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_924,

HUNGARY

AND

TRANSYLVANIA.

HUNGARY

AND

TRANSYLVANIA;

WITH REMARKS ON THEIR CONDITION,

SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECONOMICAL.

JOHN PAGET, ESQ.

WITH NVMSROI78 ILLUSTRATIONS FROM SKRTCHlfi BY MR. HBRIN6.

Beau Uagheria ! m non si laieia
Piii malmenare.

Dahtic

VOL. IL

LONDON:

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

M.DCCC.XXXIX.

"hW.

I^NOON :
PniNTF.I) liY SAMUEL BKNTLFY,

Bangor Hoiim, Shoe Lane.

CONTENTS

O^ THE SECOND VOLUME.

CHAPTER I.

THE PUSZTA.

The PuBzta — its Extent and Formation. — Fertility. — Ani-
mak. — A Sunset on the Plains. — The Mirage. — Puszta Village.

— Horse-mills. — The Puszta Shepherd — his Morality. — The
Bunda. — The Shepherd's Dog. — Debreczen. — The Magyars —
their Pride. — Contempt of other Nations. — Idleness. — Excita-
bility. — Dancing. — Music and Popular Poetry. — Self-respect.

— Love of Country. — Hospitality. — The Hungarian Hussars.

— Manufactures of Debreczen. — ^.eformed College. — Protes-
tantism in Hungary. — Protestant Colleges. — College of Debreczen.

— Review. — English Officers in the Austrian Service. — Water
Melons. — Beggars. — The Szolga Biro of Szolnok. Page 1

CHAPTER n.

MUNICIPALITIES AND TAXATION.

County Meeting at Pest. — Origin of Hungarian Municipalities.
— The municipal Government of Counties. — Municipal Officers. —
F6 Itp&iu — Vice-Isp^n. — Szolga-biro. — Payment and Election of
Magistrates. — County Meetings — their Powers. — Restaurations.
— Municipal Government of Towns. — Senatus and Kozs^g. —
Abuse of Candidation. — Municipal Government of Villages. —
Advantages of Decentralization. — The Biro. — Taxation. — Mode
of levying Taxes. — Amount of Revenue. — Errors of the System.

IV CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.

DANUBE FROM PB8T TO MOLDOVA.

. The Zrinj. — The Country below Peat. — Waste Lands. —
An Accident. — Mohacs. — Peterwardein. — Karlowitz. — The
Drave. — Semlin. — The Crusaders. — The Save. — Belgrade. —
Danube Navigation. — The Border Guard — their Laws and Or-
ganization. — The Theiss and Temes. — Semendria. — George
Dosa. — Danube Scenery, — Servia, and Russian Policy. Page 78

CHAPTER IV.

DANUBE FBOM MOLDOVA TO 0B80VA.

Babakay. — The Vultures. — Golumbatz. — St. George's Cavern.
— The Rapids. — First Roman Inscription. — Kazan. — New Road.

— Sterbeczu Almare. — Trajan's Tablet. — Via Trajana Orsova.

— New Orsova. — The Crusaders. — Visit to the Pasha. — The
Quarantine. — The Iron Gates. — Trajan's Bridge— its History and
Construction. — Valley of the Csema. — Turkish Aqueduct. —
Mehadia— its Baths and Bathers. . • . . \\S

CHAPTER V.

BANAT.

Sz^iedin. — The Banat — its History. — Fertility. — State of
Agriculture. — Climate. — Mines. — Population. — Prosperous
Villages. — The Peasant and the Bishop of Agram. — The New
Urbarium. — The Kammeral Administration. — Temesvar. —
Roads.^Baron Wenkheim's Reforms. — A Wolf Hunt. . 1 48

CONTENTS. V

CHAPTER VI.

THE VALLBY OP HAT8ZB0.

Valley of the Temea.— Wallack Beauty. — Ovid's Tower.—
Iron Works at Ruskbeig. — Effecte of regular Work and regular
Pay. — ReformeiB in Hungary. — Iron Bridge. — Iron-Gate Pass,
between Hungary and Transylyania. — Hospitality. — Varhely
the Ulpia Trajana of the Romans. — The Dacians under their
natiye Kings — conquered by Trajan. — Wallack Language like
the Italian. — Wallacks of Dacian^ not Roman, Origin. — Roman
Remains at Varhely. — Amphitheatre Mosaics. . Page 1 7 1

CHAPTER VII.

VALLEY OF Ha'tSZBO.

Demsus. — The Leiter-Wagen. — Roman Temple— its Form
and probable History. — Paintings in Wallack Churches. — Wal-
lack Priests and their Wives. — Russian Influence over the
Members of the Greek Churdi. — Origin of the United Greek
Church. — Religious Oppression. — Education of the Greek Priest-
hood. — Village of Vdrhely. — The Wallack Women. —Wallacks
and Scotchmen. — Wallack Vices and Wallack Virtues. — The
Devil's Dancers. — Our Host's Family. — Household Arrange-
ments. — The Bufialo 196

CHAPTER VIII.

BOUTB TO KLAUSBNBURO.

Valley of Hdtszeg. — Wallack Gallantry. — Transylvanian Tra-
velling. — Arrival at Vayda Hunyad. — The Gipsy Girl. — Hun-
yadi J^os. — Castle of Hunyad. — The painted Tower. — A De-
putation. — A Rogue found out. — Deva. — Valley of the Maros. —

H taken for a Spy. — Visit to the Mines of Nagy Ag. —

Politeness from a Stranger. — Transylvanian Post-office. — Sand-
stone of the Felek. 230

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.

TRANSYLVANIA. — ^HISTORY AND POLITICS.

Transylvania — its Population. — Settlement of the Szeklers.
of the Magyars — of the Saxons^ — under Woiwodes. — Zapolya*^ —
Native Princes. — Bethlen Gabor. — Aristocratic Democracy. —
Union with Austria. — Diploma Leopoldinum. — Confirmed by
Maria Theresa. — Actual Form of Government. — Constitution
infringed. — Opposition. — Baron Wesselenyi. — County Meet-
ings. — Grievances. — General Vlasits. — Diet of 1834. — Arch-
duke Ferdinand. — History of the Diet. — Violent Dissolution. —
Moral Opposition. Page 259

CHAPTER X.

NORTH OF TRANSYLVANIA.

Transylvanian Roads. — A Solitary Inn. — Dr^g. — Zsibo. —
Horse-breeding. — Old Transylvanian Breed. —Count B&affy's Stud.
— English Breed. — Baron Wesselenyi's Stud. — A Cross. — B£bolna
Arabs. — Interesting Experiment. — Rak6tzy. — Robot. — Ride to
Hadad. — The Vintage. — Transylvanian Wines. — Oak Woods.
— Scotch Farmer. — A Reformer's Trials. — State of the Pea-
santry. — Urbarium. — Stewards. — Establishments of the Nobles.
— Social Anomalies. — Old Fashions. — The Dinner. — Drive to

Nagy Bdnya. — Gipsies. — Gold Mines. — Private Speculations. —
Return ...... 289

CHAPTER XL

THE SALT MINES AND GOLD MINES.

Horse Fair at Klausenburg. — Moldavian Horses. — Cholera in
Klausenburg. — Thorda. — Valley of the Aranyos. «— Miklos and
his Peccadilloes. — A Transylvanian Invitation. — The Wailack

CONTENTS. Vll

Judge. — Thoroczko. — The Unitarian Clergyman. — St. Gyorgy.
— ^A Transylvanian Widow. — Peasants* Cottages. — The Cholera.
—A Lady's Road. — Thordd Hasadek. — The Salt Mines of Sza-
mos Ujv£r. — The Salt Tax. — Karlsburg. — The Cathedral and
krumme Peter^ — ^Wallack Charity. — Zalatna. — Abrud Banya. — .
The €h)ld Mines of Voros Patak. — Csetatie. — Detonata. — Return.
— College of Nagy Enyed. — English Fund. — System of Educa-
tion. ...... Page Sdd

CHAPTER XII.

THE SZBKLBRS AND THB 8ZBKLER-LAND.

The Szeklers — their ancient Rights and modem Position. —
The Mezoseg. — Maros Vasdrhely. — Chancellor Teleki and his
Library. -^ A Szekler Inn. — The Szekler Character. — Salt
Rocks at Szoyfita. — The Cholera and the spare Bed. — Miseria
cum aoeto. — Glories of Grock. — Salt Mines of Parayd. — Ud-
varhely: — St. Pal. — Excursion to Almas. — Superstition. — The
Cavern. — Sepsi St. Gyorgy. — Keszdi Vdsarhely. — The French
Brewer. — The Szekler Schools. — Szekler Hospitality. — The
Biidos. — The H4rom-^z6k 390

CHAPTER XIII.

THB SAXONS AND THB SAXON LAND. '

The Saxon Land. — Settlement of the Saxons — their Charter.
— Political and Municipal Privileges. — Saxon Character. — School
Sickness. — Kronstadt. — A Hunting Party. — Smuggling from Wal-
iachia. — The Bear and the General. — Terzburg and the German
Knights. — Excursion to Bucses. — The Kalibaschen. — The Con-
vent. — The Valleys of Bucses. — Virtue in Self-denial. — The
Alpine Horn. — Fortified Churches and Infidel Invasions. — Fa-
garas. — Hermanstadt. — Baron Bruchenthal. — RothenThurm Pass.

— A Digression on WaUachia and Moldavia. — Saxon Language.

— Beauty of Transylvania 4^7

Vlll CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIV.

KLAU8BNBUB0 IN WINTBB.

Transylyanian HoBpitality. — Klausenburg. — Transylvanian In-
comes. — Money Matters. — The Gipsy Band. — Our Quarters. —
The Stove. — The Great Square. — The Recruiting Party. — A Soi-
ree. — The Clergy. — The Reformed Church. — Reli^ous Opinions.
— The Consistory. — Domestic Service. — County Meeting. — Count
Bethlen Janos. — Progress of Public Opinion. — The Arch-Duke. —
The Students and Officers. — Climate. — Separation of three Coun-
ties. — The Unitarians. — Habits of Society. — The Ladies. — Edu-
cation. — Children and Parents. — Divorces. — Casino and Smoking.
— Funerals. — Schools. — The Theatre. . . Page 474

CHAPTER XV.

WINTBB JOUBNBY ACBOSa THB PUSZTA.

Return to Pest. — A Poet. — TraveUing Comforts. — The Car-
riers. — Gross Wardein. — Prince Hohenlohe. — The Italian. —
Paprika Hendel. — Great Cumania. — The Cumamans and Jazy-
gers. — The worst Road in Hungary 515

CHAPTER XVI.

THB CABNIVAL IN FBST.

A Ball. — Ladies' Costume. — Luxury and Barbarism. — Uni-
versity of Pest. — Number of Schools. — Austrian System of Edu-
cation — its Effects. — Corruption of Justice. — Delays of the
Law. — Literature. — Mr. Kblcsey. — Baron Josika. — Arts and
Artists. — The Theatre. — Magyar Language. — Mr. Korosi and
his Expedition to Thibet. — Trade Companies. — Popular Jokes. —
Austria, Hungary, and Russia. — Blunders of Mr. Quin and other
English Writers on Hungary. — The last Ball of the Carnival. —
The Masquerade. — The breaking up of the Ice. . 526

CONTENTS. IX

CHAPTER XVIL

FBOM PBBT TO FIUMX.

Departure from PesL — Notary of Tet6ny.f— Volcanic Diitrict. —
Bakonyer Forest. — SubrL — Hungarian Robbers. — Conscription. —
Wine of Somlyo. — Keszthely. — Signs of Civilization. — Costume
of Nagy Kdnisa. — The Drave. — Death of Zriny. — Croatia and
Sdavonia. — State of the Peasantry. — Agram. — Croatian Language.
— Public Feeling in Croatia. — Smuggling. — KarlstadU — Save and
Kulpa. — The Ludovica Road — its Importance. — Fiume. —
EngUsh Paper Mill. — Commerce. — Productions of Hungary^ — De-
mand for English Goods in Hungary. — Causes which impede Com-
meroe^ and the Means of their Removal . • • Page 570

ILLUSTRATIONS

TO THE SECOND VOLUME.

NBW BRIDOR BRTWEBN BUDA AND FB8T,

TO FACB TITLB PAOB.

PUSZTAy AT SUNSBT

• •

PAOB 1

PU8ZTA 8HBPHBRD8

HOBSB MILL

BBLGBADB

BORDBB OUABD-H0USB8

BABAKAT

lis

DANUBB^ NRAR KAZAN

118

STBRBBCZU ALMARB

120

TRAJAN'8 TABLBT

121

PLAN OF VIA TRAJANA

128

WALLACK8

124

pasha's H0U8B AT 0R80VA

127

THB IRON 0ATB8

182

RBMAINS OF TRAJAN'8 BRIDOB

185

PLAN OF TRAJAN'8 BRIDOB

t^.

COIN OF TRAJAN'8 BRIDGE

187

TURKISH AQUBDUCT

1 i

142

VALLEY OF IfEHADIA

1 i

147

ovid's TOWBR

171

TWO WALLACK HEADS

189

ROMANS AND DACIANS FROM TRAJ

an's COl

.UMN .

195

Xll

ILLUSTRATIONS.

ROMAN TEMPLE AT DBM8US

VILLAGE OF VARHBLY

WALLACK WOMEN

GIPSY GIRL ....

CASTLE OF HUNYAD

VALLEY OF THE MAROS FROM DEVA CASTLE

SOLITARY INN ....

Z8IB0 . . • . .

VALLEY OF THE ARANYOS^ AT BARE

BAYLUKA ....

A SECOND CAVERN

THB DBTONATA ....

VALLEY OF ALMA'B

KRONSTADT ....

HERMITAGE OF BUC8B8 .

VALLEY OF BUCSE8

TRAN8YLVANIAN GROOM AND HOUSEMAID

OLD TOWER AT KLAUSBNBURG

HUNGARIAN LADY IN HER NATIONAL COSTUME

women's head DRBSSES .

FIUMB FROM THB PORTA UNGARICA

PAGE
197
208

211

236

242

258

289

300

SS3

854

880

409

484

454

457

474

514

526

580

625

CHAPTER I.

THE PU8ZTA.

The Puszta — ita ExUnt and Fonnation. — Fertility. — AnimalB.

— A Sunset on the Pl«ns. — The Mirage. — Puazta Village.

— HoiM-milb. — The Piuzts Shepherd — hit Mmality. —
The Bucda. — The Sbepherd'i Dog. — Debreczen. — The Ma-
gyaiB — their Pride. — Contempt of other Nations. — Idleness.

— Excitability. — Dancing. — Music and Popular Poetry. —
Self-respect. — Lore of Country. — Hospitality. — The Hun-
garian Hussars. — Manufactures of Debreczen. — Reformed Col-
lege. — Protestantism in Hungary. — Protestant Colleges. — Col-
lege of Debreczen. — Review. — English Officers in the Austrian
Service. — Water Melons. — Beggars. — The Szolga Biro of Szolnok.

As &r as Tokay, our route had been ever among
amiliog valleys and by lovely brooks ; we had passed
under the shade of magnificent woods, or been
cheered by the prospect of cloud-«apped mountains :

2 FORMATION OF THE PUSZTA.

but the Tbeiss once crossed, and a scene so different
opened upon us, that we could scarcely believe
ourselves in the same hemisphere. Our faces were
now turned towards Debreczen, and we were fairly
launched on the Ptiszta — or Steppes^ as they are
called in some other counties — of Hungary.

•All that surface of country, from Pest to the
borders of Transylvania, and from Belgrade to the
vine-bearing hills of Hegyalja, is one vast plain
occupying a space of nearly five thousand square
miles. If the geologist will cast his eyes over the
map, and observe this plain surrounded on every
side by mountains, and covered with sand and
alluvium, — if he will then consider the Danube,
and see how it spreads over the country, every day
changing its course, cutting for itself new chan-
nels, and sanding up its former ones, so as some-
times to sweep away towns, and at others to leave
such as were built on its banks some miles from
them,* — I think he will agree with me, that the
whole plain has been at different periods the bed
of that river and its tributaries, the Theiss and
Maros.f

* The Danube now rolls over the spot formerly occupied by the
village of Apatin^ on the Lower Danube ; while, on the Upper, the
castle of Steyereck, which formerly overhung the river, is now
a mile and a half distant from it.

t Some are of opmion that the whole plain formed one large
inland sea at an earlier period of the earth's history; and it
is highly probable. The limestone, similar to that of the Paris
basin, which overlays the granite at Maigaretha and in many

FERTILITY OF THE PUSZTA. 8

The soil of the Puszta, as might be anticipated
from its extent, and, I might add, from the nature of
the rocks from whose debris it has been formed, is
yarious in its nature and in its powers of production.
A considerable portion is a deep sand, easily work-
ed, and yielding fair crops in wet seasons ; a second,
found principally in the neighbourhood of the Da-
nube, Theiss, and Temes, is boggy, and much de-
teriorated in value from the frequent inundations
to which it is subject, but capable of the greatest
improvement at little cost ; and a third is a rich
black loam, the fertility of which is almost incre-
dible. When the reader reflects that this fruitful
plain is bounded on two sides by the largest river
in Europe, that it is traversed from north to south
by the Theiss, and that it communicates with Tran-
sylvania by the Maros, it is almost impossible to cal-
culate what a source of wealth it might prove to
the countiy. In any other part of the civilized world
we should see it teeming with habitations, and alive
vrith agricultural industiy, — ^the envy of surrounding
princes, the granary of Europe. Here, it is the
most thinly populated, the worst cultivated, and the
least accessible portion of the country. Various
causes have contributed to produce this effect. Most
of the inhabitants of the plains are Magyars, whose

parts of the Little Carpathians^ appears to support this opinion. In
different parts of the plain^ particularly in the neighbourhood of the
Theiss, fossil remains of the mammoth^ elephant, and fossil deer
have been discovered.

B 2

4 WANT OF POPULATION.

warlike propensities induced them to take the most
active part in the constant wars in which the country
was formerly engaged ; for since Arpad first set foot
in Hungary, one thousand years ago, I do not think
it has ever enjoyed ten years' peace till towards
the middle of the last century. This in itself must
have checked the increase of population. Among
the Magyars, too, the number of children is gene-
rally small : — why the Irish should be so prolific on
starvation, and the Magyars so much the contrary
on abundance, is, I must confess, a mystery to me ;
but such is the fact. The ease with which land is
obtained, its cheapness, the richness of the soil, and
the few wants of the people, have also operated to
check the progress of improvement in agriculture.
The formation of roads, too, is rendered exceedingly
difficult by the distance from which the necessaiy
materials would often require to be conveyed ; but
still more by the unjust character of the law, which
throws the whole burthen of making them on the
peasant, thus rendering it impossible to expend so
large a capital as would be required for their first
formation in such situations.

The Puszta, however, is neither entirely without
inhabitants nor vdthout cultivation. It has cities,
towns, and villages ; few and far between, it is true,
but generally large and populous where they do
occur. On the great road, or rather track, between
Tokay and Debreczen, a village occurs almost every
three or four hours ; but in some parts, for a whole

PECULIARITIES. 5

dajy no such welcome sight gladdens the eye of
the weary traveller. The scene, however, is not
without its interest ; indeed to me it presented so
much that was strange, and new, and wonderful, that
I felt a real delight in traversing it, and never for
a moment experienced the weariness of monotony.
On starting from the village where we first changed
horses after quitting Tokay, fifty different tracks
seemed to direct to as many different points; though,
as far as the eye could detect, the end of all must
be the flat horizon before us. The track which our
coachman followed soon grew fainter and fainter ;
and, before a quarter of an hour had elapsed, we
could observe no sign by which he could steer his
course. The only inanimate objects which broke
the uniformity of the scene were an occasional
shepherd's hut, the tall beam of a well, or a small
tumulus ; * such as may be observed in different di-
rections throughout the whole of the Puszta.

* Mr. Spencer, in his " Circassia," speaks of these tumuli in Hun-
gary, and considers them as sepulchral ; I am rather inclined to
believe they are boundary marks between different villages^ though
some of them are of a larger size than might be thought necessary
fi>r such a puipose. They are common all over Hungary, and are
called Hatdr. It is possible that they may sometimes have been in-
tended as landmarks for travellers. These must not be confound-
ed with the Romer Schanzen, or Walls of the Agathyrsi, — long
banks of earth traversing extensive districts, the uses of which are
not well ascertained. In some parts of the plain, laige embank-
ments of a recent date may be observed, intended to protect the
cultivated land from the overflows of some river in the neighbour-
hood*

6 ANIMALS.

Of animated nature, however, there is no lack;
the constant hum of insects, the screams of birds
of prey, and the lowing of cattle, constantly re-
minded us during the day that the Puszta is no
desert. Sometimes vast herds of cattle, contain-
ing many hundred head, may be observed in the
distance, looking like so many regiments of soldiers ;
for, whether by accident or intention I know not,
but they are commonly formed into a long loose line
of three or four deep ; and in this order they feed,
marching slowly forwards. When the sun is pouring
his hottest beams upon the plain, so that the sands
seem to dance with the glowing heat, it is inter-
esting to watch the poor sheep, and to observe the
manner in which nature teaches them to supply the
place of the shady wood. The whole flock ceases
from feeding, and collects into a close circle, where
each places his head in the shade formed by the
body of his neighbour, and thus they protect them-
selves from a danger which might otherwise be
fatal. Herds of horses, of one or two hundred
each, are no uncommon feature in the landscape.

The quantity of large falcons which scour the
Puszta may account for the small number of other
birds we observed. I have sometimes seen a dozen
of them at a time, wheeling round and round over
our heads, and screaming out their harsh cries, till
every living thing tremblingly sought shelter in its
most hidden retreat. Sometimes, too, a solitary
heron might be detected wading about in the salt

ANIMALS. 7

marsbes with which the Puszta abounds.* Some-
times a flock of noisy plovers flew up before us ;
but of game or small birds we saw veiy few.

In sandy districts the earless marmot f is a con-
stant source of amusement. This pretty little ani-
mal, which is about the size and colour of a squirrel,
is exceedingly frequent here. Never more than a
few yards from its hole, it is almost impossible to
get a shot at it ; for, the moment it is alarmed, it
runs to the mouth of its burrow, where, if it observes
the slightest movement on the part of the intruder,
it drops down till he is out of shot, when it may again
be seen running about as gay as ever. They are
ssud to be good eating ; and are often caught by the
shepherds, by pouring water into their burrows

The feeling of solitude which a vast plain im-
presses on the imagination, is to me more solemn
than that produced by the boundless ocean, or
the trackless forest; nor is this sentiment ever so
strongly felt as during the short moments of twilight
which follow the setting of the sun. It is just as
the bright orb has disappeared below the level of
the horizon ; while yet some red tints, like glow-
worm traces, mark the pathway he has followed ; just

* In many parts of the Puszta there are soda lakes, which dry
up in summer^ and leave the earth incrusted with soda, which is
collected^ and re-forms^ every three or four days from May to Octo-
ber. It is reckoned that 50,000 cwts. might be collected annually
if care were taken.

t I think this is the earth squirrel of some writers, — the spet'
mophile of F.Cuvier.

8 SUNSET.

when the busy hum of insects is hushed as by a
chann, and stillness fills the air; when the cold
chills of night first creep over the earth; when
comparative darkness has suddenly followed the
bright glare of day ; — it is then the stranger feels
how alone he is, and how awful such loneliness is
where the eye sees no boundary, and the ear de-
tects no sign of living thing.

I would not for the world have destroyed the
illusion of the first sunset I witnessed on the
Puszta of Hungary. The close of day found us far
from any human habitation, alone in this desert of
luxuriance; without a mark that man had esta-
blished his dominion there, save the wheel-marks
which guided us on our way, and the shepherds*
wells which are sparingly scattered over the whole
plain. I have seen the sun set behind the moun-
tains of the Rhine as I lay on the tributary Neckar's
banks, and the dark bold towers of Heidelberg
stood gloriously out against the deep red sky; — as
the ripple of the lagoons kissed the prow of the
light gondola, I have seen his last rays throw
their golden tints over the magnificence of fiallen
Venice; — I have watched the god of day as he
sank to rest behind the gorgeous splendour of St.
Peter's ; — yet never with so strong a feeling of his
majesty and power, as when alone on the Puszta
of Hungary !

It was on the second morning of our journey,
and as we opened our eyes after a troubled doze,

THE MIRAGE. 9

that another of the most extraordinary phenomena
of these plains was presented to us. We perceived
what appeared to us a new country, and certainly
a very different one from that which we had closed
our eyes upon the previous night. A few miles
before us lay an extensive lake half enveloped in
a grey mist. I immediately called to the coach-
man to ask what lake it was I saw, as none was
to be found on the map, when his loud laugh
reminded me that we were in the land of the
mirage. And sure enough it proved to be the
mirage ; for, as we approached, the water vanished,
and the same dry plain we had known before was
still present to us. On another occasion, when tra-
velling over the plains of Wallachia, I witnessed
the mirage in a still more striking manner. It
was also in the morning, just as a burning sun
was struggling to dissipate the thick mist so com-
mon in these climates. I could distinguish, as
plainly as ever I did anything in my life, a serpen-
tine piece of water with the most beautiful woods
and park-like meadows, and at one end the com-
mencement of a village. As we approached, the
scene slightly changed ; new points of view gra-
dually came out, and the objects first observed
vanished away. The village, which I had believed
real even after I knew the landscape was mirage,
was the first to disappear; the water extended
itself, and the back-ground rose higher. Before
long, objects began to grow less distinct, and at last

10 PUSZTA VILLAGE.

the mist rose from the earth, leaving the view
clear along the burning plain, while trees and water
were still discernible in the air. The effect was
very peculiar: I know nothing it resembled so
much as some of the old Italian pictures, in which
the lower part is occupied by the earth and its
denizens, while the upper is gay with a brilliant
throng of heavenly choristers seated on grey clouds,
which are as much like the mirage as possible. I
believe this phenomenon is explained as a matter
of simple reflection ; but, if it is so, the mirage is a
mystic mirror, which shapes its images according to
its own fancy, for I do not believe that in the whole
of Wallachia, there could be found a real scene
half so lovely as the mirage presented us with.

Such are some of the more striking pictures pre-
sented by the plains ; but there are others of a more
cheerful and social character. I have already said
the Puszta villages are large ; they sometimes con-
tain several thousand inhabitants. Nothing can
be more simple or uniform than the plan on which
they are built. One long, straight, and most pre*
posterously wide street generally forms the whole
village ; or it may be that this street is traversed at
right angles by another equally long, straight, and
wide. Smaller streets are rare ; but, when they do
occur, it is pretty certain they are all parallel or at
right angles with each other. All the cottages are
built on the same plan ; a gable-end with two small
windows, shaded by acacias or walnuts, faces the

UORSE-MILLS. 11

street. The houses are beautifully thatched with
reeds, and the fences of the court-jard are often
formed of the same material. The long one-storied
house, roofed with wooden tiles, the best in the vil-
lage, — unless the Seigneur's chateau happens to be
there, — and behind which towers the odd half-east-
ern steeple, is the dwelling of the priest; and, should
the trayeller find himself benighted in the neigh-
bourhood, its rich and hospitable occupant would
welcome the chance which bestowed on him a
guest. A little further, perhaps, stands another
house, whose pretensions, if below the priest's, are
above those of its neighbours. On the shutters is
pasted up some official notice, and before the door
stand the stocks. It is the dwelling of the Biro or
judge of the village. The Hgs6g hAz (town-house),
the modest school-room, and the little inn, are the
only other exceptions to the peasants' cottages. Be-
sides the avenue of trees on each side, and, in wet
weather, sundry pools of water, or rather small lakes,
the street is often interrupted by the tall pole of a
well, or the shed of a horse-mill. These horse-mills
are clumsy contrivances; first, a shed is built to
cover the heavy horizontal wheel in which the horse
works ; and then beside it is a small house contain-
ing the mill-works. Why they do not use wind-
mills instead, it is difficult to say ; except that the
others are better understood, and require less care.
Running water is so scarce on the Puszta, that
water-mills are out of the question.

12 THE HARVEST.

In the neighbourhood of the villages a certain
portion of the land is cultivated, — perhaps one-
tenth of the whole; and produces rich crops of
KukundZy or Indian com, wheat, hemp, flax, to-
bacco, and wine. The gathering in of these pro-
ducts occupies the scanty population without inter-
mission from the beginning of summer to the end
of autumn. Our route did not lead us through
the richest part of the plains ; but I do not remem-
ber ever to have seen the kukurutz looking better
than here. It was just the middle of September,
and every hand was occupied in the harvest. Wag-
gon-loads of the bright yellow cones, drawn by the
large white oxen, were passed at every step. And
what a trial of patience it was to pass those wag-
gons! There the peasant sits quite composedly in
the front of his load, probably fast asleep, and often
half drunk : until you are close to him, he will not
hear you, shout as you may ; and when at last he
does condescend to be aware of your presence, and
commences vociferating to his four oxen, and plying
his whip at the same time to induce them to cede
the only part of the road on which your carriage
can pass, the time taken by the beasts to compre-
hend the full force of their master's argument, and
the sort of consultation they seem to hold as to
whether they shall obey it or not, is suflicient to
exhaust the patience of the most patient of men.

The part of the plains left for pasture is occu-
pied during the summer months,-as we have seen.

PUSZTA SHEPHERDS. 19

by immense herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. In
winter these are either brought up into the villages,
or stabled in those solitary farms which form an-
other striking peculiarity of the Puszta. Far from
any beaten track or village the traveller observes a
collection of buildings inclosed by a thick wall of
mud or straw, with an arched gateway, and contain-
ing a large court, surrounded by stables, bams,
sheep-houses, and a shepherd's cottage or two.
Here the sheep and cattle are wintered, for the
sake of saving the draught of fodder ; and here their
guardians often remain the whole winter without
exchanging a word with any other human beings
than those composing their own little domestic
community, for the trackless snow renders commu-
nication extremely difficult. In summer the shep-
herd's life is even more monotonous. He often
remains out for months together, till winter comes
on, and obliges him to seek shelter.

Almost all the inhabitants of the plains, except
some few German colonists, are true Magyars ; and
nothing is so well adapted to their disposition
as the half-slothAil, half-adventurous life of a
JuhAsZy or Puszta shepherd. His dress is the loose
linen drawers, and short shirt descending scarcely
below the breast, and is sometimes surmounted by
the gaily embroidered waistcoat or jacket. His feet
are protected by long boots or sandals; and his
head by a hat of more than quaker proportions,
below which hang two broad plaits of hair. The

PUSZTA SHEPHERDS.

tumed-up brim of the hat serves him for a dribk-
ing-cup; while the bag, which hangs from a belt
round his neck, contains the bread and bacon
which forms his scanty meal. Over the whole is
generally cast the Bunda or hairy cloak. I must

not forget, however, that his shirt and drawers
are black. Before he takes the field for the sea-
son, he carefully boils these two articles of dress in
hog's lard ; and, anoiqting his body and head with
the same precious unguent, his toilette is finished
fbr the next sis months. I feel assured that the
penetration of my English readers will never dive
into the motive for all this careful preparation, and

THE BUNDA. 15

that thej will be little inclined to believe me if I
tell them it is cleanliness ! Yet so it is ; for the
lard effectually protects him against a host of little
enemies by which he would otherwise be covered.
To complete his accoutrements, he must have a
sliort pipe stuck in his boot-top; and in his belt
a tobacco-bag, with a collection of instruments, —
not less incomprehensible to the uninitiated than
the attendants of a Scotch mull, — intended for
striking fire, clearing the pipe, stopping the to-
bacco, pricking the ashes, and I know not what
fumitory refinements beside.

But the Bunda deserves a more special notice;
for in the whole annals of tailoring no garment
ever existed better adapted to its purpose, and
therefore more worthy of all eulogy, than the Hun-
garian Bunda. It is made in the form of a close
cloak without collar, and is composed of the skins
of the long-wooUed Hungarian sheep, which un-
dergo some slight process of cleaning, but by no
means sufiicient to prevent them retaining an odour
not of the most aromatic kind. The wool is left
perfectly in its natural state. The leather side is
often very prettily ornamented; the seams are sewed
with various-coloured leather cords, bouquets of
flowers are worked in silk on the sides and borders,
and a black lamb's-skin from Transylvania adorns
the upper part of the back in the form of a cape.
To the Puszta shepherd the Bunda is his house, his
bod, his all. Rarely in the hottest day of summer,

16 THE shepherd's MORALITY.

or the coldest of winter, docs he forsake his woolly
friend. He needs no change of dress ; a turn of his
Bunda renders him insensible to either extreme.
Should the sun annoy him as he is lazily watching
his dogs hunting the field-mice, or the earless mar-
mots, to supply their hungry stomachs, — for, like
their masters, they trust chiefly to their own talents
for their support, — ^he turns the wool outside, and,
either from philosophy or experience, knows how
safely it protects him from the heat. Should early
snow on the Carpathians send him chilling blasts be-
fore the pastures are eaten bare, and before he can
return to his village, he a second time turns the
Bunda, but now with the wool inside, and again
trusts to the non-conducting power of its shaggy
coat. The (htbOy woven of coarse wool, presenting
much the same appearance, is a cheap but poor
imitation of the Bunda.

But the heart of that man is even more curious
than his outward coverture. He has a system of
morality peculiar to himself. I know not why, bat
nomadic habits seem to confuse ideas of property
most strangely in the heads of those accustomed
to them : nomadic nations are always thieves ; and
the Magyar Juhdsz^ more than half nomadic, is cer-
tainly more than half a rogue. Not that he would
break into a house, or that you or I, gentle reader,
need have the least fear in his society ; but there are
certain persons and things which he considers fair
game, whenever he can meet with them.

A GOOD SHEPHERD. 17

I remember a fiiend regretting that he could not
show us his head-shepherd, who, he said, was a re-
markably fine fellow, and well worthy of being
sketched as a model of his class.

** When will poor Janos return V inquired the
Count of his steward ; " I should like the English*^
men to see him."

" In about six months," was the reply.

I asked the cause of this long absence.

** Why, I believe lie robbed and beat a Jew, and
they have adjudged him twelve months' imprison^-
ment for it."

^ Of coiirse you will not receive such a man into
your service again ?"

« teremtette! Why not?" rejoined the

Count. ^* He was the best shepherd I had, and
esteemed quite a Solomon among his fellows for
the wisdom and justice with which he settled their
disputes. He was the shepherds' arbitrator for
miles round. As for Jews and German Hand*
werksburschen, J&ios always regarded them ^fera
natunef to be robbed and beaten by every honest
Magyar whenever he could meet with them. He
protested that, had he killed the Jew, the punish*
ment had been too severe; for there was not a
pretty girl in the whole country round but had
borne him a child, any one of whom was worth a
dozen Jews!"

In iact» robbery is a part of the shepherd's
duty ; and according to his dexterity in preventing

VOL. II. c

18 THE SHEPHERD-DOG.

others from robbing him, or in robbing others in
return when robbed, is he valued by his master
and respected by his companions. He leaves the
&rm-house with a certain number of sheep ; these
he must bring back, or be punished : if any are
Btolen, retaliation is his only remedy; and should
it not happen to &11 on the right head, — Justice
is blind, — more is the pity. If he robs for his
master, it is but natural he should sometimes do
so for himself. To supply his larder with some-
what better fare than his maize and a scanty por-
tion of bacon affords, a straggler from a neighbour's
flock is no unwelcome addition.

It would be unjust to quit the subject of the
Puszta shepherd without making due and honour-
able mention of his constant companion and friend,
the Jvh&sz^kutya^ — the Hungarian shepherd-dog«
The shepherd-dog is commonly white, sometimes
inclining to a reddish-brown, and about the size
of our Newfoundland dogs. His sharp nose, short
erect ears, shaggy coat, and bushy tail, give him
much the appearance of a wolf; indeed, so great
is the resemblance, that I have known an Hun-
garian gentleman mistake a wolf for one of his
own dogs. Except to their masters, they are so
savage that it is unsafe for a stranger to enter the
court-yard of an Hungarian cottage without arms.
I speak fr^m experience ; for as I was walking
through the yard of a post-house, where some of
these dogs were lying about, apparently asleep, one

DEBRECZEN. 19

of them crept after me, and inflicted a severe
wound in mj leg, of which I still l)ear the marks.
Before I could turn round, the dog was already
&r off; for, like the wolf, they bite by snapping, but
never hang to the object, like the bull-dog or mas*
tiff. Their sagacity in driving and guarding sheep
and cattle, and their courage in protecting them
from wolves or robbers, are highly praised ; and the
shepherd is so well aware of the value of a good
one, that it is difficult to induce him to part with it.

It was not till towards the close of the second
day that we arrived at Debreczen ; for some rain had
fellen. and we could only advance at a foot pace.
Debrecssen, the capital of the plains, contains a po-
pulation of fifty thousand inhabitants. It well de-
serves the name of ^ the largest village in Europe,"
given it by some traveller; for its wide unpaved
streets, its one-storied houses, and the absence of
all roads in its neighbourhood, render it very un-
like what an European associates with the name of
town. In rainy weather the whole street becomes
one liquid mass of mud, so that officers quartered
on one side the street are obliged to mount their
horses and ride across to dinner on the other. In-
stead of a causeway, they have adopted the expedient
of a single wooden plank ; and it is a great amuse*
ment of the people, whenever they meet the soldiers
(Polish lancers, whom they hate,) on this narrow
path, to push them off into the sea of mire below.

It is in Debreczen and its neighbourhood that

c 2

20 CHARACTER OF

the true Magyar character may be most advantage-
ously studied. The language is here spoken in its
greatest purity, the costume is worn by rich as well
as poor, and those national peculiarities which a
people always lose by much admixture with others
are still prominent at Debreczen.

The pride of the Magyar, which is one of Tiis
strongest traits, leads him to look down on every
other nation by which he is surrounded with
sovereign contempt. All foreigners are either
Schwab (German), or Talyin (Italian) ; and it is
difficult to imagine the supercilious air with which
the Magyar peasant pronounces those two words.
As for his more immediate neighbours, it is worse
still: for the most miserable Paraszt-ember (poor-
man, peasant) of Debreczen would scorn alliance
or intercourse with the richest Wallack in the
country, I remember the Baroness W tell-
ing me, that, as she was going to Debreczen some
years ago with vorspann, she was accompanied
by her footman, who happened to be a Wallack ;
and, in speaking to her, he was overheard by the
Magyar coachman using that language. The pear
sant made no observation at the time, but, as they
approached the town, he pulled up, and desired the
footman to get down ; assuring the lady at the same
time that he meant no disrespect to her, but that it
was quite impossible that he, a Magyar, should en-
dure the disgrace of driving a Wallack into Debrec-
zen. Entreaties and threats were alike vain; the

THE MAGYARS. 21

peasant declared he would take out his horses if the
footman did not get down, — which accordingly he
did. The Gennans are scarcely better treated : it

was only the other day, when Count M ^ an

Austrian officer of high rank, was calling on Ma-
dame R 9 that her little son happening to let

fall some plaything he had in his hand, the Count
applied his glass to his eye, and . politely offered
to find it for him. The child^ however, though
it could hardly speak, had already learned to hate ;
and in its sparing vocabulary it found the words
^ blinder Schwab ! " which it laimched forth with all
the bitterness it could muster, in answer to the
polite offer of the astonished Count.

The Magyar is accused of being lazy ; and if by
that is meant that he has not the Englishman's love
of work for its own sake, I believe the charge is
merited. A Magyar never moves when he can sit
still, and never walks when he can ride. Even
riding on horseback seems too much trouble for
him ; for he generally puts four horses into his little
waggon, and in that state makes his excursions
to the next village, or to the market-town. This
want of energy is attended, too, with a want of per-
severance. The Hungarian is easily disappointed
and discouraged if an enterprise does not succeed
at the first attempt.

The Magyar character has a singular mixture of
habitual passiveness and melancholy, mixed up vnth
great susceptibility to excitement. The Magyar's

88 MUSIC OF THE MAGYARS.

step is slow and measured, his countenance pen-
siTO, and his address imposing and dignified; yet,
once excited, he rushes forward with a precipita-
tion of which his enemies have often felt the
force. In success he gives himself up to the most
unmeasured rejoicings ; and his solemnity is looked
for in vain when the hot wines lend warmth to
his eloquence, or the giddy dance whirls him round
in its mystic maze.

It is wonderful how completely he has imparted
his own character to his national music. Nothing
can be more sad and plaintive than the commence-
ment of many of the Hungarian airs. One of the
most strongly characteristic of these is the Rakotzy,
a march of the times of the revolutions of the Ra-
kotzys, whose name it bears. As often happens with
a reTolutionaiy air, it has now become the national
air of the country ; and great is the honour of the
gipsy fiddler who can play the Rakotzy with the
true spirit. I could never help fancying it the wail-
ing over some recent defeat, mixed with reproaches
to the listless or cowardly for their want of pa-
triotism. When the quick movement comes too,
it seems as if the warrior bard had changed his
tone to one of encouragement, — as if he would
lead on his audience to enthusiasm, and from en-
thusiasm to rapid energetic action, perhaps to wild
excess. I give the notes as they have been sent to
me ; but I fear sadly that, in the hands of more
civilized musicians, they will want much of that

THE RiiK<5TZY.

wildness and force which imparts to them such a
charm as they burst from the gipsy band.

Rak6tzy-n6ta. _

1^ ^e^^ Pdco per poco occeler.

Grays-

-ti-LlfcCIQ fe^ ^^^^^

Tremolando,

^\^ ^ Poco per poco acceler.

THE rAk<$TZY.

7ii J

-Ql

6 li Acceler. tremola.

i- -^

m h«£

Jto^

rjnBT~z3r»— r»» — z;

J'^.i' i/ J' -• XT

THE RkKffTZY.

■^ ^ -i ^ ^

Acceler. tremol.

Allegro wioderato T = loo

'J U

^^m

MUSIC OF THE MAGYARS.

Though scarcely ever musicians themselves, and
though, as an art, music is at a very low ebb in the
country, yet the Magyars are said to be exceed-
ingly susceptible to its influence. The sister art
of poetry is, and always has been, much cultivated
and esteemed. The dance, of which we have al-
ready spoken, when practised by the peasantry, is
commonly accompanied by the recitation of verses,
often composed for the occasion, and adapted to
some simple national melody. Mr. Brasai, of Klau-
senburg, has kindly furnished me vnth several of
these airs, as taken down from the peasants them-
selves; and I think they are sufficiently charac-
teristic to be given here. I have added a very
literal translation of the words ; partly because I
should make but an indifferent versifier, and partly
because I think in this form they are most certain
to retain their original characteristics. ,

I do not claim any great poetical merit for the
words ; but I think it so great an advantage to
allow a people to speak for themselves, and to tell
us their own feelings and thoughts in their own
way, that I have overlooked the rudeness, and at

NATIONAL AIRS.

times coarseness, of the compositions themselves.
In the original the number and quantity of the
syllables are, for the most part, as exactly main*
tained throughout as in Latin hexameters and pen-
tameters. The rhyme too is well preserved, and,
when read by an Hungarian, the verses are ex-
ceedingly harmonious. From the difference in the
sounds of the letters from those used among us,
it will be impossible for the English reader to
make anything out of the original.

The first is evidently a dialogue between two
lovers; and it gives no bad idea of the part the
woman is expected to play in the domestic economy
of the Hungarian peasants, and of what those quali-
ties are which she herself considers the most at-
tractive.

The lover speaks :

- 88.

Sze-ret •n6m szlin-ta-ni Hat ok -rot haj - ta - ni

Ha - ga - lam • bom jo-ne Az ek -- ^t tar - - ta - ni

Ha - ga -lam-bom jo-ne^ Az ek - et tar - ta - nL

28 NATIONAL AIRS.

I should like in the plough^

Six oxen to drive.
If my dove would come.

To hold the plough.

I should like in a sledge
Four horses to drive.

If my rose would come
To hold up the sledge.

Hia mistress answers :

III.

Though on Saturday I soak it.
And on Sunday I wash it.

Yet to my dove

I '11 give a clean shirt.

IV.

Of flour I begged the loan.
Butter for money I bou^t.

Yet for my dove
A cake did I bake.

The laoer,

1 love you, my dove.
As well as new bread ;

I sigh for you
A hundred thousand times a day.

VI.

The mtstressm

1 love you, I love you ;

But tell it to none.
Till on the church Stones

We are sworn to be one.

NATIONAL AIR&

VII.

The looer^

Why should I lov©

If I hoped not to many you>
If we could not meet there

Where I bo much desire ?

In the two next, the air of rakish carelessness
after disappointment, is Tory characteristic of the
Magyar. He is too proud to show his feeling, and
woold fain laugh at care to hide his real sorrow.

r - 69 et 138.

Egy Bzem bu - za ket szem rozs Fe • Ion -tot - tern

j^ - ja most Fe - Ion-tot -tern j&r - - ja

- 100.

most.

Ha azt e-rem jo -Ten -do-ben Ta-raj di-dum daj

^^feS^^#^iM:#^|P^^|#t

Ve - tek a' szath-mfi - ri fold - ben Ta-raj di-dum daj

Ve-tek£r-p6t ve-tek ko - lest Ta-raj di-dum daj

Ket-ten a-rat-juk-leked-Tes Ta-mj di-dum daj

30 NATIONAL AIRS.

One grain of wheat, two grains of rye,
I have poured them in, they are grinding now,
I haye poured them in, they are grinding now.
If I should last till next year,

Taraj didum daj,
I will sow barley, I will sow oats,

Taraj didum daj ;
And we two together will reap them, love,
Taraj didum daj.

II.

One grain of wheat, two grains of rye,
I have poured them in, they are grinding now,
I have poured them in, they are grinding now.
We will bake bread of it,

Taraj didum daj^
And eat till we*re fUll, my rose,

Taraj didum daj.
Now very soon, very soon,

Taraj didum daj.
Very soon, I can kiss you now !
Taraj didum daj.

One grain of wheat, two grains of rye,
I have poured them in, they are grinding now,
I have poured them in, they are grinding now.
If I should last till next year,

Taraj, taraj, daj.
Till next year if I should last,

Taraj, taraj, daj.
My pretty sweetheart I will woo !

Taraj, taraj, daj.
If she refuse me, what caie I ?

Taraj, taraj, daj.
I'm no great loser even then,
Taraj, taraj, daj.

NATIONAL AIRS.

p = 120.

£ • rik m^ a Beszterczei pi - ros szil • ya

Eny - im lesz-el ked-ves Babdm k^t bet mul-va

£ - Ilk a kosz- me - te Sze - K - debb a bzo - ke

E-rik a vad-al-ma Ha-mis-abb a bar-na.

Now that the red plum of Besztercze ripens^
In a fortnight more dear Baba will be mine.

The gooseberry ripens^

Sweeter is the fair ;

Ripens the crab.

Livelier is the brown.

II.

As I went across a certain neighbour's yard,
I happened to look in at the window ;

There I saw my sweetheart, —

I caught her in another's anns.

May G — soouige her !

Oh ! how I do hate her.

III.

And yet she says that she my true love is.
Though all the while she is deceiving me ;

NATIONAL AIRS.

But I believe not in her words.
Let her stay for ever single ;
Bad in soul and body
Are both the fair and brown !

The next is a very popular song, and contains an
allusion to the " Mill which grinds sorrow,'* as well
as to several other popular proverbs and super-
stitions, some of which I think are common in
England. It will be observed that in this, as in
most other of these songs, there is rarely much
connection between the different verses,

Hetronom de Maelzl.
f = 112.

Kis Ko-md-rom^ nagy Ko-ma-rom^ be szep 16 -any

ez a* hd - rom^ Be sze-re-tem az egy-i-ket, h£-rom

ko - ziil a* szebbiket^ Kis Ko-md-rom^ nagy Ko-md-rom.

Little Komfirom^ great Komarom !
What pretty lasses are these three !
How I love one of them —
The prettiest of all the three !
Little Komarom, great Komarom !

NATIONAL AIRS. S8

Little Komibt)m^ great Koiiidrom I
Near Goigony there murmuiB a mill,
Which, as I hear, doth sorrow grind :
I indeed have a sad sorrow.
There III take and grind it up.
Little Kom^iDin, great Komibom !

III.

Little Kom^m, great Kom£rom !
He who does not greet the Jew,
Is sure to trip across the threshold :
See, comrade, from not having greeted.
Over the threshold thou hast fallen.
Little Kom^m, great Komdrom t

IV.

Little Komfirom, great Kom&rom !
No bird is prettier than the swallow,
None than tbe white-footed young wife.
It bites her white foot
The cold water, she cannot bear it.
Little Komiromi great Komirom !

Little Komarom, great Kom£rom !
He who sorrow brought in fiUhion,
Surely that man God has cursed ;
But as for this 0^-4 d — mn'd sorrow,
• It's a fiuhion I won't follow.

Little Komarom, great Komibrom !

VI.

Little Komfirom, great Komarom !
In rotten wood the worm doth grow ;
For an old woman is sorrow fit :
But I of such things never think ;
Like the grasshopper I hop and skip.
Little Kom&nom, great Komarom !

VOL. II. D

NATIONAL AIRS.

VII.

Little Komarom^ great Komarom !

My little lass^ how much thou 'rt grown !

What a pity thou art not married !

I would have married, but no one woo'd.

And 80 I was left forgotten at home.

Little Kom&rom, great Kom&rom!

r =76.

Jaj he Bzen - nyes a* ken - - do - - je

Ta - Idn ninc8-en sze - -re - - to - - je Ad - - ja i - de

hogy moBsam - ki Ugy sem sze - ret en - - gem sen - ki.

Oh, how dirty is your kerchief!

Perhaps you have no sweetheart ?
Give it me, and I will wash it.

For nobody loves me.

II.

The wind whistles, and the tree cracks ;

Under it sits a shepherd boy :
Down to the knee his Guba is fringed ;

A sad song sounds his pipe.

III.

Off I went into the vineyard ;

A hoe I took in my hand.
But I hung it on a tree :

I drank wine under the shade.

NATIONAL AIRS. 85

IV.

My glossy locks my shoulders beat^
They have Boil*d my fine linen shirt ;

Wash it^ my rose^ and make it clean.
For near thy garden flows the Theiss.

I have not received the music of the last song ;
but the words are so characteristic of the pride and
independence of the veealthy Magyar peasant, that
I give them as they are.

Of six herdsmen I 'm the master ;

I 'm accosted as '' wealthy sir :"
Herds of cattle fill my pastures;

Six watch-dogs keep guard for me.

II.

When my food in the pot is ready.
My six servants sit round with me ;

And we eat our fill of the heap of kdsa,
As well as the Count with his thirty dishes.

in.

A hundred-florin hay I ride for a hackney ;

He prances so^ that his feet strike fire ;
Like me he is true Magyar bred ;

On him I can catch the hare with my whip.

IV.

But they say that I Ve neither table nor chair :

Ferdinand has not so many as 1 1
I sit where I list on all Balaton's shores^
And I eat and I drink wherever I please.*

* A great number of '* Hungarian popular songs/' have been
translated and published by Dr. Bowring in his '' Poetry of the
Magyars/' 18S0.

86 CHARACTER Of

Few people have more legends in song than the
Magyars ; and I have heard that it is a common cus-
tom for the young girls of a village to collect in
circles round the winter's fire, with their spindles
in their hands, and in turns sing the legendary
history of their native land, as they have learnt it
from their mothers. Great is the honour paid on
these occasions to the best story-teller of the party ;
and it is not uncommon for the young men, who
are privileged to hover round that poetic circle, and
even to obtain a kiss for every time they can pick
up the purposely dropped spindle, to choose their
wives according to their excellence in the bardic
art.

The Magyar peasant has a strong feeling of self-
respect, at times bordering perhaps on foolish pride.
It is very rarely he will consent to exhibit himself
as an actor, and in consequence the country is filled
with German players, Bohemian riders, and gipsy
musicians; for, however much he may dislike
amusing others, he has not the least objection
that others should amuse him. To all this is united
a sense of personal decency, and a fastidious deli-
cacy in certain matters, scarcely to be found amongst
any other people.

The Magyar has a passionate love of country*
united to a conviction that no one is so happy and
prosperous as himself. The Swiss does not feel a
more devoted attachment to his mountains than the
Magyar to his plains. Csaplovics tells us that a

THE MAGYARS. 87

youug girl of Debreczen, who was taken for the
first time into the mountains of Liptau and Arva,
regarded the villages with the utmost astonish-
ment; and, on seeing what to her eyes appeared
the barrenness and poverty of the scenery, burst
out in exclamation, ^* What ! do men live here
too?^

The "truth in wine'' has long been proverbial,
and it is nowhere better exemplified than in the
Magyar. No sooner does the fear of ridicule for*>
sake him than he is seized with an irresistible
desire to wee]) over the miseries of his father-land.
With high and low, the reign of Corvinus, when
Hungary was respected abroad and the peasant
protected at home, is the imaginary golden age to
which they all refer. Not a mother wails more
bitterly over her lost child than the wine-softened
Magyar over the fallen glories of the Hunia,

The language and the religion are two important
points of nationality with the Magyar. He believes
that he alone has the true faith — Calvinistic — ^which
he knows only by the name of Magyars vaUis ; and
that his is the only language understood in heaven,
and therefore the only one to be used in prayer.
A poor peasant nurse — ^they are said to be the best
nurses in the world — sitting by the bedside of the

Countess D ^ heard her utter in the excess of

pain the common German exclamation, " Ach Gott !
flcA G^o<</" — "Ah, my lady," observed the poor
Magyar, "God forgive me! but how can you ex-

88 CHARACTER OF THE MAGYARS.

pect God to listen to you, and give you ease, if you
speak a language he does not understand?"

Hospitality is a virtue of the Magyar, as well as
of every other inhabitant of Hungary ; and, though
it is the fashion to consider it rather a necessity of
uncivilised life than a quality of polished society,
it is nevertheless the parent of a thousand kindly
feelings both in the host and guest, which leave their
impress in the general character, and which are but
ill replaced by the cold egotistical formalities sub-
stituted for it in the intercourse of what is called,
par esceUence^ the world.

In the upper classes the personal pride of the
Hungarian character is apt to create jealousies
against any one whose superior talent may have
placed him above his fellows in public esteem;
and there are few countries in which a great man
makes more personal enemies, and has to combat
more petty annoyances, than in Hungary.

It is scarcely necessary to say, that, ivith such dis-
positions, the Magyar is strongly inclined to conser-
vatism; he hates new-fengled notions and foreign
fashions; he always considers it a sufficient con-
demnation to say, " Not even my grandfather ever
heard of such a thing ! "

As soldiers, the Hungarians have the reputation
of making the best light troops in Europe. The
hussar is a smart active fellow, a little vain of his
own appearance, and passionately fond of his horse,
for whose accommodation he never hesitates to

DEBRECZEN. 89

steal if he thinks he can do it without detection :
— ^he would not be a good hussar unless he did.
He bears punishment gaily, and both he and his
steed will manage to liye where many other troops
would starve.

Debreczen is celebrated in Hungary as well for
its great £urs as for its manu&ctures, which, if
rude, are adapted to the wants of the people. This
is the great mart for the produce of the north and
east of Hungary, — cattle, horses, bacon, tobacco,
wine, wax, honey, flax, &c. ; and a great part of
the small traders of Transylvania supply themselves
from hence with colonial produce, and the showy
fineries of Vienna. No less than twenty-five thou-
sand of the Bundas I have so much eulogised are
prepared here every year, and expedited to every
part of the country. The true Hungarian pipe too
is another produce of Debreczen; and a curious
affair it is, with its short stick and long thin bowL
There is also a large manufactory of soap here, in
which the soda collected in the neighbouring dry
lakes is chiefly used.

At one end of the over-wide chief street — fiill
twice as wide as any street in London, — and con-
trasting ill with the onenstoried houses which stand
on either side, towers the Reformed Church and
College of Debreczen; for Debreczen is not only
the capital of Magyarism, but the capital of Cal-
vinism also in Hungary. The Protestants of Hun-
gary are divided into two classes: the Lutherans,

40 PROTESTANTISM.

who adhere to the Confession of Augsburg ; and
the Reformed, who follow the doctrines of Calvin.
The former are principally found in the north and
east of Hungary, and include many Germans and
Sclavacks ; the latter are almost entirely Magyars,
and chiefly inhabit the towns and villages of the
Puszta.

I have often had occasion to notice the civil wars
which occupy so prominent a place in Hungarian
history ; and, as might be expected, no sooner did the
Reformed doctrines gain a footing than — whether
from sincere belief, or only from a political calcu-
lation of the chiefs I know not, — religious differ-
ences entered largely into the causes of dispute.
At one time England and Holland supported the
Protestant insurgents in Hungary : now they were
at the very gates of Vienna itself, and religious
liberty seemed on the point of being firmly estab-
lished ; and now, delivered over to the persecutions
of their bitterest enemies, the whole party seemed
on the point of utter annihilation. In the reign
of Leopold the First, nothing that falsehood and
treachery could effect for their destruction was left
untried; and in spite of the treaties of Vienna
(1606), and of Linz (1647), in which their liberties
had been solemnly guaranteed, it was not till Maria
Theresa, in her hour of need, had experienced good
proofs of their loyalty, that their existence was
fairly acknowledged, and the right of private wor-
ship, though still under many degrading restric-

PROTESTANT COLLEGES. 41

tions, accorded. In the reign of Joseph they ob-
tained still fiirther concessions, and were placed
nearly on an equality with the Catholics. They
were now allowed to bnild churches^ establish and
endow schools, were absolved from Catholic oaths
and attendance on Catholic places of worship;
and the male children in mixed marriages, if the
father was Protestant, were to be educated in that
flEtith. These, and some other priyileges, were con-
firmed by Leopold the Second, and are enjoyed
by the Hungarians at the present day. They still,
however, complain of grievances — particularly of
the six weeks' instruction which converts from
Catholicism to Protestantism are obliged to under-
go, and which exposes them to great annoyances —
indeed they claim perfect equality as their right,
and without it they will never be satisfied.

The Protestants of the Reformed fiEuth have the
best institutions for education of any of the estab-
lished religions in Hungary. The chief of these is
the College of Debreczen, which was founded in
1792, and contains a library of twenty thousand
volumes. I subjoin some remarks on these schools
fit)m Csaplovics,* in which the reader may perhaps
perceive the origin of some curious scholastic cus-
toms, of which the traces remain in our univer-
sities at the present day. ** Besides the elementary
schools {Trimalschiden\ of which there is one in
every parish, the Reformed have many well-managed

* Gemalde von Ungam^ vol. i.

42 STUDENTS

grammar-schools {Gymnasien\ and three great in-
stitutions called Colleges, viz. at Debreczen, Saros
Patak, and Papa. The members of these colleges
are divided into two classes, the greater and lesser
students; and the greater again into Togati^ and
non-TogatL

** Those called Togati are such as intend to dedi-
cate themselves to the church or to teaching. They
have a peculiar black gown, Toga ; and a black belt,
something like that of the Catholic priests, which
they put on to attend church and lectures. The
Togati have their lodgings in the college free,
about six shillings allowed for candles during the
year, and from one to two metzen * of wheat for
bread. Every one has his meals cooked where he
likes, which are afterwards brought to his cell by
the fags (dienstbaren Schtdknaben). Each pays for
his own firing. The greatest privilege of the Togati
is the right to receive a regular diploma from the
college, called a Patens^ and duly signed by the
rector, empowering them to visit the Reformed
parishes far and near on all the great feasts, — as
Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide, — where they
preach a sermon, and receive a present in money in
return, generally from one pound to five. On these
occasions a strong Mendicans — a student of an in-
ferior class (our sizar) — carries after the Dedk Ur
(Mr. Latin), who marches as Legatus before, a mighty

* The metzen is about one bushel and three quarters Win-
chester measure.

OF D£Ba£CZEN. 48

bag, which he rarely brings home empty. This is
called leg&tidba j6mi (to go on an embassy)."

As might be expected, the villages containing
the mansions of rich Protestant nobles are the
most freqaented. One old lady used to receiye
twelve of these Togati every feast ; and, after enter-
taining them hospitably, sent each away with a
present of one hundred florins (4/.) in money, and
a bag filled with hams, sausages, com, and other
provisions for the quarter.

Csaplovics continues : *^ The twelve first of the
Togati are called Primofriij or Juraii. Their duty
is to observe the conduct of the rest of the students,
to see that they keep the college laws, and to point
out any irregularities they may discover. In order
to have a more strict watch over the students, they
have the right to visit the rooms during the night ;
on which account no student's door can be locked.
Into this college police only those are admitted who
have been from six to nine years Togati, who
have finished their studies with credit, and who
have distinguished themselves by their good conduct.
They are subjected, previously to admission among
the Primarii, to the strictest examination, and then
take an oath in public to fulfil their duties con-
scientiously."

The first Primarius is called Senior^ and acts as
steward of the college, for which he receives 40/.
a year ; the second is called Contrascriba^ and is the
attorney-general of the community ; while the rest

44 STUDENTS.

act as private tutors to the other students, with a
salary of 3/. and three metzen of corn.

" To the class of the non-Togati belong all those
who intend to devote themselves to politics — or
anything else or nothing else — and are called Pub-
liktisok {Publiciy The course of study for this class
extends only to four years."

** The lesser students form nine classes, the
lowest of which are supplied with teachers chosen
from among the Togati.

" The fee for instruction — IHdactrum — is ac-
cording to the wealth of the student : the poorest
pay 6*. yearly; those in more easy circumstances,
12^.; and the richest, 18*. The Togati, who act
as private lecturers and tutors, receive from the
students, according to their circumstances, from
one ducat to many for their instructions ; and it is
from this source chiefly that the industrious Togati
derive their incomes. The number of the Togati
and other students, following the higher branches
of science, amounted in 1818, in Debreczen, to five
hundred and twenty;* in Saros Patak, of Togati
alone, to three hundred and sixty-three ; and in
Papa to one hundred and ten : of greater and lesser
students in Saros Patak, the total number was four*
teen hundred and twenty."

Though the students of Debreczen have the repu-
tation of being rather rough in manner and un-*
polished in appearance, they are generally staimch

* The whole number at Debreczen is upwards of two thousand.

A REVIEW. 45

Protestants, with a strong love of liberty and a
stem adherence to the constitution of their fathers.
From the prevalence of the Magyar language in
this part of Hungary, they have a decided advan-
tage in public speaking over those educated out of
the country, or even in those places where German
is the fashionable medium of conversation. I be-
lieve they have the reputation of being good La^
tinists; which, in Hungary, means rather good
speakers and writers of Latin, than good readers
and critics of the Latin authors.

It happened, while we were at Debreczen, that
the regiment quartered in the neighbourhood was
united at that place for the annual manoeuvres and
inspection; and, as we were walking about the
town, we were not a little surprised to recognise
under the lancer's jacket and cap an English face,— -

Captain B , whom we had known elsewhere.

So unexpected a meeting was pleasant enough for
both parties ; and we were happy to avail ourselves
of an offer from the colonel, whom we met at
supper, to join the review next morning. In all the
world no better place for a review can be found
than the Debreczeni Puszta, as this part of the
plain is called. The regiment was composed en-
tirely of Poles from Gallicia; a very rough-look-
ing set, whom we were told it is almost impossible
to keep clean and honest. The officers complain
much of their drunkenness, dishonesty, and turbu-
lence in quarters. In rank, however, they looked

46 ENGLISH OFFICERS.

exceedingly well, and their horses still better. They
were chiefly mounted from Wallachia, Moldayia,
and Transylyania : one hundred guldens c. m. or 10/.
being about the medium price of each horse for
the remounts. It is said to be wonderful how much
these horses will support with the poor nourishment
they get. Their condition was excellent. The
most interesting manoeuvres to us were the false
charge^ the scattered retreat, and the re-forming of
the regiment in order. The whole regiment, four-
teen hundred strong, started at full gallop, and in
that manner came forward to within a few yards
of where we were standing with the colonel ; when,
on the word being given, the whole dispersed in
the greatest seeming disorder, retreated to the point
from which they had advanced, and re-formed them-
selves in line in an astonishingly short space of
time. The Polish lancers are acknowledged to be
excellent horsemen; there was not a man in this
regiment who could not pick up his lance from the
ground when his horse was at fiiU gallop.

The number of English officers in the Austrian
cavalry is not less, I believe, than two hundred —
more, probably, than in all the. other foreign armies
of Europe. It is difficult to find sufficient motives
for this preference, unless it be accounted for by
the kind manner in which their brother officers
receive them, and by the cheapness of provisions in
most parts of the Austrian empire. The Govern-
ment, too, is said to regard Englishmen generally

ENGLISH OFFICERS. 47

rather with an eye of fayoor. Yet the pay is
miserably small, promotion very slow, dnty severe,
and the quarters often most wretched. I can
scarcely conceive a situation offering fewer tempt-
ations than that of an oflScer quartered in some
village of the plains. of Hungary, where he is obliged
to put up with half a room in a peasant's cottage,
where he is without books or the possibility of
getting them, without a soul who can speak a word
of any language he understands to converse with,
and with no chance of companionship except by
riding twenty or thirty miles to the next detach-
ment. The only advantages I know are, that to-
baceo and wine are cheap and good, and the oflScer
may hunt, fish, or shoot, wherever and whenever he
pleases.

On leaving Debreczen, we turned towards Pest ;— *
a long journey, occupying at this season of the year,
when the horses are generally engaged with the
harvest, not less than two days and nights. We
were frequently obliged to remain three, four, or
five hours waiting for horses before the Biro could
be awaked, and the Kis Biro sent to the pastures,
horses be caught, brought up to the village, fed, and
harnessed to the carriage. It is tedious work,
though it is not altogether without its advantages.
One morning as we were dozing over this weari-
some interval, and just as the sun began to show
his pleasant face at the far end of the village, we
were roused by a clattering of hoofs, tinkling of

48 WATER-MELONS-

bellS) neighing of horses, and lowing of cattle, as
though a four-footed army were about to take
the village by storm. A troop of several hundred
horses, and almost as strong a homed corps headed
by the parish bull as drum-major, soon came gal-
loping by, and then filed off each to its respective
quarters, as regularly as so many soldiers to their
billets. They had been grazing all the night in the
rich Puszta pastures, and were now driven up for
the work of the day. Scarcely were the stable-
doors fairly opened for the horses and cattle, than
the pigs and geese rushed out, and grunting and
cackling their satisfaction, they started off to the
well-known rendezvous, where their leaders would
be ready to show them the best stubble in the
parish. We were so much amused with this busy
scene, that we did not observe how much we
had profited by it till reminded that four fresh
horses were already harnessed to the carriage and
ready to start.

We were now in the country of water-melons,
and just in the season. Although this delicious
fruit keeps but a very short time, and can only be
eaten fresh, it is an important article of cultivation
here. In addition to the number consumed by the
men, children, and pigs, — for the latter often come
in for their share before all is over, — ^a great number
is sent by the Theiss and Danube to Pest, Pres*
burg, and Vienna. At Pest, the September fair is
called the Mdonen Markty from the quantity of this

WATER-MELONS. 49

frait brought up the river at that time. A fine
water-melon, of the size of a man's head, costs
about two pence English money on the plains. It
is diflScult to convey a notion of the luxury of this
fruit in a hot climate, and especially in travelling
over dusty roads. Some Hungarian writer considers
it a special gift of Providence to the Puszta, to com-
pensate for the bad water found there. The com-
mon melons are fine here, and even cheaper than
the water-melons.

The wine of the plains is not, to my taste, to be
compared to that of other parts of Hungary. It is
strong, but it ia deficient in that flavour which the
mountain lends ita grapes. The tobacco of the plains
is also strong, but considered deficient in aroma.

Among the crops most common here, and most
strange to the Englishman's eye, are those of sun*
flowers and pumpkins ; the first cultivated for the
oil they yield, the second used for fattening the pigs.

As we arrived towards evening on the outskirts
of the straggling town of Szolnok, we found the
bridge which we had to cross encumbered with a
crowd of aged and maimed, before each of whom
was a large heap of kukurutz. I have already
said it was the time of harvest ; and, as we slowly
followed the train of heavily laden waggons, we
observed that every peasant, as he passed a beggar,
threw a yellow cone of kukurutz to this heap, and
received a poor man's blessing in return. With the
characteristic cunning of their class, they knew that

VOL. IL £

50 SZOLGA-BIRO

when the hand is most ftiU the heart is most open ;
and, by thus exhibiting their own destitution in
glaring contrast with the plenty of their neigh-
bours, they managed, without the trouble of sowing
or gathering, to reap a sufficient harvest to main-
tain them for the winter.

The mention of Szolnok reminds me of one of the
many instances of politeness we received from per-
sons to whom we were totally unknown. As we
stopped at the town-house, and sent in our assig-
nation for fresh horses, the Szolga-biro came out,
and, raising his little cap, assured us horses should be
procured as soon as possible. He was a good-tem-
pered-looking man, and was evidently so anxious for
a chat with the strangers that we did not like to
disappoint him. He knew from our assignation
that we were Englishmen; and no sooner did he
learn from our conversation that we had taken the
trouble to examine the riches and beauties of his
native land, and found much to admire and respect,
both in the country and its institutions, that he
scarce knew how to express his joy. Never was
there a people more gratefril for sympathy than the
Hungarians. He would not allow us to leave the
town till he had filled the carriage with the choicest
peaches, melons, and plums, from his own garden ;
not to mention a large loaf of Szolnok bread, which
he pronounced, and I believe he was right too, to be
the very best in Hungary. It is true, all this might
be nothing but the effect of good-nature : and yet,

OF SZOLNOK. SI

reader, had you seen the real kindnoBS with which
it was done, the interest the good man took in our
journey, the sentiments he expressed in favour of
our native land ; had you received all this attention
from an individual you never saw before, and whom
in all human probability you would never see again ;
and bad you felt that it was to your country rather
than to yourself you owed it, — you must be differ-
ently constructed from me if you did not find yourself
a happier man than when you entered Szolnok.

But it is high time to finish this chapter, for it was
my intention to confine myself to the peculiarities of
the Puszta, and I am wandering from it ; — kindness
to the stranger is common to eveiy part of Hungary.

52 COUNTY MEETING

CHAPTER II.

MUNICIPALITIES AND TAXATION.

County Meeting at Pest. — Origin of Hungarian Municipalities. ���
The municipal Government of Coimties. — Municipal Officers. —
Fd Isp^n.— Vice-Ispdn. — Szolga-biro. — Payment and Election of
Magistrates. — County Meetings — ^their Powers. — Restaurations.
— ^Municipal Government of Towns. — Senatus and Kozseg. —
. Abuse of Candidation. — Municipal Government of Villages. —
Advantages of Decentralization. — The Biro. — Taxation. —
Mode of levying Taxes. — Amount of Revenue. — Errors of the
System.

On our return to Pest, all the world was talking
of a great county meeting which had just taken
place; in which the member, Mr. Pecsi, had been
recalled by his constituents, and dismissed from his
place for voting contrary to their instructions. The
greatest efforts had been made by the Government
party, at the head of which was the F6 Ispan^ to
defeat the Liberals ; and, finding themselves in a mi-
nority, they proposed to adjourn the new election
to another day: but, just at the critical moment.
Count Kdrolyi Gyorgy sprung upon the table, and
calling out, " No time like the present !" was re-
ceived with such a burst of acclamation as at once

AT PEST. 58

decided the question, and obliged the Tories to give
up any further contest. The new Liberal deputy,
Mr. Fay, was required, Jbefore receiving his autho-
rity, to swear in no way, ** by speech or silence,** to
act contrary to the instructions of those who elect-
ed him ; and it was determined that henceforward
every deputy from that county should take the same
oath.

There is something so decidedly free, and even
democratic, in these county meetings, and in the
municipal* institutions of Hungary generally, that
they excited my interest in no ordinary degree ; and
I think I cannot do better than dedicate a few
pages to their consideration before we proceed
further on our journey. The county meeting at
Pest was, it is true, rather political than municipal
in its character; but, though, in this instance, the
two institutions were mixed together, they are ge-
nerally sufficiently separated to entitle us to consi-
der them apart.

I am inclined to think the Hungarians owe their
municipal institutions to the Sclaves whom they
conquered ; not merely because the latter were a
settled nation skilled in agriculture and other arts
of civilized life, and therefore necessarily exercising

* ** By the temi ' municipal/ I mean to designate the adminiBtra-
tion which the inhabitants of any village^ burg, or section of the
country, establish for the management of their local afTairs, as
distinguished fcom and independent of the political govemmenC —
Urqukarfi Turkey , p. 71-

54 ORIGIN OF MUNICIPAUTIES.

a strong influence over a nomadic people like the
Magyars, bat because we find some traces of simi-
lar institutions among other Sclavish nations long
before they were known to the European nations
of Gothic origin. The popular character of the in-
stitutions of Poland are well known, and in the
early history of Russia the same tendency to po-
pular government may be traced. Segur, particu-
larly, remarks on the fimmess with which the
Russian people maintained the management of
their local affairs in their own hands; nor was it
without the greatest difficulty that the descend-
ants of Ruric destroyed the ancient customs, and
finally subjected Russia to the yoke of feudality.
Several of the titles too of the municipal officers
in Hungary are derived from the Sclavish lan-
guage, and it is therefore more than probable
that the offices themselves had their origin from
the Sclaves.

Be this as it may, when St. Stephen, — ^the Alfred
of Hungary, — about the year 1000, undertook to
settle the affairs of his new kingdom, he at once
destroyed the octarchy, or rule of the descendants
of the eight chieftains who conquered the land ; and
in part redividing, and in part adopting former di-
visions, he constituted the counties nearly in their
present number and form, whilst for the govern-
ment of these counties he appointed officers similar
to those now existing.

In Hungary, each of the fifty- two counties ( Fiir-

MUNICIPAL OFFICERS. 55

megye) has a separate local administration, and
constitutes a kind of state within itself; nor can the
general Government interfere in its affairs, or even
execute the laws within its boundaries, except
through the county officers, all of whom (except
one) are chosen by the people every three years.
The exception is the Fd Isp&n or Lord-lieutenant,
the representative of. Majesty, who is appointed
directly by the Crown. Except at the triennial
elections, or on other great occasions, this officer
generally resides in the capital; and the more im-
portant of his duties devolve on the elected Vice-
Isp&n or Al lapdn^ as he is more commonly called
at the present day. This magistrate answers in
some respects to our sheriff; indeed, when Latin
was used in our law transactions, both were called
by the same title, Vice-Comes. In the absence of
the Fo Ispan, the Vice-Ispan summons and takes
the chair at all county meetings, corresponds with
the central Government, and executes its decrees.
It is through him also that the deputies communi-
cate with their constituents, and receive back their
instructions. He holds the supreme direction of
the provincial police, and presides as chief judge in
the county courts, besides holding his own courts
for the trial of minor offences, and small debt
cases. A first and second Vice-Ispan are always
chosen, in order that, in case of the illness or
unavoidable absence of the one, the other may
supply his place.

36 VICE-ISP AN.

There can be few positions in society more
honourable, or more to be coveted, than that of
Vice-Ispdn in Hungary. Chosen freely by the
whole gentry of his county, possessed of immense
power and influence, and exercising it among his
own friends and neighbours, he enjoys all that
to a healthy ambition can appear desirable. As
a school for constitutional statesmen, I know of
no office so good as this. It lays open a clear
view of the wants and capabilities of the country,
even to the minutest details; it places its occu-
pant in the closest connection with his constitu-
ents, keeps him in constant remembrance of his
dependence upon them, accustoms him to public
speaking, and initiates him into that ars agendi^^
that tact in the management of afiairs — which
nothing but a long continuance in office can give,
and which is almost as necessary in the govern-*
ment of a country as commanding talent and just
principles. It has accordingly been much sought
after of late by young men of family, and I
could name more than one hereditary magnate
whose greatest pride is his election to the office
of Vice-Ispan.

The municipal officers below the Vice-Ispan, and
elected by the county, are the SzolgaJnrok^ the
Jurassores, the receivers of the state taxes and
receivers of the county taxes, collectors, fiscals,
and others, besides a medical officer of health,
surveyors, jailors, inferior officers of police, &c. who

MAGISTRATES ELECTED AND PAID. 57

tre elected for life. ' The most important of these
is the Szclga-MrOy or county magistrate. With the
aid of the Jurati Assessores, or Jurassores, as Hun-
garian Latin makes them, — sworn men, — ^the Szol-
ga-birok have the management of the separate dis-
tricts (Keriilet) into which each county is divided.
Their duties extend to the administration of justice
in trivial cases, the quartering of the soldiers, and
the superintendence of the police within their dis-
tricts.

All these officers receive a small annual pay*
ment during the period of their service, varying
from 80/. the salary of the Vice^Ispan, to 10/.
that of the Jurassor. It is not intended that this
should be a remuneration for their services, but
only a provision for the extraordinary expenses
which their offices may bring upon them ; it being
especially stated that none but men ** well-to-do,"
and capable of living on their own property, shall
be appointed. No man, when chosen, can refuse to
•serve.

The advantages resulting from this system of
elected county officers, and their consequent re-
sponsibility to public opinion, are so striking that
I need not point them out; but some of its dis-
advantages may be less evident to those unacquaint-
ed vnth Hungary. In the first place, all these
officers are elected by the people, — and be it re-
collected that in Hungarian that term excludes the
peasantry, — and, from the short duration of their

58 CORRUPTION OF MAGISTRATES.

period of ofEce, they are naturally anxious to please
those on whom their re-election depends, and they are
not therefore likely to be impartial in the adminis-
tration of justice between electors and non-electors.
But there is a still greater evil. From the payment,
small as it is, by which these offices are accompa-
nied, a number of needy men have been accustomed
to seek them, — I allude particularly to the office of
Szolg&-biro, — and, from a mistaken kindness on the
part of the electors, have not unfrequently succeed-
ed. Now, although this may not prevail in all parts
of Hungary, — and I have certainly seen Szolga-
birok very wealthy and respectable men, — yet in
others, where the spirit of the institution has been
departed from, and poor men have been appointed,
the consequence has been that their poverty has laid
them open to bribery in their quality of judges. To
such an extent does this prevail in one part of the
country, that I have heard the people speak of
bribing the Szolga-biro as a matter of course. I
remember, in the district to which I allude, a
SzolgSr-biro being pointed out to me as a most
extraordinary man, because he administered jus-
tice fairly to the peasants, without ever accepting
even a present from them. This, however, is not
altogether a fault of the institution ; nothing but
a high state of moral civilization in the country
at large can insure that strict honour in the
Judge, without which, the best of laws can never
insure justice : ^' Nihil prosunt leges sine moribus.^'

THE COUNTT MEETINGS. 59

Something, perhaps, might be done by rendering
the offices honorary, and so excluding the needy
from them, or by raising the salary so high as
to render its possessor beyond the power of slight
temptations; but nothing would be so likely to
produce the desired effect as a determination on the
part of gentlemen of property and education to
undertake the office of magistrate themselves, and
so raise it, as with us, to be considered a mark of
dignity and honour.

Four times at least in the course of every year,
and oftener if necessary, the Fo Ispan, or, in his
absence, the Vice-Ispan, is obliged to call a public
meeting (M&rkalis szek — Cangregaiio) of all the
nobles and clergy of the county. These meetings
partake both of a political and municipal character.
During the sitting of the Diet, it is here that the
questions before the chambers are discussed ; and,
according to the vote of the majority, instructions
are sent back to the deputies as to the manner in
which they are to vote. Here, too, the wants and
the " grievances " of the county are debated, and
orders sent to the representatives to introduce
bills to remedy them. They have the right of cor-
responding not only vrith other counties, but with
foreign powers also ; which right was exercised
not long since in the case of the King of Bava-
ria. In short, the county meetings of Hungary are
little less than provincial parliaments, and the de-
puties members of a confederation.

60 POWERS OF COUNTY MEETINGS.

In their municipal or local character they have
the management and direction of the means of
communication, as the making of roads, cutting
of canals, and the opening of rivers ; they assess
the taxes, and order the levies of soldiers voted
by the Diet; they provide for the expenses of
the county ; assize the price of com and meat ;
— in short, perform all the business which the
government of the county can require. They have
one privilege of a very extraordinary character,
and which may be quoted as perhaps the greatest
extent of power ever conferred on a popular as-
sembly under any form of constitutional govern-
ment. In the same manner as I have already stated,
that the acts of the Diet are sent down to the
counties to be published, so also are the ordinances
of the Monarch; but if, after due examination,
these are found by the county meetings to be con-
trary to law, or in their tendency dangerous to
liberty, they have " the right to lay them with
all due honour on the shelf (cum honore seponun-
tur)^ and take no further notice of them : a right
which they have frequently exercised, and which
is in itself a sufficient guarantee against any kind
of administrative tyranny." *

Another of their privileges is of rather a curious
nature ; namely, the right of citing before them
any noble who leads a scandalous life, and obliging

* I quote from a very excellent article on Hungary, in the
Athenffium of Nov. 1837.

RESTAURATIONS. 61

lim to refonn, or expelling him from the county. I
have heard of one instance of a married Count, who
was known to he rather too intimate with a pretty
widow of his neighbourhood, and who incurred this
disagreeable censure.

But, important as the county meetings are in
their immediate effects, they are still more so in
training the people to think of, and act in, the af&irs
of the country ; and I am convinced it is to them
we must attribute the feust, that in spite of the cen«
sorship of the press, in spite of their isolated po-
sition, and the many other disadvantages which
they labour under, the Hungarians have sounder
notions of politics, and a better acquaintance with
their own real interests, than many of the so-
called highly civilized nations of Europe.

There are few scenes better calculated to bring
out the striking peculiarities of national character
than a popular election ; and the elections of Hun-
gary are no exceptions to the rule. It so hap-
pened that I never was present at a Restauraiion^
as an election is called ; but, if I may credit those
who have, such a scene of feasting, fiddling, fud-
dling, and fighting was never equalled even in an
Irish fair. A little country town, crowded during
three or four days by three or four thousand noble-
men, armed and accompanied by their followers, for
the most part glorious with wine, their enthusiasm
fired in the cause of a party or a name, and edged
on by those little piquant animosities which near

62 RRSTAURATIONS.

neighbours will indulge in, must present a scene of
wild and stirring interest.

The restaurations, whether of the deputies or
municipal officers, are commonly presided over by
the Fo Ispdn himself. In the case of the muni-
cipal officers, the King, in the person of his re-
presentative, has the right of candidation ; that is,
of naming three persons for every office, from
among whom one must be chosen. In general,
however, he nominates such as desire the honour,
or who have a respectable party to support them ;
so that this power is rarely used except to ex-
clude an unworthy person. Elections are now
commonly made by acclamation, though polling
has been used ; Government having resumed what
it calls the more ancient, certainly the more bar-
barous, mode, because it was thought that in the
confusion the Fo Ispan might more easily decide
upon the candidate most pleasing to the powers
that be. Never was scheme less successful. In
the heat and enthusiasm of such a moment the
influence of Government is lost ; and the Hunga-
rians have taught their Lords-lieutenant to act with
impartiality, by tossing out of the windows some
who had shown a disposition to be partial. Should
the numbers appear doubtful, the losing party have,
within this last year or two, adopted the plan of
demanding a poll, which the Lords-lieutenant have
not dared to. refuse.

There is a good deal of similarity between these

RESTAURATIONS. 6S

restaarations and the elections of members of par*
liament in England in fonner times; and though
we have been right in changing the form under
the plea of conyenienoe for one less democratic,
because newspapers supply the place of popular
discussions, and party spirit is too active to prevent
any possibility of indifference, the case is far other-
wise in Hungary. The enthusiasm of a popular as«
sembly is required not only to stimulate the slow,
and encourage the timid, among the friends of liber-
ty, but to baffle by its power the hardihood of the
agents of corruption.

It must be confessed that the excesses sometimes
committed are rather startling, — only the year be-
fore our visit eight men were killed at a restauration
in the county of Bars ; — but they are certainly less
than might be expected from an assembly of so many
rude and often uneducated men of warm tempera^-
ment, excited by wine and party animosity, espe-
cially when it is considered that there is no police
to restrain them, and that they are for the most part
armed. I can easily believe that to the well-drilled,
well-policed slave of an absolute Government, such
a meeting must appear very alarming ; but by an
Englishman, who has gone through the scenes
of a contested election, it will be readily under-
stood. Such a man has felt the blessings of Li-
berty, and can therefore easily overlook some of
these outbursts of her wilder humours in consi-
deration of the thousand blessings she showers

64 MUNICIPALITIES OF TOWNS

upon him. He knows too that the political ex-
cesses of one tyrant cause more misery in a single
year, than those of all the freemen of Europe in a
century.

At these meetings it is wonderful with how much
ease the Magyar, naturally eloquent, gives utterance
to his burning thoughts and feelings in the sonorous
tones of his much-loved mother tongue. Word after
word, and sentence after sentence, are poured forth
without the slightest hesitation or difficulty. The
election once over, and the Magyar forgets his
anger. Both parties commonly meet, when the
business of the day is concluded, without rancour
or ill-will, at the table which the Lord-lieutenant is
obliged to provide for all comers. There again are
speeches made, — thanks to the hot wines, yet more
fluent than before ! — toasts are drunk, healths are
pledged, the national airs burst forth in all their
native wildness from the gipsy band, and the
sad-looking Magyar grows gay with the enthu-
siasm of the hour.

Of the municipalities of the towns in Hungary
it is not necessary to say much ; they are German
in their origin, dependent in their principle. The
municipal body consists of a Senalus and a Kozs6g^
The Senatus answers to our court of aldermen, and
is composed of twelve members, from among whom
are chosen the Polg&r Mest€f\ or Mayor ; the Vdros
Biro, or Judge of the town ; and the Vdros Capitdny,
or Commander of the police. The Kozsig forms the

NOT INDEPENDENT. 65

Common Comicil, and consists, in Pest, of one hun-
dred and twenty members, from whom the members
of the Senatus are taken. Both these bodies are
self-elected, and except the three superior officers,
who are chosen annually, they retain their situa-
tions for life. So far there is a great resemblance
between the constitution of Hungarian boroughs,
and those of England before municipal reform;
but a striking exception occurs in the manner of
the election. It is a principle, which runs through
every branch of the Huugarian municipal system,
both in towns and counties, that the Crown shall
have a direct coiltroUing influence ; and this it en-
joys in the right of candidation. It is in this way,
not only that the superior officers and Senatus are
chosen, but every member of the Kozseg itself.
But, although it is true that the same principle of
candidation prevails in the counties, its effect is
totally different in the two cases. In the towns,
from the small number of persons interested, ren-
dering corruption or intimidation more easy; the
long duration of the power delegated, making it
more worth while to obtain it for a partisan ; and
from another cause, to be explained by and by;
the commissioner candidates whom he pleases, and
would not hesitate in the least to omit the name of
any person, however desired by the town, if his^
popularity or principles displeased him ; so that in
fact the whole municipal body may be — though I
do not say that they always are — mere creatures of
VOL. n. F

66 DEPENDANCE OF

the Government. In the counties, on the contrary,
where the elections take place every three years,
and where the number of the constituency is often
some thousands instead of a few score, the F6
Ispan dares not disobey the wishes of the meet-
ing — thanks to the power of public opinion, and
perhaps a little to those constitutional throwings
out of windows to which we have before alluded !
In fact, triennial elections, and an extensive con-
stituency, seem to furnish — at least in Hungary — a
strong barrier against intimidation and corruption.

The other cause for the subserviency of the towns
is this : — ^To enable the Senatus to dispose of any
part of the funds, exceeding in amount six pounds,
furnished by the taxes which they are authorized
to impose on the town to defray local expenses, or
from the corporate property* in their possession, it
is necessary that permission should be granted by
the Crown. Now the Austrian Government makes
it a point never to refuse any request made to it, if
it is possible to avoid it, — I believe, if the Hunga-
rians asked for the moon, the Austrians would only
reply that their request should be attentively con-
sidered — but they have a method of delaying to
give an answer, which they know will break the
spirit of the strongest petitioner in the world ; and

• * Though a citizen is not noble^ and cannot possess landed pro-
perty, a whole town, by a fiction of law, is considered equal to a
noble, and so possesses land which it can sell to its citizens. In
like manner, although a citizen cannot bring an action against a
noble, the town in corpore can proceed for him.

THE MUNICIPALITIES OF TOWNS. 67

if a town corporation has ventured to send too libe-
ral instnictions to its deputy at the Diet, or has ven-
tured to demur about choosing the nominee of the
Crown as a member of the Kozseg, a street may go
impaved, a bridge unbuilt, or a nuisance unabated
for half a century, before they can get permission
to expend their own money in doing it. The
deputy again, although the Crown has no right of
nomination in his case, either in town or county,
must be chosen from among the senators, all of
whom the royal commission has twice candidated.
And now, too, the reader will understand why the
nobles have deprived the borough members of their
right of vote at the Diet ; but although he may,
perhaps, think them justified in so doing, he will
not» therefore, the less lament that the wiser course
of reforming the municipalities, by rendering them
independent, was not adopted instead. I have no
doubt the nobles have not done so, because they
were convinced that the Crown would oppose
them ; but let them only fairly propose a muni-
cipal reform at the Diet, and promise to restore to
the borough deputies all their rights if it is agreed
to, and he would be a bold minister that dare
counsel the Crown to reject it.

There is still one part of the municipal system to
be considered, — ^that which refers to the local govern-
ment of a village. Every Hungarian village forms
a Communitas in itself, and is governed by its own
elected officers, assesses and collects its own taxes,

68 GOVERNMENT OF VILIAGES.

and manages its own afl&irs, very much after its
own fancy. The Lord of .the Manor has, to a
certain extent, the same power in the village as
the Monarch in the county.

The chief officer of the village is the Biro or
Judge : for this office the Lord nominates three
peasants, from whom the villagers choose one.
Here, too, it is generally understood that the Lord
should nominate the three persons most desired ;
but^ in case he does not do so, and the peasants
cannot decide in three days, the Szolga-biro of the
district appoints one himself, independently of both
parties. The Biro must be able to read and write,
and he is generally a man respected by his fellows
for his character and acquirements. His salary,
though small, is enough to make it worth his while
to take the office ; and he is freed from all obli-
gation to labour for the Lord or the county dur-
ing his continuance in office. The Biro's duties
extend to the collection of the taxes, the fumish<^
ing the appointed number of conscripts for the
army, the quartering the soldiers on march fairly
among the peasantry, the supplying horses for vor-
spann, the apprehending of rogues and vagabonds,
the settling of disputes, and even the summary
punishment of trivial offences. The Biro is aided
by the NotariuSj who keeps the accounts ; by two
Jurassores, who help him in his judicial functions,
and must be present at every legal punishment;
by the Kis Biro^ or Little Judge ; and by several

CONSERVATIVE CHARACTER. 69

Haidaks, who perform the duties of flogging-mas-
ters general to the village. Except the Haiduks,
all these officers are paid as well as elected by the
peasants.

I have entered thus at length into the subject of
Hungarian municipalities, partly because it is a
subject likely to excite great interest in England
before long, and because I think we may borrow
some useful hints from them ; but more particu-
larly because I belieye that in them may be found
the true bulwarks of Hungarian liberty. It is an
extraordinary fact, that Hungary, though exposed
for so many centuries to constant war, — though her
throne has been occupied by men of genius, men
bom for power, and of despotic dispositions, — though
aliens in blood, in language, and in interests, have
swayed her destinies, — though princes, whose rule
was absolute in all the rest of their dominions, have
worn the crown of St. Stephen, — though a Maria
Theresa would have coaxed the Hungarians into
slavery under the name of civilization, — though
a Joseph would have robbed them of their con-
stitution with the promise of ^4iberty and equa-
lity," — yet has Hungary retained to the present
time her ancient rights and institutions unimpaired.
Where are we to search for the eminently conser-
vative principle which has thus enabled her to re-
sist so many dangers? I believe it is in the de-
centralization of the municipal system. The quar-
terly county meetings, and the discussions which

70 DECENTRALIZATION.

take place in them, have diffused a knowledge of
constitutional principles, and created a habit of ex-
ercising them, which nothing has been able to break
through. After the violent interruption which Jo-
seph caused in their proceedings had terminated,
the whole machine re-adjusted itself, its various
parts re-assumed their natural functions, and in a
day the municipal government was reconstituted
and in the performance of its duties, as though
nothing had happened.

The manner in which the principle of decen-
tralization has been carried out in Hungary, and
rendered at the same time consistent with strength
in the centre, is much more striking than in any
other country of the old world. The local go-
vernment, both of the counties and villages, ad-
ministrative as well as executive, rests entirely
in the hands of officers elected by those most in-
terested. The political power, too, will be found to
rest partly in a centre — the Crown ; partly to be
disseminated through the provinces, — they having
merely delegated an expression of their will, and
not deputed a portion of their power to the Cham-
ber. The executive is mixed in the same way;
partly depending on the Crown through its officers
in the capital, partly on the people and their elect-
ed officers in the country. The link of centrali-
zation, too, by means of the Lord-lieutenant and
his power of candidation, and of decentralization,
again, through the limitation of the executive in the

TAXATION. 71

provinces to the municipal officers, is very curious.
Well may the Hungarians protest that they desire
no revolution ! Their ancient constitution main-
tained, and carried out in its ancient form and
spirit, modified only where it injures and oppresses
the weak, would secure to them all the freedom
which man can reasonably desire.

I have remarked that the assessment and col-
lection of taxes 'is confided to the municipal offi-
cers; and it may be as well, therefore, in this
place, to give some further information on the
subject of taxation in Hungary. The taxes in Hun-
gary are divided into two classes, the general and
local, — ^the Cassa Militaris and Cassa Domestica.

The Diet has the right of voting the amount
of the taxes belonging to the Cassa Militaris, and
the duty of fixing the proportion which shall be
borne by each county. In order to render the pro-
portion more equal, the whole country has been
divided into six thousand two hundred and ten
porUB ; and so much is voted per porta.*

* The word porta was originally used, in 1342, to signify a
gate through which a laden waggon could pass^ such as is seen
before every peasant's house. At this time a new finance system
was introduced, according to which every porta which did not
belong to a noble^ a clergyman^ a very poor peasant^ a citizen, — •
be contributed separately, — the servant of a noble, or a peasant
who followed his master to the wars, was obliged to contribute
a certain sum yearly. This was afterwards adopted as the
groundwork of assessments, and is continued to the present day ;
but although in time, as villages grew up and districts became

72 GENERAL TAXES.

When the municipal officers have settled the
distribution of this, and the amount which comes
to the ishare of each village, the assessment on the
individual peasants falls to the Biro and his Ju«
rassores. The common manner of dividing it is so
much per head for every grown-up man ; and then
so much on each article of property, — as oxen,
sheep, horses, — which he may possess. It is one
of the great advantages of an elected officer, that
those who elect him are commonly content with
his manner of performing his duty ; or, if they are
not, the remedy rests with themselves. I do not
recollect in other parts of Europe to have often
seen the tax-gatherer and police-officers objects of
respect to their neighbours; while in Hungary I
never heard of a Biro being ill regarded because
he had performed his duty. It is a well-known
fact, that, when the peasant is* perfectly unmanage-
able in the hands of the Lord or his steward, he
is at once obedient to his own elected Biro.

The whole amount of taxes thus collected it is
difficult to ascertain. The sum voted by the Diet
of late years for the Cassa Militaris has been
6,300,000 /. c. m. or 630,000/. This, however, is

inhabited, the number of gates increased, they still remained the
same in the exchequer books ; for it was found more easy to in-
crease the amount of assessment than to make a new census.
The revenue made up in this manner, now fi&lls very unequally
on some districts, while others escape tax-free. A new census
has however been made, and a more equitable division arranged,
which only waits for its formal adoption to be brought into use.

1,200,000

20,000,000

1,500,000

1,096,000

500,000

GENERAL TAXES. 73

far from constituting the whole amount of revenue
derived from Hungary. According to the best
statistical work (Neusie statisUsch-geographisi^ Bes-
ckreUnmg des Konigreichs Ungartij Sfc. 1832,) at
present existing, it would appear that from —

1. The crown and fiscal lands, the an- Jl. e. nu
nual revenue is . • •
Regalia. 2. From the tax on salt
(Royalties.) The duty on exports and imports

Mines and mintage
Post-office • • • •
Fiscalities (probably sales of fiscal

estates) 306,400

Subsidium Ecclesiasticum (paid by the
bishops, abbots, and provosts, for the
maintenance of fortifications) . • 121 ,600

Jews' toleration tax • , . 160,000

Sixteen Zipser towns • » . 16,581

Royal free towns • . . . 16,434

3. Contributions firom the peasants and

citizens 5,300,000

4. Deperdita* 3,000,000

33,217,015

or less than three millions and a half sterling.

It must be evident to any one who casts his eye
over this list, and sees, in a country which enjoys
the constitutional right of voting the supplies, that

* By Deperdita is meant the sum required to make up the
losses sustained by individual peasants from supplying the soldiers
with bread, com, and hay, at a price much below the real value.
It was, I think, in the reign of Maria Theresa that it was settled
that Hungary should quarter sixty thousand soldiers ; finding them
in bread at the rate of one kreutzer the pound, hay at twenty
kieutzexs (eightpence) the cwt., and oats at twenty<-four kreutzers

74 GENERAL TAXES.

only one-sixth of the whole amount of revenue
depends in any way on the will of the nation,
while the other five-sixths are obtained without its
consent, that some great departure from the ori-
ginal spirit of the constitution must have been
made. Nearly two-thirds of the whole are derived
from a tax on salt, not only levied without the
consent of the nation, but in opposition to its re-
monstrances. Strongly, however, as the Diet has

protested against this :tax, and directly as it is
opposed to the spirit of the constitution which
every monarch at his coronation swears to ob-
serve. Government still obstinately maintains it,
and probably will continue to do so till the nobles
consent to bear their part in the burdens of the
state.

To the foreigner it is of little importance whe-
ther Hungary pays more or less than her share of
the general expenses of the Austrian empire ; but,
as it is a question which excites great interest
amongst both Hungarians and Austrians, we must
not pass it over in silence.

The sur&ce of Hungary equals nearly the whole
of the rest of Austria, and certainly includes by
far the most fruitful if not the most productive

the metzen, the ordinaiy price of such articles being very much
higher. The difference between the real value and the fixed price
of these articles, is partly' made up to the peasant out of the
county rates (which the peasantry at large pay), and constitutes
a very important part of the county expenditure under the head
of " Deperdita."

MUNICIPAL TAXES. 75

part. The population of Hungary is about one-third
that of the entire empire. Now, the whole revenue
of Austria is said to amount to one hundred and
twenty millions of florins, or twelve millions ster-
ling ; of which, as we have seen, Hungary contributes
only three and one-third millions sterling — ^little
more than one-fourth of the whole. Now, though
I feel certain that Hungary does not contribute a
fiedr proportion, and certainly much less than she
might do, there is no doubt that the Hungarians
are right in saying, that the fault lies with Austria,
and not with them ; for, under a more liberal com-
mercial system, of which Hungary is deprived, on
the plea of protecting Austrian manufactures, the
duties on importation and exportation alone would
amount to more than the whole sum collected at
present. Besides, when such a comparison is made;
it should be added that the expense of maintaining
schools, the administration of justice, the payment
of police, the maintenance of the clergy, &c. are
all, in Hungary, provided for independently of the
sum which enters the royal exchequer.

The Cassa Domestica, instead of being voted by
the Diet, is voted by the county meetings, and is
entirely devoted to the expenses of the individual
county. The amount must of course vary in each
county, according to the circumstances of the time,
and the necessities of different localities. From this
source are derived the salaries of the municipal offi-
cers, the sums necessary for the maintenance and

76 MUNICIPAL TAXES.

repair of bridges and roads, the erection of public
buildings, and, till the present Diet, even the pay-
ment of the members of the Diet. The administra-
tion of the Cassa Domestica is entirely in the hands
of the nobles, independent of the general govern-
ment : it is entirely paid by the peasants. Here I
know every English reader will be ready to join
with me in execrating the selfishness — the flagrant
and injurious selfishness — of the Hungarian nobles,
which this &ict discloses. That they should refuse
to contribute to the support of a government which
refuses them the right of regulating the expenditure
of such contributions, every constitutionalist can
understand ; and that those who are themselves
bound to defend their country should decline to pay
others to do it, is also comprehensible, — of course
"supposing that they were capable of performing
their duty;— but on what plea they refuse to take
a part in paying the officers chosen by themselves
from their own body, whose duties in many cases
regard exclusively the nobility — ^by what right they
can pretend to force others to build houses for them
to meet in, bridges for them to pass over, or roads
for them to travel on, is beyond the power of
any honest man to imagine. Thank Heaven ! the
first step towards a great change has been already
made. When Count Szechenyi obtained from the
Diet an act for building a new bridge at Pest,
and a power to make every one, noble or ignoble,
pay as he passed over it, he gained as great a

MUNICIPAL TAXES. 77

victory over prejudice and injustice as has been
accomplished hj any statesman of our day.

Some of the most enlightened Hungarians would
gladly see this principle carried out to a much
greater extent; and it is not improbable that Go-
vernment would second them: but among many
of the nobles, especially the lowest and highest,
there is so great an ignorance and so strong a pre-
judice,— on the one hand against losing what they
consider their rights, and on the other against
raising the peasantry to think and feel like men,
— that much must be done before this act of
justice can be accomplished. The advantage which
such a reform would confer on the peasants by
relieving them from an unjust and irksome bur-
then, on the country by the improvements which
might then be undertaken in the means of com-
munication, and on the nation at large by the en-
couragement of better feelings amongst all classes,
and by the creation of a greater interest in preserv-
ing entire and free from foreign interference their
municipal institutions, is incalculable, and worth
any sacrifices to attain.

CHAPTER in.

DANUBE FBOH PEST TO MOLDOTA.

The Zriny. — The Countiy below Pmt — Warte Laaia. — An
AccidenL — Mohics. — Peterwardein. — Kailowitz. — The
Diave. — Scmlin. — The Cmaaderg. — The Save. — Belgrade.
— Danube Navigation. — The Border Guard — their Laws and
Organization. — The Thnas and Temes. — Semendria. — Geo^
Doia. .— Danube Scenery. — Serria, and Rus»an Policy.

After a few days' rest at Pest, we again prepared
to encounter tlie fatigues of travel. A remarkably
fine steam-boat, tbe Zriny, which had just been
launched, was about to make her first voyage, and
we gladly availed ourselves of the opportunity to
get down to Moldova. A trial of her powers had

PUNCTUALITY. 79

been made a few days previously, in an excursion
up the river as far as Waitzen, with not less than
five hundred persons on board. Count Szechenyi,
by directing this little pleasure-trip, to which every
one was admitted on paying a zwanziger (ten-
pence), had managed to interest a great number of
persons in the success of the new boat ; no small
matter where steam navigation is still a novelty, and
where it was met with countless prejudices which
are but yet disappearing. I think I know directors
of companies, who would have preferred private
tickets, and a party of their own friends ; by which,
of course, all the excluded would have been ofFeqded.
Which was the wiser system I leave my readers to
decide. We joined the party to Waitzen, and had
an opportunity of seeing the first meeting of two
flteam-boats which ever took place on the waters
of the Danube. The Pannonia was returning from
Presburg, and met us near the termination of
our voyage. Count Sz6chenyi, who was on board
the Zriny, was recognised and loudly cheered by
both crews, on the occasion of this new advance
to the accomplishment of his favourite scheme. I
thought the Count's voice faltered, and his eye
grew moist, as he exclaimed, " Now I am sure
we shall succeed, and Hungary will not be for ever
a stranger to Europe.'*

It was fixed that we should start for Moldova
at five in the morning; and so exact were they
to the time, that the boat was pushed off between

80 PUNCTUALITY.

the striking of the clocks of Pest and Buda. This
regularity is likely enough to make a change in
the national character of all the Danubian popula-
tions, at least in respect to punctuality. After one
of the fairs, when the steam-boats first began to
ply between Semlin and Pest, a large party of
Servian and Turkish merchants had taken their
places on board, in order to return to Belgrade,
and were duly informed that the vessel would start
at five. As this did not happen to suit these wor-
thy people's habits, and as they had no idea that
the boat would leave without them, they marched
solemnly down to the quay about eight, and, after
walking up and down for some time in search of
the vessel, they were at last made to understand
that she had gone three hours before. Their as-
tonishment and consternation are said to have been
most ludicrous; but it was not without its effect,
for none of these people have been too late for the
steam-boat from that day to this.

Our party in the Zriny was small, but exceed-
ingly agreeable ; the Baroness W and her ami-
able and pretty daughter. Count Sz^chenyi on his
way to superintend the works near Orsova, two
of our own countrymen bound for Constantinople,
and ourselves, formed almost the whole of the
passengers. The morning was cold and misty, but
it soon cleared up into a fine autumn day. * On
the Pest side, the country is one continued flat»
and on the other, the low hills, which extend for

THE DANUBE- 81

some distance from the Blocksberg, soon disappear
altogether, and a level plain extended on every side.
It would be useless to describe the whole of our
route. The scenery has little variety. The flat
plain is sometimes raised into small sand-hills
covered with vines, the thick woods are sometimes
broken by a little pasture and corn-land surround-
ing a village or small town ; the banks are generally
low ; the river itself deep, wide, and less rapid than
above, indeed in every respect much better calcu-
lated for navigation ; but, for the rest, a monoto-
nous uniformity pervaded the whole of our first
day's journey-

The number of islands in this part of the Danube
is very great ; some of them of considerable extent,
others serving only to ornament the river. As they
are mostly low, they are but of little value ; the
smaller ones are chiefly in wood, the larger are
partly swamp and partly pasture. Floating water-
nrills mark the approach to almost every village.
The only craft we met, except the small canoes
of the peasants, and the flat-bottomed boats which,
on the firing of a gun, came to take off passengers,
were the long barge-like vessels from Szegedin.
These are clean-built boats, covered in with a
kind of deck, and chiefly employed in bringing up
eom from the country of the Theiss and Temes to
Pest and Vienna. They are commonly towed up
the stream by men or horses. I have seen as many
as forty-six of the former, and twenty of the latter,

VOL. II. G

82 WASTE LANDS.

employed at one boat. Accidents are very com-
mon among these men ; and it is no rare thing to
see the body of a man or horse floating down the
Danube. The body is probably allowed to proceed
to the Black Sea, without any one thinking it
worth while to interrupt its course or inquire the
cause of death.

None of the towns or villages passed during
the first day presented anything worthy of remark ;
their white-washed cottages and steeples had a
look of cleanliness which the interior would hardly
bear out, I fear. Among the largest were Foldvar,
Paksy Tolna, Baja, and Bata.

We saw a great number of wild-fowl at different
times. The ducks were in immense flocks; and
hawks, particularly a white species, very plentiful.
Of the pelicans, which are so common lower down,
we saw none ; nor did we observe any of the
white herons, which yield the beautiful aigrettes,
though they are said to be pretty frequent. The
solitary beaver, which is common enough above
Vienna, is rarely or never found in Hungary.

We were told that, on the east bank, the im-
mense tract of land, extending much further than
we could see, is almost useless, from the wet and
boggy state in which it is allowed to lie. It ifl
calculated that by embankments and canals it
might be all reclaimed at the cost of about four
shillings an acre ; and, at the lowest calculation,
it would let for as much per annum. Yet it still

AN ACCIDENT. 83

lies waste. The chief proprietors are not above
six in number. One has got no money to begin
with ; another has ab-eady more com than he can
sell ; and a third likes to let things remain as
they are : and so land, which would maintain a
million of men^ is left to grow leeches and to
breed fevers. Were it not that one set of bad
laws renders the title to purchased property so in-
secure, and another set makes the sale of com
often impossible, of course foreign capital would
soon remedy such evils as these.

At Baja, to our no small regret, the ladies left
us. Carriages were in waiting ; a host of depend-
ants were there to kiss their hands and welcome
them home ; and, as we passed on, a cloud of
dust hid them from our sight, though it did not
drive them from our memories.

Soon after leaving Baja, we passed through a
canal, cut a few years since to avoid a long and
difficult winding of the river.

As it was getting dusk, I had retired to the
cabin to write up my journal ; when, soon after
we had quitted the canal, a sudden shock threw
everything about with great violence, and brought
us all on deck to know what was the matter. We
found the boat aground, with her prow high and
dry on shore. The light of the moon, with a slight
mist on the water, had deceived the captain, and
led him to think he was on the edge of a sand-
bank ; to avoid which he put the boat about^

o 2

84 STEAM -BOAT COMPANY,

and ran her straight ashore. It was altogether a
sad bungle. In such a light, some one should have
been a-head to look out. Fortunately no harm was
done ; but it prevented us from going on during
the night, which had been Count Szechenyi's first
intention. We accordingly came to anchor at
Mohacs about eight o'clock, having run one hun-
dred and eighty miles in fifteen hours.

This was the first voyage the captain had ever
made; and he was dismissed immediately on his
return. I mention this fact, because it shows with
what care the interests of the public are watched,
over by this company : indeed, were it otherwise, it
would be impossible to conceive how they could
have escaped for so many years, under all the
disadvantages of a new undertaking, without a
single serious accident. Had any loss of life oc*
curred during the first year or two, it is very
possible Government, in its paternal carefulness
would at once have stopped the whole affair. To
avoid such a catastrophe, no engines have been
employed but those of Bolton and Watt ; nor any
engineers but those brought up and recommended
by the same house. They have been treated, too,
in the most liberal manner. The captains^ likewise,
are generally very superior men ; and it is im-
possible not to admire the consideration with which
Count Szechenyi behaves towards them. They are
frequently invited to his table, consulted on every
point of difficulty, and their opinions listened to

MOHACS. 85

and followed. It is by such means that steam
navigation on the Danube has been, at its very
commencement, brought to a degree of perfection
which it has required many years' experience to
effect in other countries.

Mohdcs, otherwise an insignificant town, has
witnessed two of the most important battles ever
fought in Europe; important not only from the
number of the combatants, but from their political
results. The first of them, in 1526, which witness-
ed the slaughter of a king, seven bishops, five hun-
dred nobles, and twenty thousand soldiers, not only
laid open the whole country to the inroads of the
Turks, and established them for nearly a century
and a half in its capital, but changed the reigning
dynasty of Hungary, and introduced for the first
time a German sovereign to the Hungarian throne.
By the same blow too Transylvania was separated
from Hungary, and remained so for many years.
The second, in 1687, undid much of what the
first had done : it concluded the splendid victories
of the Duke of Lorraine over the Turks ; it opened
Transylvania to the Hungarian troops ; and prepared
the way for the expulsion of the Moslem, which a
few years later was finally effected.

After taking in a supply of coals, obtained in this
neighbourhood, and said to be of a pretty good
quality, we again got our paddles in motion and
went gaily on our way. One cannot help wonder-
ing at the hidden resources which any new neces-

86 THE DRAVJi.

sity discloses. In Hungary, before steam-boats were
introduced, there was only one coal-mine known
in the whole country. In the short space of time
which has elapsed since their first establishment,
three others and of better quality have been disco-
vered along the valley of the Danube alone, — that
of Count Sandor between Presburg and Pest, an-
other in the neighbourhood of Mohacs, and the best
of all at Orawitza near Moldova. There is a bad
law in Hungary, which interdicts the cutting down
of forests on the plea of maintaining a supply of
fire-wood. Of course it is vain to expect a full
developement of the mineral riches of the country
until this law is abolished.

Our second day's route became rather less mono-
tonous. About twelve we passed the embouchure
of the Drave, which has all the appearance of a
fine navigable river. At present the Drave is little
used, but it is impossible not to foresee a brilliant
future for it. Extending from the centre of Hun-
gary along the north of Sclavonia and Croatia, and
through the whole of Styria, it brings into connec-
tion populations so far removed from sea-ports that
water-carriage cannot fail to ofier them advantages
of which a few years will teach them to avail them-
selves. The scenery was occasionally varied by a
ruined castle, or a slight elevation in the surface of
the plain, of which the peasants eagerly avail them-
selves and form into vineyards. The castle of Erdod,
with its massive round towers, is highly picturesque,

SCLAVONIA, 87

but it is fast crumbling to decay. From the mouth
of the Drave we have been passing, on the west, the
banks of Sclavonia, which appears a rich and highly
cultivated country. The people are, like the Croa-
tians, of a Sclavish race, and belong exclusively to
the Greek and Catholic churches. I believe the
only difference between these provinces and the
rest of Hungary, at the present time, is their
power of excluding Protestants from the possession
of land or the enjojrment of any privileges within
their boundaries.

At Vukovar we stopped to land some handsome
ftimiture from Vienna. It is said to be astonishing
how much furniture and how many carriages have
been sent from Pest and Vienna, not only to the
southern parts of Hungary, but into Wallachia and
Turkey, since the steam-boats have been establish-
ed. The monastery at Vukovar has a pretty ap-
pearance from the river. The town produces some
silk.

A short turn of the river now brought us in view
of the ruins of Scherengrad ; and, a little further on,
we came to the castle of lUok, a large building,
though apparently somewhat neglected. It be«
longs, as well as immense estates here, to Prince
Odescalchi. A low range of hills has accompa-
nied us along the west bank for some distance;
and the openings which they sometimes present,
disclosing their green valleys, and silver streams,
and white-washed cottages, and fantastic steeples.

88 PETERWARDEIN.

are most beautifiil. It became so dark about se-
ven, that, to avoid accidents, we dropped our an-
chor opposite OFutak for the night.

We were scarcely awake next morning when
we were roused up to see the fortress of Peter-
wardein. Directly above our heads, with cur-
tains, bastions, and towers grinning with artillery
after the most approved fashion, was the hill of
Peterwardein, and on the opposite side a Ute du
ponty and other hard-named outworks in great
abundance. Though modem fortifications have
very little architectural beauty to boast, the fine
situation of this gives it a commanding effect.
Peterwardein is, I believe, considered strong; and
occupies a position of considerable military im-
portance. It is adapted to contain ten thousand
men.

Neusatz, on the opposite side, chiefly inhabited
by Greeks, is an important commercial town.

A long bend of the river to the north brought
us to Karlowitz, a pretty little town situated at the
foot of a hill covered with vines down to its very
base. A celebrated wine is made here by a mix-
ture of red and white grapes, which from its pecu-
liar colour is called Schiller.

Karlowitz is the seat of the chief of the non-
united Greek church in Hungary, and contains a
lyceum and theological school of that religion.
I need scarcely add that it is from this place the
celebrated peace of 1699 takes its name. A few

SEMLIN. 89

miles further brought us to the mouth of the
Theiss, which has here — and Count Szechenyi
says, throughout its whole course — much the same
width it has at Tokay, a distance of more than
two hundred miles in a direct line, and probably
twice that distance by the river. It is navigable
for steam vessels the whole of that extent.

We met the Francis the First, the steamer on
this station, returning from Moldova heavily laden
with wool, but carrying few passengers. They say
the back-freights consist principally of wool, honey,
iron, tobacco, and wine; while those down are al-
most entirely composed of manufieustured goods.
They have been offered freights of fat pigs from
Servia, but have been obliged to decline them till
they get some tug-boats at work. Pigs form a
very important article of trade between Servia and
Vienna ; the immense oak-woods, with which that
country is covered, being used almost exclusively
for feeding those animals. The Servian pig is a
beautiful creature ; and I doubt if Smithfield could
show better shapes or better feeding in this particu-
lar than the market of a Servian village.

As we approached Semlin the banks became
more flat ; and the river, which had hitherto not
averaged more than a quarter of a mile in width,
acquired a more extended bed.

Semlin is one of those localities which Nature
herself has marked out for the position of a town.
It occupies the angle formed by the junction of

90 SEMLIN.

two vast rivers, the Danube and the Save ; and
it becomes necessarily a depot for supplying the
wants of the people occupying their banks. Count
Szechenyi tells us that the Save is navigable, and
he feels sure it will very soon have its steam-boats
as well as the Danube. From the day of their esta-
blishment Semlin may date a new birth. It is at
present chiefly supported by its intercourse with
Servia, on the opposite bank of the Save; and,
in consequence, the majority of its ten thousand
inhabitants belong to that nation. It contains some
tolerable streets in the interior, but the part near
the Danube looks as miserable as need be ; indeed,
the greater portion visible from the steam-boat is
the gipsy town, a collection of mud huts on the
side of the hill. Until the establishment of steam-
boats, Semlin was the usual starting- point for Con-
stantinople; and it was here that quarantine was
performed on returning. It is still used by the
couriers ; but travellers generally prefer the com-
fort of a steam-boat to the hardships of a Tatar
excursion across the Balkan.

Semlin is historically memorable as the Mala
Villa of the first crusaders. The three hundred
thousand of the dregs of Europe, who had terrified
all Germany with their frightful excesses, at last
approached the frontiers of Hungary. The avant-
garde, under Walter Sans-avoir, having demanded
and obtained permission to pass through the coun-
try, arrived at Semlin without impediment; but

THE CRUSADERS IN HUNGARY. 91

here sixteen of the men fell into the hands of
the peasants and were robbed. When the larger
foody, under the guidance of Peter the Hermit,
arrived, and heard of this mishap, they determined
to rerenge it by the destruction of Semlin and its
garrison of four thousand men. So infamous a
treachery soon drew on the crusaders the rage of
a people who, but half converted, had not yet
learned to hate with due cordiality all who differed
from them in faith; and Peter and his followers
thought themselves fortunate to escape as best they
could across the Danube. Volkmar, with twelve
thousand Bohemians, who had advanced no farther
than Neutra, were cut to pieces. Of the fifteen
thousand Germans who followed the priest Gott^
schalk, scarcely three thousand escaped the arrows
of the Hungarians ; while the two hundred thou-
sand rabble of both sexes and of every age, which
brought up the rear under Emiko, panic-struck at
the fate of their companions, broke up their camp
before the King of Hungary could approach Ung-
risch Altenburg, which they were besieging, and
dispersed without having even approached the ob-
ject of their fanatic veneration. It required no-
thing less than the noble courage, the frankness,
and the piety of Godefroy de Bouillon to re-esta-
blish a respect for the crusaders or their religion
in the minds of the half pagan Hungarians.

We remained but a short time at Semlin, to take
in coals, and submit our passports to the inspection

92 BELGRADE.

of a police officer. Since steam has brought so
many strangers down the Danube, Austria has
begun to establish the system of passports here;
and, if the Hungarians do not look to it, they
themselves will soon feel its annoyance as well as
the foreigners who visit them*

A few minutes after we quitted Semlin, the guns
were got ready and we fired a salute to the garrison
of Belgrade, which was returned in due form. This
ceremonious politeness to Belgrade seemed rather a
testimony of respect to what it had been, than to
what it now is, for its glory is sadly fiillen. Its hill
is still covered with walls, and gates, and towers ;
but the walls are half down, the gates open, and the
towers dismantled. A Pasha still sits in its for-
tress, but he could no longer defy the best troops
of Europe from his stronghold.

As we passed, a few Turks were seen lying lazily
along the banks of the river ; others were watering
their horses ; while, a little farther on, a group of
Servian women were washing, up to their knees in
the water. The town of Belgrade, which lies beyond
the fortress, has a very beautiful appearance, from
the number of minarets and domes peeping from
out the dark cypresses by which they are sur-
rounded. This was the first glimpse I had ever
caught of a minaret, and I can scarcely express
the pleasure it gave me ; it was something so new,
and yet so familiar.
It was near Belgrade, for the first time since

DANUBE NAVIGATION. 98

we had embarked on tlie Danube, that a sail had
met our eye. The Hungarian never uses the sail,
the only means of moving against the stream he is
acquainted with is towing ; and, though he has seen
the sail employed for so many centuries on the op-
posite side of the same river, he has never thought
of applying it himself. It was curious enough to
see the Hungarian, Turkish, and English systems of
navigation in use at the same moment : upwards of
forty men were toiling to drag a huge barge against
a strong stream on the Hungarian bank; on the
Servian, the lattine sail bore the Turkish boat gaily
before the wind ; while, in the middle, the glorious
invention of Watt urged on the magnificent Zriny,
and threatened to swallow up the crazy craft of
the others in her wake. One might have fancied
three ages of the world in presence of each other

at the same moment.

A new feature in the landscape, and for us a

new object of wonder and inquiry, soon caught our
eyes. All along the Hungarian bank, at certain
distances, perhaps half a mile apart, were small
buildings, sometimes made of wood, and raised on
posts, or in other situations, mere mud huts, be-
fore each of which stood a sentry on duty. They
were the stations of the Hungarian military fron-
tier guard.

An institution of so extraordinary a character as
that on which we had now fallen, demands a few
words of explanation.

TIIE BORDER GUARD-HOUSES.

From a very earlj period the banks of the Save
and Danube, from their frontier position, were in-
fested by bands of Servians and others, who lived
in a great measure by war and plunder : many of
these were fugitives from the neighbouring coun-
tries, and were received by the Hungarians on con-
dition of defending the frontier on which they
lived from further incursions.

Before the first battle of Mohacs, we hear of
some attempts having been made to form these
borderers into regiments on one or two points; as
the Turks retired and left the frontiers more
free, this organization was extended to the newly
acquired regions; and, when at last the whole
line fell into the hands of Austria, it was rendered
complete, and reduced to a regular system. The last
part organized vras the Transylvaoian borders, which
did not take place till 1766. The system, there-
fore, is one which has grown out of the wants of the

THE BORDER GUARD. 95

times, rather than been created by an inspiration of
genius ; and the frequent changes which have taken
place in the laws by which it is regulated show that
experience only has brought it to its present state
of efficiency.

The object has been to maintain at the least pos-
sible cost a border guard along the whole Turkish
frontier of Hungary, which in peace might be em-
ployed for the purposes of quarantine and customs,
and in war serve as a portion of the standing army.
This has been effected so perfectly, that in peace
nearly forty thousand men do duty along an extent
of eight hundred miles of frontier; and they not
only feed and clothe themselves, but pay heavy
taxes in money besides, and perform also a consi-
derable quantity of labour without pay. In time of
war this guard can frimish, on an emergency, two
hundred thousand men in arms.

The land acquired by Government, by purchase
or exchange, along the whole of this district, has
been divided among the inhabitants, and is held as
fiefis on the tenure of military and civil service. A
portion of land comprising from thirty-six to fifty
acres constitutes an entire fief, the half or quarter
constituting half and quarter fiefs. Each of these
is bound to fiimish, and to maintain and clothe,
according to its size, one or more men-at-arms.
In order to carry out this plan, the fiefs are given to
fiimilies composed of several members, of which the
eldest is the House-faiher^ and the younger are the

94 TIIE BORDER CUARD-HOUSES.

From a very early period the banks of the Save
and Danube, from their frontier position, were in-
fested by bands of Servians and others, who lived
in a great measure by vrar and plunder : many of
these were fugitives from the neighbouring coun-
tries, and were received by the Hungarians on con-
dition of defending the frontier on which they
lived from further incursions.

Before the first battle of Mobacs, we hear of
some attempts having been made to form these
borderers into regiments on one or two points; as
the Turks retired and left the frontiers more
free, this organization was extended to the newly
acquired regions; and, when at last the whole
line fell into the hands of Austria, it was rendered
complete, and reduced to a regular system. The last
part organized was the Transylvaniau borders, which
did not take place till 1766. The system, there-
fore, is one which has grown out of the wants of the

THE BORDER GUARD. 95

times, rather than been created by an inspiration of
genios ; and the frequent changes which have taken
place in the laws by which it is regulated show that
experience only has brought it to its present state
of efficiency.

The land acquired by Government, by purchase
or exchange, along the whole of this district, has
been divided among the inhabitants, and is held as
fiefs on the tenure of military and civil service. A
portion of land comprising from thirty-six to fifty
acres constitutes an entire fief, the half or quarter
constituting half and quarter fiefs. Each of these
is bound to furnish, and to maintain and clothe,
according to its size, one or more men-at-arms.
In order to carry out this plan, the fiefs are given to
fiimilies composed of several members, of which the
eldest is the Home-faiher^ and the younger are the

94 TIIE BORDER GUARD-HOUSES.

Before the first battle of Mohaca, we hear of
some attempts having been made to form these
borderers into regiments on one or two points; as
the Turks retired and left the frontiers more
free, this organization was extended to the newly
acquired regions ; and, when at last the whole
line fell into the hands of Austria, it was rendered
complete, and reduced to a regular system. The last
part organized was the TraDsylvanian borders, which
did not take place till 1766. The system, there-
fore, is one which has grown out of the wants of the

THE BORDER GUARD. 95

times, rather than been created bj an inspiration of
genius ; and the frequent changes which have taken
place in the hiws bj which it is regahited show that
experience onlj has brought it to its present state
of efficiency.

The object has been to maintain at the least pos-
sible cost a border guard along the whole Turkish
frontier of Hungary, which in peace might be em-
ployed for the purposes of quarantine and customs,
and in war serve as a portion of the standing army.
This has been effected so perfectly, that in peace
nearly forty thousand men do duty along an extent
of eight hundred miles of frontier; and they not
only feed and clothe themselves, but pay heavy
taxes in money besides, and perform also a consi-
derable quantity of labour without pay. In time of
war this guard can furnish, on an emergency, two
hundred thousand men in arms.

The land acquired by Government, by purchase
or exchange, along the whole of this district, has
been divided among the inhabitants, and is held as
fiefs on the tenure of military and civil service. A
portion of land comprising from thirty*six to fifty
acres constitutes an entire fief, the half or quarter
constituting half and quarter fiefs. Each of these
is bound to furnish, and to maintain and clothe,
according to its size, one or more men-at-arms.
In order to carry out this plan, the fiefs are given to
families composed of several members, of which the
eldest is the House-father, and the younger are the

94 TIIE BORDER GUARD-HOUSES.

From a very early period the banks of the Save
and DaDube, from their frontier position, were in-
fested bj bands of Servians and others, who lived
in a great measure by war and plunder : many of
these were fugitives from the neighbouring coun-
tries, and were received by the Hungarians on con-
dition of defending the frontier on which they
lived from further incursions.

t^.

Before the first battle of Mohacs, we hear of
some attempts having been made to form these
borderers into regiments on one or two points; as
the Turks retired and left the frontiers more
free, this organization was extended to the newly
acquired regions; and, when at last the whole
line fell into the hands of Austria, it was rendered
complete, and reduced to a regular system. The last
part organized was the Transylvanian borders, which
did not take place till 1766. The system, there-
fore, is one which has grown out of the wants of the

THE BORDER GUARD. 95

times, rather than been created bj an inspiration of
genios ; and the frequent changes which have taken
place in the laws bj which it is regohited show that
experience onlj has brought it to its present state
of efficiency.

The object has been to maintain at the least pos-
sible cost a border guard along the whole Turkish
frontier of Hungary, which in peace might be em-
ployed for the purposes of quarantine and customs,
and in war serve as a portion of the standing army.
This has been effected so perfectly, that in peace
nearly forty thousand men do duty along an extent
of eight hundred miles of frontier; and they not
only feed and clothe themselves, but pay heavy
taxes in money besides, and perform also a consi-
derable quantity of labour without pay. In time of
war this guard can fiimish, on an emergency, two
hundred thousand men in arms.

The land acquired by Government, by purchase
or exchange, along the whole of this district, has
been divided among the inhabitants, and is held as
fiefs on the tenure of military and civil service. A
portion of land comprising from thirty-six to fifty
acres constitutes an entire fief, the half or quarter
constituting half and quarter fiefs. Each of these
is bound to famish, and to maintain and clothe,
according to its size, one or more men-at-arms.
In order to carry out this plan, the fiefs are given to
families composed of several members, of which the
eldest is the House-fathery and the younger are the

96 THE BORDER GUARD.

men-at-arms. The House-father^ and his wife, the
Home-mother^ have the direction of the farm, the
care of the house, the duty of providing for the
necessities of the whole family, and the right to
control them and to watch over their industry and
morals. On the other hand, the rest of the men of
the family must be consulted on any great changes,
as purchases and sales ; and at the end of the year
they may demand an account of the expenditure
from the House-father. No man who has been pun-
ished for a crime can be a House-father ; and, if he
be habitually drunken or immoral, he loses the right
which age would otherwise have given him. The
family owe him obedience and respect. The fief it-
self, and the implements and cattle necessary for its
cultivation, cannot be sold, and every member of the
family has a right in them. A portion of land,
called Uberlandj — land over and above the quan-
tity required for the fiefe, — and any excess of cattle
or production, may be sold with the consent of a
superior officer. All the members of the family
are allowed to marry, and marriage is even held
out to them as an honourable duty. When a
family becomes rich or too large, its members are
allowed to divide, and the party separating re-
ceives another fief, either by grant or purchase of
Uberland, within the frontier district, which then
becomes a feudal fief. Such as leave the fron-*
tier service have no right in the property of the
family.

THE BORDER GUARD. 97

The land is cultivated for the common good of
iJl the members of a family ; and the profit, if any
remains after the taxes and other expenses are de-
frayed, is divided among them. No individual is
allowed to keep cattle, or to work for his own ex-
clusive profit, — at least, without permission of the
rest. In most cases, a whole family, consisting of
many married couples, with their children, some-
times to the number of fifty individuals, live under
the same roof, cultivate the same land, eat at the
same table, and obey the same father.

The military duty in time of peace consists in
watching the frontiers. For this purpose the man-
at-arms repairs to the station for seven days at a
time, where the family provide him with food. Be-
sides this, he has the duty of transporting letters,
as well as the money and baggage of the regiment,
and of performing exercise. For the manual exer-
cise four days a month is required, from October to
March. In spring and autumn the company exer-
cises together for a week ; and, at longer intervals,
the whole regiment encamps out, and manoeuvres
together.

Every family is divided into the invalids, half
invalids, enrolled, and youths. Every man of frill
age, who has not some bodily failing, is enrolled.
For the ordinary service the number of men on
duty amounts to four thousand one hundred and
seventy-nine. In times of disturbance on the
Turkish side, or when the plague is drawing near,

VOL. II. H

98 THE BORDER GUARD.

they are increased to six thousand seven hundred
and ninetj-eight, and in times of still greater dan-
ger to ten thousand and sixteen men.

In time of war the borderer must form a part of
the regular army, and march out of the country if
required. The regular disposable force amounts to
thirty-four thousand eight hundred and twenty-
seyen ; but» if the reserye and Landwehr are called
out, to one hundred thousand. If driyen to the
last extremity, they can muster to the amount
of two hundred thousand men.* By means of
alarm-fires and bells, this immense force can be
summoned together through the whole extent of
the frontier in the space of four hours.

The borderers are divided into seven regiments,
according to the district they occupy, — six infan-
try, and one hussar. Besides these, there is a divi-
sion of Tschaikisten^ so called from the wooden boxes
set on piles, and furnished with open galleries round
them, in which they keep guard along the morasses
of the Save and Danube, and who do the duty of
pontonniens. Like the peasant, the border &mily
has to do civil service — one day per annum for
every English acre — for the state ; as in the repair
of post-roads and bridges, draining of swamps, re-
gulating rivers, repairing public buildings, &c. : and
eight days per annum for the village ; as in build-
ing churches and school-houses, keeping the village

* These numbers are taken from Csaplovics' Gemalde yon
Ungam.

THE BORDER GUARD. 99

roads in order, cutting wood for tho Bchool, and
working the farms of widows and orphans.

The borderer's chief tax, besides the furnishing
the uniform, for a man-at^rms, — the shoes, arms,
and leather-work, are given by Government, as well
as twelve shillings arjear in aid of the rest, — is
the land-tax, amounting, for an entire fief, to from
fifteen to thirty shillings per annum. Tradesmen,
artisans, and Jews, pay according to their property ;
from eight shillings to four pounds aryear.

The border officers have many duties peculiar to
the position of feudal superiors, which they occupy.
They give consent to marriages, their permission is
jieoeflsary to the sale and transfer of property, real
or personal, and, at times, they act as judges and
ministers of police. From the mixed nature of the
borderers' duty, different descrip'tions of officers are
required, and we accordingly find officers of eco-
nomy, to direct the farming processes, architects,
surveyors, &c. for the care of pubUo property, but
the most extraordinary officers, for a military estab-
lishment, are the regularly educated regimental
midwives, and, under them, the company's and
squadron's nudwives !

Many laws of the borderers are framed in a spirit
of paternal kindness; among others those for the
encouragement of industry, the inducing to the ac-
cumulation of wealth, and the preservation of order
and agreement in families, besides institutions for
the maintenance of the widows and orphans, and

II 2

100 THE BORDER GUARD.

for the education and improvement of the people.
Benigni states, that of the children between seven
and twelve years old on the Transylvanian fron-
tiers, seven thousand eight hundred and six out of
nine thousand and seventy-seven boys, and three
thousand four hundred and forty-four out of seven
thousand one hundred and three girls, were pro-
vided with the elements of education in the border
schools. In Hungary the proportion is still higher ;
probably nine-tenths of the whole can read and
write in one or two languages.

The administration of justice seems to be yet
more favourably organized. The first tribunal in
civil cases is formed by a lieutenant of economy, a
sergeant-major of economy, two sergeants and two
corporals of economy, and two house-fathers chosen
by the colonel. Their judgment must be confirmed
by the captain. In criminal cases the court-martial,
composed, however, of officers, non-commission of-
ficers, and soldiers, decides.

It is impossible to study this institution, and not
be struck with its power and utility, and with the
wisdom and philanthropy with which many of its
regulations are conceived; and to a military man,
whose idea of the value of a country is in pro-
portion to the amount of applicable force that can
be drawn from it and maintained by it, it must
appear perfect. But it would be unfair did we not
point out some of the objections which the Hun-
garians themselves urge against it.

THE BORDER GUARD. 101

We have seen that an immense military force
has been thrown round one-half the circumference
of Hungary:— in what hands does the command of
this force lie ? from what sources does it draw its
supplies? what sympathies and feelings are encou-
raged in it ? — in other words, what is its nation-
ality? In a constitutional country these are im-
portant inquiries.

Every regiment receives its orders directly through
its colonel, he again from a general of brigade, and
he from the commander of the district, who is
under the Hofkriegsraih (the council of war) in
Vienna. We have seen that the borderers draw
their resources entirely from their own labour, — for
the taxes they pay would more than reftmd the
cost of their arms ; and for their nationality, it is
enough to say that German is taught exclusively in
their schools, German used exclusively as the lan-
guage of the service, that a great number of the
officers are Germans, and that the laws to be re-
ferred to, in case the particular laws of the border
do not provide for any difficulty, are the laws of
the German provinces, to prove that Austrian, not
Hungarian, feelings and sympathies are encouraged
in the borderers of Hungary. The Hungarian Diet
has the right to vote the levy of troops, and the
supplies for their support, or to refuse them in case
of need ; but here is a force, over the levying and
supply of which they have no control. We cannot
be astonished that this should form one of the

102 THE BORDER GUARD.

gravamina of the Diet, and that it should stronglj
claim a right to the superintendence of the border
guard.

There are some, too, who urge that this border
wall id more efficacious and better constructed for
keeping Hungarians within their boundaries, than
Turks and plague without them, and there are not
wanting those even who regard the whole qua-
rantine system as a great engine of police. In
favour of this view of the matter they urge that
the cordon has been more frequently strengthen-
ed on the appearance of what Government is apt
to consider most pestilential, — a political fever
within the country, than of a plague invasion from
without ; that personal intercourse is impeded, that
an inquisitorial search is authorised, and that even
private letters and despatches are opened and ex-
amined, though it is well known that smugglers
pass the frontiers at every hour of the day. The
best answer to these objections, and one very diffi-
cult to controvert, is the simple fact that the plague
has never entered Hungary since the border orga-
nization has been completed, where previously, ever
since the first irruption of the Turks across the
Danube, scarcely twenty years elapsed without its
recurrence, although it has been as frequent and
violent as ever in the neighbouring countries.

Considerable cruelty has been urged against the
introducers of the border system in some parts of the
country, and particularly in Transylvania. It has

THE BORDER GUARD. 103

been told me that the Szeklers, who, according to
their old constitution, were not bound to serTO out
of the country, when ordered to march thought
themselyes justified in revising, and were only com-
pelled to submit after a frightful massacre, in which,
in many villages, every tenth man, woman, and
child, indifferently, was shot by the Imperial troops.
Of the actual state of the borders, material or
moral, as compared with that of the rest of Hun-
gary, I can say but little from personal observation ;
from what I did see I certainly should not have
adjudged them a higher material civilization, and
I do not believe that military organization is adapt-
ed to produce great moral advancement. From
some of those who live in their neighbourhood,
I have heard the borderers spoken of as poorer and
more miserable than the common peasants, and in
the Croatian district one of their own officers de-
clared them to be most notorious thieves. In ac-
tive service I believe they have proved themselves,
both for discipline and courage, on an equality with
the best regular troops.

A few miles below Belgrade, another fine river,
the Temes, which, though smaller than those we
have lately passed, is still navigable, pours its water
into the Danube. The Temes runs, for the most
part, through a flat country, and its course is conse-
quently tortuous and sluggish, but it has been im-
proved by the Bega canal, which traverses a consi-
derable part of the rich Banat, and joins the Temes,

104 SERVIA.

near Temesvdr. This is the fourth navigable river,
the mouth of which we have passed within a space
of fifty miles. Surely never was any country so
blessed by nature with the means of communication
as Hungary, — never have they been more signally
neglected.

The hills on the Servian side now became ex-
ceedingly pretty. They are not generally high, but
nothing can be imagined more perfectly wild and
picturesque. They are covered, down to the very
water's edge, with a low natural wood. Here and
there are a few houses, or rather huts, with vine-
yards, and Indian com, and occasionally, perhaps,
something which may be called a village, and has
a name, but this is rare. All these hills are capable
of cultivation, but insecurity, want of population
and want of capital, keep them wild. The state
of Servia, at the present moment, is essentially
one of transition, and that too with all its worst
features. For many years subject to the Turkish
yoke, and suffering more than most other parts of
the empire, because frequently the scene of contests
— the first loss after a defeat, the first prize of a
victory, — its population has become so diminished
by oppression and emigration, that its whole surface
is, at the present day, little more than one vast
forest, and its population a collection of swine-
herds.

The long-conceived designs of Russia against the
integrity, and ultimate existence of the Turkish em-

SERVIA AND RUSSIA. 105

pire, are now no secret. The successive risings in
Wallachia, Servia, and Greece, testify how cun-
ningly and effectually her plans succeeded. Such
instruments as Csemy (black) George, were not dif-
ficult to find among a people like the Servians, and
in a country of woods and mountains, a revolution
was no very difficult matter to maintain, especially
when excited by a priesthood, whom a similarity of
language and religion readily disposed in favour of
Russia. These plans have been carried out almost
without opposition. The sympathy of Europe re-
quires only the watch-words of Christianity and
liberty, which none have used more liberally than the
crime-stained and tyrannical, to become engaged in
any cause; domestic troubles adroitly taken advan-
tage of, colonial disaffection secretly abetted, and an
aristocratic diplomacy, which, if too proud to be
bribed, is too ignorant and too indifferent to be effi-
cient, has done the rest. The result we have before
us in the separation of these countries from the
Ottoman empire, and their almost total dependence
on Russia.

But the calculations of the wisest sometimes
come to nought. It was easy to excite the hatred
of the Wallachians against Turkey, but it was not
so easy to make them love the Russians : it was easy
to find a native prince of strong natural powers
capable of leading the Servians, but it was hard to
make such a prince relish the leading-strings him-
self. Belgrade has been for some years a great

106 S£UVIA AND RUSSIA.

centre of Russian intrigue. Sometimes the Servian
population has been excited against its prince, some-
times the prince forced into opposition to the Porte.
Now an emissary has been despatched among the
Sclavish populations of Croatia and Bosnia, now
among the Greek religionists of the Banat of Hun-
gary, and for such enterprises Belgrade was the
starting point. In the mean time, Austria, Eng-
land, and France have looked on — the former with
fear and trembling — the two latter with stupid
indifference.* If report may be believed, however.
Prince Milosch, a man of much energy and talent,
is exerting himself to improve and civilize his
country ; and though forced in appearance to bow
to a power he is too weak to oppose, he does not
find his chain the less galling, nor will he be the
less anxious to get rid of it on the first good
occasion, f

* Since our visit, AuBtria has sent a veiy able representatiye to
Belgrade, in the person of M. Milanovitch ; and still later, England,
Colonel Hodges.

f Since this was written, what is called a constitution has
been g^yen to Servia, chiefly through the influence of Russia, in
whose hands the nomination of the chief members rests. Milosch
has resisted, been deposed, driven from the country, and his son
placed in his stead. It is exceedingly difficult to arrive at any-
thing like the truth on such matters, from the known subserviency
of the German papers to Russia ; but it looks very much as if
Russia was playing her old game of disorganizing and ruining, that
she herself may in time be called in to settle, and reconstitute
—-take possession, if she will — ^in any manner that seems to her
best.

SEMENDRIA. 107

Three houn' pleasant sailing along these beau-
tifal frontiers, brought ns opposite the fortress of
Semendria, another painful monument of Turkey's
former greatness, and Turkey's present weakness.
Semendria is singularly built. A perfectly flat
position has been chosen, watered on one side by
the Danube, and on another by a small river, the
Jesoba, and on the neck of land, between these,
a triangular wall of great height has been erected,
strengthened at intervals by thirteen towers of vari-
ous forms. Semendria was formerly the seat of a
Pasha, and it often figures in Hungarian history
as an important post in the Border wars. Under
Alibeg Pasha, it became a name of terror to the
whole country.

It was at the siege of Semendria, in 1513, that
George Dosa, a name afterwards so celebrated in
Hungarian history, first distinguished himself by
cutting off the hand of a Turkish officer, and
taking him prisoner. The King presented him
with a golden chain and silver spurs as guerdon
for the knightly deed. Poor Dosa's fate was so
characteristic of the age, and at the same time so
poetically cruel, that we cannot pass it over.

It was in the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, that Archbishop Bak^ts, like a second Peter
the hermit, returned from Home, armed with a
papal bull, and tried to set all Hungary in a
blaze with his preachings for a new crusade.
Constantly as Hungary had been engaged in hos-

108 GEORGE DOSA.

tilities with the Moslems since they had gained
Constantinople, these never seem to have partaken
so much of the character of religious wars, as of
wars of conquest and defence ; and, on the present
occasion, the call of Bakats seems to have been
almost unheeded by the nobles. Among the igno-
rant and discontented peasantry, however, to whom
the desire of escape from servitude, and the anti-
cipation of plunder may have been as strong induce-
ments as the hope of salvation, his success was
greater, and in a short time forty thousand of them
flocked under his banner to the Rakos plain in the
neighbourhood of Pest.

A suspicion has been entertained that the motive
for Bakats' zeal was not quite so much ecclesias-
tical, — Christian I cannot call it, — as personal
aggrandizement. His excessively ambitious cha-
racter, the opposition which he had met with from
some of the higher nobles, the school in which he
had been brought up — he was secretary to Mathias
Corvinus, — the exciting harangues of some of the
clergy, and above all, the choice of George Dosa, a
common Szekler soldier, to head this vast multitude,
gives strong ground for the suspicion. Be that as
it may, no sooner did Dosa receive orders to march
his forces against the Turks, than he at once de-
clared war against the nobles; and the peasantry,
predisposed by the oppression they had suffered
since the death of Mathias, and encouraged by the
Qiiserable weakness of his successor, having now

DOSA*S DEATH. 109

thrown off all restraint, and excited by the pro-
mises of their leaders, were ready enough to seize
an opportunity of revenging their wrongs, and
achieving their liberty.

Dosa maintained the field against the Hungarian
nobles for nearly six months, during which four
hundred of their order fell a sacrifice to popular
vengeance, till at last Zapolya attacked him whilst
besieging Temesvar, took him prisoner, and com*
pletely destroyed his army.

If the peasants had been guilty of cruel excesses,
the death of Dosa most amply atoned for them.
Not content with the slaughter of seventy thousand
peasants, many of them women and children, it
was determined to execute their leader in a manner
which should strike terror into all future genera-
tions of peasants, and the inventive cruelty of a
cruel age was taxed for its worst tortures.

Dosa was seated on a throne of red-hot iron, a
red-hot crown was placed upon his head, and a
red-hot sceptre in his hand. Forty of his followers
had been confined without food for a fortnight ; nine
of them still survived the starvation, when they
were brought before their tortured leader and com-
manded to feed on him yet living. Those who
hesitated were cut down, while the rest tore the
flesh from his bones and devoured it greedily. " To
it, hounds, ye are of my own training!'* was the
only remark which escaped the lips of the suffer-
ing Dosa.

110 THE DANUBE.

It was jast Boofiet w we left Semendria, and
the broad streakB of red light which fell upon the
water, with the deep shadows thrown by the old
towers, gave an air of solemn beauty to the picture.

As we advanced beyond this point, the river grew
wider and wider, while the banks seemed covered
with impenetrable forests and morasses. The soli-
tude and grandeur of this vast wilderness was ex-
ceedingly imposing. As I stood almost alone upon
the deck towards evening, I could have &ncied myself
in a new land, an unexplored region. I have never
seen the Mississippi, but I do not think that, even
in the fastnesses of America, the impression of a
new and untrodden land could be more complete
than here. On either side of us were thick forests,
so thick that the eye searched in vain for some
indication that they had ever been visited. The
flocks of wild fowl, which covered the water, allowed
us to pass near them, apparently vrithout suspicion
of danger ; but no sooner did the eagle appear in
sight, than they dived away and hid themselves
from his searching glance. Everjrthing seemed to
say that man was a stranger there.

It was just beyond the island of Osztrova, that
we dropped our anchor in the middle of the stream,
— two miles in width here — let off our steam, and
made up for the night.

I and Mr. H n walked the deck till deep in

the night, discussing the various bAes idiich time
might have in store for the nations of the Danube.

;russian intrigues. Ill

The ambitious projects of Russia, just then disclos
ed by the energy and talent of Mr. Urquhart, had
opened to us the danger which Hungary, as well as
Wallachia» Senria, and the whole of Turkey ran, if
those projects were not speedily checked. We
knew that the cabinet of Austria, at first strongly
inimical to Russia, had been so frightened from her
propriety by reform in England, and revolution in
France, — a revolution in which she can still see no
difference from that of eighty-nine, — that she had
thrown herself into the arms of her betrayer with-
out the decency of reserve, without the prudence of
a contract. At the same moment we saw this same
Russia attempting to increase her influence among
the Sclavish populations of Hungary by the plea of
identity of origin and interest, and to undermine
the fideli^ of the adherents to the Greek church
by the claim of supremacy, and the corruption of
an ignorant priesthood. We saw how, step by
atep, Russia had approached the frontier of Hun-
gary on the north ; how she had then crept round
the east and south ; how, during all this time, she
had played with the absurd fear of Austria on the
subject of liberalism, and how in the end, these
absurd fears had led that power to suffer her am-
bitious neighbour to bind one by one her limbs in
chains, and finally to threaten her with suffocation
should she dare to stir, by closing her mouth — the
Danube.

At the same time we saw the frontier fortresses

112 RUSSIAN INTRIGUES.

of Turkey occupied by Russian troops ; — we saw
Wallachia, Moldayia, and Servia, under the name
of independence, subjected to the most galling
vassalage, with Russia for a Suzerain ; — we saw
the Turks themselves dispirited and cowed by their
late defeats, and by the desertion of their former
friends; — we saw their ministers, the paid hirelings
of the enemy of their country, obeying only his
commands ; — we saw their Sultan alienating the
hearts of the most faithful, by well-meant but ill-
judged reforms; above all, we saw Europe still
careless of the fate of one of the greatest empires
of the world, and we trembled lest she should
awake but too late to ward off the catastrophe
which hung over her. One consolation alone re-
mained ; we knew that if she did awake, the
progress of Russia was stopped; we knew that
her gigantic power would crumble away, and no-
thing remain, but the hatred of the world for the
falsehood, injustice, and cruelty, by which it had
been raised.

CHAPTER IV.

DANUBE FBOM MOLDOVA TO OBSOVA.

Babakay. — The Vultures. — Golumbatz. — St. George's Cavern. —
The Rapids. — First Roman Inscription. — Kazan. — New Road.

— Sterbeczu Almare. — Tnjan'B Tablet. — Via Trajana Orsovs.

—New Oreova. — The Cniaaders. — Visit to the Pftsha. — The
Quarantine. — The Iron Gates. — Trajan's Bridget-its Mistoiy and
Construction. — Valley of the Csema. — Turkish Aqueduct. —
Mehadio — its Baths and Bathers.

It was about eight in the morning, when the
good ship Zriny, after bearing ns some twenty miles,
while jet snug in our berths, dropped her anchor
and finished her voyage opposite the little town of
Moldova. Preparations were quickly made for our

VOL. II. I

114 BABAKAY.

re-embarkation, and before the luggage was well
discharged, the passengers of the quarter-deck were
comfortably stowed away in a private boat of Count
Szechenji's, and in company with several of the
gentlemen employed on the new works, off we set.

The boat was rowed by four stout peasants, lately
broken in to the oar, and steered by George Dewer,
who has been employed in managing the diving-
bell here. After passing the island of Moldova, we
came to an interesting point of the river, marked by
the Babakay rock, which juts out into the middle
of the stream. Babakay is said to mean '' refpent^
in Turkish, and to have been applied to this spot,
because a jealous old Turk brought over his young
bride, whom he suspected of deceiving him, and
placing her on this rock, rowed away, answering
to her cries only, " Babakay! Babakay ! " — Repent !
Repent ! It is at this point that the new road, of
which we shall speak hereafter, commences. On
the Hungarian shore the workmen were crowding
the hill side, blasting the rocks, wheeling soil, ham-
mering, digging, breaking, — in short, busy in all
the operations incidental to mountain road making.
On the Babakay itself sat three vultures, solemnly
looking on at these unaccustomed sights, while on
the Servian side nothing was to be seen, save the
picturesque towers of the Golumbatz as they crum-
bled away into the Danube below.

One of the vultures, as we drew near, raised
itself from its rocky perch, and sailed into the air

GOLUMBATZ. 1 1 5

with great majesty. A shot from one of our party
brought him down to the water, while another
secured one of his companions before he had time
to raise himself and take flight. The larger of
them measured nine feet across the wings.

Golumbatz, — a corruption of columbaj the castle
of the dove, — is said to have been the prison of
the Greek Empress Helena, and was a point often
strongly contested in the earlier periods of Hunga*
rian history. In 1428, it was besieged by King Sigis-
mund, who lost the greater part of his army in the
attempt, and who with difficulty escaped with his
own life. It was afterwards taken from the Turks
by Conrinus, and held by the Hungarians, together
with other fortresses in Servia, for some time.

The river, which had been hitherto wide and open,
was now inclosed by high rocks in a narrow bed
only two hundred and forty yards in width. From
this point the most beautiful portion of the scenery
of the Danube commences; and, however inade*
quately I may describe it, I can assure the reader
that I know of no river scenery in Europe to be
compared with it. The Rhine is pretty and highly
cultivated ; the Danube is wild and awfully grand.
It would be little interesting were I to repeat the
exclamations of wonder and admiration which burst
from us during this journey of about fifty English
miles: the whole route is one succession of beauties.
The general character of the scenery is that of rocks
and woods, sometimes rising precipitously from the

116 THE RAPIDS.

banks of the river, sometimes sloping gradually
away ; while the mighty mass of water now flows
calmly on its course, and now rushes in a cataract
over the rocks it scarcely covers. I must content
myself with noticing a few of the most interesting
points. Soon after passing Babakay, the boatman
pointed out to us a cavern half-way up the moun*
tain on the Hungarian shore, as the identical cave
of the Dragon slain by St. George, and where, they
say, the foul carcass still decays, and, like Virgil's
ox, gives birth to a host of winged things. What
isi certain is, that from this direction, and it is
strictly maintained from this very cave, proceeds the
Gdumbatzer Mucken^ a peculiar kind of musquito,
which often invades the Banat in swarms, to the
great injury of the flocks and herds. They attack
chiefly the eyes, nose, and ears, and produce such
pain as to drive the animals nearly mad, and
death usually follows.

Stenka was the first of the rapids we passed, and
though in the then state of the water, it was
impracticable for our steam-boat, it is not so in
general, and indeed, while I now write, the place
of debarkation is changed from Moldova to Dren-
kova, a small village a little below the fall. At
Drenkova are some remains of a Roman fort, pro-
bably- one of a series of strong places built by Clau-
dius to protect the river boundaries of the Ro-
man conquests. The second rapids are those of
Kozla Mare, situated in the midst of such beautiful

THE RAPIDS. 117

scenery, tliat it is probable the traveller has passed
over them while his attention has been occupied by
the surrounding objects. Just below this point, on
the Servian side, may be observed traces of the
Roman road, of which we shall speak later; and
above it, is a plain tablet, bearing this mutilated
inscription : —

TR • CAESARE • A VS

A VGVSTO • IMPERATO

PONT -MAX: TR- POT- XXXV

LEG • IIII SCYTH • ET • V • MACEDO.

It is near this point that the most considerable
falls in this part of the Danube begin. They are
formed by a succession of three rapids, the Izlas,
the Taktalia, and the Greben ; in the middle of the
latter, on a projecting rock, a small iron cross
marks the dangerous pass. The navigation has been
somewhat facilitated by a canal cut in the rocky
bed of the stream by means of blasting ; but much
must yet be done before steam-boats can pass over
it at all seasons. During high-water, both the
steam-boats on the lower Danube have passed these
rapids. The shallowest part is on the Greben,
which we passed with seven feet of water, though
it has been known with only two. Below the
falls the river becomes suddenly wide, and ex-
tends itself to sixteen hundred yards. We met
during this part of our course one or two Turkish
boats slowly toiling up against the stream. A
few Servian villages are scattered here and there.

118 THE NEW ROAD.

and give life to the scene. One founded by Prince
Miloschy and named, after his son, Milanoyacz, ap-
pears to prosper, and shows greater symptoms of
comfort than anjrthing we have seen on that side.
At Tricula are the remains of three towers; to
which tradition assigns a Roman origin. '

A long reach which presents a beautiful lake-like
view, brought us to Kazan (the Kettle), which, as
the middle-point between Orsova and Moldova, has
been made the residence for the engineers employed
in the construction of the new road. Here we left
our boat and visited the works then in progress,
now happily near completion. The object has been
to form a good carriage road between Moldova and
Orsova, in order that vessels may be able to tow up
against the stream, and that passengers and goods
may be conveyed by carriages without loss of time
from one steam-boat to another. In several parts
of this track the rocks come close down to the
water's edge, so that it was found necessary to form
galleries in them, a work of great labour and ex-
pense. From Babakay to Alibeg there is six thou-
sand yards of artificial road, and again below
Kazan it extends twelve thousand yards. When
I saw it, it had been two years begun, and 20,000/.
expended. Five hundred men were still employed
on it.

A work of this kind would be great in any coun-
try; but in Hungary it may be looked upon as
something wonderful, and the greatest credit is due

f^ "I

VETEIU.NrS CAVE. 119

to Count Szechenyi, ^lio has had the entire direc-
tion of the works, as well as to Mr. Vasarhely the
engineer, that it has been accomplished so speedily
and so well. Without it the navigation of the Da-
nube was closed; but with it, in addition to the
works contemplated below, there is no impediment
of consequence that can oppose an easy and direct
communication from Ratisbon, in the very heart of
Europe, to the Black Sea. Nay, the projected
rail-road between the Danube and the Rhine will
accomplish the union of those two rivers, and thus
the great idea of Charlemagne will be fulfilled after
the lapse of so many centuries.

As we walked along the new road, our attention
was directed to a cave about one hundred yards
above the Danube, celebrated in the history of the
Turkish wars. It appears that in 1692, the Aus«
trian General Veterani sent three hundred men un-
der the command of Captain D'Aman to hold this
cavern against the Turks, whose communications on
the Danube were in consequence almost cut ofi*, for
the position of the cave gave its little garrison the
complete command of the passage of the river,
which is exceedingly narrow here. The Pasha of
Belgrade, roused by the injury this handful of men
inflicted on the Turks, sent an overwhelming force
against them; but their position, defended with
the greatest bravery, was proof against all at-
tacks, except, alas ! that of hunger, which obliged
them to capitulate after a siege of forty-five days.

130

STERBECZU ALMARE.

Again in 1788, was this little fortresB employed
against the Moslems. Major Stein held it for
twenty-one days, with a still smaller number of
towps than before. Some remains of slight out-
works are still left before the entrance of the caTe.
The interior is about one hundred feet long by
seventy broad, and has some natural divisions, to
which tradition still attaches names and destina-
tions ; as the officers' quarters, the powder maga-
zine, and the provision depot.

On the opposite side, and not &r from this
cavern, rises a majestic cliff two thousand one hun-
dred and sixty feet in height from the water's edge.
This is the Sterbeczu Almare, the huge bastion of

TRAJAN S TABLET.

131

the Dannbe, a glorioas monument of Nature's
boldest architecture. After passing Rogacb, the
narrowest point of the river, where it is only one
hundred and sixteen yards wide, but sixty deep, and
just opposite the little village of Ogradina, we ar-
rived at the great Tablet of Trajan, the most perfect
historical monument at present existing on the banks
of the Danube. We returned next day to examine
this tablet at our leisure ; but we were still not per-
mitted to get up to it, as it is on the Servian side,
and therefore considered in Sporco. It is cut in
the solid rock, a fine hard mountain limestone, and
is executed with much elegance. A winged genius
on each side supports an oblong tablet protected

by the overhanf^ng rock, which bas been carved

into a rich cornice, surmounted by a Roman eagle.

At either end is a dolphin. The inscription, as it

has been made out by the engineers, runs thns —

IMP • CAESAR ■ DI VI ■ NERVAE ■ F ■

NERVA ■ TRIANUS • AUG ■ GERM •

PONTIF ■ MAXIMVS • TRIB • P -0 • XXX.

122 VIA TRAJANA.

I must confess I was not able to decipher all
these letters; but, as it is eight yards from the
water, and obscured by the smoke which the fires
of the Servian fishermen, who often rest here for
the night, have covered it with, it is very possible
that those who could examine it nearer might fol-
low the traces of letters which have escaped less
favoured observers.* The work which this tablet
is intended to immortalize, was no other than the
Via Trajana, as it is called, on some of the Roman
coins of that period, and of which the traces are
frequently visible on different parts of the rocks be-
tween Golumbatz and Orsova, on the Servian bank.
For the most part, the traces of the road now re-
maining are reduced to a narrow ledge, varying
from two to six feet in width, cut in the solid rock,
at the height of ten feet above the ordinary water-
mark, and below this ledge, at regular distances,
and in four distinct elevations, as seen in the ac-
companying drawings, are holes of about nine inches
square and eighteen deep. Where the rock hangs
perpendicularly over the river, the ledge , and the
holes may be traced very distinctly for a consi-
derable distance without intermission ; at other
places they are interrupted by a sloping bank,

* For this, as well as for the plan of the remains of Trajan's
bridge, I am indebted to a friend in Hungary, who obtained
for me copies of the drawings and plans prepared ¥rith great care
by engineers employed in the survey of the Danube. This inscrip-
tion has never^ I believe, been so fully made out by any other
observers.

VIA TRAJANA. 133

where an artificial road was no longer required ;
and at otliers, where a slight chasm in the rocks
made it impossihle to continue the ledge, a bridge
seemB to have been thrown across. Every one
who takes the trouble to examine this subject,
must conclude that these holes were, beyond ques-
tion, intended to receive beams constructed so as
to support a part of the road made of wood, for
the ledge cut out of the rock was not wide enough,
in many parts, even to admit persons on foot, and
certainly not horses. Nor can we suppose that
the ledge in the rock
was once wider, and
that it has been worn
away by time, for the
tablets remain very
perfect, and the holes
below seem as fresh
as if cut yesterday. It u -^ _-■

is, then, pretty certain that the Via Trajana was
partly only cut in the rock, and partly supported
on wooden beams.* It would thns answer for a
towing path as well as for the passage of troops—
the two great objects for which it was probably
intended ; and, besides costing much less labour, it

* This opinion I had fonned from an inspection of the place
itaelC Need I say how much it waa Btrengthened by the plans
Bubjoined, in which M. Vasfirhelj has demonstrated the possibility
of its existence, and shown the probable manner of its construction.
The reader will undrartand that the wood-work is only gup-
podtious.

124 THE WALLACKS.

would have possessed, if this supposition is correct,
the advantage of being easily and etfectually inter-
rupted in case that pursuit by the barbarians ren-
dered it desirable to cut off the communication.

As we turned from these remains of Roman
greatness to the other side of the river, and again
got on shore, to examine the progress they were
making with the modem road, it was impossible not
to be struck with the resemblance of the Wallack

peasants, who were engaged on it, to the Dacians of
Trajan's column. The dress, the features, and the
whole appearance of the Wallacks, were so Dacian,
that a man fresh from Rome could scarcely fail tu

ORSOVA. 125

recognise it. They have the same arched nose,
deeply sunken eye and long hair, the same sheep-
skin cap, the same shirt bound round the waist, and
ilescending to the knee, and the same long loose
trowsers which the Roman chain is so often seen
encircling at the ankles. It was only required to
change the German or Hungarian overlooker in his
smart hussar uniform, for the soldier of the Roman
legion in his brilliant armour, and we might have
supposed ourselves present at the very scene en-
acted for a similar purpose on the opposite side
of this river seventeen hundred years before !

Orsova, as we saw it next morning, appeared a
pretty little village, situated close on the banks
of the Danube, and fast rising into importance as
the frontier town of Hungary, towards Servia and
Wallachia. In addition to the money spent here
by travellers, the custom-house and quarantine es-
tablishments necessarily give it greater advantages
than are possessed by most Hungarian places of its
size. At a little distance from the town, too, there
is a small covered market, where the Turks and
Servians bring their wares for sale ; and though di-
vided by rails, and closely guarded by the quaran-
tine officers in order to prevent contamination, they
carry on a considerable traffic in pipe-heads, Turkish
sweetmeats, fruits, ornaments, and other small ar-
ticles. The quarantine establishment was nearly
empty at the time we visited Orsova, and we were
shown over the whole of it. It cannot be said to

126 NEW ORSOVA.

be pleasant to pass such a length of time in confine-
ment anywhere; but I know of few places where
it would be more tolerable than at Orsova. A
small court is attached to each set of apartments ;
and, attended by a guard, permission is usually
granted to walk over the whole place.

A mile below Orsova, and in the middle of the
Danube, lies the pretty island of New Orsova, a
Turkish fortress, now, alas ! somewhat dilapidated
like everything else Turkish ; though, scarcely a cen-
tury ago, it was of sufficient strength to have occu-
pied the Emperor Joseph II. a considerable time to
batter it effectually from the opposite mountains.
It is said to have been at this point that the
great crusade of 1396, under the Connetable d*Eu
and Sigismund of Hungary, after descending the
Danube from Buda to Orsova, passed over to
the island, and so across to the Turkish side. One
hundred thousand horsemen, among whom were the
flower of the French chivalry, seemed to give an as-
surance of easy victory ; and as Sigismund marked
their close and well-ordered ranks, he insolently
exclaimed, " With such an army, I can brave the
world ; their spears would uphold the canopy of
heaven itself, should it threaten to fall upon us ! "
The impious boast was bitterly atoned for. In a
very few days the plain of Nicopolis witnessed
the complete dispersion of this host, and the
noblest and bravest of them dead, or captives
in the hands of Bajazeth.

VISIT TO THE PASIIA.

127

We were fortunate eooagh to obtain permiBsion
from the Herr Cordons Commandant to visit the
Pasha of Orsova ; and, accompanied by a custom-
house officer, apparently to enable us to smuggle
with impunity, and another from the quarantine to
prevent onr catching the plague in any but the pre-
scribed form, we embarked for the island. About
half an hour's row down the stream, brought us
under the low and crumbling walls of the fortress ;
and one of our attendants, acting as interpreter,
hailed a magnificent looking fellow, who was loung-
ing about very nonchalantly, — but who was neverthe-
less a Turkish sentinel on duty — and desired him to
inform the Pasha of our request for an audience.

In the mean time we landed, and pursued our way
over broken walls and through filled-up ditches to
the Pasha's house; and a strange-looking pile we

128 THE pasha's house.

found it. The lower part is formed of a solid
tower of stone, probably the . remains of some
Gothic stronghold, while the upper story is only
a wooden box, after the common fashion of Turkish
houses, overhanging its base in every direction, and
in its turn covered by a vast umbrella-like roof.
Our request was courteously received, and we were
ushered up a broad flight of steps outside the build-
ing, and between long rows of bare-footed servants,
to the audience chamber. Here we found the Pasha
ready to receive us, and after sundry bows on our
parts and pressings of the hand to the heart on his,
we took our seats opposite each other, on some very
common, rush-bottomed chairs. These were evi-
dently used as a compliment to us; for they appeared
a troublesome luxury to our host, whose legs were
either dangling awkwardly in mid-air, or perched on
the highest stave in anything but an elegant position.
He was a handsome good-tempered looking man, of
about forty, with a fine red beard curling over his
breast. He was far enough from the capital in his
snug little island, to dispense with the caricature
of a uniform worn in Constantinople, and his cos-
tume of embroidered cloth lined with fur, was
simple and handsome. He inquired with much
anxiety if we had brought our pipes, and seemed
very much annoyed at our guides for not having
informed us that a recent firman had forbidden
any Pasha to offer pipes to strangers. This arrange-
ment had been adopted to relieve the Pashas from

VISIT TO THE PASHA. 129

the expense of maintaining a great pipe establish-
ment, the cost of which was sufficient to rain some
of the poorer of them. I believe it has been given
up since. It was in vain we protested that we did
not smoke in the morning ; when the poor Pasha
received his splendid chibouque he drew a long
whiff or two, but it &iled to soothe his wound-
ed sense of hospitality, and he protested he could
not smoke unless we did so too. At last, plague
or no plague, he insisted on each of us smoking
from his own pipe ; nor was it till the pale lemon-
coloured amber had been pressed in turn by every
lip, and the muddy coffee had been duly drank,
that he felt sufficiently at ease to begin a conversa-
tion.

I am not going to give the reader the Pasha's
sage remarks — that is, remarks of my own, which
I think sufficiently sage to be palmed off as a
Pasha's, — as many writers in these modern times
are apt to do, often too when they have not under-
stood one word of the language spoken ; and it is
not worth while repeating the commonplaces our
interpreter passed between us. The Pasha inquired
about the progress of the works at Kazan, whether
the bridge was begun at Pest, and how many
steam-boats were building, occasionally stopping
to assure us how great was his pleasure at our
visit, and occasionally bursting into a hearty laugh
at the fear our attendants expressed lest we might
touch something capable of communicating plague,

VOL. II. K

ISO NEW ORSOVA.

and that too after smoking the pipe he had just
used. As in every Turk, — and almost in every man
who is free from affectation and servility, — ^his man-
ners were easy and dignified ; and as we took leave,
much pleased with our visit, he invited us to go
through the town, and gave orders that we should
see the mosque and anything else we chose.

The town, which consists of four streets built in
the form of a cross, is as completely Turkish as
anything in Constantinople ; it is, in fact, a little
epitome of the whole empire. The same filthy
narrow streets, the same coffee-houses 'with their
eternal loungers drawing deep draughts of pleasure
from the bubbling nargile or long chibouque, the
open shops, the carpeted mosque with its slender
minaret, and the pretty burial-ground with its tur-
baned head-stones, as are to be seen in every other
part of Turkey ;^nay, the very dogs are the same
snarling ill-bred mangy curs which the sons of Ma-
homet use as scavengers wherever their sway is felt.
It wss amusing to see with what ofiiciousness our
quarantine man began to exercise his stick on all the
poor animals which crossed his path, but an obsti-
nate hen very nearly got the master of him notwith-
standing, and we were obliged to run into another
street lest a chance feather from her wing should
condenm us to a fortnight's quarantine. Heartily did
the good-humoured Turks shake their sides to see
half a dozen poor Christians in flight before a cack-
ling hen ! We were allowed, however, to purchase

NEW ORSOVA. 181

some pipe-heads from Ser¥ia» — ^more beautiful than
9Sij to be found at Constantinople, — ^probably from
some little arrangement between the Turk and
Christian for fleecing the stranger, for as we went
away, I saw our guide put one into his own pocket,
for which nothing was paid, save a nod of under-
standing between himself and the merchant.

The most insensible can hardly fail to admire the
scenery about Orsova ; the island, the Elizabeth
Tower on the opposite bank, the Alion with its
wooded sides, and the expanse of water itself, are
beauties of no common order. From the passing
yiew we had of some Servian peasants, they seem-
ed to resemble the Wallacks in their dress. The
women often cover their heads with strings of gold
and silver coins till they assume the appearance of
scale-helmets.

Another excursion I made from Orsova was to
visit the Iron Gates of the Danube, and the re-
mains of Trajan's bridge. As these objects are
in Wallachia, it was necessary again to obtain per-
mission, and to be accompanied by quarantine and
custom-house officers. Having provided two light
waggons with four horses in each, we followed the
banks of the Danube, passed the Island of Orsova,
crossed the boundary line of Hungary, and con-
tinued along a road cut in the side of the mountain,
amidst the most beautiful scenery, till the roar of
the waters informed us we were approaching the
much-dreaded cataracts of the Iron Grates.

132 THE IRON GATES.

A bad name is a bad thing ; the Black Sea is stiti
an object of terror at Lloyd's, though its navigation
is Barer than the generality of European seas, and
the Iron Gates were long considered an irresistible
bar to commerce on the Danube, though the peasant

pilots of Orsova never hesitate, in proper seasons, to
shoot them with as clumsy ill-constructed vessels as
can well be made. These rapids, for sach is their
proper designation, continue under different names
for about a quarter of a mile, and it is the most east-
em portion which is properly called the Iron Gates,
or, by the Turks, Demikarpi. At this point a ledge
of rocks runs quite across the river, the highest part

THE IRON GATES. 1S3

of which, though just covered in the ordinary state
of the water, is yet sufficiently evident, and pro-
duces a fall of several feet, which is followed by
an eddy which might prove dangerous to very small
craft. The shallowness of the water is, however,
the most serious obstacle, and at certain seasons
this is so extreme as to put a stop to navigation
entirely. Two plans have been conceived for re-
medying this evil ; and it has been proposed either
to blast the rocks, a difficult and expensive pro-
cess, or to form a canal along the Servian bank.
Very fortunately, at this point the rocks, instead
of coming down close to the edge of the water,
leave a small surface of flat land, round which it
is proposed to carry a canal; and here, it is said,
remains still exist of a canal made by the Romans
for the very same purpose. As I was not able to
verify this report by actual inspection, I cannot
state it to be positively true ; but as the Via
Trajana was continued in this direction, and was
pretty certainly used as a towing path, I think
there can be little doubt of the fact. What ob-
stacle impedes the commencement of this canal I
know not, but fortunately the steam navigation is
independent of it, for the boats come up to Scala
Gladova without impediment, and goods and pas-
sengers are thence conveyed by boat or carriage
to Orsova, so that, were the road better, the ab-
sence of the canal would be of little consequence.
Nor is this interruption of so great importance as

134 TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.

it would be in auy other position, for a delay is
necessarily caused, in passing from the one country
to the other, by the quarantine, customs, and police
regulations.

As we turned back to take a last view of the
dreaded pass, a heavy Turkish boat, vrith its lattine
sails approached, and we had an opportunity of
watching it pass the rapids. The sails were furled,
and a large oar was put out to aid the helm ; the
only effects we could observe were, a slight trem-
bling of the mast, a sudden shoot over the rocks,
a little reeling in the eddy, and she then passed
on her course as tranquilly as though nothing had
happened.

The banks of the Danube now became flat and
uninteresting, — Scala Gladova, through which our
route led us, is a very miserable little Wallachian
town only remarkable because the steam-boats stop
there, — and we were very thankful when our twenty
miles' drive was over and we found ourselves at the
remains of Trajan's bridge. All that is now left of
this structure is a solid shapeless mass of masonry
on either bank, about twenty feet high, and be-
tween that and the river there is, on each side,
a broken wall on a level with the top of the banks,
apparently forming the piers from which the first
arches sprang. On both sides, the banks are of a
considerable height above the water. In the bed
of the river, and in a direct line between these
ruins, the surveyors have traced the remains of

TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.

thirteen pillars. Not far from the middle, as will
he seen hj the plan, a kind of island has been
formed, which occupies the space of four pillars,
and on the northern bank there is a second space,
apparently filled up by deposit, which leaves room
for one other pillar, thus making, in addition to
those on the bank, twenty. The distance between
the pillars on either bank is five hundred and sixty-
two Vienna klafters, or about three thousand nine

■ -MIJLWIr?^"'-'''''!-''!^^

186 TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.

hundred English feet. The pillar on the north
bank, which I sketched, is not built of hewn stones,
but of a mass of shapeless materials joined together
with Roman cement. It may have been encased
in hewn stone, which has been removed or de-
stroyed. This is all I could observe or learn of
the actual state of the remains of Trajan's bridge.
The water, though not high, was sufficiently so to
prevent even a ripple appearing on the surface,
where it flowed over the hidden pillars, but, as
may be seen by the plan, in which the upper line
indicates the common height of the water, and the
lower its state in 1834, the tops of several pillars
are sometimes visible. On the Wallachian side, a
little before we reached the ruin, we observed the
remains of a tower which had been surrounded by
a deep and wide fosse. Nothing remains of the
tower to indicate its origin or form ; but the fosse,
if I remember right, is circular. It was probably
intended to defend the passage of the bridge.

Now let us inquire, for a moment, what informa-
tion ancient authorities afford us concerning this
great work. Dion Cassius, who was governor of part
of Pannonia under Hadrian, the successor of Trajan,
wrote a history of Rome down to his own time.
A considerable part of this history is lost, and among
other portions the account of Trajan's bridge ; but
an epitome of his works by Ziphilini still exists,
which contains a short description of it. It was
built by ApoUodorus, the architect of the Forum

COIN OF TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.

IS7

Trajanum, and of Trajan's colamn at Borne, and
consisted of twenty piers, each pier being one hun-
dred and fifty Roman feet high, sixty feet thick;
and they were one hundred and seventy feet dis-
tant from each other. At either end it was pro-
tected by towers. The whole work is said to have
been built of hewn stone, and the real difficulties
of so vast an undertaking are enhanced by a false
account of the situation, depth of water, nature of
the soil, and other particulars.*

The second authority is the large copper coin of
Trajan, containing on the reverse a bridge. From
this coin it would rather ap-
pear that the towers were at
the entrances of the bridge,
and that they had somewhat
the appearance of triumphal
arches. The figures of men
are very discernible on both
of them. The arch — as is
oflen the case in coins bear-
ing figures of buildings, a part being pat to re-
present . the whole, — appears to me, as well as
to others who have examined it with me, to be

* I should remark, that this is one of the widsBt parts of the
river, and was, no doubt, on that account, chosen by the architect
to allow the force of the sudden floodii to which the Danube ii
subject, on the breaking up of the ice, to waste itself on on ex-
tended Burbce. The bed of the river, instead of answering the
deacription of Dion Casnus, is sound, and the depth here less than
in most other parts.

138 TRAJAN'S BRIDGE.

composed of wood, though the piers are undoubtedly
of stone.*

Besides this, we have a third authority in the
column of Trajan, where a part of the bridge is
represented in the back-ground, and again the upper
portion appears, I think, to be decidedly of wood;
in fact, the cross-bars and rails are exactly like
those uniting the bridges of boats, by which the
Roman army is often seen crossing rivers during
their march to Dacia. I need scarcely say, that the
idea of the wooden projection of the Via Trajana
strengthens the supposition of a similar construc-
tion in the Pons Trajani. The bridge was probably
begun about 103, a.d. ; it was destroyed about 120.

Before we quit the subject, one word on the de-
struction of the bridge. Hadrian, it appears, anxi-
ous to enjoy in peace the conquests of his predeces-
sor, intended to give up the newly-founded province
of Dacia ; in consequence, however, of the number
of Roman colonists already established there, he
was persuaded to retain it; but, as it is said, to
prevent the barbarians crossing over into the Thra-
cian provinces, he destroyed the bridge across the
Danube. I cannot help thinking that personal feel^
ing had some connection with this afl&ir ; it seems
at least so impolitic to retain the province, and
yet cut off the only safe and sure communication

* This opinion, I find, is supported by Marsigli^ Fabretti^ and
Montfaucon^ who make very light, of the exaggerations of Dion
Cassius.

TRAJAN'S BRIDGE. 189

with it, that one is natarally led to look for other
motives than those generally ascribed for the de-
struction of this bridge. Now it appears that
Apollodoms had given mortal offence to Hadrian
when a young soldier in the camp of Trajan, by
desiring him to *^ ])aint gourds," (an amusement to
which he was addicted,) ** and not to speak of mat-
ters he did not understand," on occasion of some
silly remarks offered by the future Emperor con-
cerning the plans which the architect was displaying
to his royal master. This insult, sharpened by the
jealousy which Hadrian felt of the artist's talents,
was never forgiven, and no sooner did he assume
the purple than he banished Apollodoms, and finally
had him put to death on some false pretence. A
man whose cruel revenge was capable of demanding
the destruction of a great artist, would scarcely be
inclined to spare that artist's most esteemed work,
— his surest claim to the gratitude and remem-
brance of posterity ; and I think it highly probable,
that Trajan's greatest glory fell a sacrifice to Ha-
drian's meanest passion.

On our return to Orsova, we found that a fisher-
man had just captured an enormous sturgeon, — so
large that when placed in one of the small waggons
of the country, its tail dragged along the ground
behind. It was taken to the village fountain, wash-
ed, cut up, and speedily sold to the peasants. The
sturgeon is said to be abundant in this part of
the Danube, and to attain a large size, but it is

140 STURGEON AND CAVIARE.

not equal in delicacy of flavour to the small stur-
geon of the Theiss. Fresh caviare gourmands may
satisfy their longings here as well as in the regions
of the Wolga or the Don. In Wallachia, the pre-
paration of the hard caviare is much cared for, and
most of that met with at Constantinople is obtain-
ed from thence. Nothing can be ruder than the
Wallack mode of fishing. A long string of floats
stoutly fisustened together, support a number of huge
hooks which hang at different depths in the water
without baits, but so placed as to hook the fish as
he swims by. Angling as an amusement is rarely
followed in Hungary, but from the quantity of trout
met with on the table, I should think it might
afford good sport.

It was a fine autumn afternoon when we left
Orsova, and following the valley of the Csema,
closely hemmed in by its wooded hills, pursued our
way to Mehadia. The groups of Wallack women, as
we saw them in the evening assembled round their
cottage doors, or returning home from the labours
of the field, were too peculiar to escape the ob*
servation, and sometimes admiration of strangers.
Their dress, like the men's, rather Dacian, consists
of the homespun linen shirt, fastened close round
the neck, and reaching down to the ankles. At the
sleeves, and round the collar, it is often prettily em-
broidered in blue and red. Before and behind they
wear a coarse woollen apron of different colours^
the lower part of which is commonly a mere fringe,

MULBERRY PLANTATIONS. 141

and such, with a coloured fillet bound round the
head, is the only summer covering of the Wallack
women. No dress was ever less adapted to conceal
the form ; the close-fitting apron seems rather in-
tended to display to the greatest advantage the
Venus-like proportions of the figure ; nor are the
beauties of the youthful bust less delicately out-
lined by the tight linen shirt.

We met some twenty or thirty of the Borderers
on march to relieve the guard on duty at some
distant post, where they would have to remain
for a week. They were exceedingly well dressed,
and had quite the appearance of regular troops.

In many parts of this valley the road is adorned
by avenues of the white mulberry. I think it was
under Maria Theresa that the idea of cultivating
silk in Hungary was first started, and several at-
tempts were subsequently made in different parts
of the country with considerable success. In 1811,
Government planted the Banat military frontier
with mulberries, in the hope of being able to feed
the worm on the tree, but I believe the experiment
did not succeed, though it is difficult to say from
what cause. A great number of landowners are
now planting the mulberry in different parts of
Hungary, and it is highly probable that silk will,
ere long, be one of the staple commodities of the
country.

Near Topletz are the ruins of an aqueduct, which
formerly extended from the baths of Mehadia to

TURKISH AQUEDUCT.

Oreova. No one who has seen the Tniiieh aqne-
ducta near CoDStantinople, can doubt as to the
origin of this one ; it ia clearly of Turkish and

not Roman workmanship. Its object was probably
to convey the medicated waters of Mehadia to the
village of Orsova, which was for many years the
residence of a Pasha, and an important Turkish
fortress.

About ten miles from Orsova we quittedj the
main valley, and pursuing the course of the Cser-
na, entered the valley of Mehadia, in which the
baths of Mehadia are situated. It was now past
the bathing season, and we were the only strangers

MEHADIA. 143

there ; but the reader must allow me to traiiiq)ort
him back to the gaiety of Julj, in which month I
yisited it on another occasion.

The baths consist of a number of handsome build-
ings roimd an oval place, furnished with seats, and
commonly enlivened by music and loungers. The
yalley is so exceedingly narrow, that there was but
just room to build these houses ; nor have they
been erected without a sacrifice of the romantic
scenery. The large building to the right was con-
structed by the £mperor Francis, and it is let out
at certain fixed and very moderate prices as an
hotel, while the lower part contains baths.

The antiquity of the Hercules Baths are beyond
question. Many votive tablets and statues suffici-
ently attest that they were dedicated to Hercules,
and that they were known to the Romans as early
as the reign of Hadrian, with whom they were in
high repute for their medicinal virtues.

From June to September these baths are the
&voorite resort of the Hungarians and Transylvani-
aos, and, besides receiving occasionally members of
every other part of the Austrian dominions, a rich
Boyard from Wallachia, an uncouth prince from
Servia, and a vagabond Englishman, may often be
seen mingling with the gay groups on the evening
promenade. An Englishman must almost have
ceased to be a wonder now, but it is not very long
since some pretty little Banatians were terribly
scolded by mamma for running out to get a peep

144 MEHADIA.

at an islander, a sort of thing, as they urged in ex-
cuse, they had never seen in their lives before, and
which they were not a little disappointed to find
so much like other human beings.

Tliere are few bathing-places can boast so really
beautiful a neighbourhood as this ; for several miles
up the valley, where a foot-path has been cut
through the woods, nothing can be more exqui-
sitely lovely than the scenery. And then, there
are mountains to ascend, a real robbers' cave to
explore, a little waterfall to visit, besides excur-
sions, to I know not how many wonderfiil places
in the neighbourhood, to be made. But the white
precipitous rocks, which make the valley so pic-
turesque, render it excessively close, and in July
and August it is scarcely possible to move out in
the day-time. These same rocks, however, are not
to be scorned, for they are so high and close as
to produce an early sunset, and thus leave a long
cool twilight for the promenade. So much greater
is the heat in this valley than elsewhere, that the
tarantula and scorpion, unknown in other parts of
Hungary, are far from uncommon.

Beautiful, however, as Mehadia is, its beauty will
not please for ever ; as is often the case with other
beauties, its appearance is useful as an attraction,
but it requires other qualities to keep alive our in-
terest in them. It may be an effectual cure,* as the

* There are nine different springs here in use, each varying con-
siderably in the proportions of their mineral contents, as given by

MEHADIA. 145

doctors Touch, for an infinity of human ills, but to a
healthy man, a long residence there is apt to induce
one as bad as any in the list — ennui. In the morning
itisde rigeur to parboil yourself in the fetid waters,
from which you escape so exhausted, that leaning
out of the window and watching your neighbour
enjoying the same recreation, is all you are capable
of. At one the gentlemen meet at the table d'hdte,
— the ladies generally dine in their own rooms, —
and consume a very indifferent dinner, notwith-
standing the eulogies of some travellers just escaped
from quarantine diet. Till six the time must still
be killed. A little quiet gambling is generally

chemical analysis. They have all, however^ more or less, the
same ingredients^ of which the chief are muriates of soda and lime^
sulphate of lime, sulphuretted hydrogen gas^ nitrogen gas, and car-
bonic acid gas, except the Hercules bath, which contains no sul-
phuretted hydrogen. The temperature varies in the different springs
from 32° to 50° of Reaumur, but a cooling apparatus enables one
to regulate the temperature at will. Mehadia is considered in
Hungary as the very first in the healing powers of its waters. It
is particularly recommended in indolent skin diseases, in cases
of gout in all its forms, chronic rheiunatism, scrofula, chronic dis-
eases of the joints, complicated mercurial affections^ old liver com-
plaints, in all that prolific class called Verstopfungen, by the Ger-
mans, hysteria, hypochondria, and many other of the opprobria
medica. An eye bath is arranged so that the eye may be exposed
to the hot mineral vapour, and is much used in chronic affections of
that oigan. Nothing but experience can decide on the credit due
to mineral waters in diseases, but on the healthy body I do not
think I ever felt any produce a greater effect than these : the
weakness and profuse perspiration which follows the bath is
extreme. — Vide Die Hercules Bader bei Mehadia, von J. G.
Schwarzott.

VOL. II. L

146 MEHADIA.

transacted about this time, by such as have a taste
for it, and smoking too was a great resource,
especially after some cosmopolite Turks had phi-
lanthropically established themselves in one comer
of the place with a large stock of chibouques and
Latakia, to the great edification of all honest Chris-
tians who loved good tobacco. At six, the beau
monde makes its appearance, the gipsy band strikes
up its joyous notes, and till eight the promenade of
Mehadia is gay with music and beauty. A bad
German theatre and an occasional ball add to the
amusements of those who like them, but there is
a want of some common place of reunion, which
prevents the society coming together as much as
it otherwise would.

The deficiency of accommodation here is a cry-
ing evil, and new arrivals are not unfrequently
obliged to sleep on tables and chairs in the public
dining-room. On returning to my room one night,
rather late, I found the whole passage covered with
mattresses on which were stretched some dozen hu-
man figures ; many of whom were young and very
pretty girls of the middle class, some of them un-
fortunate cripples, and all freshly arrived, and thank-
ful even for this shelter. In this condition they re-
mained a week before they could procure rooms.

The political economist in such a case would qui-
etly fold his arms and say the supply will be regu-
lated by the demand, and so it might elsewhere, but
Mehadia is on the military frontiers, and conse*

MEHADIA. 147

quently under the ftdministration of the Kammer,
which, with its usual forethought and good sense
refuses permissiou to any private individual to build
an hotel, except on condition that no one shall en-
ter it till all the present accommodations are occu-
pied, for faar of injuring the present proprietors.
This is an instance of the advantages accruing from
the excessive care of a paternal government: here it
deprives its poor children of a comfortable lodging
— ^would to God it never deprived them of still more
important blessings !

148 SZEGEDIN.

CHAPTER V.

BANAT.*

Szegedin. — The Banat — its History. — Fertility. — State of
Agriculture. — Climate. — Mines. — Population. — Prosperous
Villages. — The Peasant and the Bishop of Agram. — The New
Urbarium. — The Kammeral Administration. — Temesvar. —
Roads. — Baron Wenklieim's Reforms. — A Wolf Hunt.

It was by Szegeden that we entered this El Do-
rado — this land of promise for Christianized Jews,
and ennobled Greeks. Szegedin is itself one of the
most disagreeable towns in Hungary ; its streets
are wide, and traversed by planks, which, however
useful they may be in keeping people on foot
out of the muddy abyss on each side, are par-
ticularly unpleasant to those who are bumped over
them to the imminent hazard of their carriage-
springs. The houses look damp and deserted ; and
the ruins of the old fortress, which once commanded
the passage of the Theiss, add to the desolation,
without increasing the beauty of the place. I
doubt, however, if Szegedin really merits the cha-

* Though not directly in our present route^ I have thought it
"best to take the whole of the Banat together, that I might give a
more complete idea of its position and extent.

SZEGEDIN. 149

racter which, perhaps, my feelings have associated
with it: a dull day, or his own ill-humour, often
give a most incorrect colouring to the passing tra^
Teller's observations. It is, in fact, a town of con-
siderable traffic, with which its situation, at the con-
fluence of two such rivers as the Theiss and Maros,
has naturally endowed it.

It was Sunday when we passed ; and, among the
holiday-makers, I remarked what I suspect to be
a remnant of Turkish habits. The women of the
lower classes wore slippers without heels, fancifully
worked on the front in silk or worsted ; just, in
fact, the in-door ehaussure of the ladies of Con-
stantinople. Beyond the town, the Maros had
overflowed its banks, and formed an immense lake,
extending for several miles to the south. This ap-
peared, however, so frequent an occurrence, as to
have induced the people to provide against it, for
we passed through the waters on a good raised road
to Szoreg.

Our route from thence to Temesvar, lay through
a flat, and often swampy country ; but at the same
time so overladen with the riches of production
that I do not recollect ever to have seen so luxu-
riant a prospect in any other part of the world. It
was the month of July, and the harvest was already
begun. Every field was waving with the bright yel-
low com, often so full in the head as to have sunk
under its own weight, and the whole plain seemed
alive with labourers, though apparently there were

150 PRODUCTIONS

not half the number required for the work before
them.

The Banat is a district in the south-east comer
of Hungary, lying between the Theiss, Maros, and
Danube, and containing the three counties of Tho-
rental, Temesv^, and Ej*asso. It is not one hun-
dred years since the Turks were in possession of
this province ; and it was not till the close of the
last century, that it was entirely fipee from Mos-
lem incursion. Those who have visited any of the
countries under the Ottoman rule, will easily un-
derstand the wild and savage state in which this
beautiful land then was. The philanthropic Joseph
II. determined to render it equally populous and ci-
vilized with the rest of Hungary. From the flatness
of a large portion of the surface, and from the quan-
tity of rivers by which it is watered, immense mo-
rasses were formed, which tainted the air, and made
it really then what some French writer now unde-
servedly calls it " le tombeau des etrangers^ To tempt
settlers, the land was sold at exceedingly moderate
prices ; and Germans, Greeks, Turks, Servians, Wal-
lacks, nay, even French and Italians, were brought
over to people this luxuriant wilderness. The soil,
a rich black loam, hitherto untouched by the plough,
yielded the most extraordinary produce. Fortunes
were rapidly made ; and, at the present day, some
of the wealthiest of the Hungarian gentry were,
half a centuiy ago, poor adventurers in the Banat.

OF THE BAN AT. 151

To those who have never lived in any but an
old country, the soil of which is impoverished by
the use of many ages, it is difficult to believe what
riches are hidden in untilled ground. The produc-
tive powers of a naturally good soil, deposited by
swamps and rivers, when heightened by a climate
more nearly tropical than temperate, are wonderful.
The same crops are here repeated year after year,
on the same spots ; the ground is only once turned
up to receive the seed ; a fallow is unknown ; ma-
nure is never used, but is thrown away as injurious ;
and yet with the greatest care and labour in other
places, I never saw such abundant produce as ill-
treated unaided Nature here bestows upon her chil-
dren. Except the olive and orange, there is scarce-
ly a product of Europe which does not thrive in the
Banat. I do not know that I can enumerate all the
kinds of crop raised ; but, among others, are wheat,
barley, oats, rye, rice, maize, flax, hemp, rape, sun-
flowers (for oil), tobacco of difierent kinds, wine,
and silk,— ^nay, even cotton, tried as an experiment,
is said to have succeeded.

All through Hungary, the state of agriculture,
among the peamntry, is in a very primitive state.
In the poorer parts, they allow the ground to fallow
every other year, and sometimes manure it, though
rarely. As for changing the crops, that is little
attended to. Here they will continue year after
year the same thing, without its making any appa-

152 CLIMATE.

rent difference. Nowhere are the agricultural in-
struments of a ruder form, or more inefficiently em-
ployed than in the Banat. The plough is generally
a simple one-handled instrument, heavy, and ill
adapted for penetrating deeply into the soil. The
fork is merely a branch of a tree, which happened
to fork naturally, and which is peeled and sharpen-
ed for use. The com is rarely stacked, being com-
monly trodden out by horses as soon as it is cut. In
the Wallack villages, notwithstanding the capabili-
ties of the soil, maize is almost the only crop culti-
vated. Barley is rarely found in any part of Hun-
gary ; and, strange to say, where so many horses are
kept, horse-beans are unknown. Green crops, ex-
cept among a few agricultural reformers, are com-
pletely neglected. The crop of hay is commonly
cut twice in a season. I do not remember ever to
have seen irrigation practised, though there are few
countries in which it would be productive of greater
advantages.

The climate of the Banat, in summer, approaches
nearly to that of Italy ; but the winter, though less
inclement than in the rest of Hungary, is still too
long and severe for the olive or the orange. Even
in summer, the nights are often intensely cold.
After the hottest day, the sun no sooner sets than
a cool breeze rises, refreshing at first, but which
becomes dangerous to those who are unprepared for
it. The Hungarian never travels without his fur or
sheep-skin coat ; and the want of such a defence

MINES. 15S

is often the cause of fever to the unsuspecting
stranger.

The scenery of the Banat is extremely various ;
from the flat plains of Thoront&l to the snowy
mountains of E^rasso, almost every variety may
be found which the lover of Nature can desnre.
The rare, though seldom visited, beauties of the
Maros, the smiling neighbourhood of Lugos, the
darker attractions of the Csema and the Beka,
and the fine woods and pretty streams with
which the Banat abounds, may justly entitle it
to boast itself among the most favoured parts of
Hungary.

The mines of the Banat, though of great an-
tiquity,* and still worked, are less productive than
those of the north. Near Orawitza, coal has been
found, and is now in use for the steam-boats, which
the English engineers declare to be in no way in-
ferior to the best Newcastle. The Banat mines are
worked chiefly for copper, lead, tin, and zinc : of
copper, about 7,000 cent, are annually produced;
of lead, about 2,000 cent. ; and of zinc, about 500
cent. The quantity of iron obtained I could not
ascertain. About five thousand miners are em-
ployed. It is a curious &ct that, owing it is
said to mal-administration, the coal is as dear as
that obtained from Engltod via Constantinople,
notwithstanding the distance of carriage.

* Sometime since a silver coin was found, indicating the date at
whidi these mines were first worked by the Romans.

154 INHABITANTS.

But one of the most curious features of the
Banat is the motley appearance of its inhabitants^
who, as the diiferent races are generally in distinct
villages, have preserved their national character-
istics quite pure. In one village which, from the
superiority of its buildings, and from the large
and handsome school-house, you at once recognise
to be German, you still see the old-fashioned
costume of the Bavarian broom-girl, and the
light blue eyes and sandy hair of their colder
father-land. A few miles oS, you enter a place
formed only of the wooden hovels of the Wal-
lacks ; and here, though it is in the midst of har-
vest, you find a number of lazy fellows lying about
their doors, while their half-robed wives amuse
themselves with an occupation about their hus-
bands' heads, for which the English language has
no word fit for ears polite. The languages are pre-
served as pure as other nationalisms; and though
the Grerman can often speak Wallachian, you may
be quite sure that the Wallack can only speak
his own barbarous tongue. The Magyar and the
Batz, are equally characteristic and distinct. In
one place, I think Kanisa, on finding the drivers
spoke neither German, Hungarian, nor Wallack —
for the ear soon teaches one to distinguish these
languages — I inquired of a respectable-looking per-
son, who was standing in the inn-yard, from whence
they were ? " Bulgarians," he answered in German :
"and it is just one hundred years since they left

PROSPERITY. 155

Tarkey, and established themselves on this spot,
under the protection of the Emperor/' The size of
the village, and the appearance of the houses, suf-
ficiently bespoke them to be a prosperous and flou-
rishing colony.

In some places, people of two or three nations
are mixed together, and it not unfrequently hap-
pens, that next door neighbours cannot under-
stand each other. The different nations rarely
intermarry, — a Magyar with a Wallack, never. I
do not here enter into the manners or customs
of the inhabitants of the Banat, because every
nation retains its own, and most of these, except
the Wallacks, we have already spoken of, and of
them we shall say more when we get into Tran-
sylvania.

It is scarcely possible, in passing through some
of the German villages of the Banat, such for in-
stance as Hatzfeld, not to exclaim as a Scotch friend
of mine did, " Would to God our own people could
enjoy the prosperity in which these peasants live."
It is, in fact, impossible to imagine those who live
by the labour of their hands, enjoying more of the
material good things of the world than they do. In
addition to the richest land in the country, the
Banat peasant has many privileges peculiar to him-
self, conferred when it was an object to attract
settlers from other districts, and these he still pre-
serves. Among other things he is free from the
" long joumejrs," the ** hunting," the " spinning," the

156 THE PEASANT*S

** chopping and carrying of wood," and from the
tithe of fruit and vegetables. He has, moreover,
free rights of fishing, of cutting reeds, and feeding
his pigs, and gathering sticks in his master's forests,
manj of which, though trifling in themselves, give
to the sober and industrious peasant, a great oppor-
tunity to improve his position. But, more than all,
he has the liberty to redeem half his days of labour,
at the rate of ten kreutzers, or five pence per day, an
advantage of which he never fails to avail himself.

From the last station, before we arrived at Te-
mesvar, a German peasant was our driver, who, on
my inquiring to whom the village, Billiet, belonged,
shook his head, and said, *' The Bishop of Agram."
I was sure that portentous shake of the head meant
something sorrowful ; and, as I never yet saw man
in sorrow that did not wish to tell his woes, I knew
I had only to encourage him, to get it all out ; and
accordingly, from an inquiring look, he took courage,
pulled his horses up to a walk, and, turning half-*
round on the box, began, " Why, sir, Billiet, and
many other villages round here belong to the Bishop
of Agram, who lives a long way off, and keeps his
prefects here. Now, Sir, this year the crops are
very heavy, so the prefect comes with the new ur-
barium, and says, *I have the right to order you
peasants to send from each house two men four
days in each week during the harvest, that the
com may be the sooner in, and accordingly, I ex-
pect you to obey.' But in our village, as indeed in

COMPLAINTS. 157

all others, this urbarium is kept, and many have
read it carefiillj, and found nothing of the sort
in it ; for, on the contrary, it is stated that a pea-
sant holding an entire fief must send in harvest time
one man for four days in two weeks, only, but then
no more can be demanded for a fortnight. And
so. Sir, the Biro thought also, and he goes to the
prefect to tell him his orders were unjust, and that
he could not put them into execution. With that
the prefect flies into a passion, tells the judge his
business is to do what is ordered, not to bother his
head about what he does not understand, and calls
him a rogue, and other bad names which he did not
deserve, for he is a very honest man, and respected
by all the village. Determined not to suffer such
an insult, the Biro replied that he neither could
nor would act against the law and his conscience,
and said that if he was a rogue, he could be no fit
person to execute any longer the duties of Biro,
and he therefore begged to lay down his stick of
office. The next day the prefect sent orders to the
peasants to elect a new Biro, but the peasants re-
chose their former one, declaring that they would
obey no other ; and so at present the affair stands,
no one knowing how it will terminate."

All these misfortunes, the poor fellow seemed to
think came from living under a bishop, and he
complained sadly that the Emperor had so soon
given them another after the death of the last.
'* We had hardly done rejoicing that our old Bishop

158 THE KAMMER.

was dead,'* he continued, *^when a new one came
in his place."

It is a prerogative of the Hungarian crown to
retain the reyenue of a bishopric for three years»
between the death of one incumbent and the instal-
lation of another, and it is very rarely that the right
is not taken full advantage of, but in the present
instance, the see remained vacant only six months.
It must not be supposed that the tenants of the late
bishop bore him any personal ill-will; indeed, as
he lived in Croatia, and they in the Banat, they
could know very little of him ; but absenteeism be-
gets no good-will anywhere, and the hope of being
under the officers of the Kammer or Exchequer for
three years, instead of the Bishop's steward, would
more than have consoled them for the death of a
dozen such prelates. I believe I must let the rea-
der a little into the mysteries of this Exchequer
Stewardship, this Kammeral Admifdstration^ before
be can fully comprehend the peasant's joy at his
Bishop's death, or his disappointment at his suc-
cessor's speedy appointment.

The King of Hungary is heir, in default of male
descendants, of all fiefs male, under which title most
of the land in Hungary is held, with the condition,
however, that he shall, when he sees fit, confer it
on others, as the reward of public services. All
newly-conquered land of course belongs, in like man-
ner, to the crown, so that at one time, the whole of
the Banat, and the greater part of it still, as well

THE RAMMER. S59

as many estates* in other parts of the country, are
enjoyed by the King under this title. The Steward-
ship of such vast possessions necessarily employs a
great number of persons, all of whom, particularly
the inferiors, are, according to the rule of the Aus-
trian Govemment, very badly paid. As might na-
turally be expected under such a system, none but
the very highest officers are insensible to the charms
of a bribe. If an estate is to be purchased, the
Taluer must be fee'd that he may not over-Talue it,
the resident-steward must be fee'd that he may not
injure him in another point, and the clerks of the
offices must also be fee'd in order to induce them
to open their books and afford the necessary inform-
ation. If the peasant of the Kammer wishes to
escape a day's labour, a fat capon, or a dozen fresh
eggs make the overseer of the Kammer forget to
call him out; if his land is bad or wet, and if a por*
tion in the neighbourhood farmed by the Kammer
be better, a few florins adroitly distributed to the
overseer, steward, valuer, clerks, and commissioners,
make them all think it for the Kammer's benefit
to exchange the good land for the bad. In many
parts where this corrupt system has been carried
out to its full extent, the peasant has no idea, when
any favour of this kind is refused him, that it has
been denied from a sense of its injustice, but be-

* These estates must not be confounded with the Fiscal or
Crown Estates; a vast and inalienable property, from which a
great part of the King of Hungary *b revenues are derived.

160 THE KAMMER.

lieves only that the offered bribe has not been
high enough. So openly is this system pursued,
that it is a matter of constant joke among the
officers themselves. The knowledge of these prac-
tices has produced such a want of confidence on
the part of the superior members of the Kammer
in their subalterns, that they have put a stop to
everything like improvement in the lands of Go-
vernment, as affording only additional opportunities
for robbery on the part of their officers. Many
very worthy officers — for honourable men are to be
found even under such corrupting circumstances —
disgusted at this want of energy at the source, dis-
pirited by the damp thrown upon every scheme they
have proposed for improving the property, and in-
creasing the revenue, and irritated at being suspect-
ed of crimes they are incapable of, have sunk into in-
active followers of a bad system, instead of becoming
what they might have been, its efficient reformers.
I remember a steward one day pointing out to me
some beautifully rich land, overgrown with thorns,
in one of the loveliest valleys of the Banat. " You
see the riches the soil offers us here," said he ; ** you
observe that the peasants sow nothing but maize,
and that the greater portion of the land is useless.
We have not even wheat for our own use. Shocked
at so great a waste, and convinced that the soil
would produce wheat, I tried the experiment on
ground before untitled, and raised as fine a crop as I
could wish. In my yearly report, of course this

TU£ KAMMER. l6l

was mentioned^ and I suggested the importance of
more extended trials: would you believe that I
received a severe reprimand for my experiment,
that the correspondence on the subject lasted two
years, and that, had not the success been so very
evident, I should have lost my place? As it was,
I was desired for the future, not to depart from
the usual routine without positive orders from my
superiors !'*

If such is the administration of estates which
have been for years in the hands of the Kammer,
it may easily be imagined how it must be with the
estates of the church when the officers of the Kam-
mer obtain a casual and only temporaiy possession
of them, — what glorious opportunities for specula*
tion ! how certain the officers would be to make
the best of their short harvest! and how easily
the peasants might find their profit under such a
stewardship !

Now we are on the subject of the Kammer, we
may as well point out another of the inconveni-
ences arising from a bad system of administration.
The Government, oppressed by the greatest finan-
cial difficulties, wishes to sell the whole of the Kam-
meral property to pay some of the state debts. I
ought to add, by way of parenthesis, that the do-
nation of these estates, as a reward for public ser-
vices, haa become merely a legal fiction of late
years ; and though it has been frequently protested
against by the Diet, they really are sold like any

VOL. II. M

162 THE KAMMER.

Other property. Whether it is that his Majesty
does not think any of his subjects' services of
such sterling value as to merit reward, or whether
he thinks the payment of a good round sum into the
Royal exchequer the most acceptable service they
can render, I leave for those to decide who better
understand royal estimations of such matters — but
so it is,* The sale, however, has progressed but
slowly ; in fact, the stewards liked their situations,
the valuers were good friends of the stewards, and
so the prices set on the estates were such, that few
were tempted to disturb them in their possession:
only those who vdsh to obtain the rights of nobi-
lity, as rich citizens, christened Jews, or foreign
settlers, now buy land of the exchequer.

That the consequences have been a serious injury
to Government, a great impediment to the improve-
ment of the country, and in fact an advantage to
none but lazy and unjust stewards, are facts which
every one admits, but no remedy has yet been
applied.

Temesvar, the capital of the Banat, and the win*
ter residence of the rich Banatians, is one of the
prettiest towns I know anywhere. It has two hand-
some squares, and a number of very fine buildings.
The county-hall, the palace of the liberal and en-

* Entre nous, reader^ I believe it is better it should remain so.
The King would be responsible to no one for the disposal of this
powerful source of patronage^ and it would naturally be exercised
in favour of political partisans of the court party. In the mean
time it is a pet grievance of the Diet, and serves very well to talk
about.

TEMESVAR. 16S

lightened Bishop of Csanad, the residence of the
commander, and the Town-house, are all remarkable
for their size and appearance. It was little better
than a heap of huts in 1718, when Prince Eugene
besieged the Turks, who then held it, and drove
them for ever from this fair possession. At that
time, too, the country round was a great swamp,
and constantly infested with fevers of the most
fatal character. Prince Eugene laid the plan of
the present town, and commenced the fortifications
by which it is surrounded. I have no doubt the
defences are very good, for there are all manner
of angles and ditches, and forts, and bastions, and
great guns, and little guns ; so that wherever a man
goes, he has the pleasant impression that half-a-do-
zen muzzles are pointing directly his way, and to an
uninitiated son of peace that would appear just the
impression a good fortification ought to convey.

It is scarcely necessary to remain half an hour in
Temesvar, to be convinced that, however success-
fully Prince Eugene may have driven the Turks
themselves from the country, neither he nor his
soldiers could eradicate the strong marks of Turkish
blood with which the good people of Temesvar are
inoculated. A black eye and delicately arched nose,
of a character perfectly eastern, cross one's path
every moment. The Greek and Jewish families
too who live here in great numbers, for the sake of
trade, add to the foreign aspect of the population.
We observed one or two beautiful heads under the

M 2

164 COUNTY OF KRASSO.

little red Greek caps, the long braids of dark hair
mixing fancifully with the bright purple tassels of
that most beautiful of head dresses. Of the society
of Temesvar, I can say nothing from personal know-
ledge. Report, that scandal-bearing jade, rather
laughs at the costly display of wealth indulged in
by the beau monde here ; accuses it of anything but
an excess of mental cultivation ; and sneers about
luxury and the fruit of newly acquired wealth,
displayed without the taste which it requires a
polished education and the habits of good society
to confer. But then, after all. Report is pro-
bably poor and envious; and I have no doubt
Temesvar has just as good a tale against her
meanness and pride, and probably laughs just as
heartily about great names and little means, proud
hearts and empty pockets.

In that comer of the Banat, between Temesvar
and the confines of Hungary, on the south and east,—
in other words, in the beautiful county of Krasso, —
the traveller can scarcely fail to notice the different
state of the roads from those he has been previously
accustomed to. Some thirty years ago the roads in
this same county were impassable, the whole dis-
trict was little better than a den of thieves, and the
misery consequent on vice and disorder was every-
where most severely felt. Determined to remedy
this evil. Government appointed as Fo Ispan of the
county. Baron Wenkheim, a man of enlarged views
and of great energy of character. Under his direc-

BARON WENKHEIM. 165

tion, affairs soon assumed a different aspect. A po^
lice vrss formed and maintained with almost mili-
tary strictness of discipline, justice was administered
with unbending severity, and the Baron soon suc-
ceeded in establishing a fear and respect for the
law which it had long wanted. Security once ob-
tained, it became his object to render it permanent.
From the scattered manner in which the villages
were built, it was found exceedingly difficult to
obtain evidence of a suspected person's movements ;
those of the peasantry who were anxious to screen
an offender from the hands of justice, could always
plead the distance of their dwellings, as a reason
for their alleged or real ignorance of his move-
ments. An order waa given for the regulation of
villages, by which they were brought near the
public roads, built in a regular manner, no house
being allowed to be at more than a certain dis-
tance from another, and every man was thus
brought within the knowledge and observation of
his neighbours. In case of the trial of any pea-
sant, his immediate neighbours were, and are
to this day, summoned to give evidence of his
outgoings and incomings, of his character, means
of living, and common occupations. It is obU->
gatory on the neighbours to give this evidence;
and I believe, they are punishable if they do not
take due notice of such fieicts. To the legal anti-
quary it will be scarcely necessary to mention the
similarity of this system to the institution of frank

166 BARON WENKHEIM.

pledges, or tythings, as described by Hallam to
have existed among the Anglo-Saxons, in very
remote times.*

The state of the roads was another object of his
attention. Extensive lines of road were laid down,
by which in the course of a few years, not only all
the large places, but every two villages also would
be united by a good road. Wenkheim's doctrine
was, that it was better to do such things at once —
for independently of the present benefit, it was
as yet thought no hardship by the peasants that
they should be made to work at them, and there-
fore was none ; but the time was fast approaching
when the peasant would have other ideas on such
matters, and what was now easy might then be im-
possible. These lines of road are not yet completed ;
for after Wenkheim's death, which took place be-
fore his plans were executed, various causes retarded
the finishing of them : but they are still in pro-
gress, and Krasso is already one of the most quiet
and peaceable parts of the kingdom, and certainly
the best-furnished with roads of any county in
Hungary.

While on a visit to Baron B in the neigh-
bourhood of Lugos, we had an opportunity of join-

* I am not sure whether the same rule extends to other parts of
Hungary, but I am inclined to believe it does ; and I think that
it offers a more probable explanation of the existence of those large
villages^ and the absence of single houses, than that given by Mar*
mont, who has been pleased to theorise on this subject after his
own particular fiuhion.

A WOLF-HUNT. 16?

ing in an amusement common enough in the wood-
ed parts of the Banat. Among the baron's neigh-
bours who had been invited to meet us at dinner,
there was an eager sportsman, who of course led
the conversation to his fevourite theme. I had too
much fellow-feeling not to be a willing listener, and
glorious tales did he recount to us of wolves, and
boars, and bears which had fallen before his rifle.
Though we were positively to have started the next
morning, it somehow or other happened that before
the evening was over, we were busy in giving
orders to have our guns cleaned, arranging the plan
of operations, and listening to our host's prepa-
ratory orders for a wolf-hunt. On inquiry in the
village, he was assured that wolves had been seen
and tracked in the vineyards only two days before,
and every one was quite certain there were several
in the neighbourhood.

Now, although in the Banat the peasant is not
obliged to attend his lord for three days' hunting,
as in other parts of Hungary, yet it is rarely he re*
fuses the request to aid in the sport, especially when
wolves are about, or when, as in the present case,
he likes his master and receives refreshments for
his trouble. Accordingly, when we got up next
morning we found no less than a hundred peasants
collected about the house, waiting for us. As soon
as our party had assembled, which consisted of some
of the neighbouring gentry and of the officers quar-
tered at Lugos, and after a hearty breakfast, which

168 A WOLF-HUNT.

would have done honour to Scotland, had been con«
eluded with a glass of Banat whisky, sliwowitz, out
we sallied, three waggons and four being in at-*
tendance to conduct us to the place of meeting*

Here the peasants were already collected, and an
old sportsman was arranging and pointing out their
stations as we came up. Twenty of them were fiiru
nished with guns, some of them in a melancholy
state of infirmity ; but, as they were principally in-
tended to frighten the game, it was of little con*
sequence : the rest were to act merely as drivers*

We made our first cast in a low wood, half gorse,
half timber, which occupied the two sides of a little
valley, and which was traversed by the dry beds of
several old water-courses. Towards one part of
these courses the drivers were to make so as to
force the game to break in that direction ; and here,
at twenty or thirty yards' distance from each other,
we were stationed. As the stranger, I was placed
in the position most likely to have the first shot ;
and most anxiously did I listen to the yells and
shouts of the treibers, as they called to each other to
enable them to keep their lines, and to the drop-
ping shots of the jagers, intended to rouse the
game if any there should be. It is not the plea*
santest thing in the world for an uncertain shot to
have half-a-dozen sportsmen below him on such an
occasion as this, for the special purpose of " wiping
his eye," should he miss the first shot he ever made
at a wolf, especially if he finds himself starting at

A WOLF-HUNT. 169

the crack of every dry bough and carrying his piece
to his shoulder at every black-bird that flutters
from her perch ; for though their politeness might
spare the stranger the joke aloud, a sportsman's
instinct tells him they would not enjoy it the less
in silence. In thinking over such a scene after-
wards, it might occur to one that there was some
little danger among so many guns in a thick wood,
especially when balls or slugs were chiefly used ; but,
at the time, I defy a man who likes sport to plague
himself with such fancies* By degrees the shouts
became nearer, but there was nothing I could take
for a view-halloo, — the which, though I have no
idea what sort of thing an Hungarian peasant
would make of it, I would be bound to recognize
by instinct, — and at last one treiber and then ano-
ther came up, and the Treih was declared out.

Several times did we make our cast in different
woods, but still with the same ill success, till even-
ing came on when we returned to bear the railings
of the ladies— always unmerciful on luckless sports-
men. So ended our Treib-jagd. Our kind host,
however, took it quite to heart; "Such ingrati-
tude," he said, " of the worthless beasts ! not a year
passes that they do not worry me a colt or two ; and
now, on the only occasion when I hav^ wished to
see their grinning faces, not one would make his
appearance.'' Let me add, that when I met him
next year he was still inconsolable at the disap-
pointment, though he had taken pretty good re-

170 A WOLF-HUNT.

venge a month after our visit, when they had killed
seven in one day out of the very wood we first
beat.

A good dinner — a necessary conclusion to hunt-
ing, be the country what it may — soon drove all
the thoughts of disappointment out of our heads,
and we were only sorry we could not stay to accept
the invitation to a boar- hunt, which our sporting
friend of the preceding evening would fain have
pressed on us.

CHAPTER VI.

THE VALLEY OF HAT8ZEG.

Valley of the Temes. — Wallack Beauty. — Ovid's Tower. — Iron
Works at RuBkberg. — Effects of r^ular Work and regular Pay.
— Refbnnen in Hungary. — Iron Bridge. — Iron-Gate Paaaj
between Hungary and TranBylvania. — Hospitality. — Varhcly
tbe Ulpia Trajana of the Homans. — The Dacions under their
native Kings — conquered by Trajan. — Wallack Language like
the Italian. — Wallacks of Dadan, not Koman, Origin. — Ro-
man Remains at Varhely. — Amphitheatre. — Mosaics.

Instead of entering Traneylvania by any of the
nsual routes, we proceeded from Mehadia along the
banks of the Temes, through some most lovely scenery,
and along as good a road as any in England, — for

172 VALLEY OF THE TEMES.

we were still in the military frontiers, — to Karan-
sebes, and then turning to the east we took the di-
rection of the Iron-gate pass. The valley of the
Temes is deficient in grandeur, but it is wild and
wooded. Twice narrowing itself into a rocky pass
where the road has been won from the mountain
side, and again widening into meadows and corn-
fields, it presents every change of colour, and every
variety of scene which can add charms to a land-
scape. The peasants too in their antique costumes
were still new to us, and the women were, or at
least we thought them, remarkably beautiful. As
we walked along the streets of Karansebes during
the market-day, the number of beauties we met was
extraordinary. It is curious how various are the
opinions different travellers form of the beauty of
a people. One passes along a road and meets
nothing but pretty faces, — as certainly was the case
with us here; another follows and sees not a
beauty in the whole country. This struck me the
more forcibly, as I again (afterwards) passed over
this very road, and should certainly have formed
but an ill opinion of the people's comeliness from
my second visit.

To the lovers of classical reminiscences, Ovid's
tower is a name of irresistible attraction. About
two miles firom Karansebes, on a hill at the foot
of the mountain Mika, is a small square castle,

Non domiis apta satis,

which has obtained the popular title of Ovid*a

OVID'S TOWER. 178

Tower, and whence are said to have issued those
sweet lamentations at his cruel destiny which still
keep a world in admiration. I know the learned
saj his place of banishment was on the other side
of the Danube at Tomi, on the borders of the
Black Sea. But I still am inclined to hope that
some part of Ovid's sufferings might find a location
here;— where indeed could the poor poet have
cried with greater truth

Lassus in extremis jaceo populiflque, locisque :
Heu quam yicina est ultima terra mihi !

It is pleasant to believe that the Roman soldiers
when the conquests of Trajan, some half century
later, had thrown Dacia into their hands, paused
in their career of victory — for it was along this
valley they marched — to visit the prison of their
popular poet, and hand down the tradition of his
residence there to the present Wallacks.

A short distance from Karansebes, we turned off
the high-road to visit the iron-works at Ruskberg.
The Messieurs Hoffman, Germans of great enter-
prise, having purchased the estate of Ruskberg from
the Government, have established in this wild
valley a colony of now no less than two thousand
five hundred persons, who are actively engaged in
their works. Though the iron-foundry is the prin-
cipal object of their industry, the Messieurs Hoff-
man have by no means confined themselves to ita
Having found ores of silver, lead, and copper, as well

174 RUSKBERG.

as iron in their valley, they work them all. With
that good fortune too, which so often attends the
genius of enterprise, they discovered that a part
of the rock overhanging the little stream which
bends its course through the valley, was just of the
height required for casting shot. Now it hap-
pened that in all Hungary, Transylvania, and Wal-
lachia, there was no shot-tower, though sporting is
a very common amusement, so the Hoffmans were
at once able to establish a trade which consumed
not only all their own lead, but obliged them to
purchase more. Their shot-tower is simply a fine
crag one hundred and forty-four feet high. At the
top is a small wooden house, in which the lead is
melted and allowed to pass through the cidlender-
shaped mould, whence the shot falls directly into
a little basin formed in the brook below.

The iron-works are higher up the valley, and
there we found quite a second colony composed
of all nations, speaking all languages; Magyars
and Wallacks, Germans and Gipsies, Sclaves and
Frenchmen, were working together apparently in
the greatest harmony. I was much pleased with
the account these gentlemen gave us of the conduct
and character of the different races employed by
them ; for it bore me out in an old theory of mine,
that there is more good than evil in the worst ofmen^ —
the first being an essential part of their nature, the
last mostly the firuit of circumstances. At Rusk-
berg, though the various nations presented marked

RUSKBERG. 175

national distinctions, jet the same treatment and
the same position have produced nearly the same
effects in all. By good management, regular pay-
ment, and constant employment, the lazy Wallack
had become an indnstrioos artisan, and the wander-
ing, roguish, degraded gipsy, a clever steady work-
man. Yet many times have I heard injudicious
philanthropists in Hungary declare how impossible
it was to make the Wallacks labour, and that
merely because they had failed in some pet scheme
for changing in a day their habits and modes of
life, the work of centuries ! How many kind-hearted
people have given clothes to the naked gipsy, and
offered him the shelter of a roof, and have branded
him afterwards as incapable of civilization, and as
insensible to the commonest feelings of gratitude ;
because he sold the one to supply himself with
what he needed more, or forsook the other to
seek some occupation less foreign to his tastes
and habits !

The Reformer's is always an arduous task; but
when his efforts are directed to the improvement of
the manners and the character of men, it is a labour
to which very few are equal. To be able to enter
into the thoughts and feelings of others — to appre^
date circumstances, in which one has never been
placed — to judge of the wants and necessities to
which they give rise — to seize the points by
which men maybe influenced — to eradicate the
bad and leave the good parts of their character

176 REFORMERS IN HUNGARY.

untouched — to devote heart and soul, without a
thought of self-interesty to such a work, and then
to bear cheerfully the suspicion, the calumnj, the
opposition of those for whom one has laboured, —
these are some of the qualities required by him
who undertakes to reform mankind. As for those
philanthropic absolutists, who insist on making men
happy either in this world or the next, whether
they will or not, I hold them to be the greatest
enemies of their species* If, instead of enforcing on
man a happiness which does not suit him, they
would but content themselves with removing all
those obstacles which bad laws and the false insti-
tutions of society impose between poverty and im-*
provement ; — if they would but busy themselves in
placing man in a position to help himself, and take
care to show him an example in their own persons
of those virtues they are most anxious he should
practise ; I am convinced that the spirit of moral
advancement, and the desire of bettering his con-
dition, are principles so strongly implanted in human
nature, that they must prevail. Nay, so certain do
I feel of this improvability in the human race, that
I have often thought the great men of the earth
must needs have employed all their wit and cun-
ning to invent wicked laws to depress the little
men, or the little would long ere this have been
much greater than they are, — though it is just pos-
sible that the great might have grown somewhat
less by the process.

IliON BRIDGE. 177

But it is time to return to the iron-works. The
Messieurs Hoffioaan showed us the parts of an iron
bridge they were constructing for Mehadia, on
a plan similar to one already erected at Lugos.
This bridge was said to have been invented by one
of their workmen, a German, who constructed as
a model, a small bridge over the brook of Ruskberg.
The model bridge, which has been erected some
years, and is in constant use, is about eighteen feet
long by four wide, and weighs only 1 cent. The prin-
ciple — a new one,* so far as I am aware — depends
on the tension of the arch being maintained by the
binding rods, which unite the two ends, and which
18 consequently increased the greater the weight
imposed. It will be better understood by supposing
two strung bows laid on piers to represent the
bridge, the road being formed only by planks resting
on the strings. This bridge has the advantages
of being the lightest and cheapest, of affording the
greatest quantity of space below, and of requiring
at the same time the least height in the piers
supporting it. Three or four of these bridges are
now erected in different parts of Hungary, varying
in some minute details only, and have been found
to answer extremely well.

Another novelty, at least to me, which their
works presented was this. Requiring a great deal

* Having shown a drawing of this bridge to Mr. Tieniey Clark,
he assures me that a similar one exists in Yorkshire^ and that it
has been built many years.

VOL. II. N

178 RUSKBERG.

of wood for building, they fell their own timber, saw
it in their own mills, and, to avoid the inconvenience
arising from its greenness, they dry it before using it.
This is done by placing the planks in a small closed
building into which a stream of hot steam is direct-
ed, which entering the wood drives out its natural
juices, — I suppose on the principle of endosmose
and exosmose, — penetrating the vessels in which
they are contained, and supplying their place. The
moisture from the steam itself is easily got rid of
by a little exposure to the sun. Supposing the
shrinking of new wood to occur from the gradual
drying out of these juices — and it is highly pro-
bable that in the close texture of wood, viscous
fluids, confined in their proper vessels, would re-
quire much time to exude — the theory seems plau-
sible, and what is still more, Messieurs Hoffinan
assured me that experience had proved it to be cop-
rect, for wood so treated did not shrink afterwards,
nor was it in any respect inferior to old wood.

It is unnecessary to speak of all the works we
saw carried on here — the smelting-works, crushing-
mills, washing-floors, iron-hanmiers, smelting-fur-
nace, casting-floors, moulding-rooms, shot-sorting,
engine-making, sawing-mills, indeed, almost all the
ruder processes to which the working of metals
leads. We were pressed to stay another day and to
visit the mines which were still higher up the valley,
and which are said to be particularly interesting to
the geologist, from some peculiarities in the strata

IRON-GATE PASS. 179

ivliicli they present, as well as a quarry of fine
white marble which has been used by the statuary ;
but we were already in October, and the traveller
can scarcely count on fine weather in Hungary after
the commencement of November, so that we were
forced reluctantly to decline.

The border tract between Hungary and Tran-
sylvania could not boast the smoothest of roads, but
we arrived safely at the summit of the low moun-
tain pass, where a Wallack cross, curiously carved
with the bastard Greek letters which the WaJlacks
use, the top covered in by a neat shingle-roof, some-
thing like Robinson Crusoe's umbrella, marked the
boundary. On the Hungarian side we had the
eold bare mountains, ripening in the distance into
wooded hills, beyond which we could just perceive
the rich plain of the Banat ; while, towards Transyl-
Tsnia, a deep mountain gorge, whose yellow-tinted
hanging woods buried its depth in mystery, carried
the eye over a succession of lovely hills and valleys
to which the deep warm shadows of an autumnal
sunset lent a charm of peculiar grace and beauty.

At the narrowest part of this pass, the Romans
are said to have had literally an iron gate which
gave its name to the place. At present not a re-
main of any kind exists, but it is curious that three
of the most difficult passages which Trajan en-
countered in his expedition against Dacia — in the
Balkan, on the Danube below Orsova, and at the
entrance of Transylvania — should all retain the

180 vArHELY;

name of Iron-Gate Pass, in the language of the
common people, to the present daj. This'pass has
been alternately contested by Dacian, Roman, Turk,
and Christian ; and many are the scenes of savage
glory it has witnessed ; many the dying groans it
has received. Happily, these times are gone by;
and the Borderer, who now keeps his solitary guard
on the contested point, finds no more formidable
enemy than the poor salt-smuggler; and the pass
itself is only a terror to the hor&es, who can hardly
drag their burthen through its deep and clayey
roads. We were fortunate to have passed^ it before
night, which overtook us rather suddenly as we
approached the village of Varhely.

Here we were willing to stay, could quarters be
obtained; but hearing that nothing like an inn
was to be found, we gave orders to proceed on to
Hatszeg, though the driver declared his horses were
tired, and the road worse than ever. During the
conversation which ensued, an old Wallack joined
the party, and offered his opinion on the folly of my
proposition very unreservedly, wondering why we
could not be content to stop at the house of the
Dumnie (Dominus) — the squire of the village.
Now, though I knew that Transylvania was the very
home of hospitality, I did not like to demand it
quite so unceremoniously; but the peasant saved
me the necessity, for, trotting o% he returned in a
few seconds with an invitation from his master, for
us to make use of his house during our stay.

VARHELY. 181

The Wallack's Dumnie was an Hungarian noble of
the poorer class, possessing one*third of the village
of Varhely, and living in the style of one of our
smallest farmers. The fomilj consisted of the
young master, his mother, and two sisters, who,
though they spoke only Hungarian and Wallack,
came out to receive us, and assured us that we were
heartily welcome. The house was a pretty building
of one story, raised four feet above the ground,
and was entered by a handsome portico. It con-
sisted of the kitchen, which was half-filled with
the high hearth, two rooms on each side, and below
store-rooms and cow-houses ; the whole being en-
closed by a garden on one side, and by the large
£Burm-yard and buildings on the other. We were
shown into the best rooms, usually occupied by the
family as sleeping-rooms; and, in a very short time,
the beds were covered with the whitest linen, while
the table offered a hearty supper to console us for
the cold dinner we had taken during the morning,
and to satisfy the keen appetite the mountain air
had blessed us with.

Varhely, or Gradistie, in the language of the
Wallacks, is a place of so much interest, that we
thought ourselves singularly fortunate in obtaining
our present shelter. Though now a miserable Wal-
lack village, Varhely occupies the site of Sarmise-
gethusa, the former capital of the Dacians, the
residence of Decebalus their king ; and on the ruins
of which, Ulpia Trajana was founded, — ^the imperial

182 THE DACIANS.

city which Trajan destined as the seat of govern-
ment, for his conquests beyond the Danube !

The name of Dacia scarcely makes its appearance
in history, till the time of Alexander, when the
Dacians, under their King Sarmis, refusing to sub*
mit to the conqueror's arms, their kingdom was
ravaged, and peace with difficulty obtained. This
Sarmis is said to have built the town, which was
named from him, and this is rendered almost cer-
tain by a gold coin found near Thorda^ and which
bears his effigy, with the words 2APMI2 BAZIA
on one side, and on the reverse, the fortified gate of
a town. On the division of Alexander's conquests
among his generals, Thrace^ together with the
countries on either side the Danube, fell to the
share of Lysimachus. But Dacia had been over-
run, not subdued; and the new King found his
subjects so little inclined to accept his rule, that he
was obliged to march against them at the head of a
large force. Dromichoetes, the successor of Sarmis,
was prepared for the attack, and succeeded, not
only in resisting the Grecian army, but in captur-
ing its chief, and appropriating the rich plunder of
his camp.

It is probable that at this time, either from the
plunder of the camp, or from the ransom of his pri-
soners, the Dacian King obtained an immense trea-*
sure, for on two separate occasions, — if I am rightly
informed, once in 1545, and again about twenty
years since, — many thousand gold coins have been

THE DACIANS. I8S

diseovered in this neighbourhood, eome of them
bearing the name of LysimachuSy and others the
word KOSHN from the name of the town Cossea
in Thrace, where they were struck. I am in pes*
session of some of these coins ; and though many were
melted down by the Jews, in Wallachia, to whom
they were conveyed across the frontier in loaves of
bread, they are still very common, and are fre-
quently used by the Transylvanians for signet rings,
and other ornaments.

From this time, for nearly two hundred and fifty
years, the history of Dacia is almost a blank, but
in the commencement of Augustus's reign we find
these barbarians, led on by their King Cotyso, — the
same probably whom Ovid addresses,

Regia progenies^ ctii nobilitatis origo,

Nomen in Eumolpi peryemt usque^ Coty,

Fama loquax yestras si jam pervenit ad aures.
Me tibi finitimi parte jacere soli ! ^>

rushing down into Italy, and committing such ra«
vages as to fix the attention of Rome on them
as dangerous enemies. Engaged for some years
in frequent wars, with various fortune, they obtain-*
ed at last so decided an advantage over the weak*
ness of Domitian as to reduce that Emperor to
accept a peace, accompanied by the most dis*
graceful conditions, and among others the payment
of a yearly tribute to Dacia. Decebalus, however,
the then King of the Dacians, had, in the eyes of
Bome, merited his destruction by his success, and

184 TRAJAN'S CONQUEST.

no sooner did Trajan assume the Imperial purple
than he determined to restore to its brightness the
tarnished honour of the empire, and accordingly
prepared an expedition against Dacia which he
headed himself.

Trajan seems to have passed through Pannoniay
(Hungary,) to have crossed the Theiss, and followed
the course of the Maros into Transylvania. His
first great battle was on the CrossfM^ near Thor-
da. After an obstinate contest, the Dacians were
completely routed, and Decebalus obliged to take
refuge in Sarmisegethusa. The Crossfield is still
called by the Wallack peasants the " Prat de Tra-
jan^ (Pratum Trajani,) a curious instance of the
tenacity of a people's recollections. Reduced to
the last extremity, Decebalus was obliged to ac-
cept humiliating conditions, which he took the first
opportunity of breaking. Trajan, however, had de-
termined that Dacia should form a Roman pro-
vince, and he at once set out again to complete
his conquest.

Better acquainted with the geography of the
country, Trajan chose a nearer route, and one by
which he might at once reach his enemy's capital.
It was on this occasion that he crossed the Danube,
below the Iron Gate, where his famous bridge was
afterwards built, and sending one part of his army
along the Aluta, he himself seems to have followed
the valley which now leads from Orsova, by Meha-
dia and Karansebes, over the Iron-Gate Pass, direct

ROMANS IN DACIA. 185

to Sarmisegethusa. On the column of Trajan, at
Rome, the chief events of these two campaigns are
most minutely depicted, and thus completely do
away with many fables which historians have ap-
pended to the story. It appears that the Dacians,
unable any longer to defend their capital, set fire to
it» and fled to the mountains. Decebalus, finding it
impossible to escape his pursuers, stabbed himself,
and many of his followers destroyed themselves by
poison to avoid subjection to the Romans. It is
much to be desired that the history of this war
should be written by one acquainted with the topo-
graphy and antiquities of Transylvania, as well as
with the materials which Rome and her writers
afford.

Trajan, when he had completed the subjugation
of the country, turned his attention to the security
of the new province. The present Transylvania
became Dacia Mediterranea ; Wallachia and Mol-
davia, Dacia Transalpina; and the Banat, Dacia
Ripensis. The bridge over the Danube, the road
cut in the rock along its banks, the formation of
colonies at Varhely, Karlsburg, Thorda, and several
other places, and the connecting them by roads,
remains of which still exist, were the means he
employed to perpetuate the power of Rome, in the
newly-acquired territory. *

* It has been said that Trajan^ through the treachery of a Da-
cian, discovered the hidden treasures of Decebalus^ which he had
concealed in the bed of a brook, having turned its course to enable

186 WALLACK LANGUAGE.

Notwithstanding the resolution of Hadrian to
forsake the conquests of his predecessor, and the
steps he actually took for that purpose, the Romans
seem to have remained masters of Dacia, till the
time of Aurelian, when they finally retired across
the Danube, and gave up Dacia to the Goths.

Although the duration of the Roman empire in
this country was much shorter than in many others
of Europe — about one hundred and seventy years
only, — yet in none did they leave such striking
remains of their domination, especially iia the Ian-*
guage, as here. The Wallack of the present day
calls himself ** Rumum/i/* and retains a traditional
pride of ancestry, in spite of his present degrada^
tion. The language now spoken by all the people
of this nation is soft, abounding in vowels, and de-
riving most of its words from the Latin. The pro-
nunciation resembles much the Italian, and it is
extraordinary that the inflexions and terminations
of the words have a much greater similarity to the
modem language of Italy than to their Latin origin
nal. This would tend to prove, as no connection
has existed between the countries since that time,
either that the vulgar language of Rome was more
simple than we commonly imagine, or that, in both
cases, the changes have been the natural ones to

him to place them there. This story deriyes some confirmation
from the column, on which, after the taking of the city, are seen
several horses bearing to Trajan panniers filled with treasures,
principally consisting of rich cups and vessels. The coins found in
1545, were actually discovered in the bed of this very brook.

WALLACK LANGUAGE. 187

which a htngoage submitB, on its being mixed with
others and simplified by the nse of an uneducated
or foreign people. Nothing is so complex in the
quantity of its inflexions as a pure language, nothing
so simple as a compound and mixed one. Some of
the Wallack words are, I believe, Sclavish, which
may be accounted for by supposing the Sclavish
to have been the original language of the Dacians,
(and from certain Sclavish names of rivers and
mountains here, as well as in WaUachia^ I am
inclined to believe this the case,) or it may be
owing to the later mixture of the races, but the
preponderance of Latin is so great as to strike a
foreigner immediately, and to render the acquisition
of the language very easy. On one occasion, being^
without a servant who spoke the language, I learned
enough, for a traveller's needs, in a day or two»
and when at a loss, I always resorted to Italian^
which was often understood, and with a slight
change of sound became Wallack.*

While I am dabbling in the philosophy of lan-
guage, let me not forget a trait which, on my re-
turn from Turkey, struck me very forcibly. From
the Turk the Wallack has borrowed but few words ;
but one &miliar sound has become so fixed in his
vocabulary, that he will never lose it ; and it marks,
as well as a hundred pages, the relation in which
the Turk and Wallack stood to each other. This

* I may instance^ bun eai, for buani cavalli; and apa, for
aqua, &c.

188 WALLACKS OF DACIAN ORIGIN.

little word is, ** haide /" In Constantinople it is
the Frenchman's **t?fl-<-^»" to the beggar-boy, the
Austrian's " marchir^ to his dog, our " come up"
to a horse, or the ** begone" of an angry master to
his servant — yet none of these languages have any
one word of command applied alike to man or
beast ; but such is the ^* haide'^ of the Turk, and
such the word he hath bequeathed to the Wallack
language, — a lasting monument of his imperious
i^ay. However the Wallack poet may in after-
ages gloss over the fact of his people's slavery, his
own tongue will belie him as often as the familiar
** haide'* escapes from his lips.

It is difficult to say how far the Wallack of the
present day has a title to his claim of Roman de-
scent. It was natural enough that the half-civilized
Dacians should regard with contempt and hatred
the savage hordes which succeeded the Romans, and
although conquered, that they should proudly cherish
the name of Rumunyi. The greater number of the
Roman colonists retired across the Danube, but it is
possible that some may have remained behind, and
from such the Wallacks of Hatszeg claim their de-
scent. The rest, I believe, are content with the
honour of that mixture of Roman and Dacian blood
which one may naturally suppose to have taken
place between the conquerors and the conquered.

That this admixture of races, however, has had
so great an influence as travellers have been led
to think, from observing the difference of features

WALLACKS OF DACIAN ORIGIN. 189

between the Wallack and his neighboars, thq
Magyars and Saxons, I am much inclined to doubt,
for the features of the Wallacks are more like
those of the Dacians of Trajan's column, than those
either of the Romans or of the modern Italians.
The more I think of the matter, the more I am
convinced that the majority of the Wallacks are
tme Dacians ; and as the best proof, I subjoin two
Wallack heads, sketched without any reference to
the question, which if the reader be sufficiently
carious in the matter to compare them with the
figures of Dacians and Romans engraved from Tra-
jan's column, be will find little difficulty, I think,
in saying to which people they belong.

Preceded by our host, we commenced a survey
of Ulpia Trajana. Just beyond the village, we
found a large space of several acres covered with

190 ROMAN REMAINS.

stones of all sizes, which had once been used in
Imilding; and in some places we discovered the
arched roofs of vaulted chambers, which had been in
several places broken into, but they seemed only to
be the lower parts of the buildings, and possessed
little interest. This space is somewhat higher than
the rest of the country, and has been surrounded
by a ditch and mound, which we found extended a
quarter of a mile into the village* It is called
by the people the Csetatiej fortified place or castle ;
but to what age it belongs, or what it may have
been, I know not. A little farther on, in the same
direction, we came upon the remains of an am-
phitheatre. The outer walls are entirely covered
with earth, forming a grassy bank of about twelve
feet high, and surround an oval space of about
seventy-five yards long, by forty-five in its greatest
width* The arena is now under plough, and pro-
duces a fine crop of Indian com. Scarcely a stone
is left, and yet the form declares, as strongly as
evidence can do, its origin and destination. Our
host, who owns this part of the village, seemed
proud in telling us the good speculation he had
made, in selling the large hewn stones which once
covered the sides and surface of the place, to his
neighbours, who were building houses. As well as
we could make out, they were laid in the form
of steps,* and from his praises of their size, they

* I am inclined to think that the name of Gradistie may hare
been given to the place by the Wallacka in qonsequence of these
Bteps.— (QraduB.)

ROMAN REMAINS. 191

must hame been considerable. The shafts of two
pillars and a stone seat, with some Roman letters,
which now ornament our host's yard, were brought,
he said, from this place. From hence, we could
trace elevations and inequalities in the ground,
which, though now overgrown with grass, seemed
to indicate the sites of former buildings, for more
than a mile along the plain. It is said, that re-
mains of an aqueduct still exist ; but of these we
observed nothing, any more than of the Roman
road, though it is highly probable that a better
knowledge of the country, and the ability to con*^
verse with the people, might have enabled us to
discover them. The difficulty of obtaining any in^^
formation from an uneducated farmer, through th(3
interpretation of an ignorant servant, is very dis^
eonraging.

It is impossible to stand on the ruins of thi^
amphitheatre, with the traces of a former city
around you, the beautiful plain stretched out at
your feet, and bounded by a range of distant hills,
without calling to mind Rome, her Campagna, and
her clear blue mountains. The very forms of the
hills towards Hatszeg, favoured the illusion; and,
as the last rays of the setting sun gilded their tops,
we had already made out a TiVoli, an Albano, and
a Frascati.

Towards the middle of the village, we were con*
ducted to see a Mosaic pavement, discovered here
in 1823. To obtain a sight of this object, however,

192 MOSAICS.

we had been obliged to send off the dervant early
in the morning to a village ten miles distant, where
the lady, to whom this part of Varhelj belongs,
lives ; for she had erected a shed over the pave-
ment, to preserve it from the destructive hands of
visitors, and would only give the key to persons
with whom she thought it would be safe* As we
were totally unknown, we had some doubt as to the
success of our application ; but the servant return-
ed with the key, which the lady had no hesitation,
she said, in lending to Englishmen, as she felt sure
they would do no injury ; and with this very polite
message she had sent also some wine for our use,
as none was to be obtained at Varhely. How
lucky, that she guessed Englishmen loved genuine
wine as well as genuine antiquities !

About three feet below the surface, and sur-
rounded by the original walls, which are eighteen
inches high, we found two Mosaic pavements,
which, from their size, separation by a wall, and
relative position, were probably the floors of two
baths. The chamber on the left, nearly twenty
feet square, was occupied by a very perfect Mo^
saic, surrounded by a highly ornamented border, re^
presenting the visit of Priam to Achilles, to beg the
dead body of Hector. The names of HPIAMOS,
AXIAAETS, and ATTOMEAnN, the swords
bearer of Achilles, are worked in Greek letters ;
while Mercury, who has conducted Priam, is sufli^
ciently indicated by his caducous and wings. The

MOSAICS. 193

kneeling figure of Priam, embracing the knees of
Achilles, is well drawn, and full of expression, and
the dress of the Trojan king is worthy of remark,
as bearing a considerable resemblance to that worn
by the Wallacks in winter. The drawing and shad-
ing of Mercury declare the artist to have been
among the best of the time ; few, if any, of those
of Rome or Pompeii are superior. The sitting
figure of Achilles, apparently crowned with lau-
rels, though the head as well as the breast have
suiFered, is easy and dignified.

The colours, though not bright, are tolerably
well preserved. At first, the whole was so covered
with dust, that it was with difficulty any colour
could be distinguished ; but, after carefully washing
it, and drying it, they came out more clearly.
Some few parts have received a slight incrustation of
lime, which might easily be removed with a knife,
but we dared not attempt it. The Wallack who
was entrusted to take back the key, looked suffi-
ciently alarmed at the washing ; and his ignorance
might easily have given an unfavourable report to
his mistress, and caused other travellers still greater
difficulties in seeing it had we attempted to remove
the lime.

The Mosaic on the right, represents the judg-
ment of Paris. The first figure is Venus, apparently
holding the coveted apple in her left hand above
her shoulder. A tight blue and white figured dress
covers her to the hips, from whence loose drapery

VOL. II. o

194 MOSAICS.

hangs down to the feet. The second figure is pro-
bably Juno, whose face, as well as that of her
neighbour, whose helmet, gorgon-headed breast-
plate, and spear, bespeak her Minerva, is oyer-
clouded by the scowl of disappointed vanity. The
left hand of Minerva, probably rested on her shield ;
but the whole of the lower comer is much injured
and very indistinct. These three figures are all
beautifully worked out with rich colours, and a
little cleansing from the lime would render them
quite distinct. On the other side, Paris sits in
judgment, wearing the Phrygian cap ; and behind
him, stands Mercury : both these figures are con-
siderably injured, and scarcely equal to the others
in workmanship. Part of the body of Mercury is
wanting, and its place is supplied by white Mosaic,
ancient, but from the different size and colour of
the pieces, evidently repaired by another hand.

We had found so much trouble — it took us the
greater part of a day — in removing the dust and
dirt with which these Mosaics were obscured, that
we got two linen covers made, and gave directions
that they should always be placed over them, except
when they were shown. As the peasants who were
constantly with us, saw the pleasure we took in
such things, they soon brought every relic of anti-
quity the village could boast ; among others, a small
female head in white marble, part of a small Doric
capital of delicate workmanship, besides several
common silver and copper coins of Roman Em-

MOSAICS. 195

perors, found in the place. We paid them for
these things, not on account of their intrineic value,
but rather to encourage them to preserve everything
they might find. The larger objects, we deposited
with the Mosaics, where, I dare say, future tr^
vellers will find them. It was not till after we had
left Varbely, that I -was aware that a second Mo-
saic had been discovered there ; but in a paper by
M. A. Ackner, in the " Transylvania," — a very useful
periodica], now defunct, dedicated to the antiquities
of this country, — I find mention of a large Mosaic,
discovered in 1832, of which only a small part
remained perfect, and which, from some dispute
among those to whom the land belonged, had been
again covered up.

196 DEMSUS.

CHAPTER VII.

VALLEY OP HATSZEG.

DemButu — The Leiter-Wagen. — Roman Temple — its Form and
probable History. — Paintings in Wallack Churches. — Wal-
lack Priests and their Wives. — Russian Influence over the
Members of the Greek Church. — Origin of the United Greek
Church. — Religious Oppression. — Education of the Greek
Priesthood. — Village of V^ely. — The Wallack Women. —
Wallacks and Scotchmen. — Wallack Vices and Wallack Vir-
tues. — The Devil's Dancers. — Our Host's Family. — House^
hold Arrangements. — The Buffalo.

The next morning, our host offered to drive ns
over to Demsus, to show us some antiquities there ;
and as even he said the road was too bad for our
carriage, we were glad to content ourselves with a
Leiter-Wagen, so called from the similarity which
its sides bear to a ladder. In this part of the
world, everything is in so very primitive a state,
that these carriages are not only deficient in springs,
but they have often not even a particle of iron
about them, so that it is impossible to conceive
by what means they hold together. They are gift-
ed, however, with the singular power of bending
about like a snake ; and, as one wheel mounts a
bank, while the other falls into a pit, the body

ROHAN TEMPLE. 197

accommodates itself, by a few gentle contortions,
to these varieties of position, without in any way
deran^ng itself or its contents.

Trusting ourselveB to this conveyance, we follow-
ed the low range of sand-stone hills which confine
the valley on one side, while, on the other, are the
marble cli% bounding Wallachia, — as far as Pes-
teny, where we turned into a lesser valley which led
us to DemsuB. On a small hill, which overlooks
the twenty or thirty cottages which constitute this
humble village, stands a stone building now used

as s Wallack church. It is small, with a curious
half-mined steeple, its ensemble so bizarre, as to be-
speak at once considerable intervals between the
periods of the erection of its different parte, and

198 ROMAN TEMPLE

variety in the taste of its architects. It seems
to have been originally a Roman temple, the in-
terior of which was about eight yards square, with
a semicircular dome, a recess towards the east, and
a portico to the west. The place of the portico is
now supplied by high walls composed of stones,
evidently brought from other parts of the building,
and more recently converted to their present pur^
pose. The entrance to the body of the temple re-
mains in its original state ; it is small, low, and
quite simple. In the interior are four large square
pillars, supporting an equal number of clumsy round
arches, on which again the tower rests. These
pillars bear monumental inscriptions,* and some
figures of horses, and are evidently of Roman work-
manship ; but I must confess, I never saw an3rthing
similar in any other Roman temple, nor do I ever
remember to have seen before this kind of inscrip-

* Among the most perfect I copied the followiag :—

D. M.
G • OCTAVIO • NEPOTE
VIX • AN • LXX • IVLIA
VALENTA HERES CON
IVGI PENTISSIMO
FACENDVM PROCV
RAVIT • H-S-E-

VALERIA CARA
VIX • AN • XXIX
T • PLAVIVS APER
SCRIBA COL
SARM • CONIVGI
RARISSIMAE

AT DEMSUS. 199

tion on pillars. Indeed, in form these pillars more
resemble altars, although from their position and
similarity they appear to have been originally in-
tended for the purpose to which they are still ap-
plied. It is possible, that in the centre of these
four arches the altar had formerly stood, and a
square piece of the floor, which is still without
pavement, though the rest has its ancient cover-
ing of hewfi stone, indicates the want of something
which had once occupied this spot. In the semi-^
circular recess behind might have stood the statue
of the god.

The exterior walls are supported by recent but-
tresses, in the construction of which the shafts of
several pillars have been employed, which, as well
as some others which lie near, had probably be-
longed to the portico. In another part I observed
a Corinthian capital reversed, and built into the
wall ; it appeared rich, and in a pure style, and may
serve to determine the order of the architecture.
For what purpose an arched passage which runs
along the south side was intended, I was quite un-
able to surmise. By means of the half-broken walls
of the semi-circular dome, we mounted to the out*
side of the tower. Here we found an opening into
a small chamber, two yards square and one high, in
the body of the tower, and from this there is a very
small opening into a circular passage, running round
the inside of the little tower between the outer wall
and the chinmey-like openings which gives light

200 ROMAN TEMPLE.

to the interior. The tower itself is built partly of
bricks, partly of stones and pieces of marble from
other parts of the building. This tower is to me
a complete puzzle. It is evidently later than some
other parts of the building, yet it is too elegant to
be the work of mere barbarians. As for the use to
which the chamber and circular passage had been
put, I cannot even offer a suggestion. They cannot
have been intended, as some one supposes, to have
concealed the priest who spoke the oracle, for they
would not have enabled him to communicate with
the statue ; they could scarcely have serred as hid*
ing-places for treasure ; and there is no mark of
the tower having been used in Christian times for
a belfry. Besides the inscriptions I have copied,
there are fragments of several others, but none of
them afford any clue to the history of the build-
ing, nor any indication to what god it was dedi-
cated, unless indeed, the d.m. at the head of the
first, and the figure of the horse may not suggest
Mars as its patron. I am inclined to believe, that
the four pillars, the arches, and the tower, were
built after the temple itself by such of the descend-
ants of the Romans as remained after the evacua-
tion of Dacia, and when the original building had
suffered from the attacks of some of the earlier
barbarian invaders. On ascending the tower, we
observed two statues of lions much injured, and
apparently but rudely carved.
This temple is now, and has been from time im-

WALLACK CHURCHES. 201

memorialy nsed hj the Wallacks as a church, to
which circumstance it probably owes its preserra-
tion. The semi-circular recess forms the altar,
which is adorned by the most wretched prints of
Greek yirgins, St. Greorges, and other grim saints,
and is separated from the rest of the building by
a carved wooden screen. The walls, as is common
in Greek churches, are covered with rude frescoes :
in the present instance, they are very practical
illustrations of the evils of inunorality, and if the
husbands and wives of Demsus do not obey a cer-
tain commandment, it is not for want of knowing
how the devil will catch them at their peccadilloes,
for it is here painted to the most minute details.
I have often been much amused with these pic-'
tnres in the Wallack churches; for, though too
gross for description, they contain so much of that
racy, often sarcastic wit proper to Rabelais or
Chaucer, wrought out with a minuteness of dia-
bolical detail and fertility of imagination worthy a
Breughel, that it recalls to one*s mind the laboured
illuminations of our old missals. Notwithstanding
its sins against pure taste, there is often much that
is good in the church's humour ; nor, despite the
reverence due to the holy character of the subject,
is it possible to repress a smile at the sly malice of
the monkish illuminator, when he decks out the
pharisee in the robes and jewels of some neighbour-
ing bishop ; or at the prurient imagination of the
cloister, when it breaks forth in warm delineation

202 WALLACK PRIESTS.

of all the charms and temptations by which sin can
lead poor man astray.

As we were looking at the church, the Wallack
priest came up and spoke to us. He was dressed in
a very white linen shirt, fashioned like that of the
common peasant, and fastened round his wajst by a
leathern belt ; loose linen trowsers formed his nether
habit, and the rude sandal of the country served
as covering for his feet. Except from a somewhat
greater neatness of person, and the long black beard
which hung down to his breast, the Wallack priest
was in no way distinguished from the humblest of
his flock. With just enough education to read the
service of the church, just enough wealth to make
them sympathize with the poor, and just enough
religion to enable them to console them in their
afflictions, these men exercise a greater power over
the simple peasant than the most cunning Jesuit,
the most wealthy Episcopalian, or the most rigid
Calvinist. This is a strong point in favour of the
Wallack priest ; but I suspect he owes it more to
his position than his character; the sympathy of
equality begets affection, for though the rich may
pity the poor, none but the poor can sympathise
with them, because none other can know their
wants and feelings.

I have already said, that the Wallacks belong
to the Greek church; and in accordance with its
rules, the lower order of the clergy, or the parish-
priests, are allowed to marry, though the monks

WALLACK PRIESTS. 203

and the higher dignitaries are condemned to celi-
bacy. One effect which results from the strict ad-
herence to the letter of the Gospel in this matter,
18 to make the priest's wife the happiest woman in
the parish ; for as he can be but ** the husband of
one wife/' he takes the greatest possible care not to
lose her, and in consequence pays a heavy tax in
the indulgence of whims and humours, an opposi-
tion to which might endanger his partner's safety,
and condemn him to a state of single misery. The
education of a Wallack priest is generally very low,
and I have known cases in which the common pea-
sant has been ordained merely on paying the stipu-
lated sum to the bishop. If we may believe the
Hungarian nobles, the Wallack priest is charac-
terized by cunning malice, which he employs to
maintain his power over the peasant, to enrich
himself, and to foment discord between landlord
and tenant. The fasts and feasts of the Greek
church, which extend to nearly one-third of the
year, and during which the peasant is strictly for-
bidden to labour for his worldly profit, the priest
adroitly avails himself of, by assuring him that he
may labour in God's service ; — ^which, being liberally
interpreted, means his priest's, — and so the lazy and
superstitious Wallack, who will scarcely move a
Umb for his own support, wiUingly wastes the sweat
of his brow in tilling the Popa^s glebe on feast days,
and thus earns his soul's salvation.

The prelates of the Greek church, and the priests

204 RUSSIAN INFLUENCE.

officiating in large towns, receive a better educa-
tion ttian those of the Tillages ; and, in appearance
at least, have an air of greater intelligence and
respectability. The dress of the higher class of
priests is the same as that so common in Greece
and Turkey, — a long black cloak reaching to the
feet, which, with the beard and black locks flowing
over the shoulders, are often so arranged as to show
no small portion of earthly vanity. I am not fond
of priests generally, — they are apt to have sly fat
minds, — but I took a positive dislike to these fel-
lows, when I saw the looks they directed at the
beautiful half-naked Wallack girls, who always
stoop down to kiss the Popa's hand whenever they
pass him.

As political agents and spies of the Russian
court, the Wallack priests are said to be made
much use of, and I am fully inclined to believe
it; for they regard the archbishop of Moscow as
their primate, and the Emperor of Russia as the
head of their church. The ritual of the Greek
church in Hungary, contains a prayer for the Em-
peror and King, — such is the title of the sovereign
of Austria, and Hungary, — the last part only of
which the Wallacks however apply to their own
monarch, the first being reserved for the Emperor
of Russia. This account I have heard, not only of
the Wallacks, but also of the Croatians and Scla-
vonians, among whom the Greek &ith is equally
predominant, and where the influence of Russia is

UNITED GREEK CHURCH. 205

still farther strengthened by analogy of language.
A few years ago, when Austria was supposed to be
a little opposed to the aggressive strides of Russia,
a Wallack almanack, printed at Bucharest, and ex-
tensively circulated in Transylvania, openly called
upon the Wallacks of that country to wrest the
power from the Hungarian usurpers, and boldly
assert their own right to the land of their fathers.
It is not, therefore, without reason that Austria has
feared this foreign influence in the heart of her
dominions, nor without reason that she has en-
deavoured to counteract it. Unfortunately, how-
ever, instead of acting in a frank and liberal spirit
equalizing all religions, removing causes of discon-
tent, and undermining the influence of ignorance by
the diffusion of knowledge, the spirit of Jesuitical
propagandism has been let loose on the country,
and that feeling of bitter hatred has in consequence
been engendered, which anything like persecution is
always sure to beget.

The plan of Government was to form a Catholic
Greek, or united Greek church, as it is called, — that
is, a church in almost all doctrinal and essential
points like the original Greek, but acknowledging
the Roman Pontiff as its head. The marriage of
priests and the use of the vernacular tongue in the
services of the church were yielded by the politic
conclave of the Vatican. The temporal powers were
not behindhand in concessions. The members of
the Greek church, in Transylvania, had hitherto

206 GREER CHURCHES.

been excluded from a share in the Goveniment;
the Confonnists were offered a full participation,
not only in the rights but in the favours also,
which are showered on the CathoUcs. By dint
of such means, and others somewhat less justifi-
able, the scheme succeeded to a certain extent,
the priest received solid reasons for his compliance
with the new doctrines, and sometunes brought
over his flock to obedience. In other cases,
especially in the valley of Hatszeg, the people
refused to change their religion in spite of the
priest's apostasy, and declined his offices, while the
Government, on the other hand, refused to allow
any other to officiate, so that instances have been
mentioned to me of villages in which, for thirty
years,^ no Christian ceremony, or sacrament, had
been performed. Men had been bom, married, and
had died unchristened, unblessed, unshrived. It is
only those who know the sacred character with
which the superstitious Wallack clothes his priest,
and the importance he attaches to the sacraments
of his church, who can appreciate the strength of
the feeling which induced him to resist the one,
or the cruelty which has been practised in depriving
him of the other.

Statistical works on Transylvania are very much
rarer than on Hungary, and even those which exist
are of less authority ; so that it is difficult to say,
with accuracy, what the proportion of the Wallacks
to the rest of the inhabitants is, or to state the

GREEK PRIESTHOOD. 207

relative numbers belonging to the Greek and the
united Greek churches. Aoeording to the best
authority I can command at present, the Wallacks
amount to about eight hundred and fifty thousand.
Now the " Schematismus" * of the united Greek
church of 1835, gives the number of souls pro-
fessing that creed, at five hundred and fifty one
thousand nine hundred and eighty nine, so that if
conscientiously correct, (which I doubt,) it would
give the majority very much in their favour. The
clergy as well as the people of this belief enjoy all
the privileges of Catholics, and their bishop has a
seat in the chamber. According to the work just
quoted, they have at Baldsfalva a Lyceum, Gym-
nasium, and Normal School, with an abundant ar-
ray of professors in theology and philosophy.

As £Bur as I am aware the members of the pure
Greek church of Transylvania have no place of
education for their priesthood, although in Hungary,
where they amount to a million and a half, they
have a college at Karlowitz, which generally con-
tains about fifty theological students, besides schools
in Neusatz, Miskolcz, and Temesvar. Notwith-
standing this, even in Hungary, and still more in
Transylvania, the common Wallack priest has for
the most part no better education than the village

* Schematismus yeneiabilis Cleri Qrseci Ritus Catholicorum Dics-
ceseoB FrogorasiensiB^ in Transylvania^ pro anno a Christo nato
lSd5, ab unione cum Eccleda Romana 138. Blasii^ typis Semi-
narii DioeoesanL

school has afforded, and no more learning than ii
juBt sufficient to get through the services of the
church.

In rambling over the scattered Tillage of Varhelj
in search of traces of former times, we had ample
opportunities of obserring the state of its present
occupants. The bouses of the Wallacks are as
simple as possible. They generally consist of only
one small room, in which old and young, men and
women, are indiscriminately mixed, and not unfre-
quently too the pigs and fowls come in for their
share of the accommodation. The material of the
building is usually the nnhewn stems of trees lined

inside with mud, and covered with a very high roof^
composed of straw, thrown carelessly on, and fre-
quently retained in its place by branches of trees

WALLACK WOMEN. 209

flung across it. I need not point out to the reader
the difference between this hovel and the many-
chambered dwelling of the Magyar, the white
walls and careful thatch of which would do honour
to a cottage ome of the Isle of Wight. Under the
overhanging roof are laid out in summer the beds
of the whole family, sometimes shaded by a decent
curtain ; and before the door is generally that semi-
fluid mass yclept a puddle, where the pigs and
children indulge in their siesta. As we passed
one door, a group of urchins were quarrelling with
their unclean companions for the enjoyment of a
large melon, which was &st disappearing in the
struggle, while an old woman sat listlessly watch-
ing the strife. I shall not easily forget the figure
this woman presented. With no sort of covering
save the linen shift, which was open as low as the
waist, — ^its whiteness strangely contrasting with the
colour of the body it should have concealed, — the
blear eye and vacant gaze of extreme age, the
clotted masses of hair bound with a narrow fillet
round the head, the fleshless legs and the long
pendulous breasts exposed without any idea of
shame, presented a picture, the horrors of which
I have rarely seen equalled. And to such a state
is the Wallack woman, so beautiful in the fresh-
ness of youth, reduced before she has arriv-
ed at what we should call a middle age. This
is as much owing to hard labour, as to bad nou-^
rishment and exposure to the sun. The very

VOL. II. p

210 WALLACK WOMEN.

early marriages, too, common among the Wallacks,
aid this premature decline. Girls frequently marry
at thirteen or fourteen, and the men rarely later

than eighteen. I remember Baron B coming

in laughing one day at a request which a boy of
fourteen had just made to be allowed to marry,
a request to which he had of course not assent-
ed. If a peasant is asked what he wants a wife
for, he usually answers to comb him and keep
him clean.

The Wallack woman is never by any chance seen
idle. As she returns from market it is her breast
that is bulged out with the purchases of the day ;*
it is her head that bears the water from the village
well ; she dyes the wool or flax, spins the thread,
weaves the web, and makes the dresses of her
family. In harvest she joins the men in cutting the
com, and though less strong, she is more active
and willing at the task. She uses the spindle and
distaff as the princesses of Homer did, and as
they are still used in the Campagna of Rome, and
they are scarcely ever out of her hand. You may
see her at the market suckling her child, higgling
for her eggs and butter, and twirling her spindle at
the same time, with a dexterity really astonishing'.
As £ax as cleanliness goes, however, she is a bad

* Nothing can be more ludicrous than the appearance these
women sometimes present. The front of the chemise is always
open, and, among other purposes, serves that of a pocket. A
woman coming from market often fills it with cabbages, meat,
and perhaps a dozen other articles, thus forming altogether a most
astounding protuberance.

WALIACK WOMEN. 211

housewife; nor does her labour produce great
effects. Among the Geiman eettlere it is a pro-
verb, "to be as busy as a Wallack woman, and
do as little." The dress, which I have already
described, is with some variations everywhere the
same. The apron has sometimes little or no fringe,
and at other times is little else than fringe. In

winter they commonly wear the same thick pan-
taloons 88 the men, cover themselves with a guda,
or pdz-riidcd, and wrap up the feet in cloth sandals.
One of the figures in the sketch above, is tliat of
a young girl about sixteen, in full costume, and
rather tidily dressed. Her chemise was embroider-
ed with blue at the sleeves and neck ; her fringed
p2

212 WALLACKS AND SCOTCHMEN.

aprons, of green and red, were bound round the waist
by a woollen belt, but the pride of her costume
was the richly embroidered sheep-skin jacket. The
hair was rather curiously arranged; it was parted
at the side and plaited, one plait hanging behind,
while the other was brought coquettishly across the
forehead. It is wonderful what variety one sees in
this particular, — every village seems to have its
fashion.

The pattern of the aprons, in which greens and
reds, blues and blacks, are the most common co-
lours, reminded me very strongly of the Scotch
plaid, especially at the borders, where the colours
often cross and form the exact tartan patterns:
but I was still more struck when I observed the
well-known shepherd's plaid, the common black and
white check. I bought one piece of this kind, and
Scotchmen, to whom I have shown it, at once claim-
ed it as their own. It is generally of very coarse
texture, being spun from the long wool of the com-
mon sheep, and is loosely woven. The dyes which
the Wallacks manage to give their cloths, are cele-
brated for their brilliancy and durability. The
mention of Scotch plaids reminds me that I have
seen some author, I think Herodotus, quoted as an
authority, that the Agathyrsae, said to have been
the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, owned the same
origin as the Picts of Scotland. Without entering
into such a knotty discussion, I merely throw out
for the consideration of Gaelic antiquaries the facts,

WALLACE CHARACTER. SI 3

that the Wallacks wear the tartan, that the Wal-
lacks love the bagpipe, and that the Wallacks
drink an inordinate quantity of sliwowitz, alias
mountain dew, — the which I hold to be strong
marks of similarity of taste, if not of identity of
origin.

In appearance, the common Wallack presents a
decided difference from either Magyar, Sclave, or
German. In height, I should say, that he was below
the medium, and generally rather slightly built and
thin. His features are often fine, the nose arched,
the eyes dark, the hair long, black, and wavy, but
the expression too often one of fear and cunning
to be agreeable. I seldom remember to have seen
among them the dull heavy look of the Sclavack,
but still more rarely the proud self-respecting cai^
riage of the Magyar. Seventeen hundred years*
subjection has done its work ; and I can readily be-
lieve that many of the vices attributed to the Wal-
lacks are possessed by them, — ^for they are the vices
of slaves. They are not, however, without their
redeeming qualities.

In examining the characteristics of the Wallack,
if I appear somewhat as his apologist, it is because
I did not find him so bad as he was described to
me, and because it is natural to interest oneself
rather in defending the weak than in strengthening
the strong.

The Wallack is generally considered treacherous,
revengeful, and entirely deficient in gratitude. If

214 COWARDICE AND ITS CAUSE.

once insulted, he is said to cany the recollection of
it till opportunity fetvours his weakness and enables
him to accomplish his revenge. This is rather his
misfortune than his fault. If stronger, like other
people, he would revenge himself without waiting.

Cowardice is another fault very commonly attri-
buted to the Wallack. I remember Count S—
saying, he believed every other European, except the
Neapolitan and Wallack, might be made to fight. It
is certain that nothing depresses the courage so
surely as subjection* and so long a period of it as
these people have endured cannot have been with-
out effect ; yet the Wallack peasant is a bold and
successful smuggler, and no one is more ready to
attack a wolf or bear ; but it is hard to persuade
any, except very stupid men, to fight without a
better object than that of adding to the glory of
those they do not love. A long succession of ill
reatment has rendered them timid and suspicious.
A few years ago, a German Count settled among
the Wallacks, and with the kindest intentions en-
deavoured to excite them to industry by giving
rewards to those who best cultivated their land.
For this purpose, all the peasants of the village
were assembled together with due solemnity, but
no sooner did their seigneur appear among them
than the whole assemblage, as though seized with
a panic, started off, and could never be got together
again. They were firmly persuaded that some
trick was to be played upon them ; as for any one

IDLENESS. 815

doing them a service for their own sakes, expe-
rience had not taught them to think such a thing
possible. The treatment of the peasantry, however,
improves every year with the improved knowledge
of their masters. I knew an old Countess in Tran-
sylvania who used to lament that ** times were
sadly changed, — ^peasants were no longer so respect-
ful as they used to be ;"— she could remember walk-
ing to church on the backs of the peasants who
knelt down in the mud to allow her to pass over
them without soiling her shoes. She could also
remember, though less partial to the recollection, a
rising of the peasuitry, when nothing but the kind-
ness with which her mother had generally treated
them, saved her from the cruel death which many
of her neighbours met with.

The Magyar peasant holds the Wallacks in the
most sovereign contempt. He calls them ^* a peo-
ple who let their shirts hang out," from the man«
ner in which they wear that article of clothing
over the lower part of their dress ; and classes them
with Jews and Gipsies. Even when living in the
same village, the Magyar never intermarries with
the Wallack.

That the Wallack is idle and drunken it would
be very difficult to deny. Even in the midst of
harvest you will see him lying in the sun sleep-
ing all the more comfortably because he knows
he ought to be working. His com is always the
last cut, and it is very often left to shell on

216 BODILY WEAKNESS.

the ground for want of timely gathering; yet
scarcely a winter passes that he is not starving
with hunger. If he has a waggon to drive, he
is generally found asleep at the bottom of it; if
he has a message to carry, ten to one but he gets
drunk on the way, and sleeps over the time in
which it should be executed. But if it be diffi-
cult to deny these faults, it is easy to find a
palliation for them. The half-forced labour with
which the Hungarian peasants pay their rent, has
the natural tendency to produce not only a dis-
position, but a determination to do as little as
possible in any ^ven time. Add to this, that
at least a third of the year is occupied by feasts
and fasts, when, by their religion, labour is for-
bidden them ; that the double tithes of the church
and landlord check improvement; that the injus-
tice with which they have been treated has de*
stroyed all confidence in justice, and every senti-
ment of security; and it mil not then be diffi-
cult to guess why they are idle. The weakness
of body induced by bad nourishment, and still
more by the fasts of the Greek church, which
are maintained with an austerity of which Catho-
licism has no idea, and which often reduces
them to the last degree of debility, and some*
times even causes death, is another very efficient
cause. I have often heard this alluded to by land*
owners, who have declared, that vnth the best vrill
the Wallack could not perform the same amount

SPIRIT OF ENTERPRISE. 217

of labour as the well-fed German or Magyar.
An English labourer, of that sturdy independent
caste which is not yet, thank God, extinct among
us, observed to his travelled master who was tell-
ing him with how much less food the poor on
the Continent were contented, 7 Look ' ye, sir,
them foreign chaps may eat and drink less than
we do, but I '11 warrant they work less too. Them
as does not live well, can't work well." Never
did philosophy utter a more certain truth.

Another cause for laziness may be found in
the paucity of the Wallack's wants, and in the
ease with which they are supplied. The earth,
almost spontaneously, affords him maize for his
polenta, — or mamaligd, as he calls it, — and his
vfdfe manufactures from the wool and hemp of
his little farm all that is required for his house-
hold use and personal clothing.

Many Hungarians, I know, hold that it would
be impossible to cultivate, were rents substituted
for Robot, especially where the peasantry are Wal-
lacks ; but only let commerce open a fair market
and introduce desirable objects of purchase, and the
Wallack will scarcely belie principles of which all
ages and nations have proved the truth. There
is no want of enterprise among them, for nothing
pleases them more than a little commercial specu-
lation. Should a peculiarly fine season have sent
a better crop than usual, the Wallack will load his
little waggon, harness his oxen, provide himself

218 INGRATITUDE.

with his maize loaf and bit of bacon, and set off for
some distant market where he thinks he can turn
his produce to account. It is true, he sleeps on the
top of his load the whole way, perhaps he drinks
a good part of the money before he gets back, pro-
bably a Jew cheats him out of the rest of it in ex-
change for some worthless trinkets for his wife, —
still the spirit of commercial enterprise is there,
little as its benefits are felt.

When the new road was cutting between Orsova
and Moldova, there was no difficulty in finding
Wallack workmen at eightpence per day, though
they were employed at a labour to which they were
unaccustomed, which prevented them from returning
to their houses, obliged their wives to bring them
food from a great distance, and exposed them to many
inconveniences attendant on the nature of the un-
dertaking. Regular payment has great attractions ;
and, if successful in one case, there is every rea-
son to believe it would be so in others where the
circumstances are still more favourable.

When I hear the Wallack peasant accused of
want of gratitude, I am apt to lose patience, for
he has had so very little opportunity of indulging
in that feeling, that it is rather the fault of his
oppressors than of himself, if it be totally eradi-
cated from his nature. But I question the fact :
in some cases, his conduct bears the appearance
of ingratitude, merely because he suspects the
motive with which a benefit is conferred ; but

INGRATITUDE. 219

when understood, it is felt and acknowledged. An
intimate friend of mine, who, during the prevalence
of the cholera which raged so fearfully in Transyl-
vania in 1836, remained in his village, and who,
aided by his lady, rendered every assistance which
it was possible, both by medicine and personal ad-
vice, to the poor around him, had occasion, after
the cessation of the disease, and at the commence-
ment of harvest to leave home for a short time.
He hastened back, anxious to provide for the exi-
gencies of the season, which require the greatest
exertions on the part of the master in this coun-
try, and on his arrival he was astonished to find
everything finished. The peasants had collected
together of their own accord, and agreed to join
their labour, cut his com, and get in his harvest
before he came back, to show their gratitude for
his kindness to them in the hour of need.

Ignorant as the Wallack peasant may be, he can
distinguish between the man who merely wishes to
benefit him and the man who really does so. Every
landlord knows, that to gain his Wallack peasants'
hearts, it is only necessary that he should look
in upon their feasts, and accept their invitations
to marriages and funerals; in short, it is only
necessary that he should appear to be interested
in what really interests them, and he is certain
of their love.

The intractable obstinacy, which is often charged
against these people, because they refuse instruc-

220 LOVE OF PARENTS.

tion, and decline well-meant but injudicious efforts
to improve them, often arises from the affection
they entertain for their national language and re-
ligion, and from the fear that such means are em-
ployed only to rob them of these their only trea-
sures. A gentleman, who was desirous of improY-
ing his peasantry, established a school, appointed
and paid a master, and ordered that all the children
should attend. His chief object was to teach the
Magyar language, an object very desirable, and one
which, by judicious management, might be effected
in time ; but, unfortunately, in the present instance,
this was the first thing begun with. On revisiting
his estate^ after half a year's absence, he found his
school- room entirely deserted, and the schoolmaster
declaring that he could get no one to come to him.
On remonstrating with them, the peasants, with that
stupid air which the countryman can assume so well
when he wishes to conceal his cunning, answered,
that they were afraid their children might become
wiser than themselves, and cease to obey them. In
all probability, the priest had become alarmed, ex-
cited the fears of his flock, and forbidden them the
school. A little prudence, personal attention, and
foresight, would easily overcome such obstacles.

One of the Wallack*s most prominent virtues is,
his love for his parents, and his respect and care for
them in their old age. They would consider it a
disgrace to allow any one else to support their aged
and poor, while they could do it themselves ; and I

SUPERSTITION. 221

certainly do not remember to have seen any beggars
among them. The idiot is here, as with all the pea-
sants of Hungary, considered a privileged person, and
is allowed to make himself at home in every cottage.

There is among the Wallacks, a peculiar tenacity
to localities, which, besides having maintained them
in this land, where Romans, Goths, Vandals, and
Huns, in vain tried to gain a permanent footing,
still attaches them, notwithstanding the injuries and
injustice to which they are exposed, so forcibly to
their native villages, that if a possibility of exist-
ence remains, they rarely quit them. This tenacity
is an important fact, and ought to make the Mag-
yars very cautious how they attempt to force prema-
turely any reform in language, religion, or customs,
on such a people. They may, perhaps, be led ; — no
one yet has been able to drive them. Rude as he
is, the Wallack feels deeply ; he loves the land his
fathers tilled, the house his fathers lived in, the
soil where their bones have found a resting-place.
Such sentiments may sometimes interfere with the
schemes of the improver, or the profits of the spe-
culator ; but, utilitarian as I am, I should be sorry
to see this stuff of the heart bartered for such gains
as theirs : I hate the pseudo-philosophy which can-
not appreciate the utility of sentiment and beauty.

United to a very strong religious feeling, which
they manifest sufficiently by the exertions they
make to obtain suitable places of worship, they
possess a mass of superstition which mixes itself

222 SUPERSTITION.

up with eyery action of their lives. Many of their
beliefs and superstitious observances strongly resem-
ble those of some other nations ; whether from di-
rect communication, or because similarity of circum-
stances produces similarity of ideas, I leave others
to decide. The notion of hidden treasures being
concealed under old castles, in tombs, and such
like places, is very common; and, as in Tartary
and Circassia, the peasants here believe them to be
guarded by some evil spirit. In the old castle of
Gyalu, formerly a fortress of Rakotzy, now ren-
dered a very agreeable residence by Count Banfiy,
it has always been said that the treasures of that
unfortunate prince were buried. A few years since,
some of the servants obtained permission to dig
under the great gateway, where rumour located
the hidden wealth, and to search for it, and they
proceeded accordingly with their task ; but on the
second day, or rather night, — for they worked in
darkness, — something so mysterious and horrible
took place, that one of the men died of fright
soon after, and the others begged permission to
be sent away, though nothing could ever draw
from them the cause of their alarm, or induce them
to recommence their search.

Like the Turks, the Wallacks ornament their
burial places by planting a tree at the head and
another at the foot of every grave ; but, instead of
the funereal cypress, they plant the swetschen or
plum, from which they make their brandy,— a very

DOMESTIC MANUFACTURES. 229

literal illustration ^* of seeking consolation from the
tomb." For the death of near relations, thej mourn
by going bare-headed for a certain time ; — a severe
test of sincerity in a country where the excesses of
heat and cold are so great as here.

The village well is still, all ov» Hungary, the
favourite gossiping spot for matrons and maids.
There is a custom, which I often noticed among the
Wallacks, of throwing over a small quantity of the
water from the full pitcher before it is carried
away. It appears that this is done to appease the
spirit of the well, who might otherwise make her
pure draught an evil*bearing potion. Has this not
some analogy to the Roman libations to their gods ?
The analogy, if it be one, is strengthened by the
clajssically formed earthen vessels which the Wal«
lacks commonly use, and which are often exceed-
ingly elegant.

The only occupation in which the Wallack shows
any peculiar talent, is that of a carpenter ; here, I
believe, he is allowed to excel. His house frequents
ly bears proof of his taste in this particular in the
wooden ornaments about the gates, windows, and
roof; and it is rarely the church and cross are not
adorned with the rude carvings of the Wallack's
knife. Domestic manufactures, too, assume an im-
portance unknown amongst more civilized people*
The Wallack grows his own flax, his wife spins it
into yam, weaves it into cloth, dyes it of various
colours, cuts it out, and works it up into clothes for

2S4 VARHELY MILLS.

her family. The wool goes through nearly the same
processes; and is made to serve for leg wrap-
pings, aprons, jackets, and cloaks. The sheepskin
cap and sandals are mostly of home £eibrication,
so that this ignorant peasant has- more knowledge
of the ways and means of procuring for himself
what is necessary for his existence and happiness
than half the wise men of Europe : that he should
not, however, be a perfect master of so many trades
is scarcely wonderful.

Varhely contains some sad specimens of essays
in the millwright's art. Along the brook, which
bounds one side of the village, we observed a num-
ber of small wooden buildings placed across the
stream, and rising considerably above its surface.
One of these boxes, about eight feet square, we
entered, and found it a very primitive mill, man-
aged by two girls. The wheel was horizontal, and
placed in the middle of the stream, and below the
mill ; the water falling about one foot on the some,
what spoonshaped paddles. I do not know whether
the reader ever noticed the wheel in a patent
chimney- top, because the idea might have been
borrowed from a Varhely mill, so similar are they
in form.

The chief amusement of the Wallacks, after
sleeping and smoking, is dancing to the bagpipe
or fiddle. On the Sunday evening, a dozen men
will collect together, and, joining arms, dance ia
a circle, alternately advancing and retiring, beating

THE DEVIL'S DANCERS. 225

time with the feet, clapping the hands, and singing.
The women in the mean time stand round, waiting
till one or more of the men start out from the
circle, seize their fair prey, whirl her round for
some time in a rude waltz, and then, leaving her, re-
turn to the circle, dance again the same round, and
again, as the fancy seizes, choose another fair one
for the waltz.

The Wallack is a most resolute keeper of feasts,
and he very often at these times contracts debts,
— which are always scrupulously paid, — to enable
him to entertain with becoming honour his friends
of the neighbouring villages. On such occasions,
oxen and sheep are roasted whole ; wine and brandy
flow in rivulets ; the seigneur is invited in the good
old fashion to come and sanction by his presence his
peasants' sports ; and for three whole days a scene
of wild revelry, which often ends a little a V Irland^
aise, is kept up, with a vigour of which one would
scarcely have believed them capable.

The Wallacks, especially those of this neighbour-
hood, have a custom of which I never heard else-
where. A party of idle young fellows sell them-
selves, as they say, to the devil, for a term of three,
five, or seven years, — the number must be unequal,
or the devil will not hold the bargain, — engaging to
dance without ceasing during the whole of that pe-
riod, except when they sleep ; in consideration of
which, they expect their infernal purchaser will sup-
ply them with food and wine liberally, and render

VOL. IL Q

226 COUNTRY FARE.

them irresistible among the rustic belles. Accord-
ingly, dressed in their gayest attire, these merry
vagabonds start out from their native village, and
literally dance through the country. Everywhere
they are received with open arms; the men glad
of an excuse for jollity, the women anxious, perhaps,
to prove their power, all unite to feed and fete the
devil's dancers ; so that it is scarcely wonderful
there should be willing slaves to so merry a servi-
tude. When their time is up, they return home
and become quiet peasants for the rest of their
lives.

We had now spent two or three days at Varhely,
and it was quite time we should relieve the hospita-
ble family who had received us from the burthen of
our visit. When we found it so late on the second
day, that we could scarcely get to the next place
before dark hour, I desired the servant to intimate
our wish to trespass on them for another night. A
smile lit up the old lady's countenance as she came
in, and assured us as eloquently as words which we
did not understand, and looks that we did, could
do, that we were welcome to stay as long as we
pleased. It was a constant cause of regret to us
that we could only communicate with these good
people through the servant, for they frequently
came and sat with us; and indeed the pretty
little daughter was generally at work in our apart-
ment the whole afternoon. Though frugal, our fare
had been good; and our supper of this evening

BUFFALOES MILK. 227

maj serve as a sample. First, came on a paprika
hendd^ — not a stewed fowl with red pepper, such
as is often served up at more polished tables, —
but a large tureen of rich greasy soup, red with
paprika, and flavoured by a couple of fowls cut
up and swimming it. After this, came a dish
made of broken barley and milk, forming a thickish
paste, and, though not tempting in appearance, very
good. Some remarkably fine potatoes, boiled in
their jackets, and some fresh butter, followed by a
dessert of plums, apples, pears, and grapes, con-
cluded the meal. Meat we had only once, for in
these small villages where no rich proprietor lives,
butcher's meat cannot always be obtained. Wine
or beer, as I have said, they had absolutely none ;
and, but for the thoughtfulness of the lady of the
Mosaic, we should have been condemned to water.

Here, as well as in other parts of Transylvania,
we ei\joyed the luxury of buffalo's cream with our
coffee. Paris must hide her head for very shame,
— she has no idea of the luxury of true cafe a la
crime. In the first place, the buffiilo's milk is
much richer than that of the cow, and then the
method of preparing it here is perfect. Over-night,
a little three-legged earthen-pot, a JMoSj is placed
over a very slow fire, and, as the cream rises to the
surface and clots, it is gently moved on one side
with a spoon to allow more to rise on the vacant
space. This is placed aside, and the next morning
is boiled for use; of course, the clot is the best

228 DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS.

part, and a good house-wife divides it out with
great exactness. Bufialoes, rarely seen in Hungary,
are exceedingly common here, and their slow move-
ments seem to suit the Wallack precisely. Their
power is reckoned equal to that of twice as many
oxen, but their pace is only half as fast. In hot
weather, the sight of water renders them beyond
all control, and many amusing tales are told of car-
riages lodged in the middle of rivers, spite of driver,
whip, or goad. When excited, the fiiry of the
buffalo is said to be terrific, he tramples to death
the object of his rage, and a year rarely happens in
which some peasants do not fall victims to these
shapeless monsters.

During our sojourn at Varhely, we observed a
deficiency of what is considered, in every other part
of Europe, the most necessary article of bedroom
furniture, and for which it was rather perplexing
to find a substitute. It is odd enough, that among
the old-fashioned and primitive of the Transylva-
nians, an idea of shame is attached to the employ-
ment of such articles within the precincts of the
buildings they inhabit. This might be accounted
for by the circumstance that the bedrooms were
always formerly, and even still are among the
less wealthy, used as sitting-rooms; but it would
appear that it springs from a deeper feeling, for
the Magyars have a sense of cleanliness and of
decency connected with such matters which the
traveller will search for in vain over the rest

DOMESTIC ARRANGEMENTS. 229

of continental Europe, and which, even we, should
consider hyperdelicate. None have more preju-
dices, if such they can be called, on matters of
decency, than the Hungarian peasants. Certain
duties, which the delicate English housemaid does
not consider below her, the Magyar girl cannot be
brought to perform; so that in many houses, where
what the old people call dirty German customs are
introduced — for everything a greybeard thinks dirty
or immoral he calls German, — a gipsy girl is kept
expressly to execute the duties necessarily arising
therefrom. This poor creature, in consequence, is
regarded as unclean by the rest of the servants.

From the evidently straitened circumstances
of this family, we were anxious in some way to
repay them for the trouble we had given them, and
the servant said he thought it would be most
acceptable in money. They received what we
offered without shame or pretended hesitation. I
was not less pleased with this, than with the kind-
ness and courtesy of their whole conduct towards
ns. At first, when asked for a night's lodging, they
would not hear of anything in the way of remune-
ration; but when we had 'stayed some days with
them, and had put them to considerable expense,
and when they saw that we were rich enough to
pay, they then no longer hesitated to receive it.

2S0 VALLEY OF HJItSZEO.

CHAPTER VIII.

ROUTE TO KLAUSENBUBG.

Valley of Hdtszeg. — Wallack Gallantry. — Transylyanian Tra-
velling. ^— Arrival at Vayda HunyacL — ^The Gipsy Giri^r— Hun-
yadi J^nos. — Castle of Hunyad. — The painted Tower. — A
Deputation. — A Rogue found out.^Deva. — Valley of the Maros.

— H taken for a Spy. — Visit to the Mines of Nagy Ag. —

Politeness from a Stranger. — Transylvanian Post-office. —
Sandstone of the Felek.

It was on a cloudy wet daj that we turned our
backs on Varhelj, so that although we crossed the
entire valley, or rather plain of Hdtszeg, we saw
but little of its beauty ; occasionally a bright sun-
beam burst outy and gave us a glimpse of its glories,
but it passed too soon to allow us to appreciate or
enjoy them. We had been warned that the roads
in this neighbourhood were bad, but we found them
worse even than we had expected, and yet this is
the shortest and most direct route from Transyl-
vania to the Danube. From the state, however,
in which the road is kept, often so as to be dan-
gerous, and at times even impassable, the one by

WALLACK GALLANTRY. 281

Deva and Lugos, though much longer, is used in
preference.

It must be very bad weather indeed which the
traveller, in a new country, cannot turn to account
if he will ; in the present instance the wet muddy
road afforded us an opportunity of witnessing a
striking example of Wallack gallantry and Wal-
lack modesty. A stout peasant, wrapped up in his
guba of thick white cloth, was riding very com-
posedly through the wet, for it could not hurt him, —
while his wife was trotting in the mud by his side,
her clothes — ^/woA^w^cfor/— gathered up to her hips
to keep them out of the dirt. This mode of dis-
posing of their dress is exceedingly common among
the Wallack women, and it is not without some
astonishment that the stranger sees half a dozen
of them prepare in this manner to cross a brook,
which they do without the least feeling of shame.

The town of Hatszeg had no attractions to detain
us, and we started next morning for Hunyad, which
we were assured we should reach in two hours.
The first part of the road was bad, and we began
to doubt if we should arrive so soon as we ex-
pected. The horses and driver we had engaged
from the neighbourhood of Karansebes, to take us
as far as we required — for in this part of Tran*
sylvania, the peasantry are so poor that they have
few horses, and use either oxen or buffaloes for agri-
cultural purposes — were evidently unequal to the
task. I wished much to persuade our coachman

232 TRANSYLVANIAN

to let me take a relay of oxen, but he declared his
horses were capable of anythingy and would not
hear of help. The first hill beyond Hatszeg occu-
pied us an hour, for the road was nothing more
than soft tenacious clay, good enough perhaps in
dry weather, but now almost impassable. Fortu-
nately we were not without cause for consolation ;
for on getting out of the carriage to walk, and look-
ing back, our eyes fell on such a scene as I do not
think the world can equal in loveliness. The plain
from Varhely to Hatszeg, yellow with the over-ripe
maize, traversed by half a dozen streams, broken by
low hills, and sprinkled over with cottages and
country-houses, lay stretched out at our feet, its
mountain boundaries rising through the clouds,
which hung on their sides, and disclosing their
summits, whitened by the first fall of the autumn
snow, and all heightened by the magic lights and
shades of a fitful sky, formed a picture of most
exquisite beauty.

The first hill conquered, we descended to the
village of Szilvas, a collection of poor huts, appa-
rently shut out from the world by the hills which
surround it on every side. Up the steepest of these
hills our road now lay. In vain the horses exerted
themselves, — they were quite tired out. As we

passed through the village, S had observed

some oxen in a yard, and for these we now sent.
But their Wallack owner saw our need, and would
only let us have them on paying an exorbitant sum^

TRAVELLING. 2S8

and that, too, before they left his yard. There was
no help ; the money was paid, and the four oxen
were harnessed to the four horses. These beasts,
however, seemed to know the place, and most
resolutely declined drawing in the right direction,
and not all the flogging and pushing of the drivers
could prevent them from dragging us back into
the village. The peasant, however, was as cunning
as the oxen, and he determined to deceive them
by going another way, and, by crossing the plough-
ed fields, escape that part of the road. So far
all went well ; but we again reached the road, and
now both horses and oxen stood stock still ; they
seemed to have come to a mutual agreement to
draw no further. As for flogging and shouting,
there was no lack of either, for there were five of
us, and we all united voices and hands in the labour.
The beasts only kicked. Again we sent off for aid,
and comforted ourselves in the mean time with the
spare £are — some hard-boiled eggs and well gar^^
licked salami — which our prog-basket afforded.
After about an hour's waiting without any appear-
ance of the arrival of fresh relay — ^travelling in Tran-
sylvania demandeth much patience — ^a merry-look-
ing fellow, with a strong arm and long whip, came
singing by, and inquired the reason of our untimely
halt. No sooner did he hear that want of power,
not want of will, detained us, than angry, apparently
at the unreasonable conduct of the cattle — with
whom I am by no means sure he had not, like the

284 A TRANSYLVANIAN VIEW.

Irish whisperer, some secret intelligence — he gave
a few such persuading flourishes of his long whip,
that off set both oxen and horses, nor did they
stop their gallop till they reached the top of the
mountain.

While we waited there for the servant's return
we had leisure to enjoy the extensive panorama
spread out before us — plains, valleys, rivers, and
wooded mountains, backed by still higher moun-
tains rising over each other, as far as the eye could
reach. The valleys of Hdtszeg and Hunyad, the
plain before Varhely, the hill of Deva, with its ruin-
ed castle, lay all before us ; beyond them stretched
out the Iron-Door Pass, the often-mentioned moun-
tains of Wallachia, and the gold bearing peaks
round Szalatna. We could plainly perceive too the
course of the river Strehl, now formed into a re-
spectable stream by the union of the many brooks
of the valley of Hatszeg, and which had cut itself
a passage through the rocks to the Maros. It is
in this direction that the road between Hatszeg and
Deva ought to pass. I feel convinced that the
Roman road took this course, and as soon as ever
this part of Transylvania receives its fair share of
attention, — it is now by far the most uncultivated
and savage, — a great commercial road will un-
doubtedly unite, in this direction, Transylvania with
the Danube.

Before we reached Hunyad, H , who had

been left at Varhely in hopes of getting some

ARRIVAL AT HUNYAD. 285

Tiews of the valley, which, however, the doudj
weather prevented, overtook us in a light waggon
of the coontrj, with which he had gallopped over
diffioolties our heavier carriage had stuck fast in. It
was quite dark when we stopped before some house
where the sound of music led us to suppose we had
found an inn. We were mistaken, however, and
while the servant was making inquiries, and receiv-
ing answers which he could not understand, as to
. the whereabouts of the hostelry, a gipsy girl came
out of the house, and hearing the nature of our
diflScuIty, at once took the arrangement of the
matter on herself. At a single bound she threw

herself into H 's waggon, seated herself beside

him, and giving her orders to the peasant, desired
him to drive through the river up the steep bank
and along the deep road : — we being left to follow
them to the inn as best we could. Before we ar-
rived, our gipsy guide had roused the whole house,
got the keys of the chambers, unlocked the rooms,
and while we were yet joking H on his ad-
venture, the heroine of it had already lit the fires,
mended the cracked stoves,^ got the carriage un-
loaded, laid the cloth, and was cooking the supper,

* The common stoves are made of tiles of coarse earthenware,
the separate parts being imited together by day, which of course
xequires constant reparation, especially at the commencement of
winter. The vessel of water which Dr. Amot observed on the
ttoves on the Continent, and which he supposes to be placed there
to supply moisture to the atmosphere, is intended to absorb the
bad smell which a stove often emits.

236 OUR PRETTY GIPSY.

ere it was yet ordered. Eveiything waa bo quicWy
done, that it had an air of conjuration about it.
It was strange to find one who, five minutes be-
fore, we had never even seen, already our guide,
our hosteBS, our cook, our foctotum. Nor was the
interest lessened when we had time to obeerre our
mysterious friend. Lila was a pretty gipBy girl

of about sixteen, with features more regular than
those of her tribe commonly are, but with all a
gipsy's cunning flattery on her tongue. She was

OUR PRETTY GIPSY. 287

rather fancifully dressed, for over the Wallack
shirt she had a bodice of scarlet cloth, embroi-
dered with black. The coloured fillet over her
forehead was ornamented with a gay bow in front,
and behind each ear was a nosegay of the bright-
est flowers. Her rich brown hair, parted in front,
fell, in a profusion of clustering curls, on her neck,
and hung down the back in the long-braided band
of maidenhood. She spoke alternately Wa]lack,
Magyar, and German, as she in turns scolded, di-
rected, and coaxed. Before we ceased wondering
at so pleasant an apparition, a good supper was
smoking on the table, and the pretty gipsy by her
laughing and talking almost persuaded us that we
were supping on ambrosia, while she played the
gentle Hebe to our godships. We could never
understand the mystery which seemed to belong to
liila's movements. They told us she was a gipsy of
the neighbourhood, who often came into the town,
and who was allowed to be about the house as
much as she pleased. She had no occupation there,
yet she had done everything. The gipsies are gene-
rally such rogues that they are scarcely permitted
to enter any house, yet everything was perfectly
secure with her.

Our first duty at Hunyad, after taking breakfast,
which Lila, dressed more gaily than before, had pre-
pared for us, was to visit the old castle, as it is
liistorically interesting, having been built by the
greatest man Transylvania ever produced, Hunyadi

238 HUNYADI.

JanoSy the Governor of Hungarj and father of
Mattias Corvinus. Tradition assigns to Hunyadi a
descent from Sigismund, King of Hungary. The
tale runs thus : —

As Sigismund was passing through Tran£fylya-
nia, on his way to subdue his rebel vassal, the Woi«
wode of Wallachia, chance threw in his way a beau-
tiful Wallack girl, Elizabeth Marsinai, the pride of
the valley of Hatszeg. Without disclosing his rank
the gay monarch triumphed over the affections of
the simple peasant, and as he left her to prosecute his
wars, he gave her his signet ring, with the injunc-
tion, that when the fruit of their love should see
the light, she should carry it to the King, in Buda,
who on recognising the ring would be sure to treat
her and her child with kindness.

The following year, as Elizabeth and the infant
made their progress towards the distant capital, the
young mother, overcome by fatigue, fell asleep under
the shade of a tree. The child in the mean time
played with the ring, which hung like an amulet
round his neck. A mischievous daw, who watched
the infant's sports, at last hopped from his perch to
join the play, and seizing the bauble in his beak,
flew off with the prize. Awakened by the child's
cries, Elizabeth saw with horror all her hopes of
greatness dependent on the humour of a wicked
wilful bird. Her brother, her companion and pro«
tector in this long journey, was fortunately a keen
sportsman ; and, as he heard her wailing, an arrow

HUNYADI. 239

from his bow laid the cause of her sorrows at her
feet. The ring recovered, the little party joyfully
resumed their way, and when they reached their
destination, and recounted their adventures, the
delighted monarch could not sufficiently testify his
pleasure. He at once bestowed on his son the name
of Hunyadi, and presented him with the town of
Hnnyad, and sixty surrounding villages. The sur-
name of Corvinus, later adopted, with the arms, a
crow and ring, were assumed in memory of the
events of this journey, Szonakos, the village which
gave birth to Elizabeth, was declared tax free for
ever ; a right which it still enjoys.

The name of Hunyadi was destined to eclipse
even that of his royal fkther. Brought up amidst
the wars, to which the state of the times and the
increasing boldness and power of the Turks gave
rise, Hunyadi found himself called on at an early age
to protect the district over which he had been placed
from the inroads of the barbarians. In the reign of
Sigismund the Turks had ventured, for the first
time, across the boundaries of Hungary, and already
had the southern parts of Transylvania been ren-
dered scarcely habitable, so frequent and so fierce
had their attacks become. After the death of Al-
bert, and before his successor was determined on,
Hunyadi gained a series of glorious victories over
the Moslems, following them through Wallachia,
across the Danube into Bulgaria, and obliging them
to yield up possession of the fortresses of Servia

240 HUNYADI.

and Bosnia, thus placing all these countries under
the vassalage of Hungary. By the support chiefly
of Hunyadi, now strengthened by his Tictories, La-
dislaus V. was secured on the throne, and his first
act was to give peace to the kingdom, by a truce
with the Turks, most solemnly ratified for a period
of ten years. To this treaty Hunyadi was a party,
nor can any sophistry release him from the disgrace
of haying broken his word when, only a few days
after, the Pope's legate, by that miserable sophism
of the church, that faith is not to be held with
infidels, persuaded him to violate a solemn engage-
ment, and, unprovoked, recommence the war against
the Moslems. The treachery was, however, fear-
fully punished before Varna— the false King killed,
his army destroyed, and Hunyadi himself, flying
and at last imprisoned, was just retribution for the
crime.

After the death of the King, Hunyadi was ap-
pointed Governor of Hungary, during the minority
of Ladislaus VI, and though at the head of a power-
ful army, and surrounded by a large party, he never
attempted to grasp a higher power than that which
the assembled people had delegated to him. When
at the age of thirteen the King was placed upon the
throne by the machinations of Hunyadi's sworn
foes — no great man had worse ones, — he at once
gave up his power into the feeble hands which
could scarcely have wrested it firom him. The
feelings of the country, however, were so strongly

HUNYADI. 241

with him, that he was appointed captain-general
of the kingdom, and loaded with honours and en-
dowments.

The Turks had now taken Constantinople, and
all Europe was roused against them. Crusades
were preached ; the Monk Capistran, roused Chris-
tendom from its lethargy; and Hunyadi, aided by
the practised troops from Germany, again took the
field. His last campaign was his most brilliant one.
After a contest of three successive days, Belgrade
fell into his hands, and the Infidel hordes were
pursued by the victorious Christians almost to the
gates of Constantinople. But their Emperor had
little time to enjoy his victory, for in a few days
disease consumed a life which so many wars had
left untouched. But for Hunyadi Janos it is ex-
ceedingly probable that the Turks would have
swept over the whole of Europe, as so many of their
Eastern predecessors in invasion had already done,
and instead of being only on the outskirts as they
now are, we might have seen them established in
its very centre. Their career of victory was, how-
ever, checked, their thoughts of conquest turned
in another direction, and although, when weaker
hands than those of Hunyadi guided the reins of
government, they did gain a temporary footing in
Hungary, yet the confidence inspired by his victo-
ries enabled the Magyars to make head against
them, and finally to expel them from the land.

VOL. II. R

242

CASTI.E OF HUHYAD.

Tlie castle of Vayda* Hunyad is finely utuated
on a bold precipitous limestone-clifT, washed on three
sides by two small riTers, the Cserna and Zalasd,
which meet at this point. On the opposite side
of the Zalasd, lises another rock of the same
height, which slopes gradually down to the town,
and is fortified. From this second rock the castle
is approached by a long wooden bridge, at a dizzy

leight above the stream and road below. The
end of the bridge nearest the castle, by a simple
contrivance, is made to rise and fill up the

• It ia called Vayda (Woiwode, or Governor) Hunyad, from the
rank of the penon to whom it gave its name, and to dlitinguish it
from B&nfTy Hunyad, a town in another part of TnuiByWania.

CASTLE OF HUNYAD. 243

portal of the watch-tower, which it closes like a
door. This is the simplest drawbridge and gate,
as well as the most effectual, I ever saw, and, it is
still in constant use. There is no pulley or chain
employed ; it is so balanced that it can be raised
by placing the foot on the opposite end, the weight
of the body being sufficient to turn the scale and
to raise the huge mass in the air. The part of the
castle on the right of the entrance is that built by
Hunyadi, that on the left was repaired, and in part
built by a Count Bethlen, at a later date. The wall
on the right is almost unbroken by windows, except
near the top, where a singularly elegant Gothic bal-
cony runs along its whole length, forming a succes-
sion of windows fitted for the lighting of a long hall
or gallery.

On crossing the bridge, one of the officers of
the iron-works — for the castle now serves as a
depot for the Government iron obtained from the
mines in the neighbourhood — very politely offered
to conduct us over it. The interior forms an ir-
regularly shaped court, of which the solid rock
constitutes the pavement, and is completely sur-
rounded by the buildings of the castle. A gallery
runs round three sides of this court, and most of
the windows open upon it. We entered by a Go-
thic door on the right, and found ourselves in a
large room, extending along the whole of one side
of the castle divided by pillars in the centre, and
supporting a number of arches, on which rests the

244 CASTLE OF HUNYAD.

groined ceiling. On the capital of one of the pil*
lars a scroll, picturesquely disposed, bears the fol-
lowing inscription in Gothic characters: —

*" l^oc opufi fecit fieri magnificwaf Bdbmnta

mni usar

The proportions of this room are at present de<-
stroyed, by a partition which cuts off a part of it for
the convenience of the Government officers, who
use it as a counting-house. The rest of the space
is occupied by bars of iron. It is probable that this
part formed the Ritter Saal, though they assured us
it was on the story above. This, however, we found
divided into three or four very handsome rooms,
which are said to have been fitted up for and used
by the Emperor Francis, some years since. From
these rooms glass doors open to the Gothic balcony
I before spoke of, which is divided into several
compartments by solid walls, forming the most love-
ly little boudoirs imaginable. The opposite side
of the court is occupied by some of the officers,
as a dwelling, and a very handsome one it makes.
It is kept in very good order; indeed the whole
building seems in good repair, and nothing can be
more elegant than the drawing-rooms which the
huge round-towers form, nothing more beautifal
than the views presented from their windows.

About the largest tower there is something mys-
terious, for to all appearance it is a solid mass of ma-

THE PAINTED TOWER. 245

soDiy ; nor could our guide give any further account
of it. Attempts had been made, he said, to pene**
trate it, but nothing had been discovered ; it was
found solid throughout. The exterior of this tower
is still painted, as tradition reports it has been ever
since its erection. It is in black and white, dispos-
ed chequerwise, and looks as ugly as possible. I
have noticed in speaking of Arva, that the ancient
castles of Hungary were mostly painted outwardly ;
at the present time Hunyad is the only one, per*
haps, in which the custom is maintained. I have
observed, however, other buildings painted in Hun-
gary even at the present day. At Lugos, the Greek
church is ornamented in this way. If I mistake
not, private houses, in some old towns, still have
their walls painted ; but the best example, if I may
be allowed to anticipate, is in the old court-house
and prison of Klausenburg. This building is cov*
ered over with allegorical designs, and is divided
into compartments bearing wise Latin inscriptions,
in reference to the purposes of the building, and
the duties of its occupants. I am not aware that
this custom ever prevailed in England, or in any
other part of the Continent except Hungary, with
respect to the outer walls of castles, common as it is
in the inclosed courts and porticos of Italy. I know
of no instance in which the manner called fresco has
been employed in Hungary ; those I have seen were
all in common oil colours.

We were a little surprised on our return to the

246 A DEPUTATION.

inn, to receiye a request, through our servant^ that
we should accept a complimentary visit firom some
of the inhabitants of the town, as we were the
first Englishmen who were known to have passed
through Hunyad. It would have been difficult to
refuse this proffered civility, however little inclina-
tion we might feel to play the part assigned us, and
we therefore ordered in as many chairs as our mi-
serable room could contain, and turning the beds
into sofias, we sat in due state to receive the dele-
gates of Vayda Hunyad to our noble selves, — the
wandering representatives of the United kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland. The servant opened the
door with considerable ceremony, and announced the
names, titles and occupations of four as fat little
burgesses as could be found in any snug country
town of our own island. The spokesman of the
party, the fattest and most important person, was
the doctor, who expressed in a very complimentary
speech, in German, the pleasure they had in seeing
Englishmen, members of a constitutional country,
and Protestants like themselves, in their town, and
as we were the first who had ever so far honoured
it, they could not omit the opportunity, et cetera, et
cetera. Of course we could only express our deep
sense of the compliment paid us, our admiration of
the country, and our conviction, that as the fisicilities
of travelling became more general, the beauties of
Transylvania would attract many of our countrymen
to visit them. Thereupon Tokay and biscuits were

A DEPUTATION. 217

handed round, and a parley coinmenced» consisting
principally of questions on their side, apparently ar-
ranged by preyious concert, and propounded by the
doctor, which were answered on our part as we were
able. They consisted chiefly of inquiries relative to
points in English law and government, which had
puzzled them — no wonder, for they sometimes puzzle
even their own authors — in reading the journals,
and in regard to the appearance and character of
public men whose acts or speeches had interested
them. This was another proof of the consideration
our dear native land enjoyed among strangers, and
we were delighted to satisfy to the best of our
power an interest so flattering to England, and so
useful to other constitutional countries. In teach-
ing the world that a peaceable reform obtained by
moral al^s alone, is miore effectual than the most
brilliant revolution, England has done more for the
liberties of mankind than all the nations of ancient
or modem times.

After some time our visitors took their leave, and
we prepared to continue our journey, but a difficulty
arose which we had not expected. The bill which
the landlord presented to us for the very slender ac^
commodation received, was so exorbitant, that it
was impossible to overlook such gross imposition.
Suspecting that our servant was a rogue, I declined
his service as an interpreter on this occasion, and a
stranger kindly offered his assistance. It was well I
had recourse to this precaution, for I found the ras-

S48 A ROGUE DETECTED.

cal had been carousing all night with a party he had
accidentally met» and that he had desired the land-
lord to put the wine, — I forget how many quarts
each, — down to our account. On this exposure, and
on being subjected to some little abuse by the land-
lady for certain other offences, the fellow seized a
knife and advanced towards the woman with a threat
to murder her if she repeated her words. Luckily I
caught sight of the knife and obliged him to relin-
quish it, but I shall not easily forget his appearance
at that moment. He was a strong-built man with
an expression of countenance much resembling a
wolf, and he had become excited to the utmost fury
by the discovery. He was red and foaming with
rage when I threatened to strike him to the ground
(for I am fortunately a strong man,) if he did not
relinquish the knife, but in an instant, with a power
over himself I never saw equalled, he bowed low,
and in his usual humble voice replied, ^* Certainly, if
my master commands it." I need hardly say that
I got rid of him as soon as possible, for I hold that
no rogue is so dangerous as one who can command
himself. On a former occasion my suspicions had
been raised against him from finding my pistols un-
loaded and stuffed with dirt ; a precaution which I
have no doubt he had adopted in case of detection
in any roguery.

As we got into the carriage, Lila was there to
bid us adieu. Her beauty, her good-humour, and

GOLD MINES OF NAGY AG. 249

het happy way of rendering herself usefhl, made us

quite sorry to* part with her, and I believe S

did propose to equip her " en jockey and take her
with us ; but S— is a wild fellow ! I know no-
thing can be more ridiculous than to fancy a gipsy
sentimental, and yet, in spite of ridicule, I would
swear I saw a tear glisten in the poor girl's eye as
we drove off. A few kind words are rarely lost even
on a gipsy*

At Deva, our next station, we spent, or rather
misspent^ a couple of days; for placing ourselves
under the guidance of a young gentleman who offer-
ed to show us the lions of the neighbourhood, we
saw only what he thought lions and not what we
should have selected as such.

About ten miles from Deva, there are some of the
richest gold mines in Transylvania, those of Nagy
Ag and Szekerem, and to these he promised to
conduct us. With great difficulty we got to the
foot of the mountain, over almost impassable roads,
where we found oxen ready to drag us up the near-
ly perpendicular rock, and several peasants in at-
tendance to hold the carriage from falling over. We
had often occasion to wonder at the dislike the
Hungarians seem to have to walking, but from imi-
tation we fell into their customs, sitting still in our
carriage to be slowly dragged through and over
places which we could have surmounted much more
easily and quicUy on foot. Once at the mines, we

250 DEVA.

were conducted along a new railway adit, which I
of course imagined would conduct us to the work-
ings ; but, alas ! it will only get there some years
hence, for it is yet unfinished, and in the mean
time we were obliged to content ourselves with the
ride on the railroad for our trouble, it being de-
clared too late to see the other works when we got
back. Our guide assured us that many ladies and
gentlemen came to see the railway, but nobody
thought of going into the mines, so that he had no
idea we could have wished such a thing.

The quantity of gold and silver obtained here,
though less than formerly, is still considerable ; not
less than one hundred and fifty marks of gold, and
seven hundred and fifty of silver, per annum. These
mines are peculiarly interesting to the mineralogist
as being the richest in tellurium of any in Europe ;
indeed it was here that metal was first discovered.
I afterwards saw a specimen of pure gold from
Szekerem, in the form of a tree, — I think mine-
ralogists call it tree-gold. It was two inches high,
standing quite out from the matrix, and was most
beautifully branched and foliated.

Deva, situated on the banks of the Maros, is
worth visiting, were it only for the view from the
old castle. On the very point of a rock, which rises
above the little town, stand the ruins of a fortress,
said to have been begun by the Romans, though
it was probably used for such purpose ever since

VALLEY OF THE MAROS. 251

the country was inhabited. It is now, howeyer,
a very small ruin, although ' a number of walls
and turrets on different parts of the hill show the
extent the castle once had. It has lately been re*
paired in a tasteless manner, and now serves as a
watch-tower for a few frontier soldiers.

The view extends, towards the west, along the
beautiful valley of the Maros, and, to the east, as
far as the blue mountains of Zalatna, which were
tipped with the first fall of the autumn's snow.
Lover as I am of rivers and valleys, I know few
that I prefer to the Maros, and its vale. I shall
have opportunity enough hereafter of describing the
higher part of this river, for I afterwards traced it
nearly to its source, but of its downward course I
may as well speak now, though I did not visit it till
a later period.

The first part of the Maros valley, towards the
borders of Hungary, is rich, well wooded, and occa^
sionally ornamented with pretty country houses. At
Dobra the road leaves it, and I know nothing more
of it till some time after it has reached Hungary.
Those, however, who are acquainted with the border
district, describe it as wild to the last degree ; — the
river bound in its channel by precipitous rocks,
and the valley darkened by forests of the native
oak which have never known the woodman's axe.
At Kapolnas the valley widens considerably, and
presents a scene of extraordinary loveliness. For

262 VALLEY OF THE MAROS.

perhaps fifteen miles in length, by three or four
in width, extends a plain covered with white vil-
lages, and groaning under the richest crops of
corn, surrounded on every side by mountains c(v
vered to their summits by forests of oak, and tra-
versed in its whole extent by the river now grown
wide and powerful.

There are few things in any country which have
struck me as being more beautiful than this part
of the valley of the Maros, but it is completely
unknown even to Hungarians. The whole of it at
present belongs to the Kammer; and as it is sub-
ject to frequent inundations, against which no pre-
cautions are taken, its inhabitants are doomed
to much poverty and suffering. When sold, as it
will shortly be, it is to be hoped that private
capital and enterprise will make it the elysium
which nature seems to have intended it should
become.

How far steam-navigation vnll succeed on the
Maros, in its present state, is extremely doubt-
fill, M it is a very wide and wayward stream, and
in summer has sometimes not more than two feet
of water ; but there is no doubt it might be made
navigable, and probably it will be, as soon as in-
creased population on its banks shall demand an
outlet for their productions.

As H was too unwell to-day to climb the

castle-hill on foot, and yet unwilling to leave with-

H TAKEN FOR A SPY. 258

out some memorial of the scene, a peasant was
found who undertook to convey him to the sum-
mit in a leiter-wagen. Up accordingly he went, and
just as he had placed himself comfortably to his
work, a borderer from the castle, stepping cauti-
ously as a cat about to seize a mouse, hastened
towards him till he was stopped at a little dis-
tance by the driver. H had observed the

man, but as the latter contented himself with
holding a long and loud colloquy with the Wal-
lack, and as H did not understand the lan-
guage, he took no further notice of him, nor
did the soldier offer any other molestation to the
artist, than by keeping a very sharp eye on his
movements, and never quitting the wagen till it
arrived at the inn. Judge then of H 's sur-
prise, on coming down, to be congratulated at his
escape from imprisonment! The simple grenzer,
persuaded that the ruins of Deva formed a most
important fortress, had come to arrest the daring
spy who was taking a plan of its defences, and
was armed with a rope which he was just about
to throw over H ^'s arms when the peasant in-
terposed, and with great difficulty persuaded him
to delay the seizure till he had accompanied him
to the village, and informed himself better on the
subject. It was a very good joke when so well over,
but it might have been otherwise ; to be suspected
as a spy, bound, and in the hands of a very rude

254 TRANSYLVAMIAN ROADS.

and ignorant soldiery, is a position by no means free
from danger.

Nor was this the only adventure which befell onr
luckless friend at Deva. While quietly finishing his
sketches in the inn, he observed an ill-conditioned
fellow staring at him through the half-opened door,
when, calling the servant, he desired him to inquire
his business. Upon this the ill-conditioned man

became excessively abusive, declared that " H

was a spy, a rogue, a German, or something still
worse ; that he saw things which he was sure were
for no good, and that he would denounce him to
the authorities." The servant requested him to
change his quarters, but he protested he was a
Nemes Ember^ and would stay where he liked, and
do what he liked. As soon as the authorities heard
of this affiiir, they sent to beg we would excuse
the brutality and ignorance of an individual, who
had never seen more of the world than his native
county, and who was notorious as one of the most
troublesome fellows in it, assuring us at the same
time that they had taken care that we should not
be subject to any further molestation.

We had been promised vorspann at five in the
morning to take us on the next stage to Sz^varos ;
but at ten, in spite of repeated demands, no horses
had appeared, and we were obliged to order post-
horses. In Transylvania, generally, it is extremely
difficult to obtain vorspann ; indeed, I believe it is

A stranger's politeness. 255

not allowed to any one except the ofEcers of the
county, or of the crown. On the other hand, the
post is much better than in Hungary; and the
principal roads are mainttuned in a state that
ought to put many continental states to the blush.
The cross roads, however, are in a most deplorable
condition here ; — nothing can be worse. Count
S— — , I remember, said he travelled for six weeks
in Transylvania, and was overturned six times.

As we approached Miihlenbach, where we meant
to remain for the night, a heavy snowHBtorm warn-
ed us that winter was setting in, and induced us to
change our intended route, and, instead of proceed-
ing to Hermanstadt, to go directly to Klausenburg.
The inn was so full, that they had no apartment to
offer us but a very small room, where it was impos-
sible to stow three beds ; and we were preparing to
encoimter the night and storm on the road, when a
gentl^oan, who had preceded us, sent to offer his
large room in exchange for our small one. As this
was a person we had never seen, and who knew only
that we were foreigners, and in difficulty, it is
worth adducing, as one of the thousand proofe of
the civilities we received merely in right of our
character as strangers. This gentleman joined us
in the evening, and proved to be a Szekler con-
nected with the post-office. He was a very agreea-
ble companion, from whom we received much infor-
mation, which the reader will have the benefit of at

256 THE SZAMOS.

the proper time and place. With respect to the
department in which he was employed, he assured
us, that the reports so often repeated of letters be-
ing opened were entirely without foundation, as fiur
at least as Hermanstadt was concerned ; and, he be-
lieved, they were equally unfounded with respect to
every other place in Hungary and Transylvania. As
to what took place at Vienna, he knew only from
hearsay.

As we returned next morning for a short distance
on our road of the preceding evening, we found we
had passed over a plain of some extent, and called
from its richness the Kenyer Mezo (bread-field), il-
lustrious in Transylvanian history for a great victory
gained over the Turks by one of their native princes^
Bathori Istvan, in 1479.

I shall say nothing more of our journey to Klaus-
enburg, which occupied us two days, for we scarcely
put our heads out of the carriages, so miserably
cold and wet had it become ; and, as we shall pass
over the same ground when we visit the mines
of Zalatna, it is of no importance. As we reached
the summit of the long hill, down whick a wind-
ing road of two or three miles* descent leads to the
capital, the sun was pleased to show himself ere
he set over the now white mountains, and gave
us a beautiinl glimpse of the valley of the Szamos,
with Klausenburg in the midst just below us. The
Szamos is the second river in Transylvania in point

THE FELEK. 257

of size, and flows through another of those valleys
which give to this country the appearance of a mass
of small mountains traversed in various directions
by rivers, which have cut out for themselves water-
courses from one hundred yards to a mile or two in
width, occasionally, where a tributary stream lends
its force, widening into small plains like those of
Hatszeg, Kenyer Mezo, Harom-szek, and Thorda.
The principal roads are formed along these valleys,
so that travelling in Transylvania presents a succes-
sion of beautiful scenes rarely to be met with in
other lands.

A curious substitute has been found for curb-
stones to the bridges and dangerous places in the
descent of the Felek hill. The stratum, a fine sand-
stone, has formed itself naturally, in some places,
into nearly perfect globes of considerable size, —
four-times that of a man's head, — which are used
as curb-stones, and which answer perfectly well for
the purpose to which they have been applied. I
observed one place on the road where these stones
were quarried, and it appeared that they were
formed between two layers of the sand-stone, some
of them assuming the cylindrical form ; but almost
all more or less nodulated. We galloped down the.
Felek hill at a tremendous rate, chiefly, I believe,
because the weak horses, and weaker harness, had
not strength enough to hold back ; nor did we
feel ourselves safe till we whirled through one of
the old-fashioned gates of Klausenburg, and were

VOL. n. s

S58

TRANSYLVANIA.

rattling over its rough pavement. The only tol-
erable inn vcithin the walls was full, and we were
fain to content ourselves with such accommoda-
tioQ as was furnished by the best of those in the
suburbs.

TRANSYLVANIA. 359

CHAPTER IX.

TRANSYLVANIA. — HISTORY AND POLITICS.

TransyWaniB. — Its Population. *-> Settlement of the Szeklers, —
of the Magyars^ — of the Saxons^ — ^under Woiwodes. — Zapolja.
— Native Princes. — Bethlen Gdbor. — Aristocratic Demo-
eracy. — Union with Austria. — Diploma Leopoldinum. —
Confinned hy Maria Theresa. — Actual Form of Goyemment. —
Constitution infringed. — Opposition. — Baron Wesselenyi —
County Meetings. — Grievances. — General Vlasits. — r Diet of
1834. — Archduke Ferdinand. — History of the Diet. — Violent
Dissolution. — Moral Opposition.

A smtANGE little country is this Transylvania!
Very likely the reader never heard its name before,
and yet some hundred years ago it was in close
alliance with England ; and, long before religious
liberty, annual parliaments, payment of members,
and the election of magistrates were dreamed of,
amongst us, they were granted to Transylvania, by
a solemn charter of their Prince, the Emperor of
Austria. Here is this country on the very limits
of European civilization, yet possessing institutions
and rights, for which the most civilized have not
been thought sufficiently advanced.

The distinctions and differences among the popu-

s 2

S60 TRANSYLVANIA.

lation of Hungary have offered us a singular spec-
tacle enough, but the Transylvanians far outpass
them in these matters, as they vary among them-
selves, not only in language, race, and religion, but
in civil laws and political institutions. The Mag-
yar, the -Szekler, the Saxon, and the Wallack,
have all their rights, but differing most materially
in nature and extent from each other. The whole
population of the country does not amount to more
than two millions,* yet they have among them four
established religions, — besides several others tole-
rated, — at least four languages, and I know not
how many different national customs, prejudices,
and modes of feeling.

It is not my intention to enter upon these
matters at any length. Suffice it to say, that
there are three nations, the Magyar, the Szekler,
and the Saxon, which have each a part in the
government of the country. They inhabit differ-
ent districts; the Magyars, the whole west and
centre; the Szeklers, the east and north; and
the Saxons the greater part of the south ; and

* The best statistical authority on which I can lay my hand i&
a small geography of Transylvania, by Lebrecht^ published as far
back as 1804. The whole population is estimated at 1,^58,559
(without the clergy); of these^ 729,316 are Wallacks; about
958,596 Magyars; about 128,085 Szeklers; 181,790 Saxons;
while of Gipsies, Jews, Greeks, Armenians, and Bulgarians, there
are about 65,772. In the " Transylvania," published in 1888,
it is conjectured to have risen to 2fiS4f,S75, including the
TransyWanian military Borderers.

TRANSYLVANIAN HISTORY. 261

with these are mixed up a number of Wallacks,
Gipsies, Jews, Armenians, &c. In order to give
the English reader some idea of this country, and of
its present state, I believe it will be best to dedicate
a page or two to its previous history.

When the Romans finally retired from Dacia,
and Aurelian offered as many of the inhabitants as
chose to accept it, a refuge in Moesia, which he
named his Dacia,* the country was left defence-
less, and open to the incursions of those barbarous
hordes which in turn cursed Europe with their de-
vastating presence. The greater part of these seem
to have passed and repassed Transylvania, without
either effecting the total destruction of the Dacians,
or being able to establish themselves in the country.
Of one of them, however, a considerable number —
whether cut off from the principal body of the
enemy, or separated by some quarrel among them-
selves, or stationed to retain a command of the
mountain passes, and so facilitate a return, is un-
known — were left behind the rest ; and there their
descendants remain to the present day. These
are the Szeklers.

From which of these savage nations the Szeklers,
or Siculi, are derived, is one of those historical
puezles in which the learned of Hungary are fond
of losing themselves. Attila and his Huns, having
gained the widest renown, if not the best, Szekler

* The Wallacks, still found in some parts of Bulgaria, are pro-
bably the descendants of those who followed Aureliui.

S62 INCURSION OF THE MAGYARS.

antiquaries generally fix on them as their fore-
Others. But, be that as it may, the Magyars
found them where they now are, on their entering
the country in the tenth century ; and as they were
evidently of the same family — for their language,
features, character, all declare them Magyars, —
they were received into favour, and allowed to re-
tain free possession of their lands, on condition of
guarding the frontier.

The Magyars made themselves masters of Dacia
and Pannonia as early as the beginning of the
tenth century, and from that time till 1626, Tran-
sylvania was little more than a part of Hungary,
though it must be confessed a very unruly part. A
certain degree of independence it still maintained.
It was governed by a Woiwode, appointed by the
King of Hungary, who seems to have held Diets
to consult with the nobles on the affisiirs of the
country. These meetings were sometimes even pre-
sided over by the Kings of Hungary themselves.
During the greater part of this period, Transylvania
was rarely without suffering the evils of domestic
or foreign warfare, and so terribly vras the popula-
tion diminished, that whole tracts of countiy lay
waste for want of cultivators. To supply this defi-
ciency, foreign colonists were invited to re-people
the wasted districts. As early as the middle of
the twelfth century, a colony of Germans, fit>m
the Rhine country, were tempted by the offer of
a fertile soil, and by a promise of the enjoyment

SEPARATION FROM HUNGARY. 268

of their own customs and religion, as well as of
certain other privileges, to settle in the nearly de-
serted Transylvania. It is to this colony the pre-
sent Saxons owe their origin.

It was not till the battle of Mohacs had reduced
the power of Hungary to so low an ebb, that she
accepted an Austrian Emperor for her King, and
till she so far forgot her ancient traditions, as
eventually to establish the succession hereditary
in that family, that Transylvania, under Zapolya,
threw off her dependence on Hungary, and pro-
claimed herself an independent state. Zdpolya's
views were not confined to Transylvania; his ob-
ject was the crown of Hungary, and it is certain
that his schemes during the weak reign of Lud*
wig II. constantly tended to that object, and it is
even suspected that his absence from Mohacs was
caused by the same ambitious motive. Be that as
it may, although actually crowned at Stuhlweissen-
burg, and although supported by a large party, he
was unable to establish himself on the throne, and
he was finally reduced to the principality of Tran-
sylvania, which he may be said to have founded.

Transylvania achieved her independence, if such
it can be called, under bad auspices, for Zapolya
submitted to the degradation of paying a tribute
to the Porte, as the condition on which he should
receive aid against the arms of Austria. For more
than a century and a half, Transylvania continued
in this state of partial independence, sometimes

261 TRANSYLVANIA UNDER PRINCES.

paying tribute to the Porte, sometimes seeking the
support of Austria, but always throwing off her
allegiance, both to one and the other, the moment
her own strength, or rather their weakness, afford-
ed her the slightest chance of doing so with im-
punity. During this period, the country was go-
verned by native princes, generally chosen by
the Diet, but rarely without the intervention of a
Turkish Pasha, or an Austrian ambassador, and,
sometimes, they were nominated by one of these
powers without even the form of an election.
Short as was the time, Transylvanian historians
enumerate with exultation, no less than twenty-
four possessors of the Crown, as if the number of
princes increased the brilliancy of the epoch. Of
these, one reigned only a single day, others not
more than a year ; and it often happened that two
reigned at the same time, the one acknowledging
himself a vassal of Austria, the other a tributary
of the Porte. Of all these princes, but few have
either acquired or deserved an European reputa-
tion. Bethlen Gabor, who presided over the des-
tinies of Transylvania, nearly at the same period
as Cromwell over those of England, is the most
striking exception ; like Cromwell, he was a staunch
adherent to the doctrines of Calvin, a successful
general, and a man of most determined resolution,
and untiring energy. As a sign of the times, rather
than as a characteristic of the man, it may be men-
tioned that Bethlen composed psalms which are

BETHLEN GABOR. S65

still sung in the Befonned churches, and that he
read the bible through twenty times. Two of Beth-
len's most constant objects were the banishment of
the Jesuits from Transylvania, and the securing the
rights of the Protestants in Hungary; but to ac-
complish the first, he did not hesitate to persecute
to the death, and the second seems to have been
rather a cloak to ambition than the object in which
that ambition centered. The part which Bethlen
took in the Thirty Years' War, gave a European
importance to Transylvania, such as it never before
nor since that time has enjoyed. For many years
Bethlen's favourite project was the restoration of
the kingdom of Dacia, including Transylvania and
Hungary east of the Theiss, in favour of himself,
and the only reason that can be assigned for his
having abandoned this object was, the failure of
heirs to inherit his power and glory. He died
childless. Thef engagements of Bethlen with the
chiefs of the Thirty Years' War, the faithlessness
of the Jesuit ministers of the Austrian court, and
the discontent of the Protestants of Hungary, to-
gether with his own ambition, made the life of
this prince a constant series of intrigues and wars.
That his character should come out quite clear
from such a trial is hardly to be expected ; in-
deed, in the intricate mazes of policy, there seems
to have been few paths, however tortuous, which
he did not tread ; yet it is impossible not to admire
the greatness of his designs, the fertility of his re-

266 CIVIL WARS.

aources, his diplomatic skill, and the nohle prin-
ciple of religious liberty, for which he professed
to straggle.

What the strength and canning of a Bethlen
Gabor was unable to hold in peace and security,
the comparative feebleness of his successors ren-
dered a perpetual object of contest. For a long
series of years, Transylvania was engaged in wars,
half political, half religious, in which neither the
bigotry of the mass was rendered respectable by its
sincerity, nor the restless turbulence of the chieft
by their faith or disinterestedness. The protestants
of the mountains of Transylvania, and the half
nomad population of the plains of Hungary, were
ever ready to engage in expeditions, where their
faith was to be defended, and plunder to be gained*
Nor were adventurous leaders wanting; who, if
they did not gain freedom from the struggle, rarely
failed to increase their patrimony by obtaining rich
grants of lands ere their 2eal could be cooled. As
the first battle of Moh&cs may be said to have given
rise to this state, so the second battle of Mohacs
may be considered to have put an end to it.

It has often astonished me to hear Transylva^
nians speak of the period during which they were
ruled by native princes, as the golden age of their
history, the epoch of national glory, the time to
which their national songs and legends all relate.
Is it that national independence has such charms
for a people, that civil war, with all its horrors,

ORIGIN OF INOTITUTIONS. 267

foreign invasion, with all its suite of crimes can be
forgotten under the influence of its magic name?
It must be so ; and yet are there men who dare to
mock such sentiments, and who dispose of nations
with as little regard to their feelings as if they
were flocks of sheep.

Perhaps, too, it may be that this period was the
one most fruitful in the establishment of free in-
stitutions, of which the benefits are still felt. If
the weakness of Transylvanian princes gave a vast
weight to the demands of the aristocracy, their
need of support during such long wars, induced
them to extend the privileges of that aristocracy
to so great a number as to render it almost a
democracy. It is to this circumstance we must
attribute the character of freedom which distin*
guishes the institutions of Transylvania.* It was
no longer a privileged few demanding power to re-
strain the suffering many. The aristocracy became
a people, demanding liberty for all, except the con-
quered part of the nation. The establishment of
equal rights for four denominations, at a time when
all the rest of Europe was persecuting for religion's
sake, was an act so far above the paltry spirit of
oligarchic legislation, that we can account for it in

* Transylvania can scarcely be considered an aristocracy any
more than America can. The native Indians and negroes of
America — ^the free negroes of the North, I mean, for Transylvania
knows nothing so degrading as absolute slavery — occupy the place
of the gipsies and Wallacks of Transylvania ; the rest of the inha-
bitants of both countries enjoying nearly equal rights.

268 TRANSYLVANIA UNDER AUSTRIA.

no other way than by reference to that great ex-
tension of political rights enjoyed by the Transyl-
Yanians, and which was in a great measure achieved
under their native princes.

Another circumstance which has made the Tran-
sylvanians look back to the government of their na-
tive princes with affection and regret, is the iright-
ful persecutions to which, in the earlier times of
their subjection, they were exposed at the hands of
foreign masters, and in later days, the violence with
which their constitutional rights have been tram**
pled under foot. The names of Basta, Caraffa, and
Heister, generals of Austria, to whom the task of
oppressing Transylvania was in turn committed, are
never mentioned without a shudder, even to the
present time. The peasant still tells his children
of the sad days when Basta, after having taken
all their cattle, harnessed their forefathers to his
waggons, and thus supplied his army with forage
and transport.*

Without attempting to trace the constitutional
history of Transylvania step by step, through its
various phases of developement, it may be worth
while to pause a moment, and examine its great
foundation-stone, the celebrated Diploma Leopoldi*
num, as it not only contains the chief elements of
the form of government which has been in opera-
tion from the day on which it was granted to the

* A kind of wheelbarrow was introduced for that purpose by
Basta^ and they are still called Ba^ta szek^r, or Basta's carriages.

TRANSYLVANIA UNDER PRINCES. 269

present, but may serve also to give us some notion
of the progress made by the nation previous to the
period when it was obtained. The want of good
historians of Transylvania, — at least in the German
language, and I believe also in the Hungarian, —
the disturbed and unsettled character of the period
itself, and the fact that the institutions were then
rather forming than formed, must be our excuse
for not entering more fully into the political con-
dition of the country, previous to the date of the
Diploma. It is certain, however, that the princes
were elected,* but the form of election was exceed-
ingly indeterminate, and the supreme power was
more frequently obtained by force of arms than by
a majority of votes. The Diets were held annually
under some princes, nearly dispensed with by others*
The members were in part elected, in part nomi-
nated, and in part, I suspect, even hereditary.

In judging of the state of legislation previous to
the Diploma Leopoldinum, it must not be forgotten
that Austria obtained the election of the Emperor,
as Prince of Transylvania, chiefly through the in-
fluence of treachery on the part of one or two

* I have been astonished to hear really sensible men refer to
the time when they elected to, — that is quarrelled for, fought for,
intrigued for, bribed for, betrayed for, — the throne as a period of
glory, and the loss of that privilege as the greatest misfortune. I,
on the contrary, believe sincerely that the greatest — some might say
the only — advantage Hungary and Transylvania have received from
their connexion with Austria, is the loss of this right, and the esta-
blishment of an hereditary succession to the crown.

270 DIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM.

TransjIvanianSy seconded by the weakness of the
aged Prince Apaffi» and bj the presence of a large
army under Caraffa, and that the Diploma was
therefore little more than a compromise, forced
on the country, between the absolute principle of
the Austrian Government, and the almost repub-
lican forms then in use in Transylvania.

The first article of the Diploma gives an assur-
ance of equal rights to the four religions, — viz.
the Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, and Unitarian,
and the permission to build new churches wherever
their numbers may require them.

The second secures to each religion, all the lands,
tithes, benefices, foundations, churches, schools^ &c.
then actually possessed by them, although they may
have belonged formerly to the Catholics.

The third insures the Transylvanians the enjoy-
ment of their civil privileges, according to the esta*
blished laws of Hungary, while by the Saxons their
own municipal organization is to be retained.

By the fourth it is promised that nothing shall
be changed in the form of government, in the
appointment of the Privy Council, in the constitu-
tion of the Diet, the manner of voting, or the admi-
nistration of justice, except the right of appeal to
the Crown.

The fifth excludes foreigners from the possession
of offices.

By the sixth it is declared that property re-

PIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM. 271

verting to the Crown, by the extinction of families,
shall be bestowed on other deserving persons^ and
that Transylvanians possessing property in Hungary
shall enjoy it with the same rights as Hunga-
rians.

By the seventh it is stipulated that the President
of the Privy Council, the Commander-in-chief of
the Transylvanian Militia, the Chancellor, the mem-
bers of the Privy Council, the Prothonotaries, and
other high dignitaries, must be natives^ chosen by
the Diet, although requiring the royal assent to their
election.

By the eighth it is provided that in the Privy
Council a fourth of the members shall be Catholics,
as likewise in the supreme courts of justice.

By the ninth an annual Diet is guaranteed, the
dissolution to depend on the royal will.

It is stipulated by the tenth that the Governor
shall reside in the country, and that he, ss well
as the Privy Council and the members of the court
of justice, shall be paid by the Crown.

It is agreed by the eleventh that in peace the
country shall pay an annual tribute of fifty thou-
sand thalers ; in time of war, against Hungary and
Transylvania, four hundred thousand florins, includ-
ing supplies delivered in kind. The assessment of
this sum to be left to the Diet. All other charges
are to be borne by the Crown out of the Kammeral
revenues derived from the Fiscal estates, salt-tax.

S72 DIPLOMA LEOPOLDINUM.

metal tax, among the Saxons the customB' tenth,
and in the Hungarian counties the tithe rent.*

By the twelfth the free Szeklers are to remain
tax free, but bound to do military service.

The thirteenth provides that the taxes, duties,
and customs, shall not be increased beyond what
they had previously been.

By the fourteenth the tithes are to be rented by
the land-owners, but the fiscus is to receive the
arenda canon or composition.

By the fifteenth the country is required to main-
tain troops for its occupation and protection under
the command of an iVustrian general ; but he is
not to mix in civil aifairs, and must maintain a
good understanding with the Governor, the Diet,
and the Privy Council, in matters of war.

By the sixteenth the people are to be relieved
from the burden of supporting and lodging travel-
lers, by the establishment of posts and inns.

Although the Austrian power was long rendered

* This tithe-rent arises from the secularization of all the church
property under one of the princes^ — I think the Unitarian Zapolya
Zsigmund. Previous to that time the nobles had paid tithe to the
church, they were now to pay it to the fiscus. As the collection
in kind more than swallowed up the profits of the tax^ it was
generally let^ or compounded for^ by a fixed sum of money, pcud
by the nobles, who had then the right to collect the tithe from
their own peasants. This composition is paid to the present day.
— A great part of the Transylvanian clergy of the established re-
ligionB are paid by the Oovemment. The Oreek church alone,
entirely maintains its own.

TRANSYLVANIA UNDER AUSTRIA. 278

uncertain by a series of civil wars, in which Tran-
sylvania took a leading part, it vras finally esta-
blished on a firm basis, and, as the Austrian party
grew stronger, the more liberal articles of the di*
ploma were gradually invaded, but the monarchs,
nevertheless, continued to swear to their observance,
and no legal modification was ever made in its pro-
visions. Maria Theresa imitated her predecessors,
and adopted the diploma in all its extent, requiring
only that the Diet, in returu, should formally re-
nounce the right of electing the Prince, and accept
the Pragmatic Sanction establishing the succession
in her, and her descendants. Here, as in Hungary,
during the latter years of Maria Theresa's reign,
and during the whole of Joseph's, the constitution
was in abeyance, nor, during the very few occasions
on which the Diet was called together, towards the
end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the
nineteenth centuries, did any important change take
place. The long wars in which Austria became
engaged soon after, furnished an excuse for ruling
without a Diet, and so matters remained till 1830.

The actual form of government then, as settled by
the Diploma Leopoldinum, and according to law, —
if not always according to fact, — existing at the pre-
sent time, is nearly as follows : —

A Governor, aided by a Privy Council, Secre-
taries, and others, corresponding with the Transyl-
vanian chancery at Vienna, — in other words, acting
under the direction of an Austrian minister, — con-

voL. n. T

274 FORM OF GOVERNMENT.

stitute the executivBy whilst the legishttiye is formed
by a Diet, to be held every year. The appointment
of the executive is to be vested jointly in the Diet
and the Crown.* For every office the Diet is to
candidate or nominate three individuals from each
of the received religions, that is, twelve persons
for each office, from among whom the Crown ap-
points one.

The Diet itself forms only one body, though it
is composed of various elements. Every county and
free town sends its members, — the Magyars about
forty-six, the Szeklers eighteen, and the Saxons
eighteen also ; the members of the towns in Tran*
sylvania have the same rights as those of the Coun-
ties ; the Catholic church sends two members, re-
presentatives of abbeys. The Catholic and united
Greek Bishops claim each a seat also. Besides
these, there are Regalists, as they are called (a sort
of Peers), who sit and vote with the others, but
who are not endowed with any other power or title
in consequence. Some of these are nominated by
the Crown for life, others have seats in virtue of
their office, as the Lords Lieutenant, Privy Coun-
sellors, and Secretaries. The number of Regalists
is said to have been limited to eighty-nine by Maria
Theresa, but this regulation has been grossly infring-
ed, the present number exceeding two hundred.

* This is a disputed point which I do not pretend to decide, but
merely state how it actually takes place ; whether right or wrong,
I leave others to determine.

RtOnTS INFRINGED. 275

Besides the candidation of the executive, the
duties of the Diet may be said to consist, in the
making and altering of laws for the internal go-
▼emment of the country, the voting supplies of
troops, the levying, but not voting, the contribution,
and the conferring the Indigenat * or right of citi-
zenship upon strangers.

The Municipal Government of the counties and
towns is nearly the same as that of Hungary, ex-
cept among the Saxons, of whose form of local
government we shall speak further hereafter.

From the little we have said, it is easy to see
how grossly the institutions of Transylvania have
been violated ; and one far better able to judge
than we can possibly be. Baron Kemeny Denes,
has publicly declared, ^' that of the whole Diploma
Leopoldinum but one article has been faithfully
observed, and that is the one stipulating that the
general commanding the troops should be a Ger-
man r

The length of time which elapsed without the
assembling of the States, and the consequent illegal
appointment of all the chief officers; the neglect

* Although the King can make any Hungarian peasant noble,
he cannot confer on a foreigner, not even on an Austrian subject,
the rights of Hungarian nobility ; this power, both in Hungary and
Transylvania, the Diet reserves to itself. The Indigenat tax — in
Hungary two thousand, and m Transylvania one thousand ducats,
— is often remitted as a compliment to the person on whom the
right of citizenship is conferred*

T 2

276 RIGHTS INFRINGED.

to call the county-meetings, and the wuit of legal
sanction to all the municipal proceedings, were fast
destroying in the minds of the people all confidence
in the fidth of the Government, all trust in its offi*
cers, and almost all respect for the laws they ad-
ministered. A corrupt bureaucracy, whose interest
it was to maintain this order, or rather disorder, of
things, because by its illegality alone could its mem-
bers exist, was fiist demoralizing the country by an
exhibition of the basest subserriency to power, and
of the most open contempt for every principle of
honour and honesty.

Fortunately the very excess of its viciousness
was the cause of saving the country. A number
of well-meaning men, who had consented to aid
Joseph in his constitutional violence, because they
saw it associated with so much that was enlight-
ened and good, shrunk with horror from a system
which alike violated the rights of the nation, and
the rights of man. The staunch conservative party,
which had never been juggled out of its consis-
tency by any pretence of amelioration, and which
loved old things because they were old, still hated
the innovators, however they might otherwise have
liked their principles; and besides these, a new
party had arisen far more powerful than all the
others. The progress made in the West of Eu-
rope, during the last quarter of a century, in the
establishment of rational freedom, was not without
its effect even in this distant part of the globe.

PARTIES. 277

In vain the youth of Transylvania were forbidden
to exercise their ancient privilege of visiting foreign
universities ; in vain the strictest censorship endea-
Toured to suppress and mutilate the truth ; liberal
fftcts, and liberal principles found their way into
the country, and a liberal party was gradually
formed. By this party the ancient institutions
were all the more closely cherished, because they
were free; nor were there wanting among them
those who felt that stronger guarantees were re-
quired for the observance of these institutions, and
above all, that it was necessary to extend the pri-
vileges, now exclusively enjoyed by the nobles, to
the other classes of society. The greater portion
of this party, however, have no higher wish than to
Tetum to the strict letter of the constitution, as
enjoyed by their ancestors, anil sworn to by the
Emperor, and they claim therefore for themselves
the title of conservatives, and denounce their ad-
versaries as destructives*

The events of 1830, which shook all Europe to
its basis, gave a voice, in Transylvania, to those feel-
ings of discontent which had been long entertained
in secret, and the country, as with one accord, de-
manded that the county meetings should be simi-
moned, and a Diet called together.

A really strong popular feeling rarely wants a
good leader to direct its expression; in Transyl-
vania such a leader was found in Baron Wesse-
lenyi Miklos. In addition to the advantages of

278 COUNTY MEETINGS.

rank bxiA fortune, Wesselenyi poesesses so inacb
energy and courage, so much truth and sincerity,
and withal an eloquence so powerful, that it is
not astonishing he was soon acknowledged as the
head of the party.

The first point conceded by Government was
the county meetings, and these were immediately
taken ^ advantage of to give expression to public
opinion. In the absence of a free press, these
jneetings were of the greatest importance; they
operated as safety valves, which, while they may
have given vent to some useless vapour, served to
inform the observer under how great a pressure the
machine was labouring.

Wesselenyi, and a party of his friends, purchased
small portions of land in every county, that they
might have the right of attending, and of speaking
at every public meeting. They had no lack of
matter for the exercise of their oratory; the un-
constitutional procedure of withholding the Diet,
the consequent illegal appointment of the great
officers, and the neglect of municipal privileges^
were all subjects for eloquent declamation. Then,
too, since the last Diet, no less than twenty thou*
sand soldiers had been raised in Transylvania with-
out the consent of the nation. The taxes, —
that subject which touches the most indiiferent,
and in which some men believe the whole science
of politics to consist, — were open enough to
animadversion; for from the 300,000 florins sti-

GRIEVANCES. 979

polated in the Diploma, they had been arbitrarily
raised to upwards of a million and a half.*
The salt tax too, which the GoTemment had been
allowed to increase during the war, still continued
at the war rate after fifteen years of peace. The
export and import duties, which the Diploma ex-
pressly declared should not be altered, had been
raised so high as to be prohibitory.

The grievances of the Protestants were deep, and,
from their numbers and intelligence, of much im-
portance: they demanded that they should enjoy
their rights, and be admitted to places of trust and
profit equally with the Catholics ; they objected to
the forced observance of Catholic holidays, and they^
protested against the injustice of forcing the Ca-
tholics, who wished to become Protestants, to un-
dergo six weeks' instruction from a priest, while
the Protestant was received into the Catholic
church without the slightest difficulty being
thrown in his way.

The Szeklers were discontented that one por-
tion of their nation were obliged both to serve in
the army and to pay taxes ; and the Saxons — even
the quiet submissive Saxons — were not without
their griefis. Their municipal constitution had been

* The exact amount of the present contribution is not known.
The mode of levying it has been completely changed ; a fixed sum
IB paid by the peasant for his land per acre^ and for his cattle,
sbeep^ &c. so much per head^ without any relation to any stipu«
lated agreement, so that the tax goes on increasing in amoimt
probably every year.

S80 SUCCESS OF THE LIBERALS.

completely changed, uid instead of being governed
by officers freely elected by the people, they found
themselves delivered over to the tender mercies of
a self-elected bureaucracy.

These, and a host of minor abuses, which had
crept into the administration from the want of
due popular control, formed the subject matter
of the harangues of Wesselenyi and his friends,
and they were insisted on with a degree of courage
and energy which lent force to their acknowledged
truth. The liberals carried the day at almost every
meeting at which they presented themselves ; peti-»
tions and remonstrances, more loud and more angry
as delay exhausted the patience of the petitioners,
crowded the archives of the Chancery: petitions
and remonstrances soon grew into demands, and
demands at last assumed the form of threats. Ba-
ron Wesselenyi publicly announced his intention to
allow no soldiers to be levied on his estates til) a
Diet had been granted. Not only individuals, but
several counties followed his example.

In the mean time Baron Josika, the Court-nomi-
nated governor, overlooking the legal and constitu-
tional character of the opposition, saw nothing but
revolution in these demonstrations, and he is said
to have written the most exaggerated reports of
their danger to Vienna, and to have demanded a
supply of troops to repress them.

So violent a measure seems to have startled even
the Court itself, and though troops were sent, they

GENERAL VLASITS. 281

sent with them a commissioner, General Vlasits,
with power to inqaire into the state of the country,
and to apply the necessary remedies to the existing^
evils. On a certain day the county meetings were
assembled in every part of Transylvania, and an
edict of the Crown was published, denouncing the
decision of the former meetings, as illegal and
null, and promising them a Diet and the reform,
of abuses, on condition of their retracting the
offensive resolutions.

Although several of the counties refused to adopt
this suggestion and stultify their former acts, General
Vlasits reported the country to be in perfect tranquil-
lity, and the reports of the revolution, which he had
been sent down to quell, without a shadow of founda-
tion. The conduct of Vlasits, though entrusted with
so delicate a mission, secured for him even the re-
spect and esteem of those most strongly opposed to
him ; but by the Court, his efforts were not favourably
regarded, and he was shortly afterwards recalled.

The moment, however, was now come when it
was thought no longer safe to resist the popular
wish. The Court knew full well that Wesselenyi ♦

* A short time preyiouB to this, when Wesselenyi was attend-
ing a levee of the Emperor at Presburg, the Sovereign, in making
his round of the circle, stopped opposite our Transylvanian, already
distinguished as a Liberal leader, and, shaking his head very omi-
nously, addressed him, " Take care. Baron Wesselenyi, take care
what you are about ! recollect that many of your &mily have been
unfortunate I" — (His father was confined for seven years in the
Kuffstein.) ** Unfortunate, your Majesty, they have been, but ever

282 THE DIET SUMMONED.

was a man to keep his word, the counties too were
firm in supporting him, and, under such circum-
stances, a collison, in which the nobles would ap-
pear as the protectors of the peasantry, was to be
avoided at any price. A Diet was granted.

In 1834 then, the Transyhanian Diet was again
called together, after an interval of twenty-three
years.

The election returns left no doubt as to the state
of opinion in the country, even if any could have
been entertained before. The members of both
towns and counties were, with few exceptions,
liberal. The Regalists, by office, as well as the
Regalists by royal appointment, were also strongly
tinctured with the same opinions ; and, conse-
quently, the governor, with his little band of
£Etithful officials, saw before him nothing but the
melancholy prospect of a certain defeat.

It is necessary that the Diet should be opened
by a royal commissioner; and the person chosen
for this purpose was the Arch-duke Ferdinand
d'Este, the brother of the Duke of Modena, and a
near relation of the Emperor. The influence which

undeserving of their misfortunes also ! *' was Wesselenyi's bold and
honest answer. It is only those who know the habitual stifi&iess
and decorum of an Austrian court that can conceive the consterna-
tion into which the whole crowd was thrown by this unexpected
boldness. Explanations were offered to Wesselenyi to soften down
the harshness of the royal reproof, in hopes of bringing him to beg
pardon ; but he could not apologise for having defended the honour
of his family, even when attacked by his Sovereign.

THE ARCH^DUKE FERDINAND. 283

the high 1911k of the commissioner might tiaturally
be expected to exercise on the nobility, was pro-
bably calcolated upon as likely to strengthen the
Court party; but, unfortunately, the well-known
sentiments of the Arch-duke in favour of ab-
solutism, and the troops which soon followed his
arriyal, gave his appearance among them so much
the air of an attempt to overpower and control
the freedom of their discussions, that it only in*
creased the bitterness of feeliug and party spirit
hj which the country was divided.

Under such auspices the Diet opened.

The length of time that had elapsed since the
last Diet bad, among other consequences, rendered
doubtful many of the rights and privileges of the
chamber. At the very outset, the Government
disputed the right of the chamber to elect its own
president, while the chamber refused to admit the
nominee of the Government.

This was but the beginning of a series of angry
disputes, in which almost every constitutional ques-
tion, in season or out of season, was dragged into
the discussions ; for it was another evil of the long
recess, that it had disaccustomed the leading mem-
bers to those habits of parliamentary debate, and
those forms of parliamentary business, on which
the practical utility of a parliament so much de-
pends. One of the most interesting of these ques-
tions was, the publication of the debates, which
the Axch-duke positively forbade, but which Wes-

281 OPPOSITION.

selenji, by means of a lithographic press, still found
means of carrying on. Another, perhaps, still more
important question was, the manner in which the
election of officers should take place, — whether
each of the twelve candidates should be chosen by
an absolute majority or not — the Liberals contend-
ing for the absolute majority, by which alone they
could exert some influence over the nomination of
the Crown. At this period of the afl&ir, the Diet
sent a deputation of its members to wait upon the
Emperor, to disabuse him of the &lsehoods with
which they believed his ministers and their spies
had poisoned his ear against his faithful Transyl-
vanians, and to prove to him that their objects, so
far from revolutionary, all tended to the preservation
only of their ancient rights and immunities.

In the mean time, evil passions had been called
into play, which rendered greater every day the
separation between the two parties. Personal ani-
mosity and private pique, ambitious vanity and
wounded dignity, all conspired, in turns, to em-
bitter the debates. The conduct of Wesselenyi
himself was anything but conciliatory. With prin-
ciples and views too far advanced, probably, both
for the Government he wished to control, and the
party he wished to lead, he grew only more un-
compromising in their support, the more sharply
they were attacked. It was in vain that Professor
Szasz, that Count Bethlen Jinos, and others of the
Liberal party, endeavoured to moderate the de-

POPULAR EXCITEMENT. 285

mands of the ultras, or the mistrust and fears of
the absolutists. It was in vain, the more cautious
inyeighed against the danger of playing the lion's
part with only the fox's strength ; Wesselenyi was
not a man to yield, where he believed himself right,
and he steadily refused to sacrifice a single principle
on the plea of expediency.

The political fever was now spreading far and
wide, and the Arch-duke and the administration
became so unpopular, that the waverers, the men of
no opinion, threw themselves into the ranks of the
opposition. The colleges, with all the enthusiasm
of youth, added their voices to Wesselenyi's de-
mand for liberty and justice. From the moun-
tains of the hardy Szeklers to the quiet vil-
lages of the cautious Saxons, the cry for reform
of abuses grew louder and louder. At such a mo*
ment, a bold hand, a comprehensive mind, and an
honest heart would at once have grappled with
the difficulties, oiFered a frank reform of abuses,
and gone in advance even of the expectations
of the people in correcting acknowledged evils.
In an instant the whole country would have been
at the foot of the throne. No one would have
ventured to oppose so fair a promise of good,
and Transylvania would have overlooked a thou-
sand past foults in the anticipation of a happy
future.

Such, unfortunately, was not the course pursued.
On the 24th of May, Wesselenyi had presented to

286 DISSOLUTION OF THB DIET.

the chamber his lithographic pvess^ bad danned for
it the protection of the conntiy, and had seen it
accepted with acclamatioiis. A few hours later,
and a proclamation from the Emperor had dis-
solved the Diet^ suspended the constitution, and
nominated the Arch^duke absolute goTemor of
the country!

A denouement so sudden, and so unexpected,
produced the most extraordinary sensation. Angry
words were exchanged between the parties, and
in the excitement of the moment, a sabre is said
to have started from its scabbard; but, fortu-
nately, the leaders restrained these ebullitions of
feeling, and the chamber separated in perfect
quiet. What was their surprise on leaving the
hall, to find the streets lined with troops, and
everything bearing the aspect of a military de-
monstration ?

Intimidation was probably the object aimed at,
for I will not for a moment suspect the Govern-
ment of having wished to provoke a movement
that they might thus dispose the more easily of
their antagonists; the loyal and honourable cha-
racter of the Arch-duke forbids such a suspicion,
even should that of some of his counsellors pro-
voke it. Intimidation was probably the sole ob-
ject, but never was a purpose more signally
defeated.

It was immediately determined, that without
any appeal to arms, the strongest moral opposi-

OFFICERS RESIGN. 287

tion should be offered to this act of constitutional
▼ioienee. With one or two exceptions only, OTery
man of character holding office onder the Grown, —
Lords-Lieutenant of counties, Privj Ciouncillors,
Secretaries of State, — at once threw up theit ap-
pointments, declaring that they could no longer act
with a Government that seemed to set all law and
justice at defiance.* This was an unexpected blow ;
the court party had reckoned on the Ioto of place
being stronger than the love of principle — a few
years previously it would have been so — and its
disappointed rage seemed uncontrolable. Actions
at law were commenced against the leaders of the
liberals before judges certain to ^condemn them;
injuiy and insult were heaped upon every mem-
ber of the party, and their security and repose
were placed entirely at the disposal of inveterate
and often unprincipled enemies.

These events took place in the spring of 1834 ;
and, in the autumn of 1885, everything remained
as it was placed . in the first moments of distrust
and violence.

An extraordinary number of troops were still col-
lected in and about Klausenburg, and were even
quartered in the houses of the nobles. The Arch-

* Among theae^ the principal were^ Privy Councillors^ Baron
Kem^ny Ferenz, and Szek D^iel; Lords-Lieutenant, Count
Degenfeld^ Baron Bdnffy Laszlo^ Baron Bdnffy Ad4ni, and Ugron
IstY^n; Secretaries^ Count Bethlen Imr£, Ugron — and some others,
besides a great number of inferior officers.

288 MORAL RESISTANCE.

duke Ferdinand remained apparently in military
occupation of the country, for he had no position
of authority recognised by the constitution. All the
vacant places were filled up illegally, for no Diet
had been summoned to give its list of candidates*
With a few exceptions, the officers appointed were
chosen from among the least respected persons in
the country. The few men of honour among them
declared publicly that they were ashamed of their
associates; and, worst of all, even the municipal
constitution had been suspended, and consequently,
all the magistrates, though fairly elected, had held
their offices beyond the proper period, and all their
acts were therefore illegal.

During the whole of this time the greatest tran*
quillity prevailed, — a tranquillity which confound-
ed the advocates of absolutism ten times more than
would the most violent revolt. Incapable of un-*
derstanding the confidence which freemen feel in
the justice and righteousness of their cause, they
cannot estimate, and therefore cannot oppose the
moral courage which suffers in the ftdl convic-
tion, that its suffering will eventually work out a
remedy for the evil.

In such a state was the political horizon of
Transylvania when we reached Klauaenburg.

ifl^a-tsssr.

Wm^\

CHAPTER X.

NORTH OF TEANSYLVANIA.

Tnniylmiian Roadi. — A Solitary Inn. — Drdg.— Zaibo. — Horse-
breeding. — Old Traniylvanian Breed. — Count B&ifTy's Stud. —
Engtiah Breed. — Baron Weuelenyi's Stud. — A Crosi. — B4bolna
Arabs. — Interesting Experiment. — Itik6tzy. — Robot. — Ride to
Hadad. — The Vintage — Transylvanian Wines^-Oak Woods.
—Scotch Parmer. — A Reformer's Trials. — State of the Pea-
santry. — Urbarium. — Stewards. — Establishments of the Nobles.

— Social Anomalies. — Old Fashions The Dinner. — Drive to

Nagy B&nya. — Gipsies. — Gold Mines. — Private Speculations. —
Return.

Before the winter set in, there was jet a
promise of a week or two of fine weather; and
we were recommeDded to avail ourselves of it, to
visit some interesting objects in the north of the
country.

VOL. II. V

290 SOLITARY INN.

I believe my duty, as an honest chronicler of my
travels, would be to give the reader at least two
pages of tirade against the bad roads of Transyl-
vania ; for if I do not, how can I convey to him
an impression of the misery we suffered while 'we
were dragged over or rather through them ? But
lest he should grow as tired of hearing of them as
we did of travelling on them, I will spare him the
infliction, and content myself with saying that we
now occupied three days in accomplishing what one
day suffices for in summer.

Our first halt was at a lone country inn — a sort
of caravansary in the desert — for I do not recollect
that we had seen a house for two hours before we
reached it. About an acre of ground, forming the
yard, was enclosed with a strong fence, and held
the dwelling-house, the waggon-shed, some stables,
and a well. A more solitary spot I have rarely
seen; the hills all round were covered with a
scanty pasture, the road was only a muddy track,
and there were no signs of cultivation or habitation
within a circuit of many miles.

At Drag, which we did not reach till sometime
after night-fall, we were hospitably entertained by
the Seigneur of the place ; for we were obliged to
have recourse to our letters of introduction here,
the inns being really too bad. We were shown
at Dr4g a large Roman statue of Jupiter, without
the head, which had been discovered some miles
off in the bed of a brook. It was of a rather coarse

ZSIBO. 291

white marble, probably obtained in the country, and
of indifferent workmanship.

One object of the route we had chosen in this
excursion, was to enable us to visit Zsibo, the seat
of Baron Wesselenyi Miklos ; and we arrived there
on the second evening.

We did not expect to see the Baron himself
at Zsibo, for we knew that he was an unwilling
absentee. Immediately after the stormy conclusion
of the Diet, which we have related in the last chap-*
ter. Baron Wesselenyi had hastened into Hungary,
where, as we have already seen, he was actively em-
ployed in serving his country, while in the mean
time his enemies commenced an action against him
in Transylvania, for printing the Journal and other
less important charges. Attacked by a severe ill-
ness, at Presburg, Wesselenyi was unable to an-
swer the summons of the court to appear, and, in
spite of the certificates of his physicians, he was
condemned for contumacy, and a warrant of arrest
issued against him should he return to Transylvania.
Though he still remains free, the chief object was
gained, that of driving him from the scene of his
greatest influence ; for, from that day, he has never
been able to return to the country. His establish-
ment, however, was still kept up as before, and his
steward was there to show us over it.

Besides other branches of industry, Baron Wes-
selenyi has particularly devoted his attention to the
breed of horses. If horse-breeding is a master of

u 2

292 TRANSYLVANIAN HORSES.

interest to the Hungarian gentry, it i8 almost a pas*
sion among those of Transylvania. I think Bethlen,
in his " Ansichten von Siebenbiirgen," published at
the beginning of this century, gives the names of no
less than sixty celebrated studs in this small terri-
tory. The original, or rather the oldest breed of
Transylvania, is probably that still found in the
mountains of the Szekler Land, a small wiry horse,
capable of enduring great fatigue, and easily fed but
deficient in size, power, and speed. These horses
bear, in many respects, a great resemblance to
our Welsh ponies. During the long occupation of
the country by the Turks, a considerable intermix-
ture of Arab blood took place, which, though it
may have added something to the Tranqrlvanian
horse's speed and beauty, seems to have detracted
from his strength and hardihood.

Among a host of other evils, which the connection
between Spain and Austria brought on Hungary
and Transylvania, one of the most permanent, if not
the most serious, was the deterioration of the breed
of horses. The Spanish horse, vrith considerable
beauty, — at least to the unskilled eye, — with ex-
traordinary docility and a most pompous bearing,
is nevertheless the very worst horse in Europe.
The fashion of the Court, however, of course, decid-
ed the fashion of the country, and till the present
century the Spanish was the most esteemed blood.
In fact, it was not ill-adapted to the wants of those
times. When to be slow was to be dignified, when

COUNT BANFFY'S STUD. 298

all grace centered in a minuet, and beauty took
refuge in powder and hoops, it was but right that
pomp should haye its prancing steeds, which could
curvet a whole hour without advancing a mile ; but
in these waltzing, steaming, matter-of fact days,
nothing less than our fiill bloods can keep pace
with modem restlessness, and they have accordingly
been introduced into Transylvania, as well as into
most other parts of Europe.

There are still, however, some old-fashioned
people who are content to move on as their fore-
fathers did, — the Court and its party, more espe-
cially the bishops, are said to monopolize this pri-
vilege in Hungary. To supply this taste some of the
old studs are still maintained. The most perfect
is that of Count Banffy, at Bonczida, where every-
thing corresponds so well with the historical charaq-
ter of its horses, that I cannot forbear a description
of it. The whole of one side of the court-yard of the
castle is occupied by a superb stable, ornamented
with sculpture, and entered by folding doors. The
stable is composed of one vaulted hall, with stalls
on either side, and a wide walk down the centre,
the floor being boarded with oak. As we en-
tered, the StaS-meister in long jack-boots, and
armed with a coach-whip, received us in due
form, and ushered us into the presence of nearly
a hundred horses, all with their heads turned to-
wards us, ornamented with ribbons, and attended by
grooms in full livery, with bouquets in their hats.

294 ENGLISH BREED.

After walking up and down this magnificent avenue
listening to pedigrees, and admiring the beauty of
the gallant steeds, we retired again to the court*
yard to see them brought out. Two horses at a
time were led to the door in long braided reins,
and, on a given signal from the Stall-meister's
whip, off they started, curvetting, neighing, and
galloping, till they had made the tour of the
court, when, at another signal, they came to a
dead stand, at a certain spot, where they remained
as quiet as lambs to be handled and examined from
head to foot. It was impossible to see these horses,
as they proudly stretched themselves out as if to
show their points to the greatest advantage, and
deny that they had much beauty about them; as
for their capability to endure fatigue, I cannot
ispeak, but I fancy they are rarely exposed to such
a trial. What is not least important, these horses
are said to find a ready sale. A hundred pounds
for a pair, as carriage horses, is considered a high
price, even for the best of them.

Baron Wesselenyi was the first who undertook to
reform these matters ; and though he began it with
only a very few English mares and one horse, —
Cato, — his ordinary stock stud now amounts to
about two hundred. We went first of all into the
paddock, where we found a promising herd of young
things of different ages, from two to five, in ex-
cellent condition, and carefully tended by keepers,
like sheep by their shepherds. Those which most

BARON WESSELiNYl'S STUD. 295

interested us, were a cross between the English
full blood and the small Szekler mare, and an
excellent hackney it seems to have produced. The
mares were mostly powerful animals, admirably
chosen for breeding speed and strength.

On returning to the stables, we found thirty or
forty horses up, and in condition for sale or work*
There were some of them which left nothing to
desire. I remember particularly one, a four years'
colt, already nearly sixteen hands high, which look-^
ed as much like a hunter as ever I saw a horse.
Baron Wessel^nyi is considered to sell his horses
dear. The prices vary from about 40/. for the half-
bred Szeklers, to 250/. for thorough*bred entire
horses. The four years* old gelding, just alluded to,
was estimated at 80/. As soon as English horses
become a little more common in this part of the
world, I have no doubt that the best of them will
be re-exported to England, the price of breeding
and rearing being so much less here, and the de«
mand for first-rate horses so far beyond the supply
with us. The expense of keeping a horse in con-
dition in this country, for twelvemonths, I have
heard estimated at 10/.

There are now probably not less than twenty
studs in Transylvania, with a greater or less infusion
of English blood. It is amusing enough to find»
that there is a strong connection between breeds
of horses and opinions in politics here. A young
Liberal, the first thing on coming to his fortune^

Sg6 BABOLNA.

clears his father's stables of the old stock, and re-
cruits anew from Zsibo ; while the absolutists ad-
here religiously to the pompous useless steeds of
their predecessors. So far does it go, that a man*s
politics are known by the cut of his horse's tail.
As Baron H overtook a party of Liberals re-
turning one dark night from a county meeting, he
'was hailed as a friend ; for though they said they
could not see his face, they knew by his horse's
dock that he was of the right sort.

Before I take leave of the horses, I must say a few
words here of the Government studs in Hungary,
of which Marshal Marmont has given so particular
an account. Babolna, though not so large as Mezo
Hegyes, was particularly interesting, at the time I
visited it, from a new importation of Arabs which
had just taken place. B&bolna, is a complete mili-
tary establishment, under the direction ' of a major
of dragoons, aided by a certain number of officers,
non-commissioned officers, and privates. They farm
a large estate of more than seven thousand acres,
from which they draw their supplies of com, straw,
and hay. The most interesting object to us was the
Arab stud, which the major had himself just brought
from the interior of Arabia. There were fourteen
mares, and nearly as many horses. It is impossible
for language to convey an idea of the beauty of
some of these creatures. They are small, rarely
exceeding fourteen hands; but their strength and
synmietry are perfect. There was one little mare.

ARAB BREED. 297

a bright bay, which caught my eye, and so com-
pletely fascinated me, that I could scarcely look at
any of the others after. Such depth of shoulder,
such bony fore-legs, such loins, and such quarters
and hocks, it was never my fortune to see in so
small a compass, or in sueh perfect proportion,
before. The major was evidently pleased at my
choice, for the bay mare was his favourite also;
the more so, perhaps, from the difficulty he had
found in getting possession of her. He had heard
of her reputation long before he reached the tribe
to which she belonged ; for, after a defeat, she had
borne her master across the sandy wastes without a
halt, an incredible distance, and actually arrived
at the encampment of the tribe, six hours before
any of tiie others who had commenced their flight
at the same time. To induce an Arab to part
with such a treasure was no easy matter; and
long were the negotiations and high the bribes
which enabled the major to secure this gem of the
desert for his imperial master.

In one part of the establishment, we were shown
the summer day-rooms for the breeding stud, im-
mense places, where some hundreds of mares and
foals are turned in together, the floors being cover-
ed with straw above the horses' knees to protect
their feet, and the walls lined with marble troughs,
in which they receive their food. Notwithstanding
the number let loose together, it is very rarely
any accident happens ; indeed, from the constant

298 BABOLNA.

presence of man with them, nothing can exceed
the quietness of these creatures. We went among
whole herds of them, and touched them without
the least danger. The tenders always carry bread
with them, and give a bit to the horse as a reward
for good behaviour ; and they consequently follow
one about, poking their noses into one's hands and
pockets with the docility of dogs. I was surprised
to hear, that in these large buildings every horse
knows his place, though it is quite undivided, and
is as tenacious of it as an old bachelor of his chim-
ney comer.

A most interesting experiment is at present un-
der trial at Babolna. Major Herbert is of opinion
that the size and strength of a horse does not de-
pend on the race, but on the nourishment of the
individual animal. In consequence of this opinion,
and taking the Arab as the most perfect model
of a horse for form and symmetry, he is desirous
to confine his stud stock to the Arab blood, and
trusts to his system of feeding for supplying the
deficiency of size. When I saw Babolna, he had
specimens of four and five years' old horses raised
on this system; and there was certainly a eon-»
siderable change in their size compared with that
of their sires. When this experiment commenced,
however, he had no Arab dams in the stud, and
the proof was therefore incomplete, for the mixed
German and Spanish race, to which the old mares
belonged, though faulty enough in other particulars^

BABOLNA. 299

is not very small. Some of the double crosses,-^
where the sire for two generations, was a small
Arab, — were nearly fifteen hands, and, in other
respects, good in form, and leaning much to the
Arab in appearance. The system of feeding is
nearly the same as that pursued with our racing
stock, — to let them nibble oats as soon as they can ;
and for the first three or four years, instead of starv-
ing them on a bad pasture, to give them the best
of everything.

That the experiment will succeed to a certain
extent, is, I think, evident, both from what I saw,
and from thd history of improvements introduced
into the breeds of other animals, which have been
generally produced by judicious selection and high
feeding ; but whether the expanded Arab will retain
the same symmetry of form, the same relative pro-
portion of bone and body, and, above all, the same
hardihood and endurance which distinguish the de-
sert stock, appears very doubtful. The question is —
can the qualities of the English hunter be fed into
the Arab form ? Nowhere can the experiment be
so perfectly and satisfactorily settled as in one of
these institutions, for the amount of food is fixed
and weighed, the number on which the experiment
is tried renders it independent of exceptions, and,
above all, the character and interests of the gentle-
men, by whom it is conducted, place them above all
suspicion of false play. For the present, however,
it must be considered under trial. No English

sportsmaa should pass through Hungary, without
viaitiDg B^bolna. The politeness with which Major
Herbert showed us the whole establishment, thougfi
we presented ourselves entirely as strangers, and
without introduction, requires our special thanks.
The destination of the horses raised in the rojral
studs, is, to improve the breed in the different
districts of the Austrian empire, among which they
are distributed. If any remain above the number
required for this purpose, they are sold to oflScers
for chargers, or even sent to the remount of the
regiments.
But to retom to Zsibo. Zsibo is one of the

very few liouses I have yet seen in this part of the
world which is really well situated. It occupies a

FRANZ RAK&TZY II. 301

large platfonn, at a considerable height above the
village, and is backed by still higher hills and sur-
rounded by woods which shelter it from the north.
Below it extends, on either side, the valley of the
Szamos, and opposite, a conical mountain rears its
head, the scene of one of the most interesting
events in Transylvanian history. It was on this
mountain that Franz Rakotzy II. the last native
prince of Transylvania, took his stand, and wit-
nessed the final defeat of his forces by the troops of
Austria.

Weak and vacillating as Rakotzy was, it is im-
possible to read his adventurous history without
interest, or to reflect on his fall, when deserted by
his former friends and adherents, without pity.
^ Pro patria et lihertaie " was a noble inscription
to place upon his coinage — but it was sad to think
that the coin itself was base : religious freedom
was an object well worth contending for — but it
was difficult for one brought up a Jesuit to main-
tain it consistently : mildness and justice were good
qualities in a ruler, — but weakness and indecision
were destructive to the general. After years of
civil war, in which Rakotzy sometimes seemed on
the point of ascending the throne of Hungary,
sometimes was threatened with annihilation by the
quarrels amongst his own friends, he at last ended
his troubled life a fugitive in Turkey.

As we were passing from one part of the esta-
blishment of Zsibo to another, we crossed a beauti-

302 ROBOT.

fill wood on the banks of the river, which is fenced
in on all sides to protect the pheasants with which
it literally swarms from the wolves and foxes. The
proud birds were crowing from their perches on
every side of us. The pheasant is yet a stranger
in Hungary, and can only be kept in woods appro-
priated to the purpose of rearing them, where they
are carefully fed, and in winter driven under cover,
and shut up till the next spring.

On our return by the farm-yard, we observed a
very merry group of children and women occupied —
if such lazy work can be called occupation — in pull-
ing off the outer skins of the maize. A man stood
over them to direct them and to enforce their at-
tention — but what can one man do against the
mischief and fun of fifty women and children? I
was very much surprised to hear that these merry
workers were sent as substitutes for husbands and
fethers in the performances of a day's Robot. If
a landlord gets but one hundred days' work such as
this, for a year's rent for a farm of thirty acres, it
is not very highly paid. I am sure ten of ours
would be of more worth. The steward seemed to
think this, however, but a very slight misfortune
compared with others his master had to suffer.
•* Probably," he observed, " before the winter is
over, these people will have eaten all this com
which they are now so lazily dressing. The harvest
has been a scarce one here, and when that is the
case, the peasants come on their landlords for sup-

RIDE TO UADAD. SOS

port, as if they had a right to it It has frequently
happened that the Baron has not been able to sell
one grain of com for a whole season, every particle
of it having been required to keep his own tenantry
alive, and sometimes he has been obliged to buy
more in addition/' This is a pretty good answer
to the stupid accusation of ill treating his peasantry,
which had been raised against Baron Wesselenyi;
an answer unneeded, however, for their prosperous
and happy state, superior to almost any in the
country, and their devoted affection to their master,
rendered the accusation itself perfectly ridiculous.
One of these very peasants walked all the way from
Zsibo to Vienna, to present a petition to the Em««
peror from some hundred of his fellows, that their
lord and benefactor might be restored to them.

We had spent so much time, that the day
was well nigh past ere we had finished our drive
round Zsibo, and we had still a considerable jour-
ney before us. The steward, however, had sent the
carriage forward early in the morning, and now
offered us some of the half-bred Szeklers, that we
might try if their deeds deserved the praises we
had bestowed on their appearance. We got over
to Hadad, our next station, in little more than two
hours, through a woody and hilly country, often
presenting views of the most perfect park-like
scenery it is possible to fancy. What is the exact
distance I know not, but we certainly put our little
horses on their mettle, and arrived considerably be->

304 HADAD.

fore the carriage which had started in the morning.
One of them, a small mare» with two crosses of
English hloody was the most extraordinary trotter
of her height I ever saw. She was sold soon after
for about 60/. There never was a country more
beautifully laid out for riding over than Transyl-
vania ; without high mountains or hard roads, it is
just sufficiently hilly to vary the surface, and
twenty or thirty miles of uninterrupted springy-
turf, glorious for galloping, is no great rarity.
The advantage, too, is as great as the pleasure.
From Hadad to Klausenburg, which takes always
three days in winter for a carriage, has been ridden,
by means of relays of horses, in less than six hours !
We arrived at Hadad at a fortunate moment;
they had just begun the vintage, and our host, the
young Baron W F , who was a consider-
able wine-grower, invited us the next day to see
his vineyards. The vintage is always a merry scene
in every country, apparently rather from the asso-
ciations connected with its produce than from any-
thing peculiar in the labour itself; unless, indeed,
we allow that the beauties of nature, in which the
season of the vintage is so rich, has its effi^t even
on the coarse nature of the peasant. I believe that
such is the case, and moreover, that many an un-
cultivated soul which lacks words in which to clothe
its feelings, is far more capable of appreciating the
glories of God's works than the whole race of maud-
lin town-bred poets who prate so loudly of them.

THE VINTAGE, 305

After about an hour's gallop across some rich
green meadows, in which the beautiful Baroness
W accompanied us, — for the ladies of Tran-
sylvania almost rival our own as horse-women — ^we
arrived at the vineyard, situated on the slope of
a small hill. There were about one hundred pea-
sants employed in picking and carrying large bas-
kets of the bright grapes to a small pressing-house
near by. Beautiful groups they formed as we
caught sight of them every now and then, half hid
among the tall vines : there were young and old,
men and women — the village seemed to have
sent out all its forces for the joyous occasion, and
in dresses so picturesque too, that the artist's fancy
could have desired no happier union of colour,
form, or expression.

Leaving the Baroness in conversation with some
of the old peasant women, the Baron beckoned us
away, and led us alone to see the pressing process.
I could not understand this mystery, but, like a
wise man, held my tongue, and submitted, — and
it was well I did. In a number of large tubs we
found a set of almost naked men dancing bare-*
footed, with all their force, to the music of the
bagpipes, on the heaps of fruit which the carriers
were throwing into them. I did not wonder we
were led to this place alone, for except in some of
the Silenic processions of Poussin, I never saw so
extraordinary a scene. And it is in this manner
the whole wine of this country is prepared ! The

VOL. II. X

S06 THE VINTAGE.

Transylvanians, who are singularly delicate as to the
cleanliness of their food, declare that every possible
impurity is driven off in the fermentation the wine
goes through after, and I was not sufficiently cruel
to undeceive them. The great object of all this
dancing seems to be to break the grapes, for they
are afterwards subjected to the press. I need not
say that a thousand simple mechanical contrivances
might be substituted for this nasty process. It is
reckoned that one man can dance about two hours,
when his feet become so cold that he is forced to
yield his place to another. In cold weather, hot
wine is often poured over their legs to enable them
to hold out longer, and spirits are allowed almost
ad libitum. But the greatest support of the wine-
pressor is the bagpipe or fiddle, without which he
could not continue his dancing half an hour. Dur-
ing the whole time, he dances the regular national
step, and accompanies it with a song, which he im^
prtwises as he goes on. The usual termination of the
vintage is a supper and a dance for the whole village.
Transylvania is a country which will probably
one day assume a high rank as a wine-growing
district. It is almost entirely laid out in small
hills, it is well watered, a great many of its strata
are of volcanic origin, and the land itself is rather
poor ; all circumstances which, united to its geogra-
phical position, fit it for the purposes of the wine-
grower. Although, even at the present time, no
less than one-ninth of the whole population is

TRANSYLVANIAN WINES. 807

said to live by the cahiTation of the vine, no-
thing can be more careless than the actual method
of wine-making. All kinds of grapes are mixed in-
discriminately ; no care is taken to separate the
over-ripe and those yet green from the others ; and
the process of pressing is, as I have described it,
dirty and careless. The cultivation of the vine is
equally neglected or ill-understood. Notwithstand-
ing these disadvantages, however, there are already
some score different kinds of wine which enjoy a
well-deserved reputation. Their reputation, how-<
ever, is only provincial, for so little is this country
known, that its wines are scarcely heard o^ even
amcMDg the Hungarians. They are mostly white
wines, and are remarkable for their bouquet and
flavour, as well as for considerable body. They are,
perhaps, less stroug than the generality of the Hun-
garian, but they are also less acid and thin than
some of the finer white wines of that country. It
is very characteristic of the state of conmierce here,
that there is not a single wine merchant in the
country, and when at Klausenburg, we found it dif-
ficult to get even a tolerable wine to drink. Every
gentleman, nay, every respectable tradesman grows
his own wine, and he would rather send a hundred
miles off for it, than give hard cash to buy it of
another on the spot.

Some of the most celebrated wines of Transyl-
vania, and those which it would be most worth the
foreigner's while to inquire after, are those of the

SOS TRANSYLVANIAN WINES.

Szilagysag, the Kokel, and Maros. The wines of
the Szilagysag are celebrated for their strength and
durability. They are chiefly white wines of a plea-
sant flavour, fiill-bodied, and when new, are very
heady. The highest price, in an ordinary year, of
the better sorts is about two shillings per eimer
(sixteen bottles). The best are those of Tasnad
and Szordemeter. In the valley of the Maros,
the vrines of Rozsamdl, Malom-Falva, Czelna, Gu-
reszada, Macsa, Oklos, and Babolna, are most
sought after ; and again, in the valley of the
Kokel, or Kiikiillo, those of Dombo and Bocacs.
The Kokel wines are less strong than those of
the Szilagysag and Maros, but perhaps more whole-
some, and equally well-flavoured.

Baron W ^ when in France, had engaged a

French vigneron to come and stay with him some
years, in order to try if he could make champagne
from the grapes of Transylvania. We had frequent
opportunities of tasting the wine he produced, and
though it was much too strong and heavy for cham-
pagne, it was sparkling and pleasant, far better than
the stuff we had often drunk under that name in
other countries.

On our return, we visited a small farm of about
three hundred acres, which our host had Idd out a
year or two before, on the system of rotation crops,
and which was under the management of a clever
Scotch bailiff. We found the Scotchman, a giant
specimen of his countrymen, hard at plough, grum-

SCOTCH FARMING. 309

bling of oourse, as we all do, when abroad, at eyery-
thing foreign, from the very soil to the people it
nourishes. He was very proud, however, to show
US his bams, his stacks, his fat oxen, and his huge
potatoes, one of which filled a large dish of itself;
but he inveighed most bitterly against the laziness
of the poor peasants. He already spoke a jumble
of various languages, by means of which, and his
heavy fists, he managed to make himself under-
stood by Magyars, Wallacks, and Germans, with
all of whom he had to do. A short time previously
he had made rather too free a use of this latter
organ ; for, on some of the peasants attacking one
of the Baron's ofiScers, to get at the wine he was
distributing to them, the Scotchman rushed in and
made such good use of his strength, that some of
them were laid up for months after. I could easily
believe when I saw him, that a blow from his arm
was quite sufficient to annihilate a poor half-starved
Wallack peasant.

. Though the quantity of labour required by the
Scotchman, and the expensive processes by which
he cultivated, rendered it doubtful how far his
farming would be profitable in the end, the Baron
confessed that the amount of produce was enor-<
mous, and that he received as much hay and com
from these three hundred acres, as he had formerly
received from the fourteen thousand, of which his
estate consists. Many of the oak woods through
which we passed, were, he said, almost useless.

SIO FARMING.

They famished fire-wood, gall-nuts, acorns for the
pigs, and as many casks as he required for his
wine, but of net revenue he derived scarcely any-
thing from them.

About two thousand Merino sheep, which he
had just purchased, as a commencement of a flock,
promised something better. Beyond the first cost,
the expense of shepherds, and the gathering of win-
ter keep, he might reckon what they brought in as
clear profit, for the land they grazed on was of no
other value to him. Should a com trade ever open
with England the case will alter, but at present the
low price of wheat, and frequently the impossibility
of disposing of it, renders its cultivation a hazard
and often a loss. With but little increase of ex«
pense, the Baron reckoned he could graze ten thou-
sand sheep, to which number he hoped shortly to
increase his flock.

As we approached the village, the Baron led the
way over some pretty good fences, to show us a field
of clover, of which the second crop was just cut.
This had been one of his earliest agricultural im-
provements, for in spite of the quantity of land he
possesses, he was formerly often in absolute want of
hay and straw for his own horses in winter. On
many Transylvanian gentlemen's fiEoms, it is no un-
common thing to hear of horses and cattle dying of
starvation, if the winter is severe or a few weeks
longer than usual. This crop of clover had been
looked upon, therefore, as a treasure, and conceive

A reformer's miseries. 811

his diBappointment to hear one morning, just as
the first cutting was ready for the scythe, that the
peasants had broken down the fences, turned all
the cattle of the Tillage into the field, and com-
pletely destroyed the whole crop. The starved
cows devoured this novel luxury so greedily that
they almost all died in consequence. Vexed as
our friend was at this piece of malice, he was even
more astonished the next day to hear that no
less than thirty of these same peasants had com-
menced suits against him for having planted poison-
ous herbs to kill their cattle ! Ignorance is a sad
enemy to improvement.

Baron W assured us this was only one of a

series of malicious injuries which he had brought on
himself by his attempts to improve the state of his
own property, and the condition of his peasantry.
** I have diminished the time of their labour," he
observed ; ^* I have lessened the amount of their
payments ; I have forbidden my stewards and others
to have any peasant punished without a trial before
the magistrates of the district, and instead of grati-
tude, I meet with nothing but injury from them ;
they look at all these attempts as so many signs of
folly and weakness on my part."

On further inquiry we found the peasants of
Transylvania in a far worse condition, and much
more ignorant than those of Hungary. When Maria
Theresa forced the Urbarium on the nobles of
Hungary, she published certain Regulations Punkte^

312 STATE OF PEASANTRY.

founded on nearly the same principles, for the go-
vernment of the peasants of Transylvania. Whether
it was that these Punkte were not adapted to the
state of the country, or whether its greater distance
from the central power allowed the nobles to evade
their ' adoption, it is certain they never obtained
the same force as the Urbarium, nor have any sue*
ceeding attempts to improve their condition met
with a better result. The Transylvanians say they
are ready and anxious to do everything that is right
and just, provided only it is done in a constitutional
form, through the intervention of the Diet.* In the
mean time the state of the peasantry is a crying
evil, and one which, if not speedily remedied by
the nobles, will be remedied without their consent,
either by the Government or by the people them-
selves; and I fear the sympathy of Europe will
scarcely be in favour of those who oppose such a
measure of justice.

The frightful scenes which took place under the
leadership of Hora and Kloska, two Wallacks, who
in 1784, raised the peasants of Transylvania in re-
volt, are still fresh in the memory of the Transyl-
vanians, and may serve as a warning of what an in-
jured people are capable, when expectations of re-
dress are held out to them, and then disappointed.
It is said that Joseph actually promoted the insur-

* The Diet of 1837 nominated a commission to prepare an Ur-
bariimi for Transylvania, but I cannot yet (1839) hear that any-
thing has been done.

ESTATE OF PEASANTRY. 31S

rection of Hora and Kloska, and it is certain that
military aid was not sent to repress it so quickly as
it might have been ; but I do not believe the accu*
sation of intentional excitement. Independently of
the improbability that one, whose chief fault was
too much openness and honesty, should resort to
such base means, I think the mere belief that the
Government was favourable to their claims, and the
nobles opposed to them, when aided by the Mse
representations of designing leaders, would be quite
sufficient to cause such events among such a popu-
lation at any time. During the late popular move*
ment it has been the policy of the opposition to at-
tach the peasantry to their party by any means in
their power, and I feel certain that as hopes of
amendment have been raised,* it is now the interest
and the duty of the opposition to see that these
hopes are not deceived, be the sacrifice on their
part what it may.

Among the greatest evils of which the Transylva-
nian peasant has to complain, is the absence of any

* I have since heard that on the publication of the Hungarian
Urbarium^ the peasants^ in every village of Transylvania^ sent de-
puties to purchase copies of it for themselves^ and paid the priests to
translate and explain it^ and that there is not a village in Transyl-
vania now without a copy of this act. I have been surprised to
hear a member of the liberal party talk of this as a conspiracy,
and declare that the peasants ought to be punished for it ! Such^
I am sure, are not the opinions of the leaders of that party ; if
they were, I should be one of the first to say it was high time that
the Government interfered to check a liberty which manifested
itself only in enslaving others.

814 STATE OF PEASANTRY,

strict and well-defined code of laws to which he can
refer, and, in consequence of that deficiency, his
almost entire subjection to the arbitrary will of his
master, against which he has nothing but custom
to urge in defence. The peasant-land too, has
never been classed here as in Hungary, accord-
ing to its powers of production, nor has the size
of the peasant's portion, or fief, been ever accu-
rately determined. The amount of labour there*-
fore, cannot be fairly and legally proportioned to
the quantity and value of the land. Nor is the
amount of labour itself better regulated. In some
parts of the country it is common to require two
days a week ; in others, and more generally, three are
demanded ; and in some the landlord takes as much
as he can possibly extract out of the half-starved
creatures who live under him. Here, too, the flog-
ging-block is in full vigour ; every landlord can or-
der any of his tenants or servants, who may dis-
please him, twenty-five lashes on the spot, and it is
generally the first resource which occurs to' him
in any disputes about labour or dues. But it is in
the hands of the underlings, the stewards, bailiflb,
inspectors, — a flock of hawks which infest every
Hungarian estate, — that this power becomes a real
scourge to the poor peasant. It is the custom to
pay these officers an exceedingly small sum in ready
money, as a salary, so small indeed that it would be
impossible for them to live decently upon it ; it is
consequently obliged to be made up by the addition

DIVISION OF PROPERTY. 815

of some land, or hj the permission to feed a certain
number of cattle, or horses, or to sell a certain
quantity of com on their own account. Now to
eoltiyate this land, or to carry this com to market,
labour is required, and this they generally manage
to get out of the peasantry without payment, either
by threats of punishment for slight or imaginary of-
fences, or by applying for themselves what ought
to be given to their masters. Generally both these
means are used, — the master is robbed, and the
peasant illtreated.

From the manner in which estates are commonly
divided in Transylvania, it is nearly impossible for
the landlords to escape from the clutches of these
bailiffib. Every son has an equal share in the male
estates, and every child in the female estates of a
fiaunily. This equality of right in each individual
estate, is often the cause of great inconvenience,
for the same person might have a few acres only
in twenty different villages, when the expence and
difficulty of management would exceed the revenue.
Of course, the most natural remedy is an equitable
division among the members of the family them-*
selves ; and, where this can be effected, it is well ;
bat, where it cannot, their only remedy is culti-
vating in common, and dividing the profits. In
such cases almost the entire management rests in
the hands of the stewards, and this complication,
together with the endless law-suits to which it
gives rise, is one of the greatest evils to which

816 STATE OF PEASANTRY.

both the landlord and peasant of Transylvania are
subject.

The ignorance of the Transylvanian peasant is
of the deepest dye. He is generally superstitious
and deceitful, the two greatest signs of ignorance.
These qualities are most conspicuous in the Wal-
lack peasantry, but the Magyars are by no means
free from them. Schools are extremely rare. It is
only here and there that they have been established
by the good sense and liberality of the Seigneur,
and even then they have often failed for want of
a little caution and perseverance in those who have
conducted them. The peasants belonging to the
Greek church are undoubtedly the most ignorant,
those of the Unitarian and Lutheran churches, the
best educated.

We entered some of the Magyars' cottages at
Hadad, and though they were superior to the Wal-
lack huts of Varhely, they were still very inferior
to those we had visited in Hungary. It is rare
that the Transylvanian peasant's cottage has more
than two rooms, sometimes only one ; his furniture
is scanty and rude, his crockery coarse, and those
little luxuries, which in the Hungarian denoted a
something beyond the needful, are rarely seen m
Transylvania. There is an air of negligence too
about his house ; his fence is broken, his stable out
of repair, and everywhere there is a want of that
thrifty look which declares that a man thinks he

COUNTRY LIFE. 817

has something worth taking care of, and hopes to
make it hetter.

The peasants of the Szildgys&g have not the best
of characters. Though allowed to be fine, brave,
independent fellows, they are reckoned among the
most desperate rogues in the country. No Szilagy-
sag man thinks it a disgrace to have been flogged,
but, to have shrunk under a flogging.

The life of a country gentleman in Transylvania,
though somewhat isolated by his distance from any
large capital, and by the badness of the roads, is by
no means without its pleasures. For the sportsman,
a large stud of horses — few men have less than
from ten to twenty, — every variety of game from
the boar and wolf, to the snipe and partridge, and
a boundless range for hunting over, are valuable
aids for passing time. If a man likes public busi-
ness, the county will readily choose him Vice Ispan
or magistrate, and the quarterly county meetings
are a constant source of interest, and afford ample
opportunity of exercising influence. If agriculture
has any charms, some thousands of untilled acres
offer abundant scope • for farming, and promise a
rich return for capital. If philanthropy has claims
on his heart, the peasantry, who look up to him
for almost everything, afford a fine scope for its
effiisions, and a certain reward if judiciously and
continuously exercised.

The houses of the richer nobles are large and

318 THE GOOD OLD TIMES.

roomyy and their establishments are conducted on a
scale of some splendour. It is true, that they are
deficient in many things which we should consider
absolute necessaries, but on the other hand they
exhibit many luxuries which we should consider ex-
travagant with twice their incomes. It is no un-
common thing, for instance, in a one-storied house
with a thatched-roof and an uncarpeted floor, to be
shown into a bed-room where all the washing appa-
ratus and toilet is of solid silver. It is an every-day
occurrence in a house, where tea and sugar are con-
sidered expensive luxuries, to sit down to a dinner of
six or eight courses. Bare white-washed walls and
rich Vienna furniture ; a lady decked in jewels which
might dazzle a court, and a handmaid without shoes
and stockings ; a carriage and four splendid horses,
with a coachman whose skin peeps out between his
waistcoat and inexpressibles, are some of the ano-
malies which, thanks to restrictions on commerce,
absence of communication, and a highly artificial
civilization in one part of the community, and great
barbarism in the other, are still to be found in
Transylvania. It is not, however, in such houses
as the one in which we were visiting, that such
anomalies are to be sought, but rather in those
who boast themselves followers of the ^* good old
customs of the good old times.** But laugh as we
young ones may at those ** old times," it is not alto-
gether without reason that the epithet of ** good," so
pertinaciously clings to them. There is something

THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN. 819

SO sincere and so simple in the manners of those
times, — when an Englishman wishes to express his
idea of them he calls them homely, and in that
word he understands all that his heart feels to be
dearest and best, — ^that see them where we may, they
have always something to attach and interest us.

In some of the old-iashioned houses in Transyl-
yania, there is still almost a patriarchal simplicity
in the habits of the family. An early hour sees all
the children, from the eldest to the^ youngest, — ay,
the married ones too — proceed in due order of
progeniture to the presence of their parents, whose
bands they respectfully kiss and from whom they
receive the morning blessing. After a simple
break&st of one small cup of coffee and cream,
and a slice of dry bread, the family disperses for
the business of the day. The children are left to
their masters and governesses — and, oh, what a
nokance those same masters and governesses are !
I have heard of no less than six living in one
family in the country at the same time. The
master of the house takes his meerschaum, ready
filled and lighted from the hands of his servant,
and sallies out, accompanied by his steward, bailiff,
and overseer, to give directions for the cultivation
of his estate, or to settle the lawsuits of his pea-
santry ; or, perhaps, the county meeting calls him
into town, and then he wraps himself up in his
bunda, gets into his carriage, and four fat horses
convey him to his destination. Or it may be, the

S20 THE GOOD HOUSEWIFE.

doctor has come over to see after the health of the
family, and the seigneur takes that opportunity to
lead him round the Tillage, that he may hleed and
physic all those who have wanted it for the last
three months, or who are likely to want it for the
next three months to come.^ Or, perhaps, some
quarrels amongst the peasantry, or some disobedi-
ence to his orders, have provoked the terrible anger
of the master, and he at once assumes the authority
of the judge, and cpndemns and punishes, where
he himself is a party in the cause. Or, perhaps,
the Jew merchant humbly waits an audience, and
with shining gold tempts him to dispose of the
coming vintage. And then the stables have to be
visited, and the cooper to be hurried for the vin-
tage, and the gipsies in the brickyard to be cor*
rected,

But, if the occupations of the lord are many,
who shall tell the busy cares and troubles of the
lady of the " good old times ?" With not less than
one hundred mouths to provide food for daily, with
no resources of a market-town near at hand, with
stores, consequently, of provisions for six months
to be taken care of, and these provisions too of a

* A worthy old Baron^ now dead, used to have the doctor over
every spring and autumn with a waggon-load of herbs. These
herbs, duly decocted and distilled, were administered to the whole
family and village, which were then considered sound for six
months to come.

MANNER OF LIVING. 321

variety * and quantity such as English housekeepers
can form no idea of, and which I, unfortunately,
am very inadequate to describe ; with a crowd of
servants, including artificers f of various kinds, to
superintend and direct, the multiplicity of her duties
may be indistinctly guessed. If somewhat less
elegant, and less accomplished than the more fa*
shionable ladies of the capital, these worthy house-
wives are never deficient in that respectable dignity
which a strict performance of the duties of their
station confers.

At one, the old-fashioned family, even of the
present day, assemble in the drawing-room, and
proceed to dinner. It is rarely that they sit down
without some guest ; for, whoever of their acquaint-
ance happens to be travelling near, always manages
to drop in about dinner-time, as he knows he will
be well received; indeed, his passing by without
stopping, would be considered an insult. And a
goodly sight is that hospitable board, for it is

* Among other objects strange to us^ might be mentioned the
collection of snails. The laige wood-snail is a favourite dish here^
and a very good one it is. The snails are drawn out of the shelly
cat small with a kind of savoury stuffing, and served up re-
placed in the shell. As for their being disgusting, it is all &ncy.
I have seen delicate ladies relish snails exceedingly, who would
have shuddered at the sight of a raw oyster. In some parts of
Transylvania, instead of eggs and fowls, the peasants pay their
tribute in snails and game. One lady's ordinaiy winter supply
was upwards of five thousand snails.

t In some houses, the weaver and tailor are hired servants ; and
in most, the cooper, baker, and smith.

VOL. 11. Y

392 MANNER OF LIVING.

crowded by those who might otherwise be ill pro-
vided for. Besides the fiunily and guests, all the
governesses and masters dine at table ; and then
there are three or four stewards and secretaries, and
the clergyman of the village, or perhaps both clergy-
man and priest, and the poor schoolmaster, all of
whom never dine at home when the seigneur is
in the country.

The dinner, instead of being placed on the table,
is carried round, that every one may help himself,
each dish being first presented to the lady of the
house who never fails to take a small portion by
way of recommending it to her guests. As for
telling the reader of what the dinner is composed,
it is impossible ; but I can assure him, that both in
quality and quantity, he must be very difficult to
please who is not satisfied. The elite of the com-
pany retire to the drawing-room, after dinner, to
partake of coffee and liqueur, while the inferior
guests, who have not the entree^ make their bows
and depart. When speaking of the occupations of
the ladies of Transylvania, it would be very un-
grateful were I to omit their talent in making
liqueurs ; some of the home-made liqueurs of Tran-
sylvania equal the best marasquinos and curaqoas
in flavour. A drive out in the cool of the evening
in summer, and embroidery, cards, books, and con-
versation, with the interlude of a goute composed
of fruits, preserves, savoury cold meats, and, now-

EXCURSION TO NAGY BANYA. 828

a-days, tea, and at nine, a supper nearly as large
as the dinner, complete the occupations of a day
in the country in Transylvania,

But it is high time I returned to our travels-
Baron W kindly offered to accompany us to

Nagy Banya, just beyond the north frontier of
Transylvania, to visit the gold mines there. It is
a good day's journey, even in summer, and the only
chance of accomplishing it at this season, was by
sending on beforehand, half way, a light carriage, so
that the horses might be rested, and ready to go
forward directly we arrived.

. We started on horseback ; and after a delightful
ride, sometimes winding through fine forests of oak,
iQow crossing a rich green meadow, now losing our-
selves and making straight across the country for
the nearest village, to inquire our way, and now
toiling along a muddy lane where the horses sunk
almost up to the middle in the mire, we at last
arrived where the carriage was waiting for us.
The greatest drawback to the pleasure of such a
ride is the danger of injuring one's horse in cross-
ing the rude wooden bridges which are thrown
over the brooks in this country. They are com-
posed of unhewn stems of trees laid side by side
with a coating of soil over them. From accident
or carelessness, nothing is more common than to
find a considerable insterstice between these stems,
which is concealed by the soil, and so becomes a

Y 2

324 THE GIPSIES.

veritable pitfall. My horse put his foot into one
of these, and sunk up to the shoulder ; but, fortu-
nately, he escaped without injury.

In the course of our ride, in a small valley a little
off the road, the Baron showed me a colony of gip-
sies, — permanent, as he said, in contradistinction
to others who are always erratic, — who occupy a
little land, and do him some work for it. The
reader may have remarked that I do not hesitate
here, as well as in other parts of this Work, to
speak of the Czigany of the Hungarians by the
English name of gipsies, for it is impossible to
doubt their identity. There is the same dark eye
and curling black hair, the same olive complexion
and small active form. Then their occupations and
manner of life, different as are the countries and
climates they inhabit, still remain the same; fid-
dling, fortune-telling, horse-dealing, and tinkering,
are their favourite employments, — a vagabond life
their greatest joy. Though speaking several tongues,
they have all a peculiar language of their own, quite
distinct from any other known in Europe. Here,
as with us, they have generally a king too, whom
they honour and respect, but I have not been
able to make out what establishes a right to the
gipsy crown. I believe superior wealth, personal
cunning, as well as hereditary right, have some
influence on their choice.

They first made their appearance in this country
from the East, about the year 1423, when King

THE GIPSIES. 325

Sigmund granted them permission to settle.*
Joseph the Second tried to turn them to some
account, and passed laws which he hoped would
force them to give up their wandering life and be-
take themselves to agriculture. The landlords were
obliged to make them small grants of land, and to
allow them to build houses at the end of their
villages. I have often passed through these Czi-
gdny vdros, f^V^J towns, and it is impossible to
imagine a more savage scene. Children of both
sexes to the age of fourteen, are seen rolling
about with a mere shred of covering, and their
elders with much less than the most unfastidious
decency requires. Filth obstructs the passage into
every hut. As the stranger approaches, crowds of
black urchins flock round him, and rather demand
than beg for charity. The screams of men and
women, and the barking of dogs — for the whole
tribe seems to be in a state of constant war-
fare — never cease from morning to night. It is
rare, however, that when thus settled, they can re-
main the whole year stationary ; they generally dis-
appear during a part of the summer, and only
return when winter obliges them to seek a shel-
ter. Others wander about as they do with us,

* In Hungarian law they are called '^ new peasants.*' The
name of Pharaoh nepek, Pharaoh's people^ I imagine has been
given either from contempt^ or error. The name Czigany> by which
the Hungarians call them^ is so like the Zingari^ Zigeuner, Gitani^
Gipsy, of other nations^ that I have no doubt it is the one they origi-
nally gave themaelyes.

826 THE GIPSIES.

gaining a livelihood, as accident throws it in their
way. They are said to amount* to sixty two thou-
sand three hundred and fifteen in Transylvania.*
The Austrian Government, I believe, is the only
one in Europe which has been known to derive any
advantage from its gipsies, but by means of the
tax for gold washing, to which we shall allude
hereafter, it must derive a considerable revenue
from this people. They are oftien taken for sol-
diers, and are said to make pretty good ones.
Most of them are christened and profess some
religion, which is always the seigneur's — not the
peasants' — of the village to which they belong.
In fact the gipsies have a most profound respect
for aristocracy, and they are said to be the best
genealogists in the country.

Their skill in horse-shoeing, — they are the
only blacksmiths in the country, — and in brick-
making, renders them of considerable value to the
landlord. What is the exact state of the law with
respect to them, I know not ; but I believe they are
absolute serfs in Transylvania. I know the settled
gipsies cannot legally take permanent service out
of the place they were bom in, without permis-
sion, or without the payment of a certain sum of
money.f

* This enumeration is taken from a very imperfect statiBtical
work^ on Transylvania by Lebrecht, and is, I 8U8ped;> exagge-
rated.

t In Wallachia^ when I was there^ they were sold as slaves
in the open market. I believe this law has been since abolished.

THE GIPSIES. 827

They are just as great beggars here as else-
"where, and just as witty in their modes of beg-
ging. A large party of them presented them-
selves one day at the door of the Countess W ,

whom they used to call the mother of the gipsies,
from her frequent charities to them, with a most
piteous complaint of cold and hunger — all the
children, as usual, naked; when the chief pull-
ing a sad face, begged hard for relief ; ** for he
-was a poor man," he said, *^ and it cost him a
great deal to clothe so large a &mily."

Of the most simple moral laws they seem to be
entirely ignorant. It is not rare to see them em-
ployed as servants in offices considered below the
peasant to perform. They never dream of eating
with the rest of the household, but receive a
morsel in their hands, and devour it where they
can. Their dwellings are the merest huts, often
without a single article of ftimiture. Having such
difficulty in supporting themselves, as is manifested
in their wasted forms, one cannot help wondering
how they can maintain the pack of curs which al-
ways infest their settlements, and often render it
dangerous to approach them. By the rest of the
peasantry they are held in most sovereign contempt.
As I was travelling along the road one day, after
my return from Turkey, my servant turned round
as we met a camp of gipsies, and exclaimed ** After
all, sir, our negroes are not so ugly as those in
Turkey."

S28 NAGY BANYA.

On arriving at a village about half-way to Nagy
Banya, we found the servants had laid the table
at a miserable cottage, though the best in the
place, when quickly despatching the good dinner
which was waiting for us, we got into the wag-
gon and hastened on as fast as we could. It was
night, however, before we reached our destination ;
and we had an opportunity of proving the incon-
veniences of travelling in the dark, in such a coun-
try; for, in passing a small overflow, the waggon
sunk on one side into a deep hole, and qijdetly
overturned us all into the water. We escaped
with no other injury than a good wetting, which
we managed to rectify by means of the liqueur-
bottle, which S— — had instinctively grasped in
the fall, and so secured from injury.

Nagy Banya is rather a pretty little town, with
a large square and some buildings, so good, that one
wonders how they could ever have got there. The
country round it is mountainous, and some of the
valleys in the neighbourhood are exceedingly pretty.
The mining district, of which Nagy Banya forms
the chief place, extends for a considerable space
around it ; but, though still rich in ores, it is much
less important than some others we have visited.
The most interesting of the mines is that of the
Kreutzberg, close by the town, which, having been
worked by the Romans, and afterwards deserted,
has been reopened within the last eighty years, and
now yields a considerable return. We entered it

NAGY BANYA. 329

by a fine adit, which will soon be fit for horse
waggons. Traces of the beautiful Roman work
were yisible on every side. We found them work-
ing a new vein, or rather an offset from the old
one, which was tolerably rich, and seemed to offer
good prospects of continuance. The ceutner of
ore contains about eight ounces of silver, and every
ounce of silver forty denarii of gold. The Kreutz*
berg produces about four marks of gold per month.
The matrix is generally porphyry. To free the
mine from water, an eight-horse wheel working a
pump is kept in constant motion. Not many years
since, a skeleton, supposed to be the remains of an
ancient miner, together with some tools, and a Ro-
man lamp, was found in this mine.

The most interesting object connected with the
Ejreutzberg, is a vast cleft which penetrates from
the sur&ce to a depth of three hundred and eighty
yards, and which extends twelve hundred yards in
length, and is six feet wide. When this cleft
was produced is not known ; but, if I remember
rightly, there is reason to believe it was since the
time of the Romans.

We visited the smelting-works, which are situ-
ated somewhat higher up the valley, and found
them in a better condition than almost any others
we had seen.

The chief products of these mines, are gold and
silver, the amount of which I have seen stated, the
former, at four hundred marks per an., the latter.

S30 MINING.

at eighteen thousand marks. Besides these some
copper, lead, and iron are produced. The officers
on the spot could not give us the net amount of
these products per an., for the gold and silver are
sent off from Nagy Banya to Kremnitz every
month, in a single mass, and are only separated
when they arrive there. Of the mixed metal, they
say about twelve hundred marks are produced every
month, which would reduce the amount consider-
ably lower than that given above.

Mining is one of those tempting speculations,
which it is very hard for persons living in a mining
country to resist ; yet it is just one of the most
dangerous, for those ignorant of its mysteries, to
meddle with. To the scientific miner, I have no
doubt, Transylvania offers certain wealth ; but to
a country gentleman, who puts his money into a
mine much as he would into a lottery, it is a pretty
certain loss. A member of our friend's family had
fallen into this snare, and we had intended to visit
the mine ; but we heard such a poor report of it^
that it was not thought worth the time. In fact^
a steward, who had been dismissed for dishonesty,
had begged to be employed to conduct a min^
which he declared, after a very small outlay for the
first year, would not only pay itself, but soon .pro-
duce a very handsome return. From a mistaken
feeling of kindness the request was granted; and
now, after there years' working, no return could be
heard of.

TRANSYLVANIAN TRAVELLING. 881

On our way back to Hadad the next day^ we
began to feel extremely hungry, and our horses
seemed quite ready for a rest about one o'clock,
at which hour we found ourselves near a village
where there was no inn. " Never mind," said the
Baron, " we have got plenty of cold fowls and
ham, and wine; and the coachman has not for-
gotten some com for his horses, so that we shall
not starve. But, as it would not be pleasant
to sit and eat our dinner here, — (the snow was
beginning to fall,) — we will go to that house,"
pointing to a gentleman's house at the other end
of the village ; ^' for though the master is not at
home, and I know him very slightly, I am sure the
servants will be very glad to let us in." When
we drove up to the door, the servants no sooner
heard our wishes, than they opened the dining-room
and offered us anjrthing they had, as if it had
been a matter of course. The horses were put
up in the stable, and the coachman bought some
more com of the bailiff and gave them a double
feed. The absence of inns renders this kind of
hospitality an absolute duty, and no one hesitates
to avail himself of it when in need.

Though it was yet scarcely the middle of No-
vember, the snow fell so heavily that every one
declared it was setting in for winter, and we
were glad, therefore, to get back to Klausenburg as
quickly as we could. It was melancholy to see the
peasants up to the knees in snow, searching for the

332 RETURN TO KLAUSENBURG.

grapes which were not half gathered. It is reckon-
ed that a great part of this year's vintage will be
entirely lost. By following a longer, but better
road, we were enabled to reach Klausenburg in two
days, with no other accident than the breaking
of some iron-work of the carriage, which we were
able to supply by means of ropes.

CHAPTER XI.

THE SALT MINES AND GOLD HINEB.

Hone Fair at Klausenburg. . — MoldaTian Horses. — Cholera in
Klautenburg. — Thorda. — Valley of the Aranyoa. — Miklos
and his PeccodilloeB. — A Transylvanian Invitation. — The
Wallack Judge. — Tboroczko. — The Unitarian Clergyman. —
St. Oyorgy.— A Transylvanian Widow. — Feasants' Cottages.

— The Cholera A Lady's Road. — Thordw Hasad^k.— The

Salt Mines of Szamos tijv&r. — The Salt Tax. — Karlsburg. —
The Cathedral and krumme Peter. — Wallack Charity. — Za-
latna. — Abrud Banya. — The Gold Mines of Viiros Patak. —
Ctetatie. — Detonata. — Return. — College of Nagy Enyed —
EngUsh Fund. — System of Education.

The reader must now allow me to pass over three
quarters of a year, of which period I shall give him
no further account than to saj it was passed iu

834 HORSE-FAIR.

travelling through some parts of Greece and Tur-
key, and he must fancy me returned to Transyl-
vania, determined to see the part of the country
which the approach of winter had prevented me from
visiting the year before. My brother had taken Mr.

S ^"s place as my companion ; but, alas ! Mr.

H— — - had left for England, and I was forced to
content myself with such poor sketches os I could
make myself of what most struck me in this tour.

When I came back to Klausenburg, it was just
at the time of the horse-fair ; and a number of gay
carriages were rolling about, making the whole
place seem quite alive. This fair has only been es-
tablished a few years, and it is as yet considered a
matter of honour for the chief horse-breeders to
send a number of their horses, if only to show them.
A large circus has been enclosed on the outside of
the town, in which the horses are trotted and gallop-
ed round, while the company, including a crowd of
ladies, occupy a kind of stand erected at one end.
As the most beautiful horses of the country are
produced here, and as they are often ridden by their
owners, it is a very animated scene. On the outside
of the circus, the carriage horses are exhibited ; and
many were the smart teams of four long-tailed little
horses, which whirled the light carriages round the
circle.

In one corner we found a group of some hun-
dred perfectly wild horses from Moldavia, not one
of which had ever had a halter round his neck.

HORSE-FAIR. 335

They were gaarded by a set of men, if possible, even
wilder-looking than themselves. Some of these
horses were by no means deficient in good points ;
and though they do not bear a high character here,
the low price at which they were sold, — eight or
ten pounds the pair, — ^tempted purchasers. To see
the newly purchased horses separated from the herd
was a great treat ; it was one of the most clever feats
of address and courage I almost ever witnessed. No
sooner was the horse fixed on and pointed out, than
one of the savage-looking tenders rushed into the
herd, seized him by the ears and mane, and hung to
him with all his strength. Alarmed at this treat*
ment, the poor beast became furious, dashed about,
kicked, reared, and put every artifice of horse inge-
nuity in force to get rid of his enemy. It was all in
vain, there the fellow hung, — now in the air, now
on the ground — ^he still held to the head. No bull-
dog could pin his adversary more securely. Fati-
gued at last with his own exertions, the horse was
quiet for a moment, when a rope with a slip-noose
was thrown over his neck, on which three or four
men pulled with all their might, till they dragged
him out of the herd. Half dead from strangula-
tion, fear, and fatigue, the poor creature was now
bound tightly to his fellow, and the pair were
led off. When they first felt themselves yoked
as it were, there was generally one more struggle
for liberty ; but it was useless, they only exhausted
each others' strength, and probably became sufifi-

SS6 CHOLERA IN KLAUSENBURG.

ciently tame in a few hours, to be harnessed to a
waggon and driven home.

The gay aspect of Klausenburg, however, soon
disappeared. It was the season of the harvest,
and all good landlords had plenty to do at home.
There was another reason also which called the
better-intentioned into the country. The cholera
was raging frightfully through almost every part of
the land, and the peasantry, the chief sufferers, had
no one from whom they could ask or expect aid
and advice but their lords and ladies ; and nobly,
in many instances, did they perform their duties.
Personal attendance even in some cases, and medi-
cine and food in almost all, were liberally supplied.
Of the numbers who perished during this attack
it is impossible to give any account ; I doubt even
if it is known. In Klausenburg, for some time,
the number of deaths amounted to from twenty to
thirty a day ; and before it ceased, probably not less
than one-twentieth of its population was carried off.
I have heard of some villages in which even a tenth
perished. We were lodged just opposite one of
the gates of the town which led to the great ceme-
tery, and through which every corpse was carried
out. From two o'clock, as long as daylight lasted,
the funerals proceeded in one melancholy proces-
sion. It is the custom that every member of a trade
should be followed by the whole of the corpo-
ration to which he belonged, and it is therefore
scarcely a figure of speech to say that all Klau-

THORDA. SS7

senburg was engaged in this mournful task. A
gipsj band is a necessary attendant on a Transyl-
yanian funeral ; and it is usually accompanied by
the voices of a hundred followers, chanting a mass
or singing a psalm as they march along. The sol-
diers, too, suffered severely, and the fine military
bands were generally heard three or four times
every afternoon. These melancholy scenes, and
the continual tolling of the great bell, rendered
Klausenburg really more like a city of the dead
than the living; and we were heartily glad when
our preparations were made, and we could dissipate
our gloomy thoughts by new scenes and new ob-
jects of interest.

In the little excursion which we made, and which
did not occupy us more than a week, I think it will
be best to follow my journal.

August 18th. — Left Klausenburg and got to
Thorda for dinner. Finding nothing very inter-
esting, though there are said to be some remains
of a Roman road in the neighbourhood, and the
post-house is ornamented with some Roman bas-re-
lieft, we engaged horses to take us on to Thorocz-
ko, where we hear there are some iron-mines well
worth seeing. We agreed to pay eight shillings a
day for five horses, the coachman being bound to
maintain himself and steeds.

The road to Thoroczko was hilly, and in many
places so bad, that we could only advance at a
foot pace. A little before sunset, we arrived at

VOL. 11. z

888 VALLEY OF THE ARANYOS.

tlie summit of a very high hill, firom which we
had a splendid view over a fine mountainous coun«
try, with crags and precipices on every side, and
just below us the little village of Bare, and the
Aranyos winding along the valley. Across the river
was one of those curious covered wooden bridges,
so common in Switzerland ; indeed, there was no-
thing but a snow mountain wanting to have made
us &ncy ourselves in the cantons. As we were
slowly descending the hill, at the imminent hazard
of our necks, with both wheels locked, and the
servant hanging to the step to balance it, I began
to make some inquiries as to the distance we had
still to go before we arrived at Thoroczko, where
we had been told there was a comfortable inn. I
may add, in a parenthesis, that a comfortable inn
in Transylvania means a dry room, clean straw, and
a couple of roast chickens for supper. ^* Oh, I
quite forgot," exclaimed Miklos, " to tell your
grace that I have learnt at Tftorda, that there is
no inn at Thoroczko ; but it is of no consequence,

for the Countess T lives there, and she wonld

certainly be very glad to entertain you." It was
of no use scolding — though like most angry men
I believe I forgot that in my anger — ^for although
this fellow had been in my service nearly a year,
I had never been able to make him feel why I
often preferred a poor dirty inn to a handsome man-
sion, and starved chickens to good &re. That
any motives of delicacy could make me hesitate to

MiKlxSs. 389

intrude on the hoBpitality of those with whom I
was unacquainted, was an idea altogether so foreign
to the habits and customs of Transylvania, where
in fact such visits are not considered intrusions, that
it was no wonder the poor fellow could not com-
prehend it.

But it is time I introduced this same Miklos to
the better acquaintance of the reader^ for a traveller
who is ignorant of the vulgar tongue of a country
in which he travels, is so dependent on his servant,
that the character of the latter has often more
influence on his adventures than even his own.
After dismissing old Stephan, I had taken a man
who turned out so great a rogue that I was obliged
to get rid of him as soon as I arrived in Klau-
senburg the first time ; and here some friend found
Miklos for me to supply his place. Miklos was a
stout good-looking little fellow of about twenty, who
spoke Hungarian and Wallack perfectly, and knew
as much Grerman as enabled him to get through
a message, which had been twice repeated to him,
with only two or three blunders. His greatest
merits were his desire to travel, and his constant
good-humour in all the difficulties attendant on it.
If anything was to be drawn out of an ill-tempered
landlady, or a rigid-looking custom-house officer was
to be softened, Miklos was pretty sure to manage
the affiur. Then he could make a bed, cook a
dinner, cut hair, mend clothes, sleep on the ground,
fast for a week, and bargain with a Jew. If the

340 MiKLds.

carriage stuck in the mud and we required addi-
tional assistance to get it out again, he was the first
to mount a horse and gallop off without bridle or
saddle to the next Tillage, and it was hard if
he came back without having obtained his ob-
ject. If the coachman could not drive his team
or had an unruly leader, Miklos mounted as pos-
tilion or took the reins, and drove as if he had been
bred a Jehu. These were all valuable qualities ; but
then the fellow was careless; made endless mistakes,
which no scolding could teach him to avoid for
more than twenty-four hours; and had, moreover,
a shocking habit of making love to every woman
he came near. He got deep into the affections of
a lady's maid at Pest, attracted the attentions of
a Greek widow in Constantinople, promised mar-
riage to a Wallachian girl at Bucharest, and was
besieged by a host of inamoratas in Klausenburg.
Some may fancy that all these were no matters of
mine, but I assure them they are mistaken, for
independently of the annoyance of complaints from
masters and mammas, love-making occupies much
time which might be better employed ; besides that,
leaving every place one enters with a Dido deso-
lata delaying the start is by no means agreeable.
Notwithstanding his peccadilloes, however, Miklos
was a good servant, and I must say I was sorry
when I left the country and was obliged to part with
him — especially when I saw him neglect to take

THE WALLACK'S COTTAGE. 841

up his money, and blubber like a great child at
leaving me.

The yallej of the Aranyos and the little village
of Bare which we had now reached, looked so in-
viting, that I was much tempted to make a better
acquaintance with it, and accordingly desired Miklos
to see if it was not possible to get a room in some
peasant's cottage for the night. The judge imme-
diately offered us beds in his house, and promised
us some supper too if we would stay; an offer I
was glad to accept in spite of Miklos's contemptu-
ous expression when he found it was a Wallack un-
der whose roof we were to rest.

While they were making all possible preparations
in the cottage, we scrambled along the craggy
banks of the river for a considerable distance up the
valley. Some mines in the neighbouring moun-
tains, gave food to an iron hammer which was ply-
ing its noisy restless task, disturbing the whole vale
with its melancholy song.

However Miklos may have sneered, the Wal-
lack judge's cottage was by no means so bad.
Besides the room in which the whole family lived,
and the entrance where they cooked, — ^both of which
were certainly very filthy, — there was another room,
which, if it had no other floor than the hardened
clay, and no other wall than the baked mud, was
yet dry and tolerably clean. It contained two beds,
very short, and very hard, and, all around, were
hung rude earthen jugs and pots, and in one fiei-

S42 AN INVITATION.

Toured comer was a clnster of pictures of hideous
saints, after the most orthodox models of the Greek
church. But the pride of the family consisted
in a long row of not less than twenty aprons,
besides a number of shirts, ostentatiously dis-
played along one side of the room. The aprons
were such as are commonly worn by the Wallack
women ; but of a finer wool, and of beautiful colours.
The shirts were of coarse linen, but prettily eaak"
broidered with blue at the wrists and neck. The
whole of this treasure was the produce of the
housewife's own hands.

As we were examining these arrangements, while
Miklos was disposing some new pieces of home-
spun linen in the guise he thought most likely to
make us fancy them a table-cloth and napkins, a
clattering of horses' hoofs was heard to cease at
the door, and he was presently called out to speak
to some stranger. When he returned, it was to
announce that a servant of the Countess T was

just come to say that his mistress had heard of our
yisit to Thoroczko, and would expect us to take
beds at her house. Here was a pretty affair! The
carriage unpacked, the horses in the stable, and we
expected some miles off! However, it was now too
late to think of going further, and besides, I bad
taken a fancy to the Wallack's cottage. The beds
too were made, a wax- light robbed from the car*
riage — these people were too poor to have candles
of any kind — threw a cheerful light over the room,

AN INVITATION. S^8

eyeiything was put iu order, and I fimded it looked
very cam/arkMe : in addition to which, the doth,
such at it was, was laid, and the smell of roasting
was far from disagreeable to men who had not eaten
since mid-day, so that there was nothing to be done
bat send a very polite message with an excuse for
not coming, on account of the lateness of the hour,
and a promise to do ourselves the honour of pay*
ing a visit the next day.

I know not whether it was the difficult masti-
cation of the fibrous old cock which now smoked
upon the table, or some other cause, which called
np certain doubts in my mind as to the correctness
of the message which had just been delivered ; but
certain it is they did arise, and I forthwith ques-
tioned Miklos as to whether he had learnt how the
Countess could have heard of our coming, as we
knew she herself had but just returned to Tho-
lOGzko from another part of the country. " Why,''
said Miklos, making more than his usual num-
ber of blunders in Grerman, as he answered, ** the
fact is, the Countess does not know of it yet, but
she soon will ; the servant who had been to Klau-
senburg on business, had heard there of your Grace's
arrival in this part of the country, and so he thought
of course you would visit his lady, and he hastened
home to tell them of your coming ; but as he found
we were stopping here, he told your Grace that
they already were expecting you, that he might
not have to come back again to say so." And thus,

344 THOROCZKO.

on the servant's inyitation, I bad coolly sent to say
I should visit a lady to whom I had no introduc-
tion, and whom, though I knew by name, I had
never seen in my life. Oh ! I could have broken
the rascal's head for his blunder ! but he was evi-
dently unconscious of any fault, and thought, I have
no doubt, that both he and the other servant were
a couple of very clever fellows.

19th. — Rose early, got a sketch of the bridge
and river, and started for Thoroczko, where we ar-
rived before ten. It is a pretty little town, cleaner
and with better houses than one generally sees.
Its inhabitants are all Magyars and Unitarians.
A friend in Klausenburg had given us a letter to
the Unitarian clergyman as the person best able
to give us information of anything worth seeing in
the neighbourhood, and we drove straight to his
house. He was out attending a sick parishioner;
but his wife received us, and insisted on sending
to inform him of our coming.

In the mean time we entered his modest dwelling,
which, except in being rather larger, and having
the kitchen and servant's room separated from
the dwelling-rooms, differed little from those of his
peasant neighbours. Its interior, however, bespoke
his superiority. The two little rooms of which it
consisted were crowded with book-shelves. Here
they groaned under quartos of Latin theology;
there they displayed probably all the best works
in Hungarian literature, — and no great number

THE UNITARIAN CLERGYMAN. 345

either — while, in another part, belles lettres and
natural history flourished in mis-shapen tomes from
the German press. Some fine minerals from the
neighbourhood which were scattered about, and a
number of little drawers, which I am sure con-
tained specimens, declared our priest a natural
philosopher. While we were making these observ-
ations, a stout, middle-aged man, with a mild ex-
pression of countenance, long black hair hanging
down his back, and dressed in an Hungarian coat
and knee-boots, made his appearance; and hj a
long complimentary speech in Latin, proclaimed
himself our host. Before he was half through his
address, I interrupted him, and petitioned for Ger-
man ; but he declared off on the score of inability,
and we were accordingly forced to carry on a medley
discourse of Latin and German, as we best could. .
We found the immediate object of our visit, the
iron mines, were in a very bad state, and scarcely
worth the trouble of seeing. The clergyman told
us of several natural curiosities in the mountains
near; but they demanded a day or two at least to
visit them, and we determined therefore, after pay-
ing our self-profferred visit to the Countess, who,
our friend assured us, was a ^^nobUissima et gene-^
rosissima dama^^ to return to Thorda. We were not
allowed to leave, however, without visiting the
Unitarian church; a large, and rather handsome
building for the size of the town. The object to
which our attention was more immediately drawn.

346 ST. GYORGY.

however, was tlie organ; it was a recent acqmea-
tion, and was exhibite