:-NRLF
BATHER
THE
m, o R Y
LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
^L- r
GIFT OF
Class
HOW TO
FORETELL THE WEATHER
WITH THE
POCKET SPECTROSCOPE
BY
F. W. CORY,
M.R.C.S. ENG., F.R. MET. Soc., ETC.
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
WITH TEN ILLUSTRATIONS.
HontJon
CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY
1884
\_All rights reserved]
I
HOW TO
FORETELL THE WEATHER.
IN commencing an account of some new sub-
ject, it is customary to quote its history ; but
that of the rainband, one of the most important
features in the sky spectrum, and the first
noticed, has been so frequently referred to that
it would be a matter of supererogation on my
part to adduce what is now so generally
known. Suffice it to say that in 1872 Prof.
Piazzi Smyth, the Astronomer-Royal for Scot-
land, was the earliest to draw correct conclu-
sions from its appearance.
The subject of which we are about to treat
depends mainly upon the amount of invisible
202538
4 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere.
Visible vapour influences the spectrum but
slightly, and then only by reflected light.
The records of hygrometry extend back for
more than three hundred years. Mizaldus, in
1554, and Mersenne, in 1644, both noticed
that the pitch of the strings of a violin varied
according to the dry ness of the air. The
former says,* { Musicorum instrumentoruni
subtensas fidiculaa ruptim dissilientes, et hostia
absque manifesta causa, aperiri claudique solito
contumaciora, aerem pluvias nobis miscere
palam nuntiant ;' literally meaning, *' The
strained strings of musical instruments sud-
denly snapping, and sacrificed victims, without
any apparent cause, opening and closing, and
becoming more stiff than usual, plainly tell us
that rains are disturbing the atmosphere/
Even Pliny the elder, who lived A.D. 23 to
A.D. 79, seems to have been a rough observer
* Mizaldus, A., ' Ephemerides Aeris Perpetual Small
8vo. Lutetise, 1554.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 5
of the dew-point, as instanced in the following
quotation from the eighteenth book of his ' His-
toria NaturahV: l Nee non in conviviis men-
sisque nostris vasa quibus esculentum additur
sudorem repositories linquentia diras tempesta-
tes prasnuntiant ;' which, translated, is : 'And
also at banquets and at our tables, vessels in
which there is any esculent moisture left on
the trays foretell fearful stprms.' Of all the
numerous moisture- absorbers that man has
applied his ingenuity to in adapting to the
purposes of hygrometry, such as the beard of
the wild oat ; beard of musk grass, or geranium
moschatum ; internal membrane of the arundo
phragmites ; skin of the frog ; Dutch weather
house ; schistose stone, a material so porous
that when saturated it weighs nearly half as
much again as when dry; and then the more
modern and scientific instruments, viz.,
Darnell's, Kegnault's, and Dines' hygrometers ;
and lastly, Mason's dry and wet bulb hygro-
meter, that is used more frequently than any
6 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
other at the present time (and which, by- the -
bye, was invented by Boeckmann nine years
before Dr. Mason was born), together with a
great many others constructed of animal,
vegetable, and mineral substances. Of all
these, not one has the 'power of indicating
the state of atmospheric moisture for more
than a few yards around the instrument ; but
there is one that will inform you of the state
of invisible moisture of a section of air many
miles in thickness, the penetration depending
on the amount of visible moisture present at
the time of observation.
The following classification suggested by
Pouillet is not perfect, but will do for all
ordinary purposes. He divides them into :
1st. Hygrometers* (or hygroscopes f) of
absorption.
2nd. Hygrometers of condensation, i.e., dew
point instruments.
* typo; (hugros), damp, and fisrpov (mctron), measure.
t lyptg (hugros), damp, and erxoTlw (skopeo), to look at.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 7
3rd. Hygrometers of evaporation, i.e., dry
and Avet bulb thermometers.
4th. Chemical hygrometers, for determining
the amount of vapour by analysis.
And I think we might now add to
these the hygro- spectroscope, or rain-
band spectroscope.
During the last few years this new form
of hygrometer has been rapidly advancing in
popular favour ; but a want has been felt by
many an observer, which it will be my en-
deavour, in the following pages, to supply
in as brief, plainly worded, and exactly de-
scribed manner, as will tend to assist the tyro
in his preliminary difficulties, with the manipu-
lation and deductions therefrom, of an instru-
ment of such fine and delicate research.
There are two spectroscopes at present in
use, both of moderate dispersion ; one, called
1 The Eainband Spectroscope,' is an excellent
little instrument, very portable, and to a
HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
skilled and careful observer reliable for fore-
casting.
FIG. 1.
The other, named ' Grace's Spectroscope/
now becoming the favourite, is larger, but
with the same amount of dispersive power ;
the increased size of the spectrum in it is of
FIG. 2. Spectroscope with attached Micrometer.
great utility in clearly defining lines and
bands, besides the advantage of being able to
use it earlier and later in the day than the
former kind, on account of the greater amount
of light admitted.
In several other respects it differs from the
first ; it has a milled wheel, with lever for
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 9
adjusting focus, and instead of plain glass
nearest the eye, a concave lens is fitted.
Mr. Browning, the eminent optician in
the Strand, has fixed to my Grace's an
adjustable photographic micrometer, with prism
of comparison. This combination makes the
perfection of an instrument for meteorological
purposes.
It would be as well now to proceed to a
FIG. 3.
description of the ' Eainband Spectroscope/
which, with the above exceptions, will equally
apply to the other instrument.
It is composed of two cylinders, one fixed
and the other movable, the latter sliding
within the former; at the further end of
the fixed portion, which is 3-J inches in
length, the aperture is covered with a cir-
io HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
cular piece of microscopical glass, and just
within this are two parallel jaws, adjustable
by means of a milled wheel outside, to admit
more or less light, according to the require-
ments at the time of observation. The
movable part, 2^ inches long, has at the
extreme end a collimating lens to collect the
light which passes through the slit, and to
throw it in parallel rays upon the prisms placed
FIG. 4. Section of Direct Vision Spectroscope.
behind it. These prisms are five in number :
one, three, and five are made of crown-glass,
two and four of flint-glass. (Vide Fig. 4.)
They are all cemented together, and the effect
of this combination is to give an image of the
prismatic spectrum of sufficient dispersion to
show the position of the dark lines, both
constant or solar, and variable or telluric
that is, due to vapour in our atmosphere.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. n
Between the prisms and the eye of the ob-
server is another disc of glass. The total
length of the instrument when closed is 3f
inches, and its diameter -J of an inch ; while
Grace's is r! of an inch in diameter, and 5-|
inches long when closed.
In taking an observation with either instru-
ment, shade the eyes with the hands in such a
way that all extraneous light may be excluded
as much as possible. It is of the highest
importance to adjust the focus and slit of the
spectroscope so that the lines in the spectrum
may be of the clearest definition, and when
once adjusted it seldom requires altering. I
would recommend the beginner to focus either
the D line in the orange part of the spectrum,
or the E line in the green (vide Plate of Spec-
trum) ; and when he becomes more at home
with the instrument, he will find no difficulty
in rapidly and clearly defining any visible line
in other parts of the prismatic spectrum.
The inner sliding-tube ought to be slightly
12 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
pushed in for examining the blue end, and drawn
out a little for focussing lines in the red. To
avoid loss of time in focussing, it is a good
plan to mark the inner sliding cylinder with
the edge of a knife, in the same manner as is
frequently done to telescopes. If the slit be
closed too much, horizontal lines parallel to
the length of the spectrum will probably make
their appearance; in almost every case they
are due to the presence of dust on the edges
of the slit. To remove this dust, open the slit
as widely as possible, and wipe the edges with
a small wedge of dry wood an ordinary
lucifer match cut into this shape will answer
the purpose. Then close the slit completely;
re- open it, and the lines will probably have
disappeared ; if not, repeat the operation.
Note that a camel-hair pencil, a leather, cloth,
piece of paper, or blowing on it. will be sure
to make the slit worse. Frequently, simply
taking off the cap from the slit and moving
the focussing tube in and out quickly will
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 13
blow the small particles away. Sometimes,
whilst observing, moisture by condensing on
the eye-piece will somewhat obscure the spec-
trum ; to counteract this, warm the near end
slightly either before the fire or sun, or by
applying it to the warm skin.
In a general way, observe from ten to twenty
degrees above the horizon, and towards the
quarter from which the wind is blowing or
likely to change to. As regards the latter point,
it is much easier to forecast the probable
direction of wind from movements of upper
clouds, fluctuations of the barometer, etc.,
than it is to foretell rain.
The best hours for examining the general
characteristics of the spectrum are 9 a.m. and
3 p.m., all the year round. In computing
means, for various reasons it is not advisable
to alter these hours, as by so doing errors are
obviously liable to creep in. The focus and
slit having been correctly adjusted, compare
the lines and bands as seen in the spectrum
14 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
with their relative positions as delineated on
the chart (vide Plate L), A, a, B, c, D, E, 6, F, G,
are constant and invariable solar lines ; a, B,
c, c', a , ?', S, v, w, variable lines and bands ;
B, cc, S, dry air lines, or low sun bands; a, d
r, v, w, rain bands ; r, position of principal
rainband.
A, a, and B, are best studied by looking
direct at the sun ; for in ordinary daylight B
is not always well defined, a still less so, and
A never, but, notwithstanding, is occasionally
just visible. A is of no meteorological value,
and changes very little for either high or low
sun. It is not known what gas or metal in a
gaseous state it represents in the sun ; this
remark likewise applies to B. ' Neither of
them are telluric lines, nor due to aqueous
vapour, but must originate between the sun
and our atmosphere' (Prof. Piazzi Smyth).
The preliminary band of B is intensified with
a low sun, and diminished with an increasing
altitude. It is spoken of as a dry-air or low-
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 15
sun band. The physical origination of the
darkness of the band at a is due to an invisible
gaseous state of intensely watery vapour con-
tained more or less in the lower part of the
earth's atmosphere (Smyth). A comparison
of the dark shadings at a and B ought always
to be made, if possible, when the sun is
shining at a low altitude, c is the red hydro-
gen line ; the lines about it with low sun are
probably due to water vapour. At c is situ-
ated a small rainband.
The a line must be produced by one of the
permanent gases of the earth's atmosphere.
The band at this position is telluric ; a low-
sunband and of a dry-air character. Its
variations are of great importance in fore-
casting rain or fine, being very conspicuous
before dry weather, and on the other hand
weak in intensity previous to wet; on one
occasion, when unusually distinct, fine and dry
weather prevailed over the whole of Western
Europe (Prof. Smyth).
1 6 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
Next' in order is the principal rainband at
r, situated on the red side of the r> lines,
which I will subsequently refer to more in
detail. In the yellow strip on the other side
of D a line is frequently seen when the spec-
trum at this part is unusually clear; conse-
quently, before snow, when the vapour lines
have been considerably weakened from the
transformation of the invisible vapour into
snow crystals, this line (really made up of
several lines, including barium and calcium)
will be very prominent, at times exceeding in
darkness the lines in the rainband. The dry-
air band at 8 is a marked feature when the
sun is low, and merges more or less into the
moist air shading at v, and on the other hand,
should the latter be strong, for instance, be-
fore a thunderstorm, it will be found to en-
croach on the shading at S, a remarkable
phenomenon, the rationale of which is rather
difficult to satisfactorily explain. The line E
is one of the many that represent iron in the
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 17
sun. The b lines indicate the presence of
magnesium, nickel and iron. The distinctness
and definition of these important dark lines
are of some value in the prevision of weather,
as before heavy rain they are more or less in-
volved in the darkness that envelops the
violet end and almost obliterates the blue
hydrogen line, r, in the glaucous, or sea-green
coloured, region of the spectrum. The G group
can be generally seen in ordinary daylight, and
is a useful guide as to the clearness of the
spectrum; this is the last set visible in 'small
spectroscopes, but in Grace's, on several occa-
sions of very clear atmosphere with a bright
sun, I have succeeded in sighting the H lines
in the lavender. Many persons mistake the
G group for the H, which cannot be distinctly
defined, even in large instruments of the prism
variety.
THE RAINBAND.
The principal rainband is situated on the
red side of the D lines, involving them, and
2
1 8 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
at times increasing or decreasing in intensity,
and approaching or receding from the c line,
according to the nearness or quantity of rain.
In spectroscopes of small dispersion it
exhibits itself as a dark shading; in larger
instruments this band will be split up into a
quantity of fine black lines (vide Plate II.).
Observers who have closely watched this
band will no doubt have noticed great varia-
tions in its appearance at one time being
narrow and condensed, or broad and extended;
at other times almost uniform in darkness, or
rapidly shading off, or exhibiting itself as two
dark lines to the red side of D, with one
bright interval frequently between them, and
another in the space between the more re-
frangible towards the green and D (Grace's
spectroscope shows these lines exceedingly
well). When they are strong and well-
marked, they may certainly be taken as in-
dicative of heavy rain. A thickness and
darkness about the D lines alone must not be
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 19
considered as a reliable rain prognostic. This
illusory appearance leads people frequently to
mistake it for the rainband proper, and to
give it a greater value for rain than it suffi-
ciently warrants. Undoubtedly, when the D
lines are thickened, invisible vapour is the
cause of it ; but the two sets of lines on the
red side of them are those to take into account
in prevising rain.
In a great many anti -cyclones I have
noticed this false band to be present. The
rainband in many cases gradually increases
for some time before rain. If it remains per-
sistently high for several days, without rain
falling in proportion, as much as a week
perhaps of wet weather will follow. An
increase in the percentage for the season of
the year is suspicious of wet : in summer or
warmer weather the rainband is higher than
in winter or cooler weather ; for example,
40 per cent, has a greater value for rain in the
latter than in the former. Most of the
22
20 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
cyclones or depressions that cross England
from the Atlantic bring with them a large
body of air saturated with moisture. It is
interesting to gauge their individual propor-
tion of rainband : a small number have 70 or
80 per cent., a very few only 20 or 30, but
generally 50 or 60. In the rear of a depres-
sion, as a rule, periodical showers occur ; the
air being cleared from the previous gale or
heavy rain, they can frequently be seen for
several hours beforehand with the spectro-
scope, but not with the naked eye.
Sometimes, during rain, the amount of
rainband may be low : this for the most part
denotes finer weather to follow ; if, on the
other hand, strong, it merely shows either
that more rain is to follow, or the spectroscope
is unable to penetrate the rain then falling
and analyze the light on the clear side of the
shower. Should there be a very heavy mist
at the time of observing, its telescopic power
'will not be of much value. It would be too
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 21
much to expect of a spectroscope to sift the
light of several miles of visible aqueous
vapour ; in such cases it is more on a par with
the hygrometers, that are only serviceable for
a few surrounding yards of rain, Intensity
of rainband does not presage the fall of snow ;
on the contrary, the reverse does.
Mr. Capron, in his widely-known and
excellent little pamphlet, 'A Plea for the
Rainband,' has stated that the rainband is
low during cold winds. I can corroborate
this statement ; and would add, that generally
speaking the rainband gradually diminishes
for several days before snow. It seems that
the vapour is transformed into snow-crystals;
and I have no hesitation in saying that in those
cases, when with a low percentage of rainband,
rain apparently falls, it is either melted snow
or hail; which is proved by the fact that
frequently, as the precipitation increases, the
rain decreases and only snow or hail is seen
for in these cases it is highly probable that
22 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
the snow becomes melted in its passage
through a warmer substratum of air, and as
the temperature of this is gradually lowered
by the snow, so we find an increase of the
latter and a diminution of the rain.
If the spectroscope be directed towards the
point from which the wind is blowing, and
should the clouds be passing in one and the
same direction, and 20 per cent, or less of the
rainband be shown, no rain will follow for at
least six hours, in spite of any threatening
appearance of the sky.
In estimating low percentages of rainband,
it is advisable to look direct at the yellow,
so as to see the band slightly askew ; by
doing so any shading in that situation will
easily become perceptible. Through observers
not following this simple rule, one can quite
understand how it is that frequent cases of
i no rainband visible ' are entered on their
charts or in their note-books. Such an
absence of vapour lines seldom occurs, to niy
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 23
knowledge. On one occasion that Professor
Smyth observed a disappearance of all the
rainband lines, a period of cold and dry
weather succeeded. It has never >been my
good fortune to note a total absence of rain-
band; twice or three times the shading has
been so slight as to be barely recognised.
In the other extreme of percentage for
example, where 80 per cent, is seen, the
darkness of the band is so extremely well-
marked as to form a most conspicuous feature
in the spectrum ; should such an amount be
visible at the zenith, rain will certainly fall
heavily before long. Possibly every observer,
without exception, may at times be rather at
fault in the calculation of the quantity of
rainband. The use of a mental scale, which
one must of necessity have recourse to, cannot
be considered infallible. To compare the
darkness of the rainband Avith the permanent
lines of the spectrum will prove impracticable
if Grace's spectroscope be used ; it might do
24 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
for instruments of very small dispersion, but
these are not to be recommended as hygro-
spectroscopes. As far as I know, Grace's
is decidedly the best instrument for this
purpose; and fitted up as I have already
mentioned, with a prism of comparison and
micrometer, the meteorologist may feel assured
he is possessed of an apparatus of immense
practical value.
Mr. Rand Capron, in enumeration of the
darkness of the rainband for the purpose of
record, uses a scale of from 1 to 5, as follows :
1 means faint ; 2, faint to moderate ; 3,
moderate; 4, moderate to strong; 5, strong.
Professor Smyth recommends and employs
from 1 to 10 which I adopted for some time,
until I could recognise intermediate shading,
and have now for more than a year found a
division of the scale into 20 parts as much as
it is possible to accomplish. A difficulty will
sometimes be experienced in ascertaining the
percentage at the zenith in certain atmospheric
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 25
conditions when the sky blue is very deep and
dark ; it certainly is not an easy matter, and
all the careful manipulation and perspicacity
at the command of the observer is requisite.
It must be borne in mind that the rainband is
quite independent of peculiar forms and
characteristics of clouds indicating fine
weather or the reverse.
Many cases have happened where a strong
rainband has been noticed on a blue sky, with
every appearance of fine weather for at least
twelve hours, and rain has subsequently fallen
within that time; or a very small percentage
has been seen with most threatening clouds,
that seemed as if they must shortly pour forth
torrents of rain, yet it did not occur. Showers
of rain may be very localized, and have a
tendency to take certain routes, passing
perhaps within a short distance of an observer,
who, from the large amount of rainband
visible at that time in the spectroscope, may
prognosticate the rain that never reaches him;
26 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
and unwisely conclude, because it does not
fall in his immediate locality, that therefore the
instrument is worthless as an aid to fore-
casting. Such reasoning is clearly fallacious.
At first, when I was endeavouring to prove to
my own satisfaction the connection between
rainfall and rainband, I could not help feeling
disappointed at what I considered absolute
failures as regards the value of this band as a
fore-runner of rain; but, thanks to the in-
formation given by friends, reports in papers,
and by searching for evidence of rain having
fallen in the neighbouring country, with the
help, I ought to add, of that modern invention
of proved utility, the tricycle, I was enabled to
entirely put aside these misgivings, and rest
satisfied that what had been claimed for the
spectroscope was no mere chimera of the
imagination, but the commencement of a fresh
branch of meteorology that would eventually
supply the missing link in forecasting,
annihilate its difficulties, and bring to our
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 27
knowledge facts about the upper regions of
the atmosphere that were never dreamt of in
our philosophy.
Again, it is possible for a cloud to deposit
its shower before reaching the observer; and
by his following the rain-cloud with his
spectroscope he will in some cases become
sensible of a diminution in the rainband after
it has passed, and perhaps perceive what has
astonished me in one or two instances, and
that is, an actual increase in the band as the
cloud recedes. What can be the cause of this
increase? Is it an aggregation of nimbus
clouds ? or is it perhaps a greater thickness
of the rain vapour as seen through the long
axis of the cloud ? or is it possibly an altera-
tion in the invisible vapour preparatory to a
heavier precipitation ? These are questions
that are very difficult for a single observer
to reply to. The only way to solve this pro-
blem is to have reports from accurate spec-
troscopists, with numerous rain-gauges sta-
28 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
tioned at various points in the surrounding-
country.
Many a time, whilst watching waterspouts
in the tropics, I have noticed that when one
increases another decreases, although a
distance of several miles may separate them.
This fact may probably have some bearing on
the question.
The more the correlation between rainfall
and rainband is considered, so much the
greater seems the influence of electricity and
temperature in governing the precipitation of
aqueous vapour; the latter, no doubt, is a
great factor, for it has frequently been
remarked that a sudden reduction of tempera-
ture has produced torrents of rain with a
moderately high rainband.
Here the barometer is a most reliable guide,
by informing us of the increasing body of
wind prevailing over the ground current,
which upper current may possibly be a cold
north-east or warm south-west, the glass
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 29
falling with the latter and rising with the
former. Another item of especial value in
predicting rain is to take account of the differ-
ence between the rainband at the zenith and
near the horizon; the greater the range the
less likelihood of rain, and vice versd, except
in cases of low percentage. Of course, if a
thick mist is prevailing, the rainband ma} 7 be
the same wherever you point the spectroscope;
and by noticing when it lessens at the zenith,
you can foretell the clearing away of the
visible aqueous particles. The value for rain
in the last instance depends upon the amount
of rainband present.
In several mists during the last winter both
Mr. Rand Capron and myself have remarked
the band unusually high. The indications of
the rainband in all cases will be somewhat
negatived if the dry-air bands are in excess,
especially the a band. I would suggest to
observers, for the better comparison of rain or
snow and rainband, to take frequent notes of
30 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
the temperature w the rain gauge of the rain
that falls.
We will pass on now to the spectroscopic
previsions of thunderstorms. The effect of
these on the spectrum is to darken certain
parts for instance, the blue becomes deeper,
and looks further away, the F line very in-
distinct, and the green apparently prominent
and nearer the eye a peculiarity I partly
attribute to the increase of the rainband at w.
This prominence of the green is only to be
seen in spectroscopes of moderate dispersion,
and not in the larger instruments. The
blended bands at 8 and v are much more
conspicuous, and extend more towards the
blue (they must not be confused with the
dark band seen at S with low sun). The
rainband may be much or little, depending
greatly upon the quantity of hail and rain
attending the storm. This hail in a few
instances seems to veil the rain-vapour behind
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 31
it from the spectroscope, and proves a dis-
appointment to the observer who depends
entirely upon the rainband. The small
amount of the dry-air band at oc must also be
considered, and an increase of the a with less
distinctness of the B. All these features make
up the special spectrum noticeable more or
less in advance of thunderstorms.
I well recollect one instance in which all
these features w r ere so very strongly marked
at the time of observing, about 10 a.m., that
I confidently prophesied a storm would take
place, although none of the other instruments,
nor any particular aspect of the sky, nor high
temperature with oppressiveness, indicated
that such an aerial disturbance was about to
occur; yet certain enough, in the evening,
about seven o'clock, the storm did come, much
to the astonishment of a great many, includ-
ing the friends with whom I was staying.
The prismatic colours, more especially the
32 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
blue and yellow, are useful guides as to the
presence or absence of ozone in the air. If
the air is very pure, the blue will be clear, and
the F line will stand out distinctly; the yellow
will show itself a true yellow, or have an
orange tinge. On the other hand, when the
reverse is the case, the yellow will have a
greenish hue, and the blue will be deep and
dark, with an indistinctness of the hydrogen
line F. In most cases this peculiarity in the
colours will be found to precede the atmo-
spheric conditions.
I should recommend the observer to make it
his first care, when using the spectroscope, to
take note of any alteration in the true colours,
as they will be found to change after looking
for a short time through the instrument. The
next thing is the amount of rainband (on
sky free of cloud, if possible), at about 13
degrees all around, and then at the zenith.
After this, begin at the blue end and work
towards the red, carefully scanning the appear-
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 33
ance of the constant lines, moist and dry air
bands; notice if they are clear, indistinct, hazy,
well-defined, or prominent, and finish up by
noting the depth of shade at the red end
for a change of weather in certain conditions of
the atmosphere is frequently heralded by its
becoming clearer.
For the satisfactory prediction of weather
it is highly necessary to keep a record of
observations on a chart and in a note-book.
On the former ought to be dotted down the
percentage of rainband for eight points of the
compass and zenith ; also that in the direction
of the wind, or towards the quarter it is most
likely to blow from in the course of the next
twelve hours. The reason of the last is obvious,
for we necessarily must expect the weather to
come from that direction. In the note-book
enter the peculiarities of the spectrum already
noticed, and finally calculate, from what you
have observed, the probabilities of rain or
fine.
3
34
HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
After a few months' practice, it is astonishing
with what rapidity one can conduct a sys-
tematic observation. I use four spectroscopes
of different dispersion in my atmospheric
studies. A large two-prism one, with photo-
FIG. 5.
graphed micrometer (vide Fig. 5), arranged
on a wooden alt-azimuth stand, with mirror
for viewing the sun at different altitudes. It
has three powders : the highest enlarging the
rainband enormously, and enabling you to
just discern two or three lines between the
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE.
35
two D lines. A micro-spectroscope of small
dispersion (Fig. 6). The first form of rain-
band spectroscope (Fig. 1), which, being
accustomed to, I feel reluctant to disqualify
fat/ffCS.
FIG.
it for Grace's new and better form of hygro-
spectroscope (Fig. 3). To the last I have
adapted a stand (originally intended to hold
a condenser), to steady it and meet the require-
32
36 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
ments of altitude and azimuth. Grace's is the
best all-round spectroscope, for reasons already
referred to in a former page, and taken in con-
junction with the other meteorological instru-
ments will prove of great assistance to the
observer in prognosticating weather.
THE PORTABLE CLOUD MIRROR.
I have devised a very simple pocket cloud-
mirror to assist the observer in ascertaining
the direction from which clouds are travelling ;
for it is a fact well known to meteorologists
that the direction the upper clouds (cirri) are
taking will often indicate the coming wind, two
or three days beforehand. An outline of this
apparatus is given in Fig. 7.
It is constructed of a plain circular mirror,
two or three inches in diameter. Let into
the centre is a small compass; from its cir-
cumference eight lines radiate to the outer
edge of the reflector; the termini of these lines
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 37
are equidistant from each other, and corre-
spond to the eight points of the compass.
To use the mirror it is only necessary to
The Portable Cloudj Mirror
FIG. 7.
make one of the radiating lines coincide with
the direction of the needle, then, if requisite,
tilt the mirror, and observe the reflection of
38 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER.
some sharp edge of cloud, and by the help of
the lines notice from which direction it is tra-
velling. This can frequently be accomplished
in a few seconds.
s
fo
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
Diagrams of : Percentage of cases of rain and snow for
different intensities of rainband Position of lines in
spectrum Lines forming the rainband.
PLATE I.
IN this chart the actual appearances of the
lines and bands of the spectrum are not in-
tended to be represented, but merely their
relative positions as seen in Grace's spectro-
scope. In the case of the bands, such as 8
and v, the line is drawn as nearly as possible
in the centre of the shading.
To the red side of D will be noticed the two
lines, or rather, under sufficient amplification,
two sets of lines, of the principal rainband.
42 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEA2HER
PLATE II.
Here are shown the vapour lines comprising
the rainband. The two sets of lines before
mentioned are delineated at a and b. The
heavy, moderate, and slight lines are correctly
placed and proportioned, and the very fine
lines only approximately so. Their thickness
varies with different conditions of atmospheric
moisture. In the construction of the diagram
a two-prism spectroscope with photographed
micrometer was used, the light of the sun
at a low altitude falling direct on the slit of
the instrument.
PLATE III.
The reader will see at a glance, in this
Plate, the percentage of cases of rain and
snow for each proportionate amount of rain-
band. The number of times that rain occurs
within twenty-four hours increases with the
darkness of the rainband, and vice vcn-d.
On the other hand, the rainband will be
1883
Rcwrv STWW or JJcfH
80
r iO
60
8L
50
40
5 30 26 W 30 25 20 15 10
Haunband )
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 47
observed to decrease with an increase in the
number of instances in which snow falls.
There are two apparent discrepancies which
demand a little explanation. I refer, firstly,
to the tendency of the line on the rain side to
rise at 20 per cent.; this is due to the fact that
five cases of cold rain were included in the
computation of the percentage ; but I think
it may be almost safely surmised that these
five ought to have been made use of on the
snow -side of the diagram, as it is highly pro-
bable that they were melted snow; if this be
admitted, and the alteration made, the lines
connecting the percentage will present a much
more direct course. Secondly, the number of
cases at 40 per cent, of rainband one w r ould
naturally expect to be more, and probably
rather less at 35 per cent., than is represented.
It is possible that errors in calculating amount
of rainband may account for these anomalies.
The conclusions to be gathered from this
diagram are the following : That where the
48 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
rainband is completely absent, snow will
almost invariably occur. In all cases of 45
per cent, and upwards, rain will fall within
twenty-four hours.
These lead one to the indisputable inference
that the rainband increases before rain, and
diminishes before snow.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 49
APPENDIX.
THE following correspondence and leading
article appeared in the Times during Sep-
tember, 1882. Since then the author has
had, with only one exception, no reason to
modify his experience as detailed in the two
letters that he contributed. In the second
rule of his first communication he advises, in a
general way, to point the spectroscope in a
northerly direction, according to the plan
adopted by Professor Piazzi Smyth ; but from
further experience, and greater familiarity
with the instrument, better results were
obtained by observing towards the direction of
the wind, or to the point it was most likely to
change to in the course of the day. In 1882
the deductions from the hygro-spectroscope
were somewhat wrapped in mystery there
4
50 HO W TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
are still many points that require clearing up ;
but the author feels sure that the reader, by
carefully attending to the rules laid down in
the preceding account, will meet with success,
and experience an increasing interest in the
indications of an instrument of such telescopic
power.
From the Times of Sept. 12tb, 1882.
A correspondent writes under date Edin-
burgh, Sept. 8th :
' In this uncertain climate of ours
" variable as the shade " everything that
bears on the forecasting of the weather is of
interest and importance. We have not heard
much hitherto of the spectroscope as a gauge
of the atmosphere. In Scotland we have had
this week what appears to be a very striking
instance of its trustworthiness in that capacity.
On Tuesday morning the following letter
appeared in the Scotsman :
' " SIR,
'"Last Friday morning the spectroscopic ( rain-
band ' was the blackest and most intense of the season ;
and your issue of Saturday morning announced destruc-
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 51
tive floods, from most heavy rainfalls in various parts of
Scotland, to have occurred on that day Friday.
' " But this morning Monday, September 4th there
is an absence of the ' rainband,' and a clearing away of
all the watery vapour lines in the spectrum of sky-light,
to an extent not equalled during the last two or three
months.
4 " In a powerful spectroscope the two solar D lines now
stand out clear and clean, in place of being almost lost,
as all through last month, in a thicket of terrestrial water-
vapour lines. So the farmers may be enabled to gather
in their crops at last, dry and in good condition, though,
probably, in rather cold and sharp weather.
' " I am, etc.,
' " C. P. S."
' The writer is quite well known to be Mr.
Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer Koyal for Scotland,
and Professor of Astronomy in the University
of Edinburgh. How far, then, has his predic-
tion been fulfilled ? The answer is amply
up to this date. Since Sunday we have had
a succession of magnificent harvest days.
Tuesday morning was rather dull, and it
appeared at first as if the very confident fore-
cast were about to be belied at once ; but the
clouds cleared off in the forenoon, and there
was brilliant sunshine with a cloudless sky
52 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
during the greater part of the day. Wednesday
was a repetition of Tuesday; and as the wind
blew from the north-west, the air was " rather
cold and sharp," as the Professor's letter
predicted. What made the case all the more
curious and striking, was the fact that on both
these days the forecasts of the Meteorological
Office told us to expect " showery and un-
settled " weather over the greater part of
Scotland. The prediction for Wednesday was
"fair at first, then wet and unsettled." It
was more than " fair," not only " at first,"
but all day it was unusually bright and clear.
During Tuesday and Wednesday the barometer
rose steadily till it reached 30'388. It fell a
little on Thursday, but it stood at 30-335 at
night. The forecast of the Meteorological
Office for Thursday was, " South- westerly to
north-westerly winds, increasing in force;
becoming unsettled and rainy." In point of
fact, the wind was westerly all day ; and,
instead of increasing in force, it fell away
toward evening to a calm. The weather did
not become " unsettled and rainy;" not a drop
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 53
of rain fell all day. The evening seemed
more settled than the morning ; and at eleven
o'clock at night the stars sparkled brilliantly,
and there was not a cloud in the sky. ! To-day
(Friday) opened with an over-clouded sky, but
no rain has yet fallen, although the official
forecast warns us that the day will be " fair
at first, then unsettled and rainy." As the
barometer has again taken an upward turn, we
may hope that this prediction will be again
falsified.
' These results appear to me to be very
striking and noteworthy. There has been
during the week a very marked conflict of
opinion between the chemists and the meteoro-
logists, and thus far, at least, the chemists
have carried the day. The practical lesson
seems to be that more attention ought to be
given than seems hitherto to have been the
practice to the spectroscopic analysis of the
atmosphere. There may have been ex-
ceptional circumstances in the atmospheric
conditions of the week of which I am not
aware, and which have favoured the use of
54 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
the spectroscope. But the indubitable fact
remains that in this instance the spectro-
scopic prevision has been amply justified and
proved to be correct, while the ordinary
meteorological forecasts have been from clay to
day entirely wrong/
From the Times of Sept. 14th, 1882.
SIR,
As the subject of forecasting rain by
means of the amount of rainband in the spectro-
scope has been brought forward by one of your
correspondents, I beg to add my quota of
experience in regard to it. For the sake of
brevity, I will merely give a resume of the
result of my daily examinations with this
instrument.
1. In taking observations it is very im-
portant to have both the slit in the spectro-
scope and the focus properly adjusted.
2. In a general way it is best to confine
the observations to one particular part of the
sky in a northerly direction, and at an angle
of between 10 and 20 from the horizon.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 55
3. If the amount of rainband is 20 per
cent, or under, there will be fine weather
certainly for about six hours.
4. If the percentage of rainband, say at
7 "a.m., is 60 and at 10 a.m. it has decreased
to 30, that is no reason that fine weather may
follow for that day, although probably no
heavy rain will take place.
5. If the spectroscope be directed to the
zenith, and 80 per cent, of the dark band
is shown, a downpour of rain will certainly
happen before long. I have observed this
several times with a high and steady barometer,
and at the time not much appearance of rain
notably on September 5, when the spectro-
scope indicated rain, but the other instruments
did not.
From a careful trial of this valuable adjunct
to the study of weather, I have come to the
conclusion that the use of it, meteorologically
speaking, has been most strangely neglected ;
for I feel certain that our forecasts would be
considerably improved if the observers at the
various stations in connection with the
56 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
Meteorological Office were to report at the
same time with their other observations of
wind, temperature, etc., the percentage of
rainband in the spectroscope. The price of
it places it within reach of most persons ; and,
as regards convenience of portableness, it is
easily carried in the waistcoat pocket. Of
course, a little practice is required to read the
percentage of rainband, but I have found some
take to it quite naturally.
I am, sir, yours obediently,
F. W. CORY, F.M.S.
Bucklmrst-hill, Essex, Sept. 12th.
From the Times of Sept. 19th, 1882.
SIR,
The letters which have recently
appeared in the Times under this heading
testify to so much interest in the subject, that
I venture to send the following remarks, which
are the result of prolonged observation on
every side of the question.
But first let me explain to your general
readers what the spectroscopic ' rainband ' is.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 57
If we look through a spectroscope directed to
any portion of the sky, we see a spectrum
tinted riband, crossed with thin black lines.
One of the strongest of these, situate in the
orange, is technically known as the D line.
When the instrument is directed to a pure
blue sky, this line is thin and faint ; but in
certain conditions of cloud or sky, the red side
of the line has a dark shadow, as if it had
been shaded down with a bit of rough black
chalk. This shading is the rainband of
Professor P. Smyth, who maintains that the
relative darkness of- this band is a measure of
the nearness or quantity of rain.
Unfortunately, my own observations show
that, though there is scarcely any exception
to the appearance of the rainband being
speedily followed by rain, yet there are
numberless cases of impending or actual rain
during which no band is visible : and that, at
the same moment, one portion of the sky will
give a band, while a neighbouring portion will
show none at all. With one exception I
have never seen a rainband except when
58 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
common weather lore would have said it was
going to rain, while in many cases I have
observed such trustworthy prognostics as
haloes when no rainband was visible.
In fact, the rainband appears to be simply
a new sky prognostic, in many respects inferior
to those in current use, though in a few cases
affording information which they do not.
Of what use is any sky prognostic in weather
forecasting ? The whole system of modern
meteorology turns round the shape of isobaric
lines as .seen on charts similar to those
published daily in the Times. Observation
has shown that every shape of isobarics has a
characteristic weather and appearance, so that
there is little use in telegraphing up the
occurrence of the rainband ; for, given the
chart, a meteorologist can write down on it
not only the general weather, but the position
of most of the best-known prognostics at the
moment. His forecasts are based on the
estimate he forms of the change which is
likely to take place in the shape of the isobars
during the next twenty-four hours. The
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 59
nature of these changes is still very imperfectly
known, but they certainly do not admit of any
mathematical calculation, like the situation of
a planet. The position of a forecaster is more
like that of a physician, who, although he has
classified the symptoms and ordinary course of
any disease, is still obliged to rely on his own
judgment, to a great extent, in giving the
prognosis of each particular case.
These are the principles on which the fore-
casts issued by the Meteorological Office are
based. For the days, and at the station from
which your Scotch correspondent writes, the
forecasts were certainly not so successful as
could be wished for, or as is usually the
case. The causes of failure cannot, of course,
be discussed in the columns of the Times ; but
I doubt whether the public have any idea of
the difficulty of forecasting, and even of check-
ing broken or unsettled weather like that to
which he alludes. Under those conditions,
rainfall is so local that half an inch may fall
at one place, while twenty miles off not a drop
will be seen ; and from the description he
60 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
gives of his weather, I strongly suspect that,
if more records were obtained from the district
to which the forecasts applied, they would he
found to be more successful than he is inclined
to think.
Anyhow, it is certain that a forecaster who
relied on the spectroscope only would meet
with most disheartening failures ; and though
there is doubtless a rich field of research open
to the student of spectral vapour lines, I fear
that meteorologists have little to hope for from
the spectroscope in forecasting weather.
Yours obediently,
EALPH ABERCROMBY, F.M.S.
21, Chapel-street, S.W., Sept. 16th.
From the Times of Sept. 21st, 1882.
SIR,
Mr. E. Abercromby's ' prolonged ob-
servation ' of the spectroscope and weather
forecasting must have been made with a very
inefficient instrument, and with a very limited
knowledge of the objects of observation ;
otherwise it would be difficult to understand
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 61
why lie should describe the so-called rain-
band at D simply as a ' shading,' without
reference to the very pronounced lines seen in
it when there is much moisture in the air ; or
why he should state that Professor P. Smyth
1 maintains that the relative darkness of this
band is a measure of the nearness or quantity
of rain,'
The Astronomer Eoyal for Scotland is well
able to take care of himself ; and I would not
advert to this travesty of his teaching but
that some of those who are proposing to use
the spectroscope for meteorological purposes
may be misled.
Aqueous vapour absorbs light at several
parts of the spectrum, but principally or
perhaps I should rather say more visibly on
the red side of D, and near on the blue side
of c. These absorptions are simply a measure
of the amount of aqueous vapour in the atmo-
sphere. (For reasons which I will not enter
upon now, I believe that the absorption at the
last-named portion of the spectrum, termed by
Professor P. Smyth t c/ is due to a grosser
62 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
molecule of aqueous vapour than that which
absorbs near D. With a thick mist there is
often an almost entire absence of absorption
near D, while at c the absorption is strong.
c and the band at D do not vary together.)
Temperature must therefore be considered
before the darkness of the rainband can be
interpreted as an indication of rain.
When we remember the enormously greater
thickness of the earth's atmosphere that a ray
of sunlight has to traverse when we observe
on the horizon than when we observe near
the zenith ; when we remember, further, that
the wind may have just commenced to bring
up quantities of aqueous vapour from a
particular quarter, it will be evident that Mr.
Abercroniby's statement * that at the same
moment one portion of the sky will give a
band, while a neighbouring portion will show
none/ may be quite correct without affecting
the question at issue.
I fear to trespass further on your space,
but I trust I have said enough to indicate the
true answers to Mr. Abercromby's difficulties.
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 63
I will only point out, in conclusion, that as a
knowledge of the isobars can only tell us the
probable direction of the wind, a knowledge of
the amount of moisture the wind is bearing
more accurate because more general than
that afforded by the hygrometer must be an
important factor in weather forecasting.
I am, sir, yours obediently,
J. F. D. D.
Sept. 19th.
From the Times of Sept. 22nd, 1882.
Sm,
I can confirm all the warnings of
your correspondent, Mr. Ealph Abercromby,
on the difficulty and uncertainty attending
spectroscopic forecasting of weather.
I have lately concluded a yachting cruise
of seven weeks on the west coast of Scotland.
I had with me a pocket spectroscope of admir-
able clearness of definition, made by Mr.
Browning, of London ; and I observed it
frequently during all varieties of weather. I
never could see that the ( rainband ' had any
predictive value. It was present frequently
64 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
in weather comparatively settled, and it was
sometimes evanescent or absent during fine
intervals of weather which was very wet and
very broken.
I must add, however, that the ordinary
aneroid barometer was equally useless for
predictive purposes. It was unusually high
for days together, during which the weather
was very unsettled, with violent rain, and
even some severe gales. It completely failed
to indicate one gale of exceptional violence,
which happened on the night of August 20 ;
and generally I may say that throughout the
season it has risen and fallen contempo-
raneously with the changes of weather, and
not in anticipation of them.
One very remarkable fact, however, I have
observed this season, as I have often observed
it before that our barometer here almost in-
variably indicates the raging of great gales
over the western and even the southern shores
of England.
Mr. Piazzi Smyth certainly made a ' good
shot ' in his recent letter to the Scotsman, pre-
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 65
dieting some fine dry weather from a spectro-
scopic forecast. And it may be that the laws
regulating the appearances of the ' rainband '
are yet capable of yielding good results to
skilled observers. But I suspect the skill is
not very easily attainable with our present
knowledge. Your obedient servant,
ARGYLL,
Inverary, Sept. 20th.
From the Times of Sept. 23rd, 1882,
SIR,
What may be done with the spectro-
scope in the matter of weather is, for the
present at least, confined almost entirely to
the question of rain as, Will it rain, or will
it not ; and, if it will, heavily or lightly ?
The manner in which the spectroscope accom-
plishes this useful part is by its capacity for
showing whether there is more or less than
the usual quantity of watery vapour permeat-
ing the otherwise dry gases in the upper parts
of the atmosphere, this watery vapour not
being by any means the visible clouds them-
selves, but the invisible water-gas out of which
they have to be formed, and by means of
5
66 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
which, when over-abundant, they obtain their
privilege for enacting rainfall. So that never
were wiser words uttered and more terse philo-
sophy than those which are to be found in
the ancient Book of Job, wherein, of the
wondrously * balanced clouds ' high up in mid-
air, it is said, * They pour down rain according
to the vapour thereof/
More or less of this water- vapour is always
in the air, even on the very clearest days, and
a happy thing for men that it is so ; for, as
Dr. Tyndall and others have well shown, it
moderates the excesses of hot solar radiation
by day and cold radiation of the sky at night,
and is more abundant in the hotter than the
colder parts of the earth. Wherefore, accord-
ing largely to its temperature for the time
being, the air otherwise consisting almost
entirely of nitrogen and oxygen can sustain,
and does assimilate, as it were, a specified
amount of this watery vapour, invisibly to the
naked eye, the microscope, or the telescope ;
but not so to the instrument of recent times,
the spectroscope. And if the air vertically
above any one place becomes presently charged
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 67
with more than its usual dose of such trans-
parent watery vapour (as it easily may, by
various modes and processes of nature), the
spectroscope shows that fact immediately, even
while the sky is still blue ; clouds soon after
form, or thicken if already formed, and rain
presently begins to descend.
But how does the spectroscope show to the
eye what is declared to be invisible in all
ordinary optical instruments ? It is partly
by its power of discriminating the differently
coloured rays of which white light is made up,
and partly by the quality impressed on the
molecules of water at their primeval creation,
but only recently discovered, of stopping out
certain of those rays so discriminated and
placed in a rainbow-coloured order by the prism
and slit of the spectroscope, but transmitting
others freely. Hence it is that on looking at the
light of the sky through any properly-adjusted
spectroscope we see, besides the Newtonian
series of colours from red to violet, and besides
all the thin, dark Fraunhofer, or solar origin-
ated lines, of which it is not my object now
52
68 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
to speak, we see, I say, in one very definite
part viz., between the orange and yellow of
that row of colours, or ' spectrum/ as it is
called a dark, hazy band stretching across it.
That is the chief band of watery vapour ; and
to see it very dark, even black, do not look
at a dark part of the sky or of black clouds
therein, but look, rather, where the sky is
brightest, fullest of light to the naked eye,
and where you can see through the greatest
length of such well-illumined air as at a low,
rather than high, angle of altitude, and either
in warm weather, or, above all, just before a
heavy rainfall, when there is, and must be, an
extra supply of watery vapour in the atmo-
sphere. Any extreme darkness, therefore,
seen in that water- vapour band beyond what
is usual for the season of the year and the
latitude of the place, is an indication of rain-
material accumulating abnormally ; while, on
the other hand, any notable deficiency in the
darkness of it, other circumstances being the
same, gives probability of dry weather, or
absence of rain for very want of material to
make it ; and the band, has, therefore, been
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 69
called, shortly, ' the rainband.' Thus, also,
' rainband spectroscopes ' have been specially
constructed by several most expert opticians
in size so small as to be carriable in the waist-
coat pocket, but so powerful and true that a
glance of two seconds' duration through one
of them suffices to tell an experienced observer
the general condition of the whole atmosphere.
Especially, too, of the upper parts of it, where
any changes as they take place there almost
invariably earlier than below enable such an
observer to favour his friends around him with
a prevision of what they are likely soon to
experience.
As an example of what may be done, and
done easily, after a certain amount of experi-
ence and understanding of the subject has been
acquired, I append, from a lady's meteoro-
logical journal, her notes of the mean tempera-
ture of the air and the intensity of the rain-
band for each of the first fifteen days of the
present month ; and in a final column have
entered the amount of rainfall measured at the
Eoyal Observatory, Edinburgh, on each of
those days. The darker the rainband, the
70 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
larger is the figure set down for it ; and it will
be seen pretty plainly, on running the eye down
that column and the next one, that with an
intensity of either or 1 no rain follows,
or, we might also say, can follow ; but with
an intensity of 2 rainfall begins, and with
3 it may be very heavy. All these rain-
band notes have been made with a spectro-
scope no larger than one's little finger, pur-
chased some six years ago and taken on many
voyages and travels since then :
Date, September, 1882.
Mean Tem-
perature of
the Air.
Rainband
Intensity.
Depth of Rain
measured in
gauge at Royal
Observatory,
Edinburgh.
Beg. Fahr.
Inch.
Friday, 1st
57-1
3
044
Saturday, 2nd
59-2
2
353
Sunday, 3rd
58-6
2
015
Monday, 4th
54-4
Tuesday, 5th
55-7
1
Wednesday, 6th ...
55-2
Thursday, 7th ...
53-8
1
Friday, 8th
59-4
Saturday, 9th
54-0
1
Sunday, 10th
57-0
1
Monday, llth
52-2
1
040
Tuesday, 12th ...
48 -G
Wednesday, 13th
52-8
1
Thursday, 14th ...
49-5
3
062
Friday, 15th
56-2
2
570
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 71
But if so much can be done by so small a
spectroscope, the question may be well asked
whether more still might not be accomplished
with a bigger and more powerful one, espe-
cially seeing that the dispersive powers of
both chemical and astronomical spectroscopes
have in late years been increased to a most
astonishing extent. The question is impor-
tant, and somewhat new as well. I propose,
therefore, to devote the remainder of my space
to its answer, rather than to the practical rules
for using the smaller instruments, especially,
too, as they have been already introduced to
the public, both by my friend Mr. Eand
Capron, in his pamphlet, 'A Plea for the
Rainband,' and by myself in the fourteenth
volume of the ' Edinburgh Astronomical Ob-
servations ;' also in the journal of the Scottish
Meteorological Society, and in the September
number of the ' Astronomical Eegister ' for
1877.
The greater part of higher power spectro-
scopes are not suitable to rainband work, for
their fields are usually too dark. But having
72 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
recently built up for myself a large-sized
variety of the instrument, possessing, per-
haps, the greatest combination of power with
transparency yet attained, and having it always
mounted in an upper chamber, looking out at
an altitude of about 5 over the north-western
horizon (or most suitably for ramband work),
I will try to describe shortly its action therein.
The classical ' rainband,' which in the little
instrument is merely a very narrow fringe to
an almost infinitely thin black line, is so
magnified laterally in the larger instrument
as to fill the whole breadth of the field. The
thin black line before spoken of is now not
only split into two, but each of these are
strong, thick, sharply defined lines, separated
from each other by six or seven times the
breadth of either. These are the celebrated
Solar D lines, Dl and D2, arising from the
sodium metalloid burning or incandescent in
the sun. They are, therefore, perfectly un-
influenced by changes of the terrestrial atmo-
sphere, hot or cold, wet or dry, and are,
therefore, invaluable as references for degree
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 73
of visibility of the water-vapour lines and
bands which rise or fall in intensity precisely
with those changes. There are several of
these earthly water-vapour lines and bands
in and between and about the D lines
themselves ; then a long breadth of band
towards the red side of Dl ; then a pair of
lines not so widely apart as the D lines, but
sometimes just as sharp and black ; then two
or three fainter bands ; then a grand triple,
of which the nearer line sometimes attains
greater blackness than either D line ; then
beyond that three distinct, equal-spaced,
isolated bands ; and further away towards the
red a stretch of faint haze and hazebands.
All these go to make up the one thin rain-
band of the little spectroscopes ; and I for-
tunately had, through the month of August
and the early days of September, occupied
myself each morning in noting the greater
or less intensity of each, and all these water-
vapour lines and bands in terms of the two
Solar constants Dl and D2 ; and every such
morning there was an abundance of details to
74 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
see, to recognise, and to measure. But on
the morning of Monday, September 4th, when
the little instrument had truly enough marked
on its very small scale, I almost started at
finding in the large instrument every member
of its long rainband group, unless it were a
vanishing trace of one or two of the strongest,
utterly gone ; while the two D lines were in
their accustomed strength, but far greater
clearness, for now they were all alone in the
field, save the ultra thin Solar nickel line
between them and one or two others, equally
thin and Solar on their blue side. The stages
of perceptible shade of water-vapour lines
which had thus been swept away, between
their this day's invisibility and their tre-
mendous strength no longer before than the
previous Friday, might have been expressed
by a scale not divided into three parts only,
but into thirty ; and implied such a very un-
usual amount of absence of water-vapour,
that I not only felt sure of no rain falling
either next day or perhaps for several days
after, but that the weather must also be
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 75
coming on colder as well. Therefore it was
that I took the step of instantly writing as I
did to a local paper, promising the perplexed
farmers dry weather at last, though probably
sharp and cold, to get in their crops.
And how was that expectation fulfilled ?
Various meteorologists in different parts of
the country have already declared themselves
well satisfied with it. But I would now beg
further attention to the little daily register
already quoted, showing that from and in-
cluding that day, Monday, September 4th, up
to and including the next Saturday, not a
drop of rain fell at the Observatory. Between
the following Sunday and Monday a drizzle,
but only amounting to O04 inch, occurred,
and after that there were three more days
equally dry with the preceding ones. But
on Thursday, the 14th, the rain-band re-
appeared in both spectroscopes in all its
force ; rain began to fall the same day,
and next day's measure at the Observatory
amounted to more than half an inch. Where-
fore it is to be hoped that the farmers had
76 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
busied themselves effectively while the dry
weather lasted, for the return of these spectral
lines of watery vapour showed that their
autumn opportunity was then gone by.
C. PIAZZI SMYTH,
Astronomer-Boy al for Scotland.
15, Royal-terrace, Edinburgh, Sept. 20th.
From the Times of Sept. 25th, 1882.
SIR,
Allow me to trespass a little further
on your valuable space, as I think the diffi-
culties the Duke of Argyll and Mr. Ralph
Abercromby have experienced can be easily
explained ; and, moreover, it seems to me
that the arguments they advance against the
spectroscope for meteorological purposes rather
prove the value of it than otherwise that is
to say, if used on a large scale at numerous
stations. I will simply mention the follow-
ing facts to bear out my statement. For
instance, in the centre of a cyclone it is
generally fine, and a very slight rainband
may be visible in the spectroscope. In such
a case, rain is, comparatively speaking, far
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 77
off. Of course, its approach to the observer
depends mainly upon the rate of the pro-
gressive motion of the storm.
During wet weather the rainband is not
unfrequently almost absent. This, for the
most part, denotes finer weather to follow.
Again, in many instances I have observed a
strong rainband in beautiful weather with
light and innocent-looking cumuli floating in
the sky ; and, as I afterwards ascertained, rain
had fallen about the same time at a distance
of at least ten miles from this place. I have
good reason to believe from several experi-
ments that, in whatever direction a strong
rainband is shown, in such a direction rain is
falling, or about to fall. The immense
advantage of this indication in forecasting
precipitation of aqueous vapour will be suffi-
ciently obvious to most of your readers, so
that I need not dwell any further on this
point. I hope individual observers do not
infer from my letter in the Times of the 14th
that the spectroscope can be used alone in
forecasting. I only recommended it as a
78 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
valuable adjunct to the study of the
weather.
I am, sir, yours obediently,
F. W. CORY, F.M.S.
Buckhurst-hill, Essex, Sept. 22nd.
From the Times of Sept. 23rd, 1882.
It is recorded of a former Minister of the
United States in this country that he was
asked, soon after the commencement of his
sojourn among us, what he thought of the
English climate. He replied that he had not
experienced any climate, but plenty of weather.
The abundance to which he thus bore testi-
mony is unfortunately attended by the dis-
advantage of extreme irregularity; to the
extent that much of the important business of
life, and also many of its pleasures, are
seriously hindered by the difficulty of making
previous arrangements for the accomplishment
of any project with which bad weather would
interfere. From the gathering in of the
harvest to the organization of a picnic-party,
the weather either promotes or thwarts our
WIHT THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 79
schemes ; arid hence there has never been
any lack of watchfulness for conditions upon
which prognostications concerning it might
be safely founded. In nearly every village
there is some patriarch who is popularly
believed to be unusually gifted with weather
wisdom, or to have paid unusual attention to
slight signs which escape the unobserving,
and who is consequently sought for and con-
sulted alike by the frivolous and by the
earnest. The actions of the lower animals
have been studied for the sake of the powers
of weather foresight which many of them are
commonly believed to possess ; and much
popular lore of this kind has been tersely
summed up by Gilbert White, in the metrical
version of forty rules for predicting rain which
is appended to the ' Natural History of
Selborne/ More than forty years since one
Murphy undertook to predict the weather for
each day a whole year in advance, and issued
an almanack containing his predictions.
Early in January one of these was fulfilled in
an unexpected way, with the result that the
So HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
shop of his publisher was literally besieged by
an eager crowd of would-be purchasers, by the
first of whom the existing edition was speedily
exhausted, with the consequence that the
disappointed remainder had to be kept in
order and dispersed by guardians of the public
peace. A new edition was quickly prepared ;
but the predictions for subsequent days were
less lucky, and the almanack, although issued
annually for a time, soon fell into total dis-
repute.
Other prophets of weather have since arisen,
concerning some of whom the most charitable
view would be to suspect them of insanity ;
but it is only within the last few years that
scientific observations of meteorological
changes have been conducted with sufficient
precision to afford hope of trustworthy results.
The power conferred by the telegraph of
ascertaining from hour to hour what is occur-
ring in remote places has been utilized for the
purpose of making known the weather which
is apparently on its way to these latitudes ;
and the predictions based upon this knowledge
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 81
Lave been fulfilled with sufficient frequency
to render it apparent that the method of
inquiry is a useful one, while, at the same
time, they have been falsified so often as to
show that some of the causes which may
interfere with the transit of weather are not
yet fully understood. A storm may appear
to be directly on its way to us, and yet,
before it reaches our shores, it may be so
deflected as never actually to arrive upon
them. Until the laws of atmospheric move-
ment have been more fully investigated,
sources of error will not be entirely set aside;
but the existence of these does not affect the
truth that the forecasts now made are often of
great practical value to the country.
Our columns have lately contained a cor-
respondence on a new aid towards predict-
ing weather which is manifestly worthy of
attention. On Tuesday, the 5th of September,
a letter, since acknowledged to have been
written by Mr. Piazzi Smyth, Astronomer
Eoyal for Scotland, appeared in the Scotsman
newspaper ; and in this letter the writer pre-
6
82 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
dieted some days of fine weather, upon the
ground of the disappearance ef the usual spec-
troscopic evidence of the presence of watery
vapour in the atmosphere. His prediction,
although it was opposed to the forecasts of
the Meteorological Office, was justified by the
event in a striking manner ; and it has since
given rise to an animated controversy. As
a contribution to this controversy, we print
to-day a letter from Mr. Smyth, in which he
enters somewhat fully into the rationale of his
observations ; and this may be summarized in
the following manner. The light which comes
to us from the sun is, in fact, wave move-
ment in an infinitely subtle fluid ; and the
waves are of several different rapidities of re-
currence, these differences impressing the eyes
as differences of colour. When light is
passed through a prism, the waves of the
most rapid recurrence are most refracted, or
bent out of their original course ; while those
of the least rapid recurrence are least bent ;
the former producing to the eye the sensation
of violet, the latter the sensation of red. In-
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 83
termediate between them are other colours,
depending upon waves of intermediate
rapidities, the general result being that the
beam of light acted upon is spread out into a
party-coloured band or spectrum. The light
proceeding from the sun would furnish a
continuous spectrum ; but in passing through
the solar envelopes, or through the atmo-
sphere, some portion of it is quenched by
collision with wave movement precisely of the
same pitch, the waves neutralizing each other,
and producing stillness, when the summits of
one series fall precisely into the hollows of
the other. Hence the solar spectrum is
traversed by a number of dark lines in definite
positions, and one of these, which appears
single in small instruments, although in larger
ones it admits of separation into constituent
parts, is due to the presence of watery vapour
in the atmosphere. Mr. Smyth points out
that this watery vapour is, so to speak, the
raw material of rain, and that without it rain
cannot be produced. He therefore infers
that its total absence involves of necessity a
62
84 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER
period of dry weather, and that its marked
presence indicates a state of things in which
the material for rain is abundant, and in which
rainfall must, therefore, be regarded as highly
probable.
Assuming the facts to be as stated, the
letters of the correspondents who have ex-
pressed doubts of the utility of the spectro-
scope as a means of predicting weather do
not appear to possess much value. No scien-
tifically instructed person would expect the
degree of abundance of watery vapour to be
alone conclusive with regard to a result which
no doubt depends partly upon this, and partly
upon the concurrence of many variable factors.
Watery vapour may be absent at a given mo-
ment, or in a given direction, and may be
rapidly brought from elsewhere, just as in
all probability it may sometimes be rapidly
conveyed away, by atmospheric movement,
without occasioning rainfall in a place where
it was actually detected.
The condition first described by Mr. Smyth,
in which the spectroscopic vapour-band had
WITH THE POCKET SPECTROSCOPE. 85
absolutely disappeared, is not likely to be of
frequent occurrence ; and it would probably
be only something as marked as this which
would justify a conclusion based upon one
element of the question. The real value of
the spectroscope to meteorologists has yet to
be ascertained, and must depend upon the
power which it promises to afford of determin-
ing the amount or proportion of watery vapour
in the atmosphere at a given time, and possibly
also the molecular state of this vapour, and of
adding the facts thus made known to any
others which may be available for the pur-
poses of the inquiry.
Temperature must always constitute an im-
portant element in predictions founded upon
the presence of watery vapour, because an
ordinary immediate cause of rain is the arrival
of moisture-laden air in a region colder than
that from which it came. It is not likely
that much will ever be learned from isolated
observations, taken with small instruments,
by which the precise composition of the
vapour-band is not disclosed, or taken with-
86 HOW TO FORETELL THE WEATHER.
out reference to conditions which may co-exist
in other localities.
Enough has at least been made out to
show that the observation of the vapour-band
is one which cannot be neglected for the fu-
ture ; and it will be time to decide upon the
precise import of the appearances which this
band may present when they have been studied
over extended areas, and with proper reference
to all associated phenomena. The progress
lately made in forecasting weather is sufficient
to justify great hope of further advances in
the same direction ; but it is not sufficient to
permit the neglect of any method of inquiry
which promises to render our knowledge of
any factor in the production of rainfall at all
more methodical or complete.
THE END.
BILLING AND SONS, PRINTERS, OUILDFORD.
THE NEW SELF-REGISTERING ANEROID.
This instrument is extremely simple and hardy in construction. It has
neither spring nor chain, the motive power being obtained from Seven Vacuum
Chambers ; these are attached by levers to the arm carrying the pen, which
registers the height of the Barometer on the diagram, by means of a long alu-
minium arm carrying a pen. The drur
The drum revolves once in a week, motion being
given to it by an eight-day clock movement, which is out of sight inside the
drum.
The diagrams from this instrument are not only interesting, but much
more valuable than those given by an ordinary Barometer ; for instance, if an
observer after setting a Mercurial Barometer at 30 inches, at 8 o'clock in the
evening, looks at the Barometer at 8 o'clock the following morning, and finds
that it registers 297, he will conclude that the Barometer has fallen 3'lOths,
and is probably falling at that time, but the Self-Registering Aneroid might
show him that the Barometer had fallen 5'lOths in the night, and had risen
210ths since. When a storm of wind or rain is experienced, observers who
consult the Barometer only at long intervals, will at times remark that the
instrument gave no indication of the storm, yet with the Self -Registering
Aneroid, this would have been found a mistake, for the Barometer had pro-
bably fallen and risen again in the interval ; and it is well known that a rapid
rise after a fall, indicates a stronger gale than the fall itself.
(Small portion of a Weekly Diagram.)
The price of the New Self-registering Aneroid Barometer with
Fifty-two diagram papers is ... ... ... 6
Packing Box ... ... ... ... ... 016
JOHN BROWNING,
Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to JTer Majesty's Government,
the Royal Society, the Royal Observatories of Greemvich and Edin-
burgh, and the Observatories at Keiv, Cambridge, etc., etc.,
63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.
Established 100 years.
THE
RAINBAND SPECTROSCOPE.
For years the prediction of the weather has received constantly incn MMHL;-
attention ; this makes the introduction of any new method of forecasting the
weather of great importance. To nearly every person in the community :v
means of telling in the morning whether the day will be fine orwet.is of
cniisi.lerablc value, to farmers and many others whose work goes on exclu-
sively in the open air the power of predicting this is of still greater conse-
quence. The Baromet(y will frequently rise for hours and yet rain come on
and continue falling. As a means of predicting coming rain no instrument
lias been introduced which equals the Rainband Spectroscope. The nsnli.1
' .'<./ i/i (i r Jioi-e pro fed the a nut rnl <>r t>\ tin Bofofcuui Spec-
troscope // j>,-'d>i!;,>f} the coming of rain, and the adoption of the instrument
by Agriculturists might be a matter of national importance.
LIST OF PRICES.
*. <!.
Rainband Spectroscope with fixed slit ... ... ... 1 12 6
Leather Case extra ... ... .. ... ...010
Rainband Spectroscope of superior construction with adjustable
slit in case... ... ... .. ... ... 2 10
Grace's New Rainband Spectroscope with adjustable slit and fine
focussing adjustment in morocco case complete ... ... " S G
This instrument is of an improved optical construction, and it shows the
rainband as (tfjx.t.i-ct* line*. It is by far the easiest instrument to use for those
who are unaccustomed to the use of a Spectroscope.
A coloured diagram of the Spectrum, showing the Rainband of various
degrees of intensity, is given in "How to Work with the Spectroscope," by
John Browning, price Is. Cd.
JOHN BE OWNING,
Optical ctii'l Physical Instrument Maker to Her Majesty's
Government,
63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.
Established' 100 years.
JOHN BROWNING'S
PRICES OF SPECTACLES.
(Including suiting the Sight by Correspondence, respecting
which Particulars will be sent free.)
Per pair
Good steel Spectacles, with glass lenses ... .... ... 4/6
Superior light steel frames, with best glass lenses ... ... 7/6
Superior light steel frames, with Brazilian pebble lenses ... ... 10/6
Very superior light steel frames, with best Brazilian pebble lenses ... 15/-
Best light steel frames, with best Axis cut pebble lenses ... ... 21/-
luvisible steel Spectacles, with hook or curled sides and grooved
lenses for the frame to fit into, thereby giving them a very light
appearance ... ... ... ... ... ... 10/6
Best Invisible steel Spectacles, as above described ... ... 15/-
Gold Spectacles, from 18/6 to 70/- per pair, according to weight and
quality.
Good steel Spectacles, with tinted lenses perfectly planef for protect-
ing the eyes against strong light ... ... ... ... 4/6
Superior light steel frames, with coloured plane glass as above ... 7/6
Best steel frames, with coloured plane glass ... ... ... 10/6
Superior light steel frames, with Concave or Convex lenses of coloured
glass for protecting the eyes against strong light ... ... 10/6
Best steel frames, with coloured lenses, as above ... ... 15/-
Best tempered steel Spectacles with globular glasses, smoke coloured
or blue tinted ... ... ... ... ... 10/6
Best tempered steel Spectacles, with glasses as above and wire or silk
gauze sides for use in India or Egypt ... ... ... 15/-
Best steel Spectacles D shaped eyes with glass sides ... ... 10/-
The New Patent Preservers attached to Spectacle Frames for protect-
ing the eyes from top light, particularly gas, complete with lenses,
price from ... ... ... ... ... . ... 5/6
Cases in every instance are included in the price.
PRICES OF SPRING FOLDERS.
(Including suiting the Sight by Correspondence. )
Good steel frames, with clear glass lenses ... ... ... 4/6
Superior light steel frames, with best glass lenses ... ... 7/6
Best light straw steel frames, with best grooved lenses ... ... 10/6
Best light steel frames, nickelized to prevent rust, and fitted with
best glass lenses ... ... ... ... ... 15/6
Gold folders from 18/6 to 70/- per pair, according to weight and quality.
Best Brazilian pebbles fitted to any of the above, 5/- extra.
Browning's Axis cut pebbles, 10/- extra.
Cases in every instance are included in the price.
JOHN BKOWNING,
Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to Her Majesty's
Government.
63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.
Established 100 years.
JUST PUBLISHED.
HOW TO USE OUR EYES,
AND
HOW TO PRESERVE THEM BY THE
AID OF SPECTACLES.
BY JOHN BROWNING, F.RA.S.
With Thirty-seven Illustration*.
Price Is. ; in cloth, Is. Gel.
'"How to use our Eyes,' by John Browning, F.R.A.S., is a
thoroughly practical little manual, likely to be of much use to
persons with weak eyes." Graphic.
"Every one who cares about his eyesight should get this little
book ; those who think their eyesight of no particular moment can
very readily dispense with it." R. A. PROCTOR, B. A., in Knowledge.
" Gives many a useful hint to those who enjoy good eyesight and
wish to preserve it, and gives the advice of an oculist to those
obliged to wear spectacles, and whose eyes are in any way affected.
It is a useful little volume, written in a simple style which can be
understood by all." Pall Mall Gazette.
" This little volume should secure a wide circle of readers. We
have been especially pleased with the many useful hints given by
Mr. Browning regarding sight-preservation. . . Mr. Browning's
work teems with interest, and deserves perusal from its intrinsic
interest, and from the amount of information which may be culled
from its pages regarding the physiology of seeing." Health.
OHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W.
AND OF ALL BOOKSELLERS.
Sent free for Is. or Is. 6d. by the Author,
JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND.
[March, 1884.
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