the  Street."? 
Li!:r  On  the  accession  of  the  Emperor  Farrukhsiyar,  the  Bengal 

DATS  OF     Council  decided  to  send  a  deputation  to  Delhi  with  a  petition  for 
BCLB.        the  renewal  of  their  /anrMua.     In  this  petition  they  applied  for 
a  lease  of  additional  villages,  five  on  the  west  side  and  thirty-three 

•  General  Letter  from  the  Council  of  Bengal  to  the  Court,  dated  80th 
September  1689,  I.e.,  Yule,  II.  86. 

t  liroome,  Eistori/  of  the  Bengal  Army  p.  28;  Stewart,  History  of  Bengal 
(i847),  p.  210;  C.  K.  Wilsou,  Early  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  I.  147-150. 

I  A  Nsw  Account  of  the  East  Indies,  Vol.  II.,  p.  W. 


HISTORY. 


23 


on  the  east  side  of  the  Hooghly.  The  list  of  villages  is 
given  in  the  Consultation  Book  of  the  Council  under  the  date 
May  4th,  1714,  and  mentions  "Salica"  (Salkhia),  "Harirah" 
(Howrah),  Cassundtah  (KSsundi),  "Earakrissnapur "  and 
"Batter"  (Bator),  all  in  paryanas  "Borrow"  and  "Paican  " 
with  an  annual  rent  of  Es.  1,450.*  The  deputation  under  John 
Surman  and  Khoja  Sarhad  Armenian  did  not  start  till  after 
March  1715,  and  after  a  delay  of  2^  years,  Mr,  Surman  came 
back  with  33  farmdns  and  hasbul-hu/iums.  The  deputation  was 
successful  in  getting  orders  about  the  tdlul<ddri  of  all  the  villages 
applied  for,  but  could  not  secure  a  lease  of  the  five  Howrah 
villages,  because  the  landlords  were  prevented  by  the  Nawab  from 
parting  with  their  lands  on  any  terms.t 

During  the  next  12  years  the  rent-roll  was  twice  revised,  first 
in  1722  by  Jafar  Khan  alias  Murshid  Kuli  Khan  and  again  in 
1728  by  his  son-ia-law  Shuja-ud-din.  During  these  revisions 
the  ssamlndari  of  Burdwan  received  large  additions,  the 
whole  of  Uluberia  and  a  large  part  of  the  Howrah  subdivision 
being  included  in  it.  Fui-thermore  a  strip  of  laud  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  river  from  Hooghly  down  to  Howrah  was  separated 
and  raised  into  a  distinct  zamindari  called  Muhammad  Aminpur.* 
In  this  way  the  lands  of  Howrah  district,  excepting  certain 
kharija  nia/idls,  came  to  be  under  two  Hindu  zamindaris,  Burdwan 
and  Muhammad  Aminpur,  as  is  shown  in  Renneirs  Atlas  (Plates 
YII  and  IX). 

In  1741-42  A.D,  the  Maratha  cavalry  under  Bhaskar  Pandit 
swept  over  "Western  Bengal,  aad  forced  Ali  Vardi  Khan  to  retire 
precipitately  from  Burdwan  to  Katwa.  The  whole  tract  from 
Akbarnagar  (Rajmahal)  to  Midnapore  and  Jaleswar  came,  we  are 
told,  into  the  possession  of  the  Marathas.§  Mir  Habib  made 
himself  master  of  Hooghly,  and  the  Marathas  led  by  him  overran 
the  lands  on  the  western  side  of  the  river  and  are  said  to  have 
seized  the  Tanna  Fort.  The  war  continued  till  1751,  and  the 
land  suffered  frequently  from  the  incursions  of  the  Mar&tha 
cavalry,  and  also  from  the  bands  of  daooits  that  sprung  up  amid  the 
disorganization  of  administration.     Fort  Tanna  again  came  into 


*    C.  R.  Wilson,  Early  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  II.  p.  173. 

t  id.  Vol.  II,  287-288,  Noe.  28  and  29;  J.  Grant's  View  of  the  Revenues  of 
Bengal,  Appendix  to  Fifth  Report  (Madras  Reprint,  1884),  I.  486 ;  C.  W.  B. 
Rouse,  Landed  Froperty  of  Bengal  (1791),  p.  10-4. 

X  Fifth  Report  (Madras  Reprint,  1884),  Grant's  Analysis  of  the  Finances  of 
Bengal,   1.267,322;  Grant's   View    of  the   Kevenuea  of  Bengal,  I,  457. 

§  Riyazu-s-Salatin,  Bib.  Ind.,  pp.  343-4. 


24  HO^VRAH. 

prominence  in  1756,  when  Siraj-ud-daula  advanced  upon  Calcutta. 
The  British  commenced  hostilities  by  an  attack  on  the  fort, 
delivered  by  two  vessels  of  about  800  tons  and  two  small 
brigantines.  As  soon  as  they  opened  fire,  the  garrison, 
consisting  of  about  fifty  of  the  Nawab's  troops,  evacuated  the 
place,  A  small  detachment  of  Europeans  and  lascars  then 
landed  and  took  possession,  spiking  some  of  the  guns  and 
throwing  the  remainder  into  the  river.  Next  day  2,000  men 
arrived  from  Hooghly,  drove  the  detachment  to  their  boats  and 
opened  a  heavy  fire  on  the  vessels  from  their  matchlocks  and  two 
field-pieces  which  they  mounted  oq  the  walls.  The  ships 
attempted  to  return  the  tire,  but  their  light  guDS  made  no 
impression  on  the  walls  of  the  fort,  and  though  a  reinforcement 
of  30  men  was  sent  from  Calcutta,  they  were  obliged  to  return, 
having  failed  in  their  attempt.  The  failure  of  this  attempt 
subsequently  cost  the  British  dear.  After  the  capture  of  Calcutta 
and  the  massacre  of  the  Black  Hole,  the  survivors  in  attempting 
to  escape  down  the  river  were  driven  back  by  the  guns  mounted 
on  the  fort,  and  a  sloop  and  a  snow  were  forced  ashore.  Four 
days  later  they  were  joiued  by  three  vessels  from  Bombay  and 
managed  to  pass  the  fort  safely  with  the  loss  of  only  two 
lascars.* 

The  capture  of  the  fort  was  one  of  the  first  successes  of  the 
avenging  force  under  Clive  and  Admiral  Watson.  As  soon  as  he 
heard  of  their  approach,  the  Nawab  had  the  fort  put  in  order, 
commenced  building  another  called  Aligarh  on  the  opposite  bank, 
and  had  two  ships  loaded  with  bricks  ready  to  be  sunk  in  the 
channel  between  them.  A  sloop  coming  up  in  advance  of  the 
fleet  prevented  the  sinking  of  these  two  ships,  and  on  the  let 
January  the  forts  were  evacuated  without  a  shot  being  fired. f  A 
contemporaneous  account  briefly  describes  the  action  as  follows :  — 
"On  the  first  of  Januiiry,  the  Kent  and  the  Tijyer  anchored 
between  Fort  Tanna  and  a  Battery  opposite  to  it,  both  which  the 
enemy  abandoned  as  the  ships  approached.  About  forty  guns, 
some  fourteeu  pounders  and  all  mounted  on  good  carriages,  with 
some  Powder  and  Ball  were  found  in  this  Fort  and  Battery ;  and 
the  Admiral  left  the  iSalisbiirij  as  a  Guardship  to  prevent  the 
enemy  from  regaining  them."  A  letter  from  an  officer  of  the 
Kent,   dated   Calcutta,  February    lat,    1757    confirms   the   above 


•  Broome,  Hiitory  of  the  Bengal  Army,  pp.  55,  69,  70;  C.  R.  Hill,  Bengal  in 
1756-7,  Vol.  1.  p.  cxxxi. 

t  broome,  Rislory  of  the  Bengal  Army,  pp.  80,  8G. 


HISTOKY.  26 

account: — "  "We  sailed  for  Tan e a  Fcrts,  about  two  miles  below 
Calcutta  the  first  of  January ;  but  thoy  abandoned  them  on  our 
approach.     The  Salisburi/  was  left  a  Guardship  there."* 

The  victory  of  Plassey  made  the  English  the  vii-tual  masters  fj^J'^j^jj 
of  Bengal.  Mir  Jafar,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne,  was  eule. 
within  three  years  deposed  by  them,  and  Mir  Kasim  Ali  Khan 
placed  on  the  masnad.  By  a  treaty,  confirmed  by  an  Imperial 
sanad  dated  Uth  October  1760, t  Mir  Kasim  assigned  to  the  East 
India  Company  for  military  charges  the  districts  of  Burdwan, 
Midnapore  and  Chittagong.  Howrah  was  included  in  Burdwan 
and  thus  became  British  territory.  The  only  other  notable 
event  in  the  history  of  the  district  during  the  18th  century  was 
the  action  with  the  Dutch  fought  in  the  Hooghly  in  1759.  At 
the  time  there  were  only  three  Indiamen  in  the  river,  which  were 
ordered  up  to  protect  Calcutta,  while  the  garrisons  at  Tanna  Fort 
and  Charnock's  Battery  were  strengthened  by  the  best  of  the 
British  troops  under  Captain  Knox.  The  Dutch  fleet  came  up 
cautiously  as  they  had  no  pilots.  On  the  2l8t  November  they 
anchored  off  Sankrail  Reach,  just  out  of  cannon  shot  from  the 
English  batteries ;  on  the  23rd,  their  troops  landed  on  the 
western  bank,  and  marched  by  land  along  the  Saraswati  river 
towards  Chinsura,  while  the  vessels  dropped  down  to  Melancholy 
Point,  below  which  the  three  English  ships  were  at  anchor.  On 
the  24th,  after  some  infructuous  negotiations,  the  three  English 
ships  weighed  anchor,  and  notwithstanding  the  enemy's  superi- 
ority— they  had  seven  ships  and  four  were  large  vessels,  each 
with  36  guns — boldly  came  alongside  and  attacked  them.  A 
desperate  action  ensued,  which  lasted  for  two  hours.  A.t  length, 
the  Dutch  Commodore  struck  his  colours,  and  all  his  captains 
followed  his  example,  with  the  exception  of  the  second  in 
command,  who  fought  his  way  gallantly  and  got  clear  off 
to  Kalpi,  the  English  ships  being  too  much  crippled  to  follow. 
There,  however,  he  was  captured  by  two  English  ships  hurrying 
up  to  join  in  the  defence.  The  action  had  been  short,  but  fierce. 
One  ship,  the  Duke  of  Dorset,  was  riddled  through  and  through, 
90  shot  were  in  her  hull,  and  her  rigging  was  cut  to  pieces,  but 
not  one  man  was  killed,  though  several  were  wounded.  The 
English  had  adopted  the  expedient  of  lining  their  quarters  with 
bags  of  saltpetre,   to   screen   the  men  from  the  enemy's  fire,   an 


*  A  yew  History  of  the   East  Indies  (1758),  by  Captain  Cope.  Appendix  VI, 
pp.  418,  420;  Bengal  in  1756-7,  IL  pp.  197,  198,  III,  pp.  2,  4,  7,  11,  34,  156. 
t  Grante'  Analysis,  Fifth  Report,  I.  329. 


26  HOWRAH. 

expedient    which   appears   to   have    answerecl,   though   it   was  a 
dangerous  one,  considering  the  risk  of  fire.* 
Mutiny  During  the   Mutiny   there   was   only  one  episode  in  Howrah, 

°^  '^  '  which  is  perhaps  worthy  of  commemoration.  This  was  the 
characteristic  action  taken  by  Colonel  Neill,  who  was  proceeding 
up  country  with  his  regiment,  the  Madras  (1st  Royal  Dublin) 
Fusiliers.  To  quote  from  Holmes'  Ilisforf/  of  the  Indian  Muti- 
ny:— "  It  was  arranged  that  a  detachment  of  the  Fusiliers  should 
proceed  up  the  Ganges  by  steamer,  while  Neill  himself  should 
follow  with  the  rest  by  train.  Arriving  at  the  station  with  a  few 
of  his  men  some  minutes  before  the  main  body,  which  had  been 
unavoidably  detained,  he  was  told  by  the  station-master  that  the 
train  was  already  lato,  and  would  be  started  at  once  without 
waiting  for  the  absentees ;  and,  when  he  remonstrated,  a  crowd 
of  other  officials  came  up,  and  did  their  best  to  silence  him.  But 
he  soon  showed  them  what  manner  of  man  they  had  to  deal  with. 
Putting  the  station-master,  the  engineer,  and  the  stoker  under 
arrest,  he  waited  till  all  the  Fusiliers  had  arrived,  and  did  not 
release  his  prisoners  until  he  had  seen  every  man  safe  in  his 
place.  This  single  incident  satisfied  the  Christians  whom  Neill 
was  hastening  to  succour.  They  knew  that  the  right  man  had 
come  at  last." 
FoKMA.  It  remains  to   note   the   administrative   changes   which   have 

TioN  OF  taken  place  since  the  district  passed  under  British  rule.  In  1787, 
the  Government,  -fishing  to  reduce  the  charges  of  district 
administration,  amalgamated  part  of  Hooghly  with  Jessore 
and  part  with  Nadia  ;  and  apparently  the  ^trip  of  land  known  as 
ATuhammad  Aminpur  was  transferred  to  Nadia. t  After  the 
decennial  settlement,  in  1795,  Hooghly,  with  the  greater  part  of 
Howrah,  was  detached  from  Burdwan  and  created  a  separate 
magisterial  charge  ;  but  no  change  was  made  in  the  CoUectorate. 
At  that  time  th&nas  Bagnan  and  Amta  were  placed  in  the 
Hooghly  jurisdiction,  but  Howrah  city  formed  a  part  of  Calcutta, 
its  criminal  cases  being  tried  by  the  Magistrate  and  Judge  of 
the  24-Pargana8,  who  used  to  come  over  once  a  week.  In  1814 
thana  R&japur  (now  Dumjor),  and  in  1819  thanas  Kotra  (now 
Syampur)  and  Uluberia  were  transferred  from  the  2-l-Pargana8 
to  Hooghly.  On  1st  May  1822  the  Hooghly  and  Howrah 
CoUectorate    was   entirely   separated   from   Burdwan.      In    the 


•  Broome,  History  of  the  Bengal  Arm;),  pp.  262-268;  Grose,  A  i^oyage  to 
the  East  Indies,  1772.  Vol.  JI. 

t  Notification  in  the  Calcutta  Gazette.  29tli  March  1787,  I.e.  Selections, 
Vol.  I,  p.  185. 


DI8TBICT. 


HISTORY.  27 

meantime,  the  city  of  Howrah  had  been  growing  steadily,  and  its 
increasing  importance  led  to  another  change,  the  magisterial 
jurisdiction  of  Howrah  being  separated  from  that  of  Hooghly  in 
1843,  when  Mr.  William  Tayler  was  appointed  Magistrate  of 
Howrah  with  jurisdiction  over  Howrah,  Salkh'a,  Amta,  Rajapur, 
Uluberia,  Kotra  and  Bagnan*.  For  20  years  the  Magistrate 
remained  subordinate  to  the  Judge  of  the  24-Parganas,  but  in 
1864  the  district  was  transferred  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Judge 
of  Hooghly.  Since  then  there  have  been  minor  changes  in  the 
boundaries  of  the  district,  but  for  the  administration  of  revenue 
and  civil  justice  it  is  still  included  in  the  jurisdiction  of  Hooghly. 

No  old  remains  have  yet  been  found  in  this  district,  probably  abchjjo- 
because  the  rivers  have  changed  their  courses  so  much  that  ^o^^- 
ancient  sites,  if  any,  have  been  washed  away.  The  oldest  temple 
appears  to  be  that  of  Melai  Chandi  at  Amta  with  a  Bengali 
inscription  said  to  be  dated  1056  Bengali  Saua,  i.e.,  1649  A.D. 
In  Howrah  city  and  in  some  places  in  the  interior,  e.g.,  Narna, 
Dumjor,  &c.,  there  are  a  few  temples  in  the  ordinary  Bengali 
style  of  architecture  and  more  or  less  modern.  The  Bhot-bagan 
temple  at  Howrah,  dating  back  to  the  end  of  18th  century,  is 
somewhat  peculiar,  being  roofed  like  a  Bengali  temple  with  a 
portico  and  having  Tibetan  figures  carved  on  the  outside.  A  few 
mosques  and  churches  are  found  in  the  town,  but  none  are  old. 
The  cemetery  to  the  north  of  the  Town  Hall  contains  tombstones 
dating  from  1791. 


*  G.  Toynbee,  Administration  of  the  Hooghly  District  (1888),  pp.  30-33. 


28  howbAh. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  PEOPLK. 
Gbowth  Jj^.  1372,  when  the  first  census  was  taken,  Howrah,  which  then 
lATioN.  had  two  subdivisions,  Howrah  and  Mahishrekha,  with  a  total  area 
of  o39  square  miles,  was  treated  as  part  of  the  Hooghly  district. 
The  Khanakul  thana  was  transferred  from  Mahishrekha  to 
the  Jahanabad  (now  Arambagh)  subdivision  of  Hooghly  after  the 
census  of  1<^81  ;  and  Singti  outpost  with  a  number  of  villages 
extending  over  34  square  miles  was  added  to  thana  Amta  after 
the  census  of  1891.  At  the  time  of  the  census  of  1901,  the 
district  had  an  area  of  olO  square  miles  ;  it  was  and  is  not  only 
the  smallest  of  all  the  districts  in  Bengal,  but  is  smaller  than 
many  a  subdivision.  Allowing  for  these  changes,  the  population 
of  the  district,  as  now  constituted,  was  635,878  in  1872  and  rose 
to  675,394  or  by  621  per  cent,  in  1881,  to  763,625  or  by  13*06 
per  cent,  in  1891,  and  to  850,514  or  by  11-27  per  cent,  in  1901. 
The  growth  of  population  throughout  these  30  years  has  therefore 
averaged  more  than  one  per  cent,  annually.  Part  of  the  increase 
in  1881  and  1891  may  be  due  to  more  accurate  enumeration,  but, 
apart  from  that,  there  has  been  a  remarkable  growth  in  spite 
of  adverse  influences.  Between  1872  and  1891  the  district 
suffered  much  from  epidemics  of  fever,  the  mortality  due  to 
the  virulent  fever  known  as  Burdwan  fever  being  estimated  in 
1881  as  50,00t>.  In  later  years  the  death-rate  was  inflated  by 
cholera  and  bowel  complaints  in  the  riparian  tracts  until  1896, 
when  the  construction  of  waterworks  gave  the  Howrah  Munici- 
pality a  supply  of  filtered  water. 

The  increase  is  chiefly  duo  to  the  great  industrial  activity  in 
the  metropolis  of  Calcutta,  in  Howrah  city,  and  along  the  river 
bank  as  far  south  as  Uluberia.  The  numerous  mills  and 
other  industrial  concerns  have  attracted  a  large  number  of 
labourers  from  other  parts  of  India,  and  the  local 
inhabitants  have  been  enriched  by  the  trade  they  bring. 
The  improvement  of  sanitation  has  helped  to  reduce  the  death- 
rate  in  the   Howrah   Municipality.     The   drainage   schemes    of 


THB   PEOPLE. 


29 


Howrah,  Barajol  and  Eajapur  have  made  thanas  Dumjor  and 
Jagatballabhpur  less  unhealthy.  The  embankments  in  the 
"Uluberia  subdivision  have  prevented  disastrous  floods,  have 
facilitated  the  extension  of  cultivation,  and  incidentally  have 
increased  the  habitable  area.  The  result  is  a  marked 
increase  of  population  in  all  but  one  of  the  thanas,  and 
especially  in  Howrah  city  and  thanas  Dumjor,  Uluberia  and 
Syampur,  The  one  exception  is  thana  Amta,  where  the  increase 
in  1901  was  ouly  2"4  per  cent.  A  part  of  this  thana  has  suffered 
severely  from  malarial  fever,  so  much  so  that  in  1905  a  special 
enquiry  was  made  into  its  origin  and  prevalence.  The  part 
west  of  the  Damodar  is  liable  to  suffer  from  periodical  floods 
on  account  of  the  abandonment  of  the  embankments  on  the 
right  bank.  The  old  trade  from  the  north,  which  passed 
largely  through  this  thana,  has  now  been  diverted  eastwards 
by  roads  and  railways  ;  and  as  it  is  farthest  away  from  Howrah 
and  Calcutta,  without  any  good  means  of  communication  beyond 
a  small  light  railway,  no  compensating  trade  has  sprung  up. 
The  salient  statistics  of  the  census  of  1901  are  given  below. 


Subdivision. 

Area 

in 
square 
miles. 

Number  of — 

Popula-  ■ 

Number 

Persons 

per 
square 
mile. 

Varia- 
tion 
between 
1891  and 

1901. 

Towns. 

Villages. 

*'°"        houses. 

Howrah 
Uluberia 

DiSTEICT  TOTAL... 

173 

337 

510 

2 

2 

365 
1,08G 

431,257 
419,257 

101,600 

88,447 

2,493 
1,244 

-i-17-73 
+  5-52 

1,451 

850,514 

190,047 

1,668 

+11-38 

For  the  last  thirty  years  the  density  of  population  has  been  Dknsitt 
greater  than  in  any  other  district  in  Bengal,  rising  from  1,246  ^^.j.jQ^Jf'^' 
per  square  mile  in  1872  to  1,668  in  1901.  Even  excluding  the 
urban  areas  of  Howrah  and  Bally,  the  density  (1,351  per  square 
mile)  is  still  greater  than  in  any  district  in  the  Province.  The 
villages  tend  to  be  semi-urban  in  character,  every  thana  support- 
ing more  than  1,200  persons  to  the  square  mile.  The  population 
is  most  dense  in  thana  Dumjor,  which  adjoins  Howrah  city  on  the 
west  and  has  a  density  of  1 ,82-3  per  square  mile,  the  highest  in  any 
rural  area  in  Bengal.  This  figure  is  all  the  more  remarkable 
because  part  of  this  thana  lies  waste  and  is  uninhabited, 
being  covered  with  marshes  and  intersected  by  creeks.  The  popu- 
lation ia  Howrah  city  itself  has  nearly  doubled  in  the  last  thirty 


30  HOWRAH. 

years,  and  in  1901  tliere  were  no  leBS  than  17,510  persons  per 
square  mile,  or  nearly  lialf  as  many  as  ixi  London.  The  number 
of  persons  per  acre  in  this  great  city  varies  from  8  to  S3,  and  four 
of  its  ten  wards  have  5S  or  more  persons  per  acre.  Many  of 
the  ward?,  moreover,  contain  la'ge  areas  of  uninhabited  land,  so 
that  the  figures  afford  no  index  to  the  density  of  the  population 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  mills,  where  overcrowding  mostly 
occurs.  A  large  proportion  of  the  population  consists  of  opera- 
tives in  the  mills,  who  look  forward  to  returning  to  their  homes 
as  soon  as  they  have  accumulated  sufficient  funds.  In  the 
meantime,  they  live  huddled  together  in  crowded  lodging-houses 
as  close  as  f-ossible  to  the  mills  and  factories  where  they 
work. 

"  This  over-crowding  is  not  a  necessary  condition  in  Howrah,  as 
there  is  ample  room  for  building  at  no  great  distance  from  the 
centres  of  industry.  It  proceeds  partly  from  the  desire  of  the 
operatives  to  live  as  near  as  possible  to  their  work,  partly  from 
their  poverty,  which  leaves  them  little  to  spare  for  rent,  «ind  partly 
from  the  pressui'e  of  municipal  taxation,  which  falls  heaviest  on 
huts  and  discourages  the  construction  of  new  ones,  unless  there  is 
a  certainty  of  their  being  kept  full  of  lodgers.  The  bagii  clauses 
of  the  Mimicipal  Act  enable  roads  to  be  opened  out  and  drainage 
effected ;  but  there  is  at  present  do  law  under  which  it  is  possible 
to  prevent  over -crowding,  which  sometimes  attains  truly  astonish- 
ing proportions.  Fortunately  the  lodging-houses  are  of  very 
flimsy  materials,  and  there  is  much  natural  ventilation,  so  that 
the  effects  are  probably  less  harmful  than  they  would  be  in  the 
case  of  masonry  buHdings.'"*  In  spite  of  such  over-crowding  in 
Howrah  city,  it  is  noticeable  that  in  the  district  as  a  whole  the 
average  number  of  persons  to  each  house  fell  from  5'9  in  1881  to 
4-!>  in  1901.  No  district  in  Bengal  has  such  a  low  proportion 
except  Darjeeling,  where  conditions  are  exceptional. 
MioRA-  The   statistics   showing  the    volume   of   immigration  are  no 

T'o^'-  less  remarkable,  the  number  of  \  ersons  resident  in  the  district 
in  1901  who  were  bom  elsewhere  being  no  less  than  144,620. 
In  other  words,  the  proportion  of  immigrants  to  the  total  popu- 
lation is  17  per  cent.  Among  these  immigrants  natives  of  Bihar 
and  the  United  Provinces  bulk  largely  accounting  for  a  little 
over  70,000  or  nearly  half  the  total  number,  while  Oriyas 
number  over  8,000  and  natives  of  the  adjoining  districts 
49,0 00.  The  foreign  element  is  most  pronounced  in  Howrah 
city,  where   about  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  are   immigrants, 


•  Bengal  Censua  Report  of  1901. 


THE    PEOPLE.  31 

chiefly  from  up-country,  with  a  marked  excess  of  males,  of  whom 
there  are  two  to  every  female.  This  influx  of  immigrants  is  duo 
to  the  growing  demand  for  lahour  in  the  industrial  concerns, 
which  are  mainly  worked  by  up-country  coolies,  while  the 
shopkeepers,  who  are  enriched  by  the  trade  they  bring,  are  also 
for  the  most  part  foreigners.  The  Marwaris  form  a  small  but  not 
unimportant  section  of  the  mercantile  community.  Some  of  them 
have  made  their  homes  in  the  district,  and  have  offices  and  resi- 
dences in  Salkhia  and  the  northern  portion  of  Howrah. 

The  district  contains  two  towns,  Howrah  and  Bally,  which  Towns, 
extend  along  the  river  Hooghly  for  about  10  miles  and  contain 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  total  district  population.  For  practical 
purposes,  these  two  to^vna  are  as  much  a  part  of  Calcutta  as 
Lambeth  and  Southwark  are  of  London.  Since  the  construction 
of  the  Hooghly  bridge  and  the  extension  of  tram  Knes  there 
has  been  a  growing  tendency  for  workmen,  who  spend  their 
days  and  earn  their  livelihood  in  the  metropolis,  to  have 
their  homes  in  Howrah;  while  several  European  and  Indian 
gentlemen  of  Calcutta  have  houses  or  gardens  in  the  town  or  its 
suburbs.  The  railways,  mills,  factories,  docks,  iron-works,  etc., 
afford  employment  to  a  large  number  of  labourers,  artisans  and 
clerks,  while  many  boatmen  and  khaldsis  are  employed  in  the 
ships  and  boats  that  ply  to  and  from  Calcutta.  The  population 
of  Howrah  city  has  therefore  been  rapidly  growing,  rising  from 
84,069  in  1872  to  157,594  in  1901.  At  the  same  time  there  has 
been  a  proportionate  decrease  in  females,  the  males  increasing 
from  47,213  in  1872  to  99,904  in  1901  or  by  more  than  100  per 
cent.,  while  the  females  increased  from  36,856  to  57,690  or  by  60 
per  cent.  only.  This  is  apparently  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
immigrant  labourers  do  not,  as  a  rule,  bring  their  wives  and 
families  with  them.  Bally  town  has  also  been  progressing,  but 
not  at  the  same  rate  as  Howrah,  the  number  of  its  inhabitants 
rising  from  13,715  in  1872  to  18,662  in  1901.  Here,  as 
in  Howrah,  there  has  been  a  marked  disproportion  in  the 
increase  of  the  male  and  female  population,  the  number  of  males 
rising  from  6,885  to  11,383  and  of  females  from  6,830  to  7,279 
during  the  same  period.  This  town  formed  part  of  Howrah 
city  till  1882-83,  when  it  was  constituted  a  separate  muni- 
cipality. 

The  rural  population  forms  80  per  cent,  of   the   total   district  vii-iages. 
population  and  resides  in  i, 451  villages.     None  of  the  villages 
have   5,000   or  more  inhabitants,  but  15  per  cent,  have  2,000  or 
more,  and  51  per  cent,  contain  500  to  2,000  persons.     The  average 
population  of  a  village  is  465,  which,  though  exceeded  in  several 


CONDI 
TIONS 


32  HOWRAH. 

districts  of  Bihar,  is  the  highest  figure  in  the  Burdw&n  Division. 
Semi-urban  conditions  prevail  in  some  strips  of  land  along  the 
rivers  Saraswati,  Kana  and  Damodar,  for  they  are  densely 
populated  and  have  a  large  leavening  of  respectable  castes. 
In  thana  Dumjor  the  average  village  population  rises  to 
816,  a  very  high  figure  considering  that  much  of  the  lamd 
lies  waste  owing  to  the  number  of  swamps  and  k/idk.  The 
density  of  population  is,  however,  accounted  for  largely  by  the 
fact  that  this  thana  has  direct  communication  with  Howrah  town, 
and  consequently  witli  Calcutta,  by  means  of  a  liglit  railway. 
It  ab-o  shares  in  the  industrial  activity  of  Howrah,  and  it  has 
benefited  from  the  draining  of  its  marshes  by  the  Howrah  and 
Eajapur  schemes. 

Social  The   material   condition  of  the  people  has  been,  on  the  whole, 

improving  during  the  last  half  century.  The  opening  of  railways, 
the  erection  of  new  mills  and  factories,  and  the  establishment  of 
numerous  industrial  works  in  Calcutta,  Howrah  and  their  suburbs 
have  caused  a  great  demand  for  skilled  and  unskilled  labour,  and 
have  led  to  a  steady  rise  in  wages  as  well  as  in  the  prices  obtained 
for  agricultural  produce.  In  former  years  a  labourer  or  petty 
agriculturist  could  scarcely  manage  to  supply  himself  with 
the  necessaries  of  life,  while  in  bad  seasons,  or  on  other  occa- 
sions of  distress,  his  destitution  was  extreme.  Now,  however, 
after  defraying  all  his  expenses,  he  manages  to  save  something 
out  of  his  earnings  or  from  the  produce  of  his  fields.  This  he 
carefully  hoards  up  against  sickness,  seasons  of  scarcity,  and  other 
visitations  of  Providence ;  or,  as  is  often  the  case,  he  saves  for 
years  only  to  squander  the  more  freely  on  wedding  ceremonies 
and  festive  occasions.  It  is  reported,  however,  that  the  middle 
classes,  especially  those  who  reside  in  the  towns  and  have  small 
fixed  incomes,  do  not  share  in  the  general  prosperity  owing  to  a 
comparative  increase  in  their  expenditure  and  other  causes.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  with  the  middle  classes  of  higher  caste. 
^  They  have  appearances  to  keep  up  and  traditions  to  maintain,  and 

do  not  reduce  their  expenditure  on  social  ceremonies  or  alter  their 
mode  of  living.  Disdaining  manual  labour,  having  little  enterprise 
and  less  capital,  they  find  it  difficult  to  make  ends  meet,  owing  to 
the  increased  cost  of  livhig,  which  has  been  such  a  marked  feature 
in  the  economic  history  of  the  Province  of  late  years.  The  subject 
will  be  dealt  with  more  fully  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Drcis.  The  ordinal}'  dress  of  a  well-to-do  shopkeeper  generally   con- 

sists of  a  cotton  d/iutif  or  waistband,  wrapped  round  the  loins 
and  falling  over  the  legs  as  far  as  the  knee  ;  a  chddar,  or  cotton 
sheet  or  shawl,  which  serves  as  a  covering  for  the  upper  part  of 


THE    PEOPLE.  33 

his  body  ;  and  a  pair  of  country-made  shoes.  To  this  he  some- 
times  adds  a  jyirdn,  or  short  coat.  An  average  husbandman 
wears  a  dhuti  of  smaller  dimensions  and  coarser  material,  and  a 
small  gamchha^  convertible  into  a  head-dress  and  worn  as  a  turban 
when  he  is  at  work  in  the  fields.  Only  the  well-to-do  culti- 
vators wear  shoes.  The  dress  worn  when  attending  office  has 
changed  during  the  last  half  century.  The  townsman,  in  his 
office  and  outdoor  visiting  dress,  now  wears  trousers,  a  coat  or 
chdpkdn  with  a  shirt  inside,  a  pair  of  shoes,  a  shawl  in  the  winter 
and  a  muslin  sheet  in  other  months,  with  a  cap  or  pagrl  for  his 
head-dress.  Clerks  coming  from  the  mofussil  prefer  a  dhuti  to 
trousers,  and  do  not  wear  a  cap  with  it.  The  women  wear  a  sdri 
of  coarse  cloth  for  ordinary  use,  and  of  fine  cloth  for  festivities. 
Among  the  lower  classes  silver  ornaments  are  largely  worn ;  while 
svith  those  who  are  better  off,  gold  has  replaced  silver. 

The  materials  used  for  the  dwelling  of  a  well-to-do  shopkeeper  Houses. 
consist  simply  of  mud  walls  and  wooden  posts  supporting  a  thatched 
roof.  His  house  usually  comprises  three  to  five  one-storied  rooms, 
with  a  shed  or  large  verandah  outside  for  the  reception  of  visi- 
tors. The  homestead  is  surrounded  by  an  enclosure,  and  the  cost 
of  the  whole  building  is  about  Es.  500  to  Es.  1,000.  The 
furniture  met  with  in  such  a  house  consists  of  several  kinds 
of  brass  or  pewter  utensils  for  cooking,  eating  and  drinking ; 
some  earthen  pots  for  cooking  ;  one  or  two  earthen-ware  water 
jars ;  a  few  wooden  stools,  a  few  mats,  and  a  fakhtposh 
or  two,  i.e.,  plank  bedsteads  of  coarse  construction.  The  dwel- 
ling of  an  ordinary  husbandman  is  much  smaller  and  less  sub- 
stantial, being  composed  simply  of  mud,  straw,  and  bamboos* 
It  usually  consists  of  two  or  three  rooms,  and  the  furniture,  if  so 
it  may  be  called,  consists  of  a  few  brass  and  earthenware  vessels, 
a  stool  or  two,  and  a  few  mats  for  sleeping  on.  Some  of  the 
richer  husbandmen  also  possess  a  large  strong-box,  in  which 
they  keep  their  clothes  and  whatever  valuables  they  possess, 
such  as  their  wives'  ornaments,  rent  receipts,  etc.  In  the  towns 
brick-built  houses  or  tiled  huts  are  now  general.  An  ordinary  pakka 
house,  if  single-storied,  costs  Es.  2,000  to  Es.  3,000,  and  if 
double-storied,  Es.  3,000  to  Es.  6,000  in  the  towns  and  two-thirds 
of  this  amount  in  the  mofussil.  The  number  of  pakkd  houses  has 
considerably  increased  of  late  years  in  the  villages  of  thanas 
Dumjor  and  Jagatballabhpur. 

In  the  mofussil  the   shopkeeper  lives  on  rice,  pulses   {ddl)^  Food. 
clarified  butter   {(jhi),   curries   made  of  fish  or  vegetables,  sweet- 
meats, milk,  etc.     The  food  of  an  ordinary  peasant  consists  simply 
of  rice  and  a  curry  made  of  vegetables,  with  occasionally  a  little 

P 


34  HOWRAH. 

fish.  The  living  expenses  of  a  well-to-do  shopkeeper  or  clerk 
in  tlie  interior  are  from  Us.  20  to  Us.  50,  and  of  a  fairly  well- 
to-do  oidtivator  from  Rs.  10  to  Es.  20  per  month.  Most  of  the 
former  can  get  a  supply  of  vegetables  and  pulses  from  their 
gardens,  wliile  fish  are  plentiful  in  the  neighbouring  khdls  or 
tanks.  The  cultivators  also  produce  their  own  food  largely,  their 
stock  lasting  for  several  months  in  the  year.  In  the  towns 
artizans  and  mechanics  draw  better  wages,  spend  more,  and  in 
spite  of  higher  prices,  live  somewhat  better  than  their  fellows  in 
the  mofussil.  The  cost  of  maintaining  a  family  of  five  persons 
among  this  class  may  be  taken  at  Rs.  15  to  Rs.  35  per  month. 
In  the  towns  the  ordinary  monthly  expenses  of  the  more  well-to- 
do  classes  vary  from  Es.  25  to  Rs,  100,  if  they  have  got  no  land 
in  the  interior. 
Drinking.  The  upper  and  middle  classes  are,  as  a  rule,  sober  and  abste- 
mious. In  the  urban  tracts  tea-drinking  is  gradually  spreading 
among  them,  but  coffee  is  almost  unknown.  Opium  is  used 
chiefly  by  old  people,  while  gdnja  is  not  much  used.  Intoxicating 
liquors  are  also  more  or  less  tabooed  by  the  higher  classes.  About 
20  years  ago,  when  the  outstill  system  was  introduced  in  the 
mofussil,  there  was  some  apprehension  that  liquor-drinking  was 
spreading  among  all  sections  of  the  community,  and  Mr. 
Westmacott,  the  then  District  Magistrate,  made  a  special  enquiry 
in  1887.  He  found  that  the  apprehension  was,  on  the  whole,  not 
well  founded,  and  that  a  distinction  should  be  drawn  between 
landholding  ryots  and  landless  labourers,  even  when  the  caste  was 
the  same.  "  The  improvidence  which  permits  a  man  to  spend  a 
large  part  of  his  income  on  liquor  disappears  with  the  possession 
of  land,  and  my  knowledge  of  the  district  of  Howrah  enables 
me  to  corroborate  Mr.  Toynbee's  testimony  that  landholding 
ryots  are  by  no  means  addicted  to  intemperance,  or  to  the  use  of 
intoxicating  liquors  to  an}^  extent.  The  agricultural  classes, 
however,  include  the  landless  labourers,  to  whom  we  must  give 
a  very  different  character." 

After  mentioning  the  Bagdis,  Bauris,  Chamars,  Chan- 
dais,  Doms,  Dosadhs,  Haris,  Jaliyas  and  Kahars,  and  the 
lower  classes  of  Kaibarttas  and  Mubammadans,  as  people 
addicted  to  the  use  of  intoxicating  liquor,  either  tdri  or  distilled 
spirit,  he  remarked: — "I  have  met  with  no  evidence  whatever 
of  any  loss  of  sobriety  among  the  landholding  ryots,  or  any  indi- 
cation that  the  cheapness  of  liquor  has  induced  them  to  become 
consumers  of  it.  The  landless  labourers,  especially  among  the 
castes  which  I  liave  enumerated,  have,  for  generations,  been 
drinkers  of  spirituous  liquor,  according  to   their  means.     The 


THE    PEOPLE.  35 

establishment  of  jute  mills  and  other  industries,  affording  increased 
employment  to  labour  at  high  wages,  has  within  comparatively 
recent  years  enormously  improved  their  position,  and  enabled 
them  to  increase  their  expenditure  on  liquor  as  well  as  on  other 
objects,  and  the  growth  of  intemperance  among  them  has  been 
the  subject  of  remark  long  before  the  establishment  of  outstills." 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  about  the  marriage  customs  of  the  Marriage 
people.  Child-marriage  is  the  rule,  but  among  the  better  classes  ^"^^°'"'^* 
the  difficulty  of  finding  a  suitable  husband  is  gradually  raising  the 
age  of  marriage.  Marriages  of  girls  between  10  and  12  years  of 
age  are  becoming  not  uncommon,  but  the  strong  dislike  among 
Hindus  to  the  marriage  of  girls  who  have  attained  puberty 
prevents  the  age  of  marriage  being  higher.  Polygamy  used  to 
be  common  among  Karhi  Kulin  Brahmans,*  but  has  now  disap- 
peared, partly  from  economic  causes,  but  chiefly  from  the  pres- 
sure of  public  opinion.  One  effect  of  this  change  has  been 
to  increase  the  demands  of  the  bridegroom's  guardians,  as  a  ' 
larger  number  of  husbands  are  now  required,  where  previously 
one  would  have  sufficed.  Widow-marriage  is  not  allowed  by 
the  higher  castes,  and  is  only  tolerated  among  the  other  castes, 
except  the  lowest.  Even  among  them  a  widow  who  remarries 
is  looked  upon  more  as  a  household  drudge,  and  the  marriage 
ceremony  is  reduced  to  a  mere  formality. 

The  old  communal  life  of  the  village  has  almost  disappeared,  village 
The  villagers  used  to  gather  under  some  old  banyan  or  pipal  tree,  ^^^^' 
of  which  magnificent  specimens  still  survive ;  while  the  ehandu 
mandapa  and,  in  important  villages,  the  zamindari  kachhan  were 
also  favourite  resorts.  Here  they  would  discuss  village  politics, 
such  as  the  exactions  of  the  gumdshfa,  the  visits  of  the  police  and 
other  public  officers,  thefts  or  burglaries  in  the  neighbourhood, 
etc.  Local  scandals  added  spice  to  the  more  serious  talk ;  while 
business  topics,  such  as  the  price  of  food,  of  grain,  and  of  cattle, 
gave  it  a  personal  interest.  Larger  gatherings  were  attracted  by 
weekly  hats,  at  which  men  from  different  villages  exchanged  their 
ideas  on  every  subject  ranging  from  the  vagaries  of  the  weather 
and  the  state  of  the  crops  to  the  latest  visits  of  the  ddroyd  or  the 
zamindar.  Now  many  of  the  adult  members  of  the  respectable 
classes  have  migrated  to  Calcutta  or  Howrah  and  their  suburbs, 
leaving  only  the  females,  the  children  and  old  men  at  home,  but 
usually  visiting  them  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays  or  on  holidays. 
Hats  have  been  mostly  replaced  by  daily  bazars  in  the  important 
villages,  and  the  cultivators  sell  direct  to  pharids,  i.e.,  the  agents  of 


*  A  Kulin  Brahman  who  died  at  Bally  in  1839  is  said  to  have  had  100  wives, 

»2 


36 


HOWRAH. 


Lanqu- 

AQB. 


Reli- 
gions. 


Christi- 

HDS. 


Christian 
missions. 


town  traders  from  whom  in  many  cases  they  have  taken  advances. 
Newspapers  are  now  found  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthier  villagers, 
and  on  Sundays  and  holidays  a  few  of  the  better  educated  meet 
in  private  houses  to  discuss  not  village  affairs,  but  politics  and 
the  news  of  India  or  the  outside  world. 

The  prevailing  language  is  Bengali,  the  character  of  which 
differs  little  from  that  spoken  in  the  contiguous  districts  of 
Hooghly  or  the  24-Parganas,  Local  Muhammadans  also  speak 
this  dialect  in  a  somewhat  altered  form.  The  up-country  immi- 
grants use  Hindi  or  Bihari,  if  Hindus,  and  Urdu,  if  Musalmans, 
while  the  Oriyas  speak  Oriya.  In  1901,  languages  of  the 
Aryan  family  were  spoken  by  9,947  persons  out  of  every  10,000, 
viz.,  Bengali  8,838,  Hindi  1,005,  Oriya  98,  and  others  59.  No 
prominent  Bengali  writer  has  been  born  in  this  district  except 
the  poet  Bharat  Chandra  Eai  {alias  Mukhopadhyaya),  whose 
home  was  at  Penro-Bas<antapur,  pargana  Bhursut,  thana  Amta. 

The  bulk  of  the  people  are  Hindus,  who  according  to  the 
census  of  1901  accounted  for  7,908  of  every  10,000.  Of  the 
remainder  2,059  were  Muhammadans,  one  professed  Animism, 
and  32  followed  other  religions.  As  in  1881  Hindus  numbered 
8,009  and  Muhammadans  1,956  in  every  10,000,  it  would  appear 
that  the  former  have  declined  and  the  latter  increased  in  the 
same  proportion. 

In  1901  the  Christians  numbered  2,588  (1,568  males  and 
1,020  females).  The  majority  were  Europeans  and  Eurasians, 
579  being  Indian  Christians.  None  were  reported  from  thanas 
Amta,  Bagnan  and  S}ampur,  and  only  a  few  from  Jagatballabh' 
pur,  Uluberia  and  Bally  ;  while  nine-tenths  were  found  in  Howrah 
city. 

The  earliest  missionary  work  was  begun  by  the  Baptist  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  1703  under  the  Serampore  missionaries,  and  a 
school  started  by  them  in  1830  appears  to  be  still  in  existence. 
The  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  Knowledge  had  schools 
at  Howrah  in  1824,  of  which  Mr.  Tweddle  was  Superintendent, 
and  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Howrah  at  Sibpur,  Salkhia, 
Ghusuri  and  Bally.  In  1820,  Mr.  De  Mello  took  charge  of  the 
schools,  and  in  1827  another  school,  having  an  attendance  of 
120  boys,  was  opened  at  Bator.  In  the  same  year  we  find  that  the 
Professors  of  Bishop's  College  (opened  in  1824)  undertook  services 
in  the  Howrah  church,  Avhich  owed  its  erection  chiefly  to  the 
exertions  of  Professor  Holmes  of  that  college.  A  Sunday-school 
was  also  opened  by  Mr.  De  Mello  at  the  college,  and  one  of  those 
who  attended  it  was  baptized  in  1830.  Another  school  was  opened 
by  Mr.  Bowyer  in   1837   at    Baiakati,    12   miles  north-west   of 


IHE    TEOrLE. 


3t 


HoWrah,  a  building  being  erected  to  serve  both  as  a  school  and 
chapel.  The  same  missionary  had  established  an  English  school 
in  1830,  at  the  suggestion  of  Bishop  Turner,  which  was  *' intended 
to  serve  as  an  ultimatum  to  all  the  diocesan  schools  in  this  district ; 
it  is  proposed  to  select  from  each  those  scholars  who  are  the  most 
thoroughly  instructed  in  Bengali,  and  at  the  same  time  farthest 
advanced  in  English,  and  remove  them  to  this  institution,  where 
the  teaching  will  be  wholly  confined  to  the  latter  language." 
A  Christian  boarding  school  was  also  started  about  1837.* 
The  Iloman  Catholic  church  at  Cullen  Place  was  built  in  1832, 
and  a  school  for  Christian  girls  was  opened  in  1857  under  the 
supervision  of  the  nuns  of  the  Loreto  House.  The  Loreto  nuns 
were  replaced  in  1880  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross,  who  have 
since  then  carried  on  their  work  among  the  native  Christians  of 
Howrah. 

At  present,  the  Church  Missionary  Society  maintains  a 
resident  missionary,  first  deputed  in  1904  for  evangelistic  work 
among  the  Bindi-speaking  people,  of  whom  there  are  85,000  in 
the  mills  and  factories  along  the  riverside.  The  Baptist  Mission 
also  works  in  Howrah,  and  the  Baptist  Zanana  Mission  has  4 
girls'  schools  there.  A  small  American  Mission  calling  itself 
"  The  Church  of  God  "  has  lately  been  established  in  Uluberia. 
The  Presbyterian  Church  also  works  in  Howrah  among  Europeans, 
but  it  does  not  maintain  schools  or  missions.  The  Presbyterians 
first  began  to  work  in  Howrah  in  1897,  but  the  work  simply 
meant  a  service  in  the  Town  Hall  on  Sunday  evenings.  In  1901 
the  present  church  was  built,  and  in  1904  the  hall  adjoining  the 
church  was  erected.  The  church  belongs  to  both  sections  of 
Presbyterianism  at  present  working  in  Calcutta.  It  is  managed 
by  a  board  consisting  of  a  minister,  session  clerk  and  one 
member  from  the  Deacon's  Court  of  Wellesley  Square  United 
Free  Church ;  the  minister,  session  clerk  and  one  member  from 
the  St.  Andrew's  Church  Session;  and  four  members  of  the 
Howrah  church  with  the  minister-in -charge.  The  latter  came 
out  in  connection  with  the  Bengal  Mills  and  Steamers  Pres- 
byterian Association,  and  the  church  in  Howrah  not  being  able  to 
support  a  minister  of  ita  own,  his  services  as  minister-in-charge 
were  given  to  it.  The  minister-in-charge  also  ministers  to  the 
mills  on  both  sides  of  the  river  from  Kamarhati  to  the  Lawrence 
Jute  Mills  a  little  below  Bauria. 

The    Muhammadans,   who   formed  in    190].   more  than  one-  Mubam- 
fifth  of  the  population,  are  found  in  greatest  strength  in  Howrah  '"a^«'°*' 


*  J,  Long,  Handbook  of  Bengal  Missions,  1837. 


38  BOWRAH. 

city,  where  they  number  39,239,  congregatiug  chiefly  in  dirty 
over-crowded  bast  is  like  Tindalbagau,  Tikapara  and  Priya  Manna's 
basti.  A  large  proportion  of  them,  probabl}'  the  majority,  are 
immigrants ;  and  hence  the  males  are  in  considerable  excess. 
Outside  Howrah,  Muhammadans  are  found  in  fair  numbers  in 
thanas  Dumjor  (32,459)  and  Uluberia  ( 29,543),  and  also  in 
Jagatballabhpur.  A  few  in  thana  Dumjor  are  immigrants 
attracted  to  the  mills  on  the  river  bank  ;  but  the  bulk  are  resi- 
dents, and  not  a  few  are  old  settlers.  The  latter  date  back  to  the 
days  of  Muhammadan  rule,  when  their  forefathers  settled  along 
the  river  Saraswati  and  round  thana  Muckwa,  the  old  Tanna 
fort.  In  thana  Uluberia,  a  few  are  immigrants,  employed 
in  the  mills  at  Fort  Grloster  and  Bauria,  but  most  are  local 
people,  who  live  scattered  throughout  the  villages.  In  Jagat- 
ballabhpur again  most  of  the  Muhammadans  are  indigenous  and 
have  been  settled  for  many  generations  along  the  banks  of  the 
Kana  Nadi,  which  was  a  large  navigable  river  in  the  Muhammadan 
period.  They  predominate  in  three  groups  of  villages,  viz., 
(1)  about  Kamalpur  and  Sekrahati,  (2)  Dhasa,  Narendrapur  and 
Bakul,  and  (3)  Gustia  and  Panehla. 

In  this  district  the  Muhammadans  are  almost  exclusively 
Sunnis,  neither  the  Wahabi  nor  the  Farazi  doctrines  having  spread 
among  them.  Malliks,  Pathans  or  Saiyads  are  few  in  number  and 
are  found  chiefly  among  the  immij^rants.  It  is  curious,  therefore, 
to  find  that  in  the  census  of  1901  the  largest  number  of  Pathans 
were  reporied  from  such  an  out-of-the-way  thana  as  Syampur. 
Jolahas,  the  weaving  class,  are  found  chiefly  in  Howi'ah  city, 
where  they  are  probably  immigrants,  but  older  colonies  are  found 
iu  thana  Amta  and  at  Pancbla  in  thana  Jagatballabhpur.  The 
great  majority  in  1901  returned  themselves  as  Sheikhs,  a  generic 
name  which  in  this  district  includes  all  that  do  not  claim  to  be 
Saiyads,  Pathans,  Mughals  or  to  belong  to  some  special  caste,  such 
as  Jolahas,  Most  of  the  Sheikhs  in  rural  tracts  appear  to  be 
descendants  of  low  class  Hindu  converts,  who  are  too  poor  to  be 
admitted  among  the  Ashraf  or  respectable  classes,  and  whose 
origin  is  indicated  by  their  features  and  by  their  acceptance  of 
Hindu  superstitions.  Many  of  them,  however,  are  improving 
their  position  by  means  of  shop-keeping  and  their  skill  as  artizans ; 
and  a  considerable  percentage  of  the  Muhammadan  shopkeepers 
in  Chandni  and  in  the  municipal  market  of  Calcutta  hail  from 
thanas  Jagatballabhpur,  Dumjor  and  Uluberia. 
Auimistn.  '  Animii?t.s  are  few  in  number  and  are  confined  to  Oraons  and 
Sant&ls,  wliu  come  to  Howrah  in  search  of  employment.  In  1901 
the   Oraons   were   returned   at   3,328,  mostly  in   thana  Dumjor, 


THE    PEOPLE.  39 

where  they  were  working  as  coolies  in  Shalimar  station  and  on  its 
numerous  sidings. 

Hindus   form    the   large   majority    of    the   people    and   are  Hindus. 

divided  into  numerous  castes  or 
Higher  cautes...  I  jj'jj**y^^j^^"  •  jg'gig  semi-Hinduized  tribes.  Forty- 
pastorai  castes  )  sa'dgop        '.'.'.    i'iMsii      nine  castcs  Were  reported  in  1901 

fKaibartla        ...     230,508  i        •  ii  t    r,r\f\ 

Pi.i,in^      »ni  I  «sgdi  ...    72,603     as  numbermg  more   than   1,000, 

boating  castes.  ]p/^  •;;    ly'gjg      ^vhile  the    castes  noted    m    the 

LKaors  ...    17,5, o      j^^rgiu    numbered     more     than 

15,000  and  therefore  deserve  separate  notice. 

The  Brahmans,  as  a  literate  caste,  naturally  congregate  in  Brahwans. 
the  towns,  forming  one-sixth  of  the  population  of  Bally  and 
one-eleventh  in  Howrah,  where  Sibpur  is  their  main  centre. 
Outside  the  municipal  area,  they  are  found  mostly  in  old  villages 
along  the  banks  of  the  Saras wati ,  the  Kana,  and  the  Damodar, 
but  their  number  decreases  largely,  their  propoi-tion  to  the  popula- 
tion varying  from  one-sixteenth  in  thana  Amta  to  one-fortieth  in 
thana  Syampur.  All  classes  of  Brahmans  are  to  be  found,  but  the 
bulk  are  Rarhls,  as  might  be  anticipated  in  a  district  adjoining 
the  Ei§rh  country. 

Like  the  Brahmaos,  the  Kayasths  or   writer  caste   congregate  Kayastbs. 
largely  in  Howrah  city.     In   the   rural  thanas  they   are  found 
chiefly  in  the  older  villages  along  the  three   rivers  named  above. 
The  bulk  belong  to  the  Dakshinrarhi  section. 

The  Sadgops,  a  caste  found  almost  exclusively  in  Western  Sadgopa. 
Bengal,  are  mostly  inhabitants  of  thana  Dumjor,  but  there  are  a 
few  in  Howrah  city  and  thana  Amta.  They  occupy  the  western 
border  of  the  Division  from  Birbhum  to  north-west  Midnapore, 
and  would  appear  to  have  migrated  south  through  thanas  Groghat 
and  Chanditala  of  the  Hooghly  district.  Their  prevalence  in  the 
uplands  is  due  to  pastoral  habits,  and  lends  support  to  the  current 
tradition  connecting  them  with  the  caste  of  Gops  or  Goalas. 
They  have  now  mostly  taken  to  agriculture,  and  have  thereby 
raised  themselves  to  a  higher  caste,  just  as  the  Chasi  or  cultivating 
Kaibarttas  are  now  trying  to  do. 

The  Go&las  or  herdsman  caste  form  a  not  inconsiderable  part  Goalas. 
of  the  population.  The  up-country  Ahirs,  who  are  included  in 
the  number,  are  mostly  found  in  Howrah  city,  and  the  local 
Goalas  in  thanas  Dumjor,  Jagatballabhpur  and  Amta.  They  live 
along  the  three  older  streams,  evidently  attracted  by  the  pasture 
lands  on  their  high  banks.  A  considerable  number  of  the  Go^Us 
have  now  taken  to  agriculture,  and  have  grown  prosperous. 

In  a  lowland  district,   such  as   Howrah,  liable  to  be   flooded,  Kaibart- 
and   out    up  by    rivers    and   creeks,    the    chief   autochthonous  ^^^' 


40  HOWRAH. 

tribes  or  castes  would  naturally  consist  of  fishermen  and  boatmen, 
and  this  accounts  for  the  fact   that   the  predominating   castes  are 
'  Kaibarttas,  Bagdis,  Tiyars  and  Pods 

The  Kaibarttas  are  by  far  the  largest  caste,  accounting  in 
the  Uluberia  subdivision  for  about  half  the  total  number  of 
Hindus.  Originally  a  non- Aryan  tribe,  they  have  been  traced 
to  a  very  early  period,  being  mentioned  as  Kevarttas  in  the 
Vajasaneyi-Samhi'd,  Kaivarttas  in  the  Epics  and  the  Manu- 
SamhUd,  and  as  Kevatas  in  a  pillar-edict  of  Asoka.  Not  im- 
probably they  held  the  old  kingdom  of  Tamralipti,  and  they 
still  continue  to  be  the  great  caste  of  eastern  Midnapore.  They 
seem  to  have  consisted  originally  of  a  congenerics  of  tribes, 
which  coalesced  omng  to  similarity  of  functions,  but  were 
still  kept  separate  by  the  prohibition  of  intermarriage.  As  land 
was  gradually  reclaimed  from  the  waste  and  came  under  settled 
cultivation,  they  took  more  and  more  to  agriculture.  The 
cultivating  portion  gradually  drew  away  from  the  rest  and  set 
up  as  a  higher  caste  with  degraded  Brahmans  for  priests.  Their 
power,  wealth  and  number  eventually  secured  for  them,  in  the 
districts  where  they  predominated,  a  higher  social  status  and 
an  acknowledgement  that  water  might  be  taken  from  their  hands 
{jaldcliaraniya)  by  Brahmans  and  other  higher  castes.  At  the 
last  census  seven-eighths  returned  themselves  as  cultivating 
Kaibarttas  or  Mahishyas.  The  fishing  (Jaliya)  Kaibarttas  occupy 
a  very  low  position ;  and  in  Eastern  and  Northern  Bengal, 
Bihar  and  Orissa,  all  Kaibarttas  and  Kowats  still  rank  very  low 
in  the  social  scale. 
Bagdis.  Bagdis  are  found  in  large  numbers  in   thanas  Amta,   Jagat- 

ballabhpur  and  Dumjor.  Originally  fishermen,  they  have  now 
mostly  become  agricultural  labourers  or  j9a//i«-bearers.  They 
seem  to  have  consisted  originally  of  several  tribes,  as  the  period 
of  mourning  varies  among  them,  in  some  cases  lasting  31  days 
as  among  other  Sudras,  in  others  13  days  and  even  11  days,  as 
among  Brahmans.  They  are  found  chiefly  in  "Western  Bengal, 
from  which  apparently  they  migrated  into  the  districts  of 
Nadia  and  24-Parganas.  In  Howi-ah  district  their  distribution 
seems  to  show  that  they  came  from  the  north-west  or  north.  The 
name  is  connected  with  the  tract  called  Bagri  in  the  north-west 
•  of  the  Midnapore  district ;  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  this   name 

was  given  to  that  part  of  the  country  in  consequence  of  its  having 
teen  inhabited  by  Bagdis,  or  whether  the  latter  took  their  name 
from  the  country.  They  are  held  to  be  impure,  the  Tentulia 
section  alone  being  held  to  be  a  Uttle  higher  and  thus  able  to 
give  Gauges  water. 


THE    PEOPLE. 


41 


-    The  Tiyars  are  found  chiofly  in  thanas  Dumjor,  Jagatballabh-  Tiyurs. 
pur  and  Anita.     Fishermen  and  boatmen,  they  hold   a   very   low 
rank,  their  touch  defiling.     The   name    Tivara   is    found   in   the 
Brcihmaiamirfa-purdna,   but     means   there   a     hunter.      In  the 
mediaeval  Sanskrit  dictionaries,  however,  it  meant  fisherman. 

The  Pods  are  found  chiefly  in  thana  Dumjor  and  a  few  in  Pods, 
thanas  Uluberia  and  Syampur.  They  form  the  great  race-caste 
of  the  24-Pargauas  and  would  appear  to  have  spread  across  the 
river  Hooghly  into  Howrah.  Originally  a  fishing  caste,  a 
large  number  have  become  agriculturists  or  petty  shopkeepers. 
The  latter  now  claim  to  be  a  higher  caste  under  the  name  of 
Padma  Kaj,  but  the  claim  is  not  usually  allowed.  Their  touch 
defiles,  and  they  rank  very  low.  Some  of  them,  like  the 
Doms,  worship  Dharmaraj,  a  village  deity  with  a  Buddhistic 
veneering. 

All  the  fishing  castes  mentioned  above,  the  Jaliya  Kaibarttas, 
the  Bagdis,  the  Tiyars  and  the  Pods,  are  regarded  as  impure. 
Their  touch  defiles,  and  they  may  be  served  by  washermen,  but, 
as  a  rule,  not  by  barbers  or  degraded  Brahmans.  They  generally 
abstain  from  beef,  pork  and  fowls. 

The  Kaoras  are  found  in  fair  numbers  in  all  the  mofussil  KaorSs. 
thanas  except  Syampur.  They  rank  among  the  lowest  castes, 
having  nearly  the  same  status  as  l*oms  or  Chamars  but  being 
slightly  higher  than  Haris.  They  take  prohibited  food  and  are 
not  served  by  washermen,  barbers  or  degraded  Brahmans.  They 
seem  to  have  overflowed  into  Howrah  from  the  24-Pargana8, 
and  as  a  rule  rear  pigs  or  work  as  labourers,  but  a  number  of 
them  are  village  chaukiddrs. 

From  the  preceding  account  it  will  be  seen  that  in  this  ^^''^^ 
district  the  percentage  of  higher  castes,  such  as  Brahmans,  beliefs. 
Baidyas  and  Kayasths,  is  much  smaller  than  in  most  regulation 
districts  of  the  Province.  The  bulk  of  the  Hindu  population 
consists  of  low  castes,  whose  Hinduization  is  not  yet  complete. 
Among  these  low  castes  traces  of  old  Animistic  beliefs  can  still 
be  observed,  especially  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision,  where  the 
villages  are  farthest  from  industrial  centres,  contain  a  smaller 
number  of  Brahmans  and  other  high  castes,  and  have  been 
colonized  in  comparatively  recent  times. 

Animism  can  be  traced  not  only  in  customs  and  folklore, 
but  also,  and  far  more  clearly,  in  the  worship  of  godlings  or 
village  deities  {gram  demta).  This  worship  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  domestic  life  of  the  people,  and  in  the  religious 
beliefs  of  the  females.  Such  religious  beliefs  die  hard,  and  in 
spite  of  centuries  of  Brahmanioal  teaching,   still   survive,   though 


42  HOWRAH. 

in  very  much  modified  forms.  There  are  seyeral  distinct  in- 
dications of  the  Animistic  basis  of  this  worship.  Firstly,  the 
godlings  are  spirits  invoked  in  water  pots  or  materialized  into 
a  rudely  carved  bit  of  stone.  Secondly,  the  persons  who  officiate 
at  their  worship  are  not  Brahmans  but  members  of  the  lower 
castes.  Thirdly,  they  are  propitiated  by  sacrifices  of  animals, 
even  of  such  forbidden  animals  as  fowls  or  hogs.  Fourthly, 
they  are  worshipped  not  for  the  sake  of  any  spiritual  or 
intellectual  benefit  in  this  or  a  future  life,  but  solely  in  order  to 
obtain  immediate  material  benefit,  such  as  protection  against 
illness  and  calamities,  success  in  any  undertaking,  etc.  In  the 
process  of  Hinduization  these  features  have  become  obscured,  and 
have  more  or  less  disappeared  in  advanced  villages ;  but  in  the 
remoter  villages,  and  among  the  lowest  castes,  they  can  still  be 
found.  In  some  instances,  such  as  in  the  worship  of  Dharmaraj 
and  Satyapir,  Buddhistic  and  Musalman  influences  are  traceable  ; 
but  they  too  have  been  largely  modified  by  the  surrounding 
Hinduism.  A  brief  account  of  the  principal  godlings  in  this 
district  is  given  below. 
Dharma-  One    of  the   most   interesting   is    Dharmaraj,  who  is  usually 

'■"J-  represented  by  a  stone  under  a  tree,  daubed   with   vermilion,  and 

is  worshipped  by  a  priest  of  the  lowest  castes,  Dom,  Pod,  or 
occasionally  Bagdi.  He  is  credited  with  powers  of  healing,  and 
his  priests  supply  medicines,  while  women  worship  him  in  the 
hope  of  having  children.  The  offerings  are  pigs,  fowls  and 
2jachicai  beer,  also  rice  and  milk.  No  special  day  is  fixed  for  the 
worship,  but  the  favourite  days  are  the  summer  full-moon  days 
in  the  months  of  Baisakh  and  Jyaistha.  This  worship  is  known 
to  be  centuries  old,  being  mentioned  in  early  Bengali  literature. 
The  mantras  are  contained  in  the  Hdkanda-2Mrdna,  while  special 
poems  named  Dluirma-manyala  were  composed  in  his  honour  by 
Mayurabhatta,  Kuparam  and  Ghanaram.  These  poems  connect 
the  god  with  Mayana  fort  in  east  Midnapore  and  Dhekur  fort 
on  the  bank  of  the  Ajai  river  in  BirbhDm.  As  the  worshippere 
become  more  and  more  Hinduized,  the  sacrifice  of  animals  is 
gradually  giving  way  to  offerings  of  rice  and  milk,  while  the 
image  is  enshrined  in  a  temple  instead  of  under  a  tree. 

Dharmaraj  is  represented  either  as  Yama  (god  of  deathj  or 
as  a  son  of  Brahma,  the  latter  representation  being  explained  by 
a  (quaint  tradition.  It  is  said  that  when  Brahma  wished  to 
create  the  world,  he  could  not  imagine  how  he  would  be  able  to 
protect  it,  and  thereupon  Dharma  sprang  into  being  from  his 
right  breast.  Another  legend  relates  that  Dharma  had  a  quarrel 
with  Nftrayau  and  cursed  him,  saying  that  he  would  be  worshipped 


THE    PEOPLE. 


43 


with,  tuki  leaves  on  which  dogs  make  water.  Narajan  retort- 
ed with  another  curse,  telling  Dharma  that  he  would  receive 
worship  at  the  hands  of  low  caste  men.  It  has  been  suggested  that 
Dharma  worship  is  a  survival  of  Buddhism.  In  support  of  this 
theory  it  is  pointed  out  that  Dharma  is  meditated  upon  as  shunija 
murti  or  void,  that  the  ceremonies  and  fasts  in  his  honour  all  take 
place  on  the  full-moon  day  of  Baisakh,  the  birthday  of  Buddha, 
and  that  in  many  places  Dharma  is  represented  by  a  tortoise,  a 
miniature  representation  of  a  stupa.*  Possibly  Dharma  worship 
received  a  veneer  of  Buddhism  when  Buddhism  flourished ;  but  the 
arguments  are  hardly  sufficient  to  estabKsh  the  proposition 
that  it  is  a  reHc  of  Buddhism  itself.  On  the  contrary,  animal 
sacrifices  and  the  use  of  liquor  would  have  been  abhorrent  to 
Buddhism  proper,  even  in  its  latest  Tantrie  variety.  There 
appears  little  doubt  that  the  worship  is  substantially  Animistic, 
though  it  has  been  in  modem  times  largely  modified  by 
Hinduism. 

Some  of  the  godlings  are  invoked  to  protect  their  votaries  Baukura 
against  wild  animals,  tigers  and  snakes.  The  gods  of  tigers  ^'^'• 
are  Dakshin  Rai,  Kalu  Rai  and  Bankura  Rai.  They  are 
worshipped  as  spirits  in  water-pots  or  as  stone  images,  rudely 
carved  into  the  form  of  an  armed  male  seated  on  a  tiger,  which 
are  placed  under  trees  or  housed  in  huts  or  temples.  No  special 
time  is  fixed  for  their  worship.  Groats  are  sacrificed,  with  offer- 
ings of  rice  and  sweets.  Occasionally  a  low  caste  priest,  but 
usually  a  Brahman,  officiates.  These  godlings  are  recognized 
as  sons  of  Siva,  and  are  mentioned,  especially  Bankura  Rai,  in 
old  Bengali  poems. 

Manasa  is  the  godling  of  snakes,  whose  worship  is  widespread  Manasa. 
in  this  district  on  account  of  the  number  of  snakes  it  contains  and 
the  dread  of  their  bite.  She  is  represented  either  by  the  manasa 
plant  {Enphorhia  NerifoUa  or  Ligularia)  or  by  a  bit  of  stone, which 
is  rudely  carved  into  the  form  of  a  female  seated  on  a  snake,  or  it 
may  be,  by  a  shapeless  block  smeared  with  vermilion.  The  plant 
or  stone  is  generally  found  under  a  tree,  preferably  an  cmvaiiha 
tree,  or  is  housed  in  a  hut,  a  room,  or  occasionally  a  small  brick 
temple.  The  officiating  priest  is  sometimes  a  man  of  low  caste, 
e.g.,  a  Kaibartta  at  Srikrishnapur, '  and  a  Bagdi  or  Hari  at 
Jaypur  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision,  but  more  frequently  he  is  a 
Brahman.  The  offerings  consist  of  rice  and  other  articles,  but 
on  important  occasions  goats  are  sacrificed.  The  goddess  is  said 
to    be   particularly   fond   of    two    plants,    the    raktajavd    {Rosa 

*  Bengal  Censua  Report  of  1901,  page  204,  paragraphs  383-84. 


44  nOWRAH. 

Cliuiensis)  and  the  durhd  grass.  She  is  especially  worshipped  on 
the  last  days  of  the  months  of  Sraban  and  Bhadra  (August  and 
September),  a  season  when  snakes  are  forced  out  of  their  holes 
by  rain  and  are  a  very  real  danger  to  the  bare-footed  wayfarer. 
The  Go&las,  who  graze  cattle  in  the  open  country  and  are  there- 
fore particularly  liable  to  snake-bite,  besides  losing  many  cattle, 
worship  the  goddess  under  the  name  of  Eakhal  manasa.  A  mandsa 
plant  is  set  up  under  a  tree,  and  a  special  festival  takes  place  on 
the  last  day  of  Pans,  i.e.,  in  the  middle  of  January.  The  cowherd 
boys  go  round  begging  and  collect  money  for  the  offerings,  the 
ceremony  itself  being  conducted  by  a  Brahman. 

Accordingly  to  tradition,  Manasa  was  the  sister  of  the  snake 
Vasuki,  wife  of  the  sage  Jaratkaru  and  mother  of  the  sage 
Astik,  of  whom  a  long  story  is  told  in  the  Adiparva  of  the 
Mahabharata.  She  is  repeatedly  mentioned  in  old  Bengali 
poems,  while  special  poems  were  composed  describing  her  efforts 
to  extend  her  worship,  and  the  punishment  awarded  to  the 
unbelievers.  The  story  of  Chand  Saudagar  and  his  daughter- 
in-law  Behula  has  been  versified  by  Bipradasa  (1495  A.D.), 
Kshamanand  and  others. 
Paiicbri-  For  the  prevention  or   cure   of   illness   worship   is   offered  to 

°*"'  several  godhngs,  e.g.,  for  children's  illness  Panchanan  and  SasthT, 

and  for  other  ailments,  Sitala,  Ola-BiLi,  and  Ghautakarna.  Pan- 
chanan (Panchananda  or  Panchu  Thakur)  is  worshipped  either  as  a 
spirit  in  a  water-pot,  or  is  represented  by  a  clay  or  stone  image 
riding  a  goblin,  which  is  placed  under  trees  or  in  a  petty  temple. 
He  has  sometimes  a  priest  of  the  lower  castes,  e.g.,  a  Kaibartta  at 
Dankha  and  a  Bagdi  at  Jaypur  in  Uluberia  subdivision,  but  more 
often  a  Brahman.  Pice,  sweets  and  flowers  are  offered  to  him  with 
clay  horses ;  and  when  the  villagers  think  he  is  much  displeased 
with  them,  a  goat  is  sacrified.  If  several  children  die,  he  is  propi- 
tiated in  order  that  he  may  spare  the  lives  of  the  children  bom  after 
them,  and  the  latter  are  called  Panchu  or  Panchi.  The  number 
five  is  sacred  to  him  ;  and  the  children  are  believed  to  be  free 
from  illness  for  five  years  after  birth,  if  his  worship  is  observed. 
He  is  also  propitiated  for  the  cure  of  certain  special  ailments  of 
children,  e.g.,  when  they  get  a  crick  in  the  neck.  The  tradition 
runs  that  he  was  the  son  of  Siva  by  a  Koch  woman,  and  that,  on 
account  of  his  low  birth,  none  paid  him  reverence  until  he  was 
made  master  of  eight  diseases. 
Sasihi.  Sasthi  is  a  benignant  goddess   who   presides   over   the  health 

and  well-being  of  children.  She  is  worshipped  at  home  in  a 
water-jar  with  a  branch  of  the  banyan  tree,  and  with  offerings  of 
BUJi-dried  rice,  sweets,  ourds,  fruit  and  flowers,  6  days,  21  days  and 


THE   PEOPLE.  45 

31  days  after  the  birth  of  a  child;  a  Brahman  oflBciates.  She  is 
worshipped  by  Brahmans  on  the  2 let  day  in  the  case  of  a  male 
and  on  the  31st  day  in  the  case  of  a  female  child ;  but  Kayasths 
worship  her  on  the  31st  day  whether  the  child  is  male  or 
female.  The  ceremony  on  the  2l8t  day  is  often  performed  out- 
side the  house  imder  a  banyan  tree,  under  which  is  a  representa- 
tion of  the  goddess,  "viz.,  a  stone  daubed  with  vermilion  or  a 
clay  image  seated  on  a  cat  surrounded  by  little  images.  Her 
blessings  can  be  invoked  on  any  sixth  day  in  the  light  half  of  a 
month,  when  mothers  fast  and  offer  her  rice  and  other  articles 
through  a  Brahman.  Her  chief  festival  is  on  the  bana-s/ist/tl 
day  of  the  month  of  Jyaistha  (May- June) .  Fans  in  hand,  the 
village  women  go  to  the  banyan  tree,  taking  bamboo-leaves 
tied  with  saffron-coloured  threads.  A  Brahman  officiates  as  priest 
and  gets  the  rice,  fruit,  etc.,  offered.  The  women  take  back  the 
threads  and  tie  them  round  their  children's  wrists  to  ensure  their 
health.  S.asthi  is  probably  a  relic  of  the  old  Vedic  Animism. 
According  to  tradition,  she  is  a  daughter  of  Brahma  and  wife  of 
Skanda,  the  general  of  the  gods.  She  brought  to  life  the  dead 
son  of  king  Priyabasta,  who  in  gratitude  promised  to  extend  her 
worship  on  earth. 

The  goddess  Sitala  is  believed  to  have  power  to  produce  and  sitaia. 
disperse  infectious  diseases,  such  as  measles,  chicken-pox,  and 
above  all  small-pox  ;  hence  she  is  also  called  Basanta-ehandi. 
Among  the  higher  castes  a  Brahman  officiates  as  priest ;  but 
Kaibarttas  and  members  of  other  low  castes  officiate  for  the  castes 
to  which  they  belong.  She  is  represented  as  a  spirit  in  a  water-jar, 
as  a  simple  block  of  stone  or  an  image  under  a  banyan  or 
baknl  tree,  or  is  housed  in  a  small  temple.  The  image  is  one  of 
a  naked  female  riding  an  ass,  with  an  winno wing-fan  on  her 
head,  with  spots  on  her  cheeks  like  pox  pustules,  and  holding  in 
her  hands  a  vessel  and  a  broom ;  the  latter  is  symbolical  of  her 
power  to  sweep  away  diseases.  Rice,  fruit  and  sweets  are  offered 
to  her  with  goats  or  sheep  in  special  cases.  Batdsd  is  said  to  be 
her  favourite  sweetmeat. 

When  an  epidemic  of  small-pox  or  even  cholera  breaks  out, 
the  women  resort  to  her  shrine,  pour  water  on  the  roots  of  the 
tree  or  on  the  temple  verandah,  and  burn  lights  before  her  in  the 
evening,  accompanied  by  blowing  of  conch-shells.  A  party  of 
men,  usually  of  the  low  castes,  are  hired  to  sing  her  praises  for 
three  days.  At  the  end  of  this  time  there  is  a  piijd,  and  sweets, 
etc.,  are  distributed  among  the  villagers,  generally  by  the 
woman  that  cleans  the  place.  Low  caste  men,  such  as  Bagdis, 
Doms  and  Chaudals,   sing  from  door  to  door,  and  beg  for  alms, 


46 


HOWRAH. 


carrying  a  little  clay 


Olf.-Bibi. 


Ghanta- 
karna. 


Jwarasnr. 


Satya- 
NfirSyan. 


figure  of  Sitala  in  a  basket.  According  to 
tradition,  she  is  the  daughter  of  Savitri  by  Brahma,  and  is  the 
chief  of  seven  sisters,  mistresses  of  contagious  diseases.  Her 
worship  is  an  old  one,  being  referred  to  in  early  Bengali  litera- 
ture. 

Ola-Ribi,  or  as  Hindus  prefer  to  call  her  Olai-Chandi,  is 
propitiated  in  epidemics  of  cholera  (Bengali  old-uthd),  chiefly  by 
low  caste  Hindus  or  Muhammadans,  from  whom  the  priests  are 
recniited.  A  number  of  these  men  beg  from  door  to  door,  gather 
rice  and  pice,  and  then  go  to  her  shrine.  She  is  usually  repre- 
sented by  a  water-jar  under  a  nini  {Melia  Azhlarachtn)  tree. 
Kiee,  sweets  and  fruit  are  offered,  and  goats  are  sacrificed.  After 
the  puja  is  concluded,  the  people  return  home,  playing  on  the  dhol 
and  singing  songs.  The  employment  of  a  Muhammadan  as  priest 
is  peculiar,  and  the  present  form  of  worship  must  be  post- 
Muhammadan. 

Ghantakama  (i.e.,  the  bell-eared)  is  the  godling  of  skin 
diseases.  He  is  worshipped  on  the  last  day  of  Phalgun  for  the 
prevention  of  itch,  eczema,  etc.,  which  are  common  in  the 
beginning  of  the  spring.  The  ceremony  takes  plaCS  before  the 
front  door  of  the  house  and  is  finished  before  sunrise.  Ghanta- 
kama is  represented  by  a  lump  of  cow-dung  placed  on 
a  blackened  old  earthen  pot,  into  which  are  put  a  few 
cowries  dyed  with  vermilion.  An  old  woman  recites  mantras, 
which  are  repeated  by  other  women,  and  offers  rice,  ddl  and 
fruit  with  (jhentu  flowers  {Clerodendron  Infovtunatum)  and  diirhd 
grass.  When  the  offerings  have  been  made,  the  children  break 
the  pot  to  pieces  with  sticks.  According  to  tradition,  Ghanta- 
kama was  a  devoted  servant  of  Siva  and  was  rewarded  with  the 
power  to  cure  or  prevent  skin  diseases. 

Jwarasnr  {I.e.,  the  fever-demon)  is  invoked  in  individual  cases 
to  grant  recovery  from  fever  and  by  the  villagers  generally 
during  epidemics  of  malarial  fever.  He  is  worshipped  by  the 
lower  castes  with  the  aid  of  a  Brahman.  Besides  the  usual 
offerings  of  rice,  sweets  and  fruit,  goats  are  sacrificed  in  special 
instances, 

Satya-Narayan  is  a  godling  whom  all  classes  of  Hindus 
worship  in  order  that  they  and  their  families  may  prosper.  He 
is  worsliipped  on  the  evening  of  the  full-moon  and  by  many 
every  monlh,  a  Brahman  acting  as  priest.  The  thdhur,  as  he 
is  called,  is  represented  by  a  drawing  on  a  wooden  seat  with  a 
few  loops,  called  mokdfm,  and  a  post  at  each  comer,  called  tlr. 
The  offerings  consist  of  flour,  molasses  or  sugar,  and  milk  (each 
weigliing  ^\q  pawds),  betel-leaves  and   nuts   (25   each)    with   32 


THE   PEOPLE.  47 

plantains.  This  is  known  as  kachcha  sirnl.  Five  pawdii  each  of 
pakkd  sinii  sweets,  sandcsh  and  batdsd  are  added.  The  priest 
worships  Narayan  and  then  repeats  the  story  of  the  god.  The 
articles  offered  are  mixed  and  made  into  a  jelly,  part  of  which 
is  distributed  among  the  worshippers  present,  and  the  rest  is  sent 
to  neighbours. 

The  worship  smacks  strongly  of  Muharamadanism,  The 
absence  of  any  image,  the  use  of  words  like  sirnij  mokdm  and  th\ 
the  five  loops  in  the  drawing,  and  the  recurrence  of  five  as 
a  number  in  the  offerings,  all  indicate  Musalman  influence. 
Legend,  moreover,  relates  that  Narayan  appeared  in  the  guise 
of  a  faldr  or  Musalman  ascetic,  and  that  objection  was  at  first 
raised  to  his  worship  because  he  was  a  Yavana.  Satya-Narayan 
would  thus  appear  to  be  a  variant  of  Satyapir,  a  deity  wor- 
shipped by  the  lower  class  of  Muhammadans  and  evolved  after 
the  establishment  of   Islamic  rule  in  Bengal. 

Another  godling  of  disease  is  SubachanI,  who  if  duly  propi-  Siii)achani. 
tiated  will  restore  health  to  the  sick.  She  is  worshipped  in  a 
water-pitcher  by  a  Brahman  priest,  with  the  usual  offerings  of 
rice,  milk,  sweets  and  fruit.  But  the  chief  peeuUarity  of  the 
worship  is  that  the  priest  draws  21  ducks,  one  of  which  is  one- 
legged.  The  story  is  that  a  man  ate  up  as  many  ducks  and  was 
imprisoned  for  this  grave  offence,  but  was  released  on  worship- 
ping SubachanI.  In  some  places,  a  pai-t  of  the  offerings  is  given 
to  a  Musalman. 

Mangal  Chandi   is  another  deity  represented  by  no   image,  Mangai 
but  worshipped  as   a  spirit  in  a  water-pot.     The   worship  takes  ^''"'"'''• 
place   on  Tuesdays  in  the   month   of    Jyaistha.      Tradition  runs 
that   the   childless  king   Anga   obtained    issue    by    worshipping 
this  deity. 

Hu  is  worshipped  on  the  last  day  of  the  month  of  Kartik  Hn. 
and  on  the  following  Sunday  in  the  month  of  Agrahayan.  Tradi- 
tion relates  that  a  poor  Brahman  obtained  wealth  in  consequence 
of  his  two  ^ughters  worshipping  this  deity.  According  to 
some  the  sun  god,  and  according  to  others  Durga,  is  worshipped 
in  the  form  of  Hu ;  but  the  name  appears  to  point  to  a  non-Aryan 
origin. 

It  is  somewhat  refreshing   to   turn  from   these   survivals  of  Ram- 
primitive   Animistic  beliefs  to   one  of  the  latest  developments  of  ^J^^^"^^ 
Hinduism  —the  Ramkrishna  Mission,  which  has  its  headquarters  at 
Belur  in  this  district,  and  was  founded  in  1897  by  the  disciples  of 
Ramkrishna  Paramhansa  with  Swami  Vivekananda  as  their  head.* 

*  This  liislory  of  tae  Mission  h  is  bjea  compile^     with  the  help  of  a  note    kindly 
sent,  on  behalf  of  its  Secretary,  by  Swfimi  Sivananda  of  Belur. 


48  HOWRAH. 

Eamkrishna  Paramliansa  was  the  son  of  Khiidlram  Chatto- 
padhyaya  (Cliatterji),  a  member  of  a  respectable  Brahman  family, 
and  was  born  at  Kamarpiikur  in  the  Hooghly  district  in  183-i. 
At  an  early  age  he  is  said  to  have  displayed  deep  religious 
fervour  and  to  have  had  fits  of  religious  ecstasy.  On  being 
invested  with  the  sacred  thread,  he  studied  for  some  time  in  a 
tol  or  Sanskrit  school  kept  by  his  eldest  brother,  Eamkumar,  at 
Thanthania  in  Calcutta.  In  1853  the  late  Rani  Rashmani  of 
Jaun  Bazar,  Calcutta,  built  the  well-known  temple  of  Kali  at 
Dakshineswar,  6  miles  north  of  that  city,  and  Ramkumar  was 
appointed  its  priest.  Ramkrishna  went  with  him  to  Dakshineswar, 
and  there  for  12  years  practised  i/oija  (meditation  on  and  rapt 
communion  with  God)  under  a  big  banyan  tree,  which  is  still 
pointed  out  to  the  visitor.  His  asceticism  and  religious  fervour, 
his  poetical  and  mystical  view  of  life,  combined,  however,  with 
homely  common  sense,  began  to  attract  attention;  Keshab  Chandra 
Sen  of  the  Brahmo  Samaj  being  the  first  to  bring  liim  to  the 
notice  of  the  educated  classes  of  society  in  Calcutta.  He  found 
many  admirers,  and  died  of  cancer  in  the  throat  in  ISSti.  Further 
details  will  be  found  in  Ramahrhhna  :  Hk  Life  and  Sai/ings,  by 
Professor  Max  MuUer,  published  in  1898,  and  in  The  Life  of 
Eamkrishna  by  Dr.  Ram  Chandra  Dutt. 

Ramkrishna  left  a  small  body  of  disciples,  who  practised 
asceticism  in  a  monastery  at  Baranagar  in  the  24-Parganas, 
in  the  Himalayas  and  at  different  places  of  pilgrimage  in 
India.  The  greatest  of  these  disciples  was  Swami  Vivekananda, 
originally  known  as  Narendra  Nath  Dutt,  the  son  of  an  attorney 
of  the  High  Court.  Born  in  Calcutta  in  1863,  he  was  educated  at 
the  General  Assembly's  Institution  and  graduated  at  the  Calcutta 
University  in  1884.  He  became  a  disciple  of  Ixamkiishna  and 
adopted  the  life  of  a  devotee  in  188d.  In  189u  he  visited  Madras, 
and  in  1893  he  was  sent  by  the  Raja  of  Ramnad  as  a  represent- 
ative of  Hinduism  to  the  Parliament  of  Religions  held  at  Chicago, 
where  his  exposition  of  Vedanta  doctrines  made  a  great  impres- 
sion. For  three  years  after  this  he  travelled  in  America,  ex- 
pounding the  doctrines  of  ijoga  and  Vedantism,  and  in  1896  he 
visited  and  lectured  in  England.  On  his  return  to  India  in 
1897,  Vivekananda  foimded  a  )nath  or  monastery  at  Belur,  and 
died,  a  comparatively  young  man,  in  1002.  The  last  five 
years  of  his  life  were  years  of  great  activity,  for  he  made  a  tour 
through  Almora,  Kashmir,  Lahore  and  Madras,  preaching  and 
lecturing ;  he  again  visited  England  and  the  United  States, 
founding  a  Vedanta  Society  in  San  Francisco  ;  and  he  orga« 
nized   the   work  of  the   Ramkrishna   Mission  in  India. 


THE    PFOPLE.  49 

The  Mission  work  is  now  carried  on  by  a  band  of  advanced 
Indus,  with  whom  are  associated  some  Americans  of  the 
United  States,  such  as  Sister  NIvedlta.  The  nature  of  the 
work  which  Is  being  done  In  India  may  be  gathered  from  the 
following  brief  resume.  At  Belur,  the  headquarters  of  the 
Mission,  Brahmacharlns  (or  disciples)  are  trained.  In  Calcutta  a 
Bengali  magazine,  the  Udbodhan,  and  theological  books  are 
published.  At  Bhabda  in  Murshidabad  there  are  an  orphanage 
and  school,  at  which  pupils  are  given  a  general  and  technical 
education.  At  Benares  there  Is  a  school  for  training  Brahma- 
charlns, and  a  home  of  relief  or  hospital  At  M&yavat!  (Almora) 
an  English  magazine,  the  Ptahuddha  Bhdmf,  and  theological 
books  are  published.  At  Kankhal  (Hardwar)  there  Is  a  home  of 
service  {serdsroma),  i.e.,  a  hospital  for  the  poor.  At  Madras  there 
are  free  schools  for  poor  boys  and  girls,  lectures  are  given,  theo- 
logical classes  are  held,  and  a  magazine,  the  Bmhuiamdln,  and 
theological  works  are  published.  At  Bangalore  theological 
classes  are  held,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  sect  are  preached.  The 
Mission  also  gives  relief  to  the  distressed  in  time  of  plague  and 
famine.  In  1908,  for  Instaace,  members  of  the  Mission,  at  the 
request  of  the  Collector  of  Puri,  started  relief  operations  on  their 
own  account  in  the  famine -stricken  area  in  and  round  the  Chllka 
Lake,  rendering  Grovernment  relief  measures  unnecessary  In  the 
26  villages  with  which  they  dealt. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Mission  are  dealt  with  in  the  Rdmkrklma- 
kathdmrita  («.'?.,  the  nectar  of  the  story  of  Ramkrlshna),  Parts 
I — ^III  by  M. ;  while  their  Yedantic  aspect  is  expounded  in  the 
works  of  Swami  Yivekananda.  A  collection  of  Ramkrishna's 
sayings  has  also  been  published  by  Max  Miiller  and  by  the  late 
Pratap  Chandra  Mazumdar  of  the  Brahmo  Samaj.  Ramkrishna 
himself  appears  to  have  been  a  mystic  and  devotee,  described  as 
gentle  In  thought  and  deed,  who  favoured  exposition  by  means  of 
parables  and  allegories.  As  regards  his  doctrines,  Max  Miiller 
writes: — "  Ramakrishna  himself  never  claimed  to  be  the  founder  of 
a  new  religion.  He  simply  preached  the  old  religion  of  India, 
which  was  founded  on  the  Veda,  more  particularly  on  the  Upa- 
nishads,  and  was  systematlsed  later  on  in  the  Sutras  of  Badarayana, 
and  finally  developed  in  the  commentaries  of  Samkara  and  others. 
Ramkrishna  was  in  no  sense  of  the  word  an  original  thinker,  the 
discoverer  of  a  new  idea  or  the  propounder  of  any  new  view  of 
the  world.  But  he  saw  many  things  which  others  had  not  seen, 
he  recognized  the  Divine  Presence  where  It  was  least  suspected 
he  was  a  poet,  an  enthusiast,  or.  If  you  like,  a  dreamer  of  dreams. 
But  such  dreams  also  have  a  right  to  exist,  and  have  a  claim  on 


60  HOWRAH. 

our  attention  and  sympathy.  Eamatrishna  never  composed  a 
philosophical  treatise ;  he  simply  poured  out  short  sayings,  and 
the  people  came  to  listen  to  tliem,  whether  the  speaker  was  at  the 
time  in  full  possession  of  his  faculties,  or  in  a  dream,  or  in  a 
trance."  As  regards  tliese  sayings,  Max  Miiller  writes  : — *'  To 
my  mind  these  sayings,  the  good,  the  bad,  and  the  indifferent, 
are  interesting  because  they  represent  an  important  phase  of 
tliought,  an  attempt  to  give  prominence  to  the  devotional  and 
practical  side  of  tlie  Vedanta  with  other  religions."  Elsewhere 
he  says  that  Ptamakrislina  was  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
the  Vedanta  philosophy  and  that  that  philosophy  was  "the  very 
marrow  and  bones  of  Bamakrishna's  doctrine."*  According  to 
Swami  Sivananda,  Ramakrishna  "realized  that  all  existing 
religions  are  different  paths  leading  to  one  God.  All  the  paths  are 
equally  right,  and  every  sincere  seeker  is  sure  to  attain  God,  what- 
ever may  be  the  path  he  chooses  for  himself." 

The  same  doctrine  was  expounded  by  Swfimi  Vivekananda 
at  the  Parliament  of  Religions,  where  he  said  "that  it  was  a 
Hindu  principle  to  recognize  all  faiths  as  expressions  of  truth, 
and  that  from  his  earliest  boyhood  he  had  repeated  a  sacred 
text,  used  daily  by  millions  in  India,  which  says  that  as  the 
different  streams  having  their  sources  in  different  places,  all 
mingle  their  water  in  the  sea,  so  the  different  paths  which  men 
take  through  different  tendencies,  various  though  they  appear, 
and  crooked  or  straight,  all  lead  to  the  one  Lord."t  Probably, 
however,  it  was  not  Vivekananda's  advocacy  of  an  universal 
religion  that  appealed  to  Indians,  so  much  as  his  forceful 
character  and  the  impression  he  made  on  the  patriotic  spirit 
of  young  Hindus.  To  quote  from  an  article  in  a  recent 
number  of  The  International  Revieic  : — "  He  returned  to  India 
in  triumph  to  be  hailed  as  the  prophet  of  new  India,  as  one  who 
had  dared  to  assert  the  spiritual  wealth  of  ancient  India  in  face 
of  the  western  world.  He  at  once  became  the  hero  of  the  young 
generation — not  unnaturally  so.  His  character  and  his  career 
embodied  many  of  the  qualities  which  were  felt  to  be  lacking 
amongst  his  countrymen.  A  manliness,  a  self-reliance,  even  an 
aggressiveness  were  felt  to  be  his,  which  were  very  different  from 
tlie  proverbial  weakness  and  subservience  of  the  "  mild  Hindu.  " 
The  spirit  of  Vivekananda  may  stand  for  the  spirit  of  the  new 
era  in  India.  We  find  liis  name  repeatedly  quoted  to-day  as  the 
representative  of  Indian  national  aspirations.  His  is  the  reli- 
gion of  the  nationalists -the  cult  of   India— the   bold   assertion 

•  RUmakri.sJma  :  His  Life  and  Sayings,    pp.  11,  12,  70,  94,  97. 
t  The  World's  ParJiamenl  of  Religions,  Vol.  I,  pngcs  242,  243. 


THE    PROPLE,  51 

of  India's  right  to  stand  among  the  nations  as  the  mother  of 
ilhimination  and  light.  At  the  same  time  he  is  broadly  tolerant, 
nay,  universal  in  his  acceptance  of  the  other  world-religions.  All, 
he  claims,  are  contained  in  Yedanta  " 

Speaking  generally,  the  tenets  of  the  sect  are  Hinduistic, 
and  on  the  philosophical  side  have  a  Vedantic  basis.  Socially, 
the  Mission  represents  advanced  Hinduism,  having  no  objection  to 
the  use  of  meat,  to  travel  in  foreign  lands,  or  to  the  admission 
of  non-Hindus  into  its  ranks.  Swami  Siv§,nanda  describes  the 
general  object  of  the  Mission  as  being  to  "  propagate  the 
principles  propounded  by  Sri  Ramkrishna  Deva,  and  illustrated 
by  his  own  life,  for  the  benefit  of  humanity,  and  to  help  mankind 
in  the  practical  application  of  those  principles  in  their  spiritual, 
moral,  intellectual  and  physical  needs  " 

At  the  census  of  1901  Ramkrishna's  followers  returned  them- 
selves as  Hindus,  and  no  statistics  are  available  to  show  their 
number.  The  professed  disciples  are  either  laymen  or  celibate 
ascetics,  who  prefer  to  dress  in  orange-coloured  robes.  The 
latter  conduct  most  of  the  practical  work  of  the  Mission,  such  as 
the  hospital,  the  school,  the  orphanage,  the  training  of  the 
Brahmacharins,  and  the  delivery  of  theological  lectures.  On 
them,  too,  falls  the  brunt  of  the  work  in  times  of  famine,  in 
epidemics,  and  in  crowded  pilgrimages.  On  the  birth  ttthi  of  the 
founder  in  February  a  fair  is  held  at  Belur,  and  in  August 
another  fair  is  held  at  Kankurgachhi  in  the  24-Parganas,  where 
his  ashes  were  buried.     Both  these  fairs  are  largely  attended. 


b3 


52  HOWRAH. 


CHAPTER  lY. 


COKDI 

Tioys, 


PUBLIC    HEALTH. 

Oenehai  The  climate  of  the  district  leaves  much  to  be  desired  irom  an 
hygienic  point  of  view.  The  land  is  low-lying,  intersected  by 
rivers  and  creeks,  and  studded  with  marshes,  stagnant  pools  and 
silted-up  river  channt-ls.  Humidity  is  high,  the  rainfall  is  heavy, 
and  the  heat,  though  tempered  to  some  extent  by  sea-breezes, 
is  enervating.  The  result  is  that  by  August  and  September  the 
weather  is  relaxing,  water  is  muddy,  and  vegetation  is  rank. 
From  September  onwards,  with  tlie  gradual  cessation  of  the 
rains,  fever  and  bowel  complaints  become  common,  the  mortality 
being  highest  in  December.  It  decreases  from  January  till 
March,  after  which  cholera,  aggravated  by  bad  drinking  water 
in  the  hot  weather,  frequently  breaks  out.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  health  of  the  people  of  Howrah  is  much  better 
than  in  the  adjoining  district  of  Hooghly,  the  Ghatal  subdivision 
of  Midnapore,  and  the  districts  on  the  other  side  of  the  river 
H<ioghly,  such  as  Nadia,  Jessore  and  the  24-Parganas. 

Generally  speaking,  the  climate  is  better  in  the  south  than  in 
the  more  water-logged  tracts  to  the  north.  Of  the  rural  thanas 
Syampur  is  the  healthiest,  in  spite  of  periodical  epidemics  of 
cholera,  while  Amta  is  the  most  unhealthy,  suffering  in  the  north 
and  north-west  from  a  virulent  form  of  malarial  fever.  The 
Dumjor  thana,  once  a  fever-stricken  area,  has  been  much  improved 
by  the  draining  of  its  marshes.  Now  the  feverish  tracts  lie 
chiefly  along  the  thickly  populated  banks  of  the  old,  silted-up 
Saraswati  in  thana  Dumjor,  the  Kana  Damodar  in  thana 
Jagatballabhpur,  and  the  Damodar,  now  much  reduced  in 
volume,  with  its  old  bed  on  the  west  in  thana  Amta.  The  death- 
rate  in  the  municipalities  of 
1902-00.  1907.  Howrah  and  Bally  is  higher  than 
Hcwruh  ...       41-91        .37-74    in  tlie  interior,  as  will  be  apparent 

Sar..        ;::       toi        ^^     from   the  marginal   table  giving 

the  death-rate  per  mille  for  1907 
and  the  previous  quinquenniuii.     Tlie   difference  may  be  partly 


PUBLIC   HEALTH.  53 

due  to  better  reporting  in  the  municipaliiies  ;  biit'the  excess  is  so 
marked  that  it  may  fairly  be  ascribed  mainly  to  the  insanitary 
conditions  of  an  overcrowded  town  life.  Bally  suffers  especially 
from  fever  and  bowel  complaints,  Howrah  from  cholera,  dysen- 
tery and  diarrhoea.  Since  tlie  introduction  of  water-works  in 
1896,  the  mortality  from  cholera  has  considerably  decreased  in 
the  latter  town ;  and  it  is  pxpecte  1  that  the  death-rate  will 
decrease  still  further  on  the  completion  of  the  new  drainage 
scheme,  which  is  now  being  carried  out. 

Tne  present  system  of  reporting  and  compiling  vital    statistics  Vital 
was   introduced   in   1892,  and  it  would  be  of  little  use  to  compare  statis- 

TICS 

the  results  with  the  unreliable  figures  reported  for  previous  years, 
e.fj.^  the  number  of  deaths  reported  in  1871  and  1872  represented 
a  mortality  of  only  4"6  and  4'5  per  mille  respectively — obviously 
impossible  figures.  Under  the  present  system,  compulsory  regis- 
tration is  in  force  in  the  towns,  i.e  ,  parents,  guardians  or  the 
persons  directly  concerned  are  required  to  report  births  and 
deaths  to  the  town  police.  In  rural  circles  each  village  watch- 
man is  provided  with  a  pocket  book,  in  which  he  is  required  to 
have  all  births  and  deaths  that  may  occur  within  his  jurisdiction 
recorded  by  the  village  pnnchdyat ;  these  are  reported  on  parade 
days  at  the  police  stations  and  outposts,  which  are  the  registering 
centres.  The  statistics  thus  obtained  are  compiled  and  classified 
by  the  police,  and  submitted  monthly  to  the  Civil  Surgeon,  who 
prepares  the  figures  for  the  whole  district  for  inclusion  in  the 
annual  report  of  the  Sanitary  Commissioner.  The  statistics  are 
checked  from  time  to  time  by  superior  police  officers  and  by 
Inspectors  and  Sub-Inspectors  of  Vaccination. 

In  the  towns,  the  higher  level  of  intelligence  and  the  fear  of 
legal  penalties  tend  to  make  registration  and  the  classification  of 
diseases  more  accurate  than  in  the  rural  tracts.  In  the  latter  the 
reporting  chauklddr  is  generally  illiterate,  and  vital  registration 
is  less  correct,  the  chief  defects  being  that  still-births  are  very 
often  omitted,  while  births  of  females  and  births  in  outlying 
parts,  and  among  the  lowest  castes,  are  overlooked.  Deaths  are 
more  carefully  recorded,  but  the  causes  of  death,  except  cholera 
and  small-pox,  are  hopelessly  confused,  the  bulk  being  classified 
under  the  general  head  of  fever.  Still  the  figures  can  be  accepted 
so  far  as  concerns  the  relative  healthiness  or  unhealthiness  of 
different  years  and  the  approximate  growth  of  the  population. 

The  returns  from  1893  to   1907  show  that  the  birth-rate  is  Births, 
generally  above   30  per   mille,   falling  below    it  only  in   1892, 
when  registration  was  imperfect,  and  rising  to  above  36  per  mille 
in  four   years,   viz.,   1897,  1899,  1900  and  1904.     The  birth-rate 


54  HOWRAH. 

for  the  district  would  be  still  higher  but  for  the  two  towns.  In 
Howrah  the  birth-rate  was  lower  than  25  per  mille  in  eight 
years,  falling  below  20  per  niille  in  three  years,  and  rose 
above  30  per  mille  only  in  1897,  when  it  was  31'17  per  mille. 
In  Bally  registration  is  not  so  good  as  in  Howrah,  and  the 
variation  in  the  reported  birth-rate  is  extraordinary,  being  19*82 
in  1892,  13-17  in  1894,  3954  in  1903  and  5974  in  1904;  but 
in  nine  years  it  was  lower  than  22  per  mille.  The  low  birth-rate 
in  the  towns  is  apparently  due  to  the  preponderance  of  males 
over  females  among  the  large  immigrant  population  and  partly 
also  to  the  habit  of  sending  away  females  before  confinement  to 
their  homes  in  the  country. 

Deaths.  The  death-rate  for  the  district   during  the  same   period  was 

never  below  25  per  mille,  and  it  was  above  30  per  mille  in 
eleven  years,  rising  to  37*71  per  mille  in  1900.  Since  1899 
the  mortality  has  continued  to  be  heavy,  never  falling  below  30 
per  mille,  a  result  due  largely  to  the  high  death-rate  in  the  towns. 
The  highest  mortality  was  recorded  in  1900,  when  a  death-rate  of 
60*50  was  returned  for  Howrah  and  of  43"53  per  mille  for  Bally, 
but  these  figures  were  probably  misleading,  being  calculated  on 
the  census  figures  of  1891.  Still,  in  the  year  after  the  census 
(1902),  when  the  new  figures  were  available,  there  was  a  death- 
rate  of  35*26  per  mille  in  the  district  as  a  whole,  Howrah  returning 
47*43  and  Bally  37*40  per  mille,  both  calculated  on  the  new 
figures.  Fever,  as  usual,  is  the  commonest  cause  of  death,  though 
the  mortality  due  to  it  appears  to  have  decreased  slightly  during 
the  last  six  years.  No  perceptible  change  is  observable  in  the 
proportion  of  deaths  from  cholera  or  bowel  complaints.  The 
unhealthiest  months  are  November,  December  and  January,  the 
worst  being  December, 

Infantile  Infantile  mortality  is  high,  though  not   as  high   as   in   other 

mortality,  districts.  No  Icss  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  children  born  in  the 
district  die  within  twelve  months  of  their  birth,  and  according  to 
the  statistics  for  1901 — 06,  11  per  cent,  more  die  within  the  next 
four  years.  More  male  infants  die  than  females,  and  the  feverish 
mouths  of  September  to  December  are  especially  fatal.  The 
Indian  mother  is  usually  a  good  nurse  ;  but  poverty  and  early 
marriage  produce  a  weak  mother  and  sickly  child,  while  the 
child's  cliances  are  minimized  by  want  of  sufficient  nourishing 
food  and  clothing,  and  by  the  mother's  ignorance  of  infantile 
diseases. 

DI8EA8E8.  Tlio  mortality  attributed  to  fever  is  inflated  by  the  fact  that 
the  ignorant  cnhulriddrs  often  report  deaths  under  this  head  that 
are  really  duo  to  respiratory   diseases,    dysentery   and   diarrhoea, 


PUBLIC    HEALTH.  55 

etc.  But  there  cau  be  little  doubt  that  fever  is  responsible  for  a  Fevers, 
large  proportion  of  the  deaths,  the  experience  of  IG  years  (1891 — 
1906)  showing  that  out  of  an  average  death-rate  of  31*03  per  niille, 
fever  accounted  for  no  less  than  14:' 4  5  per  mille  or  nearly  half. 
The  mortality  is  far  less,  however,  than  in  the  remainder  of  the 
Burdwan  Division  or  in  the  Province  as  a  whole,  the  average  for 
Ilowrah  during  1902 — 06  being  only  13-91  per  mille,  as  compared 
with  21'79  and  21-86  per  mille  respectively.  Fever  prevails 
after  the  rains  from  September  to  January,  and  is  chiefly 
prevalent  in  those  parts  of  Ilowrah  and  Bally  where  shallow  pools 
abound,  and  elsewhere  in  the  tracts  which  are  water-logged  and 
covered  with  effete  water-courses  and  stagnant  ponds.  The 
highest  death-rates  were  reported  in  1899  and  1900,  after 
which  there  was  a  slight  but  steady  fall  to  12' 09  per  mille  in 
1906,  this  being  the  minimum. 

As  regards  the  types  of  fever  prevalent,  Lieutenant-Colonel 
F.  J.  Drury,  i.m.s.,  Civil  Surgeon  of  Ilowrah,  wrote  as  follows 
in  1906  :  —  "In  my  opinion  the  fevers  of  the  Ilowrah  district  aie 
mainly  malarial.  In  1861  a  Board  appointed  to  inquire  into  an 
epidemic  of  fever  in  the  districts  of  Burdwan  and  Hooghly 
(which  then  included  Ilowrah)  expressed  the  opinion  that  the 
prevailing  fever  was  immediately  caused  by  malaria.  The 
Sanitary  Commissioner  of  Bengal  in  1870  expressed  a  similar 
opinion,  and  after  examining  the  many  supposed  causes  of  the 
prevalence  of  malaria,  attributed  it  mainly  to  insufficient  drain- 
age, the  partial  or  complete  obliteration  of  rivers,  and  the  per- 
nicious state  of  soil,  air  and  water,  which  is  thereby  produced. 
On  consulting  a  number  of  annual  sanitary  reports,  I  find  that 
during  the  past  14  years  all  the  Civil  Surgeons  are  of  opinion 
that  the  fevers  of  the  district  are  malarial,  while  not  one  of  them 
suggests  any  other  cause.  This  prevalence  of  malaria  is  generally 
said  to  be  caused  by  the  defective  drainage  and  water-logged 
condition  of  the  district ;  and  it  is  almost  invariably  noted  that  the 
fever  mortality  is  highest  in  the  three  or  four  months  succeeding 
the  cessation  of  the  rains.  I  have  only  one  record  of  an  investiga- 
tion into  the  prevalence  of  malaria  in  a  part  of  the  district,  viz.,  a 
report  on  its  prevalence  in  the  village  of  Uaspur  near  Amta  by 
Captain  Ross,  i.m.s.,  Deputy  Sanitary  Commissioner.  In  the 
autumn  of  1905  there  was  a  heavy  mortality  from  fever  along  the 
banks  of  the  Damodar  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Amta.  This 
outbreak  was  attributed  by  the  villagers  to  flooding  of  the  ad- 
jacent lands.  Captain  Eoss  visited  Raspur  and  considered  the 
question  in  the  light  of  modern  views  as  to  the  causation  of 
malaria.     He  rejected  the  opinion   that  inundation   of  the    land 


56  HOWRAH. 

was  ihe  cause  of  the  malarial  fever,  and  attributed  it  to  the 
presence  in  tlie  village  of  a  great  number  of  small  (klda  surround- 
ed by  bamboo  clumps  and  dense  undergrowth.  These  dolds  form 
an  ideal  breeding  ground  for  the  anopheles  mosquito,  which 
carries  the  germs  of  malaria  from  the  sick  to  the  healthy.  The 
same  kind  of  conditions  are  found  in  many  of  the  villages  of  the 
district,  and  on  the  introduction  of  a  case  of  malarial  fever  into  a 
village  the  disease  is  likely  to  spread." 

Biirdwau  Formerly  the  severe  tjpe  of  fever  known   as   Burdwan  fever 

*^*'^'  prevailed  in  the  northern  parts  of  three  thanas,  viz.,  Amta,  Jagat- 
ballabhpur  and  Dumjor.  From  the  special  reports  submitted  to 
Government  in  1874  it  appears  that  in  this  district  the  epidemic 
broke  out  first  in  18Gi  in  the  tract  round  IJ  owrah  and  then 
advanced  north-westwards,  attacking  certain  villages  but  leaving 
others  untouched.  In  1866  the  epidemic  had  reached  Amta,  and 
in  1868  spread  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Damodar,  attacking, 
though  with  less  violence,  the  villages  that  had  till  then  been 
miaffected.  By  1874  its  violence  had  more  or  less  been  spent  in 
the  district.  The  mortality  appears  to  have  been  heaviest  in  the 
tract  on  the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  silted-up  river  Kana. 

Small-pox.  Small-pox  appears  every  year,  but  is  rarely  epidemic  or  wide- 
spread. It  was  only  in  1906  that  the  death-rate  rose  over  one 
per  mille,  the  incidence  being  highest  in  March  and  April.  The 
town  of  Ho%vrah  suffered  rather  severely,  having  a  death-rate 
of  '3"43  per  mille  ;  but  the  villages  in  the  interior  were  compara- 
tively immune. 

Cholera.  Cholera   is   endemic   in  this   district,   the   average  death-rate 

during  the  15  years  1892— 1906  being  3-73  per  mille,  while  in  1907 
the  death-rate  rose  to  7-38  per  mille,  the  maximum  recorded. 
There  are  two  seasons  in  which  cholera  breaks  out,  the  first  in 
December  and  January,  and  the  second  in  April  and  May,  both  in 
consequence  of  bad  drinking  water.  Of  the  rural  areas,  Syampur 
thana  suffers  most,  apparently  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
getting  good  drinking  water  after  the  rains.  Howrah  city  returns 
the  largest  mortality,  the  reported  death-rates  in  1895  and  1896 
being  as  high  a&  ll'iO  and  9"58  per  mille  respectively.  In  1896 
the  new  water-works  were  opened ;  and  a  supply  of  filtered  water 
being  available,  the  mortality  dropped  to  3-38  in  1897,  and  to  0-96  ' 
and  i'63  in  the  next  two  years.  In  19U0  there  was  a  rise  to  4'53 
per  mille ;  and  the  rise  was  more  or  less  kept  up  during  the  next 
seven  years.  The  rise  is  probably  connected  with  the  large 
influx  of  coolies  from  Bihar  and  other  places  up-country.  These 
coolies  live  huddled  together  in  insanitary  b((siis,  often  do  not 
diink  pipe  water,  and  cat  the  coarsest  kinds  of  grain. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH.  57 

Far  more  deaths  are  caused  by  dysentery   aud   diarrhoea,  the  Dysentery 

and 
diarrhoea. 


average  mortality  in  1892 — 1906  being  over  4*46  per  mille.     The  *"^ 


death-rate  is  fairly  persistent,  varying  only  from  3'81  to  5-69 
per  mille,  and  the  highest  incidence  of  mortality  is  in  December 
and  January.  Both  the  towns  show  the  largest  mortality  in  the 
district.  In  1900  and  1901  Howrah  had  a  death-rate  of  lO'5'j 
and  7*11  per  mille  respectively;  and  in  1903  and  1904  the  morta- 
lity in  Bally  was  10-60  and  10-82  per  mille.  The  district  has  long 
been  one  of  the  four  areas  in  Bengal  conspicuous  for  the  high 
death-rate  under  this  head,  the  others  being  Orissa,  Hooghly, 
and  parts  of  Patna  and  Saran ;  and  a  special  inquiry  was  therefore 
made  in  1905-06  by  Captain  W.  0.  Ross,  i.m.s.,  Deputy  Sanitary 
Commissioner. 

Briefly  the  results  of  this  inquiry,  so  far  as  Howrah  is  con- 
cerned, are  as  follows : — ( I)  Dysentery  is  prevalent,  but  it  is  not  of 
a  severe  type,  and  does  not  constitute  an  important  cause  of  death. 
(2)  Diarrhoea  is  the  heading  under  which  most  of  the  dysentery 
and  diarrhoea  deaths  are  returned.  (3}  A  large  number  of  the 
deaths  from  diarrhoea  are  due  to  terminal  diarrhoea  in  cases  of 
fever  {FrypanosGrniasis  ?) ;  this  is  the  principal  factor  of  errorjand 
greatly  magnifies  the  dysentery  and  diarrhoea  death-rate.  (4)  A 
number  of  the  deaths  returned  under  dysentery  and  diarrhoea 
are  really  due  to  cholera  (atypical  and  lingering  cases),  {o} 
Infantile  diarrhoea  and  acute  infective  diarrhoea  are  remarkable 
for  their  rarity,  but  simple  diarrhoea  in  old  age  causes  a  consi- 
derable number  of  deaths.  (6)  Of  bowel  complaints,  cholera  is 
the  only  disease  which  causes  a  large  number  of  deaths,  cholera 
being  endemic  in  the  district. 

Regarding  the  nature  and  causation  of  dysentery  and  diarrhoea 
in  Howrah,  Captain  Ross  remarked :  ~"  Most  of  the  deaths  under 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery  were  those  of  old  people,  and  on  going 
into  a  number  of  individual  cases  I  found  that  there  was  a 
remarkable  resemblance  in  the  clinical  history  of  each  case.  A 
man  or  woman,  generally  over  50  years  of  age,  has  fever  of  a 
quotidian,  or  sometimes  double  quotidian,  type  for  two  or  three 
months.  The  spleen  is  invariably  enlarged,  and  later  the  liver 
generally  becomes  enlarged  ;  emaciation  and  anaemia  are  always 
present  and  progressive  ;  often  there  is  oedema  of  the  feet  and 
ankles,  etc.,  jaundice  frequently  supervenes,  and  the  case  ends  in 
death  with  a  terminal  diarrhoea  of  two  or  three  weeks'  duration. 
This  disease  appears  to  be  exceedingly  common  in  Howrah 
district,  and  in  my  opinion  the  clear  clinical  picture  it  pretents 
compels  me  to  diagnose  it  as  Trypcuionomia^^is.  Further,  in  this 
connection,    I   was   informed   by   the   medical  men  at  Amta  that 


5S  HOWRAH. 

this  disease,  with  exactly  the  same  clinical  history,  is  very  comrcon 
there  and  affects  young  children  especially,  and  also  the  very 
old,  though  no  age  is  exempt.  In  young  children  jaundice  is 
always  a  prominent  symptom,  and  diarrhoea,  though  often 
present  near  the  end,  is  not  usually  severe ;  death  is  generally 
due  to  progressive  weakness  caused  by  fever  and  wasting.  In 
adults,  and  especially  in  the  very  old,  life  lingers  longer,  and 
generally  death  ensues  from  the  additional  weakness  caused  by 
diarrhoea.  No  cases  amongst  children  recover,  and  very  few 
cases  amongst  adults.  The  condition  is  most  fatal,  and  causes 
a  very  large  number  of  deaths. 

"  Although  dysentery  is  not  a  large  prominent  factor  in  the 
death  returns,  yet  it  is  more  prevalent  as  a  disease  than  in  other 
districts  which  are  less  low  lying  and  better  supplied  with  good 
water.  Both  the  prevalence  of  dysentery  and  the  large  mortality 
from  cholera  are  directly  due  to  the  exceeding  badness  of  the 
water-supply.  I  saw  no  wells  anywhere  during  my  tour.  The 
tidal  rivers  are  filthy  and  polluted  to  a  degree,  and  yet 
they  are  largely  used  for  drinking  and  all  other  purposes. 
Otherwise,  the  water  used  can  only  be  obtained  from  ilnbds. 
Tanks  are  few  and  far  between,  but  dohdsi  are  at  every 
door.  The  water  in  these  is  used  for  all  purposes, 
and  must  frequently  bo  directly  contaminated  from  cases  of 
cholera  and  dysentery.  It  is  muddy  and  dirty,  and  smells  very 
badly  owing  to  the  number  and  nature  of  the  uses  to  which  it 
is  put.  In  fact,  a  dold  is  little  more  than  a  cess-pool  diluted. 
The  first  sanitary  necessity  of  the  district  is  the  construction 
of  a  pakka  well  in  each  village  to  be  reserved  for  drinking  and 
cooking  purposes.  Until  this  is  done,  the  death-rate  from  cholera 
must  continue.  The  people  are  neither  so  stupid  nor  so  bigoted 
as  the  Oriyas,  and  will  use  wells  gladly  if  tbey  are  made. 
So  at  least  I  was  assured  both  by  the  people  and  by  the  local 
officers.  "Where  there  is  a  clean  tank,  as  at  the  Amta  court, 
people  come  from  long  distances  to  get  good  wator  for  drinking, 
and  nearly  all  the  people  in  the  town  take  water  from  it.  The 
result  is  that  cholera  has  no  hold  in  Amta,  and  only  a  few  cases 
have  occurred  recently  owing  to  importation  from  neighbouiing 
villages  where  it  is  epidemic." 
PiH-iie.  Plague  was   detected   first  in    1900,   and   has   not  yet   been 

virulent,  the  number  of  deaths  being  generally  below  200 
per  annum.  The  only  exception  was  in  1005,  when  1,277 
persons  died,  the  vast  majority  (l,!-"}!)  being  in  Howrah  city. 
'J~he  disease,  as  a  rule,  makes  its  appearance  in  November,  and 
cases    continue   to   occur   untQ  the   hot    days   of    April.      The 


PUBLIC   HEALTH.  69 

people  seem  to  appreciate  the  benefit  of  cleanliness  and  dis- 
infection, and  readily  disinfect  their  houses  or  ask  the  municipality 
to  do  so.  They  have  also  learnt  the  value  of  evacuating  infected 
houses,  but  segregation  and  inoculation  are  not  looked  upon  with 
favour  and  are  seldom  practised. 

Though  small-pox  occasionally  breaks  out  in  an  epidemic  Vaccina- 
form,  the  district  is,  as  a  rule,  comparatively  free  from  its  ravages. 
Vaccination  is  compulsory  in  the  two  towns  of  Howrah  and 
Bally,  the  Act  having  been  extended  to  the  former  in  1882  and 
to  the  latter  in  1884.  Here  the  prejudice  against  vaccination  has 
died  out,  but  in  the  rural  tracts  it  still  lingers,  though  the  general 
attitude  is  one  of  mild  indifference.  The  chief  objectors  are 
Musalmans  and  the  lower  castes  of  Hindus,  but,  in  spite  of 
this,  vaccination  is  making  good  progress.  In  1907-08,  20,589 
primary  vaccinations  were  performed,  of  which  20,506  were 
successful,  while  the  average  annual  number  of  persons  successfully 
vaccinated  during  the  previous  five  years  was  22,432  or  33  per 
mille.  Anti-septic  vaccination  has  been  introduced,  and  in  most 
instances  prepared  lymph  has  been  substituted  for  arm-to-arm 
vaccination  as  being  more  efiicacious. 

In  the  last  quinquennial  report  for  the  Burdwau  Division 
(1900-01  to  1904-05)  the  Commissioner  remarked  : — "  In  Howrah 
a  large  number  of  factory  operatives  are  vaccinated  every  year. 
A  large  number  of  infants  are  also  vaccinated  annually,  but 
the  proportion  is  still  below  500  per  mille.  The  general  condition 
of  health,  opposition  from  parents,  and  the  inabiUty  of  the 
vaccinators  to  finish  the  entire  area  of  the  district  account  for 
the  low  rate  of  infant  vaccination.  The  Civil  Surgeon  reports 
that  the  people  object  to  the  vaccination  of  infants  under  six 
months,  but  most  of  the  Hindus  are  willing  to  have  children 
above  six  months  vaccinated,  while  Muhammadans  generally 
object  to  vaccination  at  any  age.  The  repugnance  to  vaccination 
is  gradually  dying  out,  though  opposition  in  some  form  or 
other  is  still  experienced  and  is  shown  more  by  Muhammadans  ; 
but  generally  the  attitude  of  the  people  is  more  tolerant  than 
before." 

As  regards  the  progress  of  sanitation,  the  following  remarks  Sanita- 
of  the  Commissioner  may  be  quoted :  -  "  The  great  sanitary  ^^°^* 
need  of  the  district  of  Howrah  is  the  improvement  of  drainage, 
filling  up  the  numerous  unhealthy  tanks,  and  the  removal  of 
excessive  vegetation  from  the  vicinity  of  dwelling-houses.  In 
the  town  of  Howrah  drainage  works  are  in  progress,  though  it 
will  take  some  years  to  bring  the  work  to  a  completion.  The 
water -works  have  removed   all   difficulties  about  good   drinking- 


60  HOWRAH. 

water.  Very  little  has  been  done  to  fill  up  the  large  number 
of  unhealthy  tants :  the  work  is  progressing  slowly  for  want  of 
funds.  The  town  of  Bally  has  its  natural  di'ainage  towards  the 
paddy-fields  in  the  west.  The  people  obtain  their  supply  of 
drinking-water  from  the  river  Hooghly.  As  in  Howrah,  there 
are  numerous  unwholesome  tanks,  which  the  municipality  with  its 
limited  resources  can  hardly  be  expected  to  fill  up.  A  large 
tract  of  the  country  in  the  TJluberia  subdivision  is  liable  to 
submersion  almost  every  other  year  o'oing  to  the  zamindari 
embankments  not  being  kept  in  proper  repairs.  This  has 
two  divergent  effects.  At  first  the  flood- water  cleanses  the 
country,  and  cholera  disappears.  But  after  the  floods  are  over, 
large  collections  of  stagnant  water  remain  and  fever  becomes 
rife." 
Village  Village  sanitation  is  in  its  infancy,   and   the   general  sanitary 

sanita-  principles  which  should  govern  a  communal  life  under  modem 
conditions  are  but  little  known  or  understood.  Domestic  cleanli- 
ness is  fairly  well  attended  to,  but  drinking  water  is  taken  from 
polluted  tanks  and  ponds,  or,  less  often,  from  wells,  which  are  not 
cleansed ;  from  tidal  rivers  or  creeks,  which  are  often  conta- 
minated by  dead  bodies  and  other  organic  matter ;  and  in  the 
south  from  the  canal.  The  people  defcecate  in  the  fields  and 
gardens,  while  the  paths  and  drains  are  often  in  a  filthy  condition. 
There  are,  moreover,  no  conservancy  aiTangements  for  removing 
dirt  and  excreta.  Tanks  are  still  dug  or  old  tanks  re-excavated 
by  private  charity,  but  their  number  is  becoming  fewer.  The 
District  Board,  however,  has  sunk  a  few  tube  or  double  ring  wells, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  has  tried  to  cleanse  jungles  and  drains. 
Lately,  a  burning  ghat  has  been  built  at  Dumjor,  and  some  of 
the  tanks  are  being  set  apart  for  drinking  purposes.  The  large 
drainage  schemes  of  Bajapur  and  Howrah  have  helped  to  drain 
many  of  the  big  marshes  of  thana  Dumjor,  and  have  thus 
materially  improved  its  sanitation.  A  smaller  scheme  for  drain- 
ing the  feverish  tract  comprised  in  Amta  thana  was  proposed 
thirty  years  ago,  but  is  still  under  consideration. 
Urban  The  insanitary  conditions  prevaiUng  in  the  villages   were  until 

comparatively  recent  years  intensified  in  the  towns,  especially  in 
Howrah  with  its  large  immigrant  population.  In  1889  the  Sani- 
tary Commissioner  inspected  the  municipality  and  remarked: — 
"Of  all  the  large  municipalities  in  Bengal  which  I  have 
inspected — and  I  have  inspected  nearly  all  of  them — Howrah 
is  without  exception  the  dirtiest,  most  backward,  and  badly 
managed  municipality  I  have  seen."  In  1893  the  Sanitary 
Commissioner,    alter   inspecting   the   municipality,  expressed  his 


samlH- 
tion. 


PUBLIC   HEALTH.  61 

agreement  with  the  above  remarks  of  his  predecessor  and  added — 
"Generally  speaking,  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  town  of 
Howrah  is  most  deplorable.  On  every  side  one  is  met  by 
violent  breaches  of  ordinary  hygienic  laws.  I  have  never,  in 
fact,  seen  a  town  in  such  a  dangerously  insanitary  condition, 
and  I  should  be  very  sorry  to  live  in  it  myself."  Since  then 
there  has  been  a  remarkable  improvement,  though  the  sanitation 
of  this  great  city  is  a  very  difficult  matter  on  account  of  its  low- 
lying  situation,  its  very  rapid  growth,  and  past  neglect  in  laying 
out  and  properly  supervising  its  building  sites.  The  general 
level  of  the  town  is  very  little  above  ground  water  level  even  in 
the  hot  weather,  and  during  the  rainy  season  the  ground  is  water- 
logged. Ponds  and  tanks  abound  even  in  the  most  crowded  parts, 
are  nearly  all  filthy,  and  on  account  of  their  number,  size  and 
depth,  will  take  years  to  reclaim,  though  the  work  is  being  gradu- 
ally undertaken.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  holdings  are 
tiled  huts,  many  of  which  are  built  on  the  insanitary,  ill-ventilated 
plan  commonly  found  in  Bihar;  and  even  the  narrow  gullies 
which  exist  between  the  huts  are  closed  up  so  as  to  secure 
greater  privacy,  thus  still  further  hindering  ventilation  and 
serving  as  receptacles  for  61th. 

It  remains  to  note  the  improvements  effected  in  meeting  the 
most  pressing  sanitary  wants  of  the  town,  viz.,  (1)  a  filtered 
water-supply ;  (2)  a  good  drainage  system  ;  (3)  an  improvement 
of  the  hadk ;  and  (4)  better  conservancy  arrangements  for  the 
disposal  of  filth  and  night-soil. 

A  filtered  water-supply  has  been  provided  by  means  of  system  Water- 
of  water-works.  The  head-works  are  at  Serampore,  12  miles  ^"Ppiy- 
higher  up  the  river,  where  water  is  pumped  from  the  Hooghly 
into  four  settling  tanks,  being  then  passed  into  four  filter  beds, 
and  thence  through  a  filtered  well  into  a  large  water  reservoir. 
From  this  reservoir  the  water  is  conveyed  by  pipes  to  Howrah 
and  pumped  up  to  three  wrought-iron  zeservoirs,  which  hold 
448,000  gallons.  From  the  latter  water  is  distributed  through 
461  miles  of  iron  pipes  to  the  different  roads  and  lanes.  In 
1907-08  the  monthly  average  of  river  water  pumped  into  the 
settling  tanks  was  over  70,753,000  gallons,  and  of  filtered  water 
pumped  into  the  elevated  reservoirs  61,658,000  gallons.  The 
daily  average  of  filtered  water  sent  into  Howrah  was  2,021,000 
gallons,  and  there  were  4,221  house-connections.  Outside  the 
town,  water  is  supplied  to  the  East  Indian  Railway  works  at 
Bamangachi  and  Liluah.  Most  of  the  mills  also  get  their  supply 
of  drinking  water  from  the  water-works,  and  a  few  from  Calcutta. 
Some  use  jewel  filters,  three  obtain  water  from  tanks,  and    others 


62  HOWRAH. 

from  wells  reserved  for  the  purpose  lu  the  Delta  Jute 
Mills  the  river  water  is  pumped  into  a  settling  tank  and  thence 
into  an  iron  tank,  from  which  it  is  distributed  to  the  lines  in 
pipes. 

The  water-works  were  opened  in  1896,  the  original  cost 
being  Ks.  13,94,500,  which  has  been  increased  to  nearly  17  lakhs 
(Es.  10,70,310)  by  subsequent  additions  and  alterations  The 
maintenance  charges  averaged  in  the  next  nine  years  Us.  54,821, 
and  in  19()G-07  amounted  to  Us.  50,728.  The  cost  of  mainten- 
ance works  out  to  a  little  over  one  anna  per  1,000  gallons 
supplied;  but  the  actual  cost,  including  capital  outlay,  is  about 
3|  annas  per  1,000  gallons.  Analysis  shows  that  the  water  has 
a  high  standard  of  purity. 
Drainage.  Howrah  is  situated  on  comparatively  high  land  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hooghly,  the  general  slope  of  the  land  and  the  con- 
sequent flow  of  drainage  being  away  from  the  river  with  a 
natural  outfall  in  the  south-west  comer  of  the  towoi.  The  actual 
watershed  of  the  toA^Ti  extends  from  north  to  south  along  a  line 
about  400  feet  to  the  west  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Eoad.  Drainage 
on  the  east  side  of  this  line  falls  into  the  Hooghly  and  on  the 
west  into  jhih  and  Ljw-lying  land,  eventually  overflowing  into 
drainage  channels,  which  empty  themselves  into  the  river  on 
the  south-east. 

There  was  till  recently  no  regular  system  of  drainage. 
Most  of  the  drains  were  hachchd  drains  without  any  proper  align- 
ment, in  which  the  sewage  collected  and  stagnated,  and  the  few 
pakha  drains  were  wrongly  constructed.  A  regular  scheme  has 
now  been  prepared  for  the  effective  drainage  of  the  whole  town 
at  a  cost  of  about  10  lakhs.  For  this  purpose  the  town  has  been 
divided  into  several  sections,  viz.,  the  northern  foreshore,  the 
southern  foreshore,  the  central  section  and  the  Sibpur  section.  In 
two  of  these  (Sibpur  and  the  southern  foreshore)  the  new 
system  has  been  introduced,  and  the  rest  of  the  work  is  expected 
to  be  finished  in  six  more  years,  the  cost  being  met  by  loans 
from  Government.  When  first  the  work  was  undertaken,  the 
opposition  was  so  great,  that  work  done  during  the  day  was  some- 
times torn  up  at  night  ;  but  the  results  achieved  have  not  only 
shown  the  people  how  much  more  sanitary  their  abodes  have 
become,  but  also  have  considerably  enhanced  the  value  of  the 
land  as  building  sites  Any  one,  it  is  said,  who  was  previously 
acquainted  with  tlie  localities  which  liave  been  drained,  and  will 
compare  them  now  with  other  localities  which  have  not  been  drained, 
cannot  but  be  greatly  struck  with  the  vast  improvement  effected. 
The   former   liave   clear  running  stream?,  and  a  total  absence  of 


PURLTC    HEALTH.  63 

insanitary  cesspits.  The  latter  have  their  kachchu  drains  filled 
to  overflowing  with  a  black  sweltering  sewage-laden  liquid, 
beneath  which,  in  many  cases,  are  deposits  of  most  offensive 
sludge ;  while  the  neighbourhood  is  full  of  filthy  cesspits,  the 
contents  of  which  overflow  and  soak  into  the  ground  or  find  their 
way  into  neighbouring  tanks. 

The  filthy  overcrowded  hadis^  which  were  once  the  reproach  Ba*^i.». 
of  Howrah,  are  being  gradually  opened  up  by  new  roads  and. 
connected  with  the  new  drains,  where  possible.  A  set  of  bye- 
lawi  has  also  been  framed  for  the  construction  of  new  huts, 
and  more  attention  is  being  paid  to  their  lighting  and  ventilation. 
Sitaated  in  the  midst  of  nearly  every  group  of  huts  are  shallow 
ponds  formed  by  the  promiscuous  excavation  of  earth  for  house- 
building. In  the  dry  months  they  become  breeding  grounds  for 
mosquitoes  and  are  frequently  used  for  the  purposes  of  nature. 
In  the  rain^  refuse  and  debris  are  washed  into  them  and  make 
them  obnoxious.  A  considerable  number  of  them  have  now 
been  filled  up,  but  there  are  so  many  that  the  work  will  take 
many  years  to  complete.  Still  the  municipality  has  been  and  is 
making  steady  progress  in  improving  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  b(istis> 

Night-soil  and  suUage  water  are  removed  in  covered  carts  Conser- 
and  buckets  to  depots,  and  thence  taken  to  three  trenching  vancy, 
grounds.  The  main  portion  is  conveyed  in  wagons  by  a  sewage 
steam  tramway  to  the  Belgachia  trenching  ground  ;  and 
about  25,000  gallons  of  liquid  matter  are  disposed  of  daily  in 
biological  filters,  the  deodorized  effluent  being  used  to  irrigate 
land  with  crops  of  duh  grass.  Sewage  is  also  disposed  of  in 
septic  tank  installations  in  the  Howrah  Iron  Works,  Bally 
New  Mills,  and  Fort  Gloster  Jute  Mills,  the  installation 
in  the  mills  last  named  being  the  first  set  up  by  any  factory  in 
Bengal.  Three  burial  grounds  have  been  provided  for 
Musalmans  and  three  burniog  ghats  for  Hindus,  A  fine  burning 
ghat  (Jagat  Banerji's  Ghat)  was  built  at  Sibpur  in  1903  at  a 
cost  of  Rs.  13,000  raised  entirely  by  subscriptions. 

In  1893,  an  iron  bathing  gUat  was  erected    in    Howrah  by  Private 
Babu  Khirod  Prasad  Pal  at  a  cost  of  about  Rs.  15,000;  and  in  «^oi<^''»'.v 
1894,  a  large  public  bathing  ghat  was  constructed  in   the    Bally 
municipality  through  the  liberality  of  Babu  Chuni  Lai  Khetri  of 
Calcutta  at  a  cost  of  Rs.  7,000. 

At  the   beginning   of  the   present   century  there   were  seven  Medical 
dispensaries  in  the   district,   but  one   of  them,  the  Singti  Duke  tion"^" 
Charitable  Dispensary,  has  since  been  closed.     The  following  is   a 
brief  account  of  the  public  medical  institutions  of  the  district. 


64  HOWRAH. 

The  premier  inedioal  institution  is  the  Howrah  General 
Hospital,  which  was  opened  in  1861.  At  present  it  consists  of 
a  large  block  of  wards  for  European  cases,  a  block  for  Indian 
male  cases,  a  dispensary  and  a  small  block  for  Indian  females. 
It  is  undergoing  a  large  scheme  of  reconstruction,  which  will 
greatly  increase  its  accommodation  and  usefulness  ;  and  it  will 
soon  consist  of  an  European  general  block,  European  infectious 
block,  Indian  male  surgical  block,  Indian  male  medical  block, 
a  large  block  for  Indian  female  oases,  and  nurses'  quarters. 
There  are  now  95  beds  for  male  and  24  beds  for  female  patients, 
and  in  1907  altogether  2,116  indoor  patients  and  1 3,979  outdoor 
patients  were  treated,  representing  a  daily  average  of  65  and 
105  respectively.  In  that  year  a  bequest  of  Us.  25,000  made 
by  the  late  Babu  Devi  Prasad  was  utilized  for  the  improveniput 
of  the  Indian  ward. 

The  Beames  Charitable  Dispensary  at  Bally  is  almost  entirely 
maintained  by  the  municipality.  In  the  rural  tracts  there  are  four 
public  dispensaries,  viz.,  (1)  at  Amragori,  the  Amragori  Hazra 
Dispensary  maintained  partly  by  the  District  Board  and  partly 
from  the  interest  on  a  fund  of  Rs.  19,000  raised  by  subscriptions  ; 
it  is  so  called  after  Babu  Iswar  Chandra  Hazra ;  (2)  at  Syampur, 
maintained  partly  from  private  subscriptions,  but  chiefly  by  the 
District  Board;  (3)  at  Uluberia,  maintained  by  Government, 
the  Local  Fund  and  private  subscriptions ;  and  (4)  at  Arata, 
maintained  by  the  District  Board  and  private  subscriptions.  The 
dispensaries  at  Uluberia  and  Amragori  alone  have  accommodation 
for  indoor  patients,  the  former  having  six  beds  for  males,  and  the 
latter  four  beds  for  male  and  two  beds  for  female  patients.  All 
the  others  treat  only  outdoor  patients.  In  1907  the  largest 
number  of  patients  was  treated  at  the  Amragori  dispensary,  viz., 
6  540,  the  daily  average  being  42*40. 

The  Kavirdji  or  native  Hindu  system  is  still  much  in  vogue  . 
and  the  patent  medicines  advertised  in  papers  are  fairly  popular. 
The  homoeopathic  system  has  also  many  advocates  and  is  largely 
resorted  to  for  children's  ailments  or  chronic  illness.  The 
allopathic  system  is,  however,  most  favoured  by  the  well-to-do 
classes,  especially  for  surgical  operations.  The  efficacy  of 
fljiinine  for  the  treatment  of  malarial  fever  is  now  pretty 
well  understood.  Among  the  lowest  classes,  however,  the  worship 
of  Sitala  during  epidemics  of  small-pox,  of  Ola-Bibi  in  cases 
of  f'holera,  and  of  Sasthi  and  Banchu  Thakur  for  children's 
illnesses  is  still  common  ;  while  simple  compounds  of  vegetable 
drugs,  administered  by  elderly  females  or  old  men,  are  generally 
resorted  to  for  a  number  of  diseases. 


AORICULTURE.  65 


CHAPTER   V. 


AGEICULTUEE. 

Of  all  the  districts  in  Bengal,  Howrah  is  the  least  dependent  ^'"^eeal 
on  agriculiure  for  the  support  of  its  population.  It  is  practically  t ions. 
a  metropolitan  district,  a  large  proportion  of  its  inhabitants 
obtaining  employment  in  the  adjoining  city  of  Calcutta  and  in  the 
numerous  industrial  concerns  along  the  Hooghly.  These  concerns 
are  situated  in  the  long  riparian  strip  of  high  land  which  stretches 
from  the  Bally  Kltdl  on  the  north  to  the  mouth  of  the  Damodar 
on  the  south.  It  contains  the  populous  city  of  Howrah  and  the 
town  of  Bally,  and  below  them  are  numerous  mills,  brick-fields 
and  scattered  homesteads.  Even  in  the  interior  the  villages  are 
tending  to  be  semi-urban  in  character,  and  the  villagers  contribute 
largely  to  the  artisan  class. 

Conditions  are,  on  the  whole,  favourable  to  cultivation,  as  there 
is  a  rich  alluvial  soil  which  receives  periodical  deposits  of  ferti- 
lizing i>ilt  from  the  overflow  of  the  Damodar  and  Rupnarayan. 
In  the  ^outh,  the  land  between  those  rivers  lies  very  low  and  has 
to  be  protected  from  floods  by  embankments.  In  the  north  the 
country  is  cut  up  by  numerous  kh&k  or  creeks,  and  there  are  many 
jh'Us  or  swamps,  so  that  a  large  area  lies  waste  and  unculti- 
vable.  Elsewhere  there  are  wide  stretches  of  low  rice  lands  with 
diis  rice  or  jute,  sugarcane  or  orchards  on  lands  of  a  slightly 
higher  level.  On  a  part  of  the  latter  pulses  are  grown  after 
the  reaping  of  dm  or  jute,  and  along  the  jhits  spring  rice 
crops  are  raised.  In  the  south  the  land  is  almost  exclusively 
sown  with  winter  rice,  which  is  followed  by  k/iesdn  pulse  on  some 
of  the  higher  lands.  On  the  alluvial  accretions  called  c//ars, 
which  form  in  the  rivers,  vegetables,  oil-seeds,  and,  occasionally, 
tobacco  are  grown  after  the  rains  are  over. 

The  annual  rainfall  averages  56-95   inches,   though  there   are  ^ain- 
extraordinary  variations,  the   fall,   for  instance,  being  35-7  inches  ^*^^* 
in  1895-96  and  78*6  inches  in  1900-01.     As  a  rule,  it   is   over   50 
inches,  and  this  is  amply  suflScient  for  the  crops  :   indeed,  the  land 
being  low  and  intersected  by  watereouraes,  40  inches  will   suffice, 


no  HOWRAH. 

if  only  the  distribution  is  seasonable.     An  ideal  rainfall  from  the 
cultivator's  point  of  view  would  be  as  follows. 

A  few  sbowers  in  February  and  April  are  hailed  with  delight 
because  they  soften  the  ground  for  ploughing.  Then  should  come 
sunny  weather  in  May,  followed  by  heavy  rains  in  June  and  July, 
with  lighter  showers  in  Augiisto  The  period  from  the  middle  of 
August  to  the  middle  of  October  is  the  most  critical  for  the  rice 
crop.  Heavy  rains  in  the  latter  part  of  August  cause  high  floods, 
which  submerge  the  uuembanked  lowlands,  and  if  prolonged 
destroy  their  crops  ;  while  heavy  rain  in  the  first  half  of  September 
scddens  the  ears  of  rice  and  prevents  their  development.  The  most 
anxious  period,  however,  is  when  the  plant  is  ripening,  i.e.,  from 
the  middle  of  September  to  October.  Fair  showers  are  then  abso- 
lutely necessar}',  otherwise  the  crop  withers  away.  In  flooded 
areas,  the  loss  of  the  rice  can  be  compensated  for  by  a  good 
rail  harvest  or  in  very  low  lands  by  the  spring  rice  ;  but  if  the 
crops  fail  in  October,  the  loss  can  hardly  be  made  good,  because 
the  ground  is  too  hard  for  spring  rice  and  it  is  too  late  for  rabi 
sowing.  Rain  in  the  early  winter  (November- December)  is  un- 
welcome, because  it  hampers  the  cutting  of  the  crops  and  is  apt 
to  mate  them  rot  on  the  ground. 

The  effect  of  rainfall  on  the  crops  at  different  parts  of  the  year 
is  popularly  expressed  by  a  number  of  pithy  sayings  known  as 
Khandr  bachan,  i.f.,  the  words  of  Khana.  For  example,  Yadi  barse 
A(jhane,  Raja  Jan  md(jane.  Yadi  barsc  Mdijher  shen/ia,  dhanya 
raja,  dhanya  des/ia,  Yadi  haya  Chaitramd^e  bris/iti,  tube  haya  dhaner 
fifirisfdi.  Jyeshf/ie  shttkho  Aahdre  dhard,  ^lianhyer  bhdr  nd  sake 
d/iard.  Chaitre  kui/d  Bliddre  ban,  narer  inunda  gardgari  Jan.  "If 
it  rains  u\  Aghan  (November-December)  the  king  goes  out  to  beg. 
If  it  rains  in  the  end  of  Magh  (February),  blessed  is  the  king, 
blessed  is  tlie  land.  If  it  rains  in  Ohaitra  (March -April), 
paddy  is  grown.  Dry  weather  in  Jyaistha  (May- June)  and  heavy 
rain  in  A  sarh  (June- July)  make  the  earth  groan  with  the  weight 
of  the  crops.  Mist  in  Chaitra  and  floods  in  Bhiidra  (August- 
September)  make  (dead)  men's  heads  roll  on  the  ground."  These 
sayings  seem  to  date  back  to  a  time  wlien  floods  were  much 
dreaded,  as  adding  great  personal  distress  to  tlie  loss  of  the  crops. 
iKnioA.  Irrigation   is  practised,  but  not  on  an  extensive  scale,  for  the 

'*'""'•  rainfall  is  abundant,  and  the  lands  lie  low,  with  a  very  gentle, 
almost  imporceptibb  drainage  slope.  Winter  rice,  the  staple  crop, 
being  ordinarily  raised  on  lands  below  or  at  flood-level  requires 
no  irrigation  except  in  exceptional  years  of  drought ;  while  jute, 
the  second  crop  of  economic  importance,  grows  and  is  cut  in 
the    raius,   when  there   ig  ample   moisture.      In   fact,   artificial 


AGRTCULTURE.  67 

irrigatiou  is  required  only  for  certain  special  crops,  such  as 
sugarcane,  potatoes,  brinjals,  be(  el-leaf  and  spring  rice,  the  culti- 
vation of  which  either  takes  \Aace  after  the  rains  or  is  spread 
over  several  feasons. 

The  sources  of  irrigation  are  partlj'  natural,  such  as  rivers, 
creeks  and  swamps,  partly  artificial,  such  as  canals,  drainage 
channels,  tanks  and  wells.  The  important  winter  rice  crop 
usually  receives  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  from  the  overflow  of 
the  rivers,  hut  water  from  the  canal  and  from  the  drainage 
channels  is  also  used  for  its  irrigation.  It  is  taken  in  from  the 
Hooghly  at  spring  tides,  and  is  held  up  by  means  of  lock- 
gates  in  the  canal,  as  well  as  in  the  drainage  channels,  being 
supplied  to  the  cultivators,  on  application,  by  the  Public  ^Vorks 
Department.  Otherwise,  irrigation  direct  from  the  rivers  and 
creeks  is  rare,  unless  the  fields  to  be  watered  are  nearly  on  the 
same  level.  Occasionally,  however,  some  of  the  smaller  creeks 
are  dammed  up,  thus  raising  the  water-level  and  impounding 
a  supply  for  the  dry  months.  The  spring  rice  is  also  often 
irrigated  from  swamps,  on  the  banks  of  which  it  is  grown. 
Sugarcane  and  betel- leaf  are  generally  irrigated  from  adjoining 
creeks  or  tanks,  as  they  require  a  large  supply  of  water.  Well 
irrigation  is  not  much  practised,  though  the  water-level  is  only 
1  few  feet  below  the  surface.  Well  water  is  used  chiefly  for 
orchards  and  homestead  lands,  and  is  supplemented  by  the 
supply  drawn  from  pools,  tanks  and  ditches,  most  orchards  having 
i  pool  or  a  tank  attached  to  them,  which  furnishes  the  water 
svanted  after  the  rains. 

There  is  comparatively  little  canal  irrigation.  Ordinarily 
m  ample  supply  of  water  can  be  had  from  other  sources,  and 
in  the  summer,  when  the  latter  sources  dry  up,  the  canal  also 
3ontain8  very  little  water.  There  is,  however,  a  considerable 
iemand  for  canal  water  just  after  the  rains,  if  the  monsoon 
las  been  deficient  in  strength.  The  drainage  channels,  which 
;raverse  lands  on  a  very  low  level,  are  probably  of  more 
ise,  because  in  years  of  scanty  rainfall  water  can  be  brought 
ilong  them  from  the  Hooghly  river  in  the  critical  months  of 
September  and  October. 

Water  is  raised  from  wells  by  means  of  buckets  or  earthen  Water- 
Dots  with  a  rope,  which  occasionally  is  put  round  a  pulley  on  a  ^'^*''* 
A^ooden  bar  fixed  on  supports.  In  the  fields  the  usual  mode  of 
•aising  water  is  by  a  doi/gd  or  canoe-shaped  piece  of  wood  scooped 
)ut  inside.  At  each  end  a  man  holds  a  rope  ;  and  having  dipped 
;he  donga  in  the  water,  they  swing  it  up  into  a  channel  leading 
;o  the   fields.     Water  can  be  raised  in  this  way  two  or  three  feet 

f2 


68 


HOWRAH. 


only.     If  the   water   has  to  be  raised  higher,  the  men  stand  on  a 
fixed  frame   raised  above  the    water   and  have  longer  ropes  tied 
to  the  doiKjci,  or  draw  up  water  in   pots.     The  up-country   Idthd 
is  also  occasionally  seen  in  gardens  near  the  towns. 
Soils.  The   soil   throughout   the   district  is  alluvial   and  varies  from 

sand  in  the  river  beds  to  sticky  clay  in  the  interior  along 
the  silted-up  streams  and  muJ  iu  the  swamps.  Clayey  and  deep 
loamy  soils  prevail  iu  the  north,  and  lighter  loams  in  the  south, 
where  the  deposits  are  more  recent.  The  cultivators  have  a  long 
list  of  names  for  different  classes  of  land,  judged  from  various 
points  of  view,  for  they  classify  the  soil  according  to  its  level, 
composition  or  yield.  As  regards  level,  it  is  called  ja/d  when  below 
water-level  {I.e.,  usually  salt  or  paddy  land),  suiid  when  above 
water-level,  and  ddngd  at  a  higher  level.  On  the  highest  levels 
there  are  bdsfu,  or  homestead  land,  and  u.lbdsta,  or  land  imme- 
diately round  the  homestead.  According  to  composition,  the  soil 
may  be  bele  or  sandy,  entel  or  clayey,  penko  or  muddy,  dhand  or 
marshy,  and  so  forth.  According  to  yield,  the  ndH  and  'iund  lands 
are  divided  into  dtv-il  or  first  class,  doyani  or  second  class,  fie  yam  or 
third  class,  ckahdiam  or  fourth  class,  and  so  on,  the  terms  being 
relics  of  the  old  Musalman  classification. 
Pkincipal  The  following  is  a  statement  prepared  by  the  Agricultural 
cBops.  Department  showing  the  normal  areas  under  the  principal  crops 
and  the  percentage  of  those  areas  to  the  normal  net  cropped 
area  :  — 


Name  of  crop. 

Normal 
acreage.        I 

1 

Percentage  on 
normal     net 
iTopped  atea. 

Name  of  crop. 

Normal 
acreage. 

°  a  u 
a>      sa 

ill 

3 

4 

3 

1 
1 

1 

Winter  rice 
Sugarcane 

Total  aghani  crops 

Autumn  rice 
Maize 

Other  Ih&doi  tere- 
uIh  unil  puluus    ... 
OtbiT  hhadoi  food- 
(•rojjs 

Jule           

Til  (hhadoi)       ... 

1  ■55,200 
8,500 

50 
3 

1 
Summer  rice 
'  Other  rahi  cereals 
1     and  pulses 
Other   rahi  food- 
crops   ... 
inseed              ... 
Rape  and  mustard 
Til  {rahi) 
\  Other  oil-seeds... 
Other  rahi    non- 
food crops 
1 
!  Total  rahi  crops 

Orchards  and  gar- 
den produce    .. 

Twice  •  cropped 
ui°eu 

6,500 

11,200 

7,600 
2,000 
2,300 
1,200 
100 

1,500 

133,700 

53 

18,500 
300 

1,300 

2,700 

50,900 

300 

7 

1 
1 

23 

32,400 

13 

34,500 

u 

30,000 

12 

Total  hhadoi  crops 

8J,000 

32 

AGRICULTURE.  69 

According  to  the  statistics  for  1907-08,  out  of  a  total  area 
of  326,400  acres,  the  area  not  available  for  cultivation  is  52,400 
acres,  culturable  waste  other  than  fallow  accounts  for  16,000 
acres,  and  current  fallows  for  15,600  acres ;  while  the  net  cropped 
area  is  242,400  acres. 

Eice  forms  the  staple  crop  of  the  district,  being  grown  Kico. 
on  a  normal  area  of  150,000  acres  or  63  per  cent,  of  the  total 
area.  It  is  a  food-grain  especially  suited  to  low  moist  lands 
receiving  an  abundant  rainfall,  such  as  those  which  make  up  the 
greater  portion  of  Howrah.  An  immense  variety  of  different  kinds 
of  rice  are  grown,  but  the  crops  may  be  grouped  under  three  main 
heads  according  to  the  harvest  seasons,  viz.,  horo  or  spring, 
dm  (literally  asw)  or  autumn,  and  dman  [ox  haimanlik)  or  winter 
rice. 

Boro  rice  is  transplanted  along  the  banks  of  marshes,  or  in  Boro  imd 
very  low  lands  which  remain  wet  till  summer.  Ploughing  is  ""*• 
not  required.  It  is  sown  in  January  and  reaped  in  April  and 
May.  This  class  of  rice  includes  only  coarse  varieties,  and  only 
a  small  quantity  of  land  can  be  found  fit  for  its  cultivation. 
Am  rice  is  sown,  chiefly  broadcast,  on  sund  lands  and  preferably 
loamy  soils.  It  is  sown  in  May  and  reaped  in  August  and 
September,  being  often  followed  by  a  second  crop  of  pulses. 
This  crop  also  yields  coarse  varieties  of  rice.  Formerly  <7?/s 
was  a  fairly  large  crop,  but  it  has  been  replaced  by  jute, 
which  pays  the  cultivator  better.  In  the  sayings  of  Khana  we 
find  several  references  to  the  autumn  rice  crop: — Anser  bind  bele, 
pdfer  bhui  dtdle.  Vaishdkher  pratham  jale,  atiS'dlidii  dwir/un 
ohale.  Aus-'.ihdner  chdsh,  Idge  tin  mash.  "The  soil  of  dus  is 
sandy,  that  of  jute  clayey.  In  the  first  rains  of  Baisakh  (April- 
May),  diis  paddy  yields  double.  The  cultivation  of  diis  paddy 
:ake8  three  months." 

A  wan  rice  is  the  great  crop  of  the  year.  It  is  grown  on  lands  Winter 
ying  below  flood-level,  except  where  water  lies  so  deep  as  to  "'^*'' 
preclude  cultivation.  The  land  which  gets  the  right  quantity  of 
vater  and  most  of  the  detritus  washed  off  the  upper  lands  is 
laturally  the  richest,  and  is  therefore  called  dtval  or  first  class 
.and.  It  forms  the  deepest  or  nearly  the  deepest  part  of  the  fields, 
fvhile  above  and  below  it  is  doyani  or  second  class  land.  In  a 
j^ear  of  excessive  rain  the  upper  doyam,  and  in  a  year  of  drought 
:he  lower  doyam^  will  be  as  good  as  dical ;  but  in  a  year  of  average 
rainfall  the  dwal  will  be  better  than  either.  Above  and  below  the 
ioyam  are  the  zones  of  miQjioj:  seyam  and  thdhdram  soils. 

In  the  north  the  ground  is  frequently  manured  with  cow-dung 
(50  baskets  to  a  biylid)  except   in  the  lower  lands,  where  manure 


70  HOWRAH. 

would  be  dissipated  iu  the  water.  After  manuring,  ploughing 
begins,  as  soon  as  the  ground  has  been  sufficiently  softened  by 
rain,  towards  the  end  of  winter  or  in  the  beginning  of  spring. 
There  are  generally  four  ploughings  before  sowing  or  planting. 
The  clods  are  then  pulverized  by  drawing  a  mai  or  harrow  over 
theia.  Aman  rice  may  be  sown  broadcast,  but  is  more  usually 
sown  in  a  nursery  and  transplanted  into  the  fields.  It  is  sown  in 
May  and  June,  and  is  transplanted  in  the  rains,  chiefly  in 
July  and  August.  It  cannot  be  sown  broadcast  if  the  ground 
dries  up  early,  or  does  not  dry  up  at  all,  or  has  been  newly 
broken  up.  The  usual  quantity  of  seed  used  is  16  seers  to  a 
6igltd.  The  labour  required  for  transplanting  varies  according  to 
the  distance  of  the  fields  from  the  village,  the  depth  of  water 
and  other  circumstances,  but  on  the  average  it  takes  a  man 
five  days  per  oighd.  Harvesting  begins  on  high  lands  in  Nov- 
ember or  December,  and  is  mostly  finished  by  the  end  of 
January  On  the  lower  grounds  it  continues  till  the  end  of 
February  and  sometimes  till  the  middle  of  March. 

The  reaping  is  easy  enough  till  the  low  lands  are  reached 
after  the  dtval.  The  doyaiu  may  be  got  iu  dry,  but  nvyam  and 
chd/idram  have  generally  to  be  reaped  in  water.  In  dry  reaping 
the  straw  with  the  paddy  is  laid  iu  bundles  on  the  fields  in  order 
to  dry  it,  and  after  two  or  three  days  is  carried  home  for  thresh- 
ing. In  wet  reaping  the  heads  of  the  stalks  above  water  are 
generally  cut  and  then  carried  to  a  dry  spot  for  drying.  Paddy 
reaped  dry  is  usually  threshed  by  beatiug  the  bundle  against 
boards  till  all  the  grain  is  separated.  The  bundles  of  straw 
{k/iar)  are  then  stored  for  sale  or  use.  Paddy  reaped  wet  is 
trampled  out  by  oxen.  The  straw  {pdl)  is  sour  and  useless, 
except  for  feeding  cattle.  After  thi'eshing  the  paddy  is  win- 
nowed and  stored  in  thatched  granaries  with  split  bamboo  walls 
{mardi). 

The  outturn  naturally  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  land, 
timely  or  untimely  weather,  and  the  care  given  to  cultivation. 
On  an  average  the  oatturu  of  sdii  dwal  rice  per  iiglid  is  estimated 
at  7  to  10  maunds  of  paddy  and  one  lidhdii  of  straw;  and  of  sdli 
doyam  at  5  to  8  maunds  of  paddy  and  the  same  quantity  of  straw. 
Some  of  the  best  lands,  if  manured,  have  been  known  to  yield  12 
maunds  per  biyhd^  but  such  a  heavy  yield  is  very  rare.  Generally 
speaking,  the  outturn,  taken  at  the  rate  of  eight  maunds  of  paddy 
and  one  knhdn  of  straw,  would  be  worth  in  the  selling  season  not 
more  than  Rs.  20  (24  +  2). 
i'ulfati.  After  rice,  pulses   are  the  most  important  of  the  food-grains. 

Gram  is  not  grown,  but  other  pulses,  like  kfiemn)  mung,  peas  and 


AGRICULTURE,         >  71 

masurl,  are  favourite  second  crops.  Khemri  or  teord  is  sown  on 
low  rice  lands  when  the  dinan  is  damaged  by  floods  or  has  a  poor 
outturn.  It  is  sown  broadcast  in  October,  grows  slowly  until  the 
winter  rice  is  harvested,  then  shoots  up  rapidly,  and  is  gathered 
in  February  and  March.  It  costs  little  to  cultivate,  but  the  yield 
is  not  large  if  the  rice  crop  is  good.  It  is  a  grain  which  the  well- 
to-do  eschew,  but  owing  to  its  cheapness,  is  much  used  in  the 
form  of  ddl  by  the  poorer  classes.  The  other  pulses  form  the 
main  cold- weather  crops  on  snnd  lands.  They  are  sown  in 
October  and  November  after  ploughing  and  are  reaped  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March.  The  ploughing  is  more  carefully  done,  the 
seeds  cost  more,  and  the  outturn  is  more  valuable.  They  furnish 
the  ddl  eaten  by  the  higher  classes. 

Oil-seeds,   such   as  linseed,   til,  rape   and   mustard,  are  cold-  Oil-seeds, 
weather  crops  grown  only  in  small  plots  on  high  lauds  round  the 
village  sites  and  on  the  river  chars,  which  are  periodically  fertilized 
by  new  silt. 

Next  to  rice,  jute  is  the  chief  crop,  especially  in  the  north,  jute. 
It  has  largely  replaced  du8  rice,  and  in  1907-08  it  was  grown  on 
65,000  acres,  or  one-fourth  of  the  net  cropped  area.  In  most 
villages  in  the  Sadar  subdivision  it  is  raised  on  mud  lauds  that  are 
not  occupied  by  sugarcane,  vegetables  or  orchards.  The  ground 
is  usually  manured  with  cow-dung  or  rich  muddy  earth  dug  up 
from  tanks  or  ditches.  After  the  first  showers  in  May,  the  ground 
is  ploughed  up,  and  the  seed  (about  two  seers  per  highd)  is  sown. 
The  fields  are  then  weeded  twice  or  thrice  before  the  heavy  rains 
begin.  In  August  and  September  the  jute  is  cut,  stripped  of  its 
leaves,  carried  to  water  in  bundles,  and  there  steeped.  The 
steeping  process  is  called  retting.  After  a  time  the  stalks  are  taken 
out  and  beaten,  and  the  fibre  is  extracted.  The  fibre  is  cleaned, 
dried  by  hanging,  and  then  put  into  drums  ready  for  the  market. 
The  stalks  are  used  for  fuel,  for  thatching,  or  for  fencing  betel-leaf 
plantations.  The  outturn  varies  according  to  circumstances,  e.g., 
the  condition  of  the  fields,  the  quantity  of  manure  used  and  the 
care  given  to  cultivation ;  but  for  first  class  lands  the  average  out- 
turn may  be  taken  roughly  as  4  to  6  maunds  of  fibre  and  8  to  10 
bundles  of  stalks  (pdnkdti),  and  for  second  class  lands  3  to  5  maunds 
and  the  same  quantity  of  stalks.  The  Dumjor  and  Bargachhia 
stations  on  the  Howrah-Amta  line  are  centres  of  the  jute  trade, 
being  visited  by  European  and  Armenian  traders  in  the  season. 

Sugarcane  is  grown  on  sitnd  lands,  preferably  heavy  clay  soils  Sugarcane. 
retaining  moisture.     The  ground  is  prepared  by  ploughing  and 
harrowing,  and  also  receives  irrigation,  if  the  soil  is  light  and 
porous.      It  is  next  manured  with    oil-refusej    ^-ow-dung  and 


n 


HOW  RAH. 


tank-mud.  In  January  cuttings  half  a  foot  long  are  placed,  with 
oil-refuse,  in  holes  arranged  in  rows  a  yard  apart.  In  the  four 
months,  precediug  the  rains  >  February  to  June)  the  surface  is 
irrigated  several  times,  and  after  each  watering  it  is  hoed.  Just 
before  the  rains  the  ground  round  the  roots  is  cleared,  old  leaves, 
etc.,  being  removed,  and  manure  laid  at  the  roots,  after  which 
they  are  carefully  earthed  over.  During  the  next  five  months 
(middle  of  June  to  middle  of  November)  the  leaves  are  usually 
twisted  round  the  stems  to  prevent  insects  or  jackals  from  damaging 
the  plants.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough,  they  are 
tied  together  with  leaves  at  the  top  to  prevent  the  flexible  stems 
falling  down.  Cutting  begins  in  January,  and  may  continue 
till  April.  The  chief  varieties  are  Bombay,  Hkamsdrd  and  deihl. 
The  cultivation  is  exhausting  to  the  soil  and  expensive  to  the 
ryots.  The  crop  is  therefore  alternated  with  paddy  or  jute  in  the 
following  rains  and  with  potatoes  or  pulses  in  the  f ollo^dng  winter, 
so  that  the  soil  has  rest  for  at  least  a  year  and  a  half.  The  old 
wooden  mill  has  disappeared  and  has  been  replaced  by  a  more 
effective  machine  with  an  iron  crusher  and  pan.  A  few  of  the 
canes  are  sold  in  the  towns  and  rural  hala  ;  but  most  are  crushed 
in  the  iron  mill,  the  juice  being  converted  into  gur  or  molasses. 
Tobacco  Tobacco  is  a  minor   product,  being  chiefly  found  along  river 

ami  betel,  banks  and  on  chars.  Betel-le.if  is  more  largely  grown,  especially 
by  the  Barui  caste,  in  bamboo  enclosures  with  fenced  made  of 
jute-stalks.  The  cuttings  are  planted  in  rows  in  February  and 
watered  daily  for  the  first  three  months.  The  leaves  begin  to 
shoot  out  in  June  and  July,  and  continue  to  do  so  for  a  year. 
Old  stems  are  cut  down  in  April,  when  the  roots  send  up  fresli 
stems,  which  begin  giving  new  leaves  in  June  and  July.  In 
this  way  fresh  leaves  may  be  got  for  several  years,  otherwise  the 
stems  die  in  a  year.  The  trailing  plants  have  to  be  tied  to 
supports  of  dhoincha  or  split  bamboo,  and  the  soil  manured  from 
time  to  time  with  oil-refuse.  The  betel  leaf  of  Nunti  and  Bantul 
near  Uluberia  is  famous  for  its  fhivour,  being  exported  as  far 
north  as  Delhi. 

FBC1I8.  The  principal  fruits  of  the  district  are  mango,   plantam,  coco- 

nut, jack,  papaya,  piue-applo  and  custard-apple  {ald\  Groves 
of  mango  and  jack  abound,  especially  in  the  Jiowrah  subdivision. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  indigenous  mangoes,  which 
though  stringy  are  generally  sweet.  In  orchards  owned  by  the 
well-to-do  classes  grafts  of  Bombay,  /adi  and  lengrd  mangoes  are 
common  and  yield  fine  fruit,  though  it  is  rather  smaller  in  size  than 
thai  raised  np-couutry.  The  jack-fruit  usually  has  a  stringy  pulp, 
but  the   best  varieties  are   sweet  and  luscious.     Pine-apples   aw 


AGRICULTURE.  73 

regularly  cultivated  in  homestead  plots,  especially  near  the 
liluah  and  Dumjor  stations.  They  are  usually  large  and 
palatable,  while  the  sub-variety  called  rnsi,  though  smaller,  is 
particularly  sweet.  Papaya  grows  almost  wild  in  every  home- 
stead, and  is  a  welcome  addition  to  the  daily  fare,  being  eaten 
when  unripe  as  a  vegetable,  and  when  ripe  as  a  fruit.  Plantains 
are  cultivated  on  an  extensive  scale,  both  unripe  and  ripe  varieties, 
the  chief  sub- varieties  of  the  latter  being  the  religiously  pure 
kdt/iali,  the  small  but  delicious  cf/du.pd,  and  the  large  inartamdn 
(literally  Martaban).  Coconut  and  date  palms  thrive,  yielding 
fruit,  coconut  oil  and  date  sugar.  Limes,  tamarind,  leechees 
{Ne2)heliaiii  htc/d),  the  Indian  blackberry  [jam),  the  rose  apple 
{gold})  jam),  the  jdmriU  {Eugenia  juranica)  and  guava  are  found 
in  gardens  on  the  outskirts  of  the  towns. 

Vegetables  are  grown  extensively  round  the  villagers'  home-  ^'egk- 
steads,  in  private  gardens,  and  along  the  fertile  banks  of  the 
numerous  khdls  and  streams.  Excellent  ^jr/Zfl/.s  (Tncosanihes 
dioica)  come  via  Amta  from  the  Daraodar  chars,  and  arums  {ol) 
from  Santragachhi  and  Jagatballabhpur.  Amta  also  supplies 
large  soft  brinjals,  fairly  big  water-melons  and  good  radishes. 
Several  kinds  of  pot  herbs,  gourds,  beans,  yams,  cucumbers, 
potatoes  {deshl  or  Naini  Tal\  sweet  potatoes  and  onions  are 
raised  for  sale ;  while  near  the  towns  cauliflowers,  cabbages, 
peas,  beet,  and  other  European  vegetables  are  grown. 

Among    miscellaneous   products  may  be  mentioned  mulberries  IMiscf.l- 
grown   in   thana   Jagatballabhpur   and  Panchla  outpost  on  about  pjjo. 
500   acres;    bamboos   grown  in   the   compounds   of   most  house- otcxs. 
holds  ;    and   the  hog  I  a  reed,  which  is  plentiful  on  the  banks  of  the 
marshes  and  swamps. 

Figures   showing   changes    in    the   cultivated    area   for   any  Exte^- 
lengthy   period   cannot  be  given,    as  the  agricultural  statistics  of  ^\°^  °^ 
Howrah  were  incorporated  with  those  of  Hooghly  until  1905-06.  vation. 
It  appears,  however,  to  be  a  well-established  fact  that  practically 
all  the  land  at   present   cultivable  has   been   brought   under  the 
plough  and  that   very  little  land  is  left  fallow.     It  would  seem, 
moreover,  that  the  area  under  rice  and  jute  is  steadily  increasing. 
The   lands   reclaimed   by   the  three  drainage  schemes  (Howrah, 
Barajol   and   Eajapur)  have   been  almost  exclusively  devoted  to 
winter  paddy,  while  the  sund  lands  that  grew  autumn  rice   have 
been  devoted  almost  entirely  to  jute.     The  area  under  jute  varies, 
however,  with  the  prices  obtained  for  the  fibre  and  with  the  stock 
of  rice  kept  in  hand,  e.g.,  the  scarcity   of  rice  and  the  high  prices 
of  food-grains  in    1908  are   reported   to   have  caused  a  reduction 
in   the    area    under  jute  and   a   corresponding  increase   in   the 


MENTS  IX 
PBACTICE 


74  HOWRAH. 

cultivation  of  rice.  Sugarcane  cultivation,  which  increased  a  little 
after  the  introduction  of  iron  roller  mills,  is  declining  owing  to 
the  competition  of  imported  sugar  aud  molasses,  while  the  cultiva- 
tion of  vegetables  and  fruits  is,  on  the  whole,  increasing.  At 
present  a  large  quantity  of  food-grains  has  to  be  im])orted  from 
other  districts  ;  and  the  cultivated  area  can  only  increase  materially 
by  reclaiming  some  of  the  existing  swamps  or  by  protecting 
part  of  the  country  liable  to  inundation. 
Improve-  The  substitution  of  jute  for  autumn  rice  as  a  more  paying 
crop  commanding  a  ready  sale  is  becoming  general.  In  the 
flooded  tracts,  the  losses  due  to  floods  are  counteracted  by 
sowing  pulses  along  with  Avinler  rice,  for  if  the  latter  is  damaged 
or  destroyed,  a  good  crop  of  the  former  can  be  got  from  the 
deposit  of  silt  left  by  the  receding  water.  The  value  of  manure 
as  a  fertilizer  is  understood.  It  is  generally  applied  in  the 
case  of  special  crops,  and  is  also  coming  into  use  for  rice  on 
higher  lands.  The  usual  manures  are  dcomposed  cow-deimg  and 
the  refuse  of  oil-seeds ;  but  the  scarcity  of  firewood  leads  to  an 
increased  use  of  dried  cow-dung  for  fuel  among  the  poorer  classes. 
A  certain  amount  of  rotation  is  practised,  e.g.,  jute  or  autumn 
rice  is  rotated  with  pulses,  sugarcane  with  jute  and  pulses,  etc. 

Several  new  kinds  of  ploughs  have  been  tried,  but  have  not  yet 
passed  the  experimental  stage.  The  improved  Sibpur  plough  is 
somewhat  in  favour,  as  it  has  the  advantage  of  better  work 
combined  with  cheapness  and  simplicity.  The  use  of  iron  roller 
mills  and  pans  for  converting  sugarcane  into  (jur  has  already 
been  alluded  to. 

The  cultivators  keep  seed  for  sowing  from  their  old  stock, 
and  there  is  no  conscious  selection  of  the  best  kinds  ;  but  there 
is  a  general  tendency  to  select  the  better  varieties  for  planting, 
e.g.,  Bombay  and  shdnisdrd  in  the  place  of  deshi  sugarcane, 
while  Santragachhi  arums  (ol)  are  substituted  for  the  ordinary 
kind,  muktakeshi  brinjals  for  the  common  varieties,  up-country 
mangoes  for  the  indigenous  kinds,  etc.  In  urban  gardens 
imported  European  seeds  are  largely  used. 
CATir.E.  I^li®  breeds  of  cattle  are  of  the   usual   kinds  found  in  Lower 

Bengal.  Cows  are  kept  by  house-holders  and  Goalas,  who 
also  keep  buffaloes;  bullocks  by  Goalas  and  cultivators  of  all 
classes ;  sheep  and  goats  by  Musalmans  and  low  caste  Hindus  ; 
pigs  by  the  lowest  castes,  such  as  Kaoras  and  Haris  ;  ponies 
by  the  more  wealthy  Muhammadans  and  Hindus.  The  cows 
and  plough-bullocks  are  weak  and  stunted  in  growth,  no 
sustained  efforts  liaving  yet  been  made  to  improve  the  breed. 
Epidemics   often   break   out,   and  from   ignorance   and  want  of 


AGRICULTURE. 


76 


prompt  treatment  many  die.    The  Saturday  hat  at  Uluberia  is  the 
largest  cattle  market  in  the  district. 

Cattle  suffer  much  from  want  of  pasturage.  Once  every  rustuia-c 
village  had  its  grazing  grounds,  but  now  there  are  practically 
none,  nearly  every  acre  having  been  appropriated  and  rented 
out  to  cultivators.  The  ryot  consequently  has  to  feed  his 
bullocks  with  straw,  etc.,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  ;  for 
though  the  cattle  get  some  grazing  in  the  fields  after  harvesting, 
they  are  kept  out  of  them  as  soon  the  crops  are  sown,  and  have 
to  be  tethered  on  some  more  or  less  barren  patches,  off  which 
the  grass  is  quickly  browsed. 

Among   the    castes   engaged  in   agriculture    the    Kaibarttas  Ageicul- 
predominate,  a  thrifty  industrious  class,  who  have  migrated  largely  classes. 
into  the   southern  thanas,  probably  from  the  east  of  Midnapore. 
The  other  principal   agricultural  castes   are    Pods,   originally   a 
fishing  caste,  who  came  to   the   Uluberia   subdivision,   probably 
from  the  other  side  of  the  river  liooghly  ;    Sadgops,   a   charac- 
teristic caste   of   West   Bengal  ;   Chandals,   probably  emigrants 
from  Eastern  Bengal  ;  Baruis  or  hereditary  betel-leaf  growers  ; 
and  among  the  Musalmans  that  heterogeneous  class,  the  Sheikhs. 
From  various  causes,  chiefly  economic,  recruits  have  been  received 
from  other  important  classes,  such  as  the  weaving  classes  (Tantis, 
Suklis  and  Jolahas),  the  fishing  castes  (Tiyars  and  Bagdis),  and 
other   castes,    such   as   Telis,    Chhutars  and  others.     At  present, 
owing  to  the  high  price  of  food-grains,  there  is  a  tendency  for 
many  persons  in  the  rural  tracts,  who  previously  had  no  connec- 
tion  with   cultivation,   to   take   up   land  in  order  that  they  may 
have  a  stock  of  rice  to  fall  back  upon.     Consequently,  there  is 
no  important  class  or  caste  of  which  a  certain  proportion  does 
not  hold  some  land. 


76  HOWRAH. 


CUAPTER  VI. 


CANALS,   DIUINAGE  AND   EMBANKMENTS. 

Canals,  Thf,  only  locked  canal  in  this  district  forms  part  of  the  Midna- 
pore  Canal  and  comprises  two  tidal  reaches  extending  from 
Uluberia  to  Bansberia,  where  it  crosses  the  Damodar  river,  and 
from  Kultapara  to  Kantapukur,  where  it  joins  the  Eupnarayan. 
On  the  opposite  site  of  the  Rfipuarayan  the  canal  is  continued 
from  Dainan  to  Midnapore,  crossing  the  Kasai  river  at  Panskura 
and  at  Mohanpur  close  by  Midnapore.  The  total  length  of  the 
canal,  including  10|  miles  of  canalized  distributaries,  is  69'i  miles. 
The  tidal  reaches  were  constructed  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of 
navigation  and  were  opened  for  traffic  in  1873.  Each  range  has 
two  parallel  distributaries,  and  their  water,  when  available,  is 
used  for  irrigation,  but  the  supply  is  variable  and  cannot  be 
depended  on.  Before  the  opening  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Kailway 
the  canal  formed  part  of  the  main  route  from  Calcutta  to 
Midna[)ore,  but  the  traffic,  once  considerable,  has  fallen  off  owing 
to  railway  competition. 

'I'here  is  also  an  improved  natural  channel,  called  the 
Gaighata  and  Bakshi  K/idis,  7-^  miles  long,  which  forms  a  connect- 
ing link  between  the  Damodar  and  Rupnarayan  rivers.  It 
was  taken  up  aud  improved  by  Grovernment  in  1856-57,  and 
was  in  charge  of  the  Public  Works  Department  until  1872-73, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  the  District  Board.  In  1894  the 
maiute Lance  and  management  of  the  channel  were  resumed  by 
Government,  which  makes  an  annual  grant  of  Us.  2,500  to 
the  District  Board  in  order  to  recoup  the  loss  occasioned  to  that 
body  by  the  re-transfer.  The  right  of  collecting  tolls  lias  been 
leased  out  for  tv/o  years  (PJ08-00  and  PJUy-iO)  at  Us.  4,500 
per  annum. 
Dn.uNAc.R  The  drainage  of  the  large  swamps  in  the  district  is  a  far 
CHAN-  niore  important  question  than  that  of  canal  irrigation  or  naviga- 
tion. 8uch  swamps  are  found  in  the  depressions  between  the 
rivers  anfl  their  principal  branches,  one  set  (the  Howrali  swamps) 
lying  between  the  raised  banks  of  the  Hooghly  and  the 
Saruswali,  another  (,the    Ilajapur  swamps)  between  the  Saraswati 


CANALS,    DRAINAGE    AND    EMBANKMENTS.  77 

and  the  Kana  Dilmodar,  and  a  third  (the  Amta  swamps'^  between 
the  Kana  Damodar  and  the  Damodar.  The  first  schemes  for 
the  drainage  of  these  swamps  appear  to  have  been  put  forward 
as  a  result  of  the  epidemic  of  a  virulent  type  of  fever  called 
Burdwan  fever,  which  raged  in  Hooghly  and  part  of  Ilowrah. 
The  heavy  mortality  it  caused  formed  the  subject  of  repeated 
enquiries  by  civil,  medical  and  engineering  officers.  One  of  the 
latter,  Mr.  Adley,  c.k.,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Government 
to  determine  whether  want  of  drainage  had  caused  or  intensified 
the  prevailing  fever,  reported  in  1869  that  defective  drainage 
caused  by  the  silting  up  of  rivers  and  klidk  was  a  main  cause 
of  the  fever  and  recommended  the  reclamation  of  the  Dankuni, 
Katlia  and  Rajapur  swamps.  Government  approved  a  portion 
of  his  scheme,  viz.,  that  for  draining  the  Dankuni  marsh,  which 
lies  just  outside  the  district  with  its  outfall  in  the  Bally  Khal, 
and  the  work  was  taken  in  hand. 

Subsequently,  in  1873,  Colonel  Haig,  Chief  Engineer  of 
Bengal,  who  had  been  deputed  to  make  an  engineering  survey  of 
the  locality,  recommended  that  the  Dankuni  scheme  should  be 
extended  to  the  tidal  tracts  in  this  district.  He  suggested  three 
schemes  for  the  reclamation  of  the  three  sets  of  swamps  mentioned 
above,  viz.,  (1)  the  Amta  scheme  for  the  drainage  of  84  square 
miles  lying  in  the  western  drainage  basin  ;  (2)  the  Rajapur 
scheme  for  the  drainage  of  the  tidal  portion  of  the  central  basin 
comprising  the  Rajapur,  Panchla  and  Barajol  (apparently  a 
corruption  of  larajhil)  swamps  ;  and  (3)  the  Howrah  scheme  for 
the  drainage  of  the  tract  lying  between  the  Bally  Khdl  on  the 
north,  the  river  Hooghly  on  the  east  and  south,  and  the  Saraswati 
on  the  west.  The  Howrah  scheme  was  taken  up  first,  being 
begun  in  November  1884  and  completed  in  October  1885  at  a 
cost  of  5^  lakhs.  The  larger  Rajapur  scheme  was  next  begun 
and  completed  in  1894-95  at  a  cost  of  14|  lakhs.  The  Amta 
scheme  is  still  under  consideration,  the  zamindars  concerned 
having  been  averse  to  it  hitherto,  but  Drainage  Commissioners 
have  recently  been  appointed.  The  cost  of  upkeep  in  1907-08 
was  Rs.  2,672  in  the  case  of  the  Howrah  works,  as  against 
Rs.  862  in  1906  07  and  Rs.  5,303  in  1905-06,  and  Rs.  8,635 
in  the  case  of  the  Rajapur  and  Barajol  works,  as  against 
Rs.  9,604  in  1906-07. 

The  Howrah  and  Rajapur  (including  Barajol)  drainage 
works,  which  are  in  charge  of  the  Executive  Engineer,  Northern 
Drainage  and  Embankment  Division,  were  undertaken  under 
the  provisions  of  the  Bengal  Drainage  Act,  VI  (B.C.)  of  1880. 
That  Act  repealed  Bengal   Act   V   of   1871,   which  laid   down, 


78  HO-WRAH. 

in  regard  to  the  Dankuni  scheme,  that  a  moiety  of  the  pro- 
prietors of  the  lands  concerned  miglit  assent  to  the  drainage 
works,  whereon  the  whole  proprietary  body  would  be  obliged 
to  combine  to  cause  execution  of  the  works,  to  obtain  the 
necessary  advance  of  money  from  Government,  and  to  appor- 
tion among  themselves  tlie  liability  for  the  recovery  of 
the  advance.  The  Drainage  Act  of  1880  empowered  the 
Lieutenant-Grovernor  to  carry  out  similar  works  for  the  drainage 
and  reclamation  of  land  throughout  Bengal.  It  provided  that 
each  scheme  under  the  Act  should  be  prepared  with  plans  and 
estimates  by  the  Q-overnment  engineers  and  published  for 
general  infonnation.  The  cost  of  the  works  was  to  be  assessed, 
on  the  lands  reclaimed  and  improved,  in  proportion  to  the 
benefit  derived,  by  Commissioners  appointed  by  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  of  whom  the  majority  were  to  be  proprietors.  The 
recovery  of  the  sums  apportioned  on  the  several  proprietors  was 
left  in  the  hands  of  the  Collector.  The  works,  when  completed, 
were  to  be  kept  up  in  the  same  manner  as  public  embankments 
at  the  expense  of  those  whose  lands  were  benefited,  and  in  their 
maintenance  the  Collector  was  to  be  assisted  by  a  committee  of 
proprietors  appointed  for  that  purpose.  A  material  alteration 
from  the  procedure  under  Act  V  of  1871  consisted  in  allowing 
the  Commissioners  an  opportunity  of  watching  results  for  three 
years  after  the  works  were  completed  before  they  proceeded  to 
apportion  the  costs.  Thus  the  liability  to  repay  any  portion  of 
the  capital  was  deferred  for  three  years. 

The  Act  was  amended  in  1902  by  the  Bengal  Drainage 
Amendment  Act,  II  (B.C.)  of  1902,  which  provides  further 
facilities  for  the  recovery  by  landholders  from  their  tenants  of  a 
proportionate  share  of  the  expenses  connected  with  the  carrying 
out  of  drainage  schemes.  It  also  authorizes  the  recovery  of  contri- 
butions when  one  co-sharer  pays  the  whole  of  the  expenses  for 
carrying  drainage  works  ;  and  it  provides  a  procedure  for  amend- 
ing the  list  of  persons  wh-o  have  been  formally  declared  to  be  liable 
to  pay  the  expenses  of  drainage  schemes.  The  most  noticeable 
*  results  of  this  last  Act  are  that  it  has  empowered  the  zamindars 
to  file  certificates  against  their  tenants  and  has  reduced  the  rate  of 
interest  from  0  per  cent,  to  4  per  cent.  The  landlords  realize 
the  drainage  demands  from  the  tenants  of  the  benefited  lands 
eithui.'  directly  as  additions  to  rents  and  cesses  or  indirectly 
by  enhancing  their  rents  in  view  of  the  estimated  benefits  to 
their  lands. 
Ur.wrah  The  tract  of  country  drained  by  the  Howrah  drainage  scheme 

.iiainage    -    jj^mnjed  by  the  river  iiooghly  on  the  south,  by  the  to^^Tis  of 


CANALS,    DRATNAOR    AND    EMBANKMENTS.  79 

Bally  and  Howrah  on  the  east,  by  the  river  Saraswati  on  the 
west,  and  by  the  Bally  Kltal  and  the  road  from  Bally  to  Chandi- 
tala  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  about  49^-  square  miles,  of  which 
nearly  18  square  miles  consist  of  pure  swamp.  The  lowest, 
part  is  1\  feet  above  mean  sea-level,  and  even  when  tidal 
water  is  excluded,  the  rainfall  is  enough  to  fill  it  to  a 
depth  of  4 J  feet.  The  most  prominent  el laract eristic  of  these 
swamps  is  that  instead  of  forming  a  single  large  basin,  like  the 
Dankuni  swamp  to  the  north,  they  are  divided  into  four  catch- 
ment basins,  each  separated  from  the  other  by  a  low  ridge. 

'J'he  works  consist  of  ( I )  a  main  channel  8^  miles  long,  the 
width  of  the  base  varying  from  10  feet  at  the  end  to  80  feet 
near  the  sluice  on  the  river ;  (2)  branch  and  subsidiary  channels 
with  a  total  length  of  10  miles ;  (3)  an  outfall  sluice  near  the 
Botanical  Grarden,  having  seven  vents  of  5  feet  each,  with  self- 
acting^shutters  on  the  river  side  and  drop-gates  worked  by  screws 
on  the  land  side ;  (4)  another  outlet  sluice,  having  one  vent 
(5  feet  by  0  feet)  with  a  drop-gate  worked  by  screws,  near  the 
Banderbil  sluice  on  the  Bally  Khdl ;  and  (5)  an  embankment 
extending  for  about  2|  miles  along  the  river  Hooghly  from  the 
Botanical  Garden  to  the  mouth  of  the  Mahisdhara  K/ial,  the 
object   of  which  is   to  exclude   tidal   water  from  the   swamps. 

The  Rajapur  scheme  drains  an  area  of  269*85  square  miles  Rajipur 
and  is  divided  into  two  sections,  viz.,  Barajol  and  Rajapur.  The  drainage 
Barajol  section  drains  an  area  of  30*5  square  miles,  of  which 
more  than  half  is  swamp.  The  works  consist  of  (1)  a  main 
channel  1 9,600  feet  long)  ;  (2)  two  branch  channels,  with  a 
combined  length  of  about  9  miles,  which  run  from  the  villages 
of  Jangalpur  and  Satgharia  to  the  river  Hooghly ;  and  (3) 
an  outfall  sluice,   with   four  vents,   8  feet  by  5  feet  each. 

The  Rajapur  section  is  a  large  engineering  work,  affecting 
the  drainage  of  239-35  square  miles  comprised  in  five  basins,  viz., 
the  upland  basin  (140  square  miles),  Janai  basin  (32*70  square 
miles),  Panohla  Jol  basin  (22"50  square  miles),  Rajapur  Jol  basin 
(31*90  square  miles),  and  an  area  of  12"25  square  miles  draining 
directly  into  the  Hooghly.  The  works  consist  of  (1)  a  main 
channel,  10  miles  long,  extending  from  half  a  mile  north  of 
Rajapur  to  Sijberia  a  mile  above  Uluberla ;  (2)  three  branch 
channels,  with  a  combined  length  of  about  7  miles,  three  khdh 
with  a  combined  length  of  9|  miles  serving  as  branch  channels, 
and  four  detached  channels  with  a  total  length  of  about  one 
mile;  (3)  a  big  outfall  sluice  on  the  Hooghly  river  at  Sijberia, 
having  20  vents,  each  8  feet  by  5  feet ;  (4)  a  protective  embank- 
ment, about   1|  miles  long,   from  Sijberia   to   Chakkasi   Khdl^ 


80  HOWRAH. 

with  three  irrigation  sluices.  There  are  also  two  bungalows,  one 
at  Sijberia  and  the  other  at  Rajapur,  three  road-bridges  and  four 
foot-bridges. 

The  main  channel,  starting  from  the  outfall  sluice  at 
Sijberia,  follows  the  course  of  the  KalsapS  Ehdl  or  Kana 
Damodar  (which  has  been  remodelled)  for  3^  miles  as  far  as 
Basdeopur.  From  that  place  it  passes  through  the  low  lands 
of  Danchla  and  Dhauki  to  Siddheswar,  and  thence  through 
the  Rajapur  Jol,  finally  ending  about  half  a  mile  beyond 
the  lIo\\Tah-Arata  road.  The  first  branch  channel  leaves  the 
main  channel  in  the  12th  mile,  and  going  north-west  passes 
under  the  Howrah-Amta  road,  about  one  mile  from  Bargachhia, 
connecting  with  the  low  lands  of  Santoshpur.  The  second  branch 
leaves  the  main  channel  in  the  i4th  mile,  and  going  north- 
east passes  under  the  Howrah-Amta  road,  and  connects  at 
Jhapardah  with  the  Matia  Klidt,  of  which  a  length  of  o  miles 
has  been  improved  to  serve  as  a  branch  channel.  The  cost  of 
maintenance  is  small,  averaging  Rs.  H,370  only  in  the  five 
years   ending   in  1907-08. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  Rajapur  scheme  has  reclaimed 
from  its  three  principal  swamps,  Rajapur,  Panchla  and  Barajol, 
4,122  acres  of  waste  land  and  has  improved  no  less  than  37,972 
acres  of  low  land.  The  western  portion  of  Rajapur  is,  however, 
being  affected  by  floods  pouring  in  from  the  Amta,  Madaria  and 
upland  basins,  largely  through  breaches  in  the  Kana  Damodar  and 
Madaria  Khal  left  embankments.  Crops  were  damaged  by  such 
floods  in  1893-94,  1899-19U0,  190400  and  1905-00.  The  left 
embankment  of  the  Madaria  Klidl  from  Amta  to  Harishpur  is 
consequently  to  be  raised,  and  the  portion  from  Penro  to 
Dilakhas  is  being  remodelled. 

These  schemes  are  interesting  examples  of  large  reclamation 
works,  beyond  the  means  of  the  cultivators  or  of  individual 
landlords,  which  are  practicable  only  for  a  combination  of 
landed  proprietors  or  capitalists  working  under  the  protection 
of  the  Drainage  Act.  Both  have  amply  fulfilled  expectations. 
The  Magistrate  of  Howrah  in  the  Annual  Administration  Report 
of  1897-98  remarked: —"  All  the  drainage  schemes  have  proved 
to  be  of  immense  benefit  in  reclaiming  the  waste  swamps  and 
improving  the  other  lauds.  They  were  originally  intended  for 
the  drainage  of  the  swamps,  but  they  are  now  advantageously 
utilized  in  irrigating  the  lands,  in  years  of  drought  and  scanty 
rainfall,  with  fresh  water  from  the  Ilooghly  river."  More 
recently,  in  190."),  the  Commissioner  remarked  : — "  These  schemes 
have   proved   very   successful   in  reclaiming   the  extensive   waste 


CANALS,    DKAINAGE    AND   EMBANKMENTS.  81 

swampy  lands  west  of  Howrah  and  improving  other  lands. 
The  surplus  water  is  drained  out  by  the  channels  and  sluices  in 
years  of  heavy  rainfall  ;  while  in  years  of  drought  water  from 
the  river  is  let  in  for  cultivation  and  drinking  purposes.  The 
schemes  have  been  of  great  benefit  to  the  people  of  the  neighbour- 
ing tracts,  who  can  reap  a  good  harvest  in  years  of  drought 
as  well  as  in  years  of  heavy  rainfall." 

The  completion  of  the  entire  project  for  the  drainage  of  the 
district  by  carrying  out  the  Amta  scheme  proposed  over  30  years 
ago  appears  desirable  on  many  grounds.  It  would  not  only  add 
hundreds  of  acres  to  the  cultivated  area  and  improve  thousands 
of  acres  of  low  lands—  an  important  consideration  in  a  district 
which  does  not  raise  enough  food  for  its  consumption.  It 
would  also  drain  a  water-logged  locality  in  which  malarial  fever 
threatens  to  be  endemic,  owing  to  the  stagnant  water  being 
the  breeding  ground  of  the  malaria-bearing  anopheles  mosquito. 
In  its  present  state,  moreover,  the  waters  flooding  the  Amta 
basin  not  only  damage  the  Amta  crops  three  or  four  years  out  of 
every  five,  but  also  threaten  to  swamp  the  western  part  of  the 
Eajapur  basin. 

A.  large  part  of  the  district  being  very  little  above  mean  embank- 
sea-level  is  liable  to  be  flooded  every  year  by  the  principal  ments. 
rivers  and  their  branches  Protective  embankments  have,  there- 
fore, long  been  held  to  be  necessary  and  during  the  early 
years  of  British  administration  the  main  channels  of  the 
three  chief  rivers  were  embanked,  viz.,  the  right  bank  of 
the  Hooghly,  the  left  and  right  banks  of  the  Damodar, 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Riipnarayan.  The  effect  of  these 
embankments  was  that  the  rivers,  depositing  silt  in  their 
beds,  gradually  raised  them  above  the  level  of  the  adjoining 
country.  Hence,  when  a  river  burst  through  its  bank,  it 
flooded  a  considerable  area  causing  serious  damage.  This  was 
more  especially  the  case  with  the  Damodar,  a  large  river  liable  to 
flood  with  a  rapid  stream  and  narrow  bed.  The  embankments 
along  its  banks  were  originally  maintained  by  the  Burdwan 
Raj,  but  the  damage  caused  from  time  to  time  by  the  floods 
pouring  through  imperfectly  repaired  breaches  forced  Govern- 
ment to  take  them  over.  In  course  of  time  the  Government 
was  obliged  to  abandon  the  embankment  on  the  right  side  of  t  e 
Damodar  in  order  to  protect  the  more  valuable  lands  on  the  left 
side.  This  at  first  caused  much  hardship  to  villages  on  the  right 
side,  but  gradually  the  silt -deposit  not  ouly  raised  the  land, 
but  enabled  splendid  crops  of  raU  to  be  grown,  thus  compensating 
for  the  loss  of  paddy  crops.     During  the  last  20  years,  on  account 


82  HOWRAH. 

of  a  large  breach  at  Begua  in  the  Burdwan  district,  a  reduced 
volume  of  water  has  been  passing  along  the  present  channel 
of  the  Damodar,  and  the  effect  of  the  floods  is  consequently  not 
felt  on  the  right  side.  It  is  now  proposed  to  close  the  Begua 
breach  up  to  ordinary  flood  height  so  as  to  minimize  damage 
to  crops  in  the  Burdwan  district  and  the  Arambagh  subdivision 
of  the  Hooghly  district.  The  result  of  this  change  remains  to 
be  seen. 

Along  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  there  are  zamindari 
embankments  from  Sanbrail  to  Alipore  on  the  mouth  of  the 
Damodar,  except  a  portion  measuring  about  1^  miles  in  length 
from  Chakkasi  Khdl  to  fSijberia,  which  is  being  maintained  by 
Government  as  a  portion  of  the  Rajapur  drainage  works. 
They  were  badly  breached  by  high  floods  in  1904-05,  causing 
serious  loss  of  crops  in  the  interior.  The  zamindars  concerned 
having  failed  to  repair  them  properly,  the  Q-ovemment  has 
taken  charge  of  two  sections  (one  at  Chakkasi,  3  miles  above 
Uluberia,  and  the  other  from  Uluberia  to  Champa  Khdl  on  the 
south)  and  has  put  them  in  proper  order,  the  cost  being  realized 
from  the  zamindars  under  the  Embankment  Act. 

Government  now  maintains  the  folio-wing  embankments  : — 
(1)  the  Hooghly  right  embankment  from  the  Botanical  Garden 
to  MahisdharS  Khdl  and  the  Chakkasi  embankment  from  Chakkasi 
Khdl  to  Sijberia;  (2)  the  Damodar  left  embankment  through 
the  whole  length  of  the  district  and  the  right  embankment 
from  the  Begua  breach  to  the  Maja  Damodar  and  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Gaighata  Khril  to  the  outfall  into  the  Huoghly  ; 
(3)  the  Rupnarayan  left  embankment  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Bakshi  Khdl  to  the  outfall  in  the  Hooghly  ;  (4)  the  embankment 
on  the  south  of  the  Bakshi  and  Gaighata  Khdls,  joining  the 
ROpnarayan  left  with  the  Damodar  right  embankment  ;  (5)  a 
takdvi  embankment  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Madaria  Khdl 
from  Dilakhas  to  Amta,  about  half  of  which  has  been  raised, 
while  the  other  half  is  being  remodelled  in  order  to  protect 
the  R&japur  basin. 


NATURAL   CALAMITIES.  83 


CHAPTER  YII. 


NATURAL   CALAMITIES. 

Earthquake   shocks   are   felt   occasionally,   but   as    a    rule    do  Earth. 
little  damage.     The  severest  shock  in  the  memory  of  the  present  *^^*^^3' 
generation  occurred  on  the  12th  June  1897.     It  damaged  many 
of  the  masonry  buildings  in   Howrah  town  and  brought  down  a 
number  of  tlie  weakest.     There  are  also  records  of  earthquakes 
damaging  houses  in  Howrah  town  in  1737,  1812  and  1857. 

Howrah  does  not  lie  on  the  usual  track  of  cyclones  coming  CrctoNEs, 
up  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  but  occasionally  it  is  visited  by  them. 
The  earliest  of  which  there  appears  to  be  any  record  occurred  in 
1737  at  the  same  time  as  the  earthquake  mentioned  above.  An 
account  published  in  The  (7entlem<in''s  Magazine  of  1738  runs  as 
follows: — '"On  the  •  0th  (September  last  happened  a  furious 
hurricane  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  attended  with  a  very  heavy 
rain,  which  raised  15  inches  of  water  in  five  hoars,  and  a  violent 
earthquake  which  threw  down  abundance  of  houses,  and,  as  the 
storm  reached  60  leagues  up  the  river,  it  is  computed  that 
20,000  ships,  barks,  sloops,  boats,  canoes,  etc.,  have  been  cast 
away.  A  prodigious  quantity  of  cattle  of  all  sorts,  a  great  many 
tigers  and  several  rhinoceroses  were  drowned:  even  a  great 
many  caymans  were  stifled  by  the  furious  agitation  of  the  waters, 
and  an  innumerable  quantity  of  birds  were  beat  down  into  the  river 
by  the  storm.  Two  English  ships  of  500  tons  were  thrown  into 
a  village  about  200  fathoms  from  the  bed  of  the  river  Ganges, 
broke  to  pieces,  and  all  the  people  drowned  pell-mell  amongst  the 
inhabitants  and  cattle.  Barks  of  60  tons  were  blown  two  leagues 
up  the  land  over  the  tops  of  high  trees.  The  water  rose,  in  all, 
40  feet  higher  than  usual.  The  English  ships  which  drove  ashore 
and  broke  to  pieces  were  the  Decker,  Devonshire  and  Neiocastle,  and 
the  Pelham  is  missing.  A  French  ship  was  drove  on  shore  and 
bulged ;  after  the  wind  and  water  abated  they  opened  the  hatches 
and  took  out  several  bales  of  merchandize,  etc.,  but  the  man  who 
was  in  the  hold  to  sling  the  bales  suddenly  ceased  working,  nor  by 
calling  him  could  they  get  any  reply,  on  which  they  sent  down 
another  but  heard  nothing  of  him,  which  very  much  added  to 
their  fear,  so  that  for  some  time  no  one  would  venture  down.    At 

q2 


84  HOWRAH. 

length,  one  more  hardy  than  the  rest  went  down  and  became  silent 
and  inactive  as  the  two  former  to  the  astonishment  of  all.  They 
then  agreed  by  lights  to  look  down  into  the  hold,  which  had  a 
great  quantity  of  water  in  it,  and  to  their  great  surprise  they  saw 
a  huge  alligator  staring  as  expecting  more  prey.  It  had  come  in 
through  a  hole  in  tho  ship's  side  and  it  was  with  difficulty  they 
killed  it,  when  they  found  the  three  men  in  the  creature's  belly."* 
Coming  to  more  recent  times  there  were  severe  cyclones  in 
October  1832,  May  1833,  June  1842,  October  1864  and  November 
1869,  of  which  the  worst  was  that  of  1864.  This  cyclone  burst  on 
the  5th  October  and  was  of  unprecedented  violence.  While  the 
fury  of  the  wind  caused  widespread  destruction  to  houses  and  trees, 
the  storm- wave  brought  up  by  the  gale  carried  havoc  for  8  miles 
inland.  Only  after  its  force  was  expended  by  being  spread 
over  a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  after  it  had  reached  as  high  up 
as  Achipur  within  20  miles  of  Calcutta,  was  the  wave  so  far  dimi- 
nished as  to  be  confined  mainly  within  the  river  banks.  In  this 
district  nearly  2,000  persons  and  20,000  cattle  were  returned  as 
killed  or  dro^\Tied ;  the  Bishop's  College  presented,  it  is  said,  "  a 
picture  of  desolation";  and  the  Botanic  Garden  was  devastated. 
But  by  far  the  greatest  harm  done  by  the  cyclone  was  the 
damage  caused  to  the  shipping  in  the  river.  On  the  5th  October 
there  were  195  vessels  within  the  limits  of  the  Calcutta  port. 
They  withstood  the  force  of  the  wind  with  success,  but  when  to 
this,  at  about  1  p.m.,  was  added  the  storm-wave,  the  force  of  which 
was  still  not  entirely  spent,  one  vessel  after  another  broke  from  her 
moorings.  As  each  ship  was  swept  on,  she  fouled  others  in 
her  course,  and  they,  carrying  others  with  them,  and  getting 
massed  in  hopeless  confusion,  were  driven  on  the  Sumatra 
Sand  and  along  the  Ho-^Tuh  shore  from  Sibpur  to  Ghusuri. 
There  was  no  bridge,  it  must  be  remembered,  between  Calcutta 
and  Howrah  in  1864.  Ten  vessels  were  sunk  in  the  river  and  145 
driven  on  shore.  The  P.  &  0.  vessel  Jicnyal  and  the  P.  &  0. 
mail  steamer  Nemesis  were  landed  liigh  and  dry  on  the  bank 
at  Bishop's  College,  and  the  Oreat  Tnymania,  which,  with  over 
2,000  tons  register,  was  the  largest  sailing  ship  in  the  port,  went 
aground  on  Ghusuri  Sands.f 
.senimaF  The  district  is  largely  dependent  for  its  food-supply  on 
imports,  especially   imports   of  rice,   so  that  it  is   closely  affected 

•  See  alio  A  Short  Sistory  of  Old  Fort  William  in  Bengal,  by  C.  II.  Wilson, 
Bengal,  Past  and  Present,  Vol.  I,  pp.  44,  45. 

t  C.  K.  Biitklandj  Bengal  under  the  Lieutenant-Governors,  Vol.  I,  pp. 
2983-02.  A  full  and  interesting'  account  is  also  given  in  Bengal,  Past  ancf 
rnsent,  October  1907,  pp,  112-122. 


NATURAL   CALAMITIES.  85 

by  famine  or  scarcity  in  tlio  great  rice-growing  and  exporting 
tracts  of  India.  Tiie  people  are  consequently  liable  to  feel  the 
pinch  caused  by  high  prices  in  famine  years,  but  local  famine  is 
unknown.  The  supply  of  water  from  different  sources  is  so 
ample,  that  the  crops  are  immune  from  failure  due  to  drought, 
and  though  they  often  suffer  from  floods,  the  people  are  compara- 
tively so  well-off  that  beyond  making  small  takdvi  loans  no 
special  measures  of  relief  are  found  necessary.  In  fact,  since 
the  great  Bengal  famine  of  1770,  no  famine,  except  possibly  a 
famine  in  1788,  has  visited  this  district,  a  fact  which  is  eloquent 
testimony  to  its  wealth  and  the  facility  with  which  it  obtains  its 
supplies. 

Relief  measures  were,  it  is  true,  taken  in  1866,  though  there  Famine  o£ 
was  no  famine  in  the  district,  because  a  considerable  number  of  1866. 
paupers  flocked  into  it  from  other  districts.  Assistance  was  given 
from  local  sources  till  August,  when,  in  consequence  of  its 
becoming  necessary  to  stop  the  influx  of  paupers  into  Calcutta 
from  Howrah,  public  relief  had  to  be  given  at  Uluberia.  That 
place  is  situated  on  the  high  road  from  Orissa  and  Midnapore, 
where  the  famine  raged  and  large  numbers  of  poor  starving 
creatures  flocked  to  it  trymg  to  reach  Calcutta.  Many  could 
go  no  farther,  and  the  scenes  of  misery  were  very  painful. 
In  July  a  private  gentleman,  Mr.  Sykes,  organized  a  special 
fund  for  Uluberia,  and  established  a  feeding  depot  there,  of 
which  Grovemment  subsequently  took  charge.  A  pauper  camp 
was  established  at  Howrah,  and  a  relief  centre  was  formed 
at  Narit  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision.  Pauper  hospitals  were 
also  established  at  each  of  the  three  relief  centres.  As 
regards  the  mortality,  the  Famine  Commissioners  reported  :— 
"Many  must  have  died  on  the  part  of  the  Midnapore  and 
Uluberia  road  which  lies  in  the  district,  but  of  these  no  record 
was  kept.  Among  the  paupers,  however,  who  reached  the 
kitchens  first  established  and  the  relief  centres  which  replaced 
them,  including  the  whole  period  from  June  to  the  end  of 
December  1866,  the  number  of  deaths  reported  was  about  1,235. 
At  the^  Howrah  relief  centre,  the  majority  were  weavers  from 
Jahanabad  and  its  neighbourhood.  At  Uluberia  the  persons 
relieved  came  chiefly  from  the  districts  of  Cuttack,  Balasore  and 
Midnapore.  At  the  Narit  centre,  the  applicants  for  relief  consisted, 
for  the  most  part,  of  persons  of  the  poorest  classes  in  Howrah 
district." 

Though  immune  from  famine,  the  district  is  peculiarly  subject  Floods. 
to  floods.     Floods  occur  every  year  in  the  three   great  rivers,  and 
most  of  the  adjoining  country  has  to  be  protected  by  embankments- 


86  HOWRAH. 

The  most  destructive  inundations  occur  when  the  rivers  rise  very 
high  owing  to  excessive  rainfall,  and  being  met  b)^  high  tides 
are  unable  to  discharge  their  water  quickly.  Such  floods  have 
occurred  in  1787,  1823,  1833,  1844,  1845,  1864,  1885,  1900  and 
1905.  In  October  1823  the  banks  of  the  Damodar  gave  way, 
and  the  following  description  has  been  left; — "  Howrah  and 
Sulkeah  and  all  the  adjacent  country  is  completely  under  water. 
On  the  main  road  at  Howrah  there  stand  two  and  three  feet  of 
water,  and  all  the  space  between  that  and  the  other  side  of  the 
Benares  road  is  one  expanse  of  water."*  'Ihe  tide  also  rose  very 
high,  for  it  was  stated  —"  The  tide  of  Wednesday,  the  2nd  instant, 
noticed  in  our  last  as  having  overflowed  the  platform  of  the 
Custom  House  Jetty,  was  the  highest  that  has  taken  place."! 
Further  inland  the  thana  buildings  at  Uluberia  and  Bagnan 
were  either  completely  swept  away  or  destroyed  ;  and  it  was 
reported— "The  extent  of  injury  that  has  been  sustained  is 
beyond  human  belief." 

In  May  1833,  a  cyclone,  accompanied  by  a  storm-wave  and 
followed  by  floods,  devastated  Mandalghat  and  the  southern 
jx/rr/ams.  The  Rupnarayau  and  Damodar  rose  eight  feet  above 
the  ordinary  level  of  the  spring  tides ;  almost  every  embank- 
ment was  swept  away,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  country  was 
covered  with  salt  water.  In  August  1834  the  Mandalghat 
pargana  between  the  rivers  Rfipnarayan  and  Damodar  was  again 
under  water,  and  the  flood  was  followed  by  a  somewhat  severe 
drought.  The  next  serious  flood  was  in  August  1844,  when  the 
Damodar  burst  its  banks  and  bdiidlis  in  170  places,  and  submerged 
the  whole  country  between  Bally  and  Dhaniakhali.  Next  year, 
in  September  1845,  there  was  a  similar  state  of  affairs  in  Mandal- 
ghat and  the  south  of  the  district,  where  not  a  stalk  of  paddy 
was  to  be  seen  after  the  floods  for  many  square  miles.  This  flood 
was  also  followed  by  drought,  and  not  a  drop  of  raiu  fell 
between  the  end  of  August  and  the  second  week  in  Octobor.+ 
Floods  of  Coming   to   more   recent   times,   one  of  the  most   disastrous 

1885.  floods  on  record  occurred  iu  August  1885.  The  rainfall  iu  that 
month  was  exceptionally  heavy,  no  less  thaa  27'67  inches  being 
registered  at  Uluberia.  The  rivers  were  everywhere  iu  high 
flood,  and  unfortunately  liigh  tides  also  came  up  from  the 
Bay   of   Bengal.     The  embankments   were   breached   at   Meluk 

*  Selections  from  the  Calcutta  Gazette,  Vol.  V,  pp,  558-9. 

t  Ditto,  p.  560.  This  great  flood  is  the  subject  of  severnl  Hengali  doggerel 
rhymes. 

X  O.  Toynbee,  Sketch  of  the  Administration  of  the  Eooghly  District  (1888), 
pp.  141-48. 


NATURAL   CALAMITIES.  87 

on    the  left   bank  of  the   Eupnarayan,    and   at   Tholya   on  the 
right   bank    of    the  Damodar,    nhere  the  flood   rushed   through 
in  a  stream    lUO   yards  wide   and  11    feet  deep,  inundating  the 
country  to  a  depth   of  10  feet.    The   whole  of  the  tract  between 
the  Damodar   and   Riipnarayan  from  the  Uluboria  Canal  north- 
wards and  eastwards  as  far  as  the  Saraswati  river  was  inundated  : 
in   fact,  the    only    portions   that   escaped    were   that    south   of 
the   canal   and   the     north-east     corner    round    Howrah    town. 
Roughly   speaking,   the  inundation  extended    over   35<J   square 
miles.     No  lives  were  lost,   as  the  villages   are   generally   above 
flood-level   and  the   people   are   well   provided  with  light  boats. 
The  destruction  of  houses  was,  however,  very  great,  over  10,000 
falling   or  being  rendered  uninhabitable.     The  damage  done  to 
the  standing  crops  was  still   more  disastrous,  the  rice  on  294,000 
bighds   being   destroyed,  besides  sugarcane  (5,900),  jute  (8,900), 
vegetables     (7,450)    and    betel   or  pan   (1,224   biyhds.)     Young 
fruit   trees  were   also   much  injured,  and  another  important  item 
of   damage  was  the   loss   of   fish,  which  escaped  from  the  tanks. 
The   betel  growers  suffered   especially,    as   the   grass  sheds,   in 
which  this   plant   is   cultivated,   involve  a  considerable  outlay  of 
capital,   all   of  which  was   sacrificed.     Near   Tholya,   the   place 
where   the   Damodar  embankment   was  breached,  much  land  was 
rendered  sterile   by   a   deposit   of  sand.     The   total   damage,  so 
far  as  it    could  be   estimated   in   money,   was   returned  by  the 
District  Ofiicer  at  30  lakhs  of  rupees.     It  was  not  found  necessary, 
however,  to   establish    relief    works     or    to  make   remissions  of 
revenue.     It  is  noteworthy  that  the  district  was  able   to  tide  over 
such  a  calamity  without  any   assistance  from   G-overnment   and 
little  from  private  charity. 

The  most  serious  floods  during  the  present  century  have  been  Floods  of 
those  of  1900,  1904,  and  1905.  In  1900  there  was  heavy  and  in-  ^^oo. 
cessant  rain  from  the  19th  to  the  24th  September,  there  being  an 
abnormal  fall  of  24*18  inches  at  Howrah  in  48  hours  v20th  and2l8t 
September).  All  the  low-lying  tracts  were  submerged  ;  a  large 
number  of  cattle  were  drowned  and  hundreds  of  houses  des- 
troyed ;  while  the  crop  on  an  area  of  150  square  miles, 
containing  all  the  best  rice  lands,  was  totally  destroyed.  No  dis- 
tress requiring  Government  relief  came  to  notice,  such  temporary 
assistance  as  was  required  being  rendered  by  local  funds  and 
private  subscriptions.  These  floods  caused  much  inconvenience 
and  discomfort  in  Howrah  city.  On  the  2Utb  September  the 
water  stood  3  feet  above  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  and  the  neigh- 
bouring streets  in  the  city,  the  gasworks  were  badly  flooded,  and 
no  gas  could  be  supplied  for  upwards  of  three  weeks. 


88 


HOWRAH. 


Floods  of 
1004. 


Floods  of 
1005. 


There  were  again  floods  in  August  1904  owing  to  the  rise 
of  the  Hooghly,  which  breached  the  embankment  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  south  of  Uluberia.  The  area  affected  included 
41  villages  in  thana  Uluberia  with  8,000  acres  under  rice,  which 
was  practically  all  destroyed.  The  damage  to  house  property, 
however,  was  insignificant  ;  no  lives  were  lost,  nor  were  any 
cattle  drowned.  Seven  villages  north  of  the  canal  in  the  Bauria 
outpost  also  suffered,  but  the  damage  was  less  than  in  the  south 
of  the  thana  and  the  crops  were  only  partially  destroyed.  These 
floods  were  attributed  to  the  breaches  in  the  embankment  along 
the  Hooghly,  which  had  been  neglected  for  some  jears  by  the 
zamindars  responsible  for  its  maintenance  and  repair. 

In  1905  a  considerable  area  was  submerged  owing  to 
heavy  rainfall  at  the  end  of  July.  The  fall  on  the  27th  and 
28th  in  the  Kajapur  basin,  which  has  a  catchment  area  of  227 
square  miles,  was  17"47  inches,  and  water  also  poured  in  from 
the  Amta  basin  on  the  west  with  an  area  of  1 12  square  miles,  as 
well  as  from  the  Madaria  and  upland  basins  on  the  north  with  an 
area  of  76  square  miles.  The  basin  was  consequently  under 
water,  and  the  crops  on  the  lower  lands  were  lost,  as  the  channel 
could  not  drain  off  the  accumulated  mass  of  water  in  less  than 
26  days.  The  Hooghly  river  also  rose  high,  and,  breaching  the 
zamindari  embankment  on  the  right  Bide,  seriously  damaged  the 
crops  beyond  Uluberia. 


RENTS,   WAGES  AND   PRICES.  8^ 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


EENTS,  WAGES    AND  PEICES, 

The  cultivators  of  Howrah  nearly  all  pay  cash  rents,  and  Rents. 
very  rarely  pay  rents  in  kind,  i.e.,  make  over  to  the  landlord  a  Produce 
certain  proportion  of  the  produce  of  their  fields  as  rental.  Such 
rents  are  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  nij-Jot  lands  of  the 
landlords  and  to  lands  recently  brought  under  cultivation  by 
reclamation  from  swamp.  Occasionally  also  they  are  paid  for 
land  sublet  by  a  ryot  to  another  cultivator.  Under  this  system, 
the  cultivator  tills  the  land  at  his  own  cost,  reaps  the  crop  in  the 
presence  of  the  landlord's  agent  and  carries  it  to  the  threshing 
floor,  where  the  paddy  and  straw  are  divided  in  equal  shares. 
The  system  of  produce  rents  met  with  elsewhere,  under  which  a 
fixed  quantity  of  paddy  is  made  over  to  the  landlord,  whatever 
may  be  the  actual  outturn,  is  almost  unknown  in  this  district. 
When  orchards  and  fishing  rights  are  leased  out,  the  rent  is 
frequently  paid  partly  in  cash  and  partly  in  kind,  t,e.,  the  lessee 
pays  his  rental  by  making  over  to  the  lessor  a  certain  quantity 
of  fruit  or  fish. 

Reliable  statistics  showing  the  rates  of  rent  prevalent  are  not  Cash 
available,  as  settlement  operations  have  not  yet  been  extended  to  '"''"**• 
the  district.  It  is  known  that  the  rates  are  high  and  that  they 
are  gradually  becoming  higher  owing  to  the  increase  in  the 
agricultural  population  and  the  growing  competition  for  land. 
The  following  table  shows  the  difference  in  the  average  annual 
rents  paid  per  bighd  for  various  classes  of  lands  in  the  Howrah 
subdivision  between  1873  and  1903  : — 

1873.         1903. 
Rs.     A.        Rs. 

1.  High  land  bearing  autumn  rice  with  a  second       12    0  16 

crop. 

2.  Low  laud  bearing  winter  rico  (1st  quality)  ...         9     0  ) 

Do.  (2nd  quality)  ...         7     sj        ^^ 

3.  Jute  land  ...  ...  ...         7    8  22 

The  increase  in  the  rent  of  lands  growing  special  crops  is 
remarkable,  especially  in  the  case  of  jute  land,  where  it  amounts 
to  300  per  cent.    Sugarcane  lands  are  assessed  to  a  rent   of  about 


90  HOWRAH. 

Rs.  26  a  Ugha  ;  and  for  low  lands  reclaimed  by  meaixH  of  drainage 
channels,  and  producing  a  crop  of  coarse  winter  paddy,  the  rate  of 
rent  is  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  5  per  higha^  a  rate  higher  than  that  for 
ordinary  lands  in  many  other  districts.  Rents  in  the  Uluberia 
subdivision  range  somewhat  lower  than  in  the  Howrah  sub- 
division. 
Wages.  "Wages   both   for   skilled  and  unskilled  labour  are  fairly  high. 

The  wages  in  mills  and  other  factories  are  higher  than  those  paid 
outside,  and  the  ever-increasing  demand  for  skilled  labour  causes 
a  steady  rise.  In  1908,  the  lowest  wages  per  mensem  paid  in 
factories  were  as  follows,  the  variations  depending  on  the  class  of 
labour  required,  e.ry,,  whether  for  dockyards,  iron  works  or 
engineering  workshops  :— blacksmiths,  Rs.  12  to  Rs.  20  ;  fitters, 
Rs.  10  to  Rs.  27  ;  carpenters,  Rs.  12  to  Rs.  17;  engine  drivers, 
Rs.  14-8  to  Rs.  20;  boilermen,  Rs.  14  to  Rs.  16;  masons 
and  bricklayers,  Rs.  12  to  Rs.  15.  In  jute  and  cotton  mills,  the 
lowest  wages  were : — weavers,  Rs.  12  to  Rs.  14 ;  spinners, 
Rs.  10-8  to  Rs.  13 ;  dyers,  Rs.  9  to  Rs.  U.  For  unskilled  labour, 
the  lowest  rate  was  : — coolies  and  porters,  Rs.  7  to  Rs.  9  for  a 
man  and  Rs.  6  for  a  woman  ;  dancdns  and  messengers,  Rs.  8  to 
Rs.  10  ;  jamaddr  dartodiis,  Rs.  13  to  Rs.  18. 

During  the  15  years  1893  to  1908,  daily  wages  have  risen  in 
the  to^vn  very  considerably,  viz.,  for  a  common  mason  from  4  annas 
to  8  annas  ;  for  a  common  carpenter  from  8  annas  to  10  annas  ;  for 
a  common  blacksmith  from  6  annas  to  10  annas;  and  for  a 
common  cooly  from  4  annas  to  5  and  5i  annas.  The  excep- 
tional rise  in  the  wages  of  masons  is  due  to  the  large  increase 
in  the  number  of  buildings  creating  a  special  demand  for  these 
artisans.  It  is  not  easy  to  get  local  servants,  and  consequently 
domestic  work  is  usually  done  by  immigrants  from  Bankur4  and 
Midnapore  or  from  Orissa  and  up-country  districts.  Servants  are 
generally  paid  in  the  towns  at  the  rate  of  Rs.  4  per  mensem  for  a 
male,  and  Rs.  3  for  a  female,  besides  food  and  clothing  ;  if  paid  in 
cash  only  {(old),  the  monthly  wages  are  Rs.  8  for  a  male  and 
Rb.  5  to  Rs.  6  for  a  maid  servant.  The  salary  of  a  cook  is  higher, 
viz.,  Rs.  7  to  Rs.  8  besides  food  and  clothing.  In  the  rural 
tracts  menial  servants  are  paid  either  in  cash,  at  a  somewhat  lower 
rate  than  in  the  towns,  or  hold  service  lands,  in  which  case  their 
masters  only  give  them  their  food.  The  village  artisans  used  to 
be  paid  in  kind  at  harvest  time,  but  this  custom  is  dying  out. 
Watchmen  are  paid  by  ryots  in  kind,  after  harvesting,  for  assisting 
in  watching  the  crops,  and  usually  hold  some  land  from  the 
landlord  in  return  for  their  services  in  respect  of  tdtjddd,  t.e., 
calling  on  ryots  to  pay  their  rents. 


RENTS,   WAGES   AND   VRICES.  91 

It  is  a  general  practice  for  landlords  and  well-to-do  husband- 
men, i.e.,  ryots  holding  five  acres  or  more,  to  engage  farm  servants 
to  assist  in  the  various  agricultural  operations.  These  farm-hands, 
if  employed  permanently,  are  called  krishdas  {i.e.,  cultivators  from 
krislia,  to  cultivate)  and  are  paid  monthly.  If  employed  tem- 
porarily, they  are  known  as  niajurs  {i.e.,  labourers,  from  majuri, 
daily  wage)  and  are  paid  daily.  They  generally  hold  no 
land  or  only  a  small  quantity,  and  belong  to  the  lowest  classes, 
such  as  Kaibarttas,  Bagdis,  Bauris,  Pods  and  low  class  Musalmans. 
Able-bodied  hrishdns  get  a  monthly  wage  of  Rs.  10  to  Rs.  12, 
or  Rs.  3  to  Rs.  5  with  food  and  clothing.  The  mqjiirs  are 
paid  daily  at  the  rate  of  4  to  5  annas,  besides  a  light  midday 
meal  of  parched  rice  and  tobacco,  or  one  pice  extra  in  lieu 
thereof.  So  many  of  these  adult  labourers  now  find  employ- 
ment in  factories  and  other  industrial  works  in  the  towns,  that 
during  harvest  time  complaints  are  frequently  made  of  shortage  of 
labour. 

A  marked  feature  in  the  recent  economic  history  of  the  Prices. 
district  is  the  steady  rise  in  the  price  of  food-grains.  Com- 
mon rice,  the  staple  crop  of  the  district,  was  sold  at  Howrah 
in  March  1893  at  11  seers  per  rupee,  and  in  March  1908  at  7\ 
seers,  a  rise  of  over  50  per  cent,  in  15  years.  In  1860  and  1870 
the  rates  were  reported  at  36  and  31  seers  respectively  per  rupee. 
Similarly  the  price  of  gram,  the  cheapest  of  the  pulses,  rose  from 
16  seers  in  March  1893  to  9  seers  in  the  corresponding  month  of 
1908,  or  by  nearly  100  per  cent.;  and  that  of  another  pulse, 
arhar,  from  llf  seers  in  1903  to  8  seers  in  1908,  or  by  nearly  50 
per  cent,  within  five  years.  The  price  of  other  articles  of  food 
has  also  been  steadily  rising.  Milk,  for  instance,  now  sells  at  5 
seers  per  rupee  as  compared  with  7  seers  20  years  ago,  and  in  the 
same  period,  the  price  of  common  fish  has  risen  from  4  to  6  annas, 
and  of  carp  from  5  to  7  or  8  annas  per  seer.  Ghi  (clarified 
butter),  mustard  oil  and  potatoes,  which    are   used   by  all    but 

1803.        1906  (January).      *^®    V^^^^^^    claSSes, 

Its.    A.    P.         ^^^   ^^^^  ^®^T  iiiuch 
35     0    0         dearer,   as    may  be 
3     4    3  gathered   from   the 

marginal  statement  . 
showing  the  wholesale  prices  per  maund  in  the  adjoining 
market  of  Calcutta.  Nor  is  the  rise  confined  to  articles  of 
food.  It  is  also  noticeable  in  the  case  of  coal,  kerosene  oil, 
tobacco,  one  of  the  few  luxuries  of  the  ryot,  and  grey  shirtings  or 
cloths.  In  the  case  of  bricks  and  bamboos,  again  the  wholesale 
prices  in  Calcutta  rose  from  Rs.  9  (per  thousand;  and  Rs.  12  (per 


Rs.  A. 

V. 

Bht 

...       30     0 

0 

Mustiud  oil 

13  14 

0 

Potatoes 

2     8 

0 

9!^  HOWRAH. 

hundred)  in  1893  to  Es.  12-9  and  Ks.  20  to  Rs.  25  respectively 
in  January  1906. 

Salt,   sugar  and  tea  are  notable  exceptions.     Salt  was  sold  at 
Howrah  in  1893  at  10|  seers   per  rupee,  and  in  March  1908  at  20 
seers  per  rupee.     This  large  decrease  is  due  partly    to   the   fall  in 
the  price  of  imported  salt,  but   chiefly   to   the   reduction    of   duty 
from  Es.   2-8   to  Ee.  1  per  maund.     The  price  of  tea  has  fallen  a 
little,  and  that   of  sugar  and  molasses  considerably,  omng  to  large 
imports  from  Java  and  Mauritius. 
MATEBiAt        In  the  rural  tracts  the  zamindars  are  mostly    absentees  Kving 
CONDI-       ^^  Calcutta  or  other  towns.     Their  estates  are  usually  let  out  in 
TBE  patiii  (dliiks,   i.e.,   the  lessees  are  permitted,  on  payment  of  a  large 

PEOPLE,  sum  as  a  premium  (salami) ,  to  hold  the  tenure  at  an  annual  rent 
fixed  in  perpetuity,  the  rental  often  largely  exceeding  the  Gov- 
ernment revenue.  These  potniddn  in  their  turn  have  in  many 
instances  sublet  on  nearly  similar  conditions.  The  result  is  a 
system  of  subinfeudation,  which  has  many  disadvantages.  The 
landlords  are  converted  into  mere  rent-receivers  and  with  a  few 
honorable  exceptions  take  little  or  no  personal  interest  in  the 
land  and  its  cultivators.  Agricultural  improvements  are  rarely 
executed ;  and  existing  works,  like  embankments,  are  more  or 
less  in  bad  repair.  There  are  also  a  number  of  petty  revenue- 
free 'holders  scattered  throughout  the  district,  who  have  mostly 
leased  out  all  their  lands,  except  the  homestead,  to  ryots  with 
or  without  saldini,  and  are  in  much  the  same  position  as  the 
proprietors  of  larger  estates.  Both  classes  are  practically  annui- 
tants living  on  small  fixed  incomes,  often  harassed  by  family 
disputes  and  involved  in  debt. 
Profes-  Those   engaged   in    professional    pursuits,    such  as    teachers, 

eional  members  of  the  legal  profession,  doctors,  compounders,  and  engi- 
neers, are  comparatively  few  in  number  in  spite  of  the  proximity 
of  Calcutta.  The  dearth  of  qualified  medical  men  is  particularly 
felt  in  rural  areas.  Members  of  the  priestly  class  have  usually  a 
few  acres  of  h-nhmottar  land,  i.e.,  revenue-free  lauds  granted  to 
Brahmans ;  and  they  eke  out  their  income  from  it  by  the  gifts 
aud  offerings  with  which  Hindus  remunerate  the  services  they 
render  at  times  of  festivals,  either  in  the  temples  or  in'  private 
households,  and  at  domestic  ceremonies,  such  as  marriages  in 
families  of  the  higher  castes.  The  value  aud  number  of  such  gifts 
and  offerings  are  decreasing,  and  the  poorest  of  the  priests  are 
now  obliged  to  serve  as  cooks,  peons  and  collecting  sarkdrs. 
TrHcliiig  The  trading  (lasses  as  a  body  are  thriving  owing  to  the  larger 

cbssea.       doniand   for  necessaries  of  life  and  luxuries  among    the  general 
population,  and  also  to  the  development  of  communications,  which 


RENTS,    WAGES    AND    PRICES.  93 

has  made  it  easier  and  cheaper  to  bring  goods  from  Calcutta  and 
Howrah.  Grocers  and  petty  shopkeepers  are  numerous  in  the 
mofussil,  and  add  to  their  profits  by  judicious  usury,  advancing 
paddy  or  money  to  the  ryots  in  the  slack  season  and  being  repaid 
after  harvest  with  25  per  cent,  interest.  They  also  make  a  profit 
of  2  to  4  annas  in  the  rupee  from  paddy-husking.  They  advance 
paddy  to  the  ryots,  whose  women-folk  husk  it,  and  then  the 
husked  rice  is  sold  in  the  market  by  the  ryot,  who  repays  the 
mahdjnn.  To  this  practice  is  due  the  large  number  of  paddy- 
huskers,  almost  exclusively  women,  shown  in  the  census  returns. 
The  Marwaris  have  cloth  shops  in  some  of  the  important  villages  ; 
Kabulis  hawk  about  cloths  and  other  miscellaneous  goods ;  and 
near  the  towns  up-country  men  have  set  up  grocers'  shops. 
The  number  of  the  latter  is  relatively  small  in  the  mofussil, 
where  the  bulk  of  the  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  local  men. 

Of  late  years  the  condition  of  the  cultivators  has  improved  Cuiti- 
owing  both  to  the  rise  in  the  price  of  rice  and  jute,  the  staple  ^"^'^''^ 
crops  of  the  district,  and  of  such  subsidiary  crops  as  pulses, 
sugarcane  and  vegetables,  and  also  to  the  increase  in  the  cultivated 
area  caused  by  the  drainage  schemes.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
cost  of  production  has  also  increased  because  of  the  higher  price 
they  have  to  pay  for  bullocks,  straw  and  grass,  the  highei-  wages 
obtained  by  labourers,  and  in  many  instances  the  enhanced  rents 
imposed  by  landlords ;  while  the  new  lands  brought  under  culti- 
vation, being  mostly  less  fertile,  give  a  smaller  yield.  Never- 
theless, their  profits  have  so  largely  increased,  that  the  cultivators 
are  much  better  off  than  they  were  30  years  ago  or  tlian  the  ryots 
of  many  other  districts  in  the  Province,  such  as  those  of  Bihar  and 
Orissa. 

The  bulk  of  the  tenants  are  Kaibarttas,  "who  are,"  as 
Mr.  Ritchie  remarked  20  years  ago,  "beyond  comparison,  the 
best  cultivators  and  the  most  industrious  and  thrifty  class  in  this 
district."  The>'  usually  keep  a  fair  quantity  of  their  produce 
at  home,  and  the  women  help  by  paddy  husking.  They  catch 
fish  almost  for  nothing  in  the  pools,  khaln  and  rice-fields;  and 
they  supplement  their  daily  food,  or  add  to  their  savings,  by 
getting  vegetables  and  pot  herbs  from  the  fields  or  homestead 
nurseries,  and  by  growing  fruit  like  plantains,  mangoes  and 
pine-apples  in  their  orchards.  They  can  afford  a  number  of  silver 
ornaments  and  brass  utensils,  their  houses  are  substantially  built, 
and  two  meals  a  day  are  general.  As  a  class,  they  are  but  little 
indebted  to  the  mahdjans,  while  their  poorer  brethren  can  get  loans 
from,  the  more  well-to-do  at  a  lower  rate  of  interest  than  the 
mahajan  will  allow.    In  slack  seasons  they  can  earn  good  wages  by 


94  HO"WKAH. 

working  in  the  towns  and  factories.  No  relief  operations  have 
been  necessary  since  1866,  when  most  of  the  persons  reHeved  were 
paupers  from  other  districts ;  and  emigration  to  other  districts  is 
uncommon.  These  facts  go  to  prove  that  the  cultivators  have 
generally  something  to  fall  back  upon  in  times  of  distress  and 
find  Bufficif-nt  employment  in  their  own  district  or  in  Calcutta. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  reverse  to  this  somewhat  bright 
picture  in  the  sickness  which  prevails  in  certain  th&nas  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  and  the  loss  it  necessarily  entails. 

Artisani,  Among  artisans,   those  whose  handicrafts  have   had  to  face 

foreign  competition,  such  as  cotton- weavers,  are  going  down  in 
the  world.  A  few  of  them  have  had  recourse  to  cotton  or  jute 
mills,  but  the  majority  have  taken  to  cultivation  ;  and  as  new- 
comers they  have  had  to  be  content  with  the  poorer  lands  of 
the  village.  The  Sicade»,hi  movement,  started  in  1905,  has 
however,  led  to  an  increased  demand  for  cloths  made  locally  in 
hand-looms,  and  the  prospects  of  the  cotton-weavers  have  conse- 
quently improved.  They  are  now  selling  cloths  as  fast  as  they 
can  make  them ;  and  with  the  introduction  in  several  villages  of 
improved  Serampore  looms,  which  ensure  a  better  outturn,  the 
weavers  are  generally  able  to  earn  enough  to  maintain  their 
families. 

VUlage  potters,  carpenters  and  blacksmiths  are  said  to  be 
little  or  no  better  oS  than  they  were  half  a  century  ago.  Money 
wages  have  replaced  the  old  system  of  payment  m  kind,  and  have 
risen  in  amount,  but  it  is  open  to  question  whether  they  have 
increased  proportionately  to  the  rise  in  prices.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  an  increased  population  and  a  larger  area  under 
cultivation,  more  orders  are  received,  and  the  services  of  the 
blacksmith  or  carpenter  are  more  frequently  required  for  work 
other  than  agricultural  work.  In  slack  seasons,  moreover,  they 
can  migrate  to  the  towns  and  s^x-ure  good  wages. 

Labooreri.  The  same  changes  have  affected  the  ordinary  agricultural 
labourer.  Payments  in  kind  have  practically  ceased,  and  he 
now  receives  his  wages  in  cash.  The  field  of  labour  has  widened, 
and  he  has  not  only  the  chance  of  working  in  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  the  area  of  which  has  extended,  of  jute  and  sugarcane, 
but  also  in  building  and  thatching  houses,  in  fishing  and  boating. 
There  are  no  signs  that  this  class  is  increasing  unduly,  for  though 
a  number  of  weavers  joined  their  ranks  on  the  decUne  of  weav- 
ing, this  movement  is  dying  out ;  while  a  large  number  are  now 
employed  in  the  numerous  factories  and  other  urban  industries 
and  thus  prevent  the  supply  exceeding  the  demand  for  field 
labour. 


BENTS,   WAGES    AND   PRIONS.  95 

In  the  mill8  and  factoriefl  most  of  the  employes  earn  much 
higher  wages  than  they  coiild  get  at  home.  Many  of  them  spend 
money  freely  on  drink  and  women ;  but  most  live  frugally,  and 
send  their  savings  home  through  their  friends  or  by  money 
orders.  The  number  of  the  latter  is  very  noticeable,  no  less 
than  M},  lakhs  being  sent  out  of  the  district  in  1907-08.  Some 
deposit  money  in  the  Savings  Banks,  but  many  more  give  out 
petty  loans  or  set  up  betel-shops  or  groceries. 

Less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  beggars  or  J^eggara. 
their  dependents.  This  class  includes  roHgious  mendicant,  falcirH, 
Vaishnavas  and  annydni^i,  but  consists  more  largely  of  old  women, 
cripples,  blind-persons  and  lepers.  They  suffer  from  the  high 
price  of  food  and  the  consequent  gradual  shrinking  of  tlie  flow 
of  private  charity. 


96  HOWRAH. 


TI0X3. 


CHAPTER  IX. 


OCCUPATIONS,  MANUPACTUEES  AND  TRADE. 

OccupA-  Thk  statistics  showing  the  occupations  of  the  people  obtained 
at  the  census  of  1901  furnish  ample  proof  of  the  industrial  acti- 
vity of  the  district.  No  less  than  26  per  cent,  of  the  population 
are  supported  by  various  industries,  this  being  the  highest  pro- 
portion in  the  Province.  On  the  other  hand,  the  percentage 
dependent  on  agriculture  is  the  lowest  in  Bengal,  viz.,  42*3  per 
cent.,  the  adjoining  Hooghly  district  following  longo  intervaUo 
with  02'8  per  cent.  Those  supported  by  trade  and  professional 
pursuits  represent  2'3  and  3"7  per  cent,  respectively  of  the  popula- 
tion— proportions  exceeded  only  in  Hooghly,  where  conditions  are 
similar,  and,  as  regards  the  professional  classes,  in  Purl,  where 
there  is  an  unusually  large  number  of  temple  servants  and 
pilgrim-recruiters. 

Those  classed  as  actual  workers  in  agriculture  numbered 
98,012,  including  2,362  rent-receivers,  82,556  rent-payers,  3,262 
betel-leaf  growers  and  8,213  farm  labourers.  Among  the 
commercial  classes  the  actual  workers  numbered  only  7,157, 
including  2,551  petty  shopkeepers  and  their  servants.  The  actual 
workers  in  the  learned  and  artistic  professions  numbered  10,505, 
including  3,697  priests,  989  teachers,  1,657  -writers,  and  1,617 
medical  practitioners  and  midwives.  In  the  numerous  industries 
which  flourish  in  the  district  the  actual  workers  aggregated  101,535, 
including  17,215  rice-pounders,  of  whom  no  less  than  16,956 
were  females,  3,011  operatives  in  cotton  mills,  1,694  cotton 
weavers  using  hand-looms,  and  17,733  operatives  in  jute  mills. 
Among  actual  workers  in  other  occupations  may  be  mentioned 
railway  employes  (6,011),  herdsmen.  (1,904),  washermen  (2,710), 
boatmen  (4,612),  general  labourers  (43,000),  prostitutes  (2,172) 
and  beggars  (3,797).  The  proportion  of  dependents  varied  con- 
siderably, being  27  per  cent,  among  the  agricultural  population, 
46  per  cent,  among  the  industrial,  37  per  cent,  among  the  com- 
mercial, and  33  per  cent,  among  the  professional  classes.  The 
difierence  is  mainly  due  to  the  fact  that  a  large  number  of  those 
engaged  in  commerce  and  manufacture  are  immigrants  who  leave 
their  families  at  home. 


OCCUPATIONS,  MANUFACTURES  AND    TRADE.  97 

The  industries  of  Howrah  may  be  broadly  divided  into  two  Manu- 
classes,  viz.,  (1)  large  industries  in  which  machinery  or  steam  power  ^**^^^^^^* 
is  used,  and  (2)  hand  industries  or  village  handicrafts.  The  latter 
are  of  little  economic  importance,  merely  supplying  local  wants. 
The  case  is  far  otherwise  witli  the  large  industries,  for  the  llowrah 
side  of  the  Hooghly  is  lined  with  factories  employing  over  70,000 
hands.  These  include  cotton  mills,  jute  mills,  jute  presses,  flour 
mills,  engineering  works  and  foundries,  railway  workshops,  rope 
works,  dockyards,  etc.,  of  which  an  account  is  giver,  in  the  next 
chapter. 

In  the  rural  tracts  hand  industries  or  village  handicrafts  are  Hand 
nearly  all  directly  associated  with  the  simple  requirements  of  ""^"^*'''^** 
an  agricultural  life.  The  potter  makes  %ie  villagers'  earthenware 
utensils  and  the  brazier  their  brass  vessels ;  the  carpenter  fashions 
wooden  or  bamboo  posts  and  rafters  for  their  houses  and  makes 
their  simple  furniture  ;  the  weavers  turn  out  coarse  cotton  cloths 
and  the  silversmiths  crude  silver  ornaments;  while  the  smith 
makes  or  repairs  ploughshares,  rfao.s,  sickles  and  other  iron  utensils 
required  for  domestic  or  agricultural  use.  These  artisans  have 
little  capital  and  few  instruments,  and  generally  work  single- 
handed  or  with  the  help  of  their  families.  Little  is  made  for 
export,  but  fishing  is  a  fairly  important  industry. 

Weaving  was  once  an  important  industry  in  this  district.  Weaving. 
As  early  as  1580,  Bator  was  a  local  trade  centre  subsidiary  to  the 
great  market  of  Satgaon,  which,  according  to  Cesare  Federici,  who 
visited  it  in  that  year,  was  a  place  where  merchants  sold  "  cloth  of 
Bombast  of  diverse  sortes."*  In  1758  the  East  India  Company 
is  said  to  have  issued  orders  that  weavers  were  to  be  encouraged 
to  form  settlements  on  this  side  of  the  Hooghly,  so  as  to  meet 
the  demand  for  cloth  for  its  trade. t  The  trade  in  hand-made 
cotton  fabrics  flourished  in  the  18th  century,  large  exports  being 
sent  to  England,  but  from  1800  onwards  the  heavy  duties  levied 
on  Indian  cotton  cloths  in  England  and  subsequently  the  large 
imports  of  Lancashire  machine-made  piece-goods  dealt  a  fatal 
blow  to  the  industry.  The  latter  were  far  cheaper,  the  lowest 
price  of  an  ordinary  hand-made  dliuti  or  sdt^i  being  not  less  than 
Ee.  1-8  to  Es.  2-8,  and  of  a  chddar  from  Ee.  1  to  Ee.  1-8,  whereas 
the  imported  machine-made  dJmti  or  sari  cost  10  annas  to  Ee.  1 
and  a  chddar  8  annas  to  12  annas.  The  cheaper  cloths  were 
naturally  preferred,  and  with  the  decline  in  the  demand  for  the 
produce    of  their  looms,  the    weavers    gradually   took   to   other 


•  Kicliard  Hakluyt,  The  Principal  Navigations,  etc.,  reprint,  Vol,  V,  p.  41 1. 
f  Howrah,  Past  and  Present,  p.  10. 


98  HOWRAH. 

occupations  in  the  villages,  chiefly  to  cultivation,  while  in  the 
towns  a  number  found  employment  in  the  cotton  mills  started  in 
Ghusuri  and  elsewhere. 

The  decline  of  the  industry  may  be  gathered  from  the  statis- 
tics compiled  during  the  census.  Weaving  is  the  hereditary  occu- 
pation of  two  Hindu  castes,  Tantis  and  Jugis,  and  of  the  Musal- 
man  Jolahas,  though  formerly  it  also  gave  employment  to  a  few 
members  of  other  castes,  Kaibarttas,  Pods,  and  a  small  number 
of  other  Musalmans,  especially  in  carding.  The  census  of  1901 
showed  the  number  of  males  among  the  weaving  classes  as 
Jugis  2,065,  Tantis  7,71J0  and  Jolahas  4,570,  in  all  14,4vJ5  ;  but 
the  number  of  actual  cotton  weavers,  both  male  and  female,  was 
only  1,694,  as  compared  with  2,261  in  1891.  The  chief  centres  of 
cotton  weaving  were  in  thana  Dumjor,  in  thana  Jagatballabhpur, 
west  of  Kana  Nadi,  and  in  thanas  Amta  and  Bagnan.  The 
village  Nabosan  in  thana  Jagatballabhpur  was  particularly  well- 
known  for  the  fine  cloth  it  produced.  Since  1906  the  Siiadesl 
movement  has  helped  to  resuscitate  hand-loom  weaving.  The 
weavers  are  now  using  the  Serampore  looms,  with  which  a  man 
can  finish  2^  to  3  yards  per  day  as  against  1  ^  yard  with  the 
ordinary  loom.  The  increased  outturn  obtained  thereby  is  enabl- 
ing the  weavers  to  meet  the  growing  demand  for  country-made 
cloths  more  fully,  and  to  make  larger  profits. 

The  chief  articles  made  for  export  are  dhulis  and  chadars^ 
plain  or  with  coloured  borders,  sdrls  for  females,  and  (jamclihm  or 
napkins,  all  of  somewhat  coarse  yam.  Finer  cloths  are  woven  in 
thana  Dumjor,  but  in  very  small  quantities.  The  chief  centre  of 
export  is  the  liat  at  Eamkristapur  in  Howrah  town,  but  cloths 
are  also  taken  direct  to  Calcutta.  No  statistics  are  available  as 
to  the  quantity  exported.  The  general  impression  is  that  the 
number  and  value  of  exported  cloths  have  increased  considerably 
in  the  last  two  years. 
Chiian  A   few    Muhammadan    ladies   in   thanas    Dumjor  and  Jagat- 

work.         ballabhpur  employ  tlieir  spare  time  in  chikan   work  (derived  from 
the  Persian  c/iikin,  moaning   art   embroidery),   i.e.,   embroidering 
handkerchiefs   and   fine   muslin  cloths,  which  are  bought    up   by 
Calcutta  dealers  for  export. 
Silk  Silk   rearing  is  a  local   industry   which   can  be  traced  to  the 

spininni.  j^j(ne  of  the  I8th  century,  when  the  cultivation  of  domes- 
ticated silkworms  for  the  silk  trade  of  the  East  India  Company 
was  carried  on  in  parts  of  the  di.strict.*  This  cultivation  was  kept 
up  in  the  palmy  days  of  the  Company's  silk  trade  (1790  to  1835), 

•  Some  Account  of  Silk  in  India,  Qeoghegan,  I.  page  2. 


OCCUPATIONS,    MANUFACTURES  ANT)    TRADE.  99 

and,  even  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Company  from  the  trade, 
until  187'').  Since  then  it  has  been  rapidly  dying  out  and  only  a 
vestige  of  it  now  remains,  most  of  those  who  engaged  in  it  having 
taken  to  agriculture.  According  to  Mr.  N.  (j.  Mukherji's  Mono- 
graph on  the  Silk  Fabrics  of  ticiujal  (1903)  it  is  carried  on  by  about 
600  persons,  who  also  follow  other  agricultural  pursuits.  The 
cocoons  reared  are  mulberry  silk  cocoons,  the  mulberry  tree  being 
grown  chiefly  along  the  Damodar  and  Kana  Nadl.  The  rearers 
and  spinners  are  scattered  through  thana  Jagatballabhpur  and  the 
Sankrail  outpost  in  the  Sadar  subdivision  and  through  all  the  thanas 
of  Uluberia ;  but  it  is  only  in  the  Jagatballabhpur  thana  that 
cocoon- rearing  and  silk  spinning  are  carried  on  to  any  considerable 
extent.*  The  work  is  earned  on  mostly  by  Kaibarttas,  Bagdis 
and  low  class  Musaliuans,  The  Kaibaittas  are  known  as  Tutia 
Kaibarttas  (from  tut,  a  mulberry),  and  a  group  of  them  is  found 
at  Jugeswar  in  thaua  Jagatballabhpur  (outpost  Panchla).  Silk 
is  sold  to  the  dealers,  from  whom  the  mulberry  cultivators  receive 
small  advances.  The  silk  produced  in  Jagatballabhpur  thana 
is  largely  exported  to  Phurphura  in  thana  Krishnanagar  in  the 
Serampore  subdivision,  and  that  produced  in  other  thanas  to 
the  silk  filatures  in  Ghatal  subdivision  of  Midnapore  and  to 
Calcutta.  It  is  estimated  that  about  500  bighds  grow  mulberry, 
and  the  value  of  the  annual  produce  is  roughly  estimated  at  about 
Rs.  12,500. 

Pottery  making  is  a  more  important  industry,  the  census  of  Pottery. 
1901  returning  1,650  persons  as  actual  workers.  During  the 
dry  months  of  the  year,  Kumhars  or  village  potters  make 
earthenware  vessels  in  the  primitive  manner  handed  down  to  them 
by  past  generations,  and  sell  them  in  the  local  hdts.  The  earth 
in  parts  of  the  Sadar  subdivision  is  believed  to  provide  the  best 
material,  and  the  vessels  made  there  are  preferred,  as  likely  to 
stand  the  fire  better  and  to  last  longer,  and  are  exported  to 
Calcutta,  Howrah  and  other  towns.  Among  such  vessels  the 
cooking-vessels  of  Patih&l  in  Jagatballabhpur  thana  and  the  large 
jars  of  Sankrail  have  a  local  repute,  and  among  painted  earthen 
articles,  the  toys  of  Chandipur,  the  masks,  brackets,  imitations  of 
Iruit,  and  pots  made  at  Dumjor  and  Uluberia  are  noticeable, 
yellow  being  the  favourite  colour  used. 

Formerly   a  number    of    Musalmans    in   thanas  Amta   and  Minor 
Bagnan  found  employment  in  the  manufacture  of  brown  country  •'"^"'^'^'e^' 
paper,  but  this  trade  is  now  dying  owing   to  tlie   competition   of 
European   and  Indian    machine-made    products.     This   class  of 

*  N.  G.  Mukhevji,  Silk  Fabrics  of  bengal  (1903),  pp.  4,  5. 

h2 


100  HOWRAH. 

Muliammatlftns  (cnlled  Kaghazi)  is  still  found  at   Mainan,     Other 
minor   industries  are  the  manufacture  of  hookahs  and  cane  work. 
The  liookalis  are  made  from  the  shells  of  local  cocoimts,  which 
are  carved  and  exported  to  Calcutta.      Larger  shells  are  imported 
from  Ceylon  and  Singapore,  and  carved  in  thana  Dumjor,  where 
they  are  sold  for  export  at  Begri  Hat.     In  Howrah  town   and  its 
suburbs  a  number  of  Dom  families  turn   out   excellent  cane-work, 
e.g.,  baskets,  chairs,  cradles   and  fancy  articles,  which  are  said   to 
be  in  no  way  inferior  to   the  Chinese  work   of   Bentinck   Street, 
Calcutta.     They   find   a  ready  sale    in    Calcutta,    Howrah   and 
elsewhere. 
Fisheries.         j^  a  riparian   district  like  Howrah   fishing   is   naturally   an 
important  industry.     Fish  is  eaten   by   almost   all    classes  except 
the   rigid   Vaishnavas  and  widows  belonging  to  the  higher  castes ; 
and  it  is  the  main  luxury  the  poor   allow   themselves  in  addition 
to   rice.     The   industry   gives  employment  to  some  10,000  actual 
workers,  the  chief  castes  engaged  being  Jalija  Kaibarttas,  Tiyars, 
Bagdis  and  Pods.     Fishing  takes  place  in  the   three   rivers,  their 
network   of  branches  and   A/^a/.s,   in  the  numerous  swamps,  tanks 
and  ponds,  and  towards  the  end  of  rains  in  the  flooded  rice-fields. 

The  fish  commonly  brought  to  market    are    (1 )  estuarine  fish, 

such   as   hihd    (Clupea   ilisha),   hhetJn  (Lates  calcarifer),  tapsi  or 

mango-fish  (Polynemus  paradiseus),  hele  (Eliotris   and    Gobiodes), 

jjdnlal   (Mastacembelus  unicolor),    bliangan  (Mugiltade),  hharanti 

(Pagrus  spinifer)  ;  (2)  fresh-water   fish  found   in   running  water 

or  tanks,  including  representatives    of  the  carp  family,  e.g..,   rui 

(Labeo  rohita),  katld  (Catla  Buchanani),  mirgel  (Cirrhina  mrigal), 

lata  (Labeo  bata),  chital  (Notopterus  chitala),  sarnl  punti  (Barbus 

Barana),  vdchd    (Eutropiichthys  vacha),  2)dhdd  (Callichrous  pabda), 

ten g Id    (Macrones   tengara),   and   dr  (M.   aor) ;    (3)   fresh- water 

fish  found  in  stagnant  muddy  water,  such  as  koi  (Anabas  scandens) 

yndgur  (Clarius  magur),  ningi  (Saccobranchus  fossilis),  sol   (Ophio- 

cephalus   striatus),   letd  (O.    gachua)  ;  and    (4)    small   fish   found 

in  jhih   and   rice   fields,   such   as  nunirald    (Aspidoparea  morar), 

////;i^ J  (Barbus  punti),  khahc    (Trichogaster  chuna),    chela    (Chela 

phulo).     Besides   these   several   species  of  estuarine  Crustacea  are 

caught,  viz.,  shrimps,  prawns  and  crabs. '*^ 

Fishiiif?  In  the  rivers,   especially   the   Hooghly,  fish  are  caught  with 

a].iJiiiBtus.  jjg^g  worked  from  boats.     In  the   upper  reaches  the  boats  used  are 

generally  duigis,  managed  by  two  to  five    men  and  2-'')   feet  by  4 

feet  in   size,   with  a  capacity   of  10  to  15  maunds.     Lower  down, 


•  Most   of    tlie   information    here   givpn   is   derived   frnni    Mr.   K.  G.  Gupta's 
Seport  on  Fisheries  in  Bengal,  1908. 


OCCUPATIONS,    MANUFACTURES    AND   TRADE.  lOl 

near  Uliiberia,  bigger  boats  are  used  of  100  to  500  maunds 
burthen.  The  largest  of  these  visit  Saugor  regularly  and  are 
indeed  the  only  fishing  boats  that  venture  out  to  sea.  The  nets 
commonly  used  are  drag  nets  {ber  or  barajdl),  running  to  150  feet 
or  more  in  length.  They  are  provided  with  floats  and  weights, 
and  are  dragged  close  to  the  bank.  During  the  rains  the  fishermen 
substitute  a  labyrinth  net  (called  kond  Jdl),  i.e.,  a  drift  net 
with  a  capacious  purse  and  two  net  side  walls,  to  one  of  which  is 
attached  a  guiding  net.  The  purse  and  side  walls  are  kept  in 
position  by  bamboo  poles.  Gill  nets  are  used  for  catching 
hi/sd,  and  purse  nets  {suti  jdl)  where  the  current  is  strong. 
The  latter  are  shaped  like  a  long  funnel,  the  narrow  end  of  which 
is  secured  by  a  string.  The  net  is  kept  stretched  by  the  current, 
and  from  time  to  time  the  fisherman  comes  round  in  his  boat  and 
clears  out,  through  the  narrow  end,  all  the  fish  imprisoned  in  it. 

In  the  shallower  water  of  creeks  and  branch  channels  cast 
nets  {khepld  Jdl)  are  commonly  used  from  dug-outs.  The  latter, 
which  are  merely  the  trunks  of  mango,  palmyra  or  sdl  trees 
scooped  out,  have  a  capacity  of  3  to  10  maunds  and  are  usually 
managed  by  one  or  two  men.  The  cast  net  is  either  of  cotton  or 
hemp  with  small  meshes,  and  has  iron  weights  at  the 
end.  It  is  whirled  over  the  head  and  then  cast,  when  it  falls  to 
the  bottom  in  a  circle.  In  the  rice  fields  and  in  sluggish 
channels  dammed  up  with  weirs,  fixed  engines  are  preferred. 
The  apparatus  commonly  used  is  ghiini,  a  split  bamboo  trap  with 
a  double  screen.  In  flowing  streams  dammed  from  bank  to  bank, 
a  tatur  jdl,  i.e.,  an  enclosure  of  net  or  split  bamboos,  is  placed  in 
a  passage  left  open  in  midstream.  A  screen  or  guide  from  this 
enclosure  floats  downstream  and  is  kept  in  position  by  the 
current  and  by  floats  and  weights.  Fish  in  their  upward  journey 
creep  along  the  screen  to  the  enclosure,  and  then  try  to  junae 
over  it,  and  thus  are  caught  in  the  nets  hanging  over  its  top.  In 
muddy  sloughs  the  koi  fish  is  caught  in  the  meshes  of  gill  nets  or 
by  baited  hooks.  In  tanks  and  ponds  larger  fish  are  usually 
caught  by  cast  nets,  and  smaller  fish  by  bamboo  ghunu  set  up 
near  the  bank  in  shallow  waters. 

Fish  is  generally  brought  dead  to  the  market,  except  kol, 
iitdyur,  etc.,  which  are  brought  alive,  as  they  can  live  for  a  long 
time  on  a  little  water.  ►Small  fish  and  shrimps  are  dried  in  the 
sun  for  3  or  4  days  and  then  go  by  the  name  of  snnfki.  Fish 
are  not  salted  or  smoked  in  this  district,  and  ice  is  not  used  for 
preserving. 

The  fish  most  in  request  are  hilm  and   mango- fish   among  the  HilsU  and 
estuarine  fish,  and  carp  among  fresh- water  fish.     Hihd  or  Indian  g  u"=°* 


102  HOWRAH. 

shad  comes  up  the  Hooghly  from  the  sea  in  enormous  shoals. 
It  begins  its  upward  journey  with  the  freshets  and  moves  up 
the  river  till  about  the  close  of  the  rains,  depositing  spawn. 
During  the  spawning  season,  when  the  fish  is  rich  and  of  good 
flavour,  the  river  is  crowded  mth  fishing  boats,  and  big  hauls 
are  made.  Rajganj  and  Uluberia  are  the  chief  centres  of  the 
trade,  the  fish  being  conveyed  thence  by  boats  to  Calcutta  and 
Howrah,  and  also  partly  by  steamer  from  Eajganj  and  partly  by 
the  Bcngal-Nagpur  Railway  from  Uluberia.  Uluberia  is  also  a 
centre  of  the  trade  in  mango-fish,  the  river  from  that  place  to 
Diamond  Harbour  being  its  favoimte  haunt.  It  is  caught  with 
or  without  roe  in  great  numbers  from  April  to  June  and  is 
exported  to  Calcutta  in  boats  and  partly  by  rail. 
Caip.  Hilsa  and  mango-fish  are  especially  popular  among  Europeans ; 

but  among  Indians  carps  take  the  first  place,  the  rui  (Sanskrit 
rohita)  being  oo'nsidered  the  king  of  fresh-water  fish.  They 
abound  in  the  rivers  and  bigger  channels,  and  on  account  of  the 
good  prices  they  command,  are  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  fisher- 
men. They  are  also  reared  in  private  tanks  and  ponds.  There 
is  a  general  belief  that  they  do  jiot  spawn  in  confined  waters, 
and  the  eggs  and  spawn  are  therefore  collected  in  the  Hooghly 
from  above  Ho%vrah  and  in  the  Damodar  near  Amta,  and 
hatched  in  shallow  ponds.  The  fry  thus  reared,  as  well  as  fry 
taken  direct  from  the  rivers,  are  sold  alive  to  tank-owners 
at  Rs.  5  to  B.S.  10  per  1,000.  This  business  is  most  active 
towards  the  end  of  the  rains,  i.e.,  from  September  to  November. 
The  small  fry  stocking  the  tanks  are  allowed  to  grow,  usually 
for  a  year,  after  which  they  are  taken  out  for  private  consump- 
tion or  for  sale.  The  hat  I  a  is  said  to  grow  most  rapidly,  going 
up  in  weight  to  2  or  3  seers  in  the  second  season,  when  they  are 
worth  about  a  rupee  each  in  the  Howrah  markets. 
Trade.  The   great   centre   of   trade    is    Howrah     town,     which    for 

commercial  purposes  practically  forms  part  of  Calcutta.  Bally, 
Dumjor,  Mahiari  with  Andul,  Uluberia  and  Amta  are  important 
subsidiary  markets.  The  trade  of  Howrah  town  is  increasing 
yearly,  but  that  of  Bally,  Uluberia  and  Amta  has  declined  con- 
siderably. The  opening  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  has 
increased  exports  from  Uluberia,  but  has  affected  local  daily  sales. 
Similarly,  Amta,  a  place  once  noted  for  its  trade  in  salt  and  coal, 
which  were  brought  by  the  Damodar,  has  practically  lost  it  now. 
It  has  still  an  export  trade,  however  in  rice  and  straw,  and  an 
import  trade  in  kerosene  oil  and  piece-goods.  In  the  jute  season, 
Dumjor  and  Bargachhia  have  a  considerable  trade  in  raw  jute, 
but  the  sales  in  Andul  are  declining. 


OCCUPATIONB,    MANl  TACTrPES    AND  TRADE.  103 

Besides  the  daily  markets,  the  various  hats  or  periodical  Eats. 
markets  have  a  brisk  trade.  Of  these  the  Tuesday  hat  at  Eam- 
kristapur  in  iJowrah  town  is  the  most  important,  being  indeed 
the  largest  mart  for  hand- woven  cloths  in  Western  and  Central 
Bengal.  Numerous  varieties  and  large  quantities  of  these  cloths 
are  brought  here  from  Howrah,  Ilooghly,  Nadia,  Jessore,  Midna- 
pore  and  the  24-Parganas,  and  find  a  ready  sale,  chiefly  among 
Calcutta  dealers.  In  the  Uluberia  hat^  too,  a  large  number  of 
cows  and  plough  cattle  are  sold.  In  Dumjor  thana,  Mahiari  is 
a  centre  of  the  rioe  trade,  while  in  Begri  Hat  coconuts  and 
hookahs  form  a  speciality.  Traders  and  hucksters  also  do  a  brisk 
business  during  the  various  religious  festivals,  when  fairs  are 
held  at  Nama,  Makardah,  Amta  and  elsewhere. 


104  TiOWRAH. 


CHAPTER  X. 

FACTORY  INDUSTRIES. 
DBVELor-  "  There  is,"  wrote  Mr.  J.  C.  Marshman,  c.  s.i.,  in  1845,  "little 
LA^BGE**^  to  notice  in  the  villages  of  Seebi^ore,  Howrali  and  Sulkea,  the 
INDUS-  Southwark  of  Calcutta.  The  establishment  of  the  Docks  and  a 
TEiEo.  £^^  manufactures,  and  of  the  Company's  Salt  Ware-houses,  gives 
an  air  of  life  and  activity  to  the  place,  but  the  number  of 
European  residents,  though  not  inconsiderable,  is  by  no  means 
proportioned  to  the  vast  population  and  wealth  of  Calcutta,  of 
which  it  constitutes  a  suburb.  South wark  enjoyed  greater  distinc- 
tion, as  compared  with  the  magnitude  of  London  three  or  four 
centuries  ago,  than  Howrah  does  in  this  age  of  expansion  and 
improvement,  when  viewed  in  connection  with  the  commercial 
importance  of  Calcutta.  But  London  had  a  bridge,  and  Calcutta 
has  none  .  .  .  Above  Howrah  is  the  village  of  Ghoosory, 
without  anything  to  attract  attention,  but  two  or  three  manufac- 
tories and  a  little  Hindu  shrine  on  the  banks  of  the  river.  The 
reach  of  the  river  from  the  point  of  Ghoosory  to  the  village  of 
Bali  is  singularly  uninteresting,  and  offers  no  ancient  associations 
or  modem  improvements  to  attract  attention.  While  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river,  comprising  Cossipore  and  Baranagore,  presents 
a  lively  scene  of  manufacturing  and  engineering  industry,  and  is 
gradually  becoming  studded  with  elegant  villas,  the  right  bank 
does  not  contain  a  single  European  or  civilized  residence.  It  has 
a  wild  and  almost  jungly  appearance,  which  is  diversified  only 
by  stacks  of  timber  and  brick  or  tile  kilns  quite  unworthy  of  the 
approach  to  a  great  metropolis."* 

During  the  time  which  has  since  elapsed,  Howrah  has  become 
a  busy  centre  of  industrial  life.  The  riparian  strip  along  the 
Hooghly  is  now  studded  with  tall  chimneys,  and  even  a  casual 
observer  cannot  mistake  the  bigns  of  manufacturing  activity 
afforded  by  the  mills  and  factories  which  line  its  bank  from  Bally 
to  Uhibcria.  In  fad,  besides  a  number  of  minor  concerns,  such  as 
pug  mills,  oil  and  Hour  millb,  soda-water  manufactories,  etc., 
worked  by  hand  or  by  small  ouguies,  there  are,  according  to 
the  returns   for  l'J08,   no  less   than   5(j   factories  in  the  district 

*  Notes  on  ike  Right  Bank  of  the  Hooghly,  Calcutta  Review,  Vol.  IV,  1845. 


FACTORY    INDUSTRIES.  105 

registered  under  the  Indian  Factories  Act  (XV  of  1^81  amended 
by  Act  XI  of  1891)  ;  and  in  1908  these  factories  employed 
69,790  operatives,  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  total  population.  The 
bulk  of  the  factories  are  situated  in  Howrah  town,  only  twelve 
being  outside  it,  viz.,  one  at  Liluah  and  the  rest  to  the  south 
between  Manikpur  and  Uluberia.  All  are  worked  by  steam, 
except  the  paint  works  at  G-oabandi  (Sankrail),  which  are  worked 
by  an  oil  engine.  Electricity  is  being  slowly  introduced.  It 
forms  a  part  of  the  motive  power  in  the  Howrah  Iron  Works  of 
Messrs.  Burn  and  Co.,  and  is  being  used  to  drive  fans,  etc.,  in 
several  other  factories. 

The  first  large  industries  worked  by  European  capital  and 
with  European  methods  appear  to  have  been  started,  towards 
the  close  of  the  18th  century,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
ships  visiting  Calcutta,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  dockyards  and 
roperies.  The  deep  stream  then  flowed  along  the  northern  part 
of  the  town,  crossing  to  the  Calcutta  side  below  the  present 
Armenian  Ghat,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  from 
Ghusuri  to  Howrah  extended  a  series  of  docks  and  rope  works. 
These  continued  to  be  the  principal  industries  during  the  first  half 
of  the  19th  century,  and  in  1823  we  find  Bishop  Heber 
remarking: — "  Westward  flows  the  Hooghly,  covered  with  large 
ships  and  craft  of  all  kinds,  and  offering  on  its  farther  bank  the 
prospect  of  another  considerable  suburb,  that  of  Howrah  chiefly 
inhabited  by  shipbuilders,  but  with  some  pretty  villas  inter- 
spersed "*  In  1845  the  prosperity  of  the  town  of  Howrah  still 
depended  chiefly  on  its  dockyards  and  shipbuilding  establish- 
ments ;  but  extensive  sugar  factories  had  been  erected  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Bally  Khal,  which,  according  to  the  contempor- 
ary writer  above  quoted,  "  give  it  a  pleasing  air  of  manufacturing 
activity.  Indeed,  no  place  for  twenty  miles  above  Calcutta 
exhibits  so  much  bustle  and  animation."  Soon  after  this  the 
selection  of  Howrah  for  the  terminus  of  the  East  Indian  Railway, 
and  the  construction  of  the  bridge  over  the  Hooghly,  gave  an 
impetus  to  the  industrial  development  of  the  riparian  tract.  Iron 
foundries  and  engineering  works  were  erected,  and  they  were 
followed  by  cotton  mills,  jute  mills,  and  jute  presses.  More 
recently  brick  manufacture  by  means  of  pug  mills  has  been 
spreading  fast  along  the  river  bank. 

The   following   sketch   of  the   history   of    the   dockyards  in  Dock- 
Howrah  is  condensed  from  Howrah,  Past  ami-  Present  (published  ^^^i'^* 
m  1872)  by  the  late  Mr.  Chandra  Nath   Banarji,  Deputy  Magis- 
trate,  Howrah.     Docks   are  known   to  have  been  established  at 

*  Bishop  Heber's  Joui-nal  (1828)  Vol.  I.  p.  26. 


106  HOWRAH . 

IIoT\Tah  as  early  as  1796,when  a  Mr.  Bacon  opened  a  dockyard 
in  Salkhia,  a  frigate  named  the  Orpheus  being  the  first  vessel 
hauled  in  for  repairs.  In  1800  James  Mackenzie  constructed 
another  dock  at  Grolabari  and  next  year  opened  a  branch  dock 
close  by.  These  docks  were  formerly  known  as  Mackenzie's  Old 
Dock  and  New  Dock.  The  "  Patent  Slip  "  was  founded  at  Grola- 
bari about  1810  by  Mr.  Beauchamp,  and  after  working  for  39 
years,  was  sold  to  Tarak  Nath  Paramanik,  who  converted  it  into 
a  dock  in  1850,  and  called  it  the  Caledonia  Dock,  under  which 
name  it  still  exists.  George  Walker  also  set  up  a  dock  in  1815 
at  Golabari,  which  subsequently  received  the  name  of  the  Com- 
mercial Dock ;  while  James  Mackenzie  established  another  ship- 
building yard  in  Salkhia  in  1824.  "  In  1823  the  opening  out  of 
the  Strand  Hoad  in  Calcutta,  by  the  exertions  of  the  Lottery 
Committee,  caused  the  breaking  up  of  the  docks,  which  had  been 
established  in  Clive  Street.  Consequently  the  ship-builders  came 
over  to  Howrah,  and  by  degrees  set  up  docks  there."  The  first 
of  those  so  set  up  were  known  as  the  Lower,  Upper  and  Middle 
Docks.  The  Lower  Dock  was  first  established  by  Blackmore,  and 
the  Upper  and  Middle  Docks  were  opened  two  years  later  by 
Matthew  Smith.  They  eventually  became  the  property  of  a 
Joint  Stock  Company  under  the  name  of  the  Calcutta  Docking 
Company.  In  1826  there  were  eight  shipwrights  in  Howrah 
with  yards  along  the  river-side  between  Sibpur  and  Ghusuri. 

The  building  of  docks  appears  to  have  received  a  fresh 
impetus  about  the  year  1840.  Ambrose  and  Co.  set  up  a  yard 
for  building  ships  in  1840  in  Salkhia,  and  at  the  same  place 
Thomas  Reeves  built  a  dock,  which  went  by  his  name.  He 
retired  in  1858,  selling  his  property  to  the  Peninsular  and 
Oriental  Steam  Navigation  Company.  Hardly  had  the  sale  been 
efiected,  when  MacNicol  and  Browu  took  a  contract  for  working 
the  dock,  which  was  then  named  the  Union  Dock.  The  contract 
expired  in  1869,  when  the  Calcutta  Docking  Company  stepped 
in.  A  man  named  Roid,  in  conjunction  with  Jay  Gopal  Mallik, 
built  the  llooghly  dockyard  in  Salkhia  in  1842,  and  carried  on 
business  under  the  name  of  Reid  and  Co.  ;  while  Bremner 
set  up  a  dock  in  1844  immediately  above  the  Howrah  Ghat, 
but  had  to  close  it  in  a  few  years  owing  to  the  formation  of 
a  char  in  front  of  it.  The  Albion  Dock  in  1847  was  established 
by  Cochar,  Roberts,  Pitambar  Mukharji  and  Gladstone  in 
partnership ;  and  the  Ganges  Steam  Navigation  Company  built 
a  mud  dock  in  1848  in  Salkhia.  The  East  India  Dock  was  built 
at  Salkhia  m  1849  by  Ramkinu  Sarkar,  Jay  Narayan  Sattra 
and   Kali    Kumar   Kundu,   but   owing   to   disputes   among   the 


FACTORY    INDITSTRIES,  107 

partners  had  to  be  closed  in  1865.  "  The  plot  of  land  on  which 
the  dock  was  situated  was  originally  (in  1790)  occupied  by 
Gilmore  &  Co.,  for  building  ships.  In  1836  Gilmore  &  Co., 
however,  gave  up  ship-building,  and  from  that  date,  till  Kundu 
&  Co.  took  up  the  land;  it  was  a  mere  waste." 

The  above  account  may  be  supplemented  from  other  sources. 
In  the  Cakutfii  GuzviU,  under  date  25th  April  179D,  the  news  is 
given  that  a  large  vessel  "drifted  up  the  river  opposite  to 
Mr.  White's  shipwright  at  Sulkeah."*  In  the  same  year,  under 
date  25th  July,  a  notice  appeared  to  the  effect  that  "  Greorge 
Foreman  &  Co,,  have  the  pleasure  of  informing  their  employers 
and  the  public  that  their  new  dock  at  Sulkea  will  be  ready  to 
receive  ships  by  the  end  of  August.  The  dock  is  large  enough  to 
take  in  any  ship  of  less  than  42^  feet  beam,  and  the  sill  and  the 
blocks  are  so  low,  that  there  will  be  more  than  \-^\  feet  over  them 
in  tho  lowest  springs  in  the  year,  and  20  or  21  feet  in  the 
highest."t  Between  1811  and  1828,  27  vessels,  with  an  aggre- 
gate tonnage  of  9,322  tons,  are  said  to  have  been  built  at  Fort 
Gloster.  A  Government  steamer,  the  Burhampooter^  was  launched 
from  Howrah  in  1827,  and  the  Forbes,  the  first  Calcutta  steam 
tug,  in  1828.+  The  Falcon  was  launched  from  the  New  Howrah 
Dock  in  1829.  This  was  a  private  steamer  intended  to  serve 
as  a  tug  for  the  port  shipping,  and  as  a  practical  test  was  sent 
next  year  to  China  towing  an  opium  trader.§  Mr.  Marshman  in 
his  NotcH  Oil  the  Rhjlit  Bank  of  the  Hooghly  (1845)  also  refers,  in 
mentioning  the  dockyards,  to  "the  establishment  created  by 
Mr.  Reeves,  the  ship-builder,  a  man  of  great  enterprise,  who  has 
recently  enlarged  it  so  as  to  accommodate  our  magnificent 
steamers,  the  largest  vessels  which  have  ever  come  up  to  Calcutta." 

In  1872  there  were  eight  large  docks  along  the  river  between 
Howrah  and  Ghusuri,  besides  small  mud  docks,  but  the  number 
has  since  fallen  off,  the  returns  for  1908  shewing  ouly  four 
dockyards  at  work.  Details  of  these  docks  are  given  in  the 
following  table  : — 


Name. 

Locality. 

No.  of 
Operatives. 

Port  Commissioners'  Dock          ...                  ... 

British  India  Dock 
Hooghly  Docking  Works 
Caledonia  Docks 

flowrah 

Salkhia 

Golabari 

Ditto 

559 
670 
200 
105 

•  Selections,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  226,  535. 

t  Calcutta  in  the  Olden  Time,  Calcutta  Review,  Vol.  XVIll,  1852,  p.  282. 
X  Calcutta  Review,  Vol.  XXV,  p.  232, 

§  W.  H.  Carey,  The  Good  Old  Days  of  Sonar  able  John    Company,    Vol.    II 
pp.  21,  22,  116. 


208  HOWRATT. 

A  large  amount  of  dock  work  is  also  done  in  the  foundries 
of  Bum&  Co.,  Ld.,  of  John  King  &  Co.,  Ld.  at  Telkalghat, 
of  Jessop  &  Co.,  Ld.,  at  Howrah  Bridge  Road,  and  of  Turner 
Morrison  &  Co.  at  the  Shaliraar  works. 
Hoi'EBiEs.  The  roperies  of  Howrah  are  probably  even  older  than  the 
dockyards.  The  map  of  Calcutta  and  its  environs  prepared  from 
a  survey  made  in  1792  and  1793  by  A.  Upjohn  shows  on  the 
north  and  south  of  "  Salkia"  Point "  two  lanes  named  "Rope 
Walk"  evidently  because  there  were  roperies  on  them. 
Mr.  Banarji  also  states  that  the  earliest  industrial  concern  at 
Ghusuri  was  "the  rope  walk  and  screw  house  supposed  to  have 
been  established  about  a  century  ago  by  the  Stalkarts."*  Again, 
in  the  Calcutta  Gazette,  it  is  announced,  under  date  loth  August 
-  1801,  that  the  Dart  "  had  only  a  coir  cable  of  14  inch  on  the 
ground,  manufactured  at  the  Rope  Walk  of  Messrs.  Clarke  and 
Co.  at  Gusseree,  and  rode  two  days  with  a  nine  incli  stream 
cable,  made  at  the  same  Rope  AValk,  of  Ceylon  coir."t  The 
present  Ghusuri  Rope  "Works  (if  the  same  as  those  mentioned 
above)  must  be  the  oldest  of  the  Howrah  factories ;  while  the 
yhalimar  Rope  Works,  at  Sibpur,  are  probably  the  same  as  those 
referred  to  as  follows  by  Mr.  C.  N.  Banarji.  "  Ahmuty  &  Co. 
rented  this  place  (Shalimar)  from  the  Ranee  (Surnomayi  of 
Murshidabad)  and  founded  a  ropery  which  is  carried  on  still." J 
These  two  rope  works  employed  434  and  174  hands  respectively 
in  1908,  while  the  Ganges  Rope  Works  at  Ramkristapur 
employed  205  hands. 
Ieos  axd  Iron  works,  which  now  form  one  of  the  most  important 
ENGi-  industries  of  Howrah,  can  be  traced  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
woBKs.  century.  The  Albion  Mills  were  erected  before  1811  by  William 
Jones,  also  known  as  Guru  Jones,  who  came  to  India  in  1800  as 
a  mechanic  but  by  1810  had  become  a  manufacturer  for  the  East 
India  Company.  A  portion  of  the  land  he  acquired  was 
bought  by  Matilal  Sil,  and  leased  to  Apcar  &  Co.,  who  set  up 
engineering  works  there,  when  their  original  yard  in 
Telkalghat  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1849.  These  works  are  now 
known  as  the  Albion  Foundry.  Babu  Kishorllal  Mukharji  also 
started  iron  works  in  Sibpur,  which  were  removed  a  few  years 
ago  to  Salkhia,  where  they  are  still  working  under  the  name  of 
the  Sibpur  Iron  Works.  A  number  of  other  foundries  were 
started  about  the  middle   of  the   19th   century  in  Howrah  city, 


•  Rovorah,  Past  and  Present,  p.  84. 

t  Helections,  HI,  p-  283. 

J  Howrah,  p.  80.     It  is  advertised  iu  Thacktr'a  Directory  as  "  establislied  1815. 


FACTORY   INDUSTRIES. 


109 


and  more  especially  in  Telkalghat.  Mr.  C.  N.  Banarji  has 
given  the  following  account  of  a  curious  relic  of  those  early  days. 
"  The  visitor  to  Howrah,  if  he  goes  towards  our  Strand  Eoad,  will 
observe  a  building  in  the  shape  of  a  tower,  and,  if  he  enquires, 
he  ^nll  learn  that  it  belongs  to  Burn  &  Co.  of  Calcutta,  a  6rm 
of  long  standing.  The  tower  was  constructed  in  imitation  of  the 
tower  of  Babel  of  old  by  Mr.  Gray,  who  opened  a  branch  of 
Burn  &  Co.,  at  Telkalghat  in  1846.  If  our  enquirer  steps  inside 
the  premises,  he  will  see  a  number  of  different  faces  on  the  first 
building  to  the  left.  This,  he  will  learn,  was  also  built  by 
Mr,  Gray  as  the  nucleus  of  the  large  engineering  yard  now  in 
existence.  Mr.  Gray  called  this  establishment  the  "  Babel 
Foundry,"  from  the  fact  of  his  employes  speaking  so  many 
different  languages."  The  following  table  shows  the  different 
iron-works,  foundries  and  engineering  works,  with  the  average 
daily  number  of  operatives  employed  in  1908  :  — 


Name. 

Locality. 

No.  of 
operatives. 

1.  Howrab  Iron  Works 

2.  Victoria  Engine  Works 

3.  Howrab  Foundry 

4.  Britisb  India  Engineering  Department    ... 

5.  Sibpur  Iron  Works 

6.  Albion  Foundry  ... 

7.  Sbalimar  Worksbop 

8.  Civil  Engineering  College     ... 

9.  Ganges  Engineering  Works 

Howrab 

>>                      ... 

» 
Salkbia 

)>                       ••• 
Sibpur 

)i                        ... 

3,908 
709 
660 

1,216 
110 
110 
400 
368 
252 

Of  these  works  the  Howrah  Iron  Works  of  .Messrs.  Burn  & 
Co.,  Ld.,  call  for  special  mention.  They  have  the  advantage  of  a 
considerable  length  of  river  front  for  shipbuilding  and  for 
taking  in  and  despatching  goods,  and  are  also  well  connected 
with  the  railway.  The  works  may  for  convenience  be  divided 
into  four  sections,  viz.,  (a)  the  foundry,  turning,  fitting  and 
engine-shops;  (b)  the  bridge  and  girder-shop;  (c)  the  wagon- 
building  yards;  (d)  the  shipbuilding  department.  Besides 
these,  there  are  also  large  store  godowns  for  the  storage  not  only 
of  materials  for  construction,  but  also  of  goods  which  are  sold  by 
the  Company  as  dealers.  The  shipbuilding  department  is  neces- 
sarily on  the  river-front ;  the  bridge-shop  runs  at  right  angles  to 


110 


HOWRAH. 


HAIl^VAY 

wonK- 

SHOX'S. 


Cotton 

IIILI  s. 


the  river-front  right  away  back  from  the  river  to  the  public  road 
on  the  Howrah  side.  It  is  a  very  large  shop,  1,200  feet  in 
length,  and  is  fitted  up  in  the  most  modem  fashion  for  systemati- 
cally turning  out  large  quantities  of  work.  It  has  overhead 
electric  cranes,  nniltiple  electrically-driven  drills  and  hydraulic 
and  pneumatic  rivet  ters.  The  wagon  yards  run  parallel  to  the 
bridge-shop  on  the  one  side,  and  on  the  other  side  are  the  turning 
shops,  fitting  shops,  foundry,  etc.  The  wliole  works  are  con- 
veniently fed  by  a  system  of  rails  running  from  the  river- front. 

Messrs.  Jessop  &  Co. 's  works  are  essentially  bridge  and  roof 
works.  There  is  one  long  bridge-shop  which  comes  up  to  the 
river-front  at  one  end  and  is  supplied  with  electric  overhead 
cranes,  multiple  drills,  hydraulic  rivetters,  etc.  There  is  also  a 
foundry  which  used  to  belong  to  Ahmuty  &  Co.,  this  section  of  the 
Company's  work  having  been  lately  transferred  from  Calcutta.* 

Both  tlie  East  Indian  and  Bengal-Nagpur  Railways  have  their 
own  engineering  workshops,  the  former  at  Howrah  and  the 
latter  at  Shalimar,  and  also  separate  worksliops  for  the  repair 
and  construction  of  rolling  stock.  The  table  below  shows  the 
different  railway  workshops  and  the  average  daily  number  of 
operatives  employed  in  1908  : — 


Name.                                               Locality. 

No.  of 
operatives. 

E.  I.  R.  Can-iageaud  Wagon  Department  ... 
E.  I.  R.  Engineering  Works 
Slialir.iar  Loco.  Engiuinring  Workshop 
Loco,  and  Carriage  Workshop   ... 

Lihiah 
Howrah 
Sibpur 
Howrah 

5,097 
319 

205 
100 

Cotton-spinning  and  the  weaving  of  cloth  in  Howrah  date 
back  to  the  early  days  of  British  administration.  As  early  as 
179G  a  Mr.  Samuel  Clark  wrote  from  Ghusuri  that  he  had  been 
employed  by  the  East  India  Company  "  for  the  past  two  years  in 
receiving,  packing  and  screwing  j)(^^^  ^^^  *""  for  England." 
Again,  in  July  1797  Mr.  James  Frieshard  wrote  to  the  Judge 
and  Magistrate  to  ask  him  to  excuse  tlie  attendance  of  "  Cali 
Persad  Lahory,  who  has  charge  of  our  cotton  fcrews  at  Sulkeali, 
where  we  have  just  re'^eivcd  4,000  maunds  from  the  Board  of 
Trade  with  order.-^  to  begin  upon  it  on  Tuesday. "t  In  1817 
Mr,  Brightman  and  Mr.  Ilogue  had  cotton  screws  on  the 
Hoogldy,  and  about  tlio  same  time,  in  1817  or  in  1822,  the 
Bauria    Cotton    iMills  started    work,    these    being,    it    is   said, 


•  E.  R.  WntsoD,  Monograph  on  Iron  and  Steel  Work  in  Bengal,  1907. 

t  O.  Toynbw,  Sketch  of  the  Administration  oj   the  Hooghli/    District  (1888) 


p.  92. 


FACTORY    INDUSTRIES. 


Ill 


the  oldest  cotton  mills  in  India,  After  Howrah  web  made 
the  terminus  of  the  railway,  several  other  mills  were  erected, 
chiefly  at  Ghusuri  and  Salkhia,  and  we  find  mention  made  of 
cotton  screws  belonging  to  Mr.  Eobinson  and  a  Parsi  in  Ghusuri, 
to  Colvin  Cowie  &  Co.  and  liushton  Brothers  in  Eamkrista- 
pur,  to  Collin  FielmaD  &  Co.  in  Sibpur  and  at  Santragachhi. 
The  following  table  shov\s  the  cotton  mills  at  work  in  1908  and 
the  average  daily  number  of  employes ;  the  Bharat  Abhyaday 
Cottou  Mills  were  till  recently  known  as  the  Eamdayal  Cotton 
Mills :— 


Name. 

Locality. 

No.  of 
operatives. 

Bauria  Cotton  Mills  (Old) 

Bauria  Cotton  Mills  (New) 

Ghusuri  Cotton  Mills 

Victoria  Cotton  Mills 

Bharat  Ahliyaday  Cotton  Mills  .., 

New  King  Mills 

Salkhiti  Cotton  Ginning  Factory 

Bauria 
Ghusuri 

Phuleswar 
Salkhiii 

873 
G86 
2,495 
523 
520 
028 
95 

The  export  of  jute   to  Europe,  in  loose  fibres  or  in  pressed  jute 
bales,  and  its    manufacture    into  yarns,  bags   and    cloths    have  mills 
given   rise    to   an    industry   of  immense    economic   importance  pbesses. 
in  this  district.     In  fact,  the  jute  mills  are  predominant   among 
the   industrial   concerns     conducted     on    European    lines.     The 
industry  may  be  said  to  have  been  in  its  infancy    50    years  ago, 
when   a   few   jute   presses   were   started  to   supply  the    export 
trade.     Among  these  we  find  a  jute  press  at  Cullen  Place,  while 
Mr.  Robinson,  already  referred  to  as  the  proprietor  of  a  cotton 
mill,   also   owned   jute   and    gunny   screws.     Later,  other   jute 
screws  were  set  up  by  Mr.  Hyde,  and  after  him  by  Anstruther 
&  Co.  at  the  junction  of  Dobson's  Lane  with  Rosemary  Lane,  by 
Collin  Fielman  &  Co.  in  Sibpur   and  by  Cowie  &   Co.   near  the 
old  salt  golds  at  Sibpur. 

In  the  seventies  a  number  of  jute  mills,  organized  on  a  large 
scale,  were  started,  viz.,  the  Fort  Gloster  Mills  at  Uluberia 
being  opened  in  1873,  the  Howrah  and  Sibpur  Mills  in  1879  and 
the  Ganges  Mills  at  Sibpur  in  1875.  Still  more  mills  began  work 
in  the  nineties,  the  Central  Mills  at  Ghusuri  being  started  in 
1890,  the  National  Mills  at  Rajganj  in  1896,  and  the  adjoining 
Delta  Mills  at  Manikpur  m  1899  In  1907  the  Lawrence  Mills 
were  opened  at  Chakkasi  near  Uluberia,  and  a  branch  of  the 
Baranagar  Jute  Mill  at  Bally  on  the  site  of  the  old  Bally  Paper 
Mills.  A  considerable  number  of  jute  presses  have  also  sprung 
up,  of  which  seven  are  large  enough  to  be  worked  by   Btearn, 


112 


HOAVKAH. 


The  following  table  gives  the  salient   statistics  for   the   jute   mills 
and  presses  now  at  work,  from  which   it   will   be   seen   that   they 
employ  a  labour  force  of  over  46,C00  men  * 


Flodb 

MILtS. 


Name. 


Jute  Mills, 

1.  Fort  Gloster 

(New). 

2.  Ditto    (Old). 

3.  Gangee 

4.  Sibpur  (Old) 

5.  Do.    (New) 
C.  Central 

7.  Howrah 

8.  National 

9.  Delta 

10.  Belvedere 

11.  New  Bally      ... 

12.  Lawrence 

Jute  Presses, 

1.  Imperial 

2.  Ghusuri 

3.  Nasmyth 

4.  Salkbia 

5.  Empress        of 

India.  i 

6.  West  Patent  ... 

7.  flowrah       Hy- 

draulip. 


LophUty. 


Uluberia 
I 
:    Ditto 

Sibpur 

i  "" 

'    Do.    ... 
Ghusuri 

RSmkristapur     ... 
SankrSil  {RSjgani) 

Ditto  (MSnikpnr) 

Ditto 
Bally  ... 
BSnria 

i  I 

Ghusuri 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Salkhia 

Ditto 

Ditto 

Howrah 


o  2 


,2fi0  . 

,829) 

,762 

i,733-i 

.307/ 


4,2fiO 

2, 

3,762 

3,733 

2 

3.fi50 

7,956 

4,025 

3,484 

3,100 

2.812 

2,355 


102 
55 
.WO 
380 
380 
250 
431 


900 

508 

940 

600 

1,300 

601 

595 

400 


C   ^ 


^' 


2o 

IH 

"So 

2  c 


18,856 


1873       8,47,842 
(187ti) 


11,946     1875     £119,780 


Us. 


20,240 

10,568 
27,300 
12,000 
12,000 


1874 


22,50,000 


1890  7,22,840 

1874  22,50,000 

1896  10,21,063    1   46,61,713 

1899  6,83,843        42,65,438 


Rs. 

94,41,968 

£  395,618 

(Not  avail- 
able) . 

38,50,313 

90,00,000 


8,400     1907 


(Not  available). 


Flour  mills  appear  to  have  been  started  in  Howrah  more 
than  half  a  century  ago.  A  part  of  William  Jones'  landi  a 
Sibpur  was  taken  up  by  Ahmuty  &  Co.,  who  erected  on  it  a 
rum  factory,  biscuit  bakery  and  flour  mill.  Aerated  bread  was 
made  for  a  short  time,  but  had  to  be  given  up  on  account  of  the 
heavy  expenses  incurred.  This  flour  mill  has  survived  to  the 
present  day.  About  the  same  time  Jessop  &  Co.  started  the 
Phceiiix   Steam   Flour  Mills   near  the    liachhari  at  Howrah,  but 


*  The  details  given  in  tlie  last,  five  cohiuins  liuve  been  fcupplied    by    the    courteay 
o(  the  Indian  Julu  Mills  Association. 


FACTORY   INDUSTRIES.  113 

when  the  land  was  acquired  for  the  East  Indian  "Railway  in  1849, 
the  mills  were  removed  to  Sibpur.  In  1859  Mr.  W.  L.  Atkinson 
started  another  mill  with  a  batery  at  Sibpur,  which  was  also  sold 
to  Ahmuty  &  Co.  in  1866,  At  present  there  are  four  flour  mills, 
viz.,  the  Bengal  Mill  at  Sibpur  and  the  Howrah,  Monarch  and 
Fort  William  Mills  at  l^amkristapur.  These  mills  employed  571 
persons  daily  on  the  average  in  1908. 

Oil  mills  were  also  started  in  the  first  half  of  the  19th  Oiz 
century.  In  1830  Jessop  &  Co.  opened  a  mustard  oil  mill  by '^^^^  ' 
the  river-side  to  the  south  of  the  Icachhari,  and  from  this  mill 
the  river-side  got  the  name  Telkalghat,  i.e.,  the  oil  mill  flhd(. 
Oil  mills  were  also  started  in  Santragachhi,  but  were  not  suc- 
cessful. At  present  there  is  one  large  oil  mill,  the  Howrah  Oil 
Mill  at  E  amkristapur,  which  is  worked  by  steam  and  employed 
59  hands  daily  in  1908,  besides  three  smaller  mills  at  Salkhia. 

Among  other  factories  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  Otheb 
(I)  the  Salt  Crushing  Mills  of  Messrs.  Balmer  Lawrie  &  Co.  at  tqeies. 
Salkhia  ;  (2)  the  Sylhet  Lime  Works  of  Messrs,  Kilbum  &  Co. 
on  the  river  bank  at  Manikpur  ;  (3)  the  Bally  Khal  Bone  Mills 
at  Bally ;  (4)  the  Paint  Works  at  Ooabandi  (Groberia  PanchpSra), 
Sankrail ;  (5)  the  Caledonian  Steam  Printing  Works  at  Salkhia 
employing  415  hands  daily  in  1908.  There  are  also  large  timber 
yards  with  saw  mills  in  Sibpur  and  Salkhia ;  Messrs.  Turner 
Morrison  &  Co.  have  established  paint  works  at  Shalimar ;  and 
siirki  mills  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  town. 

Sugar  factories  and  distilleries  were  set   up  in  Howrah  before  Scgab 
the  close  of  the   18th   century.     The  original  kachhari  buildings  FACTOEiBg 
at  Howrah  are  said  to  have  been  built  in  1767  for  a  rum  distillery,  dibtii,. 
but  after  a  few  years  passed  into  the  hands  of   Mr.  Levett,   after  i-ehies- 
whom  the  premises  were  called  "  Levett's  house  and  garden."     In 
1785  they  were  sold  to  the  Military  Orphan  Society  and  converted 
into  an  orphanage  and  school.*     An  advertisement  in  the  Calcutta 
Gazette,   under  date    10th  June  1784,    offered   for   sale  "all  the 
stock-in-trade  and  effects  belonging  to  the  estate  of  the   late  Tom 
Fatt  Chinese  at  his  distillery  at  Sulky  "  as  well  as  the  distillery 
itself .t     In  the  forties  of  the  19th  century  we  find  mention   of  a 
large  sugar-house  and  rum  distillery  on  the  site  of  the  cotton  mills 
in   Ghusuri,   south   of  which   were  another  small  rum  distillery, 
owned  by  a  German  firm,  Putz   &  Co.,    and  another   sugar   mill 
and  rum   factory   belonging  to  Mr.  Robertson,  besides  the  sugar 
factory  built  on  William  Jones'  land  by  Scott  &   Co.,  which   was 


*  Soivrdhy  Fast  and  Present. 

t  Selections  from  Calcutta  Qazette,  Vol.  I,  p,  45. 


114 


HOT^TIAH. 


Rice 

THADE. 


Brick 

MANU- 
PACTUBE. 


Supply 

OP 
ZiABODB. 


Bubsequently  converted  into  a  rum  factory  by  Ahmuty  &  Co. 
The  Albion  Factory  of  Ahiniity  &  Co.  has  continued  to  the 
present  day.  For  some  years  past  the  industry  has  not  been 
flourishing,  owing  to  foreign  competition. 

The  rice  trade  has  long  been  of  importance  in  Howrah. 
Indeed,  it  was  carried  on  to  such  an  extent  by  one  Sambhu 
Chandra  Pal,  that  the  (/hat  leading  to  his  godowns  was  called 
Chelapati  Ghat,  i.e.^  the  rice-quarter  ghat.  The  trade  has  now 
shifted  to  the  Eamkristapur  chor,  lately  reclaimed  by  the  Port 
Commissioners.  Rows  of  godowns  lie  along  the  river  bank, 
stored  with  the  rice  of  Western  Bengal ;  while  a  number  of 
rice-cleaning  machines  are  at  work  in  the  season,  producing  clean 
white  rice  for  export  or  for  consumption  in  Calcutta.  These 
machines  are  worked  partly  by  steam,  partly  by  hand,  and  are 
all  managed  by  Indians.  In  this  way,  an  industry  has  been 
developed  during  the  twentieth  century  giving  employment,  in 
boating,  cleaning,  storing,  carting,  etc.,  to  about  two  thousand 
hands. 

The  enormous  demand  for  bricks  in  the  metropolis  and 
neighbouring  towns  has  led  to  a  large  manufacture  of  bricks  along 
the  Bally  Khdl  and  the  river  bank  from  Bally  to  Bauria.  The 
apparatus  used  consists  chiefly  of  Bull's  patent  pugmills  and 
moulding  machines  worked  partly  by  steam  and  partly  by  bullocks. 
In  the  working  season,  i.e.^  November  to  May,  a  large  number  of 
coolies  are  employed,  estimated  at  from  three  to  five  thousand 
daily.  Barrackpore  in  thana  Bally  is  a  centre  of  the  tile  making 
industry. 

A  special  enquiry  regarding  the  adequacy  of  the  supply  of 
labour  for  mills,  factories,  etc.,  was  carried  out  by  Mr.  B.  Foley, 
I.C.S.,  in  1905.  The  enquiry  extended  to  other  districts,  but  its 
results  are  specially  applicable  to  Howrah.  They  are  given  at 
length  in  Mr.  Foley's  Report  on  Labour  in  Bdiujal  (190G),  but 
may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows.  It  was  found  that,  in 
spite  of  the  large  increase  in  the  number  of  looms  and  operatives, 
and  in  spite  of  the  absence  of  any  recruiting  agency,  the  jute 
mills  obtained  sufficient  labour  except  for  three  months  during 
the  hot  weather.  The  shortage  was  mostly  felt  by  those  mills 
which  are  dependent  on  up-country  labour  only,  men  from  Bihar 
and  the  United  Provinces  insisting  on  going  away  between 
March  15th  and  June  15th.  In  the  jute  presses,  however,  no 
deficiency  of  labour  was  experienced.  There  the  season  is  gene- 
rally from  July  to  Marcli,  the  busiest  time  being  between  August 
and  December,  and  there  is  practically  no  work  during  April,  May 
and  June.    This  industry,  therefore,  exactly  suits  the  up-country 


FACTORY    INDUSTRIES.  115 

men,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  hands,  since  they  come  down  and 
work  for  nine  months  of  the  year  and  go  home  in  the  hot  weather. 
As  regards  the  other  classes  of  factories  Mr.  Foley  wrote :  — 
"  Cotton  mills  are  in  much  the  same  position  with  regard  to  labour 
as  jute  mills,  except  that  the  deficiency  in  the  hot  weather  months 
is  not  so  marked.  In  the  paper  mills,  potteries  and  iron  works  no 
shortage  of  labour  is  experienced  ;  in  small  miscellaneous  works 
there  is  either  no  shortage,  or  it  is  due  to  special  causes ;  in 
engineering  works  there  is  no  lack  of  unskilled  labour.  Lastly, 
railways  have  abundance  of  labour  for  construction  works,  but 
require  more  skilled  workmen  in  their  workshops," 

As  regards  the  perzonnel  of  the  operatives,  it  is  stated  that 
twenty  years  ago  all  the  hands  in  jute  mills  were  Bengalis,  but 
they  have  gradually  been  replaced  by  Hindustanis  from  the 
United  Provinces  and  Bihar.  In  the  jute  presses  most  of  the 
employes  are  also  men  from  up-country,  but  the  reverse  is  the 
case  in  the  cotton  mills.  The  work  is  cleaner,  the  machines  run 
slower,  and  less  physical  exertion  is  called  for  than  in  jute  mills. 
For  these  reasons,  apparently,  cotton  would  seem  to  be  more 
popular  with  the  Bengali  and  Oriya  than  with  the  up-country 
man.  As  regards  engineering  works,  iron  works  and  railway 
workshops,  where  skilled  labour  is  required,  complaints  are  general 
both  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  number  and  the  inefficiency  of 
the  work  of  the  local  artizans.  The  enormous  industrial  expan- 
sion of  Calcutta  and  its  neighbourhood  has  created  a  demand 
for  this  kind  of  labour  which  the  supply  has  failed  to  meet. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with  carpenters,  and  it  is  found 
necessary  to  employ  a  considerable  number  of  Chinamen  and 
Punjabi  carpenters  at  high  wages. 

The  general  conclusion  is  that  the  vast  majority  of  the  factory  Condi- 
operatives   are  immigrants,   the  nature  of  whose  work  has  been  '^^°^^  ^^ 
well   described    in    The   Report   of   the    Indian   Factory   Labour  life. 
Commission,  2908 — a  description  which  is  particularly  applicable 
to  the  Howrah   factories.     "  The   habits   of  the  Indian  factory 
operatives  are  determined  by   the   fact   that   he   is  primarily   an 
agriculturist,   or   a  labourer   on  the  land.     In  almost  all  cases  his 
hereditary  occupation  is  agriculture ;  his  home  is   in   the   village 
from  which  he  comes,  not  in  the  city  in  which  he  labours ;  his  wife 
and  family  ordinarily  continue  to  live  in  that  village ;  he  regularly 
remits  a  portion  of  his  wages  tljere  ;  and  he  returns  there  periodi- 
cally to  look  after  his  affairs  and  to  obtain  rest   after  the  strain  of 
factory  life.     There  is  as  yet   practically   no   factory   population, 
such  as  exists  in  European  countries,  consisting  of  a  large  number 
of  operatives  trained  from  their  youth  to   one   particular  class   of 

i2 


116  HOWRAH. 

work,  and  dependent  upon  employment  at  that  work  for  their 
livelihood.  It  follows  that  the  Indian  operative  is,  in  general, 
independent  of  factory  work  to  the  extent  that  he  does  not  rely 
exclusively  upon  factory  employment  in  order  to  obtain  a  liveli- 
hood ;  at  most  seasons  he  can  command  a  wage  sufficient  to  keep 
him,  probably  on  a  somewhat  lower  scale  of  comfort,  by  accepting 
work  on  the  land  ;  and  there  are  also  numerous  other  avenues  of 
employment,  more  remunerative  than  agricultural  labour,  which 
are  open  to  every  worker  in  any  large  industrial  centre.  If  the 
operative  is  not  merely  a  landless  labourer,  he  will  iu  general  be 
bound  by  strong  ties  to  the  land  and  to  the  village  from  which  he 
originally  came;  he  can  at  any  time  abandon  factory  life  in  order 
to  revert  to  agriculture  ;  and  the  claims  of  the  village,  where  he  has 
a  definite  and  accepted  position,  are  in  practice,  as  experience  has 
shewn,  sufficiently  powerful  to  recall  him  from  city  life  for  a 
period  which  extends,  on  the  average,  to  at  least  a  month  in  each 
year.  The  Bombay  operative,  resident  in  the  Konkan,  probably 
returns  to  his  village  for  one  month  each  year ;  and  the  jute 
weaver  of  Bengal,  working  longer  hours  and  earning  higher 
wages,  is  not  content  with  less  than  two  or  three  months. 
"Whenever  factory  life  becomes  irksome,  the  operative  can  return 
to  his  village ;  there  is  probably  always  work  of  some  kind  for  bim 
there  if  he  wishes  it ;  and  in  most  cases  he  is  secured  against  want 
by  the  joint-family  system. 

"  The  position  of  the  operative  has  been  greatly  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  the  supply  of  factory  labour  undoubtedly  is,  and 
has  been,  inadequate ;  and  there  is,  and  has  been,  the  keenest 
competition  among  employers  to  secure  a  full  labour  supply. 
These  two  main  causes— the  independence  of  the  Indian  labourer, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  he  possesses  other  and  congenial  means  of 
earning  a  livelihood,  and  the  deficient  labour  supply —govern  the 
whole  situation.  .  .  .  We  have  been  impressed  with  the  fact  that 
employers  are  generally  disposed  to  concede  promptly  all  reason- 
able demands  made  by  their  workers ;  and,  even  where  the 
demands  made  are  unreasonable,  to  trout  them  as  proposals  which 
it  is  desirable  to  accede  to,  if  possible.  Great  nervousness  is 
frequently  displayed  by  employers  of  labour  as  to  the  effect  even 
of  trivial  changes  on  the  workers ;  numerous  expedients  are 
adopted  to  conciKato  them,  and  the  attitude  of  the  employers 
throughout  appears  to  be  based  upon  the  knowledge  that  the 
operatives  are  in  fact  the  masters  of  the  situation.     .     . 

"  While  the  operatives  fully  understand  the  machinery  of  local 
strikes,  and  have  repeatedly  forced  employers  to  comply  with 
their  demands    in  isolated  cases,   they  are   as    yet    unable    to 


fACTORY    INDUSTRIES.  117 

combine  over  any  large  area  with  the  object  of  securing  a  common 
end  by  concerted  action.  One  of  the  main  difficulties  experienced 
at  present,  when  unrest  appears  among  the  workers,  is  in  ascertain- 
ing the  causes  of  that  unrest.  Frequently  no  definite  demands 
are  formulated,  no  grievances  are  stated,  no  indication  is  given  as 
to  the  cause  of  the  discontent ;  the  operatives  simply  leave  work 
in  a  body,  or  more  commonly  they  drop  off  one  by  one  without 
explanation,  and  accept  employment  under  more  congenial  con- 
ditions in  other  factories." 

It  should  be  added,  however,  that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
in  the  last  few  years,  where  strikes  have  assumed  any  proportions, 
they  have  mostly  been  engineered  by  outsiders.  Also,  in  this 
district  the  mill  authorities  are  already  forming  the  nucleus  of 
a  permanent  labour  force  by  building  commodious  settlements 
near  the  mill  premises,  ten  of  the  factories  having  provided 
quarters  for  their  operatives.  Most  of  the  mill  hands  in  the  other 
factories  in  and  round  Howrah  live  in  the  basii's  of  that  town. 


il8  HOWRAH. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

Eaelt       During  the  period  preceding   British   rule  roads   in  the  modem 
MEANS  OF  gpjjge  of  the  word  appear  to  have  been   unknown   in  the   district. 

COMMTNI-    _,  ,.,.,.  Ti  1  .  -1         •       -T-i  1 

CATION.  The  earnest  existing  iiiuropean  map  showing  roads  in  Bengal, 
viz.,  that  of  Valentijn  (published  in  1726,  but  based  on  data 
gathered  by  Matheus  Broucke,  the  Dutch  Governor  of  Chinsura 
from  1658  to  1664)  shows  not  a  single  road  in  this  part  of  the 
delta.  Nor  is  this  to  bo  wondered  at,  for,  the  country  being 
intersected  by  rivers,  creeks,  and  channels,  the  waterways  then  as 
now  furnished  a  natural  and  easy  means  of  transit.  The  river 
Hooghly  formed  the  great  highway  of  commerce.  It  was  used 
by  boats  and  small  ships,  and  had  on  its  banks  several  important 
hats  or  markets,  to  which  grain,  cloth  and  other  merchandise  were 
brought  by  ccolies  or  pack-bullocks  from  the  neighbouring 
villages  and  by  small  boats  from  the  interior.  Here  there  is  a 
network  of  channels,  among  which  the  Saraswati,  the  Kana,  the 
Damodar  and  the  Rilpnarayan  served  as  tributaries  to  the 
Hooghly,  while  the  smaller  creeks  were  their  sub-tributaries.  In 
the  rains,  moreover,  when  the  low  lands  are  turned  into  wide 
sheets  of  water,  the  villagers  moved  from  place  to  place  in  tiny 
skiffs  (sd/tia).  On  the  cessation  of  the  rains  there  was  access  from 
one  village  to  another  along  the  footpaths  formed  by  the  passage 
of  men  and  cattle  over  the  low  ridges  bounding  the  fields.  Vehi- 
cular traffic  was  a  luxury  rather  than  a  necessity.  Horses  were 
used  chiefly  by  Muhammadans  and  up-country  men.  Ladies 
were  borne  in  closed  doolies,  while  men  of  position  travelled  in 
snkhasatis*  i.e.,  long  litters  carried  by  Groalas,  Bagdis  or  Bauris. 
The  cultivators  and  others  rarely  left  the  neighbourhood  of 
their   villages,   except   to   go   to    the   nearest  marts;    and  long 


*  Ain-i-Akbar\,0&rrcit,  11,  122.  "This  is  a  crcscent-sbapcrt  litter  covered 
with  cauilct  or  Bcarlet  cloth  and  tlic  like,  the  two  sides  of  which  have  fastenings  of 
various  metals,  and  a  pole  supporting  it  is  attached  by  means  of  iron  hooks.  It  is 
conveniently  adapted  for  sitting  in,  lying  at  full  length,  or  sleeping  during  travel. 
As  a  protection  against  Bun  and  rain  they  provide  a  commodious  covering,  which  is 
rfemovtiblc  at  pleasure."  cf.  Thevenot,  III,  page  54,  and  Thomas  Bowrey,  pp.  86-7, 
w  here  a  rough  ekttch  is  given. 


MEANS  OF   COMMUNICATION.  119 

journeys  were  even  rarer,  being  confined  almost  entirely  to  visits 
to  the  holy  Granges  on  festival  days. 

Several  roads  can  be  traced  in  the  early  days  of  British  Eabl? 
administration.  Eennell's  Atlas,  Plate  VII  (A.D.  1779)  shows  ^O'^"^. 
Salkhia  as  a  centre  from  which  four  roads  radiated.  One  road  ran 
aloDg  the  river  bank  to  Bally,  Serampore  and  further  north ;  a 
second  passed  via  Aubinagar,  Ohanditala  and  Dhaniakhali  to 
Burdwan ;  a  third  wont  due  west  to  Makardah  and  Rajapur,  and 
thence  north-west  to  Rajbalhat  and  Bankura ;  the  fourth  connected 
Salkhia  with  Tanna  fort,  and  turned  west  to  Sankrail  and  Amta, 
where  it  bifurcated,  one  branch  going  to  Grhatal  and  Khirpai, 
and  the  other  south-west  to  Midnapore.  Besides  these  four,  a 
road  is  shewn  running  from  Uluberia  via  Bagnan  and  terminating 
at  Mankur  on  the  Amta-Midnapore  road.  A  sixth  road  from  the 
north  joined  Dhaniakhali  with  Amta  and  Bagnan,  and  crossing 
the  river  Rupnarayan  ended  at  Tamluk.  No  roads  are  found 
south  of  the  IJluberia-Bagnan  road,  and  all  those  shewn  in  the 
Atlas  were  apparently  unmetalled  fair-weather  roads. 

By  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  a  great  change  had 
been  effected.  There  were  four  roads  known  as  Imperial  roads, 
i.e.,  roads  borne  on  the  books  of  the  Public  Works  Department 
and  repaired  by  that  Department,  and  a  number  of  others,  called 
local  roads,  under  the  control  of  the  local  officers.  Of  the 
Imperial  roads  the  oldest  was  the  Old  Benares  Road,  called 
Ahalya  Bai's  Road,  because  it  was  constructed  at  her  cost  about 
1780  A.D.,  or  the  New  Military  Road,  as  it  was  the  chief  route 
for  troops  proceeding  to  Benares  and  other  stations  in  the  Upper 
Proviaces.  Starting  from  Banda  Ghat  in  Salkhia  the  Benares 
Road  was  a  narrow  cutcha-pucka  road  extendiug  within  the  limits 
of  this  district  as  far  as  the  Charial  Khdl,  which  it  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  six  arches.  The  road  was  flooded  almost  every  year  by 
the  Damodar  in  Hooghly  district,  and  by  1840  the  troops  had  ceased 
to  use  it.  The  other  two  were  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  having  a 
length  of  a  little  more  than  six  miles  in  the  Howrah  district,  and 
a  branch  from  Salkhia  to  Bally  K/idl,  both  metalled  throughout. 
The  Grand  Trunk  Road,  which  starting  from  Sibpur  joined  the 
main  branch  at  Ghireti  near  Chandernagore,  was  begun  in  1804, 
and  completed  during  the  administration  of  Lord  William 
Beotinck.  In  addition  to  these  roads,  the  Public  Works  Depart- 
ment maintained  the  wide  but  then  unmetalled  Orissa  Trunk 
Road  from  Uluberia  to  the  bank  of  the  Rupnarayan;  this  section 
of  the  road  was  begun  in  1825  and  completed  by  1829. 

Besides  Imperial  and  Municipal  roads  there  were  six  local 
roads,    viz.,    (1)  from  Howrah  to   Jagatballabhpur   (16  miles), 


120  howrAh. 

(2)  from  Jagatballabhpur  to  Amta  (9  miles),  (3)  from  Sibpur  to 
Alahiari  (8  miles),  (4)  from  Mahiari  to  Dumjor  (4  miles),  (5) 
from  Dumjor  to  Jagdispur  (6  miles),  aud  (6)  from  Salkhia  to 
Chanditala  (10  miles).  All  these  roads  were  unraetalled  but 
bridged. 

MoDEBM  ^^  present  the  district  is  well  provided  with  means  of  commu- 

nication, being  traversed  by  railways,  roads,  rivers  and  canals. 
The  roads  are  maintained  by  three  authorities,  the  Public  Works 
Department,  the  District  Board  aud  the  Municipalities. 

Provincial  Three  important  roads  are  kept  up  by  the  Public  Works 
Department,  (1)  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  from  Sibpur  to  Bally 
(6  miles),  passing  through  the  two  Mimicipalities  of  Howrah 
and  Bally  ;  (2)  the  Howrah  Foreshore  Road  running  parallel  to 
the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  from  Elliot  Bridge  to  the  Royal 
Botanic  Garden  (1  mile);  (3)  the  Orissa  Trunk  Road  from 
Uluberia  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Rupnarayan  river  (20  miles). 
All  these  roads  are  metalled  throughout.  The  Grand  Trunk 
Road  still  continues  to  be  the  most  thronged  with  traffic  ;  but 
the  opening  of  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  has  diverted  it  from 
the  Orissa  Trunk  Road,  whose  former  glor}'^  as  a  noble  highway 
now  survives  only  in  a  number  of  splendid  banyan  trees. 

District  All  other  roads  outside  municipal  areas  are  kept  up   by  the 

roads.  District  Board.  In  1907-08,  this  body  had  under  its  charge 
40'8  miles  of  metalled  roads,  110*6  miles  of  unmetalled  roads, 
and  400  miles  of  village  tracks.  The  more  important  roads  are 
metalled,  at  least  in  some  portions,  and  the  metalled  surface, 
which  is  generally  of  stone,  occupies  8  feet  out  of  a  width  of  20 
feet,  or  7^  feet  where  the  width  is  less.  The  more  important 
metalled  roads  are  (1)  the  Old  Beu&res  Road,  from  Howrah  to 
Jagdispur,  5  miles  3  furlongs;  (2)  Howrah  to  Jagatballubhpur,  15 
miles  6  furlongs,  of  which  the  first  8  miles  are  metalled ;  (3) 
Dumjor  to  Bauria  station,  13  miles  7  furlongs,  of  which  the  last 
mile  only  is  metalled ;  (4)  Dumjor  to  Jagdispur,  4  miles  4  fur- 
longs ;  (0)  Dumjor  to  Mahiari,  3  miles,  of  which  the  first  half  is 
metalled ;  (6)  Mahiari  to  Makardah,  1  mile  7  furlongs ;  (7) 
Mahiari  to  Santragachhi,  4  miles  4  furlongs,  of  which  the  last  mile 
only  is  metalled ;  (8)  Mahiari  to  Kundu  Road,  5  miles  4  fur- 
longs ;  (9)  Andul  to  Ekabbarpur,  8  miles,  of  which  the  first  two 
miles  are  metalled  ;  (10)  Andul  to  Rajgauj,  2  miles. 

There  are  also  a  few  short  lengths  of  metalled  road,  viz.,  (I) 
Thana  Makwa  to  Goberia,  1  mile  2  furlongs  ;  (2)  Makardah  to 
Begri,  2  miles  4  furlongs ;  (3)  Uluberia  town  to  the  railway 
station,  1  furlong ;  (4)  Liluah  station  to  the  Old  Benares  Road, 
1  mile  1  furlong.     Besides  these  roads  twenty  unmetalled  second 


MEANS   OF    COMMUNICATION.  121 

class  roads  are  kept  up  by   the   District   Board,  all  more  or  less 
bridged. 

South  of  the  Orissa  Trunk  Road  the  land  is  too  low  to  permit 
the  maintenance  of  any  roads.  Here  the  embankments  aloog 
the  Damodar,  Hooghly  and  Rupnarayan  form  raised  thorough- 
fares during  the  rains.  The  western  parts  of  thana  Amta  and 
the  north-western  part  of  thana  Bagnan  are  also  too  much  cut 
up  by  creeks  and  channels  to  allow  any  but  fair-weather  pathways 
to  be  made.  Consequently,  the  roads  are  few  in  number,  and 
none  are  metalled. 

The  Howrah  Municipality  maintains  an  extensive  network  of  Muuici- 
roads  and  lanes,  all  more  or  less  macadamized.     In  1907  it  kept  ^'"  ™^  ^' 
up  59'5  miles  of  metalled  and  4  miles  of  unmetalled  roads,  while 
in  the  Bally  Municipality  there  were  18  miles  of  metalled  and  10 
miles  of  unmetalled  roads. 

The  District  Board  maintains  three  inspection  bungalows  staging 
at  Dumjor,  Jagatballabhpur  and  Syampur.  The  Public  Works  ^""gal- 
Department  keeps  up  one  dak  bungalow  at  Uluberia  ;  three 
embankment  bungalows  at  Amta  and  Mahishrekha  on  the 
Damodar  and  at  Sasati  on  the  RupnarSyan;  and  two  drainage 
bungalows  at  Rajapur  and  Sijberia.  The  staging  bungalow 
at  Mahisrekha,  the  old  subdivisional  headquarters,  is  a  particu- 
larly good  building  for  a  staging  bungalow,  being  built  on  a 
high  plinth  and  having  4  rooms. 

On  account  of  the  large  number  of  rivers  and  waterways,  Brid^^'es. 
both  Municipal  and  District  Board  roads  have  to  be  provided 
with  many  bridges,  and  in  Howrah  town  several  bridges  have 
been  built  over  the  East  Indian  Railway  and  the  Bengal-Nagpur 
Railway  lines,  the  finest  being  the  Buckland  Bridge  leading  to 
Howrah  station,  which  is  more  than  a  quarter  mile  long. 

By  far  the  most  important  bridge,  however,  is  the  Howrah  Howrah 
Bridge  over  the  river  Hooghly,  which  connects  Howrah  with  bridge. 
Calcutta.  This  is  a  floating  bridge,  the  middle  section  of 
which  is  movable  so  as  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  vessels  up  and 
down  the  river.  It  is  1,528  feet  between  abutments  and  has  a 
roadway  for  carriages,  48  feet  in  width,  with  footpaths,  7  feet 
wide,  on  either  side.  The  construction  of  a  bridge  over  the 
Hooghly  at  or  near  Calcutta  was  mooted  over  half  a  century  ago, 
a  committee  being  appointed  to  consider  the  project  in  1855-56  ; 
but  the  idea  was  given  up  in  1859-60.  The  question  was  revived 
in  1868,  and  it  was  eventually  decided  that  Government  should 
construct  the  bridge  and  that  its  management  should  be  handed 
over  to  a  Trust.  In  1871  an  Act  was  passed  empowering 
the  Lieutenant-Governor  to  have  the  bridge   constructed  with 


122  HOWRAH. 

Government  capital,  to  make  and  maintain  ways  and  approaclies, 
to  authorize  the  levy  of  tolls  and  to  appoint  Port  Commissioners 
to  carry  out  the  pui-poses  of  the  Act.  A  contract  was  entered  into 
with  Sir  Bradford  Leslie  for  its  construction,  and  the  work  was 
forthwith  commenced  in  England,  the  different  portions  of  the 
bridge  being  sent  out  and  put  together  in  Calcutta.  The  work 
of  construction  was  completed  in  1874 ;  and  the  bridge  having 
been  opened  to  traffic  in  October  of  that  year,  was  made  over 
to  the  Port  Commissioners  for  management  under  Act  IX  of 
1871,  the  cost,  22  lakhs  of  rupees  with  interest  at  Rs.  4^r  per 
cent.,  being  made  the  first  charge  to  be  repaid  in  thirty  instal- 
ments. 

The  total  net  revenue  of  the  bridge  since  it  was  opened  in 
1874  amounts  to  Rs.  34,11,410.  The  main  item  in  the  receipts 
consists  of  a  small  toll  on  railway  traffic  at  the  rate  of  Re.  1 
per  100  maimds  of  goods,  which  is  paid  by  the  East  Indian 
Railway.  The  income  from  this  toll  has  been  growing  steadily, 
rising  from  Rs.  1,46,695  in  1899-1900  to  Rs.  2,16,360  in  1907-08. 
In  that  year  the  total  receipts  amounted  to  Rs.  2,40,593  and  the 
expenditure  to  Rs.  2,21,111.  Of  the  latter  Rs.  62,603  were 
spent  on  establishment  and  Rs.  90,847  on  repairsj  while 
Rs.  13,000  wore  paid  as  a  contribution  to  the  Calcutta  Port 
Trust  on  account  of  management. 

Before  1906,  the  bridge  was  opened  for  the  passage  of 
vessels  only  in  the  daytime,  but  since  June  of  that  year  it  has 
been  opened  at  night  for  all  vessels  except  ocean  steamers, 
which  have  to  pass  through  by  day.  The  number  of  open- 
ings was  thus  raised  to  24,  while  the  average  number  of  day 
openings  was  reduced  from  13  to  4  in  a  month,  with  much  less 
inconvenience  to  general  traffic.  In  1907-08,  130  sea-going 
vessels,  2,033  flats  and  inland  steamers,  715  launches  and  steam- 
tugs,  133  Port  Commissioners'  vessels,  and  9  Government 
steamers  with  flats  passed  through  the  bridge — in  all  3,020. 

Watkk.  The  chief   navigable   waterways   are  the  Hooghly,    Damodar 

and  Rfipnarayan.  The  Ilooglily  and  the  Rilpuarayan  are 
navigable  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  throughout  their  course 
in  and  along  the  district.  The  Damodar  ceases  to  be  navi- 
gable after  the  rains,  except  in  the  lowest  section  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Gaighata  K/idl  to  its  own  outfall  in  the 
Hooghly  ;  and  during  the  winter  it  is  navigable  up  to  Amta 
during  spring  tides  only.  Small  boats  also  ply  in  the  rains  and 
winter  mouths  along  the  numerous  creeks  intersecting  the  district. 

Crecke.     Of    thesG  creoks  the   chief  are: — (1)  the   Bally  K/idl  extending 
from  the  Dankuni   marsh   west   of  Serampore   to  the  Hooghly. 


VAVS 

Rivers 


MEANS   OF   COMMUNICATION.  123 

It  is  10  miles  long,  30  feet  broad  and  12  feet  deep,  and 
forms  the  main  channel  of  the  Dankiini  drainage  works.  (2)  The 
Sankrail  Ehdl  (the  old  SaraswatT)  8  miles  long,  15  feet  broad 
and  9  feet  deep.  (3)  The  Kalsapa  Khdl  (the  old  Kana  Nadi)  so 
called  because  it  extends  from  the  Hooghly  near  Kalsapa,  which 
is  6  miles  long,  30  feet  broad  and  8  feet  deep.  Its  lowest 
section  now  forms  a  channel  of  the  Rajapur  drainage  works. 
(4)  The  Mithakundii  Khdl,  which  connects  the  Damodar  with  the 
Hooghly  and  falls  into  the  latter  at  Mithakiindu  below  Uluberia. 
It  is  6  miles  long,  50  feet  broad  and  18  feet  deep.  (5)  The 
Pukuria  Khdl  joining  the  Damodar  with  the  Hooghly,  3  miles 
long,  60  feet  broad  and  18  feet  deep.  (6)  The  Banspati  Khdl 
from  Amta  to  Uluberia,  about  15  miles  long  and  30  feet 
broad,  (7)  The  Madaria  Khdl,  extending  from  beyond  the 
district  and  falling  into  the  Damodar  above  Amta.  It  is  an 
old  branch  of  the  Damodar  with  a  length  of  about  10  miles 
in  the  district  and  a  breadth  of  30  feet.  (8)  The  Gaighata 
and  Bakshi  Khdl,  a  natural  channel  slightly  improved,  about 
12  miles  long.  It  connects  the  Damodar  with  the  Riipnarayan 
by  a  tortuous  passage  which  is  closed  during  part  of  the  year. 
Tolls  are  levied  on  boats  using  this  channel  according  to  a  scale 
fixed  by  Government.  The  right  of  levying  tolls  is  now  leased 
out  annually. 

The  only  canal  in  the  district  is  the  Uluberia  High  Level  Canals. 
Canal  which  has  two  sections.  Its  first  reach  starts  from 
Uluberia  and  joins  the  Damodar  below  Persandpur,  two  miles 
below  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway  bridge  over  that  river.  li^ 
is  8  miles  in  length  ;  its  width  at  top  is  92  feet  and  at  bottom 
36  feet ;  and  its  depth  is  9  feet.  West  of  Uluberia  the  Orissa 
Trunk  Road  runs  along  its  northern  bank  for  5  miles.  The 
second  reach  extends  from  the  other  side  of  the  Damodar  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rfipnarayan  several  miles  below  the  railway 
bridge.  This  reach  is  4  miles  long  ;  its  width  at  top  is  120  feet 
and  at  the  bottom  36  feet ;  and  its  depth  is  14  feet.  The  traffic 
on  the  canal  has  almost  disappeared  owing  to  the  opening  of  the 
Bengal-Nagpur  Railway. 

The  District  Board  maintain  eleven  public  ferries,  all  except  fbrbies. 
one  being  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision.  They  are  : — {a)  On  the 
Damodar  (1)  Mahishrekha  ferry,  thana  Bagnan,  with  two  sub- 
sidiary ferries,  Khadinan  and  Bansberia ;  (2)  Boali^  ferry,  thSna 
Bagnan  ;  (3)  Garchumuk  ferry,  thana  Syampur  ;  (4)  Syampur 
ferry,  thana  Syampur.  (M  On  the  river  Rupnarayan  (5)  Bakshi 
ferry  on  the  Bakshi  Khdl  outfall,  thana  Amta  ;  (6)  Gopiganj 
ferry,    thana    Amta,    with    two    subsidiary    ferries  at   Pansuli 


124  HOWRAH. 

and  Dudkiirma  ;  (7)  Mankur,  thana  Bagnan  ;  (8)  Sasati,  thana 
Syampur ;  (9)  Jhumjhumi,  thana  Syampur,  just  opposite  Tamluk. 
(c)  Two  ferries  on  creeks,  viz.,  (10;  Sijberia  ferry  on  the  old  Kana 
Nadi  (present  Kalsapa  KItdl),  thana  Uluberia;  and  (11)  Sankrail 
ferry  on  the  Old  Saraswali  (modern  Sanknlil  K/idl),  Sankrail 
outpost. 

On  the  Hooghly  river  public  ferries  are  maintained  by  the 
Port  Commissioners  within  the  limits  of  their  jurisdiction  and  by 
the  District  Board  of  the  24-Parganas  outside  those  limits.     The 
Port  Trust  has   its  northern  boundary  pillar  in  Ghusuri  a  little 
above  the  Central  Jute  Mills  ;  while  the  southern  boundary  pillar 
was  lately  moved  from  Panchpara  above  Rajganj  to  Bauiia,  just 
north  of  the  Lawrence  Jute  Mills.     When  the  Ilowrah  bridge  is 
open,  railway  passengers  are  ferried  across  from  Armenian  Ghat 
to  the  railway  pontoon  and  back  by  two  of   the  bridge  steamers. 
The  Port  Commissioners  have  also  started  since   1907  two  sets 
of  steamer  services,  one  above  the  bridge  and  the  other  below  it. 
Below  the  bridge  three  steamers  ply  regularly   between  Chandpal 
Ghat  and  the  Kidderpore  Docks  on  the  Calcutta  side,  and  Telkal- 
ghat,  Ramkristapur,  Sibpur  and  Shalimar  on  the  HowTah    side. 
Above  the  bridge  two  steamers  ply  regularly  between  Barabazar 
Ghat  and  Ahiritola  Ghat  on  the  Calcutta  side  and  Salkhia    Banda 
Ghat  on  the    Howrah  side.     The  services,    which  run  only  in  the 
daytime,    are   popular    with    the  public,   the    fares    being  ex- 
tremely small,  viz.,  an  anna  to  a  quarier  anna. 
Stbameb  Four  other  steamer  services  ply  daily  on  week  days  bet-ween 

8EEVICES,  Calcutta  and  places  in  this  district,  three  below  the  bridge  and 
one  above  it,  viz.,  (1)  Calcutta  (Chandpal  Ghat)  to  Ilajgauj, 
Sankrail  outpost ;  (2)  Calcutta  (Chandpal  Ghat)  to  Uluberia ;  (3) 
Calcutta  (Armenian  Ghat)  to  Ghatal  in  Midnapore,  via  Uluberia ; 
(4)  Calcutta  (Ahiritola  Ghat)  to  Kalna  via  Bally.  The  first  is 
under  Indian  management ;  the  others  belong  to  Messrs.  Hoare 
Miller  &  Co. 
Boats.  A  large  amount  of  traffic  is  convoyed  by  small  native  boats, 

such  as  j'dnsis  rowed  by  Hindu  boatmen  and  dingis,  rowed  by 
Muhammadan  boatmen,  who  hail  mostly  from  Noakhali  or 
Chittagong.  They  are  registered  and  licensed,  and  usually  ply 
from  early  morning  to  nine  o'clock  at  night.  The  fare  is  small, 
one  or  two  pice  per  head  ;  or  if  the  whole  boat  is  hired,  two  to 
three  annas  per  trip.  From  Belur,  Bally  and  other  places  office 
clerks  and  others  come  to  Calcutta  in  slightly  larger  boats,  called 
kul'iir-jjdnsi.  From  Bally  to  Barabazar  Ghat  the  usual  charge 
is  one  to  ihree  annas  per  head,  or  eight  annas  to  one  rupee  for  the 
entire  boat. 


MEANS    OF   COMMUNICATION,  125 

For  conveying  goods  various  other  kinds  of  boats  are  used. 
Fishing  boats  in  any  number  may  be  seen  on  the  Hooghly 
throughout  the  year,  and  are  especially  numerous  during  the  hilsd 
fishing  season.  Heavy  boats,  with  high  raised  sides  and  long 
oars,  are  built  at  Salkhia  and  Sibpur  fot  carrying  general  goods, 
straw  or  salt.  They  also  move  up  and  down  the  Rupnarayan 
and  the  Damodar  during  the  rains,  bringing  down  rice  and  other 
agricultural  produce  and  carrying  up  kerosene  oil,  etc.  In  the 
interior,  during  the  rains  and  winter  months,  sdltis  or  small  flat- 
bottomed  canoes  are  very  common  as  they  can  go  over  flooded 
paddy  fields  and  along  shallow  creeks.  They  are  usuilly  rowed 
by  one  man  and  often  carry  goods  to  the  nearest  mart. 

The  district  is  traversed  by  two  broad  (5  feet  6   inches)  gauge  Rail- 
railways,    the    East   Indian   Railway   and    the   Bengal-Nagpur  "'•*^^- 
I\ailway,   and    by  two    light    railways    (2     feet   gauge),    the 
Howrah-Amta  and  Ilowrah-Shiakhala  Railways. 

The  East  Indian  Railway  has  only  a  very  short  length  in  this  East 
district,  viz.,  6  miles  to  Bally  and  2  miles  to  Shalimar;  but  as  |"^ij^" 
Howrah  is  its  terminus,  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  the  town, 
and  indirectly  of  the  whole  district,  is  intimately  connected  with 
the  line.  Survey  was  begun  in  1845,  and  construction  in  1851; 
and  the  first  section  from  Howrah  to  Hooghly  was  opened  in  1854. 
In  1855  the  line  was  opened  as  far  as  RanTganj  and  in  1862  up 
to  Benares.  It  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  Ihe  further  development 
of  the  railway,  such  as  its  extension  to  Delhi  and  elsewhere,  the 
shortening  of  the  route  by  the  Chord  line  and  in  1907  by  the 
Grand  Chord  line,  the  opening  of  branch  luies,  the  acquisition  of 
collieries,  and  the  expansion  of  traffic. 

During  recent  years  numerous  improvements  have  been 
made  on  the  line  within  this  district.  The  Howrah  station  was 
remodelled  and  improved  first  after  the  opening  of  the  Hooghly 
bridge,  and  later  on  the  formation  of  a  joint  station  with 
the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  The  old  station  buildings  have 
been  made  over  to  the  latter ;  and  the  East  Indian  Railway 
has  now  a  large  imposing  building  with  sis  long  platforms 
for  trains.  Outside,  a  long  row  of  godowns  has  been  erected 
for  the  enormous  goods  traffic,  especially  in  coal,  wheat,  rice, 
and  oil-seeds,  which  comes  to  Howrah .  Quarters  have  also  been 
built  at  Howrah  and  its  suburb  Bamangachhi  for  the  European 
staff.  A  small  branch  line  has  been  run  along  the  Hooghly  to 
Shalimar  so  as  to  establish  connection  with  the  Kidderpore 
Docks.  A  large  area  has  been  acquired  at  Liluah,  to  which 
the  carriage  and  wagon  building  shops  have  been  removed, 
and   a  shunting  yard  for  goods  wagons  has  been  laid  out  at  the 


126  HOWRAH. 

same  place.     Lastly,  for  tlie   convenience  of  suburban  passengers 
there  is    a  succession  of  trains  running  from  Howrali  to  Uttar- 
para,  in  addition  to  ordinary  mail  and  passenger  trains. 
Bengal-  The   other   great    line,   the    Bengal-Nagpur    Railway,    was 

Hafh\"y.  extended  to  Howrah  in  1900,  thus  connecting  the  district  with 
the  Central  ProNinces  and  Bombay  on  the  west,  and  with  Orissa 
and  Madras  on  the  south.  It  enters  the  district  by  a  fine  brido-e 
over  the  Eiipnarayan,  goes  east  up  to  Uluberia,  running  for 
several  miles  parallel  to  the  Grand  Trunk  lioad  and  the  High 
Level  Canal,  and  then  north-east  along  the  Hooghly  river 
to  Howrah.  A  short  branch,  3  miles  long,  from  Santragachhi 
to  Shalimar  station  carries  the  heavy  traffic  intended  for  export 
overseas  direct  to  the  Kidderpore  Docks,  the  train  crossing  the 
Hooghly  in  large  feny  steamers.  As  far  as  this  district  is  con- 
cerned, the  line  has  developed  the  goods  trafiic  from  the  Uluberia 
subdivision  and  has  given  increased  facilities  ~  for  passenger 
traflBc  from  that  part  to  Howrah  and  Calcutta. 
Light  The  light  railways  had  their  origin  in   an  agreement,  dated 

ai  ways,  j^g^j^  June    1889    between   the  District    Board   of   Howrah   and 
Messrs.  Walsh,  Lovett  &   Co.,   which   was   subsequently  renewed 
with  Messrs.  Martin  &  Co.,  and  sanctioned  by  Government   noti- 
fication    in    the    Calcutta  Gazette   of    March   27th,    1895.     The 
capital  of  the   Howrah-Shiakhala  line  is  six   lakhs ;   while   the 
capital  of  the    Howrah-Amta  line   wa^  raised    from   nine    lakhs 
to  sixteen  lakhs  by  the  issue  of  additional   shares  for  four  lakhs 
and  of  debentures  for  three  lakhs.     Under  the  contract  all  profits 
in  excess  of  four  per  cent,  on  the  capital  are  distributed  in  equal 
shares  between  the  companies  and  the  District  Boards   of  Howi'ah 
and  Hooghly — in  the   ease   of  the  Howrah-Amta   line  with  the 
Howrah  Board  and  of  the  Howrah-fShiakhala  line  with  the  Hooo-hly 
Board.     The  Boards  on  their  part    have   made   over  their  roads 
for  the  use  of  the  railways  and  guarantee  an  interest  of  4  per  cent. 
The  Howrah-Amta  line  was  opened  up  to  Dumjor  in  1897,  and 
to  Amta  in  1898.     An  extension   from  Bargachhia  (Bargechhe) 
junction  to  Antpur  was  opened  in  1904,  and  a  further   extension 
to  Champadanga  in  1908.     This  extension,  however,  lies  almost 
exclusively  in   the  Serampore  subdivision.     Both  the   Howrah- 
Amta   and   tlowrah-Sliiakhala   lines   start    from   Telkalghat    on 
the  Hooghly  river,  and  skirting  the  Court    maidau   pass   through 
the  crowded   Panchauantala  road  to   Kadamtala   station.     Here 
they  separate,    the   Howrah-Sliiakhala    line   running  north-west 
along    the  Benares  load  to  the  border   of  the  district,   and  thence 
to  Shiukhala  in  the   Serampore  subdivision.    The  Howrah-Amta 
line  runs  west,  chiefly  along  the  side  of  the  Jagatballabhpur  road, 


MEANS   OF   COMMUNICATION.  127 

and  tlien  goes  south-west  to  Amta,  a  length  of  nearly  29  miles. 
Both  lines,  and  especially  the  Howrah-Amta  line,  have  proved 
proBtahle  concerns,  and  a  remarkable  expansion  has  taken  place 
in  goods  and  passenger  traffic.  The  gross  earnings  of  the 
Howrah-Amta  line  increased  from  Rs.  2,56,418  in  1900  to 
Rs.  3,28,722  in  1905  ;  and  in  1905-06  and  the  two  succeeding 
years  the  Howrah  Board  received  as  its  share  Rs.  39,563, 
Rs.  38,680  and  Rs.  39,696  respectively. 

The  Calcutta  Tramways  Co.  has  now  extended  its  operations  Electric 
to  Howrah.  In  pursuance  of  a  license  granted,  under  notifica-  ^•■''^""'y- 
tion  No.  9,  dated  26th  November  1907,  the  Company  has  estab- 
lished a  central  power  station  at  the  corner  of  the  Dobson  and 
Golabari  Roads,  and  is  laying  down  tram  lines  (4  feet  8^  inches 
gauge)  along  four  routes.  The  southern  section  was  opened  for 
traflfic  on  10th  June  1908.  Beginning  from  the  Howi'ah  bridge 
the  ILue  in  this  section  runs  over  the  railway  overbridge  and 
across  the  Court  maiddn  to  Kaoraparaghat  road,  Sibpur,  for  a 
distance  of  nearly  two  miles.  Both  the  northern  routes  start 
from  the  bridge  and  terminate  at  the  southern  end  of  Ghusuri 
road,  one  passing  by  Howrah  road  and  Grolabari  road,  the  other 
by  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  and  Haraganj  road.  The  fourth 
route  connects  the  Ghusuri  road  with  Kaoraparaghat  road,  Sibpur, 
passing  over  the  crowded  Haraganj  and  Grand  Trunk  Roads. 

The  main  conditions  of  the  license  are  (1)  that  the  Company 
shall  finish  the  work  within  two  years  from  the  date  of  the 
license,  (2)  that  a  continuous  current  at  a  pressure  of  550  volts 
shall  be  transmitted  from  the  central  generating  station  by 
means  of  underground  cables  to  over-head  trolly-wires  from 
which  the  cars  will  derive  the  necessary  electric  power  and  (3) 
that  the  Municipality  or  the  Local  Government  shall  have  the 
option  of  purchasing  the  undertaking  at  25  times  the  difference 
between  the  average  gross  annual  receipts  and  the  working  ex- 
penses either  on  1st  January  1931  or  at  the  end  of  every 
subsequent  period  of  seven  years  thereafter. 

The  returns  for  1907-08  show  that   there  are  70  post  offices  postal 
and  189  miles  of  postal  communication.     The  number  of  postal  statis- 
articles  delivered  in  the  same  year,  including  letters,  post  cards,  ^^^^' 
packets,  newspapers  and  parcels,  was  5,431,000.     The  value  of 
money  orders    issued   was   Rs.    3,451,000    and    of    those    paid 
Rs.  17,86,000  ;  while  the  number  of  Savings  Bank  deposits  was 
17,200,    the    amount    deposited    being    Rs.    8,49,000.      Postal 
telegraph  offices   have  been   opened    at    Howrah,   Ross    Road, 
Salkhia,   Sankrail,  Andul  Mauri,  Sibpur,  Sibpur  Botanic  Garden, 
TJluberia  and  Liluah. 


128 


HOWRAH. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


Adminis- 

TKATIVE ' 
CHARQES 
AXD 
STAFF, 


Revenck 


Land 
revenue. 


GEKEEAL  ADMINISTRATION. 

The  administration  of  the  Ho^\Tah  district  is  in  some  respects 
peculiar  for  the  chief  local  executive  officer,  the  Magistrate,  is 
not  a  Collector,  as  in  other  districts,  but  a  Deputy  Collector. 
AVhen  first  appointed  in  1843,  the  Magistrate  was  engaged  only 
in  criminal  work;  hut  gradually  he  was  nmde  responsible,  succes- 
sively, for  salt,  excise,  stamps,  land  acquisition,  income-tax, 
accounts  and  the  treasury,  and  more  recently,  for  certificates, 
collections  from  hhan  maltdU,  the  work  of  the  Drainage  Depart- 
ment, touring  and  inspection.  The  Collector  of  Hooghly,  how- 
ever, still  controls  the  administration  of  land  revenue,  including 
the  collection  of  the  land  revenue  demand,  and  of  road  and 
public  works  cesses,  for  estates  lying  wholly  or  partly  in  this 
district.  In  other  words,  Ilowrah  forms  part  of  Hooghly  for 
land  revenue  and  cess  purposes. 

There  are  two  subdivisions,  Ilowrah  and  Uluberia,  each  under 
a  Subdivisional  Officer.  The  sanctioned  staff  at  Howrah  consists 
of  two  Deputy  Collectors  exercising  first  class  magisterial  powers 
and  of  one  Deputy  Collector  with  second  or  third  class  powers ; 
two  Sub-Deputy  Collectors  are  also  usually  stationed  there. 
At  Uluberia  the  Subdivisional  Officer  is  generally  assisted  by  a 
Sub-Deputy  Collector.  The  embankments  and  drainage  works 
are  in  cliarge  of  the  Executive  Engineer,  Northern  Drainage 
and  Embankment  Division,  under  the  Superintending  Engineer, 
South- Western  Circle,  both  of  whom  have  their  offices  in  Calcutta. 
Ilowrah  is  also  the  headquarters  of  the  Superintendent,  Govern- 
ment llailway  Police. 

The  land  revenue  and  cess  accounts  are  included  in  those  of 
Ilooglily,  and  it  ls  only  of  recent  years  that  tliose  for  revenue 
from  other  sources  have  been  separated.  Among  the  latter  the 
main  sources  of  income  are  excise  and  income-tax  (outside  the 
towns  of  Ilowrah  and  Bally),  and  stamps,  which  aggregated 
Rs.  4,00,000  in  lOOO-Cl.  In  1907-08  the  collections  amounted 
(in  round  figures)  to  Rs.  5,17,000,  of  which  Rs.  2,68,000  were 
realized  from  stamps,  Rs.  2,19,000  from  excise,  and  IJs.  30,000 
from  income-tax. 

The  total  number  of  estates  borne  on  the  revenue  roll  of 
Hooghly  (including  Howrah)  in  1907-08  was  4,309  with  a  current 


GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  129 

demand  of  Rs.  13,70,923.  Of  the  total  number  871  estates  with 
an  annual  demand  of  about  5^  lakhs  lie  wholly  or  for  the  greater 
part  in  this  district.  One  of  these,  Mandalghat,  the  major  portion 
of  which  is  included  in  the  llowrah  and  Uluberifi.  subdivisions, 
has  a  demand  of  about  2j  lakhs.  The  Government  estates  consist 
merely  of  a  few  derelict  chauladari  chdk>-dn  lauds  or  Public  Works 
Department  surplus  plots. 

The  receipts  from  judicial  and  non- judicial  stamps  increased  stamps 
from  Rs.  1,38,000  in  1896-97  to  Rs.  2,40,000  in  1901-02  and  rose 
still  further  to  Rs.  2,68,000  in  1907-08.  '1  he  gradual  expansion 
of  commercial  business  in  the  town  of  Howrah  acd  in  the  district 
generally,  the  growing  familiarity  of  the  people  with  the  provi- 
sions of  the  law,  their  tendency  to  have  recourse  to  courts  of 
law,  the  enhanced  duty  on  perpetual  leases,  and  the  growing 
demand  for  stamps  in  other  miscellaneous  transactions  account 
for  the  increase  in  revenue.  Nearly  four-fifths  (Rs.  2,14,000)  of 
the  receipts  in  1907-08  were  due  to  the  sale  of  judicial  stamps 
and  in  particular  of  court-fee  stamps,  while  Rs.  54,000  were 
obtained  from  the  sale  of  non-judicial  stamps,  nearly  the  whole 
of  this  sum  being  due  to  the  demand  for  impressed  stamps. 

The  receipts  from  excise  rose  from  Rs.  1,37,000  in  1896-97  Excise, 
to  Rs.  1,46,000  in  1901-02,  and  further  increased  in  1907-08  to 
Rs.  2,19,000,  a  total  lower  than  that  for  any  other  district  in  the 
Burdwan  Division  except  Bankura.  The  net  excise  revenue  was 
Rs.  3,165  per  10,000  of  the  population  (or  a  little  above  5  annas 
per  head),  as  compared  with  the  Provincial  average  of  Rs.  3,206 
per  10,000.  These  figures  exclude  the  towns  of  Howrah  and 
Bally,  which  are  grouped  with  Calcutta  and  its  suburbs  for  the 
purposes  of  excise  administration. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  excise  revenue  is  derived  from 
the  sale  of  country  spirit,  the  receipts  from  which  amounted  in 
1907-08  to  Rs.  82,000  or  nearly  two-fifths  of  the  total  excise 
revenue.  The  manufacture  and  sale  of  country  spirit  were 
carried  on  under  both  the  outstill  system  and  the  central  distillery 
system  until  1907,  when  the  contract  supply  system  was  intro- 
duced, i.e.,  the  local  manufacture  of  country  spirit  has  been 
prohibited,  and  a  contract  for  the  wholesale  supply  of  spirit  has 
been  given  out  to  a  firm  of  distillers.  The  contractors  are  forbid- 
den to  hold  any  retail  licenses  for  its  sale,  but  are  allowed  the  use 
of  distillery  and  warehouse  buildings  for  the  storage  of  liquor. 
The  right  of  retail  vend  is  disposed  of  by  separate  shops,  each  of 
which  is  put  up  to  auction  ;  and  the  retail  vendors  tire  forbidden 
to  sell  liquor  except  at  the  prescribed  strengths,  for  which 
maximum  prices  are  fixed.    According  to  the  returns  for  1907-08, 


130 


HOWRAH. 


Income- 
tax. 


Registra- 
tion. 


there  are  33  shops  for  the  retail  sale  of  country  spirit,  i.e.,  one 
retail  shop  for  every  15^  square  miles  and  for  20,432  persons  ; 
and  the  average  consumption  of  the  liquor  in  that  year  is  14 
proof  gallons  per  1,000  of  the  population.  The  consumption  of 
the  fermented  liquor  known  as  tdri  is  not  so  great,  its  sale  realiz- 
ing only  Es.  42,000.  The  receipts  from  both  tdri  and  country 
spirit  represent  an  expenditure  of  Rs.  1,920  per  10,000  of  the 
population,  a  figure  higher  than  in  any  other  district  of  the 
Burdwan  Division  except  Burdwau  and  Hooghly. 

The  receipts  from  opium  and  hemp  drugs  account  for 
practically  all  the  remainder  of  the  excise  revenue.  The  greater 
portion  is  derived  from  the  duty  and  license  fees  on  opium, 
which  brought  in  Rs.  54,000  in  1907-08,  representing  an  expen- 
diture of  Rs.  798  for  10,000  of  the  population,  a  figure  higher 
than  in  any  other  district  of  the  Division  except  Hooghly.  The 
use  of  (jdnja,  i.e.,  the  dried  flowering  tops  of  the  cultivated 
female  hemp  plant  ( Cannabis  Indica)  and  the  resinous  exudation 
on  it,  appears  to  be  greater  than  in  any  district  in  the  Division 
except  Hooghly,  the  duty  and  license  fees  realizing  Rs.  32,000  in 
1907-08  or  Rs.  530  per  10,000  of  the  population. 

In  1901-Oi  the  income-tax  yielded  Hs.  27,000  paid  by  1,435 
assessees,  of  whom  1 ,047  paying  Rs.  11,000  had  incomes  of  Rs.  500 
to  Rs.  1,000.  At  that  time  the  minimum  income  assessable  was 
Rs.  500,  but  this  was  raised  in  1903  to  Rs.  1,000,  thereby  giving 
relief  to  a  number  of  petty  traders,  money  lenders  and  clerks ;  and 
the  number  of  assessees  consequently  fell  in  1903-04  to  546 
and  the  collections  to  Rs  24,000.  In  1907-08  the  tax  yielded 
Rs.  30,000  paid  by  639  assessees.  These  figures  do  not  include 
the  assessments  of  Howrah  and  Bally  towns,  which  are  amal- 
gamated witli  Calcutta  for  income-tax  purposes. 

There  are  six  offices  for  the  registration  of  assurances  under 
Act   III  of  1877.     The  average  number  of  documents  registered 

annually  during 
the  quinquen- 
nium ending  in 
1904  was  21,149, 
as  compared  with 
20,827  in  the 
five  years  ending 
in  1899.  The 
marginal  state- 
ment shows  the 
number  of  docu« 
ments  registered 


Office. 

Documents 
registered. 

Rt'cciiits 

Expenditure. 

Howiah 
Ditto    joiut 
(Duuijor). 

Aintii 

Jagatbiillabh- 
pur. 

Syampur 

Uluberiu 

Total      .. 

4,88 1 
3,117 

3,870 
2,799 

3,197 
4,l.=i8 

22,025 

Ks. 

13,780 

3,221 

4,047 
3,120 

3,251 
4,368 

Us. 

6,075 
1,640 

2,837 
1,711 

1 
1,819 
2,224 

31,787 

16,306 

GENERAL    ADMINISTRATION.  131 

and  the  receipts  and  expenditure  at  each  office  in  1907.  The 
number  of  registrations  in  that  year  was  less  than  in  any  other 
district  in  the  Division. 

The   administration   of  criminal  and  civil  instice  is  under   the  Adminis- 

TRATION 

District  and  Sessions  Judge  of  Hooghly.  There  are  seven  subor-  of  jcs- 
dinate  Civil  Courts,  four  Munsifs  being  stationed  at  Howrah  tick. 
and  two  more  at  Anita  and  Uiuberia,  besides  an  additional 
Munsif  for  Uiuberia  and  Serampore,  who  holds  his  court  at 
Uiuberia.  The  Small  Cause  Court  Judge  of  Hooghly  and  Seram- 
pore also  holds  his  coui"t  at  Howrah  for  about  a  week  every  month  ; 
but  suits  above  Rs.  1,000  in  value  are  tried  by  the  Sub- Judge 
at  Hooghly.  Criminal  justice  is  administered  by  the  District 
and  Sessions  Judge  of  Hooghly,  the  District  Magistrate,  and 
the  Deputy  and  Sub-Deputy  Magistrates  stationed  at  Howrah 
and  Uiuberia.  Besides  these  stipendiary  Magistrates,  there  are 
benches  of  Honorary  Magistrates  at  Howrah,  Uiuberia,  Amta 
and  Bally.  Sessions  cases  are  at  present  tried  at  HowTah,  not 
by  the  Sessions  Judge  of  Hooghly,  but  by  an  Additional  Sessions 
Judge. 

Howrah,  with  its  large  labour  force  and  fluctuating  popula-  Crime, 
tion,  is  a  convenient  centre  for  criminals,  and  is  frequented 
by  professional  criminals  from  up-country.  Of  recent  years  steps 
have  been  taken  to  break  up  the  gangs  that  make  the  town  and 
its  neighbourhood  their  headquarters.  Among  such  gangs  may 
be  mentioned  one  consisting  of  Pasis  from  the  United  Provinces, 
who  specialized  in  burglary  and  theft,  and  a  band  of  Banpars 
from  Patna  and  Monghyr,  who  settled  dowa  in  Salkhia  and  worked 
as  river  pirates  on  the  Hooghly,  sinking  boats  and  broaching 
cargoes.  The  latter  were  a  dangerous  set  of  criminals,  who  set  out 
with  arms  {lathis  and  ddos)  to  attack  and  loot  unprotected  cargo 
boats  and  passengers,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  resort  to  violence. 
They  displayed  a  considerable  amount  of  ingenuity  and  adopted 
up-to-date  devices,  e.g.,  by  disguising  themselves  as  policemen  and 
using  boats  like  those  of  the  Port  Police.  Similar  ingenuity  was 
displayed  by  a  gang  of  carters,  recently  convicted,  which  used 
systematically  to  commit  breach  of  trust  in  respect  of  goods 
entrusted  to  them  to  carry.  Their  modus  operandi,  though 
simple,  was  nevertheless  effective  and  clever.  Under  the  rules  of 
the  Licensing  Department  all  carts  plying  for  hire  carry  a  num- 
ber, stamped  on  a  block  of  wood  and  affixed  to  a  part  of  the 
permanent  woodwork  of  the  cart ;  and  it  is  the  practice  of  firms 
engaging  these  carts  to  register  them  in  their  books  by  these 
numbers  for  purposes  of  subsequent  identification,  if  necessary. 
The  practice   of  this  gang  w^as  to  steal  the  block  belonging  to 

k2 


132 


HOWRAH. 


Police. 


JAILs. 


another  cart,  fix  it  on  one  of  their  own,  and  then  to  obtain  a  load 
of  goods  which  they  would  proceed  to  misappropriate,  imme- 
diately disposing  of  the  contents  to  receivers,  who  were  also  in  the 
business.  If,  on  receiving  information  of  the  non-amval  of  their 
goods,  the  firm  engaging  the  cart  laid  a  complaint  at  the  police 
station,  this  would  only  lead  to  the  arrest  and  harassment  of  the 
unfortunate  carter  whose  block  had  been  stolen  and  made  use 
of.  Sometimes,  moreover,  the  latter,  particularly  if  he  had 
injudiciously  omitted  to  report  the  loss  of  his  licensing  block, 
would  find  himself  involved  in  criminal  proceedings;  and  there 
were  foimd  to  be  cases  on  record  in  which  innocent  carters  had 
thus  been  convicted  and  imprisoned. 

For   police   purposes   the  district  is  divided   into    11   thanas 

with  7  outposts  as  shown  in 
the  margin.  The  Howrah, 
Golabari  and  Sibpur  police 
stations  are  included  in 
Howrah        town.  The 

regular  police  force  consist- 
ed in  1907  of  the  District 
Superintendent,  7  Inspec- 
tors, 40  Sub-Inspectors, 
one  Sergeant,  74  Head- 
Constables  and  817  cons- 
tables, a  total  force  of  941 
men,  representing  one 
policeman  to  every  half 
square  mile  and  to  every 
904  of  the  population.  The  rural  force  for  the  watch  and  ward 
of  villages  in  the  interior  is  composed  of  1,517  chauklddrs  and 
128  dafadam^  of  whom  1,506  are  chauklddrs  under  Act  VI  of 
1879,  while  11  are  phdnrt'ddrs  or  phdmi-piddds,  f.e.,  chauklddn 
holding  service  lands. 

There  is  a  district  jail  at  Howrah  with  accommodation  for  88 
prisoners,  viz  ,  barracks  without  separate  sleeping  accommodation 
for  16  male  convicts,  8  female  convicts,  and  44  under-trial 
prisoners ;  cells  for  4  European  prisoners,  8  male  and  2  female 
convicts ;  and  a  hospital  with  6  beds.  This  was  formerly  a  sub- 
jail,  but  has  recently  (in  1906-07)  been  raised  to  the  status  of  a 
third  class  jail.  There  is  also  a  subsidiary  jail  at  Uluberia,  which 
has  accommodation  for  12  prisoners, 


Subdivisiou. 

Thanas. 

Outposts. 

r 

Ballv. 

Duujjor     ... 

Sankrail. 

Golaliari. 

Howrah      ...- 

Howrah     ... 
Jagatbal- 
lubhpur, 
Liluah. 

■Santragachhi. 
Panchla. 

- 

Sibpur. 

r 

f 

Bauria. 

Arnta       .  .  < 

Bhatora. 

Uluberia    ...•' 

I 

Bajjnan. 

Singti. 

1 

1 

L 

Syiimpur    ... 
Uluberia. 

Mandalghat. 

LOCAL  SELJ-QOVERNMENT.  l33 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

LOCAL  SELF-GOVERNMENT. 

In  rural  areas,  the  administration  of  public  roads,  ferries,  Distbict 
pounds,  dispensaries,  primary  education  and  sanitation  is  vested  Board. 
in  the  District  Board,  which  has  delegated  some  of  its  powers  to 
Local  Boards  and  Union  Committees.  The  Howrah  District 
Board  consists  of  13  members,  of  whom  six  are  elected  by  the 
Local  Boards,  three  are  nominated  by  Government,  and  four  are 
ex-officio  members.  The  returns  for  1907-08  show  that  seven  of 
the  members  are  pleaders  or  muk/itdrs,  five  are  Government 
servants,  and  one  represents  landed  interests.  The  chief  receipts 
are  the  local  rate  (road  cess),  which  is  collected  by  the  Collector  of 
Hooghly,  receipts  from  pounds  and  ferries,  profits  from  the  Howrah- 
Amta  Light  Railway,  and  contributions  made  by  the  Local 
Government  for  roads  and  education.  The  receipts  from  the  local 
rate  increased  from  Rs.  41,485  in  1888-89  to  Rs.  48,950  in  1907- 
08 ;  those  of  pounds  and  ferries  were  practically  stationary, 
amounting  to  Rs.  3,821  and  Rs.  6,402,  respectively,  in  the  year 
last  named  ;  while  the  share  of  profits  in  the  Howrah-Amta  line 
(opened  in   1897-98)  increased  to  Rs.  39,696. 

Exclusive  of  the  opening  balance,  the  total  receipts  in  1907-08 
amounted  to  Rs.  1,35,046  or  more  than  double  the  total  receipts 
in  1888-89  (Rs.  62,323),  while  the  average  incidence  of  taxation 
per  head  was  1  anna  2  pies.  The  total  disbursements  in  the  same 
year  were  Rs,  1,59,100,  the  chief  items  being  Rs.  1,13,545  expen- 
ded on  public  works,  Rs.  24,117  on  education,  and  Rs.  6,537  on 
medical  relief  and  sanitation.  The  District  Board  maintained  in 
that  year  40*8  miles  of  metalled  roads  and  110-6  miles  of  un- 
metalled  roads,  besides  400  miles  of  village  tracks,  the  average  cost 
of  repairing  which  were  Rs,  471,  Rs.  110  and  Rs.  22  per  mile  res- 
pectively. The  pounds,  which  are  usually  leased  out,  numbered 
59,  while  several  public  ferries  were  kept  up  on  the  rivers  Rup- 
narayan  and  Damodar.  The  income  obtained  from  the  ferries  on 
the  Hooghly  is  handed  over  to  the  District  Board  of  the  24- 
Parganas.  The  District  Board  maintains  the  Zila  school  of 
Howrah  jointly  with  the  Howrah  Municipality,  and  also  maintains 


134 


HOWRAH. 


Local 

BOABDS. 


Union 
Commit- 
tees. 


MCKICI- 
PALITIE8. 

Bally. 


one  Middle  school  and  gives  grants-in-aid  to  one  High  school,  21 
Middle  schools,  63  Upper  Primary  and  516  Lower  Primary 
schools.  Two  dispensaries  are  maintained  and  four  others  are 
aided,  at  a  total  cost  in  1907-08  of  Rs.  4,803  or  4*7  per  cent,  of 
the  ordinary  income  of  the  Board.  A  contribution  is  also  made  to 
the  HowTah  Veterinary  Dispensary. 

Two  Local  Boards  have  been  established,  one  for  each  sub- 
division. The  Sadar  or  Howrah  Local  Board  has  nine  members,  of 
whom  five  are  nominated  and  four  are  elected;  while  the  Uluberia 
Local  Board  has  10  members,  of  whom  five  are  nominated  and 
ten  are  elected.  They  do  little  work  beyond  managing  pounds 
and  ferries  and  looking  after  the  village  roads. 

In  July  1893,  Union  Committees  were  formed  in  thanas 
Dumjor  and  Jagatballabhpur  in  the  Howrah  subdivision  nnd  in 
Anita  and  Bagnan  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision  ;  while  Uluberia 
was  constituted   an  Union  Committee  in  September  1907.     The 

marginal  table  shows 
the  area  and  popula- 
tion of  each  Union  as 
constituted  in  1907-08; 
but  in  1908  the  area 
of  the  Dumjor  Union 
was  increased  by  the 
inclusion  of  the 
villages  of  ParbatTpur  and  Daffarpur.  They  are  each  managed 
by  a  committee  of  nine  members,  and  the  average  income  of  each 
is  a  little  over  lis.  500  per  annum,  the  contributions  from  the 
District  Board  varying  in  1907-08  from  Rs.  400  to  Ks.  410;  the 
remainder  of  the  receipts  consists  almost  entirely  of  the  amounts 
raised  by  local  taxation  under  Section  118  of  the  Act. 

As  regards  the  latest  Union,  Uluberia,  it  may  be  explained 
that  the  town  was  constituted  a  municipality  on  Ist  April  1903 
with  nine  members.  A  small  municipality  with  a  population  of  a 
little  over  5,000,  it  had  in  1906-07  a  total  income  of  Rs.  3,910, 
mainly  derived  from  a  tax  on  persons.  It  was  abolished  in  April 
1907,  and  an  Union  Committee  appointed  in  September  of  the 
same  year. 

At  present  the  only  municipalities  in  the  district  are  Bally 
and  Howrah.  The  former  was  created  in  18^3  by  the  separation 
of  the  northern  portion  of  the  Howrah  Municipality.  The  area 
wdthin  municipal  limits  is  J '92  square  miles  with  a  population  of 
18,602,  of  whom  3,197  or  17-1  per  cent,  are  tax-payers.  It  is 
administered  by  21  Commissioners,  of  whom  14  are  elected  and 
7  are  nominated.     The  total  receipts   amounted  in   1907-08   to 


Name  of  Union. 

Area  in  square 
miles. 

Population, 

Anita 

Bagnan 

Dumjor 

Jagatballabhpur  ... 

Uluberia 

110 
9-5 
8-5 

105 
2-2 

22,726 
12,456 
23,770 
13,634 
5,S95 

LOCAL   SELF-GOVERNMENT.  135 

Rs.  33,770  (as  against  Bs.  16,207  in  1892-93),  of  which  the  major 
portion  was  obtained  from  a  tax  on  holdings,  assessed  at  the 
rate  of  7|  per  cent,  on  their  annual  valuation,  which  yielded 
Rs.  20,090,  and  from  latrine  rates  (Rs.  8,51(5).  The  incidence  of 
taxation  was  Re.  1-11-2  per  head  of  the  population ;  and  the 
total  expenditure  in  the  same  year  was  Rs,  29,803.  The  town 
is  ill-drained  and  its  supply  of  drinking  water  is  bad.  It  is  also 
studded  with  shallow  tanks,  of  which  no  less  than  885  have  been 
counted ;  and  it  consequently  suffers  from  epidemics  of  fever.  The 
railway  settlement  at  Liluah  forms  part  of  the  municipahty,  and 
has  been  formed  into  a  semi-independent  Ward  Committee.  A 
scheme  for  constructing  water- works  for  the  supply  of  water  to 
riparian  municipalities  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hooghly  from 
Bally  to  Baidyabati  has  been  prepared. 

Howrah  is,  next  to  Calcutta,  the  largest  municipality  in  the  Howrah. 
Province,  and  its  administration  is  of  special  importance  because 
of  its  metropolitan  character  and  its  close  association  with 
Calcutta.  The  terminus  of  two  of  the  largest  railway  systems 
of  India,  and  the  home  of  many  important  industries,  the  adminis- 
tration of  Howrah  is,  on  a  smaller  scale,  almost  as  difficult  and 
arduous  a  task  as  that  of  its  larger  neighbour,  Calcutta.  Its 
Municipal  Commissioners  are  the  trustees  of  a  current  income 
falling  little  short  of  eight  lakhs  of  rupees,  nearly  four  times 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  individual  mof  ussil  municipality. 
The  water- works  are  the  largest  in  the  Province  outside  Calcutta ; 
its  drainage  system  is  the  most  extensive  ;  it  is  the  possessor  of 
a  conservancy  tramway ;  electric  tram  Hues  have  been  introduced 
and  are  to  be  still  further  extended  with  the  ultimate  objective 
of  linking  the  tramway  system  with  that  of  Calcutta.  Briefly, 
the  scale  of  its  administration  differs  widely  from  that  of  an 
ordinary  mofussil  municipality ;  and  the  lines  on  which  its  muni- 
cipal problems  have  to  be  dealt  with  resemble  closely  those 
followed  in  the  metropolis. 

The  area  included  in  municipal  limits  is  8|  square  miles  with 
a  population  in  1901  of  157,594  ;  and  the  difficulties  of  adminis- 
tration are  increased  by  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  consists  of  up-country  immigrants  who  come  to  work 
on  the  railways  or  in  the  numerous  mills  and  factories.  They 
live  in  overcrowded  bmtk  and  impose  a  heavy  burden  on  drainage 
and  conservancy.  A  further  difficulty  is  presented  by  the 
numerous  shallow  tanks  and  pools — some  eighteen  hundred  have 
been  counted — which  are  rarely  cleansed  and  form  breeding 
grounds  for  malaria-bearing  mosquitoes.  The  steps  taken  ot 
improve  this  state  of  affairs,  and  the  arrangements  made   for  the 


136  HOWRAH. 

drainage,  conservancy  and  water-supply  of  this  great  city,  have 
already   been   mentioned   in  Chapter  IV. 

For  some  years  past  it  has  been  found  most  difficult 
to  meet  the  rapidly  increasing  demand  for  improved  roads, 
sanitation,  lighting  and  water-supply  in  a  growing  city  with 
a  nearly  stationary  income  ;  and  a  revaluation,  carried  out  in 
face  of  considerable  opposition,  has  recently  been  effected.  It 
was  found  that  many  rate-payers  had  either  escaped  taxation 
altogether  or  had  been  under-assessed ;  and  the  result  of  the 
revision  of  assessment,  which  took  effect  from  the  1st  April  1907, 
WAS  to  give  a  net  increase  of  Rs.  2,21,814  in  the  taxation, 
representing  an  increase  of  58'4  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  railways, 
of  56'6  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  private  houses,  of  20  per  cent,  in 
the  case  of  mills  and  factories,  and  of  21  "9  per  cent,  in  the  case  of 
the  Port  Commissioners  and  public  holdings.  The  growth  in  the 
resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  Municipal  Commissioners  pro- 
duced by  this  revision  will,  it  is  hoped,  lead  to  a  higher  standard 
of  road  maintenance  and  conservancy,  the  extension  of  the 
lighting  and  water-supply,  the  creation  of  new  markets  and  public 
conveniences,  and  the  completion  of  the  drainage  of  the  town. 

The  revaluation  showed  that  a  great  extension  of  business 
premises  had  taken  place,  that  the  population  had  increased  by 
16  per  cent.,  and  that  there  had  been  in  the  last  few  years  a 
remarkable  rise  in  the  value  of  land,  rents  being  in  some  parts 
double  what  they  were  ten  years  ago.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
this  expansion  will  continue.  Communications  in  Ilowrah  itself, 
between  Calcutta  and  Howrah,  and  between  Hovvrah  and  the 
surrounding  country,  are  being  rapidly  improved.  A  service  of 
ferry  steamers  has  been  starterl,  tram  cars  have  commenced  to 
run  (from  June  1908)  over  a  portion  of  the  proposed  routes,  and 
the  introduction  of  the  system  of  opening  the  Hooghly  Bridge 
chiefly  at  night  has  furnished  further  facilities  for  uninterrupted 
communication  with  Calcutta.  These  improvements  are  expected 
to  make  Howrah  more  accessible  to  workers  in  Calcutta,  to 
stimulate  the  expansion  of  wholesale  trading  on  the  south  fore- 
shore, and  to  throw  open  for  residential  purposes  the  rural  area  in 
the  south  and  west  of  the  municipality.  Further,  improved 
services  of  trains  on  the  East  Indian,  Bengal-NSgpur  and 
Howrah-Amta  Railways  have  made  Howrah  more  accessible  and 
convenient  as  a  business  centre,  Avhile  the  construction  of  an 
overbridge  on  Iho  East  Indian  Railway  on  the  noiihern  boundary 
of  the  municipality  will,  when  complete,  facilitate  traffic  between 
Howrali  and  tlie  market  gardens  to  the  north.  Finally,  the 
Bcheme  for  the  improvement  of  Calcutta,   recently   sanctioned  by 


LOCAL    RKLF-GOVERNMENT, 


137 


the  Secretary  of  State,  is  bound  to  affect  Howrah  ;  and  when  it  is 
brought  into  operation  it  may  be  expected  that  the  town,  and 
especially  its  southern  and  western  portions,  will  expand 
enormously. 

As  regards  the  details  of  administration,  the  municipal  area  is 
divided  into  10  wards  and  there  are  30  Commissioners,  of  whom 
20  are  elected,  and  ten  are  nominated,  including  four  ex-officio 
members.  There  are  19,611  rate-payers  or  only  12*44  per  cent, 
of  the  population — a  low  percentage  which  shows  that  Howrah 
is  a  town  of  the  poor,  a  "  cooly  town"  as  it  has  been  called. 
About  two-thirds  of  the  rate-payers  are  registered,  and  the  elec- 
tions excite  a  fair  amount  of  interest.  At  the  last  elections 
(in  1906-07)  four  of  the  wards  were  uncontested,  but  in  the  other 
six  the  percentage  of  voters  voting  varied  from  32'5  per  cent,  in 
Ward  II  to  74'6  per  cent,  in  "Ward  X. 

The  chief  sources  of  income  are  (1)  a  tax  on  holdings, 
assessed  at  the  rate  of  7^  per  cent,  on  their  annual  valuation, 
(2)  a  water-rate  levied  at  the  rate  of  5  and  6  per  cent.,  (3)  a 
lighting  rate  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent.,  and  (4)  latrine  rates. 
The  incidence  of  taxation  is  high ;  in  fact,  it  is  the  highest  in  any 
mofussil  municipality  except  Darjeeling,  being  Es.  4-9  9  per 
head  of  the  population  in  1907-08.  In  that  year  the  total  income 
amounted  to  Rs.  7,97,177  (or  inclusive  of  loans  and  deposits, 
Rs.  11,02,494)  as  against  Rs.  2,94,813  in  1892-93,  showing  that 
the  net  income  has  been  more  than  doubled  in  the  last  15  years. 
The  chief  receipts  were  Rs.  2,46,502  from  the  tax  on  holdings, 
Rs.  1,85,599  from  the  water-rate,  Rs.  1,99,392  from  latrine 
rates,  Rs.  76,189  from  the  lighting  rate,  and  Rs.  54,738  from 
municipal  property.  The  total  expenditure  in  the  same  yeai 
amounted  to  Rs,  8,68,888,  (excluding  Rs.  1,83,022  expended 
from  loan  funds),  or  inclusive  of  repayment  of  loans,  deposits, 
etc.,  Rs.  10,51,910.  Altogether  Rs.  26,84,000  had  been  taken  as 
loans  from  Government,  and  the  outstanding  loans  at  the  end 
of  the  year  amounted  to  more  than  20  lakhs  (Rs.  20,09,364). 


138  HOWRAH. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


EDUCATION. 


OUS    STS 
TEM3 


iNDiGEN-  Under  native  rule  elementary  instruction  was  given  in  pdth- 
nhalm  and  i)iak/nh--<,  nearly  every  important  village  with  a  number 
of  higher   class    Uiudu   families   having  its  pdthshdld,  and  where 

Pafhshdids  Muhammadans  congregated,  its  ninkfab.     In  the  Hindu  pdthshdld 

andmak-  ^-^^  teacher  {(inru  nmhdsaij'i)  was  a  poor  Kayasth  or  less  often  a 
Brahman,  who  was  usually  paid  in  kind,  or  was  given  a  contribu- 
tion in  cowries  by  each  boy's  family,  and  also  got  a  small  share 
of  grain  at  harvest  time.  The  school  was  held  in  his  hut,  and 
often  in  fine  weather  under  some  tree  in  the  village.  Here  the 
boys  were  taught  reading,  writing  and  mental  arithmetic.  They 
practised  writing  with  ink  on  palm  or  plantain  leaves,  or  with 
chalk  on  the  floor,  and  after  they  had  learnt  the  Bengali  alphabet, 
some  small  collections  of  verses  were  committed  to  memory. 
Particular  attention  was  paid  to  mental  arithmetic  and  mensuration, 
the  boys  learning  by  heart  the  verses  of  one  Bhriguram  Das, 
better  known  as  the  Subhnnkari,  which  contain  formulas  for  cal- 
culating arithmetical  figures,  interest,  land  measurements,  etc. 
Boys  were  sent  to  the  pd(hs/idli  in  their  fifth  year  and  stayed 
there  tln:ee  to  six  years.  In  maktabs,  the  teacher  {dkhnngi)  taught 
arithmetic  and  the  rudiments  of  Persian  or  Urdu,  the  boys  writ- 
ing not  only  on  leaves  but  also  on  country  paper.  The  bulk  of 
the  pupils  finished  their  education  in  these  elementary  schools, 
and  then  followed  their  hereditary  occupations.  Many  of  the 
Kayasths  went  on  to  the  landlords'  kachhark  and  learnt  zamindari 
accounts,  thus  qualifying  for  employment  as  writers  or  gumdiihtas 
(agents).  A  few  read  at  homo  the  vernacular  versions  of  the 
epics  or  Puranas,  while  Brahmans  studied  the  rudiments  of  Sans- 
krit under  some  pandit  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  thus  qualified 
tliomselvcs  for  the  priesthood. 

ToU.  The  more  ambitious  of  the  Brahmans,  however,   were    not   so 

easily  satisfied  and  studied  at  one  or  other  of  the  educational 
centres  in  Bengal  containing  ioh  or  Sanskrit  colleges.  The  most 
famous  of  those  were  at  Nadia  and  in  its  neighbourhood;  but 
there  were  smaller  circles  at  Bally  in  this  district,  Bansberia  and 
Khanakul   in  the  ilooghly  district,  Bhatpara  in  the  24-Pargauas, 


EDUCATION.  139 

Bhangamoda  in  Burdwan,  etc.  The  students  resided  in  the  house 
of  some  learned  jxiiidiis  and  were  treated  as  members  of  the 
family,  doing  domestic  work,  and  if  they  had  means,  contributing 
to  the  cost  of  the  household.  Every  pupil  learnt  grammar  in  the 
first  instance  for  some  years,  and  then  read  some  easy  literary 
works.  After  this  he  selected  some  special  subject  for  study, 
usually  higher  literature,  Nydiia  or  logic,  and  Sinriti  or  law.  The 
whole  period  of  learning  lasted  usually  from  eight  to  sixteen 
years.  After  finishing  the  course,  many  went  on  a  tour  to  com- 
plete their  studies,  visiting  Mithila  (Darbhanga)  to  learn  Darshana 
or  philosophy  aud  law,  and  Benares  for  grammar,  rhetoric  and 
the  Vedas.  On  returning  home,  many  of  them  set  up  small  tola 
in  their  own  houses 

Well-to-do  Musalmans  sent  promising  boys  to  madratas,  Madratas. 
which  were  established  at  nearly  all  the  headquarters  of  the 
local  Governors.  These  institutions  date  back  to  the  beginning 
of  Muhammadan  rule  in  Bengal,  for  we  find  that  Muhammad- 
i-Bakhtiyar  Khilji  and  his  Amirs  set  up  madrasas  at  Lakhnauti, 
and  in  1313  A.  D.  Zafar  Khan  built  one  at  Tribeni.  They  were 
usually  attached  to  some  mosque  and  were  often  liberally  endowed. 
The  students  had  lodging  and  boarding  free,  though  contributions 
were  frequently  made  by  those  whose  parents  were  better-off. 
The  pupils  were  taught  the  Koran  and  Persian  classics  by  Maul  vis, 
while  special  instruction  was  also  given  in  the  Radls  or  Musalman 
law  and  in  Arabic  literature. 

No  special  arrangements  appear  to  have  been  made  for  female  Female 
education.  Hindu  girls  of  a  tender  age  often  attended  pdthshdlds,  education, 
but  few  were  permitted  to  go  there  after  seven  or  eight  years  of  age. 
The  Muhammadans  were  stricter  and  apparently  did  not  permit 
them  to  go  to  any  maktab,  but  many  of  the  more  affluent  allowed 
their  girls  to  be  taught  at  home.  Among  the  Kayasths  and 
Brahmans,  a  few  managed  to  learn  Bengali  or  Sanskrit  at  home. 
The  Vaishnavas  were  more  liberal-minded,  allowing  girls  and 
even  elderly  ladies  to  read  and  write  ;  indeed,  there  were  several 
poetesses  among  them. 

In  the  early  days  of  British  rule,   several  schools   for   Indian  Pbogress 
boys  were   started  by   missionaries.     First   we  find  that  in  1786  °ojjj,gjj 
the  Revd.  David  Brown,  the  then  Superintendent  of  the   Bengal  bduca- 
Military   Orphanage,   started  a  boarding  school  for  young  Hindus  '^^°^' 
in  Howrah.     Mr.  Brown  himself  paid  Us.  1,800  for  the   site   and  English 

—  sctiools 

building ;  but   the   school   collapsed  on  his  removal  from  Howrah 
in  1788.*     The  Serampore  Baptist  missionaries  next  opened  bazar 

*  H.  B.  Hyde,  Parochial  Annals  of  Bengal,    pp.  251-2, 


140  HOWRAH. 

schools   in    Howrah   and   S&lkhia   in    1793,  and  in  1820  set  up  a 
regular  English  school  for  Indian  boys.     The  first   Government 
aided  English  school  was  opened  in  1845,   on  the   application  of 
nearly   two   hundred   Hindu   parents.     Nearly   Rs.   4,000    were 
subscribed   locally    for   the   building,   and   Government    granted 
a   site   of  2^   big/ids  to  the  east  of  the  Salt  Office  on  the  maicidn. 
The  school  was  managed  by  a  local  committee,  with  the  Magis- 
trate as  president,  and  began  to  send  up  students  for  the  Entrance 
Examination  in  1858,  the  year  after  the  foundation   of  the   Uni- 
versity.     The   first   English  school   under   Indian   management 
appears  to  have  been  started  at  Salkhia  in  1855  through  the  public 
spirit  of  a   inul<litdr.     It   received   a   monthly   grant    of  Us.   87 
from  Government  in  1857,  and  began  to  send  up  students  for  the 
Entrance    Examination    in    1859.      Other   schools    were    started 
shortly   aftei'wards   in   various   parts  of  the  town  and  also  in  the 
interior,  English  schools,  aided  or  unaided,    being   established  at 
Audul,  Baguau,  Mugkalyiin  and  Ami  a  before  1870-71. 
Verua-  Missionurios  were  also  the  first  to  start  vernacular  schools.     In 

cular  1818  the  Christian  Knowledge  Society  began  to  open  a  number 

of  vernacular  schools,  which  were  grouped  into  circles,  one  such 
circle  being  located  in  Howrah  district.  In  1824  the  Howrah 
circle  had  six  schools  extending  from  Sibpur  to  Bally,  and  in 
1827  an  additional  school  was  opened  at  Baiitra  in  Howrah  town. 
It  is  not  known  when  the  Government  opened  its  own  vernacular 
schools  ;  but  in  1856-57  six  such  institutions  were  reported  as 
in  existence.  The  first  vernacular  school  under  Indian  manage- 
ment was  established  in  SantragSchhi  in  1857  with  the  aid  of  a 
Government  grant. 
Special  Schools  for  European  and   Eurasian  children  were  opened  in 

Bchwia       t}^Q    early  years  of  British  administration.     The  earliest  that  can 
be  traced  was  the  Bengal  Military  Orphan  Asylum,    intended  for 
the    education    of    the   orphans   of   soldiers.     This    school    was 
managed   by    a   committee   and  received    from  Government  an 
allowance  of  lis.  '6  (subsequently  raised  to  Kb.  6)  for  each  orphan. 
Originally    located    at     Dakshineswar    in    the    24-rargauas,   it 
was  transferred   in   1785   to   Lovett's  house   at  Howrah,  a   site 
now  occupied  by  the    Courts.     It   contained   500   children,   and 
its  first  Superintendent  was  the  Revd.  David  Brown,  who  when 
an   undergraduate   at    Cambridge    was   offered   the    appointment 
on  condition  that  within  two   months  he  took  Holy  Orders  and 
married.     He  fulfilled  both  conditions  and  took   over  charge  in 
1786  ;  but  his  services  were  dispensed  with  in  1788,  because  he 
gave  up  too  much  time  to  his  work  aa  Garrison  Chaplain  and  to 
preaching  at   the  Miflaion  Church.     In    1790  the  wards   of  the 


peHiis. 


EDUCATION.  141 

upper  school  were  removed  to  Banvell's  old  house  at  Alipore, 
and  in  1815  those  of  the  lower  school  to  Barasat  in  consequence 
of  an  outbreak  of  opthalmia.  From  an  advertisement  in  the 
Calcutta  Gazette  of  1807  we  find  that  "  the  girls  were  taught, 
among  other  accomplishments,  embroidery  or  chicundoz  work," 
and  orders  for  needle-work  were  asked  for  by  the  Secretary.* 

Other  attempts  to  found  schools  were  made,  chiefly  by  mis- 
sionaries, but  were  unsuccessful.  A  boarding  school  for  European 
and  Eurasian  boys  was  opened  in  1821  by  Mr,  Statham,  the  first 
Baptist  missionary  resident  at  Howrah,  and  a  free  school  in  1842 
by  another  Baptist  missionary,  the  Revd.  T.  Morgan ;  but  both 
had  to  be  closed,  the  first  after  six,  and  the  second  after  sixteen 
years.  Several  other  schools  started  by  ladies  in  1860  and  1861 
also  failed.  At  length,  with  the  help  of  grants  from  the  Govern- 
ment and  the  East  Indian  Railway  Company,  of  private  subscrip- 
tions, and  a  sum  of  Rs.  15,000  realised  from  a  fancy  fair, 
St.  '.Phomas'  School  was  opened  in  1864.  This  school  is  located  in 
a  fine  building  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  opposite  the  maiddn. 

Missionaries  also  took  the  lead  in  regard  to  collegiate  edu-  Coliegeg. 
cation.  Bishop's  College,  which  was  intended  to  serve  as  a 
Missionary  College,  was  opened  at  Sibpur  in  1824  owing  mainly 
to  the  zeal  of  Bishop  Middleton  for  the  missionary  cause. 
Government  gave  it  62  bifjhds  of  land,  but  other  expenses  were 
met  chiefly  by  the  Missionary  Societies.  The  buildings  are  now 
occupied  by  the  Civil  Engineering  College.  This  College  was 
first  started  in  1856  under  the  control  of  the  Public  Works 
Department,  when  it  was  located  in  Writers'  Buildings,  Calcutta. 
In  1864  it  was  transferred  to  the  charge  of  the  Education 
Department  and  moved  to  the  Presidency  College.  In  1880  the 
institution  was  made  independent  and  removed  to  Sibpur.  It 
is  now  the  centre  of  technical  education  in  Bengal,  with  six 
affiliated  schools  in  Eastern  Bengal  and  five  in  Bengal ;  and  the 
course  of  teachiog,  formerly  confined  to  mechanical  engineering, 
has  been  extended  by  means  of  special  classes  in  electrical  and 
mining  engineering  and  industrial  chemistry. 

The  educational  activity   of  the  Serampore  missionaries   also  q\j\^' 
displayed  itself  in  female  education.     They  appear  to  have  been  tugiiah 
the  first  to  open  a  school  for  Indian  girls  at   Howrah    (in  1820),  ^'  °°*' 
and  in  1839  the  Misses  Hampton  had  a  similar  school.     The  first 
native  girls'  school  under  Indian  management  was  established  at 
Santragachhi  in  1863  with  a  small  grant-in-aid  from  Government. 

*  H.  B.  iJyde,  Parochial  Annals  of  Bengal,  pp.  246-52;  Selections,  Vol.    IV, 
p.  429. 


142  HOWRAH. 

It  was  followed  Bhoi'tly  after  by   other  girls'    schools  at  Sibpur 
and  Salkhia,  and  a  little  later  at  Bally.     By  1870-71    the  well- 
known  Hitakilri  Sabha  of  Uttarpara  began  its  course  of  examina- 
tioDB  for  gills. 
PRB3BNT  The  statistics  obtained  at  the  census  of  1901  show  that   at  the 

EDucA-  present  day  Howrah  is  the  most  advanced  district  in  BeDgal 
TioN.  from  an  educational  point  of  view.  No  less  than  98,001  or  11*5 
per  cent,  of  the  population  were  returned  as  literate,  i.e.,  able  to 
read  and  write  some  language,  while  17,90o  could  read  and 
write  in  English.  Among  males  21*2  per  cent,  were  literate 
— the  highest  proportion  for  any  district  in  the  Province — and 
among  females  1'2  per  cent.,  a  proportion  exceeded  iu  only  three 
other  districts,  viz.,  Hooghly,  the  24-Parganas  and  Darjeeling, 
where  conditions  are  exceptional  owing  to  the  number  of  European 
residents  and  visitors.  As  regards  knowledge  of  English,  Howrah 
was  facile  princepi^,  38 "9  males  and  2  females  in  every  thousand 
being  returned  as  literate  in  that  language.  It  is  somewhat 
surprising  that  outside  the  municipalities  the  highest  percentage 
of  those  able  to  read  and  write  is  returned  for  Syampur  thana, 
where  Brahmans  and  Kayasths  are  proportionately  few  and  the 
principal  caste  consists  of  Kaibarttas,  who  are  not  known  to  have 
any  predilectioa  for  letters. 

The  advance  made  in  recent  years  is  apparent  from  the  fact 
that  in  1891  only  17*9  per  cent,  of  the  male  population  were  re- 
tiimed  as  literate,  while  only  7  per  mille  of  the  female  population 
could  read  and  write.  Similar  evidence  of  progress  is  afforded  by 
the  returns  prepared  by  the  Education  Department.  The  number 
of  public  educational  institutions  rose  from  859  in  1892-93  to 
894  in  1907-08,  and  of  pupils  from  33,200  to  39,535,  while  the 
percentage  of  boys  to  the  male  population  of  school-going  age 
advanced  from  56'8  per  cent,  to  59*4  per  cent.  The  number  of 
Musalraan  pupils  in  schools  of  all  classes  increased  from  3,674  to 
5,333,  of  whom  5*7  per  cent,  were  in  secondary  schools,  79*0 
in  primary  schools  and  13'fi  per  cent,  in  inokt(ib>i.  The  inspecting 
staff  in  1907-08  consists  of  three  Deputy  Inspectors,  six  Sub- 
Inspectors,  two  Assietant  Sub-Inspectors  and  five  Inspecting 
Pandits. 
Collegiate  'Ihe  Only  college  in  the  district  is  the  Civil  Engineering 
e.iu(utioD.  College  at  Sibpur,  which  on  the  31st  March  1908  had  349 
students  on  the  rolls.  It  is  divided  into  two  departments,  the 
Engineer  Department  and  the  Apprentice  Department.  The 
former  is  intended  for  the  training  of  engineers  for  the  Public 
Works  Department  and  other  Government  bodies ;  the  latter  for 
training   men   to  fill   subordinate   ranks   of  the   Public    Works 


EDUCATION.  143 

Department  and  to  carry  out  similar  duties  under  public  or 
private  bodies.  In  ] 'J 07  the  number  of  students  being  trained 
in  these  two  Departments  was  94  and  233  respectively. 

In  the  Engiueey  Department  prominence  is  given  to  practical 
work  in  the  workshops  and  science  laboratories.  The  qualification 
for  admission  is  the  Intermediate  Examination  of  the  Calcutta 
University  or  its  equivalent ;  and  the  course,  which  is  for  four 
years,  leads  to  the  Calcutta  University  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Engineering  in  Civil  Engineering. 

In  the  Apprentice  Department  there  are  three  courses  of 
instruction,  viz.,  (1)  the  sub-overseer  course  for  two  yeara,  (2)  the 
overseer  course  for  another  2  years,  and  (3)  a  course  of  practical 
workshop  training  extending  over  about  16  months.  An  exami- 
nation is  held  at  the  end  of  the  Fub- overseer  course,  and  the 
successful  candidate  receives  a  certificate  showing  that  he  possesses 
the  qualifications  required  for  a  sub-overseer  in  the  Public 
Works  Department.  Having  passed  the  sub-overseer  examina- 
tion, the  student  proceeds  t  o  the  overseer  course,  which  is  offered  in 
two  branches,  viz.,  (1)  general  engineering,  leading  to  an  overseer 
certificate,  and  (2)  mining,  leading  to  the  Government  of  India 
diploma  in  the  principles  of  mining.  The  practical  workshop 
training  is  for  the  general  branch  only  and  leads  to  the  certificate 
of  foreman  mechanic  or  upper  subordinate. 

A  third  branch  of  work  consists  of  industrial  classes  in  the 
various  workshops,  viz.,  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  fitters,  turners, 
pattern-making  and  founding  in  iron  and  brass.  For  the  first 
year  the  student  attends  the  carpentry  shop  ;  in  the  second,  the 
smith-  shop ;  in  the  third,  the  pattern-making  and  foundry  shop  ; 
in  the  fourth  year,  the  fitting  shop.  The  fifth  year  is  devoted  to 
all-round  practical  training. 

Among  recent  developments  may  be  mentioned  the  establish- 
ment in  1896  of  a  special  course  for  electrical  training  and  of 
mining  classes  in  1905.  A  student  who  has  passed  the  sub- 
overseer  standard  may  join  the  classes  for  a  specialized  course  of 
two  years,  six  weeks  of  each  year  being  spent  in  a  mining 
district,  in  the  study  of  mining  survey,  and  in  practical 
training.  A  scheme  has  also  been  inaugurated  for  providing 
instruction  in  mining  for  assistants  and  others  employed  in  the 
Bengal  colliery  districts,  and  a  special  Mining  Advisory  Board 
has  been  attached  to  the  college.  Since  November  1906  there 
has  been  a  regular  course  of  instruction  at  colliery  centres, 
viz.,  Sanctoria  and  Charanpur  in  the  Ramganj  coal-field  and 
Jheiria  and  Sijua  in  the  Jherria  field.  A  further  development 
of  some  interest  has  been  the  establishment  of  o,  class  for   training 


144 


HOWRAH. 


Secondary 
schools. 


motor-driver  meclianics,  the  course  of  instruction  including  both 
maintenance  and  driving. 

It  has  recently  been  decided  to  remove  the  college  to  Ranchi, 
on  account  of  the  general  unhealthiness  and  unsuitability  of  the 
Bite. 

There  are  no  less  than  59  secondary  schools  in  the  district, 
including  26  High  English  schools,  27  Middle  English  schools 
and  6  Middle  Vernacular  schools.  Considering  the  size  of  the 
district,  the  number  is  unusually  large,  representing  approxi- 
mately one  secondary  school  for  every  eight  square  miles.  Of  the 
High  English  schools,  eight  are  situated  in  Howrah,  one  in  Bally 
and  17  in  the  mofussil.  Seven  (five  in  Howrah  and  two  in 
the  Uluberia  subdivision)  are  unaided;  18  receive  grants-in- 
aid  from  public  funds;  and  one,  the  Howrah  Zila  school,  is 
maintained  jointly  by  the  District  Board  and  the  Municipality. 
The  number  of  pupils  attending  these  schools  increased  from 
3,601  in  1892-93  to  5,162  in  1907-08,  when  the  total  expenditure 
was  Rs.  90,395,  of  which  Rs.  7,580  or  8*3  per  cent,  were  derived 
from  public  funds  and  the  rest  from  fees,  endowments  and 
subscriptions.  The  following  table  gives  the  salient  statistics  for 
the  High  schools  in  1907-08. 


Maintained  hy  District  Board  and  Municipality. 


School . 


Howrah  Zila  school       ,.. 


Number 
of  pupils. 

479 


Aided. 


School. 


Amta 

Andul 

Bagnan 

Bally  (Rivers  Thompson)  ... 

Baluti 

Howrah  Bible   ... 

Jagathallabhpiir 

Jaypur  (Fakirdaa  Institution) 

Jhapardah  (Duke  Institution) 


Number 
of  pupils. 
.  132 
.  19S 
.  151 
372 
.  101 
64 
123 
loG 
117 


Schoolt 


Jliinkra  ... 

Maju  (R.  N.  Bose's) 

Mugkalyan 

Narit  (Nyayaratna  Institution) 

Paiiitraa 

Panpur 

Uaspur 

Siisati  (Nahala  Abinash) 

Salkhia  (A.  S.  School) 


Number 
of  pupils. 
..       115 
..       217 
211 
122 
117 
134 
156 
94 
253 


Unaided. 


Bantra  ...  ...  30G 

Bantra  (Belileo's  Institution)  250 

Howrah  (Ripon  Collegiate)   ...  369 
Uluberia 


QarhbhabunTpur 
Salkliia  (Hindu) 
Sibpur 

284 


149 
170 
322 


Of  the  Middle  English  schools,  one  is  managed  by  the 
District  Board,  21  are  aided  and  5  are  unaided.  They  had 
1,945  boys  on  the  [rolls  in  1907-08,  as  against  1,728   in   1892-93, 


EDUCATION.  145 

when  there  were  23  such  schools.  Of  tlie  Middle  Vernacular 
schools,  five  are  aided  and  one  is  unaided,  and  the  attendance  in 
1907-08  was  629  pupils  as  against  1,002  (in  11  schools)  in  1892- 
93.  The  total  cost  in  1907-08  of  Middle  English  schools  was 
Es.  22,858  and  of  Middle  Vernacular  schools  lis.  5,425— in  all 
Rb.  28,383,  of  which  Es.  5,885  or  20 "9  per  cent,  were  paid  from 
public  funds. 

Primary  education  is  given  in  two  classes  of  schools.  Upper  Primary 
and  Lower  Primary  schools.  In  1 907-08  there  were  68  Upper  '*^''"'^''^- 
Primary  schools  for  boys  and  634  Lower  Primary  schools,  with 
an  attendance  of  30,230  boys  and  802  girls.  The  total  expendi- 
ture in  that  3  ear  was  Es.  78,726,  of  which  21  per  cent. 
(Es.  16,637)  was  derived  from  public  funds,  while  71*6  per  cent, 
was  reaHsed  from  fees.  Including  the  pupils  attending  Primary 
schools  for  girls,  the  total  number  taught  in  Primary  schools  was 
33,313  as  against  26,284  in  1892-93,  representing  an  increase  of 
26'8  per  cent,  in  fifteen  years,  although  the  number  of  schools 
remained  practically  stationary,  being  772  as  against  773  in 
1892-93. 

In  1907-08  there  were  71  girls'  schools,  of  which  one  (the  Qiris' 
Baniban  School)  was  a  Middle  English  school,  while  11  were  ^''b'^''^^' 
Upper  Primary  and  59  Lower  Primary  schools.  The  total 
number  of  pupils  attending  these  schools,  including  a  few  young 
boys,  was  2,317.  Excluding  the  boys,  and  adding  the  girls 
reading  in  boys'  schools,  the  total  number  of  girls  under 
instruction  in  1907-08  was  3,186.  Sixty-seven  girls'  schools 
received  aid,  and  four  Lower  Primary  schools  were  unaided. 
The  total  cost  amounted  to  Es.  11,342,  of  which  Es.  2,418 
were  paid  from  Provincial  revenues,  Es.  2,159  by  the  District 
Board,  Es.  1,135  from  Municipal  funds  and  Es.  5,630  from 
private  sources.  No  fees  were  charged  in  any  girl's  schools 
except  in  the  Baniban  Middle  English  school  and  the  Mission 
schools,  but  only  Es.  641  were  thus  realised.  The  Mission  schools 
generally  prepare  candidates  for  the  Calcutta  Standard  Examina- 
tion ;  but  the  other  schools  send  up  pupils  for  the  examinations 
conducted  by  the  Uttarpara  Hitakari  Sabha. 

At  the  Carriage  and  Wagon  Workshops   of  the  East  Indian  Special 
Railway   at    Liluah  there  is  a  technical  school   for   apprentices.  ^^  '^'^ "' 
With  this  exception,  there  is  no    separate  technical   or   industrial 
school  in  the  district,  but  the  District  Board  and   Howrah    Muni- 
cipality make  contributions  for  the  grant  of  scholarships  tenable  at 
the  artisan  class  of  the  Sibpur  Engineering  College. 

There  are  19  toh  and  28  maktabs  with  866   pupils.     Of  these, 
eight  toh  receive  small  grants-in-aid,  seven  from  the  Howrah  and 

h 


146  HOWRAH. 

two  from  the  Bally  Municipality,  wliile  18  nmktaha  are  aided,  m., 
10  from  the  special  Government  allotment  and  two  from  the 
lIo-wTah  Municipality.  There  are  also  14  nnaided  indigenous 
schools,  including  /o/.s,  niahinh^  and  Korto  schools,  with  376 
pupils. 

Eleven  night  schools,  i.e,,  Primary  schools  attended  by  adult 
labourers  and  cultivators  in  the  evening  after  their  day's  work, 
ore  in  existence,  and  had  189  pupils  on  the  rolls  in  1907-08. 
For  training  ijiiruti  or  Primary  Sfhool  teachers,  four  schools  were 
started  in  1907-08,  two  in  each  subdivision,  at  which  45  teachers 
were  instructed.  Three  students'  hostels  are  maintained,  all  of 
which  are  self-supporting. 
Europoiiii  There  are   four    European   schools   in   the   district    with    287 

education.  ^^^^^-^^  ^^  ^^^  ^.^^l^  ^^  3^^^  Mnxoh.  1908,  viz.,  St.  Aloysius'  School 

(71  pupils),  St.  Agnes'  School  (77),  St.  Thomas'  School  (45),  and 
St.  Elizabeth's  School  (94). 
MiflcKL-  Fifteen  public  libraries  are  reported,  all  kept,  up  by  local  subs- 

criptions except  one  at  Bally  and  anotlier  at  Belur,  which  receive 
small  grants  from  the  Bally  Municipality.  There  are  also 
several  reading  rooms  in  the  town  and  in  the  interior.  The 
library  of  the  llovvrah  Institute,  which  is  managed  by  a 
committee  of  European  gentlemen,  is  said  to  be  a  useful  institu- 
tion, while  the  Public  Libraries  at  liowrah  and  Bally  and  the 
Friends'  Union  Club  at  Sibpur  are  growing  in  importance. 
The  other  libraries  call  for  no  special  notice,  containing 
mainly  novels.  Some  are  maintained  fro?u  a  percentage 
on  the  sale  of  sweep-stake  tickets.  Two  weekly  papers,  the 
Honrah  Uiloishi  published  in  Bengali,  and  Truth  published 
in  English,  are  issued  to  a  limited  })ublic.  There  are  a  number  of 
printing  presses  in  liowrah  town,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  the  Caledonia  Steam  I'riuting  Press,  the  Municipal  Press 
and  the  East  Indian  llailway  Press.  Tlie  oldest  press  in  the 
district  wtis  probably  the  Euoyclopoedia  Press  at  Bishop's  College, 
which  can  be  traced  back  to  185'J.  At  tliis  press  religious  books 
and  missionary  reports  Avore  printed,  among  others  the  Sniydrnaba 
of  the  llevd.  K.  M.  Banerjeo.  Among  social  and  political 
instil utions  may  be  mentioned  the  Kaie-payors'  Assooiaticm  at 
liowrah,  a  branch  of  the  Indian  Association  at  Uluboria,  the 
Sadharani  Sablia  at  Bally,  and  a  branch  of  the  Calcutta  Aniisilan 
Samiti  at  Phuleswar  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision. 


OAZKTTKKU.  147 


CIIArTER  XV. 


(iAZIOrTKlCR. 

Amta.~A  villago  in  Uio  uortli-eastof  the  Uluberia  subdivision, 
eituaiod  on  ilui  lofl  bank  of  ilio  Djiiuodar  rivor,  'M  niilos  I'roin 
llowrah  by  rail  and  !J(>  miloa  by  road.  It  is  eouuootod  willi  Iho 
latter  placo  by  llio  Ilowrah-Amtft  liailway,  of  which  it  is  the 
torniinus.  Amta  is  tlio  ]ioad(iii!irlt)r8  of  an  Union  Coniniiltoo,  and 
may  bo  roganU'd  for  practical  purposes  us  consistiug  of  a  group 
of  villages  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long  north  to  south  aud  a  mile 
broad.  It  ooniains  u  Munsif's  court,  a  court  of  Honorary 
Magistrates,  a  sub-rogistry  ollico,  ])olice  staiion,  post  ollice, 
charil  able  dispensary,  a  1  ligh  l^]iiglish  soliool  founded  by  the  late 
Babu  IMtanibar  (!1uikraviiili,  with  u  ]»ubli(!  library  aiiaclicd,  and 
a  i'ulili(i  Works  l)t>partniont  bungalow.  JSuveral  of  its  roads  aro 
brick-paved.  It  is  protected  from  the  Dslmodar  floods  by  a  liigh 
Government  embankment,  and  from  (loods  in  11m  upland  basins  by 
a /^^AvJv;' enibankmeni  buill  along  Iho  lelY  bank  of  the  Madari4 
h'/iaL  It  is  fairly  free  from  the  malaria  ihat  prevails  iu  the  north 
aud  norlb-west  of  ilie  tliana. 

Amta  has  long  been  an  important  ceniro  of  Irade,  formerly 
it  contained  miiny  smII,  and  coal  depots,  being  au  entrepdt  for  salt 
brought  from  Midna}>oi'e  and  coal  brought  from  tlie  Ranigani  coal- 
lield.  The  Damodar  tln^i  formed  a  broad  higl\way  of  commerce, 
bearing  hundreds  of  <^argo  boats  ;  a  memorial  of  this  time  still 
exists  in  tlie  name  ham  far,  i.e.,  ])ort,  given  \o  a  part  of  Ihe  river 
bank.  The  railways  have  killed  the  river-borne  irade  in  salt 
and  coal ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  trade  in  paddy  and  straw, 
carried  i)artly  by  boats  and  ]»;irtly  by  rail,  has  (lonrished,  and  there 
nre  also  large  exports  to  llowiah  of  jute,  vegetables  and  iish. 
Brown  country  jiapcu'  used  to  be  manufactured  here,  but  this 
industry  has  been  cruHhed  by  the  pressure  of  competition. 

Among  Hindus  the  plaee  is  best  known  for  a  temple  dedicated 
to  Melai  Chandi,  a  goddess  mentioned  in  'Jhandi,  a  ))oem  >vritteu 
by  Kavlkankan  -UX)  yearn  ago.  Tradition  says  that  her  shrine  was 
originally  at  Jayant  i,  a  placu;  on  the  otlua*  side  of  the  river,  about, 
a  mile    from   its  present   site.      It  marked   one  of  the   fifty-two 


148  HOWRAH. 

tirt/'ns  sanctified  by  receiving  portions  of  the  dismembered  body 
of  Sat!  (Diirga),  being  the  spot  on  which  her  knee-joint 
fell.  Her  worshippers  had  to  cross  the  river  to  reach  the  shrine, 
and  this  caused  no  Uttle  inconvenience,  especially  when  the 
country  was  flooded  in  the  rains.  An  ancestor  of  the  present 
seljdits,  therefore,  prayed  that  the  goddess  would  take  pity  on  her 
votaries  and  come  to  Amta,  The  goddess  appeared  to  him  in  a 
dream  and  granted  his  prayer  ;  and  next  day  her  image  was  found  at 
the  foot  of  a  tree  near  the  site  of  the  present  High  school.  A 
temple  was  next  built  by  a  merchant,  whose  salt  boats  had  sunk  in 
the  river  near  Amta,  He  vowed  that,  if  the  boats  were  restored, 
he  would  erect  a  temple  over  the  image.  They  were  raised 
miraculously  with  the  cargo  undamaged,  and  the  grateful  merchant 
built  the  present  temple.  It  has  a  Bengali  inscription  in  two 
lines  on  the  outside  at  a  height  of  about  ten  feet  above  the  plinth. 
Owing  to  frequent  coats  of  whitewash,  it  is  somewhat  illegible,  but 
is  said  to  ascribe  the  building  of  the  temple  to  a  Karmakar  in  the 
year  1056  of  the  Bengali  era,  i.e.,  260  years  ago.  The  temple  has 
a  marble  floor  and  a  roof  of  the  usual  Bengali  type.  The  image 
IE  in  stone,  3^  feet  high,  with  a  vermiKon-painted  face.  In  the 
ame  enclosure  stands  another  temple  of  Siva  with  a  roof  of  the 
Bengali  style  of  architecture,  which  was  built  at  the  expense  of  the 
late  Babu  Madanmohan  Datta  of  llatkhola,  Calcutta.  The 
temple  has  a  valuable  endowment  {debottar)  of  about  a  thousand 
big  has  of  land,  a  part  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  bazar,  the  largest 
in  the  district  outside  Howrah. 

There  are  several  important  villages  with  High  English  schools 
in  the  jurisdiction  of  Amta  thana,  such  aa  Raspur,  Jaypur,  Panpur, 
Jhinkra,  and  Narit,  the  home  of  the  late  Pandit  Mahesh  Chandra 
Nyayaratna.  Other  places  which  may  be  mentioned  are  Pandua, 
with  the  ruins  of  a  fort  on  the  Kan  a  Nadi,  which  was  the  home  of 
the  well-known  poet  Bharat  Chandra  Rai,  wliose  ability  won  for 
him  the  title  of  Guuakar,  i.e.,i\ie  mine  of  talents  (1712-1760  A.D.); 
Amragori  with  a  charitable  dispensary  chiefly  maintained  from  an 
endowment  given  by  the  late  Babu  Iswar  Chandra  Hazra  ; 
Bautra,  the  home  of  Babu  Jiban  Krishna  Hai,  said  to  be  the 
richest  Kaibartta  in  the  subdivision ;  and  Bhatora  on  the  Riip- 
narayan  river  with  a  police  beat-house. 

Audul. — A  village  in  the  Howrah  subdivision,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  old  Saraswati  river,  4  miles  west  by  road  of 
Howrah  town.  It  is  connected  with  Andul  station  on  the  Bengal- 
Nitgpur  Railway  by  a  road  a  mile  and  a  half  long.  Speaking 
generally,  Audul  may  be  taken  as  including  Mahiari  (Mauri) 
and  several   other   villages,   and   thus   covers  Q,n  area  of  about  a 


GAZETTEER.  149 

square  mile  aud  a  half.  Andul  itself  has  a  High  English  school 
and  a  considerable  daily  bazar,  while  a  post  office  is  situated  at 
Mahiari,  where  an  important //a^  is  held,  the  chief  articles  sold 
being  paddy,  coconuts,  eto.  At  the  latter  place  there  is  a  high 
brick  tower  with  five  storie?,  about  165  feet  in  height,  the  top  of 
which  can  be  reached  by  a  long  series  of  steps  inside.  This 
tower  is  one  of  several  erected  in  the  early  days  of  British  rule 
for  semaphore  signalling  before  the  introduction  of  the  electric 
telegraph.  Another  neighbouring  village,  Argoria,  was  once 
noted  for  its  fine  cotton  dinitis. 

Andul  is  of  local  importance  owing  to  its  being  the  head- 
quarters of  well-to-do  families,  such  as  the  Malliks  and  Mitras  of 
Andul  and  the  Kundu-Chaudhris  of  Mahiari.  The  founder  of 
the  Mallik  family  was  Gaur  Charaii  Mallik,  who  settled  at  Andul 
when  the  district  was  under  Muhammadan  rule.  His  grandson 
Kasi  Nath,  is  said  to  have  been  appointed  D'nodn  of  Outtack  in 
the  time  of  Lord  Comwallis  and  secured  lands  in  that  district. 
He  next  became  head  inuk/ifdr  of  Maharaja  Tejchandra  of 
Burdwan,  and  his  services  were  rewarded  by  a  grant  of  the  bulk 
of  Nawabpur  Mahal  in  Howrah.  His  son,  Jagannath  Prasad, 
left  three  sons,  Jogendra  Nath,  Nagendra  Nath  and  Khagendra 
Nath,  besides  two  daughters.  Jogendra  Nath  built  a  large  house 
with  grounds  attached  known  as  the  Qoldb-bdg  or  rose  garden, 
which  may  still  be  seen  at  Andul.  He  also  opened  a  vernacular 
school  in  1848,  which  was  subsequently  raised  to  the  status  of  a 
High  English  school  and  still  exists.  He  was  a  good  scholar,  and 
several  small  compositions  of  his  in  Sanskrit  are  known.  He 
died  childless  in  1884,  and  his  two  brothers  left  no  sons.  The 
property  being  heavily  mortgaged  was  then  sold  and  bought  by 
Mati  Lai  Sil. 

The  founder  of  the  Mitra  zamindari  was  Diwan  Ram  Chandra 
Rai,  who,  according  to  the  family  chronicles,  served  under  Lord 
Olive.  At  the  instance  of  Olive,  it  is  said,  the  Emperor  Shah 
Alam  conferred  on  his  son  Ram  Lochan  the  title  of  Raja  -with  a 
command  of  4,000  troops  in  1765.  The  latter  started  a  local 
era  called  Anduldbda,  beginning  in  1771  A.D.,  for  observance  in 
his  estates.  Ram  Lochan's  grandson,  Rajnarayan  Rai,  was  a 
liberal  patron  of  Indian  music ;  and  in  183(5  Lord  Auckland 
recognized  his  title  of  Raja,  and  bestowed  on  him  a  dress  of 
honour  with  a  jewelled  sword  and  dagger.  His  son  Bijay  Keshab 
Rai  died  childless,  but  gave  permission  to  both  his  widows  to 
adopt.  Both  adopted  boys,  and  litigation  followed,  the  Privy 
Council  ultimately  liolding  the  adoptions  illegal.  The  property, 
heavily  burdened  with  the  cost   of  litigation,   was  inherited  by 


160  HOWRAH. 

the  daughter's  son,  the  late  Babu  Kshetra  Krishna  Mitra,  who 
died  in  1907  leaving  two  sons,  Upendra  Nath  and  Nagendra 
Nath.  Their  house,  adorned  with  high  columns,  is  one  of  the 
sights  of  Andul.* 

The  third  family,  the  Kundu-Chaudhris  of  Mahiari,  were 
originally  traders  and  money-lenders  who  gradually  attained  the 
dignity  of  zamindars.  Tekauri  Datta,  who  was  the  first  to  settle 
at  Mahiari,  acquired  the  estate  of  parrjanr:  Muzaffarpur;  and  his 
descendants,  Babu  Kedar  Nath  Kundu,  Babu  Hiraman  Kundu 
and  others,  still  combine  money-lending  with  zamindari.t 

Bagnan. — Village  and  headquarters  of  a  thana  in  the 
Uluberia  subdivision,  situated  12  miles  from  Uluberia  and  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Eailway  station  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  situated  on  the  Orissa  Trunk  Road,  and 
contains  a  High  English  school  and  post  office.  Two  miles  to 
the  east,  on  the  other  side  of  the  JJamodar,  is  Mahishrekha, 
which  was  for  twenty  years  the  headquarters  of  the  subdivision, 
until  it  was  removed  to  Uluberia  in  1883-84.  Traces  of  its 
former  importance  are  found  in  a  ferry,  a  post  office  and  a  large 
Public  Works  Department  bungalow.  Excellent  snipe  shooting 
can  be  had  here.  Other  noti(!eablo  villages  are  I'anitras  and 
Mugkalyan  with  High  English  schools,  and  Agunshe,  the  home 
of  the  late  Mr.  Justice  Dwarka  Nath  Mitra. 

Bally  (Bali).— A  town  in  the  Howrah  subdivision,  situated 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly.  It  forms  a  continuation  of 
Howrah  City  northwards  up  to  the  Bally  K/id/,  and  in  1901  it 
had  a  population  of  18,662,  as  compared  with  13,715  in  1872. 
Many  of  the  inhabitants  are  immigrants,  as  may  be  gathered  from 
the  fact  that  the  increase  since  1872  occurred  almost  exclusively 
among  the  male  population,  and  that  more  than  60  per  cent,  were 
born  outside  the  district.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Hindus,  the  Muhammadans  representing  only  13  per  cent. 

The  name  is  evidently  derived  from  the  accumulations  of 
sand  (bah)  deposited  by  the  river.  It  is  an  old  place,  mentioned 
in  Cluinch,  a  poem  composed  by  Kavikankan  300  years  ago, 
and  in  Bengali  poems  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries;  it 
also  api^ears  in  Rennell's  Atlas  (Tlates  VII  and  XIX).  It 
was  a  stronghold  of  Brahmanism,  having  several  tch  and  being 
inhabited  by  many  Rarhi  Brahmans.  The  almanacs  issued  by 
its  Acharyas  or  astrologers  were  much  in  vogue  before  the  days 
of  printing.     Tradition  relates  that  some  of  its  Brahmans   stood 

*  A  Brief  Rislory  of  the  Andul  Rctj,  lOOU. 

t  Much  of  the  above  iiiforuiation  has  been  kindlj  supplied  by  Babu  Nibaraa 
Chandra  Ghatak,  Deputy  Magigtrate,  Howrah. 


GAZETTEER. 


151 


round  the  scaffold  on  which  Nand  Kumar  was  hanged  in  1775, 
and,  to  quote  from  Macaulay's  essay  on  AVarren  Hastings,  horrified 
at  the  execution  of  their  fellow  Brahman  "  fled  with  loud  wailings 
towards  the  Hooghly  and  plunged  into  its  holy  waters,  as  if  to 
purify  themselves  from  the  guilt  of  having  looked  on  such  a 
crime."  They  then,  so  the  story  runs,  returned  to  Bally  and 
took  a  vow  never  to  set  foot  in  the  city  which  had  been  polluted 
by  the  hanging  of  a  Brahman,  It  is  said  that  this  oath  was 
religiously  observed  for  many  years,  but,  according  to  an  article 
written  in  1848,  ''the  necessities  of  trade  and  other  causes  have 
long  since  rendered  their  resolution  nugatory."  In  the  begin- 
ning of  the  nineteenth  century  the  place  became  a  den  of  thieves, 
robbers  and  dacoits,  whose  depredations  continued  until  they 
were  checked  by  the  Dacoity  Department  in  the  middle  of  that 
century. 

Bally  formed  a  part  of  the  Howrah  Municipality  until  1882-83, 
when  BaUy,  Belur,  Barrackpore  t-nd  a  part  of  Ghusuri  were 
formed  into  a  distinct  municipality  under  the  name  of  Bally  with 
an  area  of  about  2  square  miles.  The  chief  industrial  concern  is 
the  Bally  Mill  on  the  creek  close  to  the  railway  station.  Origi- 
nally (in  1839)  a  sugar  factory,  it  passed  through  various  hands 
until  purchased  by  the  Borneo  Company,  which  converted  it  into 
a  paper  mill,  long  known  as  the  Bally  Paper  Mill.  In  1906 
the  paper  works  were  sold  to  Messrs.  Heilger  &  Co.,  the  site 
being  utilized  for  a  branch  mill  of  the  Baranagar  Jute  Mill 
Company.  On  the  other  side  of  the  railway  line  a  bone  mill  has 
been  recently  started ;  and  at  Belur  on  the  river  bank  is  a  masonry 
building  with  a  compound  occupied  by  the  Ramkrishna  Mission. 
Here  an  annual  meld  is  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  death  of 
Eamkrishna  Paramhansa.  Among  other  institutions  may  be 
mentioned  a  police  station,  a  post  office,  a  High  English  school 
and  a  charitable  dispensary. 

Bator.—  One  of  the  quarters  of  Howrah  city,  which  is  men- 
tioned in  early  works  long  before  Howrah  itself.  A  reference  to 
it  appears  as  early  as  1495  in  a  Bengali  poem  by  one  Bipradas. 
The  hero  of  the  poem,  Chand  Saudagar,  was  rowed  in  his  boat  down 
the  Bhagirathi,  keeping  Ariadaha  on  the  east  and  Ghusuri  on  the 
west,  after  which  he  arrived  at  Bator,  where  he  worshipped  its 
presiding  goddess  Betai  Chandi.  Bator  was  apparently,  therefore, 
situated  along  the  reach  of  the  river,  extending  from  Shalimar 
Point  to  the  Sibpur  Engineering  College ;  and  the  deep  stream 
probably  ran  close  to  the  bank.  Later  it  became  an  entrepot  of 
European  trade  up  to  which  sea-going  vessels  sailed,  while  from 
it  boats  and  smaller  sloops  went  further  up  the  Hooghly,  returning 


l52  HOWRAiJ. 

with  cargoes.  From  the  account  left  by  Cesare  Federici,  who  visited 
Bator  in  1575,  it  appears  that  a  large  temporary  mart  (the 
modern  hat)  was  lield  here  during  the  winter  months,  many 
thatched  huts  being  built  for  the  time  and  a  brisk  trade  carried 
on.  His  account  will  be  found  in  Chapter  II,  and  need  not 
therefore  be  reproduced  here. 

Bator  was  subsequently  abandoned  by  the  European  traders. 
The  Portugese  removed  their  trade  to  Ilooghly  town ;  the  Dutch 
to  Baranagar  and  Chinsura ;  the  French  to  Chandernagore ;  the 
EngUsh  at  first  to  Ilooghly  and  then  to  Calcutta.  Hence  Bator, 
which  was  shewn  as  an  important  place  in  the  maps  of  De  Barros 
(15o2-1613)  and  Blaev  (1645-50),  disappears  from  the  maps  of 
the  second  half  of  the  seventeenth  century  downwards  except 
Rennell's.  Its  abandonment  as  a  haven  may  have  been  due 
partly  to  a  change  in  the  course  of  the  river,  the  deep  stream 
flowing  on  the  east  side  instead  of  the  west.  The  village, 
however,  survived,  and  was  one  of  those  for  the  inclusion  of 
which  in  their  zamindari  the  English  administration  of  Fort 
AVilliam  made  an  application  to  the  Emperor  Farrukhsiyar  in 
May  1714.*  It  now  app9ar.s  under  the  name  lihatore  in  the 
latest  survey  maps. 

Bauria. — A  village,  situated  4^  miles  above  Uluberia,  and 
12  miles  by  road  and  15  miles  by  rail  from  Ilowrah.  It  is  an 
old  place,  being  found  in  Rennell's  Atlas  (^Plate  XIX),  while 
adjoining  it  on  the  north  was  Fort  Grloster  with  some  powder 
mills  (Plates  VII  and  XIX).  It  contains  an  independent  police 
outpost  and  a  post  office  ;  but  it  is  best  known  for  its  mills,  the 
Fort  Gloster  Jute  Mills,  Bauria  Cotton  iMills,  and  Lawrence  Jute 
Mills.  The  first  two  are  connected  with  the  railway  station  by  a 
siding.  The  new  boundary  pillar  of  the  Port  Commissioners  is 
located  just  above  the  Lawrence  Jute  Mills.  The  Bauria  Cotton 
Mills  are  said  to  be  the  oldest  in  India,  having  started  work  in 
1817  or  1H22. 

Bhot-bagan.  —A  part  of  Ghusuri,  in  Ilowrah  city,  situated  a 
little  to  the  north  of  Salkhia.  The  name  moans  the  Tibetan 
garden  and  is  duo  to  the  tact  that  it  contains  an  old  Tibetan 
temple  or  monastery,  called  the  Bhot-Mandir  or  Bhot-Math.  The 
building  has  an  interesting  history,  liaving  been  established  by 
Warren  Hastings  at  the  request  of  the  Tashi  Lama  of  Tibet.  In 
1772  the  Blmtanese  invaded  Cooch  Behar,  where  they  captured  and 
carried  off  the  Raja.  A  punitive  force  sent  by  the  British  defeated 
the    Bhutanese,    at   the   request  of  whose  Chief  tlie  Tashi  Lama 

<-  C.  K.  Wilson,  Earhj  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  Vol.  II,  p.  172. 


GAZETTEER.  153 

interceded  and  sent  an  envoy  to  Warren  Hastings.  Quick  to 
grasp  this  opportunity  of  opening  up  trade  witli  Tibet,  Warren  Hast- 
ings in  1774  despatched  a  mission  under  Mr.  Bogle  to  negotiate 
with  the  Tashi  Lama,  whom  he  believed  to  be  the  chief  pontiff  of 
that  priest-ridden  coimtry.  At  Tashihimpo,  Bogle,  a  man  of  con- 
siderable tact,  had  a  friendly  reception.  The  Tashi  Lama,  on  his 
part,  asked  that  he  might  be  given  a  place  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ganges— a  river  sacred  to  Buddhists  as  well  as  Hindus — to  which 
he  might  send  his  people  to  pray.  Bogle  returned  in  1775, 
and  Warren  Hastings  at  once  granted  a  site  for  the  Tibetan 
temple,  and  had  it  built  under  the  supervision  of  Bogle.  When 
it  was  complete,  the  Tashi  Lama  sent  down  Tibetan  images  and 
sacred  books,  to  be  enshrined  in  it,  and  assigned  the  land  and 
temple  to  a  Saivite  sannydsl  named  Puran  Gir  Gosain. 

Puran  Gir,  who  had  a  reputation  for  piety  and  integrity,  was  in 
the  confidence  of  both  the  Tibetans  and  the  British.  He  was  the 
envoy  of  the  Tashi  Lama,  when  he  interceded  for  the  Bhutanese 
in  1778,  bringing  talents  of  gold  and  silver,  gold  dust  and  musk. 
He  accompanied  Bogie  on  his  mission  next  year,  and  when  the 
Tashi  Lama  went  to  the  court  of  the  Emperor  of  China,  Puran 
Gir  Gosain  went  with  him.  From  Pekin  he  returned  to  Calcutta 
with  the  news  that  the  Lama  had  died  of  small-pox  while  at  the 
Chinese  Court  in  178 L  He  next  accompanied  the  Turner 
Mission  to  the  new  Tashi  Lama  in  1783  ;  and  in  1785  Warren 
Hastings  made  bim  his  accredited  agent  to  the  latter.  After 
his  return  in  1785,  he  settled  as  Mahant  or  abbot  at  the 
Bhot-bagan  monastery,  which  was  regularly  used  by  Tibetan 
traders  visiting  Calcutta,  for  whom  he  built  rest-houses.  The 
fame  of  the  monastery  treasures  brought  about  his  death,  for 
in  1795  it  was  attacked  by  a  band  of  dacoits,  whom  Puran  Gir 
gallantly  resisted  until  he  was  pierced  through  by  a  spear. 
Four  of  the  dacoits  were  caught  and  hanged  on  a  gallows  set  up 
in  the  monastery.  The  next  Maliaid  was  Daljit  Gir,  and  his 
successors  were  Kalit  Gir,  Bilas  Gir  and  Umrao  Gir.  The  present 
Mahant,  Trilokh  Chandra  Gir,  was  elected  in  1905  by  the  other 
Dasndml  Mahants  of  Bengal,  of  whom  the  most  influential  was 
the  Mahant  of  Tarakeswar  in  the  Hooghly  district. 

The  temple  itself  is  quaint  rather  than  beautiful,  consisting 
of  a  two-storied  building,  in  which  the  absence  of  arches  is  notice- 
able. Both  Hindu  and  Lamaistic  or  Tibeto- Buddhistic  gods 
are  worshipped  ;  and  there  is  a  Tibetan  Dungten,  cubiform  in 
shape,  like  a  Hindu  samadhi  niandir  or  tomb,  and  surmounted  by 
Siva's  phallus,  which  is  kept  in  a  small  low-roofed  room  having 
a  Bengali  inscription  on  its  door-top. 


154  HOWRAH. 

"  The  Bhot-bagan  math  now  remains  a  solitary  monument  of 
the  genius  and  of  a  special  policy  of  the  first  Governor-General 
of  India,  of  the  piety  of  Tashi  Lama  as  exhibited  in  Bengal,  of 
the  work  of  Puran  Gir,  and  of  the  Tibeto- Bengal  trade,  which 
flourished  centuries  ago  and  was  restored,  though  in  a  stifled 
form,  a  hundred  years  ago,"* 

Botanic  Garden,  Sibpur. — The  Eoyal  Botanic  Garden  is 
situated  in  Sibpur,  on  the  bank  of  the  Hooghly,  just  outside  the 
limits  of  Howrah  city.  It  was  established  in  1787  for  the  collec- 
tion of  plants  indigenous  to  the  country  and  for  the  introduction 
and  acclimatization  of  plants  from  foreign  parts.  Its  establish- 
ment was  directly  due  to  Colonel  llobert  Kyd,  Military 
Secretary  to  Government,  who  urged  upon  the  acting  Governor- 
General,  Sir  John  Macpherson,  the  utility  of  such  an  institution 
for  the  growth  of  teak  for  ship  building,  the  cultivation  of  spices, 
the  introduction  or  development  of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  other 
products  of  economic  and  commercial  importance.  The  proposal 
having  been  accepted  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  a  large  piece  of 
land  was  set  aside  for  the  garden  immediately  below  Colonel 
Kyd's  private  garden  at  Shalimar.  Colonel  Kyd,  who  was  an 
ardent  horticulturist  and  had  a  large  collection  of  exotic  plants, 
chiefly  from  the  Straits,  was  appointed  the  first  Superintendent 
of  the  Garden.  On  his  death  in  1793,  Government  decided  to 
put  the  garden  under  the  charge  of  a  special  officer  who  should 
have  no  other  duty,  and  selected  Dr.  William  Roxburgh,  the 
"father  of  Indian  botany,"  who  was  then  the  Company's 
Botanist  in  Madras.  Roxburgh  having  retired  on  account  of  ill 
health  in  1813  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Francis  Buchanan,  who  on 
BUOceediQg  to  his  mother's  property  took  the  name  of  Buchanan- 
Hamilton,  by  which  he  is  generally  known.  He  was  not  only 
an  accomplished  botanist  and  zoologist,  but  was  also  the  first 
writer  of  gazetteers  for  Bengal  districts,  his  work,  after  many 
years  and  with  much  mutilation,  being  published  by  Montgomery 
Martin  under  the  title  of  Hhtorij,  Topoyrdphij  and  Siatistics  of 
EuHtern  India,  tie  was  succeeded  in  1817  by  Dr.  Nathaniel 
Wallich,  Surgeon  to  the  Danish  Settlement  at  Serampore,  an 
able  and  energetic  botanist,  who  had  already  carried  out  a 
botanical  survey  of  a  large  portion  of  India.  During  the 
lengthened  absence  of  Dr.  Wallich  in  Europe,  his  place  at  the 
garden  was  filled  by  Dr.  W.  Griffith,  and  on  Wallich's  retire- 
ment in  1846  Dr.  Hilgh  Falconer  was  appointed. 


*  Gaurdas  Bysack,  Buddhistic  Monastery  at  Bhot-bagan,  I'roc.  A.  S.  B.,  March 
1890. 


GAZETTEER.  165 

It  was  during  the  incumbency  of  the  latter  that  Sir  Joseph 
Hooker  visited  the  garden,  which  he  describes  as  'classic  ground 
to  the  naturalist.'  He  found  it  on  his  first  visit  in  1848  in  a 
neglected  state.  ''  There  had,"  he  wrote,  "  been  a  great  want  of 
judgment  in  the  alterations  made  since  Dr.  Wallich's  time,  when 
the  gardens  were  celebrated  as  the  most  beautiful  gardens  in  the 
East,  and  were  the  great  object  of  attraction  to  strangers  and 
townspeople.  I  found  instead  an  unsightly  wilderness,  without 
shade  (the  first  requirement  of  every  tropical  garden)  or  other 
beauties  than  some  isolated  grand  trees,  which  had  survived  the 
indiscriminate  destruction  of  the  useful  and  ornamental  which  had 
attended  the  well-meant  but  ill-judged  attempt  to  render  a  garden 
a  botanical  class-book."  Great  improvements  had,  however,  been 
effected  by  the  time  of  his  second  visit  in  1850.  "  The  destruction 
of  most  of  the  palms,  and  of  all  the  noble  tropical  features  of  the 
gardens,  during  Dr.  Griffith's  incumbency,  had  necessitated  the 
replanting  of  the  greater  part  of  the  grounds,  the  obliteration  of 
old  walks,  and  the  construction  of  new  :  it  was  also  necessary  to 
fill  up  tanks  whose  waters,  by  injudicious  cuttings,  were  destroy- 
ing some  of  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  land,  to  drain  many 
acres,  and  to  raise  embankments  to  prevent  the  encroachments  of 
the  Hooghly.  The  avenue  of  Cycas  trees  {Cycas  circinalis),  once 
the  admiration  of  all  visitors,  and  which  for  beauty  and  singularity 
was  unmatched  in  any  tropical  garden,  had  been  swept  away  by  the 
same  unsparing  hand  which  had  destroyed  the  teak,  mahogany, 
clove,  nutmeg,  and  cinnamon  groves.  In  1848,  when  I  first  visited 
the  establishment,  nothing  was  to  be  seen  of  its  former  beauty  and 
grandeur  but  a  few  noble  trees  or  graceful  palms  rearing  their 
heads  over  a  low  ragged  jungle,  or  spreading  their  broad  leaves 
or  naked  limbs  over  the  forlorn  hope  of  a  botanical  garden,  that 
consisted  of  open  clay  beds,  disposed  in  concentric  circles,  and 
baking  into  brick  under  the  fervid  heat  of  a  Bengal  sun. 

"The  rapidity  of  growth  is  so  great  in  this  climate,  that 
within  eight  months  from  the  commencement  of  the  improve- 
ments, a  great  change  had  already  taken  place.  The  grounds  bore 
a  park-like  appearance  ;  broad  shady  walks  had  replaced  the  narrow 
winding  paths  that  ran  in  distorted  lines  over  the  ground,  and  a 
large  Palmetum,  or  collection  of  tall  and  graceful  palms  of 
various  kinds,  occupied  several  acres  at  one  side  of  the  garden; 
whilst  a  still  larger  portion  of  ground  was  being  appropriated  to 
a  picturesque  assemblage  of  certain  closely  allied  families  of 
plants,  whose  association  promised  to  form  a  novel  and  attractive 
object  of  study  to  the  botanist,  painter,  and  landscape  gardener."* 

*  Jiimalayan  Journalt. 


156  HOWRAH. 

In  1855  Dr.  Falconer  left  the  country  on  account  of  ill  health, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Thomas  Thomson,  who  held  office  till 
1861.  The  next  Superintendent  was  Dr.  Thomas  Anderson, 
whose  untimely  death  in  1870  was  caused  by  disease  contracted 
during  his  efforts  to  introduce  the  quinine-yielding  cinchonas  into 
the  Darjeeling  Himalayas.  For  the  two  years  subsequent  to  Dr. 
Anderson's  departure  from  India,  i.e.,  from  1869  to  1871, 
Mr.  C.  B.  Clarke,  r.R.s.,  acted  as  Superintendent ;  and  then  Dr. 
(afterwards  Sir  George)  King,  k.c.i.e.,  f.r.s.,  was  appointed,  hold- 
ing the  office  till  1898.  His  successors  have  been  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  D.  Prain,  i.m.s.,  the  author  of  Bengal  Flants^  and  Captain 
A.  T.  Gage,  i.m.s. 

From  the  first  foundation  of  the  garden  it  was  understood 
that  it  was  to  be  made  a  source  of  botanical  information  for  the 
possessions  of  the  East  India  Company,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
centre  to  which  exotic  plants  of  economic  interest  could  be 
imported  for  experimental  cultivation,  and  from  which,  in  turn, 
they  could  be  issued  for  distribution  in  the  Company's  posses- 
sions. It  was  also  intended  to  assist  in  introducing  indigenous 
Indian  products  to  new  markets.  It  was,  in  brief,  intended  that 
it  should  not  only  be  a  botanical,  but  also  a  hoi-ticultural  and 
agricultural  garden.  At  first,  great  hopes  were  entertained  that 
the  spices  which  rendered  the  trade  of  the  Company  with  the 
Malaccas  and  other  of  the  Malayan  Islands  so  valuable,  might 
be  cultivated  in  Bengal.  The  earliest  efforts  of  Colonel  Kyd 
were  therefore  directed  to  the  introduction  of  the  pepper  vines 
and  of  the  trees  which  yield  nutmegs,  cloves  and  cinnamon. 
It  was,  however,  soon  proved  that  the  climate  of  Northern 
India  is  quite  unsuited  to  these  equatorial  species.  The  equa- 
torial fruits,  such  as  mangosteen,  langsat,  dukko  and  bread-fruit, 
were  also  tried  with  a  similar  result ;  and  so  were  the  temperate 
fruits  of  Europe.  In  fact,  not  the  least  of  the  benefits  conferred  on 
the  country  by  the  garden  in  its  early  days  was  the  demonstration 
by  practical  experiment  that  certain  natural  products,  many  of 
them  of  a  most  desirable  kind,  cannot  be  grown  in  Bengal  ;  much 
money  and  fruitless  effort  being  thus  saved  to  the  country. 
The  introduction  of  exotic  timber  trees  also  received  attention, 
and  the  garden  still  contains  a  few  of  the  teak  and  mahogany 
trees  introduced  in  these  early  years. 

The  introduction  of  tea  was  one  of  the  items  put  down  in 
Colonel  Kyd's  original  programme,  and  the  garden  bore  a  most 
important  part  in  the  final  establishment  of  what  lias  now 
become  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  Northern  India. 
"  Among  its   greatest  triumphs,"  wrote  Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  "may 


GAZFTTREK.  157 

be  considered  the   introduction    of   the   tea-plant   from  China,  a 
fact  I  allude  to  as  many  of  my  English  readers  may  not  be  aware 
that  the  establishment  of  the   tea-trade   in   the   Himalaya   and 
Assam   is   almost  entirely  the  work  of  the  Superintendents  of  the 
gardens   of   Calcutta    and   Saharunpore."     Potato  growing   was 
also   introduced   through   its  agency,   and  the   cultivation  of  the 
quinine-yielding  cinchonas  of  the  Andes  was  initiated  and  carried 
to   a  successful  issue  under  the  direction  of  its  Superintendents. 
The  garden  authorities   worked    hand   in   hand  with   the   Agri- 
Horticultural   Society   of  India   in   the  improvement   of  In(£an 
cotton,  and  in  the  introduction  both  of  that   and   of  jute   to   the 
markets  of  Europe.     By  the   introduction   of   some   of  the  best 
kinds   of   sugarcane    from   the    West    Indies,   and  the    dissem- 
ination  of  these  to   all    parts    of  the   country,    a    considerable 
improvement  was  effected  both    in  the   quality   and  quantity  of 
the   sugar   crop  of    India.      In    this    matter    also     the     Agri- 
Horticultural    Society   worked   in   cordial   co-operation  with  the 
garden   authorities,   for   soon   after    the    establishment    of    the 
Society,   some    land   in   the    garden   was  made   over   to  it  rent- 
free,  and  on  this  land  the  Society  conducted  the  greater  part  of  its 
operations  for  forty  years.     In  fact,  it  was  not  until  1872  that 
the  Society's  garden  was  transferred  to  its  present  site  in  Alipore. 
It  is  unnecessary  to   discuss   in   detail  the  numerous   experi- 
ments in   the  cultivation   of  economic  plants  which   have  been  • 
conducted  in   the  garden   since    its   beginning.     A  few   of   the 
products  tried   may   simply   be   mentioned.     Chief   among  these 
are  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,    henbane,   vanilla,   coffee    (Arabian   and 
Liberian),   ipecacuanha,   aloes,    sarsaparilla,   jalap.    India-rubber, 
cardamoms,  tapioca,  and  cocoa.     As  regards  horticulture,   it  will 
suffice  to  say  that  a  large   proportion   of  the   exotic   plants   now 
found  in   private  gardens  in  India  have  been  introduced  through 
the    agency  of  the  garden,  and   that   the   improved   methods   of 
cultivation   which   now  obtain  were  to   a  great   extent  initiated 
here.     Within   half   a   century   after  its  foundation,  the  garden 
had  attained  a  European  reputation  ;  and  owing  to  the  distribu- 
tion of  its  Herbarium  by  Dr.   Wallich   among   the  museums   of 
Europe   it   had,   according  to   Sir  Joseph  Hooker,  "  contributed 
more  useful  and   ornamental  tropical   plants   to   the   public   and 
private  gardens  of  the  world  than  any  other  establishment  before 
or   since.     This  is   the   most  valuable    contribution    of   the  kind 
ever    made   to   science,    and   it   is   a   lasting    memorial     of    the 
princely  liberality  of  the  enlightened  men  who  ruled  the  counsels 
of  India  in  those  days."     At  the  same  time,  however,  the    garden 
guSered,    for  the  Herbarium  was  denuded    of    every    specimen 


158  HOWRAH. 

collected  during  the  past  50  years,  and  it  was  not  till  the  time  of 
Sir  Q-eorge  King  that  it  was  restored  to  a  position  commensurate 
with  the  importance  of  the  garden. 

In  1864  the  garden  was  devastated  by  a  cyclonic  storm  of 
extraordinary  violence,  which  either  uprooted  or  broke  to  pieces 
the  majority  of  the  trees  in  it,  and,  by  blowing  down  all  the 
plant-houses,  hopelessly  crushed  their  contents.  The  trees 
which  escaped  on  that  occasion  were  sadly  reduced  in  number 
by  a  second  cyclone  which  passed  over  the  garden  in  1867  ; 
and,  at  the  present  time  almost  the  only  trees  dating  from 
before  1867  are  the  great  banyan  and  a  smaller  tree  of  the 
same  sort,  some  pipah  and  country  almonds,  about  twenty 
mahogany  trees,  and  some  palms.  Moreover,  the  destruction  of 
all  shade,  which  resulted  from  the  removal  of  the  trees,  allowed 
the  inveterate  weed  known  popularly  as  uhi  grass,  and  botanically 
as  Imperata  cylinr/rica,  to  take  possession  of  the  whole  of  the 
ground  not  occupied  by  roads  or  flower  borders.  Consequently, 
when  Sir  George  King  assumed  charge  in  1871,  it  was  necessary 
to  lay  out  the  garden  entirely  anew.  The  liberality  of  the 
Bengal  Government,  under  whose  control  it  passed  soon  after- 
wards, and  the  tireless  energy  of  Sir  George  King,  combined 
with  his  genius  for  landscape  gardening,  in  a  few  years  completely 
altered  the  aspect  of  the  place,  increasing  incalculably  its  value 
as  a  scientific  centre  and  bestomng  on  it  all  the  charms  that  as  a 
pleasure  ground  it  now  possesses. 

Botanically,  the  most  important  feature  in  the  garden  is  its 
Herbarium,  or  collection  of  dried  plants.  As  has  already  been 
explained,  the  species  collected  prior  to  Dr.  Wallich's  visit  to 
England  in  1828  were  distributed  by  him  to  scientific  institutions 
abroad.  The  commenoement  of  the  present  collection  dates, 
therefore,  from  his  return  to  India  in  1832.  It  consists  of  plants 
contributed  by  almost  every  worker  at  botany  in  India  since 
that  date  and  by  a  number  of  botanists  in  Europe.  It  is  first  and 
foremost  an  Indian  Herbarium,  but  the  plants  of  many  other 
countries  are  represented.  Constant  communication  and  inter- 
change of  specimens  have  been  kept  up  for  the  last  70  years  with 
the  great  national  collection  at  the  Kew  Garden  in  England  ; 
with  other  European  botanic  institutions,  such  as  the  Herbarium 
of  the  British  Museum,  of  the  Jardiu  des  i'lantes  at  Paris,  and 
the  Imperial  Gardens  at  St.  Petersburg  and  Berlin ;  and  in  the 
East  with  the  Botanic  Gardens  at  Buitenzorg  in  Java,  at 
Peradeniya  in  Ceylon,  and  at  Sahilranpur. 

The  garden  is  walled  in  on  three  sides,  and  can  be  entered  by 
three  routes,  the   Howrah  gate,  the  College  gate,  and  the  Water 


GAZETTEER.  159 

gate  (on  the  river  bank).  It  is  intersected  by  a  number  of  avenues 
named  after  distinguished  botanists,  or  occasionally,  after  prominent 
trees,  such  as  the  banyan  and  palmyra.  It  has  no  wells,  but  gets 
an  abundant  supply  of  water  from  the  river,  and  inside  from  26 
tanks.  Among  other  noticeable  objects  are  the  grove  of  bamboos, 
the  mahogany  group,  the  great  banyan,  the  Palmetum,  the  palm- 
house  and  the  orchid-house.  The  finest  bamboos,  chiefly  natives  of 
Java,  skirt  the  Oollett  avenue.  The  mahogany  group  near  the 
middle  of  the  Clarke  avenue  contains  fine  specimens  80  years  old  or 
more.  The  Palmetum  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  palms  contains 
some  fine  trees.  In  the  palm-house,  an  octagonal  structure  with 
a  central  dome  50  feet  high,  are  cultivated  palms  and  other 
scandent  plants  that  cannot  be  grown  out  of  doors.  The  orchid- 
house  in  the  centre,  built  on  the  model  of  native  betel  planta- 
tions, contains  beautiful  orchids,  mostly  natives  of  India,  which 
flower  chiefly  during  March  and  April.  In  the  Herbarium,  built 
in  1883,  are  arranged  in  scientific  order  a  very  complete  collec- 
tion of  dried  specimens  of  Indian  plants,  with  a  fair  collection  of 
those  outside  it. 

The  pride  of  the  garden  is  the  great  banyan  tree  near  its 
western  limit.  Its  main  trunk  is  51  feet  in  girth  at  a  height  of 
5|  feet  from  the  ground,  and  it  has  no  less  than  562  aerial  roots 
rooted  in  the  soil.  The  circumference  of  its  leafy  head  is  997 
feet,  and  the  diameter  of  the  space  covered  by  it  at  its  longest 
is  287  feet  and  at  its  shortest  264  feet.  It  is  not  known  exactly 
how  old  the  tree  is,  but  tradition  says  that  it  was  in  existence  in 
1782,  when  it  was  a  small  tree  sprouting  out  from  a  date  palm, 
under  which  a  faMr  sat.  Observations  of  the  rate  of  growth  of 
this  tree  and  other  trees  taken  since  1871  make  it  probable  that 
it  is  even  older ;  and  this  supposition  is  supported  by  the  evidence 
of  Lord  Yalentia,  who  visited  Calcutta  in  1803  and  described  it  as 
"the  finest  object  in  the  garden,  a  notable  specimen  of  the  Ficu& 
bengnlensis''  :  in  fact,  he  visited  the  garden  chiefly  to  see  it. 

As  regards  the  general  appearance  of  the  garden,  the  follow- 
ing description  is  quoted  from  Mr.  Forrest's  Cifies  of  India : — 
"  Trees  of  the  rarest  kinds,  from  Nepal  and  the  Cape,  Brazil  and 
Penang,  Java  and  Sumatra  are  gathered  together  in  that  spot. 
The  mahogany  towers  there,  and  the  Cuba  palms  form  an  avenue 
like  the  aisle  of  some  lofty  cathedral.  Noble  mango  trees  and 
tamarinds  are  dotted  about  the  grassy  lawns  ;  and  there  are 
stately  casuarinas,  around  whose  stems  are  trained  climbing  plants. 
There  are  plantains  of  vast  size  and  beauty  from  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  and  giant  creepers  from  South  America.  The  crim- 
son hibiscus  and  scarlet  passion-flower  dazzle  the   eye,   and  the 


160  HOWRAH. 

odour  of  the  ohampak  and  innumerable  jessamines  float  upon  the 
breeze.  As  Bishop  Heber  remarked,  'The  Botanic  Gardens  would 
perfectly  answer  to  Milton's  idea  of  Paradise,  if  they  were  on  a 
hill  instead  of  a  dead  flat '." 

Dumjor. — A  village  in  the  Howrah  subdivision,  situated 
about  9  miles  by  road  and  10  miles  by  rail  (  Howrah- Amta  )  from 
Howrah.  It  is  an  old  place  on  the  bank  of  the  Saraswati,  being 
shown  in  Renuell's  Atlas  (  Plate  XIX  ).  The  village  is  the  head- 
quarters of  an  Union,  and  contains  a  police  station,  a  post  office 
and  a  District  Board  bungalow.  It  is  a  centre  for  the  jute  and 
rice  trade  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  exports  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of   milk  to  the  towns. 

The  thana  of  which  it  is  the  headquarters  is  densely  populated, 
and  contains  several  important  villages.  On  the  bank  of  the  Sara- 
swati are  Baluti  and  Jhapardah  with  High  English  schools,  and 
Makardah  at  which  a  large  meld  is  held  on  the  fifth  day  of  the 
Hoh  festival  in  March.  West  of  the  stream  are  Narna  with  a 
large  mela  held  on  the  Charak  Sankranti  day  in  April ;  Rajapur 
(or  Dakshinbar)  on  the  drainage  channel  of  the  same  name,  with 
a  railway  station  and  a  canal  bungalow  ;  and  Begri  with  a  large 
weekly  hat. 

Fort  Mornington  Point. — A  point  in  the  extreme  south 
of  the  district  at  the  junction  of  the  Pupnarayan  with  the 
Hooghly.  On  this  point  there  formerly  stood  a  fort,  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Lord  Olive,  which  fell  into  the  river  owing  to  the 
erosion   of   the   bank. 

Ghusuri. — A  quarter  in  the  northern  part  of  Howrah  city 
and  in  the  southern  part  of  Bally,  containing  jute  and  cotton 
mills,  jute  presses,  rope  works  and  an  old  Buddliist  temple  des- 
cribed in  the  article  on  Bhot-bagau.  See  also  the  articles  on 
Howrah  and  Bally. 

Howrah. — The  headquarters  of  the  district,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  opposite  Calcutta  in  22°  35'  north 
latitude  and  88°  21'  east  longitude.  The  municipality,  as  defined 
|jy  a  Government  notification,  dated  17th  January  1884,  covers 
an  area  of  about  8|  square  miles,  and  is  nearly  7  miles  long  and 
1^  to  2\  miles  wide.  In  1901  it  had  a  population  of  157,094, 
the  largest  in  any  town  in  the  Province  outside  Calcutta,  there 
being  no  less  than  17,510  persons  per  square  mile.  In  187:^ 
the  population  was  returned  at  84,069,  and  the  increase  is  due 
chiefly  to  the  immigration  of  labourers  attracted  by  the  numerous 
factories  and  other  industrial  concerns  in  Howrah,  Calcutta  and 
their  neighbourhood.  So  great,  indeed,  has  been  the  influx  of 
immigrants,  that  it  was  ascertained  in    1901    that   no   less   thaij 


GAZETTEER.  161 

two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  of  Howrah  were  bom  outside  the 
district.  Further,  the  number  of  males  has  increased  from  47,213 
to  99,904,  or  by  more  than  100  per  cent,  since  1872,  whereas  the 
number  of  females  increased  from  36,856  to  57,690  or  only 
by  56*5  per  cent.  Hindus  predominate  largely,  numbering 
116,002  or  73-6  per  cent,  of  the  population,  while  Muhammadans 
account  for  39,239  or  25  per  cent.,  and  Christians  for  2,282  or  1*4 
per  cent. 

The  city  lies  in  the  revenue  divisions  (parganns)  of  Boro  and 
Paikan.  Boro  appears  in  Todar  Mai's  rent-roll  as  Purah  in 
Sarkdr  Satgaon,  with  a  revenue  of  652,470  ddm.'^,  t'.o.,  at  the  rate 
of  40  dams  per  rupee,  Rs.  16,311-12.*  Paikan,  a  name  meaning 
"pertaining  to  military  service  "  (from  jja^A-,  a  soldier),  cannot  be 
traced  in  the  rent-roll,  but  is  mentioned  in  a  list  of  villages  pre- 
pared in  1714,  which  shows  that  it  comprised  land  on  both  sides 
of  the  Hooghly.t  In  1765,  when  the  Diwdni  was  granted  to  the 
British,  Boro  and  Paikan  formed  part  of  the  zamindari  of  Muham- 
mad Aminpur  in  Chakld  Hooghly,  with  revenues  of  Es.  24,006 
and  Rs.  2,153  respectively. +  Maihammad  Aminpur  estate  then 
belonged  to  two  sons  and  two  nephews  of  Rameswar,  a  Kayasth  by 
caste  and  the  ancestor  of  the  present  Bansberia  and  Seoraphuli 
zamindars.  At  the  Permanent  Settlement  Boro  was  assessed  to  a 
revenue  of  Rs.  82,414  and  Paikan  to  Rs.  10,986.  This  large 
increase  shows  how  valuable  land  had  become  in  the  first  years 
of  British  rule,  though  the  low  assessment  of  1765  may  have  been 
partly  due,  as  Mr.  Grrant  suspected,  to  the  proprietors  misrepresent- 
ing the  rental  of  their  estates. 

The  city  is  entirely  of  modern  growth.  It  has  been  evolved 
from  a  congeries  of  villages  accreting  to  the  central  village  of 
Howrah ;  and  traces  of  the  original  villages  etill  survive  in  the 
different  names  of  the  quarters  (pdrdu)  into  which  the  city  is 
still  divided,  in  spite  of  the  western  nomenclature  of  streets  and 
lanes.  For  example,  along  the  river  bank  there  are  the  old  pdrds 
of  Ghusuri,  Salkhia,  Howrah,  Ramkristapur,  Sibpur,  Shalimar 
and  Bator;  and  further  inland  are  Bantra,  Khurut,  Kasundi, 
Santragachhi,  etc. 

The  earliest  details  of  the  town  are  found  in  an  application 
made  by  the  English  in  1714  to  the  Emperor  Farrukhsiyar  for 
a  grant  of  a  number  of  villages  near  Calcutta.  The  list  men- 
tions (I)  Salica  (Salkhia),  (2)  Harirah  (Howrah),    (3)  Cassundeah 

*  Ain-i-A7cbary  Jarrett,  II.  141;  J.  R.  A.  S.,  1896.,  p  103. 
+  C,  H.  Wilaon,  Early  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  Vol.  II„  pp.  172-4. 
X  Grant's  View  of  the  Revenues  of    Bengal,    1786,    Fifth   Seport  of  the  Select 
Committee,  1812,  Madras  Reprint,  pp.  157-8. 


162  HO-WTIAH. 

fKafiundi,  wesf  of  Khurut),  (4)  Ramkrissnopoor  ("Ramkristapur), 
anil  (5)  Batter  (Bator\  ■with  an  aggregate  rental  of  "Rs.  1,450. 
The  desire  to  obtain  land  on  the  Howrah  side  of  the  Hooghlv 
was  natural  enough,  for  apart  from  its  close  proximity  to  Oalcutta, 
there  were  *' docks  made  for  repairing  and  fitting  their  ships' 
hottoms,  and  a  ])retty  good  garden  belonging  to  tlie  Armenians."* 
The  concession  was  granted,  but  the  Englisli  could  not  avail 
tliem?elves  of  It  owing  to  the  refusal  oF  the  zamindars  to  sell 
thoir  rights :  and  tlie  lands  continued  under  ^^ughal  rule  for 
nearly  half  a  century  more.  In  1750,  Howrah  is  said  to 
have  been  "  a  line  of  mud  banks  reeldng  with  malaria,  corpses 
in  all  stages  of  decomposition  floating  up  and  down  the  stream 
by  the  dozen,  jungle  lining  the  shore,  the  abode  of  the  snake  and 
alligator."t 

This  is  most  probably  the  reason  why  this  part  of  the  river 
bank  is  shown  as  blank  in  Valentijn's  map,  and  in  the  various  old 
charts  of  the  river  Hooghlv.  Tn  the  Pilot  Chart  of  Bowrey 
(1688)  no  villages  are  entered  on  this  side  of  the  Hooghly, 
but  in  that  of  1703,  jungles,  indicated  by  ten  trees,  are  shewn 
above  Sumatra  Point  (the  modern  Shalimar  Point)  and  next 
"  Simple  Tom's  Tree  "  near  the  present  Ghusuri.  In  1767  we 
find  a  proposal  put  forward  by  the  Civil  Architect,  Mr.  Fortnum, 
to  have  a  hospital  established  at  Howrah,  Tlie  proposal  is 
referred  to  as  follows  in  the  Consultation  of  March  1767  : — "  The 
Buxey  lays  before  the  Board  an  extract  of  a  letter  which  he  has 
received  from  the  Civil  Architect  pointing  out  two  places  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  to  build  an  Hospital  upon — the  one 
opposite  Surman's  Gardens,  and  the  other  opposite  the  Town — 
but  recommending  the  former  as  the  most  eligible  spot.  Point 
Sumatra,  opposite  Surman's  Gardens,  is  the  most  proper  spot  for 
an  Hospital  from  its  being  a  wholesome  situation  and  contiguous 
to  the  River,  by  which  the  Sick  may  be  easily  transported  to  it 
and  better  supplied  with  necessarys."  The  Board  accepted  this 
recommendation  and  directed  the  Civil  Architect  to  prepare  a 
plan  and  estimate.  Fortnum  submitted  a  detailed  plan  for  the 
erection  of  a  hospital  on  Point  Sumatra  (the  present  ShalimSr 
Point)  vdth  an  estimate  amounting  to  5  lakhs,  but  reported 
— "  Not-withstanding  I  attended  the  Sarcar  sent  down  by  the 
Fuzdar  of  Ilughley  and  marked  out  the  bounds  of  the  spot  (four 
months  ago),  nothing  has  been  done  towards  clearing  of  the 
riotts'  Hutts,  on  the  contrary  a  number  of  others  since  that  time 

•  AlexiindtT   Iluuiilton,   A    Xeto   Account    of  fhe  East    Indies,  1G88  t©  1723, 
Vol.  II,  p.  12. 

t  Howrah,  Past  and  Present,  pp.  18-19. 


GAZETTKER.  163 

have  beeu  put  up."  Eventually,  however,  the  scheme  was 
abaudouod,  apparently  because  it  was  too  ambitious  and  too 
expensive  for  llie  straitened  resources  of  I'engal  at  (liat  iime.' 

A  few  years  later,  Salkhia  became  a  centre  of  trade,  witli 
docks  and  roperies,  and  in  Eenutdl's  Atlas,  Plate  VII  (October 
1779)  and  Plate  XIX  (August  1780),  we  find  "Solkee"  or 
"Solkey''  printed  in  large  letters  and  shown  as  a  place  from 
which  several  roads  radiated,  one  starting  nortli-west  cid  Chaudi- 
tala  to  Burdwan,  a  second  westwards  v^d  Makardah  to  Adampur, 
and  a  third  south  to  Thana  Muckwa  and  Sankrail.  "Seebpur" 
and  "  Bathore  "  are  also  shown,  but,  curiously  enough,  not 
Howrah.  "  Ilowra  ghaut "  appears,  however,  in  a  map  of  ( 'alcutta 
and  its  environs  prepared  from  Upjohn's  survey  in  1792  and 
1793,  together  with  "  l^amkissenpore's  Ut.,"  "Sulkhia  Ghat" 
and  "  Sulkia  Point.''  This  map  also  has  the  following  entries. 
In  Salkhia  there  are  two  lanes  marked  "  Rope  Walk  " ;  in 
Howrah  proper  there  are  three  entries,  viz.,  "  Burial  Grround," 
"  Orphans  of  Private  Educated  "  (indicated  by  three  towers),  and 
to  the  south  '•  Hospital."  Inland,  to  the  west  of  an  unnamed 
road,  which  is  evidently  the  modern  Orand  Trunk  Road,  there 
are  "  Mosulman's  Burial  Grround,"  and,  a  little  south  of  it  but  on 
tlie  east  of  the  road,  '■  Former  Practising  Oround  of  the  Bengal 
Artillery,"  from  which  the  modern  name  Chandmari  is  derived. 
This  interesting  map  shows  other  roads  and  houses,  but  does  not 
name  them. 

A  proclamation  dated  10th  September  1794,  evidently 
based  on  Upjohn's  survey,  laid  down  the  boundaries  of  Calcutta 
Town.t  According  to  it,  the  river  Hooghly  was  included  within 
the  metropolis,  its  western  boundary  running  from  "Colonel 
Robertson's  garden  called  Jackapoore,  immediately  opposite  to  the 
mouth  of  the  brook  called  Chitpore  Nulla  or  Baugbassar  Nulla," 
and  then  along  the  low  water-mark  of  the  river  up  to  "  the 
south-east  point  of  Major  Kyd's  garden"  but  '-excluding  tjio 
said  garden  and  the  village  of  Sheebpore,"  and  also  "  the  Ghauts 
of  Ramkisnopore,  Howrah  and  Sulkeah."  As  mentioned  in  a 
preceding  article,  Major  Kyd  was  the  founder  of  the  Botanic 
Garden,  and  his  private  garden  was  contained  in  the  gioiinds 
of  Shalimar  House,  now  occupied  by  a   rope-work. 

From  other  sources  we  learn  that  docks  and  roperies  existed 
in   Salkhia   and  Ghusuri,  and  there  were  two  docks,  one  opposite 


*  Notes  on  tlie 'Origin  of   the  Presidency  General   Hospital,   Calcutta,  Indian 
Medical  Gazette,  February  1903, 

1  Calcutta  Gazette,  Selections,  Vol.  II,  pp.  130-2. 

m3 


164  HOWRAH. 

Fort  William  and  the  other  a  mile  below  it,*     Distilleries  were 
also   started,    one    belonging    to    a  Chinaman  in  "  Sulky  "  being 
advertised  for  sale  in  the  Calcutta  Gazette  in   1784  ;t    while   the 
present  court  houses  are  said  to  have  been  built  in  17H7  for  a  rum 
distillery.     The  Hooghly  records  also   mention    the   existence  of 
cotton  screws  at  Salkhia.     Gardens,  belonging  mostly  to  Arme- 
nians,  had   been   laid  out  among  the  houses  and  fields,  to  which 
the  residents  of  Calcutta  came  for  a   change  ;   and,    according   to 
Walter    Hamilton,    there  was  an  extensive  teak  plantation  above 
the    Botanic  Garden.     The  Europeans   lived   chiefly   along   the 
river   bank   in   Salkhia    and    Ghusuri,    and  later  in  ITowrah  and 
Ramkristapur.      The    natives  lived   inland,   round   the   present 
Khurut    Koad,   which    is    still   known  as  Purani  Sahar^  i.e.,  the 
old  town,  and  in  Sibpur  including  Bator.     Howrah   was   at   this 
time   a  dumping   ground   for  the  Brahmani   bulls  of  Calcutta* 
which  roamed  about  in  such   numbers  as  to  become   a  nuisance, 
while  the  houses  and  gardens  were  infested  by  bands  of  monkeys. 
Dacoities   were   common,^   the    dacoits  hiding   themselves  in 
the  paddy  fields   and   jungle,  and   committing   depredations   by 
night  in  armed  bands      Their  detection  was  rendered  difficult  by 
the  league  which  is  known  to  have  existed  between  the  dacoits  and 
police  officers;  for  the  sessions  records  contain  the  names  of  many 
chaiiklddm  among  the  convicted  dacoits,  while  the  district  records 
show  that  several  ddroyds  were  degraded  or  dismissed  on  suspicion 
of  complicity. 

Among  the  earliest  public  institutions  in  Howrah  were  the 
Royal  Military  Orphanage,  the  cemetery  attached  to  it,  the 
Hospital  to  the  south  of  the  school,  and  the  salt  godowns.  The 
school  for  soldiers'  orphans  yv&s  located  in  1785  in  a  large  house, 
known  as  "  Levett's  house  and  garden,"  which  was  built  about 
1767  and  was  originally  a  rum  distillery.  Mr.  Levett  had  taken 
a  lease  of  Howrah  village,  but  found  it  so  unprofitable,  that 
in  1785  he  begged  the  Board  of  IJevenue  to  allow  him  to 
relinquish  his  title  and  to  pay  the  rent  in  future  to  the  zamindar. 
His  request  was  granted  in  August  1785.11  In  the  meantime, 
his  house,  which  had  a  conipoimd  extending  over  no  less  than 
160  tngkdn,  was  sold  to  the  Orphan  Society  for  Rs.  65,000.  The 
premises  were  occupied  by  the  Orphanage  till  1815,  and  were 

•  Walter  Hamilton's  Description  of  Hindostan,  1820,  Vol   I,  p.  29. 
t  Selections,  Vol.  I,  p.  45. 

X  Selections,  Vol.  IV,  jj.  401  (I7th  August  1815;. 

§  A  very  daring  robbery  in  the  village  of  Howrah  was  reported  in  the  Calcutta 
Gazette  under  date  July  28th,  1807.     Selections,  Vol.  I  ^,  pp.  198-9. 
II  £engal  US.  Records,  Hunter,  Vol.  I,  p.  122  (No.  1043). 


GAZETTEER. 


165 


subsequently  divided  inio  throe  portions,  one  being  allotted  to 
the  Customs  House  Officers,  a  second  to  the  Magistrate  of  the 
24-Parganas  to  serve  as  a  periodical  court,  and  the  third  to  the 
clergy  of  Bishop's  College  in  consideration  of  the  services  they 
rendered  by  taking  services  in  the  Church.  The  Civil  Court  of 
Salkhia  was  transferred  to  the  second  portion,  and  later  the 
Magistrate's  Court,  when  a  separate  Magistrate  was  appointed 
in  1843.  In  1851  the  clergy  of  Bishop's  College  vacated  their 
portion,  and  in  1859  the  Customs  Office  was  also  removed.  Since 
then  the  building  has  been  in  sole  possession  of  the  Criminal, 
Revenue  and  Sessions  Courts.  The  ground- rent  of  the  Court 
and  the  maiddn  is  still  paid  to  several  co-sharing  zamindars. 

The  cemetery  occupied  a  part  of  the  Orphan  School  compound 
on  the  north  of  these  buildings.  The  oldest  inscription  in  this 
cemetery  is  on  the  tomb  of  Mr.  Henry  Ackland,  Secretary  to 
the  Orphan  Society  for  eight  years,  who  died  in  1791,  and  the 
next  oldest  is  an  epitaph  to  Mr.  J.  Wynne,  who  died  in  1799. 
The  hospital  shewn  in  Upjohn's  survey  was  removed  in  1828  to 
a  double-storeyed  house  at  the  Howrah  Grhat  and  remained  there 
till  1852,  when  the  site  was  acquired  by  the  railway.  The  salt 
godowns  at  Howrah  existed  before  1801,  when  they  were  placed 
under  the  control  of  the  "Western  Salt  Chau/d,  and  were  removed 
to  Salkhia  on  the  opening  of  the  railway.  Salt,  it  may  be 
explained,  was  imported  from  Hijili,  Orissa  and  Madras,  stored 
here  free  of  duty  and  then  sold,  so  that  the  salt  godowns  were 
practically  bonded  ware-houses. 

Among  other  early  institutions  may  be  mentioned  Bishop's 
College  and  the  churches.  The  foundation  stone  of  the  former 
was  laid  by  the  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  Bishop  Middleton,  in  Decem- 
ber 1820,  and  it  was  opened  in  1H24.  The  first  Church  of  Eng- 
land church  was  built,  at  the  instance  of  the  Principal  of  Bishop's 
College,  by  private  subscriptions  and  a  small  Grovemment  grant, 
on  five  bighds  of  land  separated  from  the  Orphan  School  premises. 
It  was  finished  in  1831  and  consecrated  under  the  name  of 
St.  Thomas'  Church.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  Cullen 
Place  was  built  in  1832  by  the  Revd.  Father  Paul  do  Gradoli  at  a 
cost  of  Rs.  40,000  realized  entirely  by  subscriptions,  and  was 
consecrated  under  the  name  of  the  "Church  of  Our  Lady  of 
Happy  Voyage."  The  earliest  church,  however,  was  one  built 
in  1821  by  Mr.  Statham,  the  first  Baptist  resident  missionary ; 
when  the  site  was  acquired  by  the  railway,  a  new  chapel  was  built , 
in  1865,  at  the  junction  of  Dobson's  Lane  with  King's  Lane. 

Howrah,  which   Bishop  Heber  described  in  1823  as  a  place 
"  chiefly  inhabited   by   shipbuilders,"   and   which  in    1848  was 


166  HOWRAH. 

referred  to  as  "  the  AVapping  of  Calcutta  iuliabited  ohieOy  by 
pLi'sons  couueeted  with  the  docks  aud  shipping,''  began  to 
expand  rapidly  in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  Not  only 
did  the  docks  increase  in  size  and  in  uumber,  but  other  large 
industrial  concerns  were  started,  such  as  engineering  yards, 
sugar  factories,  flour  mills,  and,  after  the  sixties  of  the  19th 
century,  cotton  mills,  jute  mills  and  jute  presses.  The  selection 
lin  ISoU)  by  the  East  Indian  llaihvay  authorities  of  Howrah 
as  the  terminus  of  their  line  and  the  construction  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Hooghly  gave  an  immense  impetus  to  its  development, 
which  in  recent  years  has  been  further  facilitated  by  the  entry 
of  the  Beugal-Nagpur  Railway,  by  the  opening  of  the  two  light 
railways,  and  by  the  starting  of  steamer  services.  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  to"v\Ti  has  necessitated  considerable  modifications 
in  its  administration.  A  separate  Magistrate  was  appointed  in 
184o,  who  was  vested  with  the  powers  of  a  Deputy  Collector 
in  1860,  and  idtimately  was  assisted  by  a  Joint-Magistrate, 
several  Deputy  Collectors  and  several  Coui-ts  of  Honorary 
Magistrates.  The  police  force  was  reorganised  in  1862,  and 
placed  under  a  District  Supermtendent  in  1863.  The  jail,  alter 
various  changes,  has  been  made  a  third  class  district  jail  aud 
located  in  a  large  building.  The  Civil  Courts  have  been  enlarged 
and  placed  in  a  separate  building,  where  a  Small  Cause  Court 
Judge  also  holds  an  occasional  court.  The  town  was  constituted 
a  municipality  in  1862,  and  is  now  the  largest  outside  Calcutta 
both  in  population  and  income. 

The  Zila  school  was  opened  in  1845  for  native  boys, 
and  the  St.  Thomas'  School  in  1864  for  European  boys.  The 
Bishop's  College  was  replaced  in  1S80  by  the  Engineering 
College,  now  the  centre  of  high  technical  education  in  Bengal. 
The  lIoAvrah  General  Hospital  was  started  in  1861,  and  is 
the  largest  hospital  in  Bengal  outside  Calcutta,  with  separate  wards 
for  Europeans,  native  males  and  native  females.  A  veterinary 
hospital,  named  after  its  donor  Kumar  Rameswar  Malia,  has 
also  been  established.  Among  other  buildinps  may  be  mentioned 
the  saltgodowns  at  Salkhia,  wliich  contain  enormous  stocks  ot  salt 
and  are  served  by  a  siding  of  the  East  Indian  linilway,  and  the 
Town  Hall  built  by  private  subscriptions  over  the  municipal 
buildings. 

The  city  is  roughly  divisible  into  two  parts,  the  river  bank  and 
the  portion  further  inland,  which  aie  separated  from  each  other  by 
the  Grand  Trunk  Koad.  The  former  contains  the  l^.uropeau 
residences,  olhces  and  other  buildings  of  business  hrnis,  and  the 
latter   the   native    town.     Howrah    proper   lies  nearly    midway ; 


GAZETTRFK.  1^7 

and  its  centre,  bounded  by  Grierson  Road  on  tbe  nortb,  Telkal- 
gbat  Road  on  the  south,  the  river  on  the  east,  and  the  Grand 
Trunk  Road  on  the  west,  forms  the  focus  of  commercial  life. 
Except  for  a  small  part  to  the  south  in  the  possession  of  John 
King  and  Co.,  the  whole  of  its  river  frontage  is  occupied 
by  the  railway  station  and  goods-sheds.  Then  comes  the  long 
overbridge  ending  in  the  Buckland  Road,  with  the  Magistrate's 
residence  and  the  Civil  Courts  on  the  east,  and  various  other 
public  buildings  on  the  west,  viz.,  the  post  office,  the  municipal 
office,  the  old  church  and  cemetery,  the  Criminal  Courts,  the  police 
reserve  lines,  and  the  hospital.  The  rest  of  the  land  is  kept 
open,  except  for  the  Railway  Institute  in  the  north-western 
comer  and  the  new  church,  the  Zila  school  and  the  District  Board 
office  in  a  corner  on  the  south.  Tlie  portion  left  open  may  be 
regarded  as  the  chief,  if  not  the  only,  lung  of  the  city,  there 
being  space  for  cricket,  football,  hockey  and  lawn-tennis,  and 
for  the  pitching  of  tents  in  the  cold  weather  for  circuses  or 
other  entertainments.  This  central  section  is  surrounded  by 
other  large  buildings,  such  as  the  staff'  residences  of  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  and  East  Indian  Railways  on  the  north  ;  the  distillery, 
St.  Thomas'  School  and  Howrah  Club  on  the  west ;  and  Smith 
Stanistreet's  branch  office  and  the  extensive  shipbuilding  yard  of 
Messrs.  Burn  and  Co.,  on  the  south. 

From  the  Hooghly  bridge  northwards  along  the  river  front 
extend  a  series  of  docks  with  the  salt  godowns  in  the  middle. 
Above  them  come  other  works,  between  the  Grand  Trunk  Road 
and  the  river,  viz.,  roperies,  timber  yards,  engineering  works 
and  oil  mills,  ending  at  Ghusuri  in  cotton  mills  and  jute  presses. 
Behind  the  docks  lie  a  large  dJiavHKOinin  and  the  European 
quarters ;  and  beyond  them  native  houses  with  several  over- 
crowded basdii  like  Tindelbagau  and  Gbasbagau.  At  the 
extreme  north  end,  houses  begin  to  thin  out,  and  fields  witli 
gardens  appear.  South  of  Burn  and  Co.'s  yard,  a  considerable 
area  has  been  reclaimed  from  the  river  by  the  Port  Commis- 
sioners and  is  crowded  with  godowns  for  storing  rice  and 
molasses.  To  the  west  of  the  reclaimed  cliir>i  are  -l(i  Ohjhd>i 
of  land  acquired  by  Government  in  1907,  on  which  have  been 
located  the  new  jail  and  the  offices  of  the  railway  police,  with 
the  residences  of  the  Civil  Surgeon,  the  Superintendent  of  Gov- 
ernment Railway  Police,  and  a  Deputy  Magistrate.  Bcyonrl 
them  lie  a  row  of  small  sheds,  in  which  is  held  the  Tuesday 
hat  of  Ramkristapur,  said  to  be  the  greatest  mart  for  hand-loom 
cloths  in  Lower  Bengal.  Further  south,  are  found  various 
factories,  such  as  flour  mills,  jute  mills  and   presses,  timber  yards, 


168  HOWRAH. 

etc.,  until  Shalimar  Point  is  reached  with  ihe  Bengal-Nagpur 
Kailway  goods  yard  and  wagon  ferry.  On  the  river  bend  come 
uther  factories,  roperies  and  paint  works,  ending  in  the  large 
compound  of  the  Engineering  College  at  Sibpur. 

The  river  and  the  Grand  Trunk  Uoad  form  the  two  main 
thoroughfares,  the  greatest  congestion  of  traffic  taking  place  on 
the  Grierson  Road  leading  to  the  Hooghly  bridge.  The  river  bank 
is  similarly  crowded  v/ith  cargo  boats,  which  load  or  unload  an 
immense  quantity  of  goods  between  Bandii  Ghat  at  Salkhia  and 
Sibpur  Ghat,  and  with  small  boats  ferrying  passengers  to  and 
from  Calcutta  or  vessels  in  the  river.  The  river  frontage  is  lined 
vdih.  iron  (j/idts,  long  jetties  and  busy  dock  yards,  having  a 
background  of  tall  buildings  and  grimy  chimneys.  The  Grand 
Trunk  Road  presents  a  similar  busy  scene  with  rows  of  small 
shops  and  several  large  markets,  and  carries  a  heavy  traffic  to 
and  from  the  railways,  the  factories,  the  shops,  and  private 
houses. 

On  the  west  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Road  live  the  majority  of 
the  native  population.  The  land  gradually  slopes  away  from 
the  river  bank,  the  lowest  level  being  reached  near  Shalimar. 
Ghusuri  is  2U  feet,  while  Santragachhi  and  Shalimar  are  only 
12  feet  above  mean  sea-level.  The  natives  consist  of  two  classes, 
Via.,  resident  Bengalis  and  immigrants,  mostly  mill-hands  and 
railway  employes.  The  imrnigrants  generally  live  huddled  together 
in  dirty  over-crowded  and  ill -ventilated  baslis,  the  Muhammadans 
preferring  the  quarters  north  of  Khurut  Road.  Among  the 
resident  population  Kaibarttas  predominate,  but  they  are  now 
retiring  more  and  more  to  the  outskirts.  The  higher  castes  live 
chiefly  in  Bantra,  Khurut,  Sibpur  and  Santragachhi.  Kayasths 
and  Rarhi  Brahmans  are  chiefly  found  in  Sibpur,  and  Barendra 
Brahmans  in  Santragachhi. 

The  outer  fringe  of  the  town  is  thinly  peopled,  being  mostly 
occupied  by  low  fields  intermixed  witli  gardens  and  villas.  A 
good  deal  of  the  town  drainage  finds  its  outlet  into  those  low 
landfl ;  and  when  owing  to  heavy  rain  the  swamp  level  rises,  the 
drainage  is  checked  and  the  roads  flooded.  In  September  lOl'O, 
the  swamp  level  rose  to  13  feet  above  mean  tide  level,  and  for 
days  together  water  stood  on  most  of  the  roads,  causing  consi- 
derable inconvenience  and  damage. 

Tlie  derivation  of  the  name  liowrah  is  uaccrtaiti.  According 
to  one  account,  it  is  derived  from  the  Bengali  word /tdOar,  meaning 
stumbling,  with  reference  to  the  numerous  ruts  in  the  streets  of 
liowrah  city,  which  formerly  caused  the  unwary  pedestrian  to 
btumble.     This  seems  a  far-fetched  explanation.     There  is  a  word 


GAZETTFER.  169 

lidor  used  in  Eastern  Bengal  for  a  marsh  or  a  swampy  depression 
filled  with  water  in  the  rains,  and  this  would  a  priori  seem  a 
plausible  derivation  ;  bu<  the  word  does  not  appear  to  be  known 
in  Western  Bengal. 

Howrah  Subdivision.  —The  headquarters  subdivision,  situated 
in  the  north-east  of  the  district,  bel  ween  22°  >MV  and  22°  42'  N., 
and  88°  2'  and  88°  22'  E,  with  an  area  of  173  square  miles.  The 
subdivision  is  a  low-lying  tract  with  a  slight  and  gradual  fall  of 
level  from  north  to  south-east.  It  contains  two  main  portions  —(1) 
tlie  high  riparian  strips  of  land  along  the  Hooghly,  Saraswat!  and 
Kana  Nadi,  and  (2)  the  extensive  swamps  separating  them,  which 
are  now  drained  by  the  Howrah,  Barajol  and  Eajapur  drainage 
channels.  The  land  is  generally  fertile,  yielding  abundant  crops 
of  winter  rice,  jute,  pulses,  sugarcane,  potatoes  and  betel-leaves. 
It  contains  four  urban  tlianas,  Howrah,  Sibpur,  Golabari  and 
Bally,  three  rural  thanas,  Dumjor,  Liluah  and  Jagatballabhpur, 
and  three  independent  police  outposts,  Santragaohhi,  Sankrail 
and  Panohla.  The  population  increased  from  297,064  in  1872 
to  431,257  in  1901,  when  the  subdivision  contained  two  'towns 
(Hov/rah  and  13ally)  and  365  villages.  The  average  density  in 
the  latter  year  was  2,493  per  square  mile,  and  was  greatest  in  the 
tracts  lying  along  the  river  banks,  where  it  did  not  fall  below 
3,000  per  square  mile.  These  portions  of  the  subdivision  are,  in 
fact,  more  like  semi-urban  than  rural  tracts. 

Jagatballabhpur. — A  village  in  the  Howrah  subdivision, 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kana  Nadi,  16  miles  from 
Howrah.  It  contains  a  police  station,  a  post  office,  a  High 
school,  and  a  small  District  Board  bungalow.  Among  noticeable 
villages  in  the  tliana,  of  which  it  is  the  headquarters,  are 
Bargachhia,  a  railway  juncjtion  with  a  five-storeyed  tower  of  brick, 
165  feet  high,  clearly  one  of  those  erected  nearly  a  century  ago 
for  long  distance  semaphore  signalling ;  Adampur,  with  the 
remains  of  a  fort,  an  old  place  she"wn  in  Rennell's  Atlas  (Plate 
VIIj  ;  Paiutal,  one  of  the  largest  villages  in  the  district ;  Balia, 
with  an  old  temple  liberally  endowed  by  the  Bur^lwAn  Kaj  with 
some  two  thousand  btfjhdn  of  laud,  a  place  which  probably  gave  its 
name  to  the  paryaiia  ;  and  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Kana  Nadi, 
Nabasan,  once  well  known  for  its  fine  cloth,  and  Maju,  a  railway 
station  with  a  High  school. 

James  and  Mary  Sands. — A  dangerous  shoal  in  the  river 
Hooghly,  situated  in  22°  14'  N.  and  88"  5'  E.  between  the 
confluence  of  the  Damodar  and  E-iipnarayan  rivers.  The  origin 
of  the  shoal  was  apparently  due  to  changes  in  the  course  of 
the  two  latter   rivers.     Aa   explained  in   Chapter  I,   the   main 


170  HOWRAH. 

stream  of  the  Damodar  formerly  flowed  aloDg  what  is  now  the 
Kaiia  Damodar  (or,  as  Europeans  called  it,  the  Jan  Perdo,  *a 
river  for  great  ships')  which  had  its  outfall  by  the  modern  Sljberia 
Khal  above  Uluberia.  Gradually  the  main  stream  was  diverted 
to  the  present  channel,  and  thus  brought  close  to  the  Rfipnarayan, 
the  distance  between  the  two  being  reduced  from  23  miles  to 
6i  miles.  The  ROpnarayan  again  had  its  south-western  channel 
silted  up,  and  discharged  all  its  silt-laden  water  by  the  eastern 
mouth.  The  angles  at  A\hich  botli  river  deboucli  into  the  Hooghly, 
are  favourable  to  the  deposit  of  silt,  which  the  close  proximity  of 
the  two  mouths  nearly  doubled.  The  result  was  that  extensive 
slioals  were  fonned,  and  their  mobility,  with  the  strong  eddies  set 
up,  tended  to  make  navigation  dangerous. 

These  shoals  and  eddies  were  noticed  as  far  back  as  the  latter 
half  of  the  I7th  century.  In  the  diary  of  Streynsham  Master, 
under  date  8th  and  10th  September  1G76,  we  find  an  entry  :  — 
''  This  evening  with  the  tide  of  flood  wc  got  into  that  part  of  the 
river  Ganges  that  come  from  llugly.  At  the  mouth  of  the  said 
river  there's  18  or  19  fathoms  water  without,  but  eiglit  or  nine 
-within,  but  it  shoals  gradually  shelvingwisc,  soe  that  oftentimes 
ships  and  vessels  are  turned  or  winded  loundby  it  for  a  good  space 
of  time,  but  seldom  receive  damage  thereby  (as  afterwards  I  saw 
one  further  up  the  river  soe  winded),  but  wee  coming  neare 
upon  a  high  water  gott  in  without  such  winding,  and  they 
happen  at  the  first  of  the  flood  and  last  of  the  ebb."*  Thomas 
Bowrey  also  speaks  of  having  been  caught  in  fSeptembor 
1676  in  an  eddy  off  "  the  shoals  of  the  river  Tomboloe  (where 
the  river  is  most  crooked),"  that  being  an  old  name  for  the 
Kupnarayan.  He  described  his  experience  as  follows: — "It 
happened  at  that  time  for  the  space  of  lialf  an  houre  to  be  slack 
water,  but  then  the  fresh  came  down  like  a  boare  and  hurried  up 
away  into  a  most  impetuous  eddy,  when  in  a  moment  our  ship 
turned  round  soe  often  and  quick  withall  that  not  one  of  us  cold 
stand  to  doe  any  thinge.  One  cable  broke,  and  the  other  swum 
like  to  a  piece  of  wood."t  From  the  above  description  it  is  clear 
that  shoals  had  been  formed  by  the  fouith  quarter  of  the  17th 
century. 

The  shoals  appear  under  the  present  name  "  James  and  Mary 
Sands"  in  the  Pilot  Chart  of  1703.  The  name  is  evidently 
derived  from  that  of  a  ship  (called  after  James  II  and  his  (pieen 
Mary  of  Modeua;,  which  was  lost  here  in  September  1694.     "The 

*Diart/  of  n^illiain  Hedjes,  Vul«j,  11,  23. 

t  Countries  round  ilie  Ba^j  of  Bengal,  Ttiinik,  j'p.  17^-74. 


GAZETTEER.  171 

Royall  ■hirne^  and  Mary  arrived  in  Ballasore  Road  from  the 
west  coast  in  August  ...  but  coming  up  the  river  of  Hughly 
on  the  24th  September,  she  fell  on  a  sand  on  this  side 
Tumbolee  Point  and  was  unfortunately  lost,  for  she  immediately 
oversett  and  broke  her  back,  with  the  loss  of  four  or  five  men's 
lives."* 

The  sands,  which  are  three  miles  long  and  a  third  of  a  mile  in 
width,  occupy  the  centre  of  the  river  Hooghly,  leaving  channels 
on  either  side,  known  as  the  Eastern  and  Western  Gut.  Various 
schemes  have  been  suggested  for  evading  this  dangerous  shoal, 
and  it  has  more  than  once  been  proposed  to  dig  a  short  canal  at 
the  back  of  Hughly  Point  so  as  to  avoid  the  sands,  or  to 
construct  ship  canals  from  the  docks  to  Diamond  Harbour  or  to 
Port  Canning  on  the  Matla  river.  The  problem  was  examined  in 
1865  and  again  in  1<S')0  by  experts,  who  suggested  the  construction 
of  walls  to  train  the  channel  into  the  Western  Gut,  but  this 
proposal  was  not  adopted. 

Liluah.  —  A  village  in  the  Howrah  subdivision,  situated  three 
miles  from  Howrah.  It  contains  a  police  station,  but  is  better 
known  for  the  extensive  carriage  workshops  and  goods-yards  of 
the  East  Indian  liailway.  Many  garden  houses  have  been 
built  in  the  neighbourhood  in  recent  years  by  Marwaris  and 
others  ;  and  a  great  part  of  the  surrounding  land,  which  was 
formerly  covered  with  reeds  and  low  jungle,  has  been  brought 
under   cultivation. 

Mahiari.—  See  Andul. 

Mahishrekha. — See  Bagnan. 

Mandalghat.  —  A  village  in  the  Uluberia  subdivision,  situated 
ou  the  left  bank  of  the  Eupnarayan  opposite  Tamluk.  It  must 
have  been  a  more  important  place  formerly,  for  it  gave  its  name  to 
the  parycuia,  while  the  Damodar  river  was  often  called  River 
Moundleghat,  e.g.,  in  the  Pilot  Chart  of  1703.  Mandalghat 
appears  in  the  Ain-i-Akhan  as  a  mahdl  of  Sarlcdr  Mandaran  vdih 
a  revenue  of  906,775  dams,  and  is  mentioned  by  Valentijn,  who 
says: — "Calcutta,  Mondelghat,  and  some  other  places  below, 
supply  most  of  the  wax  and  hemp  that  we  require  ";  The  porr/ana 
is  low-lying  and  was  repeatedly  flooded  by  the  Damodar  in  the 
early  British  period,  until  protected  by  embankments.  The 
village  contains  an  independent  police  outpost. 

Panchla. — A  village  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  Howrah 
subdivision,    containing    an    independent   police     outpost.       At 

*  Bengal  Letter  to  Cuurt,  I'lth  Deceiuber  1094i,  1.  c,  Vule,  II,  133.  Tuiuboleu 
Point  is  showu  in  tijc  Pilot  Cliurt  1703  at  the  present  site  of  Fort  Mornlnnt-jn 
Poiut. 


172  HOWKAH. 

Jujeswar,  a  large  village  in  its  jurisdiction,  are  found  a  few  Tutia 
Kaibarttas,  who  are  still  employed  in  silk  cocoon  rearing. 

Salkhia. — Northern  part  of  Howi-ah  city,  containing  docks. 
Government  salt  godowns,  salt  crushing  mills,  jute  presses  and 
engineering  and  iron  works.     See  also  the  article  on  Howrah. 

Saukrail. — A  large  village  in  the  Howrah  subdivision, 
situated  below  the  junction  of  the  Saraswati  with  the  Hooghly, 
about  seven  miles  by  river  from  Howrah,  and  two  miles  from 
Andul  station  on  the  Beugal-Nagpur  Eailway.  From  its 
position  commanding  the  two  rivers,  it  was  formerly  a  place 
of  some  importance.  It  was  mentioned  by  W.  Schouten  in 
1664,  by  Chamock  in  his  diary  dated  August  24th,  1690,*  and 
by  Sir  John  Goldsborough  under  the  form  ''Sea  Crowle"  m 
1693t ;  and  it  also  appears  in  Rennell's  Atlas  (Plates  VII  and 
XIX).  The  only  event,  however,  of  historical  interest  attaching 
to  it  is  that  in  1715  the  Portuguese  seized  a  British  vessel  in 
the  Sankrail  Reach.  It  is  inhabited  by  Muhammadans  in  consi- 
derable numbers,  and  contains  an  independent  outpost.  With 
Pajganj    it   is  served  by  river  steamers. 

The  following  villages  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sankrail 
outpost  may  be  mentioned  : — Andul  already  described;  Eajganj, 
separated  from  it  by  the  Saraswati  Khal,  which  contains  the 
National  Jute  Mill,  and  is  a  centre  of  the  trade  in  hikd  fish ; 
Manikpur,  where  the  Belvedere  Jute  Mill  was  opened  in  1907, 
an  old  place  shown  on  the  Pilot  Chart  of  1703 ;  and  Saranga, 
with  brick-fields  and  a  white- washed  building  dedicated  to  Pir 
Sarang.  This  is  also  an  old  place,  shewn  in  the  Pilot  Charts  of 
1688  (Bowrey)  and  of  1703  as  "Serrango  tree." 

Santragachhi.  —  A  large  village  adjoining  Howrah  city  on 
the  west  and  partly  included  in  the  municipal  area.  According 
to  tradition,  the  principal  family  of  the  village,  the  Chaudhris, 
settled  there  200  years  ago  in  the  time  of  the  Muhammadan 
rule,  and  being  Barendra  Brahmans,  induced  several  other 
Barendra  families  to  take  up  their  residence  in  the  village.  The 
village  gives  its  name  to  the  junction  of  the  branches  of  the 
Bongal-Nagpur  Railway  which  run  to  Howrah  and  Shalimar, 
but  is  nearer  to  Ramrajatala  station.  At  Ramrajatala,  a  quarter 
of  Santragachhi,  a  large  mela  is  held  in  April  and  May  and  is 
attended  by  large  numbers.  It  is  called  the  Bdrwdri  meld  because 
its  cost  is  met  by  private  subscriptions.  The  place  is  noted 
locally  for  its  coconuts  and  yams  {ol). 


*  Earhi  Annals,  Wilson,  Voluiuu  I,  jinge  124,  nule  i 
■^  Dxur<)  itj  William  Mtdges,  Yule,  11,  page  91,  note  3. 


GAZETTEEH.  173 

Shalimar.  -A  part  of  Howrah  city  lying  along  the  Hooghly 
close  to  Sibpur.  It  contains  rope-works  and  the  goods-yards  of 
the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway.  A  century  ago  it  was  a  country 
retreat  for  European  residents  of  Calcutta.  Here  Colonel  Kyd, 
the  founder  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardeu,  had  a  house  and  a 
garden,  which,  it  is  said,  was  intended  to  be  a  miniature  of  the 
Shalimar  garden  and  pleasure  ground  laid  out  at  Lahore  in  1G67 
by  All  Mardan  Khan,  the  celebrated  engineer  of  Shah  Jahan. 
Colouel  Kyd  died  here  in  1793,  and  the  house  was  occupied  by 
Sir  John  Royds,  a  Judge  of  the  High  Court,  till  his  death 
in  1817,  and  after  him  by  James  Sutherland,  a  nephew  of 
Colebrooke.  Shalimar  Point  was  formerly  known  as  Sumatra 
Point. 

Sibpur.— The  south-western  suburb  of  Howrah  city  contain- 
ing the  Royal  Botanic  Garden  described  in  a  previous  article 
and,  north  of  it,  the  Civil  Engineering  College.  The  latter 
occupies  the  buildings  and  the  site  selected  by  Bishop  Middleton, 
the  first  Bishop  of  Calcutta  for  Bishop's  College.  The  site 
was  then  "  a  wilderness  of  high  grass,  creeping  shrubs  and 
stagnant  pools,"  but  was  considered  suitable  on  account  of  its 
distance  from  the  distractions  of  Calcutta.  The  object  of  the 
College  was  to  be  "  the  education  of  Christian  Youth  in  sacred 
knowledge,  in  sound  learning,  and  in  the  principal  languages 
used  in  this  country,  in  habits  of  piety  and  devotion  to  their 
calling,  that  they  may  be  qualified  to  teach  among  the  heathen." 
In  other  words,  it  was  to  be  a  Missionary  College  for  India. 

The  Governor-Greneral,  the  Marquis  of  Hastings,   presented  62 
highas  of  land  on  the  east   of  the   Botanic   Garden,  and   liberal 
grants  of    money    were    given     by    the     British     and   Foreign 
Bible    Society    and  by    the   Church    Missionary   Society,     The 
foundation  stone  was  laid  in  1820,  and  the  college  opened  in  1824, 
the  first  Principal  being  Dr.  William  Hodge   Mill.     Subsequent- 
ly,  the   grounds   were    extended   further  to  the  east  by  the   free 
gift   of  a  piece   of   ground   on  the   banks  of    the   Hooghly   by 
Sir  Charles  Metcalfe;  while  in  1826  the  Governor- General,  Lord 
Amherst,  at  the   special   request    of   Bishop   Heber,   assigned   a 
further  space   of  48   bighds   on  the  bank  of  the  Hooghly  for  the 
demesnes   and   out-oflSces   of    the    college.     Bishop   Heber  took 
particular  interest   in   the   college,  which   he   wished   to   be   not 
merely   an   ecclesiastical  seminary,    but    q   college    from   which 
"  India   would   derive   her  parochial  clergy,  her  professors  of  the 
liberal   sciences,  her   philosophers,  her   well-educated   merchants, 
gentry  and  statesmen."     The  college  flourished   for  nearly   half 
ft  century,   but   in   1872  there  was  'only   one  tutor  with  about 


174  HOWRAH. 

half  a  dozen  students.'*  In  18H0  the  hmd  and  buiklings  were 
acquired  by  Government  and  utilized  for  the  Civil  Engineering 
College. 

Tlie  college  occupies  three  sides  of  a  quardrangle,  the  southern 
.side  beino'iopen  an^l  facing  the  river.  It  is  of  Gothic  architecture* 
and  with  its  turrets  and  smooth  lawns  is  strikingly  like  an 
Oxford  or  Cambridge  college.  Its  architect  was  AVilliam  Jones, 
whose  sympathy  for  Indians,  and  knowledge  of  their  language 
and  customs,  earned  for  him  the  name  of  Guru  Jones.  He  came 
out  to  India  in  1800  and  for  10  years  worked  as  a  mechanic.  In 
1810  he  is  described  in  the  directory  as  a  manufacturer,  and 
next  year  as  the  proprietor  of  a  canvas  manufactory  at  Ilowrah. 
It  was  there  that  he  first  established  himself  to  any  advantage, 
and  to  his  energy  and  example  may  be  in  a  great  measure  at- 
tributed the  prosperity  of  that  city.  When  an  expedition  was 
about  to  be  despatched  in  1811  for  the  capture  of  Java,  and  its 
departure  was  impeded  by  the  want  of  cartridge  paper,  Mr.  Jones 
came  to  the  assistance  of  Government.  Ilis  mechanical  skill 
enabled  him  to  set  up  a  little  paper  manufactory,  from  which  he 
furnished  all  the  paper  that  was  requisite,  closing  bis  new 
works  as  soon  as  the  object  of  the  expedition  was  accomplished. 
Four  or  live  years  subsequently,  Jones  accidentally  discovered  the 
existence  of  coal  in  Burdwan,  and  with  characteristic  ardour 
determined  to  open  mines.  "  It  is  chiefly  in  reference  to  our 
Indian  coal,  and  in  contemplating  the  vast  benefit  which 
Jones'  labours  have  conferred  on  India,  that  his  claim  to  the 
highest  rank  among  her  benefactors  rests.''  His  last  public 
engagement  was  the  building  of  Bishop's  College,  which  he 
undertook  in  some  measure  from  his  desire  to  promote  every 
object  of  public  utility,  but  also  because  he  aspired  to  the 
honour  of  erecting  the  first  Gothic  edifice  in  India.  His  active 
and  useful  life  was  brought  to  an  abrupt  close  in  the  month  of 
September  1821,  in  consequence  of.  a  fever  contracted  while 
superintending  the  building,  which  proved  fatal  in  tliree  days. 
"  It  will,"  wrote  Bishop  Middleton,  "still  be  his   monument."! 

Considerable  additions  have  been  made  to  the  college  since 
its  acquisition  by  Government  in  1880.  The  most  interesting 
building  is  the  chapel  begun  by  Jones,  which  contains  memorial 
tablets  erected  to  Bishops  Middleton,  Heber  and  Wilson,  and 
to  four  rdumui  of  the  college  who  were  killed  during  the  Mutiny 
of   1857.    One   of    these,   named  Cockey,  was  at  the  college  m 

•  Uoicrah,  Past  and  Present.  , ,     ^  ,     .^    „     • 

t  J.  C.  Mar.hman,  Note,  on  the  Eight  Bank  of  the  Hooghly,  Calcutta  Revi.w, 

U46. 


GAZETTEEK.  175 

1846  at  the  same  time  as  another  distinguished  pupil,  the  Bengali 
poet,  Michael  Madhiisiidan  Dutt. 

The  area  of  the  college  premises  is  '^'30  hiij/ids,  of  which  219 
blghds  are  liigh  lands,  05  hUjhdB  are  accreted  lands,  and  70  l'iijh(U 
consist  of  low  swampy  lands  and  tanks.  Miicli  of  the  area  is 
very  low-lying  or  consists  of  j)tih  and  tanks.  The  locality 
is  consequently  unhealthy,  and  ns  it  is  uusuitable  on  other 
grounds  for  thn  work  of  the  college,  it  has  been  decided  to 
transfer  the  institution  to  Ranchl. 

SingtL — A  village  in  the  TJluberia  subdivision,  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  Kana  Damodar  in  the  extreme  north-west  of  the 
district.  It  contains  an  independent  police  outpost,  and  is  an  old 
place  shewn  in  Eennell's  Atlas  (Plate  YIl),  as  is  also  Sibpur, 
another  large  village  on  the  same  river.  The  outpost  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Khanakul  thana  of  Hooghly  District  to  the  Amta 
thana  of  Howrah  in  1894, 

Syampur.— A  large  village  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Damodar,  chiefly  inhabited  by  Kaibarttas.  It  has  a  police  station, 
a  sub-registry  office,  a  post  office,  a  ferry,  a  charitable  dispensary 
and  a  District  Board  bungalow.  Within  its  jurisdiction  lie 
Sasati,  with  a  High  English  school,  a  ferry  and  a  Public  Works 
Department  bungalow  on  the  Eupnarayan ;  Fort  Mornington  on 
the  mouth  of  the  Rupnarayan  in  the  village  of  Makrapathar  ;  and 
Pichhalda,  two  miles  north  north-wost  of  Fort  Mornington  with 
a  hdl.  Sasati  is  shewn  in  EecneH's  Atlas  (Plate  VII),  while 
Pichhalda  is  still  older,  being  shewn  in  the  oldest  maps  existing, 
viz.,  those  of  Gastaldi  (1561),  De  Barros  (1623)  and  Blaev 
(1650)  In  De  Barros'  Da  Asia,  printed  in  1 552,  it  is  said — 
*'  Granga  discharges  into  the  illustrious  stream  of  the  Ganges 
between  the  two  places  called  Angeli  and  Picholda  in  about  22 
degrees.''*  It  is  also  mentioned  in  the  biographies  of  Chai- 
tanya  as  the  place  where  he  crossed  the  river ;  and  from  its 
position,  just  above  the  junction  of  the  Eupnarayan  and  the 
Hooghly,  it  must  have  been  an  important  village. 

Tanna  or  Thana  Muckwa. — A  village  in  the  Sankrail  out- 
post. It  is  an  old  place,  frequently  mentioned  in  European 
accounts  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  The 
earliest  reference  to  the  place  appears  to  be  contained  in  a  letter 
from  Hooghly  dated  3 1st  March  1674  stating  that  the  sloop 
/In7«;«// had  reached  "Tannah."t     The  maps   of  the  second  half 


*  J.  A.  S.  B.,  1892,  p.  112. 

t  Factory  Records,    1.   c,    Bowrey's    Countries   Round    the  Bay   of  Bengal, 
p.  208,  note  4. 


176  HOWRAH. 

of  the  17th  century  have  entries  of  more  than  one  Tanna.  The 
map  of  Valentijn,  based  on  materials  obtained  in  1660-65  A.D., 
shows  Thanna  and  below  it  Kl.  {i.e.,  kiln  or  fort)  Thanna ;  the 
Pilot  Chart  of  Bowrey  (1688)  shows  Great  Tanna  and  below  it 
Little  Tanna;  and  the  Pilot  Chart  of  1703  shows  Great  Tanna, 
below  it  Tanna  Fort,  and  still  lower  down  Little  Tanna.  The 
name  Tanna  is  evidently  a  corruption  of  tlnhia  or  police  station. 
The  upper  Tanna  shewa  near  the  bend  of  the  river,  on  the  site 
now  occupied  by  the  Civil  Engineering  College,  Sibpur,  was 
named  Great  Tanna,  apparently  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Tanna 
lower  down  at  the  next  bend  of  the  river  near  Rajganj.  A  short 
distance  below  Great  Tanna  was  the  fort,  the  position  of  which  is 
reasonably  identified  with  the  site  of  the  house  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Botanical  Garden.  Here  the  river  is  so  much 
narrower,  that  a  fort  on  this  bank,  with  the  help  of  another  fort 
on  the  opposite  side,*  would  easily  command  the  waterway. 

According  to  the  diary  of  Sir  Streynsham  Master,  dated  30th 
November  1676,  an  old  mud  walled  fort  was  built  af'Tannay" 
to  prevent  the  incursions  of  pirates  from  Arakan,  who  ten  or 
twelve  years  before  had  carried  off  people  from  the  river-side 
villages,  to  sell  them  in  the  slave  market  at  Pipli,  ''in  consequence 
of  which  none  durst  live  lower  than  this  place."  Master 
buried  Mr.  Call  way  at  '*  Little  Tanna"  on  r2th  September  1676, 
because  the  boats  could  not  go  further  up  that  day  to  "  Tanna." 
Great  Tanna  is  also  mentioned  twice  in  Hedges'  diary,  viz.,  on 
23rd  July  1682  and  Slst  December  1684.  When  war  broke  out 
between  the  English  and  Nawab  Shaista  Khan  of  Bengal,  Job 
Chamock  assaulted  and  took  the  fort  at  Tanna  on  11th  February 
1687  and  after  demolishing  it  landed  at  Hijili.  Subsequently, 
when  the  war  was  suspended  by  a  temporary  peace,  Charnock  pro- 
ceeded to  Little  Tanna  on  the  way  up  to  Chutanuti,  and  thence 
sent  a  despatch  to  the  Governors  on  10th  September  1687. 
The  war  was  not  actually  concluded  till  1690,  but  even  after 
that  the  Governor  of  Hooghly  would  not  permit  the  English 
shipping  to  come  above  Tanna  Fort  for  some  time.  However, 
on  24th  August  1690,  Charnock  arrived  at  Chutanuti  for  the 
third  and  last  time,  and  recorded  that  on  his  arrival  the  Governor 
of  Tanna  sent  his  servant  to  greet  him.t 

In  1696,  when  Subha  Singh  and  Rahim  Khan  rebelled,  their 
forces  besieged  the  Tanna  fort,  but  were  repulsed  by  its  com- 
mandant, with  the  help  of  the  vessel  Thomas  lent  by  the  English 


•  Hedges'  Dia^y,  Yule,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  215. 

t  Hedges'    Diani,  Yule,  Vol.  I,  pp.  32,  17i;  Vol.  II,  pp.  02-65,  68,  233,    237, 

;;83. 


GAZETTEER,  177 

to  serve  as  a  guardsbip.*  The  fort  is  said  to  have  been  captured 
by  the  Mar&thSs  in  their  early  invasions  in  1741-42,  and  is  last 
heard  of  in  the  first  war  of  Lord  Clive  with  Siraj-ud-daiila,  At 
that  time  the  Tanna  fort,  was  of  brick,  while  the  fort  opposite  it 
(at  Matiaburuz)  was  of  mud.  On  ist  January  1757,  the  seamen 
of  the  Tyger  took  possession  of  "  Tannari  Fort",  which  the 
Muhammadaus  had  abandoned,  and  the  boats  of  H.  M.  S. 
Kent  took  the  fort  on  the  opposite  side.  Forty  cannon 
were  found  in  the  two  forts,  several  being  14-pounders.t  The 
English  set  fire  to  both  the  forts,  but  two  years  later  (in  J  759) 
Clive  hearing  of  the  approach  of  a  Dutch  force,  strengthened 
the  Tanna  fort  and  Charnock's  fort  (the  one  opposite  to  it)  and 
put  them  under  the  charge  of  Captain  Knox.  Since  then  all 
trace  of  the  fortifications  at  Tanna  is  lost,  Kennell's  Atlas  (Plates 
VII  and  XIX)  showing  only  the  village  of  Tanna  or  Tanna 
Muckwa  on  the  spot  now  occupied  by  the  Botanic  Garden. 
The  fort  at  one  time  gave  its  name  to  this  part  of  the  river,  as 
may  be  gathered  from  a  report  of  the  19th  May  1704  that  the 
English  sloop  Cnssimbnzzar  returned  to  Calcutta,  "having  sprung 
her  mast  at  Tana  reach,  about  4  miles  below  the  Factory  ".J 

Uluberia. — The  headquarters  town  of  the  subdivision  of  the 
same  name,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly  river,  in 
22°  28'  N.  and  88°  7'  E.  Population  (1901)  5,395.  It  is  19 
miles  distant  by  river  from  Howrah  and  20  miles  by  rail,  and  is 
accessible  by  boat,  steamer  and  rail.  One  steamer  service  runs 
from  Calcutta  to  Uluberia,  and  another  to  Ghatal  via  Uluberia. 
The  Orissa  Trunk  Eoad  and  the  High  Level  Canal  to  Midnapore 
also  stait  from  this  town,  and  there  is  a  station  on  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  Railway  at  a  short  distance  from  it.  The  town,  which 
is  protected  from  the  river  by  a  bigh  embankment,  is  rural  in 
character  and  has  no  features  of  interest.  Before  the  railway 
was  extended  to  it,  Uluberia  was  a  place  of  some  importance,  for 
pilgrims  passed  through  it  on  their  way  to  and  from  Jagannath, 
and  there  was  a  large  bazar  to  meet  their  wants.  It  still  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  rice  and  fish,  especially  mango-fish  and 
hilm.  In  1903  it  was  constituted  a  municipality ;  but  in  April 
1907,  the  municipality  was  abolished  as  unsuitable  to  local 
conditions,  and  the  place  was  made  the  head-quarters  of  an 
Union.     It   has  the    usual   Subdivisional   oflBces,   Criminal  and 


*  Harly  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  I,  124,  note  1. 

t  Stewart's  Sistory  of  Bengal,  1847,  p.  2]  0.  Captain  Cope's  A  Xfew  Eistory 
of  the  East  Indies,  (1758),  Appendix  VI,  pp.  418,  420 ;  Ives,  p.  101,  1.  e.  Eedge$' 
Diary,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  215. 

X  Early  Annals  of  the  English  in  Bengal,  I.,  251. 


N 


178  HOWRAH. 

Civil  Courts,  Local  Board  offices,  a  sub- jail,  a  police  station,  a 
sub-registry  office,  a  postal-telegraph  office,  a  charitable  dispen- 
sary, a  High  English  school,  and  a  Public  Works  Department 
Dak  bungalow.  The  name  is  probably  derived  from  ulu  (a  kind 
of  grass)  and  Icre  (fence),  the  ulu  grass  growing  in  abundance 
round  the  town.  The  derivation  "Abode  of  Owls"  given  by 
Sir  William  Hunter  is  fantastic  and  improbable. 

This  little  river-side  town  has  an  interesting  history.  It 
first  came  into  prominence  in  consequence  of  Chamock's  war  with 
the  Bengal  Nawab»  The  first  campaign  was  concluded  by  an 
agreement  between  Charnock  and  the  Nawab's  BaJishl  Abdul 
Samad,  by  which  the  former  handed  over  Hijil!  and  was  permitted 
to  proceed  to  Chutanati  and  to  demand  a  ne^farman  with  twelve 
conditions.  Charnock  accordingly  proceeded  on  17th  June  1687 
"  with  half  the  fleet  to  TJlleberrea  and  Little  Tanna."*  One 
of  the  twelve  conditions  was  that  the  English  should  be  allowed 
to  establish  themselves  at  Uluberia,  besides  keeping  their  factory 
at  Hooghly.  This  condition  was  granted  by  the  Nawab  in  a 
parw&na  ox  order  from  Dacca  dated  21st  July  1687.t  It  was 
also  tentatively  approved  by  the  Court  of  Directors,  who  on 
27th  August  1688,  wrote : — "  Your  town  of  Ulabarreah,  we 
understand,  hath  depth  of  water  sufficient  to  make  Docks  and 
conveniences  for  the  repairing  of  any  of  our  biggest  ships,  and  is 
a  healthfull  place,  and  therefore  we  have  added  a  Paragraph  to 
our  letter  to  our  Generall  that,  if  he  can  obtain  a  Phirmaund  from 
the  MoguU  for  our  holding  that  place  fortifyed  with  the  same 
immunities  and  priviledges  we  hold  Fort  St.  George,  we  will  be 
therewith  content,  without  looking  further,  or  being  at  any  new 
charge  in  contending  for  any  other  fortifyed  settlement  in 
Bengali  .  .  .  We  hope  you  may  so  manage  that  place  or 
Town  of  Ullaberreah  which  you  have  articled  for,  that  it  may 
in  time  become  a  famous  and  well  governed  English  Colony."* 

The  truce,  however,  was  a  hollow  one,  and,  as  the  war  continued, 
the  Bengal  Council  with  all  their  shipping  had  ultimately  to  retire 
to  Madras.  In  the  meantime,  Charnock  and  other  members  of 
the  Council  changed  their  minds,  and  in  reply  to  the  above  letter 
of  the  Court  wrote  from  Madras  under  the  date  oOth  September 
1689 — "  In  our  Generall  Letter  by  the  Beaufort  and  our  diaries 
of  that  Yeare,  wherein  wee  have  layd  downe  Our  reasons  for  the 
altering  Our  Opinion  about  Ullaberreah  and  pitching  on  Chut- 
tanutte  as  the  best  and  fittest  up  the  Hiver  on  the  Maine,  as  We 

*  Hedges'  Diary,  II,  G8. 
t  Ditto  II,  71. 

i  Ditto  II,  75. 


GAZETTBRft.  179 

have  since  experienced,  and  likewise  been  eattisfyed  that  Ulubar- 
reeah  was  misrepresented  to  Us  by  those  sent  to  survay  it."* 
Uluberia  thus  never  became  "a  famous  and  well-governed 
English  Colony."  It  continued,  however,  to  be  a  place  of  some 
importance,  for  it  is  shewn  in  the  Pilot  Charts  of  1688  and  1703 
and  in  Eennell's  Atlas  (Plates  YII  and  XIX). 

Within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Uluberia  thana  there  are 
several  important  villages,  e.g.,  Phuleswar  with  the  New  Ring 
Cotton  Mills;  Sijberia  at  the  mouth  of  the  Raj  Spur  Drainage 
Channel  with  a  canal  bungalow  ;  Garhbhabanipur  with  a  High 
English  school ;  and  Nunti  with  plantations  of  betel-leaf,  well- 
known  in  Northern  India  for  its  fine  flavour.  All  the  early  maps 
shew  below  the  present  Uluberia  a  place  named  Pisacol,  which 
may  have  given  its  name  to  pnnjana  "  PechacolIy"t  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  one  of  the  original  24  Parganas.  There 
is  no  trace  of  this  village  in  the  maps  published  after  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  The  Pilot  Charts  of  1688  and  1703  show  a 
village  Rangamatte,  a  name  which  still  survives  in  the  Ranga- 
mete  Khal  opposite  Mayapur  Magazine.  Valentijn's  map  shows 
another  village  Basanderi,  which  is  also  mentioned  by  Alexander 
Hamilton: — "Basundri  and  Tresinddi  ...  are  on  that  river 
which  produce  the  greatest  quantities  of  the  best  Sugars  in 
Bengal"4  It  probably  gave  the  name  to  the  large  pargana  of 
Balia  Bassendhari,  which  formed  a  portion  of  the  Burdwan 
zamindari,  while  a  small  part  of  it  was  included  in  Lord  Clive's 
zamindari  of  the  24-Parganas.§ 

Uluberia  Subdivision. — A  subdivision  occupying  the  whole  of 
south  and  the  western  half  of  the  north  of  the  district,  between 
22°  13'  and  22°  47'  N.  latitude  and  87°  51'  and  88^  12'  E. 
longitude,  with  an  area  of  337  square  miles.  The  tract  is 
generally  low-lying  with  a  gradual  slope  from  the  northwest,  to  the 
south-east.  It  is  drained  by  the  Damodar  and  its  branch  channels 
and  on  the  south-west  by  the  Rupnarayan.  The  north-western 
part  is  exposed  to  inundation,  the  embankment  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Damodar  having  been  abandoned;  but  the  rest 
of  the  subdivision  is  mostly  protected  by  embankments.  The 
subdivision  is  divided  into  four  thanas,  Uluberia,  Bagnan,  Amta 
and  Syampur,  with  three  independent  outposts,  Bauria,  Singti 
and  Mandalghat.     The    population    increased  from  298,801   in 


*  Sedges'  Diary,  II,  86. 

t  Grant's  View  of  the  Revenues  of  Bengal,  The  Fifth  Report,  p.  491-  Statis- 
tical Account  of  the  24-Parganas,  Appendix,  p.  384, 

X  A.  New  Account  of  the  East  Indies,  \o\.  II,  p.  6. 
I  Grant,  pp.  478,491. 

n2 


180  HOWRAH. 

1872  to  419,257  in  1901,   when  it  was  ccntained  in  1,08G  village 

The   north  and    north-west    of    Amta    suffer    periodically    from 

epidemics  of  malarial  fever  ;   and  this  thana,  on  the  whole,  shews 

least  progress.    The  i  redominating  castes  are  Kaibarttas,  Pods 

and  Bagdis  ;  the  higher  castes  being  comparatively  few  in  number. 

The  subdivision al  headquarters  were  for  twenty  years  at  Mahish- 

rekha,  but  were  removed  to  Uluberia  in  1883.     Khanakul  thana 

was  then  included    ki  this    subdivision,  but  was  transferred  to 

the  Arambagh  (formerly  Jahanabad)  subdivision  of  the  Hooghly 

district.    The   density  of   population   in  all  the  thanas  is  nearly 

the  same,  averaging   1,244  per  square   mile  or  less  than  half  of 

that  in  the  Howrah  subdivision 


[  N  I)  E  X 


A. 

Aclampur,  169. 

Administrativo        changes,        26,        27 ; 

charges  and  staff,  128,  131. 
Administration,  general,  128-132. 
Agricultural  statistics,  68  ;  cIhhsch,  7r>,  {)(',. 
Agriculture,  65-75. 
Agunshe,  150. 
Ahalyii  Bai's  Road,  119. 
Albion  Factory,  114. 
Albion  Foundry,  109. 
Jman  rieo,  cultivation  of,  69,  70. 
American  Mission,  37. 
Amragori,  dispensary  at,  64,  148. 
Amta,  description   of,   147,    148;    dibpen- 
•ary  at,   64;   fair  at,   103;    bungi.low 
at,  121  ;       sub -registry  oflice   at,   130; 
thana    at,     182;      Union      Committee 
at,   134  ;  High   school  at,  141,. 
Amta  drainage  schcmo,  77,  81. 
Andul,    High    school      at,      140,      Ml.; 

description  of,  148-150. 
Andul  Raj,  149,  150. 
Andulabda  era,  149. 
Animists,  38,  39. 
Archceology,  27. 
Argoria,  149. 
Artisans,        wages    of,     90;       material 

condition  of,  94. 
Arts  and  industries,  97-102, 
Aus  rice,  cnltivation  of;  69. 
Awal  land,  68. 

B. 

Bagdis,  40. 

Bagnan,   description   of,    150;  th;iiia   at, 

132;  Union  Committee  at,  184;  High 

school  at,  140,  144. 


BaiHkiIti,  36. 
im\—Sec  Hiiily. 
Biilia,  169. 

Bally,  description   of,  150,    151 ;    popula- 
tion of,  31 ;  dispensary  at,    64;  juto 
mills    at.    111,    112;    tliana    at  132; 
municipality    at,     184,     135  ;     IIi^,'h 
school   at,    114;    liltrary     at,    146 » 
paper  m  ills  at,  151. 
Bally  Khdl,  13,  122,  123. 
Bally  Khiil  Bone  Mills,  113. 
Bully  Sadhurani  Sabhii,  146. 
Biiluhati,  7. 

Baluti,  7,  160;  Hi-h  school  at,  144. 
Btimangfichhi,  125. 
Biiniban,  girls'  school  at,  145. 
Baiikura  Riii,  worship  of,  48. 
Banspiiti  Khul,  3,  11,  123. 
BiintrH,  High  suhool  at,  144. 
Bantul,  72. 

Banyan  tree  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  159. 
Baptist  MiKsiou,  36,  37. 
Barajol  drainage  works,  79. 
Bara  Mairu,  11. 
Bargachhiii.  2.  102,  169. 
Barrackpur,  114. 
Baslii  in  Ilowah  City,  63. 
Sasttt  land,  68. 
Basundi,  179. 
Bator,  19,  20,  23  ;  Foderici's   account   of, 

19,  20;  description  of,  151,  152. 
Bauria,  description  of,    152,  153;    cotton 
and  juto  mills  at,  110,  111,  112;  outpost 
at,  132. 
Bauria  Cotton  Mills,  110,  HI. 
Beggars,  95. 
Begri,  160. 
Bogn  hat,  100,103. 


182 


INDEX. 


Bela  land,  68. 

Belur,    48,     49,     50;    library   at,   146; 
Ramkrisbna  Miss'on  at,  151. 

Belvedere  Jute  Mills,  111,112. 

Bengal  Flour  Mill,  113. 

Bengal-Nagpnr     Railway,     126;     work- 
shops of,  110. 

Bengali  language,  36. 

Betel-lcaf,  cultivation  of,  72, 

BhSgirathI  river,  3,  4, 

Bbandardah,  7. 

Bharat-Abhyuday  Cott'>n  Mills,  111. 

Bharat  (Chandra   Rai,   birth  place  of,  3, 
6,  148. 

Bbatora,  148  ;  outpost  at,  132. 

Bbot-bagan,  description  of,  153,  154. 

Birth-rate,  53,  54. 

Bishop's    College  at  Sibpur,  141 ;  history 
of,  173,  174. 

Boats,  124,  125. 

Bone  mills,  113. 

Bore  of  the  Hooghly,  6,  7. 

Boro  parffanTi,  161. 

Boro  rice,  cultivation  of,  69. 

Botanic   Garden,   Sibpur,   description  of, 
154-160. 

Botany,  13. 

Boundaries  of  the  district,  1,  2. 

Brahmans,  39;  of  Bally,  150,151. 

Brick  manufacture,  114. 

Bridges,  121,122. 

British, 'early  rule  of,  25,  26. 

British  India  Dock,  107. 

British    India   Engineering    Deparlment, 
109, 

Brown,  Revd,  David,  140. 

Buchanan  Hamilton,  154. 

Backland  Bridge,  121. 
Budge-Budge  Reach,  5. 

Bungalows,  121. 

Burdwan  fever,  56. 

Burn  &  Co.   Ld.    108;    Iron    Works   of; 
109,  110. 

c. 

Calmuitics,  natural,  88-88. 
Caledonia  Docks,  106, 107. 


Caledonia       Steam      Printing      Works, 

113,  146. 
Canals,  76,  123 ;  irrigation  from,  67. 
Cane  work,  100. 
Carp,  102 

Carriage  workshops,  110. 
Cash  rents,  89,  90. 
Castes,  39. 
Cattle,  74,  75. 
Cemetery  at  Howrah,  1 65. 
Census  statistics,  28,  29; 
Central  Jute  Mills,  110,  111. 
Chuharam  land,  68. 
Chakkasi,  jute  mills  at.  111,  112, 
Champa  Khal,  3. 
Chandmari,  163. 
Chandlpur,  99. 

Charitable  Dispensaries,  63,  64. 
Charnock,  Job,  21,  22. 
Chars  of  the  Hooghly,  7;  Of  the   Rupna- 

rayan,  9. 
Chmkldars,  132. 
Chelopati  Ghat,  114. 
Chikan  work,  98. 
Cholera,  epidemics  of,  56. 
Chota  Maira,  11. 
Christian   Missions,    36,  37;    educational 

work  of,  139-142. 
Christians,  36. 

Church  Missionary  Society,  36. 
Churches  at  Howrah,  165, 
Civil     Engineering     College,    141,   142- 

144. 
Civil  justice,  administration  of,  131. 
Climate,  14-16. 
Cloth  weaving,  97,  98. 
Clothing  of  the  people,  32,  33. 
Cocoon  rearing,  99. 
Coffrey  Reach,  5. 
Colleges,  141,  14'2-144. 
Commerce,  102, 103. 
Commercial  classes,  96, 
Communication,  means  of,  118-127. 
Con6guration  of  the  district,  2,  3. 
Conservancy,  C8. 
Contract  supply  system,  129. 
Cotton  mills,  110,  111. 


INDEX. 


183 


Cotton  weaving,  97,  98. 

Country  spirit,  naanufacturo  and  coiiBiiuip- 
tiou  of,  129,  130. 

Courts,  civil  and  criminal,  131. 

Creeks,  122,  123. 

Crime,  131,  132. 

Criminal  just'.ce,  administration  of,  131. 

Crops,  principal,  68-72. 

Cultivation,  extension  of,  73,74;  improve- 
ments in  practice,  74. 

Cultivators,  material  condition  of,  93,  04. 

Cyclones,,83, 84 ;  of  1738,  83,  84 ;  of  1864 
84. 

D. 

Dafadars,  132. 

Dak  bungalows,  121. 

Dakshinbar,  160. 

Damodar  river,  description  of,  7-9; 
changes  of  it  scourse,  10, 11  ;  embank- 
ments on,  81,  82 ;  navigation  on,  122; 
ferries  on,  123. 

DangH  land,  68. 

Dankuni  swamp,  79. 

Death-rate,  52,  53,  54. 

Delta  Jute  JJills,  111,  112. 

Density  of  population,  29-30. 

Dhapa,  11. 

Dharmaraj,  worship  of,  42,  43. 

Diarrhoea,  57,  58. 

Dispensaries,  63,  64. 

Diseases,  54-59. 

Distilleries,  113,  114 

District  Board,  administration  of 
133,  134. 

District,  formation  of,  26,  27. 

District  roads,  120. 

District  staff,  128,  131, 

Dock-yards,  105-108. 

Domestic  animals,  74,  75. 

Donga,  67. 

Boyam  land,  68. 

Drainage,  legislation  regarding,  77,  78. 

Drainage  system,  62. 

Drainage  works,  76-81, 

Dress  of  the  people,  32-33. 


Drinking,  34,  35. 

Dudhkliall,  11. 

Dumjor,    inspection    bungalow    at,  121  ; 

thanaat,  132;   Union  Committee   at, 

134 ;  description  of,  160. 
Dutch,  war  with,  25. 
Dwellings,  33, 
Dysentery,  57,  58. 

E. 

Earthquakes,  83. 

East  Indian  Railway,  125,  126;  work- 
shops of,  110. 

Eastern  Gut,  5. 

Education,  138-146. 

Educational  staff,  142. 

Electric  tramway,  127. 

Embankments,  81,  82. 

Embroidery  work,  98. 

Emigration,  30,  31. 

Empress  of  India  Jute  Press,  112. 

Engineering,  works,  108-110;  Work- 
shops, 110;  college,  141,  142-144. 

English  schools,  139,  140,  144. 

Bntel  land,  68. 

European  schools,  140,  141,   146. 

Europeans,  early  trade  of,  19-21 ;  educa- 
tion of,  146. 

Excise,  administration  of,  12!),  130. 

Extension  of  cultivation,  73,  74. 

F. 

Factories,  110-113. 

Factory  industries,  104*11 7. 

Factory  life,  115-117. 

Fairs,  103. 

Falconer,  Dr.,  154,  156. 

Falta  Reach,  5, 

Famine,  84,  85;  of  1866,  85. 

Fauna,  13,  14, 

Federici'a  account  of  Bator,  19,  20. 

Female  education,  139,  145. 

Ferries,  123,  124, 

Fever,  prevalence  of,  55,  56. 

Fish,  13,  14,  100-102. 

Fisheries,  100-102. 

Fisherman's  Reach,  5, 


184 


I  y  I»  K  X  . 


Flood*,  85-88;  of  1885,  8«.  67;  of  1900, 

87;  of  IC-O*  ami  1905,  88. 
Flotjr  millJ,  112, 113. 
YvA  of  tke  people,  33.  34. 
Formatifm  of  the  district,  2C,  27. 
Fort  OIo«t*r  .Jate  MilU,  111,  112. 
Fort  Mc^mington,  2. 
Fort  MoramgUm  Point,  ICj. 
Fort  William  Flonr  Mill,  113. 
Fotindriw,  108,  lOG. 
FriCTjd'i  Union  Clnb,  146, 
FrniU,  72,  73. 

G. 

Oaighitl-Baksbi     Khal,     3,    76.       123; 

dfei^ription  r/t,  9,  10. 
Ganged  Engineering  Works,  109. 
fiani?c«.Ir)i>;  Mills,  110,  111. 
GAftja  consumption  of,  13'^^. 
flarhbhabiniptir,   17& ;    High   ichool    a', 

144. 
General  a^lminiitratioi),  128-132. 
Geology,  12. 

Gbantakama,  woribip  of,  4^i. 
Ghn«nri,   161 ;     rope    work*     at,     109 ; 

fotton     mill.*    at.     111,      112;      y,U: 

mills  at,  111,  112, 
Gbtwari  Cotton  Mills,  110,  111. 
Gbnsnri  Jut*  Press,  112. 
Girls' schools,  139,  HI,  142,145. 
GfAt^ndi,  paint  works  at,  113. 
Ooalas,  39. 

Oodlings,  worship  of,  42-47. 
OoBbiri,  dock  yards  at,  l(/i,   107  ;    tbari>. 

at,  132. 
Grand  Tmnk  Eo&d,  119.  120, 
('mx\n,i  groTinds,  75. 
Guru  training  school,  146. 

K. 

Hsad  tndocttiM,  97- 102. 

Hangman  Point,  4. 

HMtings,  Warren,  ir^S. 

Hit*,  103. 

Health,  poblic,  B2-^;4. 

Hemp  drugs,  consamption  of,  130. 


High  Enj^Iisb  schools,  144, 

High  Level  Canal,  123. 

HiUa  fish,  101, 102, 

Hindi  langTxage,  3^>. 

Hindus,  39>4L 

Hisv^ry  of  thh  di»trict,  17-27. 

Hf/-^  River  Rea>ch,  3. 

HogUi  reed,  73. 

Honorary  lCag!strat««,  131. 

Hwghly  Docking  Works,  107. 

Hryjgbly  river,  deecriptioo  of,  3-7 ; 
reaches  of,  4,  5;  narigation  on,  5,  6, 
122;  tides  of,  6;  bore  of,  6,7;  chan 
of,  7;  embankccents  on,  82;  ferries 
on,  124. 

Hookahs,  mantifactare  of,  100. 

Hooker,  Sir  Joseph,  155. 

Hoepitals,  64. 

Hotisea  of  the  people,  33. 

Howrah-Amta  liailway,  126,  127. 

Howrah  Bri'lge,  description  of,  121,  122. 

HowrahCity;  description  of,  161-169; 
rainfall  of,  16;  f;arly  references 
tf>,  22,  23;  density  of  popnlation 
in,  29,  30,  migration  to,  30,  31, 
population  of,  81,  sanitation  of, 
60,  61  ;  water  supply  of,  61,  62 ; 
drainage  of,  62,  63;  batlit,  63  ; 
(Anservancy,  63;  General  Hospital 
at,  64;  dock-yards  in,  106;  railway 
workshop  at,  110;  s-jb-registry 
office  at,  130;  district  jail  at,  132; 
municipality  at,  135-137;  school*  at, 
139-141,  144;  Kate-payer*'  Ass'vd*- 
tion  at,  146. 

How  rah  drainage  scheme,  77,  7H,  79. 

Howrah  Flour  Mills,  113. 
i    Howrah  Fonndry,  109. 
;    Howrah  HilaUM  (Newspipcr),  146. 
I    Howrah  Hydraulic  Jute  Press.  112. 

Howrah  Institut*,  14^'- 
,    Howrah  Iron  Works,  V/J. 

Howrah  Jute  Mills,  HI,  112. 

Howrah  Oil  Mills,  113. 

Howrah-hhiakhala  Railway,  126. 

Howrah  subdivision,  169, 

Ha,  worship  of,  47. 


I  K  I)  K  X 


185 


Humidity,  14,  15. 
Horrioaues,  S3,  S4. 


ImmiiTration,  30,  31. 
Imivrial  Juve  Press,  112. 
Income-tax,  130. 
Industries,  Pr.f'il ;   104-11^1. 
Infantile  mortality,  M. 
In•titutiou^,  medieal,  t>3,  64. 
luundrttious,  S6-S8. 
Iron  works,  lOS-110. 
Irrigation,  66-6S. 

J. 

Jaguuuathpiir   11. 

Jagatballabhpur,  description  of.  1^9; 
inspection  bungralow  at,  121;  sub- 
registry  office  at,  130 ;  thiinn  at, 
133;  Union  Committee  at,  134; 
High  school  at,  144. 
Jagatballabhpur-Amta  road,  1-0. 
Jails,  132. 

Jala  land,  68. 

Jaliya  Kiiibtirttas,  41. 

James  and  Mary  Sands,  169-17J. 

Jan  Perdo  river,  10;  derivation  of  name, 
IS. 

Janai  basin,  70. 

Jarmaker's  R«»vch,  5. 

Jaypur,  148  ;  High  school  at,  H-i. 

Jessop  i  Co.,  Ld.,  lOS;   Iron    Works   of, 
110. 

Jliapardah,  IGO;  High  school  at,  Hi. 

Jhiukra,  148;  High  school  at,  144. 

Jones,  William,  174. 

Jugeswar,  99. 

Justice,  administration  of,  131,  13-. 

Jute,  cultivation  of,  71. 

Jute  mills.  111,  112. 

Jute  presses.  111,  112. 

Jwarasur,  worship  of,  46. 

K. 

£3g}iaz%  Muhauimadans,  90. 
Kaibarttas  39.  40,    character  of,  93,  94. 
Kalsapa  K/ial,  128. 


Kini  Damoilar  river,  dcicription  of,  8,  9. 
Kaori»,  41. 
Kausiki  river,  8,  9. 
I  KarirMji  system  of  uiodiciue,  64. 
I    Kayasths,  39. 
'    Kh<ih,  3,  li2,  123. 
KkesMri,  culti\-at.ion  of.  70,  71. 
King,  Sir  Geor^je,  ITx?.   ir>8. 
Koran  schivls,  146. 
i    KrithSm,  «iige.>of,  91. 
j    Kulin  Hrahmaus,  35. 
!    Emidu-Chaudhuris  of  Andul.  l.'iO. 
I    Kyd,  Colonel  Kobert,  l.Vt, 

i  ^" 

I    Labour  supph.  Ill,  lir>. 

LobonrcTS,  wages   of.    90;   maferi.-il    con- 
dition of,  94.  9."). 

Labouring  classes,  96. 

Land  revenue,  receipts  from,  12S,  12i\ 

Language,  36. 

Lawrence  Jut«  Mills,  111,  Hj. 

Libraries,  146. 

Light  railways,  126,  127. 
Lilniih.     description    of.     171;     rniiway 
workshop   at.    110;  Ihana    at,    132; 
railway  technical  school  at,  145 
Lime  works,  113. 
Linsoed,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Lit«rate  population,  142. 
Local  Boards,  aduiiuistratiou  of,  KH. 
Local  Sclf-Governmenf,  133-137. 
Locomotive  workshops,  110. 

M. 

MadiiriS  Khal,  8,  10,  123. 

Madrasas,  139. 

Magistrates,  131. 

Mahaufs  of  Bhot-bagiin,  153. 

Mahittri,  148,  149  ;  trade  of,  102,  103. 

Mahisrekhii,  8,  9,    150;  rainfall    of,  16  ; 

bungalow  at,  121. 
MAhishyas,  40. 
Mainan,  100. 

Maju,  169  ;  High  school  at,  144. 
Majurs,  wages  of,  91. 
Makardah,  2,  8,  160 ;  fair  at,  103. 


186 


INDBX. 


MaTctals,  188,  145,  146. 

Malarial  fever,  55,  56. 

Malliks  of  Andul,  140. 

Manasa,  worship  of,  43,  44. 

Mandalgbat,  outpost  at,    132  ;  description 

of,  171. 
Mandaran,  17,  18,  10. 
Mangal  Cliandi,  Worship  of,  47. 
Mangoes,  72. 
Mango  fish,  101,  102. 
Manikhali  Point,  4. 
Manikpur,  172;  jute  mills  at.    Ill,  112; 

lime  works  at,  113. 
Mansmari,  11. 

Manufactures,  97-99,  104-114. 
Manure,  74. 

Marathas,  invasion  of,  23. 
Markets,  103. 
Marriage  custoTis,  35. 
Marshes,  76,  77, 
Masurl,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Material  condition  of  the  peopU',  92-95. 
Mauri,  148,  149. 
Mayapur  Roach,  5. 
Means  of  communication,  118-127. 
Medical  aspects,  52-64. 
Medical  institutions,  63,  64. 
Melai  Chandi,  temple  of,  147. 
Melancholy  Point,  4. 
Middle  English  schools,  144. 
Middle  Vernacular  schools,  145. 
Miduapore  Canal,  76  , 
Migration,  30,  31. 
Military  Orphan  Asylum,  140. 
Military  Road,  119. 
Milki,  11. 
Mills,  110-113. 

Missionaries,  educational  work  of,  36,  37. 
Missions,  Christian,  36,   37 ;   cducationnl 

work  of,  189.142, 
Mission  sihofjls,  145. 
Iklithttkundn  Kkal,  123. 
Mitras  of  Andul,  149,  150. 
Monarch  Flour  Mills,  113. 
Mondalghat  river,  10. 
Mugkiilyau,  150;  High  school  itt,  144. 
Muhummadan  rule,  18-25. 


Muhammadans,  37,  38. 
Mulberries,  73;  culti\ation  of,  99 
Mung,  cultivation  of,  70. 
Municipalities,  134-137. 
Mustard,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Mutiny  of  1857,  26. 

N. 

Nabosan,  98,  169. 

Nainan  Reach,  5. 

NSrit,  148;  High  school  at,  144. 

Narna,  160;  fair  at,  103. 

Nasmyth  Jute  Press,  112. 

National  Jute  Mills,  111,  112.* 

Natural  calamities,  82-88. 

Navigation,  122,    123 ;   on   the   Hooghly, 

5,6. 
Nets  used  for  fishing,  100,  101. 
New  Bally  Jute  Mills,  111,  112. 
New  Ring  Cotton  Mills,  111. 
Newspapers,  146. 
Night  schools,  146. 
Nunti,  73,  179. 
Nurpur  Reach,  5. 

0. 

Occupations  of  the  people,  96. 
Oil  mills,  113. 
Oil-seeds,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Ola  Bibi,  worship  of,  46. 
Old  BenSres  Road,  119,  120. 
Orissa  Trunk  Road,  119,  120. 
Oriya  language,  36. 
Oriyas,  invasion  of,  17,  18, 
Opium,  consumption  of,  130. 
Outposts,  police,  132, 
Outstill  system,  129. 

P. 

Paikan  pargana,  161. 
Paintal,  169. 
Paint  works,  113. 
Panchanan,  worship  of,  44. 
Panchla  Jol  basins,  79. 
Panchla,  outpost  at,  182;  description 
of,  171, 172. 


INDEX. 


187 


Pandua,  148. 

Panitrls,  150;  Ul^h  school  at,  144. 

Panpur,  148;  High  school  at,  141. 

Paper,  manufacture  of,  99. 

Paper  mill,  151. 

Pasturage,  75, 

P5thi5l,  99. 

Pafhsdlds,  138. 

Patni  taluks,  92. 

Peas,  cultivation  of,  70. 

Penico  land,  68. 

People,  the,  28-51 ;  material  condition  of, 
92-95;  occupations  of,  9G. 

Persand^r,  123. 

Phdnriddrs,  182. 

Phoenix  Flour  Mills,  112. 

Phuleswar,  179;  cotton  mills  at.  111; 
AnusilHU  Samiti  at,  146. 

Physical  aspects,  1-16. 

Pichhaldaha,  10,  19,  175. 

Pirates,  raids  of,  20,  21. 

Pisacoly,  19. 

Pisolta,  10, 19. 

Plague,  58,  59. 

Pods,  41. 

Police,  administration  of,  132. 

Polygamy,  practice  of,  35. 

Population,  growth  of,  28,  29;  census 
statistics  29;  density  of,  29,  30; 
urban,  31;  rural,  31,  33. 

Port  Commissioners'  Dock,  107. 

Postal  statistics,  127. 

Pottery  making,  99. 

Presbyterian  Church,  37. 

Presses,  146. 

Prices,  91,  92. 

Primary  schools,  145. 

Printing  presses,  146 . 

Printing  works,  113. 

Produce  rents,  89. 

Professional  classes,  96  ;  material  condi- 
tion of,  92. 

Provincial  roads,  120. 

Public  health,  52-64. 

Public  Works  Department,  128. 

FulseB,  cultivation  of,  70,  71 

Puran  Oir,  life  of,  153. 


R. 

Iladhas,  17. 

Railways,  125-127;  workshops  of,  110. 

Rainfall,  15,  16;  in  relation  to  agriculture, 

65, 66. 
Rajapur,  160 ;  bungalow  at,  121. 
Uajapur  drainage  scheme,  77,  79,  80. 
Rajapur  Jol  basin,  79. 
Rajganj,  172;  jute  uuilla  at,  111,  112. 
Rajganj  K7ial,  3. 
Ramdayal  Cotton  Mills,  111. 
Ramkrishna  Mission,  47-51. 
Ramkrishna  Parmhansa,  48,  49,  50. 
Ramkristapur,    hat    at,    98,     103;    rope 
works   at,  108;   flour  mill   at,   112, 
113;  oil  mill  ut,  113;  char  at,  114. 
Rape,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Raspur,  148;  High  school  at,  144. 
Raspur  river,  10 . 
Rates  of  root,  89,  90. 
Rate-payers'  A  ssociatiou,  146. 
Rautra,  1 48, 
Uayapur  Beach,  5. 
Registration,  130,  131. 
Registry  offices,  130. 

Religions,     36-41;    Christians,    36,    37; 
Muhammadans,  37,  38 ;   Hindus,   39- 
41 ;   popular   beliefs,   41-47  ;     Ram- 
krishna  Mission,  47-51. 
Rents,  89,  90. 

Revenue  of  the  district,  128-131. 
Rice  cultivation  of,  69,  70 . 
Rice  trade  in  Howarh,  114, 
River  courses,  changes  in,  9-12, 
River  system,  3-12. 

Roads,  early,  119,  120;  modern,  120,  121 ; 
Provincial,  120;  District  Board.   120- 
121 ;  Municipal,  121. 
Roman  Catholics,  37. 
Rope  Works,  108. 
Roxburgh,  Dr.  William,  154. 
Rum  factory,  113,  114, 
Rupnarayan    river,      description    of,  9  ; 
changes  of   its   course,   II ;   embank- 
ments on,  82 ;   navigation   on,   122  ; 
ferries  on,  123. 
Rural  population,  31,  32. 


188 


INDEX. 


s. 


Sadgops,  39. 

Sdli  land,  68. 

Salkhii-Chandltala  road,  120. 

Salkhia  Cotton  Mills,  111. 

Salkhia,  description  of,  172;  dock -yards 
at,  106,  107;  cotton  mills  at, 
110,  111;  oil  mill  at,  113;  salt 
crushing  mills  at,  113  ;  timber 
yards  at,  113  ;  schools  at,  142,  144. 

Salkhia  Jute  Press,  112. 

Salt-crushing  mills,  113. 

SaltSs,  125. 

Sanitation,  59-61. 

Sankrail  99  ;  paint  works  at,  113 ;  out- 
post at,  132  ;  description  of,  172. 

Sankrail  Khal,  3,  123. 

Sanskrit  tols,  138,  139. 

SantrSgachbi,  out-post  at,  132 ;  givls' 
school  at,  141;  description  of,  172^ 
173. 

Saranga,  172. 

Saraswati  river,  description  of,  7,  8 ; 
changes  of  its  course,  11,  12. 

Sarsati  or  Sarsuti  river,  7. 

Sasati,  176;  bungalow  at,  121;  High 
school  at,  144. 

SasthI,  worship  of,  45. 

Satgaon,  18,  19,  20  ;  sarJcar,  19. 

Satya-Narayan,  worship  of,  46,  47. 

Saw  mills,  113. 

Scarcity,  84,  85. 

Schools,  138-146. 

Secondary  schools,  144,  145. 

Septic  tanks,  63. 

Scrampore  looms,  use  of,  94,  98. 

Servants,  wages  of,  90. 

>Seyam  land,  68. 

Shaista  Khan,  21. 

Sbilimar  branch  line,  126. 

Shalimar  Point,  4. 

Shiliinar,  description  of,  173;  rope  works 
at,  108;  railway  workshop  at,  110  ; 
paint  works  at,  113. 


Sibpur  Botanic  Garden,  154-160. 

Sibpur  College  workshops,  109. 

Sibpur   Engineering   College,    141,    142- 

144. 
Sibpur  Iron  Works,  109. 
Sibpur  Jute  Mills,  111,  112  ;  timber  yards 

at,  113. 
Sibpur  plough,  74. 
Sibpur,  description  of  173  175  ;  workshop 

at,    110;    jute    mills   at.    111,    112; 

flour    mills     at,    112,    113;     timber 

yards    at,      113 ;     thana     at,    133 ; 

College    at,     141,     142-144;     High 

school  at,  144.  * 

Sijberia,  179 ;  bungalow  at,  121. 
Sijberia  Khal,  3,  10. 
Silk  cocoons,  99. 
Silk  spinning,  98,  99. 
Singti,  dispensary  at,  63;  outpost  at,  132  ; 

description  of,  175. 
Sitala  worship  of,  45,  46. 
Small-pox,  56. 
Social  conditions,  32. 
Soils,  68. 
Sotia  land,  68. 
Special  schools,  145,  146. 
Spirits,  consumption  of,  34,  35. 
St.  Agnes'  School,  146. 
St.  Aloysius'  School,  146. 
St.  Elizabeth's  School,  146. 
St.  Thomas'  School  at  Howrah,  141,   146, 

166. 
Staff  of  district,  142. 
Staging  bungalows,  121. 
Stamps,  receipts  from,  129. 
Statistics,  of  rainfall,    16;    vital,    53:    of 

agriculture,  68;  postal,  127. 
Steamer  services,  124. 
SubachanI,  worship  of,  47. 
Sugarcane,  cultivation  of,  71,  72. 
Sugar  factories,  113,  114, 
Suhmae,  17. 
Sulaimanabad,  18,  19. 
Sumatra  Point,  162. 
Supply  of  labour,  114,  115. 
Surki  mills,  113. 
Swades/il  movement,  94,  98. 


INDEX 


189 


Swami  Vivekanandn,  48,  50, 

Swamps,  76,  77. 

Syilmpur,  description  of,  175;  dispeusavy 
at,  64;  inspection  bungalow  at,  121' 
Bub-registry  office  at,  130;  th£iia  at- 
132. 

Sylhet  lime  works,  113. 

T. 

Taiavi  embankment,  82, 

Tamalee,  Tomberlie  or  Tumbolco  river,  H. 

Tamluk,  17. 

Tamraliptas,  17. 

T5mralipti%  17. 

Tanna  fort,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24,  25;  history 

of,  175-177. 
Tari,  consumption  of  84,  35,  130. 
Technical  school,  145. 
Telkalghat,  origin  of  aame,  113. 
Temperature,  14,  15. 
Temples,  ancient,  27. 
TeorS,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Thana  Muckwa,  175-177. 
Thanas,  police,  132. 
Tibet,  trade  with,  153. 
Tides,  6. 

Til,  cultivation  of,  71. 
Tile  making,  114, 
Timber  yards,  113. 
Tiyars,  41. 

Tobacco,  cultivation  of,  72, 
Tols,  138,  139, 145. 
Topography,  1. 
Towns,  31. 

Trade,  102,  103;  in  rice,  114. 
Trading    classes,    material    condition     of 

92,  93. 
Tramways,  127. 
Truth  (Newspaper)  146. 
Trypanosomiasis,  57. 
Tutia  Kaibarttas,  99, 

u. 

Udldstu  land,  68. 

Uluberia  Canal,  123. 

Ulaberia  Cotton  Mills,  111, 

Uluberia,  description  of,    177-179;    rain. 


fall  of,  16  ;  Charnock'B  stay  at,  21, 
22;  dispensary  at,  64;  cattle  market 
at,  75 ;  trade  of,  102,  103,  cotton 
and  jute  mills  at.  Ill,  112;  dik 
bungalow  at,  121  ;  sub-registry  office 
at,  130 ;  thana  at,  132  ;  sub-j»il  at, 
132;  Union  Committee  at,  134; 
High  school  at,  144;  Indian  Asso- 
ciation at,  146. 

Uluberia  Reach,  5. 

Uluberia  subdivision,  179,  180.  • 

Uhi  grass,  158. 

Union  CommitteeB,  134, 

Urban,  population,  31;  •anitatiou, 
60,  61. 

V. 

Vaccination,  59. 
Vegetables,  73.^ 
Vernacular  schools,  140. 
Veterinery  hospital,  166. 
Victoria  Cotton  Mills,  111, 
Victoria  Engine  Works,  109. 
Village  deities,  worship  of,  42-47. 
Village  life,  35-36. 
Village  sanitation,  60. 
Villages,  31,  32. 
Vital  statistics,  53. 
Vivekananda,  48,  50, 

w. 

Wages,  90, 91. 

Wallich,  Dr.,  154. 

Warren  Hastings,  15S. 

Waterlifts,  67,   68. 

Witerways,  122,123. 

Water-works,  62,  63. 

Weaving  industry,  97,  98, 

Western  Gut,  5, 

West  Patent  Jute  Press,  112, 

Widow  marriage,  85. 

Wild  animals,  13. 

Winter  rice,  cultivation  of,  69,  70. 


z. 


Zila  school,  141. 


t1.  3.  Press— 7-10.1909— 3064J -638— E.  Q. 


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