Full text of "The human speech sounds, tracing the evolution of the forty-three speech sounds in the human voice through all their series, classes, kinds and forms to the limit of audible distinction; describing their organic formations; together with the positions of the mouth parts and establishing and exemplifying the physiologically correct pronunciation of all their ninety-three different forms; also giving thoroughgoing inflection and articulating exercises, rules for audible syllabication and the logical notation of the sounds"

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THE HUMAN
SPEECH SOUNDS

- CHAS. T. LUTHY-

Presented to

I be Hi bran?

of tbe

TUniversit? of Toronto

6tivcv eM^xL

THE

HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

TRACING THE EVOLUTION OP THE FORTY-THREE SPEECH

SOUNDS IN THE HUMAN VOICE THROUGH ALL THEIR

SERIES, CLASSES, KINDS AND FORMS TO THE LIMIT

OF AUDIBLE DISTINCTION, DESCRIBING THEIR

ORGANIC FORMATIONS, TOGETHER WITH

THE POSITIONS OF THE MOUTH PARTS

ESTABLISHING AND EXEMPLIFYING THE
PHYSIOLOGICALLY CORRECT PRONUNCIATION OF
ALL THEIR NINETY-THREE DIFFERENT FORMS

GIVING THOROUGHGOING INFLECTION AND ARTICULATING

EXERCISES, RULES FOR AUDIBLE SYLLABICATION AND

THE LOGICAL NOTATION OF THE SOUNDS

CHARLES T. LUTHY

PUBLISHER

PEORIA, ILL.

United States of America

International Copyright Union

INCLUDING
PAN-AMERICAN COPYRIGHT UNION

MADB IN
The United States of America

BRAUNWORTH PRBI

PRINTERS AND BIND1
BROOKLYN, N. T.

TO THE MEMORY

FROM WHOM HE HAS INHERITED WHATEVER ORIGINALITY,
ANALYTIC POWERS, AND LINGUISTIC APTITUDE HE POS-
SESSES, THIS LITTLE TREATISE, THAT HAS BEEN PRO
DUCED WITH MUCH THOUGHT, IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED
BY THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

THE world needs a correct analysis of the human
speech sounds. One can hardly believe that, in this
age of the wireless, of aerial navigation, and of elec-
tricity, the human speech sounds are not scientifically
understood. Yet such is the case. Not even the num-
ber of different sounds in the English language has
been determined.

Five English dictionaries, in their keys to the pro-
nunciation, contain the following numbers of different
sounds in the language, viz.: Webster's New Inter-
national, 64 sounds — 31 vowels and 33 consonants;
the Standard, 49 sounds — 31 vowels and 18 consonants;
the Century — sounds — 32 vowels and — consonants;
Worcester's, 55 sounds — 35 vowels and 20 consonants;
and the Oxford dictionary, 99 sounds — 65 vowels and
34 consonants; — thus varying from 49 to 99 sounds.
And A. J. Ellis, the great English phonetician, gives
273 different sounds in actual use in English pronun-
ciation.

In the examination of works on phonetics in the
Congressional, the New York, and the Boston libraries,
the author has not found a single work but what
omits sounds, but what confuses sounds, and but1
what adds spurious sounds. Neither does a single
work scientifically trace their evolution from the
fundamental sounds through all their series, classes,
kinds and forms to the limit of audible distinction or

vi PREFACE

establish the physiologically correct pronunciation of
the sounds. And yet, until such investigation is made,
the Universal Alphabet, for which the world is groping,
cannot be logically evolved; the simplification of Eng-
lish spelling that has baffled the ingenuity of great
learned societies of both hemispheres for many years
cannot be scientifically undertaken; dictionaries can
neither intelligently explain nor systematically ex-
emplify the correct pronunciation of the sounds; and
schools cannot correctly teach their pronunciation
either to our native population or to the vast number
of foreigners that land on our shores annually, and
that must be assimilated.

CHAS. T. LUTHY.
NEW YORK CITY, July 21, 1917.

INTRODUCTION

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

MAN is at the head of terrestrial creation. His
mind, his power of thinking, is the acme of evolution-
ary development, and, as the body is the instrument
of and corresponds to the mind, organs of speech
have developed in man for the purpose of expressing
his thought outwardly and communicating it audibly
to his kind.

Audible communication consists of speech; speech
consists of words; and words consist of sounds. As
speech is given man for the purpose of communicat-
ing his thoughts to his kind — to all his kind — to enable
him to do so intelligently, . mankind has organs of
speech that are alike, and that utter sounds that are
alike.

Therefore, the utterance, that is, the pronunciation,
of the speech sounds has been as unchangeable,
throughout the ages, as are man's lips, teeth, gums,
etc., — the organs that produce them. Noah, Solomon
and Paul; Homer, Shakespeare and Hugo; Johnson,
Webster and Worcester; — if their organs of speech
were normal, and they formed the sounds organically
correctly, uttered the respective sounds alike. That
human voices are alike is confirmed in human anat-
omy; in that every voice, male and female, changes
register at F; and in that English missionaries learn
all languages and all nations learn English,
vii

viii INTRODUCTION

The subject will be considered under the five di-
visions: I. The Evolution of the Speech Sounds;
II. Their Organic Formation; III. The Exemplifi-
cation of their Pronunciation; IV. The Notation of
the Sounds; and V. Thoroughgoing Articulating Ex-
ercises.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ANALYSIS

PAGE

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTION vii

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 1

Of the Vowels 1

The Fundamental 1

The Broad-Lipped and The Round-Lipped 2

The Mixed Vowels 3

The Long and the Short Kind 4

The Long Vowels 4

The Short Vowels 5

Vowel Inflection 6

The Forms of the Vowels 6

Quantitative 7

Accentual 7

Gradation of Accent 8

Accentual Inflection 9

Of the Short Vowels 9

Of the Long Vowels 10

The Forty-eight Forms of the Vowels 10

Vowel Diphthongs 11

How Compounded 11

Diphthongal Range of the Voice 12

Impure Diphthongs 12

Diagrammatic View of Vowel Evolution 13

Of the Consonants 14

The Fundamental 14

Sonants and Monosounds 14

The Mixed Sonants 14

The Mixed, Simple 15

The Sonants and The Surds 16

(Note. The Imperfect n Sound) 16

TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Forms of the Consonants 17

The Voiced and Voiceless Forms 17

The Forty-five Forms of the Consonants 18

Consonant Inflection 19

Diagrammatic View of Consonant Evolution 19

Consonant Diphthongs and Triphthongs 21

How Compounded 21

Attaching after Vowel 21

Attaching before Vowel 21

Compatible Mouth Adjustment 22

Audible Syllabication Determines 22

Number of Compound Consonants in the Voice 22

Syllabication 23

Visual 24

Audible— The Seven Simple Rules for 24

The Limit of Audible Distinction 26

In the Vowels 26

The Neutral Vowel 27

In the Consonants 27

Between Vowel and Consonant 27

In Impure Vowel Diphthongs 28

In Consonant Diphthongs and Triphthongs 28

Note 1. Future Growth of Vocabulary 28

Note 2. Confusion of Terms in Dictionaries 28

Diphthongs and Triphthongs 28

Mixed Sounds 29

Compound Mixed + 29

Digraphs 29

Monographs 29

THE ORGANIC FORMATION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 31

The Organs of Speech 31

Sound 31

The Mouth 32

The Tongue 32

The Throat 33

The Mouth Adjustment 33

For the Vowels 33

The Vowel Chamber 33

The Resonance Center 34

The "Key" to the Vowel's Correct Formation 35

TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

PAGE

Locations of Resonance Centers 35

For the Consonants. 36

The Consonant Chamber 36

Place of Constriction 36

Mouth Parts Involved 36

Tensioning the Adjusted Parts 37

In the Vowels 37

In the Consonants 37

The Pressure upon the Breath, Different Kinds of 37

Mouth, Chest and Diaphragmatic .37

Voicing and Vowelizing 38

In the Vowels 38

In the Consonants 38

The Position of the Mouth Parts 39

Tabulated for the Vowels 40

Tabulated for the Consonants 41

THE ORGANIC FORMATIONS DESCRIBED 42

Of the Long Vowels, of the—

e 42

a 42

a 43

o 44

u 44

d 45

tf 46

u 47

Of the Short Vowels 47

Of the Sonants and the Surds, of the correlative —

6 and p Sounds 49

d and t Sounds 50

g and k Sounds 51

ng and n Sounds 52

dh and th Sounds 53

v and / Sounds 55

gh and kh Sounds 56

zh and sh Sounds 58

z and s Sounds 59

j and tsh Sounds 60

Of the Monsounds, of the —

ra Sound 61

Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

n Sound 62

I Sound 63

r Sound (trilled and untrilled) 64

w Sound 65

y Sound 66

h Sound 67

Spurious Sounds 68

Incorrectly Formed Sounds 69

Vowels 69

The English Broad a (6} Perversion, Note 1 71

Consonants 72

Effect of Differently Formed Connecting Sounds 72

Vowels and Consonants Paralleled as to Place of

Formation 73

Shif tability of the Sounds 74

Back Sounds More Shif table 74

Effect of Different Mouth Parts Employed 75

Descriptive Classification of the Speech Sounds 75

Of the Vowels 76

Of the Consonants 77

THE EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 78

The Standard of Pronunciation 78

Usage — Not the Standard 78

The Organic Fixedness of the Sounds 79

Distinctiveness of the Sounds 79

The Minor Forms 80

Of the Vowels 80

Of the Consonants 80

Speaking is Instinctive 81

Foreign Sounds 81

Correction of Stubborn Errors 81

In the Vowels 81

In the Consonants 82

The Typical Forms 82

Points to he Remembered in the Pronunciation 82

The t^xemplifiration of the Sounds 83

Of the Vowels 84

The Long— The Broad Form of the—

« Sound 84

a Sound.. 84

TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

PAGE

& Sound 84

6 Sound 84

u Sound 84

d Sound 84

ft Sound 34

u Sound 84

The Short— The Primarily Accented Form of the—

* Sound 84

£ Sound 84

6 Sound •. 84

6 Sound 84

u Sound 85

& Sound 85

e Sound 85

u Sound 85

Of the Consonants 85

The Sonants— The Voiced Form of the—

6 Sound 85

d Sound 85

2 Sound 85

g Sound 85

v Sound 85

dh Sound 85

zh Sound 85

ng Sound 85

i Sound r 85

gh Sound 85

The Monosounds — The Voiced Form of the —

I Sound 85

m Sound 86

n Sound 86

r Sound 86

h Sound 86

w Sound 86

y Sound 86

The Surds, of the—

p Sound 86

t Sound 86

s Sound 86

k Sound . . 86

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

/ Sound 86

th Sound 86

sh Sound 86

n Sound 86

tsh Sound 86

kh Sound 86

Of the Minor Forms 87

The Different Positions in which the Different Forms

Occur 87

Of the Vowels 87

Of the Consonants 87

THE NOTATION OF THE SOUNDS 89

In the Universal Alphabet 89

Indication of the Different Forms 89

Of the Vowels 89

Of the Consonants 90

Scientific Discrimination 90

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES 92

Monosounds with Vowels 93

Sonants with Vowels 94

Surds with Vowels 95

The 702 Two-Sound, Consonant Combinations 96

Monosound Beginning 96

Sonant Beginning 97

Surd Beginning ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, 98

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

THE EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS *

1. First. Of the vowels. The evolution of the vowel
sounds will be considered under: (1) The Fundamental;
(2) The Mixed; (3) The Long and the Short; (4) The
Forms of the Vowels; (5) The Diphthongs; and (6)
Diagrammatic View of Vowel Evolution.

2. (1) The Fundamental Vowels. When one imitates
the call of the cat (meddou —

Webster's markings), he utters the
five vowels, the e, d, a, o, u. As
these five vowels inhere in the
voices of some of the higher order
of animals, as the monkey, the
cat, and the dog, and as they are
common to the voices of all man-
kind,— from Hottentot to German,
— man undoubtedly brought these
five speech sounds with him from
his animal ancestor stage, and
they are, therefore, the five fundamental vowels.
From them all other vowel sounds are derived.

3. In uttering the five fundamental vowels in their
natural order, as uttered by the cat, one starts from

* The order of evolution herein given is intended as the logical,
not as the chronological order.

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

a closed mouth, proceeds to a wide open mouth,
thence again to a closed mouth, — from start to finish
a complete round, — as is shown in the foregoing
diagram. These five sounds grade, qualitatively, into
kind by about equal differences, and they compose
one series to which each sound bears such a relation
as the colors of the rainbow do to the rainbow itself—
the relation of parts to a whole.

4. The Broad-Lipped and the Round-Lipped Series.
Then when one considers the lip adjustment in the
formation of the five sounds he
will discover that the e, a, a are
broad-lipped, that is, that the e is
made with the lips broad, from
side to side, and the aperture not
rounded, and that the mouth is
but little open; that the a is made
with the lips likewise broad, from
side to side, and the aperture com-
paratively more rounded, and
that the mouth is decidedly more
open; and that the a is made
with the lips likewise broad, from side to side, and
the aperture quite round, and that the mouth is wide
open. And that the a, o, u are round-lipped : that is,
that the a is made with the lips and the aperture
round, and that the mouth is wide open; that the o
is made with the lips and the aperture round, and that
the mouth is decidedly less open; and that the u is
made with the lips and the aperture round, and that
the mouth is very little open. It will thus be seen
that the five fundamental vowels also constitute two
subseries of which the former is the broad-lipped and
the latter the round-lipped; and that the a is the

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

Then when one considers

common, back terminal of the two series and partakes
of the nature of both;— all as shown in the foregoing
diagram.

5. (2) The Mixed Vowels.
the five fundamental vowels
as to their essential places
of formation in the mouth,
from front to rear, they
arrange themselves in lineal
order as shown in Fig. 2,
in the accompanying dia-
gram. This shows that from
the u to the e, from the o to
the a, and from the a to the
a, there are, in each case,
two vowel spaces; that is,
there is a vacancy — an un-
filled gap — between each of said two vowels. If the
mouth could have put itself into position to fill these
gaps with like fundamental vowels, it would undoubt-
edly have been done; the gaps show that this could
not be done.

6. As " nature abhors a vacuum," she filled the
vacancies by combining the two sounds adjoining each
of said gaps and thus, by the simultaneous utterance
of the two sounds and their fusion into one, produced
a series of three mixed sounds to complete the vowel
scale, viz., the blending of the a and a, of the o and a,
and of the u and e, which produced the d, u, u, respec-
tively, corresponding to the German umlauts; — all as
shown in the following diagram.

7. Only Three Mixed Vowels. It would seem, at
first thought, that any two fundamental vowels should
combine and produce a mixed vowel; but such is not

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

the case. A mixed vowel is produced by combining
the mouth adjustment of a round-lipped vowel with
that of its compatible broad-lipped vowel, as shown

in the accompanying
diagram. No others
combine. To demon-
strate this, let one,
who can utter these
sounds correctly, put
and firmly hold his
mouth in position to
articulate, for ex-
ample, the u and
then adjust internally,
only, for the a, and,
while the mouth is in
this double position,
let him try to utter the u and he can, by directing
his attention thereto, discover that the internal a
adjustment changes over to the e adjustment. When
mixed sounds are attempted to be produced from
incompatible mouth positions, the adjustment will,
on uttering the sound, either change to compatible
positions or the sound will be perverted.

8. (3) The Long and the Short Vowels.— (a) The
Long Vowels. The eight vowels, that, when arranged
according to their places of formation in the mouth
from front to rear, as above, constitute the vowel scale,
are the long or class vowels, and all further modifications
of each of the eight belong to its class. (See pago II.)
When not uttered for the purpose of contrasting thoir
places of formation, the natural order of utterance of the
eight would seem to be e, a, a, o, u — d, ti, u. These
eight class vowels vary by about equal differences, and

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

Evolution of

they are as distinct, as exclusive, and as dominant as
are the cardinal points of the compass; therefore, as
when a star is anywhere near the north star such
star is in the northern heavens, so when a vowel sound
sounds anything like any one of these eight class
vowels, such vowel is either that class vowel or is
one of the kinds and forms — pure or perverted — into
which that class vowel varied. To interpose other
class vowels, as for example the 6 perversion of Eng-
lish dictionaries, breaks down nature's distinction
and causes confusion in the expression of thought.
(See post, page 71, Note 1.)

9. (6) The Short Vowels. The next modification of
the vowels consisted in the common differentiation of
each of the eight long, or class
vowels, into a long and a short kind.
In the rapidity of speech, the mouth,
in most cases, does not have time
enough to assume, and during the
time of the utterance hold, the exact,
close, firm, settled position required
to articulate the long vowel sound,
and, therefore, only approximates its
position and utters in a more open,
loose and, as it were, transitory posi-
tion a sound which is not identical
with but which, classically, approxi-
mates the sound of the long vowel. This has given
rise to a correlative short for each of the eight long
vowels, viz., the i, e, 6, 6, u — a, e, u, and which
arranged according to place of formation, as above,
constitute the short vowel scale.

NOTE. The a, e, u are blendings of short vowels to correspond
with the blendings in their correlative long, the a, ti, u.

The Short Vowels
~ Long

— €>•

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

10. (c) Vowel Inflection. The short vowels do not
differ from the long vowels only quantitatively but
also qualitatively, and in both respects the two of
each pair vary by a common difference, so that when
such difference is not made in any couplet, either one
or both of its sounds are pronounced incorrectly. As
a correct understanding of such difference is essential
the following inflection exercise should be practiced
until one acquires the correct pronunciation of all the
vowels.

VOWEL INFLECTION*

LONG

SHORT

COUPLETS

Type

Inflection

Type

Inflection

meed

med

pit

(meed) e— I (pit)

made

mad

pet

p6t

(made) a— 6 (pet)

far

mad

not

p6t

(far) a — 6 (not)

mode

mod

ton

pot

(mode) 5—6 (ton)

rude

myd

put

(rude) u— u (put)

fad

mad

ask

pat

(fad) a— a (ask)

burn

mti

mud

pert

pet

(burn) u — e (pert)

grun

mti

lid

mud

Gluck

pii

iit

put

(grun) ii— u (Gluck)

* Read the columns downward except the last, the inflection column, in
which read the two words, then the two sounds, etc., down the column.
Bring out a uniform, common couplet difference. Tho u sound occurs ia
English as the initial element of the diphthong Iu in few, mew, new, etc.

11. (4) The Forms, or Minor Modifications, of the
Vowels. With the evolution of the short vowels, the
differentiation into different kinds of vowels ceased;
no more different vowels are possible in the present
stage of development of the human voice. All further
modifications of the vowels, therefore, are of a minor
character that do not make more kinds but that

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 7

simply vary the vowel, within itself, into the different
forms to suit the different conditions under which it
occurs.

12. Necessity for the Different Forms. As in the
progress of speech consonants evolved, some emerged
with which the broad form of the long vowels could
not fluently combine. Such form requires a maximum
tensioning of mouth parts and a minimum quantity
of breath; short vowels require a minimum tensioning
and a maximum quantity of breath. Consonants
differ likewise. Such opposite factors in successive
sounds are not conducive to their fluent combining;
to be compatible, the two sounds must, approximately,
correspond in the two factors so that those of the pre-
ceding sound can easily and smoothly transform into
those of the succeeding sound. Both vowels and con-
sonants, therefore, modified into forms that materially
differ in such requirements and that, thus, adapt
them, reciprocally, to combine more easily and more
fluently with one another.

13. (a) The Quantitative Forms. The first modifi-
cation that will be considered consisted in each long
vowel varying within itself by a common, quantitative
difference into two forms, viz., one that will be desig-
nated as the broad, and a form, a little shorter in
quantity than the other, that, for reasons that will
hereinafter appear, will be designated as the medium
form; as the e in meed — peet and the a in made —
fate. The short vowels have no recognizable quan-
tity and could not, therefore, vary into quantitative
forms.

14. (6) The Accentual Forms. — Emphasis, Accent,
Stress. Emphasis is the audible prominence given to
a word and consists of quantity, stress, pitch, dis-

8 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

tinctness of utterance and of other qualities of the
voice, or of some of them. Accent is the audible prom-
inence given to a syllable or to a vowel. In the syllable
it consists of stress, quantity of the vowel, attaching
a consonant to the vowel, etc., or of some of them. In
a vowel it consists principally of quantity and of
stress, or of stress alone. Stress is force or loudness
of utterance and is relative, yet it cannot be wholly
wanting or the sound would be inaudible; and while
between the loudest scream and the just audible
sound there are many degrees of stress, the degrees
have no audible demarkations or defined gradings.
The relativity is all that there is to guide one in dis-
tinguishing them.

15. 1st. Gradation of Accent. The diminishing
degrees of accent can be seen when each of the eight
words in the following accentual inflection table is
pronounced from left to right with equally diminishing
degrees of stress from primary to obscure. The in-
flection shows that the different degrees of accent
have no audibly distinct demarkations either in the
force of utterance or in the quantity or in the quality
of the sound — an e remains an e through all the di-
minishing degrees of accent. The stress should be strong
on the primary and only enough on the obscure to
make it just audible.

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

2d. ACCENTUAL INFLECTION OF THE
SHORT VOWELS

PRIMARY TO OBSCURE

DEGREES OF ACCENT

Primary

4th

5th

Obscure

Pit

pet

P6t

PSt

P6t

Pot

Put

Pyt

Put

P\it

Pat

pat

Pet

Put

NOTE. It will be seen from the foregoing inflection that there
is no just foundation for English dictionaries representing the
obscure accentual form of the vowels in several classes by the
same symbol, nor for eliding such obscure forms — an 8 remains
an 8 through all the diminishing degrees of accent.

16. (c) Of the Short Vowels. The only modification
of which the short vowels admit is the accentual;
and it appears in three forms, the primary, the second-
ary and the obscure, as the I in pit' — outfit — profit
and the e in pet' — sunset — millet ; no other accentual
forms are practicable. Although accent is relative, the
primary is easily discernible, and any short vowel that
has not a primary accent but has a fairly perceptible
accent falls into the middle class, the secondary.
Between the secondary and the most obscure there
may be many degrees, but they are not perceptibly
graded and are not practically distinguishable. There-
fore all below secondary fall into the obscure. The

10 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

three accentual modifications are common to the short
vowels in all the eight classes.

NOTE. The three accentual modifications of the short vowels
carry the modifications of the vowels to the limit of audible
distinction; finer modifications are not discernible in fluent
speech. (See The Limit of Audible Distinction, page 26.)

17. (d) Of the Long Vowels. In the long vowels the
quantitative seems to be the principal modification
and the accentual the subordinate; for both the broad
and the medium forms are always under a primary
accent. The long vowels, however, also occur under
a secondary accent, as the e in concrete and the a in
prel'ate', and when they so occur, the modification
will be designated as the narrow form. The medium
and the narrow forms have like quantity but as the
medium takes the primary accent of the broad form
and the shorter quantity of the narrow form, it partakes
of the characteristics of the two, and has, therefore,
been designated as the medium form. The three
forms, the broad, the medium and the narrow, appear
in meed' — peet' — concrete and in made' — fate' — prel'-
ate. The three forms are common to the long vowels
in all the eight classes.

18. (e} The Forty-eight Forms of the Vowels. As
each of the eight long vowels has thus varied into three,
quantitative-accentual forms, and each of the eight
short vowels has thus varied into three accentual
forms, that gives, cumulatively, 48 forms for all the
vowels. The eight classes of the vowels, the long and
the short kind in each class, and the three forms of
the long and the three forms of the short will now be
shown in contrast.

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

THE FORTY-EIGHT FORMS OF THE VOWELS

a ooo

THE LONG VOWELS

THE SHORT VOWELS

Broad

Medium

Narrow

Primary

Secondary

Obscure

meed'

peet'

concrete'

pit'

outfit'

profit0

made'

fate'

prelate'

pet'

sunset'

millet0

far'

taught'

Utah'

not'

whatnot'

despot0

mode'

note'

antidote'

ton'

grandson'

lesson0

rude'

flute'

Hindu'

put'

output'

cheerful0

fad'

path'

program'

ask'

potash'

damask0

burn'

burnt'

suburb'

pert'

outskirt'

concert0

grun

bluht'

Ungefuhl'

Gluck'

Mundstiick'

Ungluck0

* Read each line across the page. The ('), (') and (°) are used to indi-
cate the primary, secondary and obscure accents, respectively.

19. (5) Vowel Diphthongs, or Compound Vowels. The
neutral vocal current is the "potter's clay" that is
moulded into the different kinds of vowels by the mouth
parts, and as by the evolution of the mixed and of
the differentiation of the long into the short, the only
two ways of producing vowels of different kinds were
exhausted, all further increase in the number of vowels
lies in the line of compounding them into diphthongs.

20. (a) How Compounded. A vowel diphthong con-
sists of the combination, in one syllable, of two short
vowels so uttered at one impulse that they do not
fuse into one, mixed sound and yet have the effect of
a single sound. Diphthongs have two successive parts
to their sounds, an initial and a vanishing part; and
as the two parts must be uttered at one impulse, that
is, in so short a space of time as to make one syllable
of them, only a small fraction of time can be allowed to
each in its utterance, wherefore short vowels alone can
be combined into true diphthongs.

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

21. (6) The Diphthongal Range. The whole number
of true, vowel diphthongs within the compass of the
voice — each short vowel coupled with every other
short vowel — is 56, as follows:

THE FIFTY-SIX PURE VOWEL DIPHTHONGS,
WITHIN THE COMPASS OF THE VOICE *

116

Ift

6ft

aii

iia

111

6ii

oil

iie

'* Read the columns downward.

NOTE. Every child, while its organs of speech are pliable,
should be drilled on the 56 pure vowel diphthongs until the child
is capable of uttering every one easily, smoothly and correctly.
In this way such diphthongal errors as du&n, &ut, dtt, hist, alt,
shou, etc., can be intelligently pointed out and corrected.

22. (c) Impure Diphthongs. In the true, or pure,
diphthongs both parts are short, in quantity, whether
the syllable is accented or not; as in boil — turmoil,
foul — lookout, ice — idea, etc. In the impure diphthongs,
one part is a long vowel and this may be either first
as in dear, share, lower, as popularly pronounced; or
it may be last as in feud, union, familiarity. When the
long element is last, it may take either the broad, the
medium or the narrow form, as the u in feud, feudal,
curfew; when the long vowel is first, it may take
either the medium or the narrow form as in the oe in
Tnower, and the oe in downpour, respectively, as popu-
larly pronounced.

NOTE. With the eight long vowels combining in two forms as
the initial and in three forms as the terminal part, with each

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

of the eight short vowels, gives 320 impure vowel diphthongs
in the human voice.

23. (6) The Evolution of the Simple Vowels in
Diagrammatic View. The evolution of the simple
vowels from the five fundamental sounds into all their
series, classes, kinds and forms to the limit of audible
distinction, shown in diagrammatic view in conformity
with the foregoing analysis, is as follows : —

ANALYTIC DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EVOLUTION
OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS INTO SERIES, CLASSES,
KINDS AND FORMS *

* The order of evolution of the sounds as given herein, as has been stated,
is intended as the logical, not as the chronological order.

NOTE. Fig. 1 shows the broad-lipped, the round-lipped,
and the evolution of the mixed series; Fig. 2 shows the eight
vowels of the three series arranged according to place of forma-
tion from front to rear into a vowel scale, or as class vowels,
and their variation into broad, medium and narrow, quanti-
tative forms; Fig. 3 shows the evolution, out of the eight class
vowels, of the eight correlative short vowels, and their variation

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

into primary, secondary and obscure accentual forms. (See
pages 1-11.)

24. Second. Of the Consonants. The evolution
of the consonants will be considered under (1) The
Fundamental; (2) The Mixed; (3) The Sonants and
The Surds; (4) The Forms of the Consonants; (5)
Diagrammatic View of Consonant Evolution; and (6)
Diphthongs and Triphthongs.

25. (1) The Fundamental Consonants. The funda-
mental consonants in the human voice are the b, d,
g (as in dog}, h, I, m, n, r, w, y and z. From these eleven
consonants all other consonant sounds are derived.

26. The Sonants and the Monosounds. These
eleven consonants consist of two fundamental, parallel
series, viz. : of the seven monosounds, the h, I, m, n, r,
w and y; and of the four sonants, the b, d, g and z.

27. (2) The Mixed Sonants. When the individual

consonants that compose these
two series are paralleled accord-
ing to their places of formation
in the mouth from front to rear,
as shown in the accompanying
diagram, it will be seen that in
the monosounds there is a gap,
an unfilled space, between the r
and the h; and that in the son-
ants there is a gap, one un-
filled space, between the b and
the d; a gap, two unfilled spaces,
between the d and the z; and a
gap, three unfilled spaces, be-
tween the z and the g. If these
spaces could have been filled with like fundamental
consonants it would undoubtedly have been done.

The Fundamental Consonants'
The Two Scries.
Sonants

Position

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

The vacancies show that there was no way in which
the voice could so fill them.

28. To fill these vacancies, — these spaces in the mouth
where additional consonants

can be placed, — nature, as it

did in the case of the vowels,

fused the compatible sounds,

— monosounds with sonants,

neither kind being fusible

within itself, — as shown in

the accompanying diagram.

Between the sonants, space

2 was filled by fusing

b-h( = v); space 4 by fusing

d-h (as in lathe); space 7

by z-h (as in rougre); space 8

by n-g (as in long); space 9

by g-h (as in Tag, German);

and space 5 by the compound fusing d+(z-h)(=j).

The gap between the monosounds r and h is unfilled,

there being no way in the voice to fill the vacancy.

The six mixed sounds produced by the fusions, as

above, are sonants and complete the sonant scale.

(See page 16, for the mixed surds.)

29. Mixed Consonants are Simple. By such blend-
ing of the two consonants, the two fuse into one,
mixed sound, in which, as is the case with the mixed
vowels, the individual sounds are so modified as to
lose their separate identities and each element is heard
throughout the entire utterance of the sound. .Mixed
consonants, like mixed vowels, although composite,
are, therefore, simple, not compound. The j (d+(z-h) )
and the ch (t+(s-h) ) are compound mixed and are,
therefore, exceptions. (See post, page 60.)

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

Evolution of^

.TV Surds.

30. (3) The Sonants and the Surds. To facilitate
the fluency of speech and to give to the voice a greater
range of expression, there has evolved from each
sonant a correlative surd, that bears
approximately the same relation to
its sonant as a short vowel does to
its correlative long. These ten surds
are the p, f, t, th (as in thin), t-sh
( = ch, as in check), s, sh (as in
s/mn), r& (as in mon-key), kh ( = ch,
as in ach, German), and k — as shown
in the accompanying diagram. These
ten surds arranged from front to
rear according to the place of for-
mation in the mouth constitute the
surd, consonant scale.

31. The mixed surds are fusions
of basic surds with monosounds that correspond with
the fusions of basic sonants with monosounds in the
correlative, mixed sonants. Notice that all the mixed
consonants (both sonants and surds) are blendings
with the h except the ng — n.

NOTE. The Imperfect n Sound. In the fusions of the b-h,
d-h, z-h, g-h, and their correlative surds, the p-h, t-h, s-h, k-h,
the terminal factor, in each case, is the h, that, as will appear
later, is an elastic consonant susceptible of changing its form;
and this is true in the fusion of the n-g — the g also being elastic
and susceptible of changing its form. But, in the latter's cor-
relative, mixed surd, the n-k (?), when the n modified to fuse
with the k, its affinity, as the k is a surd, and surds are inelastic,
the k could not and did not change to fuse, and that left the n,
in its changed form, alone. The n is, therefore, an imperfect
sound, being one of two sound factors for a mixed surd for which
the other factor is wanting in the human voice.

The n sound combines with the A; as in bank, and ends a syl-

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 17

lable within the word as in mon-key, etc., but is not adapted for
a final position as in such it has a demoralizing nasal effect
upon the preceding vowel, as can be seen in the French mon,
son, vin, etc. Possibly it is on that account that the sound has
not been appropriated for a final position in the English and
German languages.

32. The h, I, m, n, r, w and y were incapable of modi-
fying into a surd kind and are, therefore, herein desig-
nated as monosounds; that is, single sounds. They do
not vary in two kinds of sounds.
*• 33. (4) The Forms, or Minor Modifications, of the
Consonants. With the evolution of the mixed con-
sonants, and the variation of the sonants into surds,
the modification of the consonants into different kinds
of sounds ceased, no more different consonants being
possible in the present stage of development of the
human voice; therefore all further modifications of
the consonants, as was the case with the vowels, are
of a minor character that do not make more kinds but
that simply vary the sound within itself into different
forms so as to adapt the sound to connect under the
different conditions in which it occurs.

34. Necessity for the Different Forms. The modi-
fications of consonants into different forms grew out
of the necessity of their having to connect with one
another and with the vowels. Therefore, where, in
successive sounds, the tensioning of mouth parts and
the manipulation and the quantity of the breath were
so different that the sounds were physiologically in-
capable of fluently connecting, they varied into forms
that mitigate such requirements so as to admit of their
so connecting.

35. (a) The Voiced and the Voiceless Forms. The
only variation of the consonants into minor modifi-

18 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

cations consisted in each sonant and each monosound
varying into a voiced and a voiceless form as the b in
lobe — bet and the m in boom — met. The surds were
incapable of so modifying, they have only one, a not-
voiced, form, and the surds are, therefore, monoforms.

NOTE. The broad form of the vowels requires so firm an
adjustment and so little breath that when changing to the voice-
less form of the consonants with its very opposite factors, the
change in the adjustment cannot be made instantaneously,
wherefore the voicing keeps on decreasingly so as to form a
connecting link. Compare the 6 in lobe and in bet. The former
consists of two parts, viz., of the voiced element as the initial
part, and of the voiceless 6, exactly as in bet, as the terminal
part, — the two composing the voiced form of the b. Without
such connecting link the broad form of the vowel cannot con-
nect with the voiceless form of the sonants and monosounds.
A surd can not connect with a following, voiced form.

36. (6) The Forty-five Forms of the Consonants.

As by the fusion of the four, fundamental sonants
with monosounds, six mixed sonants were produced;
as by the modification of the ten sonants, ten surds
were produced; and as by the minor modification of
the sonants and of the monosounds, a voiced and a
voiceless form was produced for each of such elastic
consonants; this, with the ten surds (they being mono-
forms), gives, cumulatively, 45 forms for all the con-
sonants— the r taking two, voiceless forms. * In order
to fix the ten sonant and surd couplets, the seven
monosounds, and the modifications into the 45 forms,
indelibly in the mind, the following inflection exercises
should be practiced:

* See pages 64 and 65.

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS
(c) CONSONANT INFLECTION *

THE SONANTS

THE SURDS

CORRELATIVE

Voiced

Voiceless

Couplets

Not Voiced

Triplets

lobe

bet

b— b

pat

b— b— p

eve

vet

V — -V

fat

v — v — f

feed

din

d— d

ten

d— d— t

lathe

then

dh— dh

thin

dh— dh— th

age

jack

j— j

check

t-sh

j— j— t-sh

haze

zip

z — z

sit

z — z — s

rouge

azure

zh — zh

shun

zh — zh — sh

long

sing

ng— ng

mon-key

ng — ng — n

Tag

legen

gh — gh

ach

gh— gh-kh

dog

got

g— g

kit

g— g— k

THE MONOSOUNDS

Couplets

Voiced

Voiceless

Voiced Voiceless

boom

met

m — m

dean

net

n — n

vail

let

1—1

burr <

timber

r — r

rot

beewf

wet

wf — w

beeyf

yet

yh— y

beehf

hot

hf— h

* Read each line across the page.

t Improvised words. The consonants, in these final positions, must be
given their voiced forms. (See post, page 86.)

NOTE. The r has both an untrilled and a trilled voiceless
form. (See pages 64, 65.) The modification of the sonants and
the monosounds into voiced and voiceless forms carried the
modifications of the consonants to the limit of audible distinction.

37. (5) The Evolution of the Consonants in Dia-
grammatic View. The evolution of the consonants

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

from the seven fundamental monosounds and the four
fundamental sonants into the mixed sonants, of the
sonants into surds, and of the monosounds and sonants
into voiced and voiceless forms to the limit of audible
distinction, shown in diagrammatic view in conformity
with the foregoing analysis, is as follows:

ANALYTIC DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF
THE SIMPLE CONSONANTS INTO SERIES, MIXED,
KINDS AND FORMS

NOTE. Fig. 1 shows the fundamental series — the seven mono-
sounds and the four sonants — and, from their blendings, the
evolution of the six mixed sonants; Fig. 2 shows the ten sonants
arranged according to place of formation from front to rear
into a sonant scale, their variation into voiced and voiceless
forms, and the evolution of the correlative surds out of the so-
nants; Fig. 3 shows the monosounds arranged according to place
of formation from front to rear and their variation into voiced
and voiceless forms. (See pages 14-19.)

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 21

38. (6) Consonant Diphthongs and Triphthongs. As
by the evolution of the mixed sonants, and of the surds,
the only two ways of producing more or different
kinds of consonants were exhausted, all further increase
in their number, as was the case with the vowels,
lies in the line of compounding them into diphthongs
and triphthongs.

39. (a) How Compounded. As consonants, with few
exceptions, are not uttered alone, but only in com-
bination with vowels, the compounding occurs in con-
nection with them; and consonants attach either
before or after the vowel. The compounding indicates
that to constitute a diphthong or triphthong, the con-
sonants that compose it must not simply touch or
abut against the vowel and against each other, but
must, in some way, dovetail, as it were, into one
another — must make a closer union.

40. 1st. Attaching after a Vowel. In forming a
vowel, the mouth opens; and in forming a consonant
the mouth, as it were, first closes and then opens.
Therefore, when a vowel and a following attached
consonant are uttered, the process is opening — closing
— opening the mouth; the three steps are all complete —
there is no shortening, no syncopating the process, no
dovetailing of the sounds. Therefore when attached
consonants follow a vowel they do not constitute
diphthongs or triphthongs.

41. 2d. Attaching before a Vowel. When a
preceding consonant attaches to a vowel, the full
process would be closing — opening — opening the mouth;
but the opening of the mouth for the consonant may,
at the same time, serve as the opening of the mouth for
the vowel, so that the process is syncopated, or short-
ened, and the consonant, in its formation, dovetails

22 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

into the vowel. When then, further, the second pre-
ceding consonant is likewise adapted, in its organic
formation, to connect closely with the latter consonant,
the two in that position, constitute a consonant diph-
thong. When three consonants so combine they
constitute a consonant triphthong. Such compound
consonants have the effect of a single consonant.

42. 3d. Compatible Mouth Adjustment. Such
close connecting of the two consonants grows out of
the compatibility of their mouth adjustments; that
is, of the mouth adjustment for the latter consonant
being begun before the former consonant is quite
uttered, or of the mouth adjustment changing from
the former to the latter without a break. Take, for
example, the br: as the particular position for the tip
of the tongue is not essential to the formation of the b,
when this sound is uttered in connection with a follow-
ing r, the tip of the tongue, during the utterance of
the b, goes into the position for the r; br, therefore,
forms a diphthong. Contrast this with the succession
or break in the mouth adjustment for the ngp and for
the id.

43. 4th. Audible Syllabication Determines. The
test for a compound consonant is in audible syllabi-
cation, as follows: When after an unaccented vowel,
or after a long vowel, the following two or three con-
sonants attach to the succeeding vowel, as would a
single consonant, as in a-breast, a-glow, a-stride, —
ea-glet, day-spring, etc., they constitute consonant
diphthongs and triphthongs, respectively.

44. (6) The Number of Consonant Diphthongs and
Triphthongs in the Human Voice. On considering,
somewhat hastily, the different, initial consonant com-
binations, in the human voice, the author found only

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

31 two-sound an d 5 three-sound that physiologically
make such close unions as to constitute them diph-
thongs and triphthongs; the list embraces as follows:

THE CONSONANT COMPOUNDS IN THE HUMAN VOICE

DIPHTHONGS

TRIPHTHONGS

Surds

Sonants

Mono.

Surd-Surd

Surd-Mono.

So-Mono.

Mono.

Surd-Surd-Mono.

pi, pr

fl, fr

•

tr, tw

thr, thw

sk, sp, st

si, sm,sn,sw

skr, skw, spl, spr, str

shl, shm,shn

shr, shw

khl

kl, kr, kw

bl, br

gl,gr,gw

These compound consonants, both diphthongs and triphthongs,
can be practiced by uttering each before each of the eight long
vowels, thus: ske, ska, ska, etc.; and likewise with each of the
eight short vowels.

NOTE 1. It is possible that the number of consonant diph-
thongs and triphthongs may vary a little in different voices.
On account of the slight differences in the anatomic formation
of the speech organs of different individuals, one ma}' possibly
be able to combine two consonants so smoothly as with him to
constitute a diphthong while in another it would not. Habit
may likewise affect different persons.

45. Third. Syllabication. As the same principle
which controls the compounding of consonants largely

24 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

governs audible syllabication, that subject will be
considered at this place.

46. (1) Visual Syllabication. Both in printed and
in written documents, it frequently becomes necessary,
at the end of a line, to divide a word, — to place part
of it on the following line, — and the only logical way
to make such division, is to have it conform to audible
syllabication. As every vowel (?) constitutes a syllable,
it is evident that the division must be made between
the vowels; but to which of the two vowels the inter-
vening consonant or consonants attach is not so clear.
The attachment is in conformity with physiological
principles, — along the line of least resistance, — as the
following shows.

(2) Audible Syllabication. One Intervening Con-
sonant.

RULE 1. A single intervening consonant between two
unaccented short vowels attaches to the latter vowel; as in

val-e-dic-to-ri-an a-bil-i-ty con-ser-va-tive
con-tra-ri-uess.

The reason therefor is, as has been shown, that a
consonant attaches with less effort to a succeeding
than to a preceding vowel.

RULE 2. After a long vowel, a single intervening
consonant attaches to the following vowel; as in

da-ting ea-gle fa-ther foo-\ing loa-Ung mo-ment.

The reasons therefor are as follows: (1) as in Rule 1;
(2) the change in the mouth adjustment from vowel
to consonant can better be made between the syllables
than within one; (3) a long vowel develops better
when it ends a syllable, as it has more time to develop.

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 25

RULE 3. In all other cases, a single intervening con-
sonant attaches to the vowel with the stronger accent; as in

abb-ot — a-bove} app-le — a-ppeal, opp-o-site — o-ppose.

The reason therefor is that attaching a consonant
to a vowel helps to give it accent — particularly if it
attaches to a preceding vowel. (See page 21.)

Exceptions to the Three Rules. In English, inter-
vening h, w and y now always attach to the succeeding
and ng to the preceding vowel.

NOTE. Accented vowel diphthongs have the effect of long
vowels; as in

i-dol loi-ter pow-der eu-chre.

Two Intervening Consonants.

RULE 4. After an unaccented short vowel and after
a long vowel, an intervening consonant diphthong — two
consonants that have the effect of a single consonant —
attaches to the following vowel; as in

a-ihwart be-twixt de-bris pro-claim re-nect
a-pril ma-tron ea-g\et lu-cra-tive pu-trid.

The reasons therefor are as given for Rules 1 and 2.

RULE 5. In all other cases of two intervening con-
sonants, the two separate, the former attaching to the
preceding and the latter to the succeeding vowel; as in

ab-sent con-tain fer-vent in-volve mus-tard
bod-kin den-tal es-cape gar-bage cum-ber.

The reasons therefor are as follows: (1) The brief
interval between the syllables gives time for the change
in the mouth adjustment from the former consonant
to the latter; (2) the second consonant combines with
less effort with the succeeding vowel; and (3) some

26 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

consonants cannot fluently combine and therefore
separate.

Three or More Intervening Consonants.

RULE 6. After an unaccented short vowel and after
a long vowel, an intervening consonant triphthong — three
consonants that have the effect of a single consonant —
atiach^to the following vowel; as in

a-squint be-splatter de-scribe de-sir oy day-spring.

The reasons therefor are as given for Rules 1 and 2.

RULE 7. In all other cases of three or more intervening
consonants, the first attaches to the preceding and the last
to the succeeding vowel, and of the remainder as many,
as more easily can, attach to the succeeding and the others
to the preceding consonant; as in

dis-tract gar-gling ob-scure oiut-ment dis-play
con-sti-tute huu-dred gaunt-let trust-ful es-prit
ex-ca-iate in-twine month-ly uric-tion ex-plain.

The reasons therefor are: (1) that in the formation
of words such intervening consonants seem to have
been chosen for the first and last, when so many inter-
vene, as are physiologically adapted to connect smoothly
with their adjacent, vowels; (2) consonants vary so
much in their organic formations that some of them
combine fluently with one another and others cannot
fluently combine.

47. Fourth. The Limit of Audible Distinction. This
is reached in the speech sounds at five points, viz. : (l) In
the Vowels, at the point of distinguishing between two
unaccented vowels, as between Ivswn — lesson, prophet-
profit, cymbal — symbol, etc. — a difference being made
in correct speaking.

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 27

48. The Neutral Vowel. With the effort to adjust
the mouth parts, in the formation of a particular
vowel, gradually lessened to zero, would leave only
the crude, unformed sound of the neutral vocal current.
This is the common point to which all the vowels
tend in their obscuration; but they do not quite reach
it. Speech is not an effortless gurgle, and the effort
that should be made to put the mouth in position for
the vowel, distinguishes the vowel audibly. It is, there-
fore, error to indicate the obscure in different classes
by the same symbol, as by an apostrophe in ev'l,
eat'n, pard'n, etc. For dictionaries to advocate such
a confusion is a perversion of fundamental principles.

49. (2) In the Consonants, at the point of distin-
guishing between a voiceless sonant and its correla-
tive surd, as the d from t in the words packed —
pact, rapped — rapt, missed — mist, etc., — a difference
being made in correct speaking.

NOTE. The Simplified Spelling Board erroneously prescribes
changing the present correct pronunciation and spelling of such
d to t in 712 of its list of 3,300 words. Dictionaries err likewise
in indicating such pronunciation. The d sound is made with
mouth pressure, the t with diaphragmatic. They cannot be
made otherwise.

50. (3) Between the Vowels and the Consonants, at

the point of distinguishing the voiced (vocalized but
not vowelized) elements in the sonants and mono-
sounds from the vowelized tone of the vowels; as of
the w and y from vowels. For example, the initial part
of the diphthongs m, w, m, is taken for a y and some
dictionaries so indicate the pronunciation, as in Indian,
onion, usury, etc. The y is clearly different from the
vowel as can be seen in Joliet — yet, east — yeast, ewe —

28 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

you, idiom — yum, familiar — yarrow, etc. In the y, the
fore-tongue is pressed up between the upper teeth so
as to touch the gum on the sides; then, as the neutral
vocal current attempts to pass out between the tongue
and the gum, it is obstructed and converted into a fri-
cative, sibilant element that is clearly different from the
vowelized I tone. (See post, pages 42 and 66.)

51. (4) In the Impure Vowel Diphthongs at the point
of distinguishing the class of the short element; and
(5) In the Consonant Diphthongs, at the point of dis-
tinguishing between what constitutes and what does
not constitute a diphthong (and a triphthong).

NOTE 1. Future Growth of Vocabulary. It must not be in-
ferred, because there are only 43 different speech sounds, 16
vowels and 27 consonants (or 505 different forms — 48 vowels,
45 consonants, 56 pure vowel diphthongs, 320 impure, 31 con-
sonant diphthongs and 5 triphthongs), in the human voice, and
because every corner of the voice has been ransacked to produce
them even to the embracing of all possible blendings and excep-
tions, that this prevents the indefinite growth of the vocabulary;
for when one considers that in some directions the use of the
forms has hardly begun to be exploited and considers the prin-
ciples of permutation it becomes evident that the number of
different vowel and consonant combinations available for ad-
ditional words is beyond comprehension and will be ample for
all time, to come to meet the requirements for more words in
the further development of the arts and sciences.

NOTE 2. Confusion of Terms. As the use of the following
terms is more or less confused in the dictionaries, the author
will distinguish them specifically, viz.:

(First) Diphthongs and Triphthongs. — (1) Vowels. A vowel
diphthong is the successive utterance, at one impulse, of two
vowel sounds, in such a manner as to have the effect of a single
vowel. (2) Consonants. A consonant diphthong is the successive
utterance, in connection with a following vowel, of two consonant
sounds that combine so closely between themselves and with
the vowel as to have the effect, in audible syllabication, of a

EVOLUTION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 29

single consonant. (3) A Consonant Triphthong is the corre-
sponding combination of three consonants.

(Second) Mixed Sounds. — (1) Vowels. A mixed vowel con-
sists of the fusion of two fundamental vowels, or their cor-
relative short, into one vowel in such a manner that each of
the two sound factors loses its separate identity and that the
two elements are heard simultaneously throughout the utterance
of the sound. There are six of such mixed vowels, the a, u, u
and their correlative short, the a, e, u, corresponding to the
German umlauts. (2) Consonants. A mixed consonant consists
of the fusion into one sound of a fundamental sonant, or its
correlative surd, with its compatible monosound, in such a
manner that each of the two sound factors loses its separate
identity and that the two elements are heard simultaneously
throughout the utterance of the sound. Such mixed consonants
are the v-f, dh-th, gh-kh, zh-sh, and ng-n (?). (3) Compound
Mixed. In the .;' (=d + (z-h)) and the ch, as in chair ( = £ +
(s-/i)), the first element is uttered before the other two and the
sound is, therefore, compound mixed.

(Third) Digraphs. In its broadest sense, a digraph consists
of any two letters that represent a single sound; as the ea in
break and the bt in debt. In a narrower sense, a digraph consists
of any two letters that represent a mixed sound, as the German
ue representing the u, and the th representing the dh sound in
then. In a technically accurate sense, a digraph consists of the
two letters that represent a mixed sound when such two letters
are the letters that severally represent the two sounds, respec-
tively, that were fused into the mixed sound; as, in German, the
ae and the oe representing the a and o, respectively, and the ph,
th and ng, representing their respective sounds in Phil, thin,
and sing.

(Fourth) Monographs. A monograph is to the letters what
a mixed sound is to the sounds. To describe it technically ac-
curately: it consists of the single character, or letter, that rep-
resents a mixed sound when such character, or letter, is composed
of the fusion, into one, of the two letters that, severally, repre-
sent the two sounds, respectively, that were fused into such
mixed sound. See the Devisation of New Letters in " The
Universal Alphabet," for the fusions into monographs (one
letter) of the digraphs, (two letters), both print and script,

30 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

that now represent the mixed sounds, the kh, sh, th, etc., respec-
tively.

(Fifth) A diphthong is a sound; a digraph is a visible character
that represents a sound. It is, therefore, incorrect to apply the
former term to letters or the latter to sounds. Further, a mixed
sound is not a diphthong. A diphthong is two sounds uttered
successively; a mixed sound is one sound composed of two ele-
ments that are uttered simultaneously throughout the con-
tinuance of the sound, and which, on coming out of the aper-
ture of the mouth, fuse into a mixed sound similarly as when
the bow of a violin is drawn over two strings simultaneously,
the two simple sounds fuse into the one, mixed sound. Mixed
sounds, although composite, are, thus, simple. It is, therefore,
incorrect to call a mixed sound a diphthong.

THE ORGANIC FORMATION OF THE SPEECH
SOUNDS

62. The organic formation of the speech sounds will
be considered under: First, The Organs of Speech;
Second, The Mouth Adjustment; Third, The Pressure
upon the Breath; Fourth, Voicing and Vowelizing;
Fifth, The Position of the Mouth Parts; and then
The Organic Formation will be described.

53. First. The Organs of Speech. The organs that
perceive the sounds are the ears, auditory nerves and
brain; and the organs that produce the sounds are the
mouth, throat, trachea, lungs, chest, and abdomen.

54. (1) Sound. Sound is composed of tone and
noise, and the speech sounds, accordingly, divide into
tone forms and noise forms — vowels and consonants.
The essence of sound is energy; energy propagates in
waves. The rapidity of succession of the sound waves
causes the musical quality of pitch; the amplitude of
the wave gives fullness * and other features in its
shape give other qualities and peculiarities to the sound.

NOTE. As the degree of inclination of the secondary axis to
the primary axis in a mineral crystal (which is simply a frozen
wave of energy) is characteristic of the kind of mineral (iron
having a certain degree of inclination, carbon another, etc.),
so some feature in the form of the thought wave is indicative
of the kind of thought — love, hatred, justice, Wanderlust, etc.
Audible and spatial (i.e., the visible) expressions of thought

* Seiler — The Voice in Speaking.
31

32 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

are, therefore, correlated. The principles of the speech sounds
penetrate deep into the harmonies of nature.

65. When a speech sound is emitted from one's
mouth, the sound waves radiate outwardly from the
speaker through the surrounding air, they enter
another's ears, they pass up along his auditory nerves
into the brain, whence the sensation is transferred into
the inner world — into the mind. In speaking, the im-
pulse comes from the mind in the inner world out into
the brain, thence it passes down along the motor nerves
to the organs that produce the sounds and causes
such organs to utter them.

56. (2) The Mouth. The mouth consists of (l)
the foremouth that has for its roof the hard palate,
with its bony subformation, that serves as a sounding
board to give resonance to the sound; and (2) the
backmouth that begins at the rear end of the hard
palate and extends thence backward to the throat
and that has a soft, fleshy, nonresonant roof. The
foremouth contains the resonant lips, cheeks, teeth.
gums, and hard palate — so instrumental in the forma-
tion of both the vowels and the consonants, — and
whose positions and offices will be given under the
formation of the sounds. As little reference will be
made to the soft palate, the hard palate, for brevity's
sake, will be designated simply as the palate and its
parts will be referred to as the forepalate, the midpalate
and the rearpalate.

57. (3) The Tongue. In the bottom of the fore-
mouth lies the soft, flexible, nonresonant tongue that
can be so adjusted and positioned as to direct the up-
coming vocal current or breath to certain resonant
places or to certain openings or constrictions in the
foremouth whence the vocal current or breath will

ORGANIC FORMATION

The Tongue

'S-

Fore
linch

^*—
£*

Mid
1 inch

_, — -

Back]

-A

f '

1. The Tip 4. The Midtongue

2. The Blade 5. The Backtongue
i3t The Rear Part of Forctongue

deflect, or flow, directly outwardly — not so from the
backmouth. For the better understanding of the po-
sitions of its parts and of the offices they perform, the
tongue will be considered as
consisting, as shown in the fol-
lowing diagram, of: (5) the
backtongue, which extends
backward from the rear end
of the hard palate, and of that
part which extends thence for-
ward and is about two inches
long. Of the last mentioned
part, the rear inch will be
designated as (4) the mid-
tongue, and the front inch as
the foretongue. The foretongue
consists of the rear half-inch and of the front half-
inch, of which the former will be designated as (3) the
rear part of the foretongue and the latter as (2) the
blade of the tongue. The point at the front of the
blade will be designated as (l) the tip of the tongue.

68. (4) The Throat contains the larynx, the organ
of voice, whose vocal cords act similarly to a reed in
a musical instrument and convert the up-coming breath
into a crude tone. The Lungs are the reservoir that
holds the breath (the in-drawn air). The Trachea is
the windpipe, the tube leading from the throat to the
lungs, through which the air flows into and out of the
lungs. The Chest and the Abdomen (by the diaphragm)
act like a bellows, to draw (inhale) the air from the
outside into the lungs and to force (exhale) the breath
from the lungs out through the mouth (and the nose).

59. Second. The Mouth Adjustment. (1) For the
Vowels. — (a) The Vowel Chamber. Preparatory to

34 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

forming a vowel, the sides of the tongue, back of the
blade, press against the upper teeth (in the a against
the lower) and, at a point about directly under the rear
end of the hard palate, the tongue humps up, more or
less, towards the roof of the mouth so as to enclose in
front of the hump, between the tongue and the hard
palate, a resonant cavity — the vowel chamber — differ-
ing in shape for each vowel. The higher or lower
humping of the tongue causes the breath, as it flows
from the rear over the hump of the tongue into the
vowel chamber, to impinge at the right place in the
vowel chamber.

60. (6) The Resonance Center. Further, there is
then formed, by the adjustment, or radial tensioning,
of the flexible parts of the foremouth, and at a certain
spot in the vowel chamber, differing for each vowel,
a resonance center upon which the neutral vocal cur-
rent coming up from the throat is converged and focal-
ized; and such resonance center by its particular
resonance derived from its peculiar anatomic formation,
reenforced by the general resonance of the whole
vowel chamber, then gives to the neutral vocal cur-
rent the characteristic sound quality for the particular
vowel. Thence the sound deflects directly outwardly.

61. (1st) The Key to the Vowel's Formation. No
vowel can be correctly formed, either in speaking or
in singing, unless the neutral vocal current is con-
verged upon the vowel's own resonance center. This
is because the convergence of the neutral vocal cur-
rent upon correspondingly the same spot, in each
mouth, compels each mouth to assume the same and
the correct shape, so that the corresponding vowel
gets its peculiar and common sound in every mouth
from a resonance center of a common anatomic forma-

ORGANIC FORMATION 35

tion reenforced by the general resonance of a vowel
chamber of a common and a correct shape. The ad-
justment and radial tensioning of the flexible parts of
the foremouth so as to converge and focalize the neutral
vocal current upon the vowel's own resonance center
is, therefore, the essential factor of sameness of adjust-
ment for all mouths; it enables the infant and the adult,
the dwarf and the giant, much as their mouths differ
in size, to adjust their mouths so alike as to utter, for
example, what is audibly perceived as the same e
sound in saying meat. This is the key to the organically
correct formation of the vowels. Therefore, all measure-
ments and observations, as to the positions of the mouth
parts for the formation of a particular vowel, made
when the flexible parts in the foremouth are not so
adjusted and tensioned as to form the correct reso-
nance center for that vowel are worse than useless for
they are incorrect and misleading.

62. (2d) Location of the Resonance Centers. The
location of the resonance center — the essential place
of formation — for the eight class vowels, follows:

LOCATION OF RESONANCE CENTERS
FOR THE VOWELS

The resonance center: (Located centrally, laterally.)

For the u is against the upper lip.

ii upper lip — upper foreteeth.

e upper foreteeth.

o upper gum.

u upper gum — forepalate.

a " forepalate.

a forepalate — rearpalate.

a rearpalate.

36 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

63. (2) For the Consonants. — (a) The Consonant
Chamber. Preparatory to forming a consonant, there
is formed (by the closure of the lips, or by their contact
with the teeth, or by the contact of the tongue with
or its close approach to the lips, upper teeth, gums,
or hard palate) a place of constriction in the mouth
where the breath, by resistance to its outward passage,
is converted into the particular consonant; and at
the same time such adjustment and the sides of the
tongue pressing against the upper teeth form a cavity
in the mouth back of such constriction and above the
tongue. This cavity, with its closure or place of con-
striction at the front, is the consonant chamber.

64. (6) Place of Constriction. The place where the
breath impinges — where it is converted into the par-
ticular consonant, as shown by the mouth parts em-
ployed by each consonant in forming its peculiar
constriction, — is as follows:

MOUTH PARTS PRINCIPALLY INVOLVED IN FORMING

THE CONSONANTS
The

m b p involve the Lips.
w v f Lips — Foreteeth,

n d t Foreteeth — Gum — Foretongue.

1 dh th " Teeth— Gum— For3tongue.
y j tsh Gum — Foretongue — Forepalate.

r z s Foretongue — Forepalate.

zh sh Foretongue — Midpalate.

h ng n " Mid-back Tongue — Rearpalate.

gh kh
g k

The foregoing, when compared with the resonance cen-
ters for the vowels, shows that each group of consonants

ORGANIC FORMATION 37

has its corresponding group of vowels with the location
of whose resonance center the place of impingement
of the breath, for such consonants, corresponds.

65. (c) The Tensioning of the Adjusted Parts.
(1st) In the Vowels the broad form requires a very firm
adjustment of parts, the medium form less so, and the
narrow form still less so; in the short vowels the ad-
justment is firmest for the primarily accented, less
so for the secondarily, and still less so for the obscure,
or unaccented, but in no case as firm as for either of
the long forms. (2d) In the Consonants the voiced form
requires a firmer adjustment than the voiceless form,
and the adjustment for the sonants is firmer than that
for the monosounds.

66. Third. The Pressure upon the Breath. (1) In
the Vowels. In the long vowels the breath is emitted
by repressed chest pressure; and in the short vowels
by normal chest pressure. (2) In the Consonants.
The voiced form of the sonants is made by backsuction
and mouth pressure, that of the monosounds by re-
pressed and normal chest pressure; the voiceless form
of the sonants is made by mouth pressure, that of the
monosounds by normal chest pressure, and the surds
are made by diaphragmatic pressure. The foregoing
is when the sounds are articulated deliberately in iso-
lation; in fluent speaking the manipulation varies more
or less from the typical so as to make fluent con-
nections. The volume of breath required for each
sound, vowel and consonant, is regulated by the action
of the abdomen.

NOTE. If one will attentively form the m, p and 6, he will
notice that their lip positions are just the same and that the
difference in the three sounds grows out of the different manip-
ulation of the breath, as above described. The same can be

38 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

seen in the n, d and t. Neither of the three sounds can be made
with the pressure of either of the others. The difference in pres-
sure differentiates the breath into the three classes of conso-
nants.

67. Fourth. Voicing and Vowelizing. In both the
vowels and in the voiced element of the voiced forms
of the elastic consonants, the breath, as it comes up
from the lungs, is voiced, or vocalized, by the vocal
cords in the larynx; that is, is converted into the
neutral vocal current — a crude, unformed tone, like
the cooing of a pigeon. Then (1) In the Vowels, as the
neutral vocal current passes out through the mouth,
the mouth, by the adjustment of the flexible parts
in the vowel chamber and by their radial tensioning,
focalizes the neutral vocal current — the crude, un-
formed tone — upon a certain resonant spot — the reso-
nance center — differing for each class vowel, and which
spot, as has been stated, by its particular resonance,
derived from its peculiar anatomic formation, re-
enforced by the general resonance of the whole vowel
chamber, forms, that is vowelizes, the crude tone of
the neutral vocal current into the finished tone that
constitutes the particular vowel.

68. (2) In the Voiced Form of the Consonants, as
the neutral vocal current, the crude, unformed tone,
passes out through the mouth, it is not focalized upon
a resonance center, but flows into the closed cavity of
the consonant chamber, or into the leak or opening at
the constriction, so that no resonance, as it were, is
imparted to the crude tone. Therefore, in the voiced
form of the consonants, the voiced element, instead
of being a formed, a vowelized, tone, as in the vowels,
is, substantially, only the unformed, the crude, tone
of the neutral vocal current.

ORGANIC FORMATION 39

69. Fifth. The Position of the Mouth Parts. The
approximately correct positions of the lips, of the lower
jaw as determined by the distance between the teeth,
and of the foretongue, in the correct formation of the
speech sounds for the normal, average sized mouth,
when the sound is uttered deliberately and in isola-
tion, is about as shown in the following tabulations.
In fluent speech the parts change their adjustment
in such rapid succession that the mouth has not time
enough to put the parts into the typical positions and,
therefore, only approximates them. The positions of
the mouth parts follow.

NOTE. To determine the opening between the teeth and be-
tween the lips, the author made two celluloid gauges (.040 thick)
several inches long, one, tapering from a half inch to a point
and graded into eighths of an inch, and the other, tapering from
one inch to a point and graded into quarters of an inch. He
also found useful a piece of such celluloid, six inches long and
one-half inch wide, with one end curved somewhat so that, if
inserted when the mouth is too near closed for tongue observa-
tion, it will lie flat upon or follow the curvature of the tongue.
The author also found it advantageous to dip a thread into black
ink, dry it, and press it down, across the extended tongue, at
one inch and at two inches back from the point so as to mark
off the foretongue, midtongue and backtongue. The ink marks
stayed for hours, even to next day. The author found that the
crest of the hump in the tongue is invariably at about the dividing
line between the midtongue and the backtongue, that is, is about
under the rear end of the hard palate. This seems necessary in
order to enclose the vowel chamber for each vowel under the hard
palate as it serves as a "resonance board" and therefore
the vowel chamber a resonant cavity.

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

ORGANIC FORMATION

S a S

t i-l 0 PH

O « tf

s *

: : :: :: ::

IS-IhS-

•o -o -o -o

ii^li'sliil!

\a >o «•* woo oooo

CO CO CO

a a-

42 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

THE ORGANIC FORMATION OF THE SOUNDS

70. This topic will be considered under: First, The
Long Vowels; Second, The Short Vowels; Third, The
Sonants and the Surds; Fourth, The Monosounds;
Fifth, Spurious Sounds, and Sixth, The Descriptive
Classification of the Speech Sounds.

First. Of the Long Vowels. 1. The e Sound. — The
Broad Form, as in Meed. For this simple, broad-lipped
vowel, the teeth are about three-sixteenths inch
apart; the lips part about five-sixteenths inch and are
slightly drawn back as if to show the teeth. The tip
of the tongue presses against the inside of the lower
foreteeth, the sides of the tongue back of the blade
press against the upper teeth, and the tongue is humped
up very high, — well from the front. This forms the
vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth
parts in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as
closely to converge the neutral vocal current centrally
forward upon the inside of the upper foreteeth — the
resonance center for the e.

Then the resonance center by its particular resonance,
reenforced by the general resonance of the whole
vowel chamber, vowelizes the neutral vocal current
into the characteristic e sound, and the sound deflects
outwardly.

2. The a Sound. — The Broad Form, as in Made.
For this simple, broad-lipped vowel, the teeth are about
one-half inch apart; the lips part about the same and
are slightly drawn back as if to show the teeth. The
tip of the tongue presses against the inside of the

ORGANIC FORMATION 43

lower foreteeth, the sides of the tongue back of the
blade press against the upper teeth, and the tongue
is humped up very -high — well from the front. This
forms the vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as closely
to converge the neutral vocal current centrally for-
ward upon the forepalate, just back of the upper gum,—
the resonance center for the a.

3. The a Sound.— The Broad Form, as in Far. For
this simple, mixed-lipped vowel, the teeth are about
one inch apart; the lips, the upper slightly drawn
back as if to show the teeth and the lower somewhat
protruded and dished on the inside, part about the
same and make the aperture approximately round.
The tip of the tongue presses against the inside of
the lower foreteeth and, thence backward, the tongue,
its middle part slightly depressed, lies in the bottom
of the mouth so that its edge, all around, presses
against the inside of the lower teeth. The soft palate
is fully raised so as to give both an open throat and
an open mouth. This forms the vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber and in the backmouth so adjust
and tension as closely to converge the neutral vocal

44 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

current centrally forward upon the hard palate a little
forward of its rear edge — the resonance center for
the a.

4. The o Sound. — The Broad Form, as in Mode.
For this simple, round-lipped vowel, the teeth are
about three-eighths inch apart; and the lips are pro-
truded and are drawn together over the teeth so as to
form a rounded aperture of about the same diameter.
The tip of the tongue presses against the inside of the
lower foreteeth, the sides of the tongue back of the
blade press against the upper teeth, and the tongue,
the middle part slightly depressed, is humped up but
little — only a trifle in front. This forms the vowel
chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as closely
to converge the neutral vocal current centrally for-
ward upon the inside of the upper gum — the resonance
center for the o.

5. The u Sound.— The Broad Form, as in Rude.
For this simple, round-lipped vowel, the teeth are
about five-sixteenths inch apart; and the lips are well

ORGANIC FORMATION 45

protruded and are drawn together over the teeth so
as to form a rounded aperture of about the same
diameter. The tip of the tongue presses against the
inside of the lower foreteeth, the sides of the tongue,
back of the blade, press against the upper teeth, and
the tongue, the middle part slightly depressed, is,
gradually, fairly humped up. This forms the vowel
chamber.

Then as breath comes from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as closely
to converge the neutral vocal current centrally forward
upon the inside of the upper lip — the resonance center
for the u.

6. The d Sound. — The Broad Form, as in Fad. For
this mixed (a+a = a), mixed-lipped vowel, the teeth
are about three-fourths inch apart; the lips, the upper
slightly drawn back as if to show the teeth and the
lower somewhat protruded and dished on the inside,
part about the same and make the aperture approx-
imately round. The tip of the tongue presses against
the inside of the lower foreteeth, the sides of the tongue
back of the blade press against the upper teeth, and
the tongue, from front to rear, is about in a position
midway between that of the d and that of the a. The
soft palate is raised. This forms the vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into

46 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber and in the backmouth so adjust
and tension as to converge the neutral vocal current
centrally forward partly upon the place of the res-
onance center of the a and partly upon the place of
the resonance center of the a — the double resonance
center of the a.

Then this double resonance center by its several,
particular resonances, reenforced by the general res-
onance of the whole vowel chamber, so vowelizes the
two parts of the neutral vocal current into two elements
that, as they flow out of the aperture of the mouth,
fuse into one and produce the characteristic, mixed
d sound.

7. The u Sound. — The Broad Form, as in Bwrn.
For this mixed (o+a = u), round-lipped vowel, the
teeth are about seven-sixteenths inch apart; the lips
are protruded and are drawn together over the teeth
so as to form a rounded aperture of about three-
eighths inch diameter. The tip of the tongue presses
against the inside of the lower foreteeth, the sides of
the tongue back of the blade press against the upper
teeth, and the foretongue, from front to rear, is about
in a position midway between that of the o and that
of the a. This forms the vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as to con-
verge the neutral vocal current centrally forward
partly upon the place of the resonance center of the
o and partly upon the place of the resonance center
of the a — the double resonance center of the u.

Then this double resonance center by its several,

ORGANIC FORMATION 47

particular resonances, reenforced by the general res-
onance of the whole vowel chamber, so vowelizes the
two parts of the neutral vocal current into two elements
that, as they flow out of the aperture of the mouth,
fuse into one and produce the characteristic, mixed
$ sound.

8. The u Sound. — The Broad Form, as in Gruu
(German). For this foreign, mixed (u-\-e = u), round-
lipped vowel, the teeth are about one-fourth inch
apart, the lips are protruded and are drawn together
over the teeth so as to form a rounded aperture of
about five-sixteenths inch diameter. The tip of the
tongue presses against the inside of the lower foreteeth,
the sides of the tongue back of the blade press against
the upper teeth, and the foretongue, from front to rear,
is about in a position midway between that of the u
and that of the e. This forms the vowel chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
vowel chamber, the larynx vocalizes the breath into
the neutral vocal current, and the flexible mouth parts
in the vowel chamber so adjust and tension as to con-
verge the neutral vocal current centrally forward
partly upon the place of the resonance center of the
u and partly upon the place of the resonance center
of the e — the double resonance center of the u.

Second. Of the Short Vowels. A short vowel has
the same place for its resonance center, and has a

48 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

vowel chamber and a lip adjustment of approximately
the same shape as its correlative long, and is, there-
fore, classically the same sound. The difference be-
tween the two grows out of the following: —

(1) In the short vowels the mouth parts are not
adjusted so tensely. This has the effect: (a) of not
converging the breath so closely upon the resonance
center; (6) of not getting the vowel chamber into the
exact shape of the long vowel's; and (c) of not getting
the lips into the acute position as for the long, (d)
In the i, e, 6, u, d, e and u, the mouth is a little more
open and in the o, is a little less open; and (e) the
humping of the tongue is not generally so high but
in the 6 the tongue lies a little higher — is a little looser.

(2) The breath is expelled with greater pressure,
normal chest pressure as against repressed chest pres-
sure, so that the volume of breath consumed in forming
a short vowel is greater than that of its correlative long.

From the foregoing it follows that the sound of a
short vowel, as compared with its correlative long,
is more aspirated, — is not so pure in tone, — and is
not, naturally, so well adapted to be prolonged. Al-
though classically alike, the short sounds differ from
the long both in quality and in quantity — more and
more as the accent diminishes. (See ante, page 27,
par. 48— The Neutral Vowel.)

As a short vowel is, thus, classically the same sound
as its correlative long, and as the two of each couplet
vary by a common difference in the organic formation,
as above described, it is not necessary to give a detailed
description of the formation of each short vowel.
When necessary, the organic formation of the correl-
ative long can be referred to and the difference between
its formation and that of the short observed, point by

ORGANIC FORMATION 49

point, on attentively articulating the two sounds in
contrast.
Third. Of the Sonants and the Surds. 1. The b

and p Sounds. — (1) The b Sound — The Voiced Form,
as in Lobe. For this simple sonant, the teeth are about
three-sixteenths inch apart; the lips are in a medial
position, forward and backward, and are closed. The
tip of the tongue is raised and projected to between
the teeth, without touching them but together with
the sides of the blade lightly touching the lips, and,
thence backward, the sides of the tongue press against
the upper teeth. This forms the consonant chamber,
firmly closed at its front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx; the adjustment is tensioned, backsuc-
tion draws the air back out of the consonant chamber,
as if to produce a vacuum in it, and closes the passage
between the mouth and the lungs; this stops the up-
ward flow of breath and the voicing, and so represses
and muffles the vocal current as to convert it into
the obscure, voiced sound that constitutes the initial
part of the voiced form of the b.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
the lip-contact is broken and, at the same time, the
mouth pressure upon the unvocalized breath confined
in the consonant chamber causes such compressed
breath to rush out explosively between the opened
lips. The noises caused by the breaking of the lip-
contact and by such explosion of the breath compose
the other, the voiceless, part of the voiced form of
the b.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

50 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

(2) The p Sound, as in Pet. This correlative, simple
surd is made approximately like the voiceless form of
the b, but unvocalized breath direct from the lungs is
exploded by the more forcible, diaphragmatic pressure.

Compare lobe — bet — pet.

2. The d and t Sounds.— (1) The d Sound— The
Voiced Form, as in Feed. For this simple sonant, the
teeth are about three-sixteenths inch apart; the lips
part about five-sixteenths inch, they are in a medial
position, forward and backward, and are opened
broadly. The foretongue is curled up so that the tip
of the tongue, touching up against the lower edge of
the inside of the upper gum, presses firmly against the
inside of the upper foreteeth, and, thence backward,
the sides of the tongue press against the upper teeth.
This forms the consonant chamber, firmly closed at
its front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, backsuc-
tion draws the air back out of the consonant chamber,
as if to produce a vacuum in it, and closes the passage
between the mouth and the lungs; this stops the up-
ward flow of breath and the voicing, and so represses
and muffles the vocal current as to convert it into
the obscure, voiced sound that constitutes the initial
part of the voiced form of the d.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
the tongue-teeth contact is broken and, at the same
time, the mouth pressure upon the unvocalized breath
confined in the consonant chamber causes such com-
pressed breath to rush out explosively between the
tip of the tongue and the inside of the upper fore-
teeth. The noises caused by the breaking of the tongue-

ORGANIC FORMATION 51

teeth contact and by such explosion of the breath
compose the other, the voiceless, part of the voiced
form of the d.

JTke Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The t Sound, as in Ten. This correlative, simple
surd is made approximately like the voiceless form of
the d, but unvocalized breath direct from the lungs
is exploded by the more forcible, diaphragmatic
pressure.

Compare Feed — din — ten.

3. The g and k Sounds.— (I) The g Sound— The
Voiced Form, as in Dog. For this simple sonant the
teeth are about three-eighths inch apart; the lips part
about one-half inch, they are in a medial position,
forward and backward, and are opened broadly. The
tip of the tongue presses against the inside of the lower
foreteeth; thence backward, the sides of the tongue
press against the upper teeth; and, at about the di-
viding line between the midtongue and the backtongue,
the tongue humps up and presses firmly against the
hard palate so as to form, back of the contact, the
consonant chamber, firmly closed at its front.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go, the

52 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

tongue-palate contact is broken and, at the same
time, the backmouth pressure upon the unvocalized
breath confined in the consonant chamber causes such
compressed breath to rush out explosively between
the hump of the tongue and the hard palate. The noises
caused by the breaking of the tongue-palate contact
and by such explosion of the breath compose the other,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form of the g.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The k Sound, as in Kit. This correlative, simple
surd is made approximately like the voiceless form
of the g, but unvocalized breath direct from the lungs
is exploded by the more forcible, diaphragmatic
pressure.

Compare dog, — got — kit.

4. The ng and n Sounds. — (1) The ng Sound— The
Voiced Form, as in Long. For this mixed (n+g = ng)
sonant, the teeth are about three-eighths inch apart;
the lips part about one-half inch, they are in a medial
position, forward and backward, and are opened
broadly. The tip of the tongue touches the inside of
the lower foreteeth; the sides of the foretongue press
against the upper teeth; the sides of the midtongue
press against the insides of the upper gum; and, at
about the dividing line between the midtongue and
the backtongue, the tongue humps up and presses
against the hard palate so as to form, back of the
contact, the consonant chamber, firmly closed at its
front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, back-
suction draws the air back out of the consonant

ORGANIC FORMATION 53

chamber, as if to produce a vacuum in it, and closes
the passage between the mouth and the lungs — some
of the sound going up into the nasal cavity; this stops
the upward flow of breath and the voicing, and so
represses and muffles the vocal current as to convert
it into the obscure, voiced, nasal sound that con-
stitutes the initial part of the voiced form of the ng.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
the tongue-palate (and gum) contact is broken and,
at the same time, the backmouth pressure upon the
unvocalized breath confined in the consonant chamber
causes such compressed breath to rush out somewhat
explosively between the hump of the tongue and the
hard palate. The noises caused by the breaking of
the tongue-palate (and gum) contact and by such
explosion of the breath composes the other, the voice-
less, part of the voiced form of the ng.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The n Sound, as in Monkey. This correlative,
imperfect, mixed (n+?=n) surd is made partly like
the voiceless form of the ng, but the tongue does not
rise high enough, at the hump, to touch either the
hard palate, the gums, or the teeth as firmly as in the
ng, because in the ng such features are caused by the g
factor, and in the n the corresponding factor, the k,
is wanting. (See page 16, note.) Therefore, in the n,
unvocalized breath direct from the lungs is explosi-
vely emitted only by chest pressure.

Compare long — sing — mon-key. (Also compare ban —
ban-ker — bang.)

5. The dh and th Sounds.— (1) The dh—The Voiced
Form, as in Lathe. For this mixed (d-fh = dh) sonant,
the teeth are about three-sixteenths inch apart; the

54 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

lips part about five-sixteenths inch, the upper is in a
medial position, forward and backward, the lower is
somewhat protruded, and they are opened broadly.
The tip of the tongue projects between the foreteeth,
so that the under side of the blade incidentally touches
the lower foreteeth, and the upper side of the blade
touches the upper foreteeth but so as to leave a little
leak between them and the tongue, and, thence back-
ward, the sides of the tongue press against the upper
teeth. This forms the consonant chamber, closed at
its front except the little leak between the tip of the
tongue and the upper foreteeth.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, backsuc-
tion draws the air back out of the consonant chamber,
as if to produce a vacuum in it, and loosely closes
the leak between the tip of the tongue and the upper
teeth and closes the passage between the mouth and
the lungs; this stops the upward flow of breath and the
voicing, and so represses and muffles the vocal current
as to convert it into the obscure, voiced sound, that
constitutes the initial part of the voiced form of the dh.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
a little of the unvocalized breath confined in the fore-
mouth escapes fricatively through the leak between
the tip of the tongue and the upper foreteeth, the
tongue-teeth contact is broken and, at the same time,
the mouth pressure upon the breath confined in the
consonant chamber causes such compressed breath
to rush out somewhat explosively between the tip of
the tongue and the upper foreteeth. The fricative
noise and the noises caused by the breaking of the
tongue-teeth contact and by such explosive emission

ORGANIC FORMATION 55

of the breath compose the other, the voiceless, part of
the voiced form of the dh.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The th Sound, as in Thin. This correlative,
mixed (t+h = th) surd is made approximately like
the voiceless form of the dh, but unvocalized breath
direct from the lungs is explosively emitted by the
more forcible, diaphragmatic pressure.

Compare lathe — then — thm.

6. The v and f Sounds.— (1) The v Sound— The
Voiced Form, as in Eye. For this mixed (b+h = v)
sonant, the teeth, the lower drawn back, are about
three-sixteenths inch apart; the lips part enough to
clear, the upper is in a medial position, forward and
backward, and the lower is so drawn in and over the
lower teeth that with its outside it leakily presses
against the bottom of the upper foreteeth. The tip
of the tongue is raised enough to touch the lower
lip, the under side of the blade presses against the in-
side cf the lower foreteeth and, thence backward,
the sides of the tongue press against the upper teeth.
This forms the consonant chamber, closed at its front
except the little leak between the lower lip and the
upper foreteeth.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, backsuc-
tion draws the air back out of the consonant chamber,
as if to produce a vacuum in it, and loosely closes
the little leak between the lower lip and the upper
foreteeth and closes the passage between the mouth
and the lungs; this stops the upward flow of breath
and the voicing, and so represses and muffles the

56 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

vocal current as to convert it into the obscure, voiced
sound that constitutes the initial part of the voiced
form of the v.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
a little of the unvocalized breath confined in the fore-
mouth escapes fricatively through the leak between the
lower lip and the bottom of the upper foreteeth, such
lip-teeth contact is broken and. at the same time, the
mouth pressure upon the breath confined in the con-
sonant chamber causes such compressed breath to
rush out somewhat explosively between the lower lip
and the bottom of the upper foreteeth. The fricative
noise and the noises caused by the breaking of the
lip-teeth contact and by such explosive emission of
the breath compose the other, the voiceless, part of
the voiced form of the v.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The f Sound, as in Fat. This correlative, mixed
(p+h = f) surd is made approximately like the voice-
less form of the v, but unvocalized breath direct from
the lungs is explosively emitted by the more forcible
diaphragmatic pressure.

Compare eve — vet — fat.

7. The gh and kh Sounds.— (1) The gh Sound—
The Voiced Form, as in Tag (German). For this foreign,
mixed (g-fh = gh) sonant, the teeth are about three-
eighths inch apart; the lips part about one-half inch,
the upper is in a medial position, forward and back-
ward, and the lower is somewhat protruded, and they
are opened broadly. The tip of the tongue presses
against the inside of the lower foreteeth, the sides
of the tongue press against the upper teeth, and, at
about the dividing line between the midtongue and

ORGANIC FORMATION 57

the backtongue the tongue humps up and leakily
presses against the hard palate so as to form, back of
the contact, a consonant chamber, closed at its front
except the little leak between the hump of the tongue
and the hard palate.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, backsuc-
tion draws the air back out of the consonant chamber,
as if to produce a vacuum in it, and loosely closes the
little leak between the hump of the tongue and the
hard palate and closes the passage between the mouth
and the lungs; this stops the upward flow of breath
and the voicing, and so represses and muffles the
vocal current as to convert it into the obscure, voiced
sound that constitutes the initial part of the voiced
form of the gh.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
a little of the unvocalized breath confined in the back-
mouth escapes fricatively through the leak between
the hump of the tongue and the hard palate, such
tongue-palate contact is broken and, at the same time,
the backmouth pressure upon the breath confined in
the consonant chamber causes such compressed breath
to rush out somewhat explosively between the hump
of the tongue and the hard palate. The fricative
noise and the noises caused by the breaking of the
tongue-palate contact and by such explosive emission
of the breath compose the other, the voiceless, part
of the voiced form of the gh.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The kh Sound, as in Ach (German). This cor-
relative, mixed (k+h = kh), foreign surd is made

58 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

approximately like the voiceless form of the gh, but
unvocalized breath direct from the lungs is explosively
emitted by the more forcible, diaphragmatic pressure.

Compare Tag — legen — ach (German).

8. The zh and sh Sounds.— (1) The zh Sound—
The Voiced Form, as in Rouge. For this mixed (z+h =
zh) sonant, the teeth are about one-sixteenth inch
apart; the lips part about three-sixteenths inch, the
upper is in a medial position, forward and backward,
the lower is somewhat protruded, and they are opened
broadly. The foretongue is curled up so that the tip,
slightly bent down, is just back of and clears the center
of the inside of the upper gum, and the blade of the
tongue is under and leakily clears the forepalate; the
sides of the rear part of the foretongue press against
the insides of the upper gum and, thence backward,
the sides of the tongue press against the upper teeth.
This forms the consonant chamber, closed at the
front except the leak between the blade of the tongue
and the forepalate.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx; the adjustment is tensioned, back-
suction draws the air back out of the consonant
chamber, as if to produce a vacuum in it, and loosely
closes the leak between the blade of the tongue and
the forepalate and closes the passage between the mouth
and the lungs; this stops the upward flow of breath
and the voicing, and so represses and muffles the vocal
current as to convert it into the obscure, voiced sound
that constitutes the initial part of the voiced form of
the zh.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
a little of the unvocalized breath confined in the con-

ORGANIC FORMATION 59

sonant chamber escapes fricatively through the leak
between the blade of the tongue and the forepalate;
the tongue-gum contact is broken and, at the same
time, the mouth pressure upon the breath confined
in the consonant chamber causes such compressed
breath to rush out somewhat explosively between the
blade of the tongue and the forepalate. The fricative
noise and the noises caused by the breaking of the
tongue-gum contact and by such explosive emission
of the breath compose the other, the voiceless, part
of the voiced form of the zh.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The sh Sound, as in Shun. This correlative,
mixed (s+h = sh) surd is made approximately like
the voiceless form of the zh, but unvocalized breath
direct from the lungs is explosively emitted by the
more forcible, diaphragmatic pressure.

Compare rouge — azure — shim.

9. The z and s Sounds. — (1) The z Sound— The
Voiced Form, as in Haze. For this simple sonant, the
teeth are about one-sixteenth inch apart; the lips part
about one-fourth inch, they are in a medial position,
forward and backward, and are opened broadly.
The foretongue is curled up so that the tip, slightly
notched, is just back of and leakily clears the center
of the inside of the upper gum; the sides of the blade
of the tongue press against the insides of the gum
and, thence backward, the sides of the tongue press
against the upper teeth. This forms the consonant
chamber, closed at the front except the leak between
the tip of the tongue and the inside of the upper gum.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,

60 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

by the larynx: the adjustment is tensioned, back-
suction draws the air back out of the consonant
chamber, as if to produce a vacuum in it, and loosely
closes the leak between the tip of the tongue and the
gum and closes the passage between the mouth and
the lungs; this stops the upward flow of breath and the
voicing, and so represses and muffles the vocal current
as to convert it into the obscure, voiced sound that
constitutes the initial part of the voiced form of the z.

Then backsuction ceases, the tensioning is let go,
a little of the unvocalized breath confined in the con-
sonant chamber escapes fricatively through the leak
between the tip of the tongue and the gum, the tongue-
gum contact is broken and, at the same time, the
mouth pressure upon the breath confined in the con-
sonant chamber causes such repressed breath to rush
out somewhat explosively between the tip of the
tongue and the gum. The fricative noise, and the noises
caused by the breaking of the tongue-gum contact
and by such explosive emission of the breath compose
the other, the voiceless, part of the voiced form of the z.

The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

(2) The s Sound, as in Sit. This correlative, simple
surd is made approximately like the voiceless form of
the z, but unvocalized breath direct from the lungs
is explosively emitted by the more forcible, diaphrag-
matic pressure.

Compare haze — zip — sit.

10. The j and t-sh ( = ch) Sounds.— (1) The j Sound
—The Voiced Form, as in Age. This compound-mixed
(d+(z+h)=j) sonant is composed of the voiced form
of the d and of the 'voiceless form of the zh, but the
two factors do not fuse; that is, they are not uttered

ORGANIC FORMATION 61

simultaneously but successively and their connecting
ends are slightly modified so as to connect smoothly.
The sound is, therefore, compound-mixed.

The Voiceless Form is composed of the voiceless form
of the d and of the voiceless form of the zh, uttered
successively, and slightly modified so as to connect
smoothly.

(2) The t-sh ( = ch) Sound, as in Check. This cor-
relative, compound-mixed (t+(s+h)=tsh) surd is
composed of the t and of the sh, not uttered simul-
taneously but successively, and the two sounds are
slightly modified so as to connect smoothly. Like the
j, the t-sh is compound-mixed.

Compare age — jac/c — check.

Fourth. Of the Monosounds. 1. The m Sound. —
(1) The Voiced Form, as in Boom. For this mono-
sound, the teeth are about three-sixteenths inch apart;
the lips are in a medial position, forward and backward,
and are closed. The tip of the tongue is raised and
projected to between the teeth, without touching
them but together with the sides of the blade lightly
touching the lips, and, thence backward, the sides of
the tongue press against the upper teeth. This forms
the consonant chamber, firmly closed at its front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is somewhat tensioned,
the vocal current tries to flow out between the closed
lips and is checked — some of the sound going up into
the nasal cavity; this so represses and muffles the vocal
current as to convert it into the obscure, voiced,
nasal sound that constitutes the initial part of the
voiced form of the m.

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the ten-

62 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

sioning is let go, the lip contact is broken and, at the
same time, the chest pressure upon the unvocalized
breath confined in the consonant chamber causes
such repressed breath to rush out slightly explosively
between the opened lips. The noises caused by the
breaking of the lip contact and by such explosive
emission of the breath compose the other, the voice-
less, part of the voiced form of the m.

(2) The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

Compare boom — met.

2. The n Sound. — (1) The Voiced Form, as in Dean.
For this monosound, the teeth are about one-fourth
inch apart; the lips part about three-eighths inch,
they are in a medial position, forward and backward,
and are opened broadly. The foretongue is curled up
so that the tip of the tongue, touching up against the
lower edge of the inside of the upper gum, presses
firmly against the inside of the upper foreteeth and,
thence backward, the sides of the tongue press against
the upper teeth. This forms the consonant chamber,
firmly closed at its front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is somwhat tensioned,
the vocal current tries to flow out between the tip of
the tongue and the teeth and is checked — some of
the sound going up into the nasal cavity; this so re-
presses and muffles the vocal current as to convert it
into the obscure, voiced, nasal sound that constitutes
the initial part of the voiced form of the n.

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the ten-
sioning is let go, the tongue-teeth contact is broken
and, at the same time, the chest pressure upon the un-

ORGANIC FORMATION 63

vocalized breath confined in the consonant chamber
causes such repressed breath to rush out slightly ex-
plosively between the tip of the tongue and the inside
of the upper foreteeth. The noises caused by the
breaking of the tongue-teeth contact and by such ex-
plosive emission of the breath compose the other, the
voiceless, part of the voiced form of the n.

(2) The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

Compare dean — net.

3. The 1 Sound.— (1) The Voiced Form, as in Vail.
For this monosound, the teeth are about five-sixteenths
inch apart; the lips part a little more, they are in a
medial position, forward and backward, and are opened
broadly. The foretongue is curled up so that the tip
presses centrally forward against the middle of the
inside of the upper gum; the lateral edges of the blade
press against the insides of the upper gum; the sides
of the rear part of the foretongue press against the
inside of the upper teeth; and the lateral edges of the
midtongue are free. This forms the consonant chamber,
closed at its front but open over the lateral edges of
the midtongue.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is somewhat tensioned,
the vocal current tries to flow out between the tip of
the tongue and the inside of the upper gum but is
stopped there and passes out over the sides of the
midtongue; this so checks and muffles the vocal cur-
rent as to convert it into the obscure, voiced, liquid
sound that constitutes the initial part of the voiced
form of the I.

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the ten-

64 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

sioning is let go, the tongue-gum contact is broken
and, at the same time, the chest pressure upon the
unvocalized breath confined in the consonant chamber
causes such repressed breath to rush out slightly ex-
plosively between the tip of the tongue and the inside
of the upper gum. The noises caused by the breaking
of the tongue-gum contact and by such explosive
emission of the breath compose the other, the voice-
less, part of the voiced form of the I.

(2) The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

Compare vail — let. (Also observe the voiceless Z's
in clip, flip, flop.)

4. The r Sound. — (1) The Voiced Form, as in Burr.
For this monosound, the teeth are about five-sixteenths
inch apart; the lips part a little more, the upper is in
a medial position, forward and backward, and is broad,
and the lower is slightly protruded and rounded, and the
aperture is approximately round. The fore tongue
is curled up so that the tip is just back of and clears
the center of the inside of the upper gum; the blade
of the tongue, with its edges free, is under and clears
the forepalate and, thence backward, the sides of
the tongue press against the inside of the upper teeth.
This forms the consonant chamber, thinly open over
the blade of the tongue.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized by the
larynx: the adjustment is somewhat tensioned, the
vocal current flows out through the shallow opening
between the blade of the tongue and the forepalate
and the blade of the tongue vibrates very minutely;
this so checks and muffles the vocal current as to con-
vert it into the obscure, voiced, vibratory, liquid

ORGANIC FORMATION 65

sound that constitutes the initial part of the voiced
form of the r.

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the ten-
sioning is let go, the tongue-teeth contact is broken
and, at the same time, the chest pressure upon the
unvocalized breath confined in the consonant chamber
causes such repressed breath to rush out slightly ex-
plosively between the blade of the tongue and the fore-
palate. The noises caused by the breaking of the tongue-
teeth contact and by such explosive emission of the
breath compose the other, the voiceless, part of the
voiced form of the r.

(2) The Voiceless Form, as in Timber, consists of
only the terminal, the voiceless, part of the voiced
form.

The foregoing constitute the untrilled, or tremulous, r.

(3) The Trilled, or Flapped, r, as in Rot. This dual
voiceless form of the r differs from the untrilled, or
tremulous, form in that in the trilled, or flapped, r
the adjustment of the tongue and other mouth parts
is looser, and in that as the breath passes out over
the blade of the tongue, instead of the blade vibrating
as in the untrilled, or tremulous, r, the tip of the tongue
flaps several times in very rapid succession against
the forepalate.

The untrilled, or tremulous, r occurs correctly only
after vowels and the trilled, or flapped, r occurs cor-
rectly only before vowels.

Compare burr — timber — rot.

5. The w Sound. — (1) The Voiced Form, as in Beew.
For this monosound, the teeth are about one-fourth
inch apart; the lips part about the same, they are pro-
truded and are opened roundly. The tip of the tongue
is raised and projected to between the teeth, without

66 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

touching them or the lips, the sides of the blade of
the tongue touch the lips lightly and, thence back-
ward, the sides of the tongue press against the upper
teeth. This forms the consonant chamber, somewhat
open at its front.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized by the
larynx: the adjustment is somewhat tensioned, and
as the vocal current tries to flow out between the tip
of the tongue and the upper teeth and lip it is checked;
this so represses and muffles the vocal current as
to convert it into the obscure, voiced, liquid sound
that constitutes the initial part of the voiced form of
the w. '

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the con-
striction and tensioning at the front of the mouth
are let go, and, at the same time, the chest pressure
upon the unvocalized breath confined in the consonant
chamber causes such repressed breath to rush out
slightly explosively between the tip of the tongue
and the opened lips. The noises caused by the letting
go of the constriction and tensioning at the front of
the mouth and by such explosive emission of the
breath compose the other, the voiceless, part of the
voiced form of the w.

(2) The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

Compare beew — wet.

6. The y Sound.— (I) The Voiced Form, as in Beei/.
For this monosound, the teeth are about one-eighth
inch apart; the lips, the upper drawn back and the
lower slightly protruded, part about three-eighths
inch, and are opened broadly. The foretongue is
raised so that the tip, slightly notched, is just back

ORGANIC FORMATION 67

of and clears the front center of the inside of the upper
gum; that the sides of the blade press upward against
the sides of the upper gum; that the rear edges of the
front part of the foretongue press against the inside
of the upper teeth; and, thence backward, the sides
of the tongue press against the upper teeth. This
forms the consonant chamber, open over the blade
of the tongue.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx: the adjustment is somewhat tensioned,
and as the vocal current flows out over the blade of
the tongue the constriction checks it; this so represses
and muffles the vocal current as to convert it into
the obscure, voiced, fricative sound that constitutes
the initial part of the voiced form of the y.

Then the checking and the voicing cease, the ten-
sioning is let go, the tongue-gum contact is broken
and, at the same time, the chest pressure upon the
unvocalized breath confined in the consonant chamber
causes such repressed breath to rush out slightly ex-
plosively between the blade of the tongue and the
upper gum. The noises caused by the breaking of
the tongue-gum contact and by such explosive emis-
sion of the breath compose the other, the voiceless,
part of the voiced form of the y.

(2) The Voiceless Form consists of only the terminal,
the voiceless, part of the voiced form.

Compare beey — yet.

7. The h Sound.— (1) The Voiced Form, as in Bee/i.
For this monosound the teeth are about three-fourths
inch apart; the lips, the upper in a medial position,
forward and backward, and the lower protruded, part
about the same and are opened broadly, The tongue

68 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

lies in the bottom of the mouth and its edge, all around,
presses against the lower teeth. The velum (the soft
palate) is raised. This forms the open consonant
chamber.

Then as breath comes up from the lungs into the
consonant chamber, the breath is vocalized, or voiced,
by the larynx; the parts in the rear part of the mouth
so adjust and tension as to form a slight, circular
constriction in the oral cavity, a little in front of the
rear end of the hard palate, where the vocal current
impinges on its passing out: this so represses and muf-
fles the vocal current as to convert it into the obscure,
voiced sound that constitutes the initial part of the
voiced form of the h.

Then the voicing and the so impinging of the vocal
current cease, the constriction and tensioning are let
go, and the chest pressure emits the breath, unvocal-
ized. The noises caused by the letting go of such con-
striction and by the free emission of the un vocalized
breath through the open throat and open mouth
compose the other, the voiceless, part of the voiced
form of the h.

(2) The Voiceless Form differs from the voiced
form in that a full volume of unvocalized breath,
direct from the lungs, is emitted by unimpeded chest
pressure through the open throat and open mouth as
the purely aspirated sound characteristic of the voice-
less form of the h.

Compare beeh — hot.

71. Fifth. Spurious Sounds. As has been stated
in the preface, A. J. Ellis, the great English phone-
tician, in his paleotypic alphabet, gives 273 different
sounds in actual use in English pronunciation. How
many different sounds such an analysis would make

ORGANIC FORMATION 69

of all the sounds in all of the world's 3424 languages,*
it is hard to conjecture. Such a wide difference from
the result of the author's investigation grows out of
the facts that the sounds have not heretofore been
correctly analyzed into all their series, classes, kinds
and forms to the limit of audible distinction, and that
their physiologically correct pronunciations have not
been established. That eminent author, therefore,
took usage, which varies with time and place, as the
standard of pronunciation, instead of the organically
correctly formed sounds, and otherwise so mistook
the sounds that he included in his list, as different
sounds, (1) different forms of the same sound; (2) in-
correctly formed sounds; and (3) sounds whose ter-
minals are, unavoidably, slightly modified when con-
necting with sounds of a different mouth formation.
The last two need consideration.

72. (1) Incorrectly Formed Sounds. — (a) Of the
Vowels. Every vowel has its peculiar resonance center
and its peculiar lip adjustment. When, therefore, a
vowel is formed either at an incorrect resonance
center or with an incorrect lip adjustment, the sound
will not be correct; that is, the quality of the sound
will vary, more or less, from the typically correct
sound. The neutral vocal current is very sensitive
and these deviations from the correct formation
affect the sound in the following three ways, viz.: —

73. First. Each vowel receives an essential element
of its characteristic tone quality from the resonance
center because of its peculiar, anatomic formation.
When, therefore, for example, in the e, whose resonance
center is upon the inside of the upper foreteeth, the

* World Almanac.

70 , THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

vocal current is deflected from the inside of the upper
lip; or when in the o, whose resonance center is upon
the upper gum, the vocal current is deflected from the
back part of the hard palate; or when in the u, whose
resonance center is upon the inside of the upper lip,
the vocal current is deflected from the inside of the
upper foreteeth; — it is evident that the quality of
the sound in neither case can be quite correct, for
the anatomic formations of the upper lip, of the teeth,
and of the hard palate are so different that each im-
parts a noticeably different resonance to the vocal
current deflecting from it.

74. Second. Nothing but the correct internal adjust-
ment of the foremouth for the resonance center of
the particular vowel will give to the vowel chamber
the correct shape for that vowel. A vowel chamber
is a complexity of cavities: when, therefore, the vowel
chamber is of the right shape, the noise resonances
from the different recesses, like the undertones and
overtones in a beautifully balanced voice, are correct
and blend agreeably; and when the vowel chamber
is not of the right shape, such noise resonances are
not correct and they blend harshly.

75. Third. As the lip adjustment — the different
tensioning, the protrusion and retraction, the broad-
ening and rounding, and the form and size of the
aperture — also affect the outgoing sound, and as each
vowel requires for its correct utterance its peculiar
lip adjustment, every deviation therefrom will, more
or less, modify the sound.

NOTE. Let one form, for example, the e at each of the five
different resonance centers and by directing his attention care-
fully to the quality of the sound he can perceive the difference

ORGANIC FORMATION 71

in the sounds, and he will discover that the e can only be cor-
rectly formed with the resonance center upon the inside of the
upper foreteeth. Likewise with each of the other class vowels.
It may take a little practice to make the observation. And by
reversing the broadening and the rounding of the lips in uttering
the e and u and the a and 6 sounds, the different lip effect can
also be observed.

NOTE 1. The English Broad Q, ( = 6) Perversion. Is the English
broad Q, (6) sound (Webster's markings), as indicated by the
dictionaries for law — all — war, (1) a form of the a, as indicated
for ah — calm — far, is it (2) an additional class vowel, or is it
(3) a perversion? Let us see: (1) As the a (6) modifies into long
and short and inflects in all the forms, the (j (d) is, therefore,
not a form of the a but assumes the position of a class vowel.
(2) But as in the foremouth, where the organic formation changes
much at close intervals, every available spot has been appropri-
ated, as a vowel resonance center, for the e, a, a, o, u — a, ft, u\
as nature has so fixed the resonance centers that these eight
class vowels vary by about equally great differences; and as there
is not difference enough in the sounds to insert another class
vowel between any two; — there is, therefore, no place in the
foremouth where another class vowel can be formed, nor room
between the sounds, as different sounds, where it can be inserted.
To interpose another class vowel breaks down nature's distinc-
tion and causes confusion in the expression of thought. (3) The
a (<5) is, therefore, a perversion, a guttural as the dictionaries
properly call it, formed in the backmouth. But every cultivated
speaker and singer knows the importance of the correct forward
direction of the vocal current, and that, when sounds are formed
too far back in the mouth, the vocal current, instead of coming
directly forward, as it does in a sound formed at the correct place,
forms an eddy in the back of the mouth, that impairs the reach
of the sound, that imparts a nasal twang to it, and that is in-
jurious to the voice. Nature intends us to speak with our mouths
not down in our stomachs. The lower lip must not be retra3ted
and raised so as to let the reflection of the sound from the rear
end of the hard palate strike the lower lip and be turned back
and form an eddy back in the mouth; the lower lip must be
protruded and lowered so as to let such reflected sound come
out.

72 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

NOTE 2. For more than fifty years, English dictionaries
have indicated as an English speech sound a guttural <? (6) that
is not recognized in German, Italian and other languages. This
has had the following bad effects : (1) it has imparted to English
in general, and to educated English in particular, a nasal blemish;
(2) it has largely deprived English of the prettiest vowel sound
by substituting for many of its a's an unesthetic, guttural per-
version that has neither reach nor resonance; (3) it has intro-
duced in English a sound that is very injurious to the voice;
and (4) it has caused a great confusion in the understanding
and in the pronunciation of this class of sounds.

76. (6) Of the Consonants. The consonants are
strong breath, or noise, forms and are not, generally,
as easily affected as the vowels. Their modifications
grow principally out of being affected when combining
with other sounds and this will be considered in that
connection; two other features will be noticed here.
(1) As the voiced form of the sonants and monosounds
does not occur (at least not in English), when such elas-
tic consonants attach precedingly to a vowel and yet
many erroneously voice such consonants in such posi-
tions, particularly the monosounds m, n, w and y, some
of such consonants have been construed as also being
vowels or semivowels. (2) As the difference in the
formation between the e and the y is not generally
understood, the i sound (the short of e) in the diph-
thongs la, id, etc., has been mistaken for the y in such
words as Indian, onion, etc. (See ante, page 27
par. 50.)

77. (2) Effect of Differently Formed Connect-
ing Sounds. To give man the widest possible range
for the audible expression of his thoughts, nature has
appropriated (l) every possible different place in the
mouth at which and (2) every possible different mouth
adjustment by which available sounds can be pro-

ORGANIC FORMATION 73

duced. Hence both vowels and consonants are formed
at places in the mouth varying from the lips to the
rear end of the hard palate and with the adjustment
of as widely different mouth parts. Therefore, when
sounds of widely different organic formations connect,
their connecting ends are more or less modified so as
to allow them to make physiologically easy unions.
The place of formation and the mouth parts employed
are intimately connected but the effect will be easier
understood if considered separately. Therefore the
vowels, as to the location of their resonance centers,
and the consonants, as to the place of impingement
of the breath as shown by the mouth parts principally
involved to produce the constriction, will now be
paralleled.

(a) THE VOWELS AND CONSONANTS PARALLELED
ACCORDING TO THE RESONANCE CENTERS OF THE
VOWELS AND THE MOUTH PARTS PRINCIPALLY
INVOLVED IN FORMING THE CONSONANTS

CONSONANTS
Mouth Parts Involved

VOWELS
Resonance Center

Position

Lips

Lip

Lips— Teeth

Lip — Fore-

teeth.

Teeth— Gum— Tongue

Foreteeth.

Teeth— Gum— Tongue

Gum.

Gum — Tongue — Forepalate

tsh

Gum — Fore-

palate.

Tongue — Forepalate

Forepalate.

Tongue — Midpalate

Forepalate —

Rearpalate.

Midtongue — Rearpalate

Rearpalate.

M idtongue — Rearpalate

10*

8, 9, and 10 are close together.

74 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

78. (b) Shiftability of the Sounds. If one will insert
between two of the consonants in the first position
the long vowel in the first position, between two of
the consonants in the second position the long vowel
in the second position, between two of the consonants
in the third position the long vowel in the third posi-
tion, and so on down to the eighth position, articu-
lating the sounds attentively, slowly and correctly,
he will notice that, in each case, the sounds combine
smoothly, because the speaking, as to the place of
forming the sounds, is done, as it were, on a hori-
zontal level. Then if one will insert, say, between the
m and 6, in the first position, the long vowel in the first
position, between the same consonants the long vowel
in the second position, between the same consonants
the long vowel in the third position, and so on down to
the eighth position, articulating the sounds equally
attentively, slowly and correctly, he will notice that
instead of speaking as before on a horizontal level, as it
were, he is speaking similarly to a singer's practicing
do — do — do, do — si — do, do — La — do, do — sol — do, etc.,
down to the octave.

79. Back Sounds More Shiftable. As the sounds
are mostly forwardly formed sounds, to connect fluently
with them, the back sounds are, therefore, more shift-
able. When, therefore, for example, the a intervenes
between two front consonants, as in mob, the a is
formed farther forward than when the sound inter-
venes between two back consonants, as in cog (c = k),
and that changes the sound of the a somewhat; but
not enough to make a different Vowel of it or a different
form of the vowel. Likewise when a back consonant,
as for example the German kh, follows a front vowel,
as in ich, the kh (ch = kh) is formed farther forward

ORGANIC FORMATION 75

than when such consonant follows a back vowel, as
in ach; but that, also, does not make a different con-
sonant of it or a different form of the consonant.

80. (3) Effect of Different Mouth Parts Employed.
Then when one considers the difference in the mouth
parts employed, and their different adjustment, in
the formation of different sounds, the effect of con-
necting sounds will be further in evidence. For ex-
ample: in careless speaking, the I, in the word ale,
converts the vanish of the a into b, (the appearance
of the letter i (i) in ail converts the vanish of the a
into I}, and the premature closing of the mouth in
show, no, blow, etc., and the m in home, Rome, dome,
etc., converts the vanish of the o into u.

81. The number of trifling modifications that an
acute ear can be educated to detect runs up into the
hundreds. As such terminal modifications, however,
can be largely avoided by correct speaking, and as
where they cannot be avoided they are alike in all
speakers, in so far as they could be classified, such
modifications are negligible. In some cases the physi-
ological tendency of a strong sound has been so potent
as to have completely changed a weaker sound con-
necting with it to a sound of another class, as in
nature, shut, etc. Such changes have, however, been
recognized. Speech is complicated and profound.

82. Sixth. Descriptive Classification of the Speech
Sounds. The foregoing analysis shows that there are,
altogether, 93 different forms of the 43 speech sounds
in the human voice — 48 of the vowels and 45 of the
consonants, as shown in the following tabulations:

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

;:::::::::::::::::::::::•<>, >, >, >, >, >, K >>

;i 1,1 1 j i j !„! 1,1 1,1 i,i

a? a> fl-5 "^ § *^ •** ^-v

ORGANIC FORMATION

MMSd|im !i ::•:•: i :

olololoislsl- oioioioi!oiioSoSoS=Soio£ ;

.o>o^o^o^o>o >°>°>°>P>°>°>°>°>£>£>° : ;::::;:::

S'i

i i

£ 1

I.!..

« § &

51'!'

_a rt^ -H

F %3

•s^s 5«»

SS3S!!13!S
i? is

^^ |3

I,.. ,»..... .»i..»..-..

Ill

THE EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCI-
ATION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

83. This Topic will be considered under: First, The
Standard of Pronunciation; Second, Usage — Not the
Standard; Third, The Organic Fixedness of the Sounds;
Fourth, Speaking is Instinctive; Fifth, The Typical
Forms; Sixth, Points to be Remembered in the Pro-
nunciation; Seventh, The Exemplification of the Sounds;
and Eighth, The Different Positions in which All
the Forms Occur.

84. First. The Standard of Pronunciation. As the
organs of speech of all mankind are alike, as every
speech sound is formed at a certain place in the mouth,
with certain mouth parts, and with a certain adjust-
ment of such mouth parts, and these, together, give
to the sound its characteristic quality, every speech
sound has a physiologically correct pronunciation
that is alike the world over. This is the Standard
of Pronunciation for the Speech Sounds.

85. Second. Usage— Not the Standard. While
usage regulates of what sounds a word must be com-
posed, the pronunciation of such sounds does not
depend upon usage — upon how the sounds are pro-
nounced in good society or in educated circles in
New York, Boston, London, Paris or Berlin; it is a
question of what the physiologically correct pro-
nunciation of the sound is. If an individual, a com-

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 79

munity, a section of a country, or even a whole nation,
were to form, for example, the e sound at the place
of the a, so that it should partake to a degree of that
sound; or were to form it at the place of the u, so that
it should partake to a degree of that sound; or were
to form it at the place of any other vowel, so that it
should partake to a degree of that sound; or were
otherwise to form it incorrectly; — it would not estab-
lish the pronunciation of such erroneous formation as
the correct pronunciation for the sound. The fact
that a sound can, organically, be variously incorrectly
formed only gees to show that within all its incorrect
formations there is an organically correct formation
for the sound and to that we must look for its correct
pronunciation.

86. Third. The Organic Fixedness of the Sounds.
Nature has given us speech for the purpose of com-
municating our thoughts to our kind; and, to do so
intelligibly, we must utter the sounds alike. To enable
us to do this, nature has given us organs of speech
that are alike; that form sounds alike; and that utter
sounds that are alike. And it has so differentiated
the sounds that they are distinguishable in fluent
speaking, if they are reasonably well formed. There-
fore, that speech may not degenerate into an unin-
telligible confusion, Nature has fixed a standard, an
organically typical pronunciation, for each speech
sound.

87. (1) Distinctiveness of the Speech Sounds. The
43 speech sounds consist of two essentially different
kinds, vowels and consonants — tone forms and noise
forms. The vowels consist of eight, about equidifferent,
correlative couplets, the two sounds in each couplet
varying by a common, audibly easily discernible

80 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

difference into a long and a short. The consonants
consist of two, audibly different, parallel series, seven
monosounds and ten sonants, the two kinds about
equidifferent within themselves; then each of the ten
sonants varied by a common, audible difference into
a sonant and surd couplet.

88. (2) In the Minor Forms. As the minor forms
are compelled from physiological necessity, the sounds
naturally take their correct forms under their respec-
tive conditions, and when correctly uttered do not
break down nature's distinction, as the following
shows : (a) Of the Vowels. Each long vowel has varied
into a broad, a medium and a narrow form, but that
does not change either the quantity or the quality of
the long into that of the short. This can be seen in
the a, in laid — late — prelate; for the -late in the last
word, when correctly pronounced, is not let but Idt, —
exactly as in the second, but with less accent. Each
short vowel has varied into a primarily, a secondarily,
and an obscurely accented form; but that does not
change either the quantity or the quality of the short
into that of the long. This can be seen in the e in pet —
sunset — millet. An e remains an e through all the di-
minishing degrees of accent.

89. (6) Of the Consonants. Each of the seven mono-
sounds and each of the ten sonants has varied into a
voiced and a voiceless form; but that does not convert
the voiceless form of either into a surd that also is not
voiced. This can be seen in the difference between
such voiceless form of the d and of the t (surd) in
missed — mist, packed — pact, tinned — tint, which are at
the limit of audible distinction. Neither does it convert
the voiced form into a vowel, as can be seen in East —
yeast, ewe — you, idiom — yum, etc.

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 81

90. Fourth. Speaking is Instinctive. A child learns
to speak by instinct — the sum total of acquired speak-
ing habits inherited from its ancestors — and by imi-
tation. Therefore, and as the adjustment of the mouth
parts in producing the sound is very complicated
and profound, a child should hear the sound correctly
pronounced by others and should then be trusted to
let its speaking instinct guide it in putting the mouth
into the right shape. If more is needed the organic
formation of the sound must be explained.

NOTE. One cannot be taught to produce a beautiful tone by
a minute description of the adjustment or by a "tape line"
measurement. The adjustment of the mouth is profound and
a sound is an audible phenomenon that must be judged by the
ear. Let one adjust his mouth from description and listen as
he thus forms the sound as well as he can, slightly varyingly,
until he hears a clearer tone or sound coming out. Then he must
try to bring out such quality more and more until he perfects it.

91. (1) Foreign Sounds. Sounds that are not ver-
nacular can hardly be learned without an oral instruc-
tor, for a sound is an audible phenomenon and addresses
itself to the hearing. Its audible peculiarities, therefore,
are perceived by the ear. A child has usually no in-
stinctive propensity to pronounce a foreign sound and
in the adult the organs by long use have become set
in other directions so that it is more difficult for an
adult with stiff organs to learn to pronounce an un-
familiar sound than it is for a child whose organs
are pliable.

92. (2) Correction of Stubborn Errors. — (a) Of the
Vowels. Errors in the pronunciation of the vowels are
nearly always caused by forming the vowel with the
wrong resonance center, so that an explanation and
a correction of this, and articulating the vowels for

82 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

the learner, formed at every incorrect and at the
correct place, until the learner understands what the
correct sound is, will usually correct the pronunciation.
If the position of the lips is wrong, that also can be
explained. If more is needed the organic formation
of the particular vowel must be referred to. (See ante,
page 70, note.)

93. (6) Of the Consonants. In the consonants, as
for example, where a child says ting for king or peas
for please, the error is clearly in that the child does
not put its mouth into the shape to utter the k and the
I sounds. In such cases it is not enough simply to tell
the child so and to articulate the word correctly for
it. The child has formed a habit — has worn a groove
in which it moves — in so uttering the word, or in so
omitting the sound in that connection. The child
must, therefore, be made, understandingly, to put
its mouth parts, step by step, into their correct posi-
tions and, when it has them so, then to utter the sound.
Sometimes a change in the connection will accomplish
the result, as when a child, who says ting for king,
can say taking; it can generally be made to say taking,
ta-king, — king.

94. Fifth. The Typical Forms. The most highly
developed forms of the speech sounds constitute their
typical forms. Such form is the broad in the long
vowels, the primarily accented in the short vowels,
the voiced form in the sonants and monosounds, and
in the surd when it is final * and attaches to a primarily
accented short vowel.

95. Sixth. Points to be Remembered in the Pro-
nunciation.— (1) As to the Vowels. It must be remem-

* In a final position the surd is pronounced nearer as it is in
isolation. See ante, page 21, par. 40 and 41.

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 83

bered, however, (a) that a vowel must be formed at
the right resonance center and with the same res-
onance center throughout the utterance of the vowel —
if pronounced with two successive resonance centers
the sound will be diphthongal; (6) that for the long
vowels the adjustment must be close and firm and
that the sound must be uttered deliberately and
emphatically and must continue long enough to let
it develop; (c) that for the short vowels the adjust-
ment must be looser and the sound must be uttered
rapidly and emphatically; and (d) that an equally
great — a common — difference must be made between
the long and the short vowel in each class.

96. (2) As to the Consonants, (a) The voiced form
must be well developed; (6) the monosounds h, w,
and y do not, in English and in German, occur at the
end of a word, hence their voiced forms do not occur in
these languages; but as the form exists in the voice, and
as some or all of such forms occur in other languages,
the voiced form of these sounds should be learned; (c) as
the n is an imperfect — an incomplete — sound, not adap-
ted for a final position and does not so occur in either
English or German but does occur in them medially at
the end of a syllable (and within the syllable) where it is
really a pretty sound, it will be only so exemplified.

97. Seventh. The Exemplification of the Sounds.
The exemplification of the typical forms of the 43
speech sounds follows. The exemplifying words are
such that in popular pronunciation the exemplified
sound is usually given approximately its correct sound,
and are such that the connecting sounds do not seri-
ously interfere with the exemplified sound's correct pro-
nunciation. In pronouncing the exemplifying words
do not forget "The Points to be Remembered."

84 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

THE EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE SOUNDS

First. Of the Vowels. (1) The Broad Form of the
Long.

1. The e Sound. — Bee, fee, thee, wee— feed, heed,
meed, weed — keen, queen, seen, ween.

2. The a Sound. — Gay, lay, pay, way — bade, fade,
made, wade — bays, lays, rays, ways.

3. The a Sound. — Ah, bah, ma, pa — odd, pod, rod,
sod — car, far, par, tar. (All, cog, law, war, etc., have
this sound when correctly pronounced.) (See ante,
page 71, Note 1.)

4. The o Sound. — Go, ho, no, so — code, lode, mode,
rode — bone, hone, lone, tone.

5. The u Sound. — Blue, flue, glue, rue — crude, Jude,
prude, rude — boom, doom, loom, room.

6. The a Sound. — Bad, fad, mad, pad — am, dam,
jam, ram — care, fare, share, ware. *

7. The u Sound. — Burr, cur, fur, purr — herd, bird,
word, surd— firm, term, worm, yearn, f

8. The u Sound. — Fruh, Sud, grun (German).
(2) The Primarily Accented Form of the Short.

1. The I Sound. — Bit, hit, pit, wit — dip, lip, nip, tip.

2. The e Sound. — Bet, get, net, pet — beck, deck, neck,
peck.

3. The 6 Sound. — Dock, hock, lock, rock — got, lot,
not, tot.

4. The 6 Sound. — Son, some, come, ton — cup, pup,
sup, up.

* Before r the d sound has an £ vanish.

t The fi sound is not well developed in English because it is
always followed by the r, which has a demoralizing effect upon
it. • Compare the English sound with the German in schon and
01.

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 85

5. The u Sound. — Put, bull, full, pull — book, cook,
look, took.

6. The a Sound. — Ask,* cask, mask, task — ash, cash,
hash, mash.

7. The e Sound. — Pert, dirt, hurt, wort — jerk, dirk,
lurk, work.

8. The u Sound.— Gliick, Stuck, (German).
Second. Of the Consonants. (1) The Voiced Form

of the Sonants.

1. The b Sound. — Globe, lobe, probe, robe— Abe,
babe, cube, tube.

2. The d Sound. — Feed, heed, need, weed— fade,
made, shade, wade.

3. The z Sound. — Blaze, craze, faze, haze — days, lays,
.pays, ways.

4. The g Sound. — Dog, fog, hog, log— bag, nag, rag,
tag.

5. The v Sound. — Eve, heave, leave, weave — cave, gave,
pave, wave.

6. The dh Sound. — Breathe, sheathe, bathe, lafi* —
clothe, loathe, smooth, soothe.

7. The zh Sound. — Rouge.

8. The ng Sound. — Gong, long, song, tong — dong,
prong, thong, wrong.

9. The j Sound. — Age, page, rage, wage — dodge, Lodge,
liege, siege.

10. The gh Sound. — Frag, lag, sag, Tag — Sprach
(German — Some give to the g in these words the hard
sound as in English frog, log, etc.; usage is divided.)

(2) The Voiced Form of the Monosounds.
1. The I Sound. — Hole, mole, pole, role — bail, mail,
pail, vail.

* In all these words the a must be given the sound of d, as
popularly pronounced, not of d, as in dsk, bdsk, etc.

86 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

2. The m Sound. — Boom, doom, loom, room — beam,
ream, seam, team.

3. The n Sound. — Bean, dean, mean, wean — bone,
cone, lone, tone.

4. The r Sound. — Burr, cur, fur, purr — bore, core,
more, tore.

5. The h Sound. — Beeh* feeh, meeh, teeh (Impro-
vised words).

6. The w Sound. — Beew,* feew, meew, teew (Impro-
vised words).

7. The y Sound.— Beey, * feey, mcey, teey (Impro-
vised words).

(3) The Surds.

1. The p Sound. — Dip, hip, lip, tip — pit) pen, pat,
puss.

2. The t Sound. — Bit, hit, kit, wit — tip, ten, tack, tuck.

3. The s Sound. — Bess, chess, less, mess — sit, sack,
sot, sup.

4. The k Sound. — Dock, hock, lock, rock — kill, kin,
kip, kit.

5. The f Sound.— Cliff, miff, skiff, whiff— fin, fell,
fat, fop.

6. The th Sound. — Breath, death, peth, Seth — thin,
thick, think, thank.

7. The sh Sound. — Cash, dash, hash, mash — ship,
shack, shot, shun.

8. The n Sound. — Anchor, banker, canker, hanker —
flunky, hunky, monkey, spunky.

9. The t-sh (ch = t-sh) Sound.— Fetch, ketch, sketch,
vetch — chip, check, chap, chuck.

10. The kh Sound. — Ach, Bach, Fach, Dach — ich,
mich, sprich, stick (German).

* The voiced form of the sound must be well brought out.

EXEMPLIFICATION OF THE PRONUNCIATION 87

98. The Exemplification of the Minor Forms.

As the minor forms of both the vowels and the con-
sonants are modifications in the sounds to adapt
them to connect fluently with one another, there is
a physiological tendency for the sound to take its
correct form in its proper connection. Therefore the
pronunciation of the minor forms of the vowels is
sufficiently exemplified on page 11, and that of the
consonants on page 19.* The peculiar position
in which each form occurs will, however, be ex-
plained.

99. Eighth. The Different Positions in which All
the Forms Occur.— (1) Of the Vowels, (a) The broad
form occurs only at the end of a word either in a final
position or before one or more attaching, word-ending
consonants, the one next to the vowel being a voiced
form sonant or monosound; (6) the medium form oc-
curs in all other positions; and (c) the narrow form,
which is always distinguished from the other two by
its secondary accent, also occurs in all other positions.
The three forms of the short vowels occur in all posi-
tions and are distinguished from each other by their
different accents. The primarily accented occurs sel-
dom, if ever, in a final position.

100. (2) Of the Consonants, (a) The voiced form
of the consonants occurs only when the elastic con-
sonant immediately follows and is attached to a broad
form vowel. (6) The voiceless form of the elastic
consonants, and the surds, occur in all other positions,
— except that the flapped, or trilled, r (voiceless)
occurs, in English, only before vowels and the tremu-

* For the exemplification in German of the speech sounds in
all their 93 different forms, see The Universal Alphabet, in
loco,

88 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

lous, or untrilled, r, both voiced and voiceless, occurs
only after vowels.

NOTE. Whjle the use of the voiced form of the sonants and
the monosounds before vowels and of the flapped, or trilled,
r after vowels is neither expeditious nor euphonious and, therefore,
not allowable in the present stage of development of the lan-
guage, when the eventual growth of the vocabulary requires
such use of these forms, expedition and euphony will have to
give way to greater necessity. .

THE NOTATION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS

101. The Notation of the Speech Sounds. Aside
from the ordinary uses of reading and writing, there
is a practical and a scientific necessity for a world-
wide, uniform, complete and accurate system of nota-
tion for the speech sounds. Dictionaries should so
exemplify a sound that everyone can understandingly
and specifically identify it; schools must be able to
represent the sound to the sight intelligently; and
phoneticians must be able to symbolize it with scien-
tific accuracy.

102. In the Universal Alphabet. As there are only
43 different speech sounds, — 16 vowels and 27 con-
sonants, in the voice, — it requires only 43 different
characters or letters to represent them; and as such
have been logically devised by the author such letters
will appropriately represent the different sounds. These
letters with their sound values exemplified will be
found in the Universal Alphabet.

NOTE. The Universal Alphabet contains 45 letters, the ad-
ditional two, being of frequent occurrence in the English lan-
guage, are as follows: (1) i, representing the vowel diphthong
dfy (2) u, representing the pure vowel diphthong tu, and also
the impure with the initial element £, and the terminal y, in
either the broad, medium or narrow form.

103. (1) Indication of the Different Forms. — (a) Of
the Vowels, (l) In the Long, the broad form is dis-

90 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

tinguished by its position and its primary accent;
the medium is distinguished likewise; and the narrow
is distinguished by its secondary accent. (2) In the
Short, the three forms are distinguished by their differ-
ent accents. The three accents can be indicated thus:
pet' — sunset' — millet0, or the last by the absence of a
mark. (6) Of the Consonants, (l) The Voiced form is
distinguished by its position — attached to a preceding
broad form vowel; and (2) The Voiceless will be dis-
tinguished by occurring in all other positions. (But
see the r, page 64.) (3) The Surds are monoforms.
Where the forms are further to be contrasted, the
three forms of both the long and the short vowels
can be distinguished by blackface, Italic and ordinary
type; and the voiced, and the voiceless form of the
consonants, and the surds, can be similarly indicated.
This gives a complete and accurate indication for all
the speech sounds throughout all their different forms.
Nothing further is needed for either ordinary or
scientific purposes.

104. (2) Scientific Discrimination. When phone-
ticians have occasion to describe (a) forms not used
in the language, (6) accidental modifications compelled
or induced by differently formed connecting sounds,
and (c) perversions, the principles herein will enable
them to do this intelligently. For example: (l) The
voiced form of the h, w and y; the n at the end of a
word ; the voiced form of a sonant or monosound before
a vowel. (2) In the effect of connecting-consofnants
upon a vowel, the paralleling of the vowels and con-
sonants, on page 73, gives the key to the specific
modification: as, for example, the a in ale with an
o vanish (or in ail with an i vanish); the conversion
of the vowel in unaccented the and in -ble into an 6;

NOTATION OF THE SPEECH SOUNDS 91

the vanish of long vowels before r into e; of the j, in
judge, and sh, in shut, converting the vowel into e;
of the i and i (the initial part of the lu diphthong)
converting nature into ndtshur, etc. (3) Of forming
the e, a, o or u at the resonance center of the a; of
forming the u or 6 broad-lipped; of forming the a (6}
gutturally or by trying to fuse the a and o; etc.

It must be remembered: (1) that probably no
language employs all the different sounds in the human
voice; (2) that probably no language employs all the
different forms of all the different sounds that occur
in that language; and (3) that no language employs
all the different combinations of sounds that occur
in every other language or that are possible in the human
voice. Further, (4) the same sounds are not equally
well developed in all languages; and (5) the errors in
pronunciations of the speech sounds vary in different
languages, and even within the same language in
different localities.

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES
HOW THE SOUNDS ARE REPRESENTED THEREIN

105. A work on the Human Speech Sounds, as com-
prehensive as this work is, would hardly be complete
without giving a series of thoroughgoing articulating
exercises. Such exercises will, therefore, be formulated.
However, as the print types, with which the now alpha-
betically unrepresented sounds will have to be repre-
sented in The Universal Alphabet, are not yet ready,
and so as to become familiar with the sound factors
of the mixed sounds, the sounds will, in these articu-
lating exercises, be represented as follows:*

VOWEL SOUNDS

a by a

e by e o by o

u by u

A " &

6 " 6 6 ." 6

V " U

a " a

e " e u " u

u " u

a " a

I " 1 6 " 6

u " u

CONSONANT SOUNDS

Unchanged

Changed

be by 6

ka by

6s by s

cha

by c/if

Ish by sh

de " d

61 "

te " t

6ch

" kh

Ith " th

6f " /

6m "

ve " v

gh6n

11 gh

the " dh

ga " g

6n "

wa " w

Ing

11 ng

zhu " zh

ha " h

pe "

ya " y

unk

tf n

ze " 2

ja " j

6r "

* In school it were better that the sounds in the inflection
exercises were represented in the phonetic letters of The Uni-
versal Alphabet, so that children will become familiar with the
forms of such letters and with their sound values. In such
alphabet each vowel takes the name of its sound as exemplified;
the consonants are named as above.

t The t-sh sound, the correlative surd of the sonant.;' (d-zh).
92

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES 93

ARTICULATING EXERCISES

106. Articulating Exercises. To acquire the power
to articulate easily, smoothly, and correctly every
vowel as it may occur both before and after every
consonant, and every consonant and every two-sound
consonant combination as they may occur both before
and after every vowel, in any language, every child,
while young and its organs of speech are pliable,
should be thoroughly drilled on the following articu-
lating exercises :

ARTICULATING EXERCISES *
1. THE MONOSOUNDS AND THE VOWELS

m8 em mem ml Km mlm
ma am mam me" 8m m6m
ma am mam mo 6m mom
mo 6m mom mo 6m mom
m,u um mum mu vim mum
ma am mam ma am mam
mO um mum me em mem
mil iim miim mu um mum

ne en nen nl m nln
na an nan nS 8n n6n
na an nan no on non
no on non no on non
nu un nun nu un nun
na an nan na an nan
nu un nun ng en n5n
u ii iiii niin nu un nun

le el lei 11 tt 11!
la al lal 16 61 161
la al lal 16 61 161
15 61 161 16 61 161

111 Ul lul 1U Ul lul

Ifi al lal la al lal
lu ul Iftl le el 151
lu ul liil lu ul lul

re er rer ri Ir rfr
ra ar rar rS 6r r6r
ra ar rar ro 6r r6r
r5 or ror ro or ror
ru ur rur ru ur rur
ra ar rar ra ar rar
ru ur rur re er rer
ru ur rur ru ur rur

he eh heh hi m Wh
ha ah hah h6 gh hgh
ha ah hah ho 8h hoh
ho oh hoh ho oh hoh
hu uh huh hu uh huh
ha ah hah ha ah hah
hu Clh huh he eh heh
hu iih hiih hu uh huh

we ew wew wl Iw wlw
wa aw waw w6 6w w6w
wa aw waw w6 6w w6w
wo 6w wow wo 6w wow
wu uw wuw wtj uw wvw
wa aw waw wa aw waw
wti uw wuw we ew wew
wu iiw wuw wu itw wuw

ye ey yey yl Xy yly
ya ay yay y6 6y y6y
ya ay yay y& 6y y6y
yo 6y yoy yo 6y yoy
yu uy yiiy yvt yy yvty
ya ay yay ya ay yay
yd uy yuy ye ey yey
yii uy yiiy yu uy yuy

* Read the columns for each letter downward, and in no case connect a succeed-
ing syllable with a preceding. Bring out the final consonants well. After the long
vowel give the voiced form to all sonants and monosounds.

94 THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

2. THE SONANTS AND THE VOWELS

be eb
ba ab
ba ab
bo 6b
by ub
ba ab
bu ub
bu ub

beb bl
bab bg
bab bo
bob bo
bub bu
bab ba
bub be
bub bu

Ifb bib
gb bgb
6b bob
6b bob
ub bub
ab bab
eb beb
lib bub

ve ev vev vl Iv vlv
va av vav vg gv vgv
va av vav vo 8v vov
vo 6v vov vo 6v vov

VU UV VUV VU UV VUV

va av vav va av vav
vu uv vuv ve ev vev
vii iiv viiv vu uv vuv

de ed ded dl Id did

da ad dad dg gd d6d

da ad dad d8 8d d8d

do 6d dod do 6d dod

du ud dud du ud dud

da ad dad dS M dad

du ud dud de ed df-d

du ud dad du ud dud

je ej jej

ja aj jaj

jo 6j joj

ju uj juj

jo 6j joj
jo 6j joj
JU uj juj

ja aj jaj ja aj jaj
ju uj juj je ej jej
ju uj juj ju uj juj

ze ez zez zl Iz zlz

za az zaz z5 gz zgz

za az zaz zo 6z z8z

zo oz zoz zo 6z zoz

zu uz zuz zu uz zyz

z^ az zaz za az z&z

zu uz zuz ze ez zez

zu uz zuz zu uz zuz

ge eg geg gl Ig gig

ga ag gag gg gg ggg

ga ag gag go 6g gog

go 6g gog go 6g gog

g\> ug gug gu ug gug

ga ag gag ga ag gag

gG ug gug ge eg ggg

ga iig gug gu ug gug

dhe edh
dha adh
dha adh
dho odh
dhu udh
dha adh
dhu udh
dha adh

dhedh dhl
dhadh dhg
dhadh dho
dhodh dho
dhudh dhu
dhadh dha
dhudh dhe
dhadh dhu

Idh dhldh
gdh dhgdh
odh dhodh
odh dhodh
udh dhudh
adh dhadh
edh dhedh
udh dhudh

nge eng
nga ang
nga ang
ngo ong
ngu ung
nga ang
ngu ung
nga ung

ngeng
ngang
ngang
ngong
ngung
ngang
ngung
ngUng

ngl Ing nglng
ngg gng nggng
ng8 8ng ng8ng
ngo ong ngong
ngu ung ngung
nga ang ngang
nge eng ngeng
ngu ung ngung

zhe ezh zhezh zhl Izh zhlzh

zha azh zhazh zhg gzh zhgzh

zha azh zhazh zho ozh zhozh

zho ozh zhozh zho ozh zhozh

zha uzh zhuzh zhu uzh zhuzh

zha azh zhazh zha azh zhfizh

zhd uzh zhuzh zhe ezh zhezh

zhu uzh zhuzb zhu uzh zhuzh

ghe egh ghegh ghl Igh ghlgh

gha agh ghfigh ghg ggh ghggh

gha agh ghiigh ghe ogh ghogh

gho ogh ghogh gho ogh ghogh

ghu u«h ghugh ghu Ugh ghugh

trha Agh ghagh gha agh ghfigh

ghu ugh ghugh ghe egh ghggh

ghu ugh ghUgh ghu ugh ghugh

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES 95
3. THE SURDS * AND THE VOWELS

p6 gp pep pi Ip pip

fe ef fef fl If flf

t6 et tet tl It tit

pa ap pap pg gp pgp

fa af faf fg gf fgf

ta at tat tg gt tgt

pa ap pap p6 op pop

fa af faf f8 8f f8f

ta at tat t5 f.t t5t

po op pop po op pop

fo of fof fo of fof

to 6t tOt to 6t tot

pu up pup pu up pup

fu uf fuf fu \jf fuf

tu ut tut tv vit tyt

pa ap pap pa ap pap

fa af faf fa af faf

ta at tat ta, at tat

pa ftp pup pg gp pep

f<i af faf fe ef fef

ta at tat tg gt tet

pxi lip pup pit up pup

fu uf fuf fu uf fuf

ta ut tut ta at tat

s5 es ses si la sis

ne efi fign nl Ifi filfi

ke §k kek kl Ik klk

sa as sas sg Ss s§s

na an fiafl fig gft figfi

ka ak kak kg gk kgk

sa as sas s6 6s sos

na afi ftatt no 8fi Q8n

ka ak kak k8 6k k6k

SO OS 80S 80 OS 80S

no 6Q fion no 6n fiofl

ko 6k kok ko 6k kok

SU US SUS 8U US SUS

nu un fiun nu ufl fiuft

ku uk kuk ka uk kuk

sa as sas sa as sas

fia an nan na an nan

ka ak kak ka &k k&k

sa us sus se es ses

na an nan ne gn nen

ka ak kak kg ek kgk

sii us ails su us sus

na un nan na an nan

kti ilk kUk ka ak kuk

the 6th theth thl Ith thlth

che gch chgch chl Ich chlch

tha ath thath thS gth thgth

cha ach chach chg gch chgch

tha ath thath tho 8th thoth

cha ach chach chfl 6ch ch8ch

tho 6th thoth tho 6th thoth

cho och choch cho och choch

thu uth thuth thu lith thuth

chu uch chuch cha uch chach

tha ath thath tha ath thath

cha ach chach cha ach chach

thft ftth thath the gth theth

cha ach chach che ech chech

thu uth thiith thu uth thuth

chii tich chuch cha uch chach

she gsh shesh shl Ish shlsh

khg ekh khgkh khl Ikh khlkh

ska ash shush she1 gsh shgsh

kha akh khakh khg gkh khgkh

eha ash shash sh5 8sh shfish

kha akh khakh kh8 okh kh6kh

sho osh shosh eho osh shosh

kho okh khokh kho okh khokh

shu ush shush shu ysh shush

khu ukh khukh khu ukh khukh

sha ash shash sha ash shash

kha akh khakh kha akh khakh

jsha ash shftsh she esh shesh

kha akh khakh khe ekh khekh

_shvi iish shiish shu ush shush

khu ukh khukh khu ukh khukb

* The t-sh sound, the correlative surd of j (d+zh), is in these exercises
represented by ch as this digraph mostly represents this compound mixed
sound in English, as can be seen in check, chair, church, eto.

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

4. THE 702 TWO-SOUND CONSONANT COMBINATIONS

1ST. MONOSOUND BEGINNING

mwa

wma

nma

Ima

yma

rma

hma

mna

wna

nwa

iwa

ywa

rwa

hwa

mia

wla

nla

ina

yna

rna

hna

mya

wya

nya

lya

yia

rift

mra

wra

nra

Ira

yra

rya

hya

mini

wha

nha

Iha

yha

rha

hra

mpa

wpa

npa

Ipft

ypa

rpa

hpa

mfa

wfa

nfa

ifa

yfa

rfa

hfa

mta

wta

nta

Ita

yta

rta

hta

mtha

wtha

ntha

Itha

ytha

rtha

htha

mcha

wcha

ncha

Icha

ycha

rcha

hcha

msa

wsa

nsa

Isa

ysa

rsa

hsa

msha

wsha

nsha

Isha

ysha

rsha

hsha

mfia

wfta

nna

Ina

yna

rnii

hna

mkha

wkha

nkha

Ikha

ykha

rkha

hkhfi

mka

wka

nka

Ikfi

yka

rka

hka

mba

wba

nb/i

Iba

ybfl

rba

hba

mva

wva

nv-i

Iva

yva

rva

hva

mda

wclii

nda

Ida

yda

rdii

hda

mdha

wdha

ndha

Idha

ydha

rdhfi

hdha

mja

wja

nja

Ija

yja

rja

hja

mza

wza

nza

Iza

yza

rza

hza

mzha

wzhii

nzha

Izha

yzha

rzha

hzha

mnga

wnga

ringii

Inga

yn?;ii

rnga

hnga

mgha

wgha

ngha

Igha

ysha

rgha

hgha

mga

wga

nga

lK<a

vt'ii

rg»

hga

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES 97

2o. SONANT BEGINNING

bma

vma

dma

dhma

jma

zma

zhma

ngma

ghma

gma

bwa

vwa

dwa

dhwa

jwa

zwa

zhwa

ngwa

ghwa

gwa

bna

vna

dna

dhna

jna

zna

zhn'a

ngna

ghna

gna

bla

via

dla

dhla

jla

zla

zhlii

ngla

ghla

gla

by&

vy&

dya

dhya

jyii

zya

zhya

ngya

ghya

gya

bra

vra

dra

dhra

jra

zra

zhra

ngra

ghra

gra

bha

vha

d-ha

dhha

jha

z-ha

zhha

ng-ha

ghha

g-ha

bpa

vpa

dpa

dhpa

jpa

zpa

zhpa

ngpa

ghpa

gpa

bfa

vfa

dfa

dhfa

jfa

zfa

zhfa

ngfa

ghfa

gfa

bta

vta

dta

dhta

jta

zta

zhta

ngta

ghta

gta

btha

vtha

dtha

dhtha

jtha

ztha

zhtha

ngtha

ghtha

gtha

bcha

vcha

dcha

dhcha

jcha

zcha

zhcha

ngcha

ghcha

gcha

bsa

vsa

dsii

dhsa

jsa

zsa

zhsa

ngsa

ghsa

gsa

bsha

vsha

dsha

dhsha

jsha

zsha

zhsha

ngsha

ghsha

gsha

bfifi

vna

dna

dhna

jna

zna

zhfia

ngna

ghna

bkha

vkha

dkha

dhkha

jkha

zkha

zhkha

ngkha

ghkha

gkha

bka

vka

dka

dhka

jka

zka

zhka

ngka

ghka

gka

bva

vba

dba

dhba

jba

zba

zhba

ngba

ghba

gba

bda

vda

dva

dhva

jva

zva

zhva

ngva

ghva

gva

bdha

vdha

ddha

dhda

jda

zda

zhda

ngda

ghda

gda

bja

vja

dja

dhja

jdha

zdha

zhdha

ngdha

ghdha

gdha

bza

vza

dza

dhza

jza

zja

zhja

ngja

ghja

gja

bzha

vzha

dzha

dhzha

jzha

zzha

zhza

ngza

ghza

gza

bnga

vnga

dnga

dhnga

jnga

znga

zhngii

ngzha

ghzha

gzha

bgha

vgha

dgha

dhgha

jgha

zgha

zhgha

nggha

ghnga

gnga

bga

vga

dga

dhga

jga

zga

zhga

ngga

ghga

ggha

THE HUMAN SPEECH SOUNDS

3o. SURD BEGINNING

pma

fma

tma

tbma

chmii

smii

shma

nma

khma

kma

pwa

fwa

twa

thwa

rhwii

BWft

shwii

fiwa

khwa

kwa

pna

fna

tna

thna

chna

sna

shna

ftna

khna

kna

pla

fla

tla

thla

chla

sla

shla

ftlft

khla

kla

pya

fya

tya

thya

chya

sya

shya

nyii

khya

kya

pra

fra

tra

thra

chra

sra

shra

firii

khra

kra

pha

fha

t-ha

thha

chha

s-ha

shha

aha

khha

k-ha

pfa

fpa

tpa

thpa

chpa

spa

shpa

ftpa

khpa

kpa

pta

fta

tfa

thfa

chfa

sfa

shfa

nfii

khfa

kfa

ptha

ftha

ttha

thta

chta

sta

shta

fita

khtfi

kta

pcha

fcha

tcha

thcha

chtha

stha

shtha

nth a

khtha

ktha

psa

fsa

tsii

thsa

chsa

scha

shcha

ncha

khcha

kcha

psha

fsha

tsha

thsha

chsha

Bsha

shsa

nsa

khsa

ksa

pfta

ffia

tfta

thfla

chnii

sfia

shfia

ftsha

khsha

ksha

pkha

fkha

tkha

thkha

chkha

skha

shkha

nkha

khna

kna

pka

fka

tka

thka

chka

ska

shka

nka

khkii

kkha

pba

fba

tba

thba

chba

sba

shba

flba

khba

kba

pva

fva

tva

thva

chva

sva

shvii

fiva

khva

kva

pda

fdii

tda

thda

chda

sda

shda

ndJi

khda

kda

pdha

fdha

tdha

thdha

chdha

sdha

shdha

fidha

khdha

kdha

pja

fja

tja

thja

chja

sja

shja

nja

khjii

kja

pza

fza

tza

thza

chza

sza

shza

nza

khziv

kza

pzha

fzha

tzha

thzbii"

chzha

szha

shzhii

nzha

khzha

kzha

pnga

fnga

tnga

tbngii

chngji

snga

shngii

nrigii

khnga

knga

pghii

fgha

tgha

thghii

chRha

sgha

shgha

nghii

khgha

kgha

pgii

fga

tga

thga

chga

sga

shga

Bgfi

khga

kga

Other vowels, either long or short, can be substi-
tuted for the a and such exercises can also be extended
to practicing with the vowel before the two consonants
A vowel is sometimes followed by four and even by
five consonants, as in: beg'dst, dream1 'dst, hang'd'st,
hold'st, kick'd'st — burn'd'st, furl'd'st, hurl'd'st, spurn' 'd'st,
turn' dst, etc. It is even possible so to utter six or
seven consonants as in hurlndst, hurlnpdst. Notice
that all such words end in dst.

It must not be expected that all these two-sound con-
sonant combinations, although they precede the vowel,
will combine as smoothly as diphthongs; the object
is to exercise the voice in consonant pronunciation.

THOROUGHGOING ARTICULATING EXERCISES 99

With practice on such articulating exercises jaw-
breakers in foreign languages lose their terror.

NOTE. As man is endowed above his fellow creatures with
the high gift of speech — the special means for communicating
his thoughts to his kind; as the elements of speech (the sounds)
are as limited as is herein shown; and as each sound has its
physiologically correct pronunciation; — is man not grossly
neglecting one of the highest and most beautiful gifts with which
he has been favored, when he does not learn to utter each sound
within the compass of the voice physiologically correctly and
beautifully, as nature so clearly intends? Should not the schools
so teach the sounds?

Conclusion. The foregoing analysis reduces the
human speech sounds to a complete, perfect, symmet-
rical, intelligent, simple, practical system. It is com-
plete in that it establishes all the different speech sounds
in the human voice; perfect, in that it analyzes them
through all their series, classes, kinds and forms to
the limit of audible distinction; symmetrical, in that
it shows the series, classes, kinds and forms rounded
out regularly, and shows that what pertains to one of
the individuals of such division belongs to all; intelli-
gent, in that it addresses itself to and satisfies one's
reason; simple, in that school children in the grades
can understand and can learn it; and practical, in that
its principles can be applied by all in their speaking.

As the author has spent twenty years in investi-
gating this and the other three, closely allied subjects,
he presents this compact, little treatise in the hope
that it may benefit mankind somewhat in proportion
to the immense labor that he has bestowed upon it.

INDEX

PAGE

5 sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 42

Accent — gradation of 7, 8

Accentual forms of vowels 7, 9

Accentual inflection 9

Articulating exercises 92

Audible syllabication 24

Reduced to seven simple rules 24-26

d sound exemplified , 84

Organic formation 45

a sound exemplified 85

a sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 43

ff (6) sound perversion, The 71

b sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 49

Back sounds more shif table 74

Broad-lipped vowels, The 2

Classification of the sounds, Descriptive 75

Of the consonants 77

Of the vowels 76

Compound vowels 11

Consonants 21

Confusion of terms in dictionaries 28

Digraph 29

Diphthong 28

Mixed vowels 29

Mixed consonants 29

Compound mixed consonants 29

Monograph 29

Triphthong 29

101

102 INDEX

PAGE

Consonant inflection 19

Consonant diphthongs 21

How compounded 21

Number in the voice 23

Consonants, The : 14

Fundamental. . 14

Sonants 14, 41, 49, 77, 85

Monosounds 14, 41, 61, 77, 85

Mixed 14

Constriction in mouth 36

Correcting errors in pronunciation 81

In the vowels 81

In the consonants 82

d sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 50

Descriptive classification of the speech sounds 75

Of the consonants 77

Of the vowels 76

Diagram of consonant evolution 20

Of vowel evolution 13

Different forms, how indicated 89

Different positions in which the forms occur 87

Of the consonants 87

Of the vowels 87

Digraph 29

Diphthongs 28

Vowel 11, 12

Consonant 21, 23

Distinctiveness of the sounds 79

dh sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 53

e sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 42

Effect of different mouth parts employed 75

English broad q, (d) perversion, The (Note) 71

Errors in pronunciation, correcting 81

Evolution of the consonants 14-23

In diagrammatic view 20

Of the vowels 1-14

In diagrammatic view 13

INDEX 103

PAGE

Exemplification of the 43 speech sounds, of the. ... 76, 77, §3-86

e sound 84

a sound. 84

a sound 84

0 sound 84

u sound 84

d sound 84

$ sound 84

u sound 84

1 sound 84

& sound 84

6 sound 84

u sound 85

& sound 85

e sound 85

u sound 85

b sound 85

d sound 85

z sound 85

g sound 85

v sound 85

dh sound 85

zh sound 85

ng sound 85

j sound 85

gh sound 85

I sound 85

m sound 86

n sound. 86

r sound 86

h sound 86

w sound 86

y sound 86

p sound 86

t sound 86

s sound 86

k sound 86

/ sound 86

th sound . . 86

104 INDEX

PAGE

Exemplification of the 43 speech sounds — Continued

sh sound 86

n sound 86

tsh sound 86

kh sound 86

Exemplification of the minor forms 87

g sound exemplified 84

e sound exemplified 85

/ sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 56

Foreign sounds, pronunciation of 81

Forms, necessity for 7, 17

Different, how indicated 89

Of the consonants 17

Voiced 17

Voiceless 17

The forty-five forms 18

Of the vowels— the 48 forms 6, 10

Quantitative 7

Accentual 7

Of the long vowels 10

Of the short vowels 9

Fundamental vowels, The 1

Future growth of vocabulary 28

g sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 51

Gradation of accent 8

gh sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 56

h sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 67

Incorrectly formed sounds 69

Inflection of the vowels 6, 9, 11, 12

Of the consonants 19

Indicating the different forms 89

I sound exemplified 84

j sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 60

k sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 52

INDEX 105

PAGE

kh sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 57

I sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 63

Limit of audible distinction, The 26

In the consonants 27

In the vowels 26

Between the vowels and consonants 27

In the consonant diphthongs 28

In the impure vowel diphthongs 28

Long vowels, The 4, 10, 40, 42-47, 84

m sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 61

Minor forms, The 6, 17, 76, 77, 80, 87

Mixed sounds 29, 30

Consonants 15

Vowels 3, 30

The d, ft, li—a, e, u 3, 5

Mouth, The : 32

Adjustment for consonants 36

Adjustment for vowels 33

n sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 62

Neutral vowel, The 27

Notation of the sounds, The 89

In the letters of The Universal Alphabet 89

n sound explained, The (Note) 16

Exemplified 86

Organic formation 53

ng sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 52

d sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 44

6 sound exemplified 84

Organic fixedness of the sounds 79

Organic formation of the speech sounds, of the 31,42-68

e sound 42

d sound 42

a sound . . 43

106 INDEX

Organic formation of the speech sounds — Continued

0 sound 44

u sound 44

d sound 45

ft sound 46

u sound 47

1 sound 63

m sound 61

n sound 62

r sound 64

h sound 67

w sound 65

y sound 66

b and p sounds 49

d and t sounds 50

g and k sounds 51

ng and n sounds 52

dh and th sounds 53

v and / sounds 55

gh and kh sounds 56

zh and sh sounds 58

z and s sounds 59

j and tsh sounds 60

Of the short vowels 47

Organs of speech, The 31

Mouth 32

Tongue 32

Throat 33

p sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 50

Place of constriction, for the consonants 36

Position of the mouth parts 39

Tabulated for the consonants 41

For the vowels 40

Pressure upon the breath 37

Mouth, chest and diaphragmatic 37

Quantitative forms of the vowels 7

r sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 64

INDEX 107

PAGE

Resonance centers for the vowels 34

Locations of 35

"Key" to the correct formation of the vowels 34

Round-Lipped vowels, The 2

s sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 60

Scientific discrimination of the sounds 90

Shif tability of the sounds 74

Back sounds more shif table 74

sh sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 59

Short vowels, The 5, 47, 76, 84

Sonants and surds 16

Speaking, instinctive 81

Spurious sounds 68

Standard of Pronunciation, The 78

Surds, The 16, 49, 77, 86

Syllabication 23

Audible 24

Visual 24

t sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 51

Tensioning the adjusted mouth parts 37

Thoroughgoing articulating exercises 92, 93-98

Monosounds with the vowels 93

Sonants with the vowels 94

Surds with the vowels 95

Two-sound monosound combinations 96

Two-sound sonant combinations 97

Two-sound surd combinations 98

Tongue, position of 32, 40, 41

Triphthongs 23, 28

Typical forms, The 82, 84-86

th sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 55

tsh sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 61

Universal Alphabet, The 89

Usage — not the standard 78

108 INDEX

PAGE

u sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 44

u sound exemplified 85

Hi sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 46

u sound exemplified 84

Organic formation 47

u sound exemplified 85

v sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 55

Visual syllabication 24

Voiced forms of the consonants, The 17, 38, 77, 85

Voiceless forms of the consonants, The 17

Voicing 38

Vowel diphthongs, how compounded 11

Number in the voice 12

Vowel Inflection 6, 9, 11, 12

Vowelizing 38

Vowel and consonant formation paralleled 73

Vowels, The 1

Evolution of 1-14

Fundamental, The 1

Broad-Lipped, The 2

Round-Lipped, The 2

Mixed-Lipped, The 3

Long, The 4, 40, 42-47, 84

Short, The 5, 47, 76, 84

Forms of, The 6

w sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 65

y sound exemplified 86

Organic formation 66

z sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 59

zh sound exemplified 85

Organic formation 58

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