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F ILLINOIS BULLETIN

ISSUED WEEKLY
MAY 13, 1918 No. 37

-second-class matter Dec. 11, 1012, at the Post Office at Urbana. 111., under the Aet of Aur. 24. 1912.1

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS WITH

VALVES, ORIFICES, HOSE, NOZZLES,

AND ORIFICE BUCKETS

ARTHUR N. TALBOT, FRED B SEELY,^
VIRGIL R FLEMING, MELVIN L. ENGER

BULLETIN No. 105
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF 1 NOIS, URBANA

PRICE: 'i HTRTT-IITB CENTS

EUROPEAN AGENT
CHAPMAN & HALL, LTD., LONDON

CHANGE

Wtfttf?

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS
ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

BULLETIN No. 105 MAY, 1918

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS WITH VALYES,

ORIFICES, HOSE, NOZZLES, AND

ORIFICE BUCKETS

PART I
Loss OF HYDRAULIC HEAD IN SMALL VALVES

BY ARTHUR N. TALBOT

PROFESSOR OF MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY ENGINEERING
IN CHARGE OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

AND

FRED B SEELY

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

PART II
THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SUBMERGED ORIFICES

BY FRED B SEELY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

PART III

FIRE STREAMS FROM SMALL HOSE AND NOZZLES
BY VIRGIL R FLEMING

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MECHANICS

PART IV

THE ORIFICE BUCKET FOR MEASURING WATER

BY MELVIN L. ENGER
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA

PREFACE

AS a part of the experimental work conducted in the Hydraulic
-*"*• Laboratory of the University of Illinois a number of problems
has been investigated which has not been large enough in scope to war-
rant publication as separate bulletins. It seems well, however, to put
on record the results of such experiments, and this bulletin presents
a record of four of these problems. It is believed that the four papers
will be found to be of use in various aspects of engineering practice
even though the experiments are not exhaustive investigations.

The investigations for the most part have been the outgrowth of
experimental work begun by students, largely as thesis work, and car-
ried on over a period of several years.

The variety of conditions under which the flow of water takes
place, the possibility of large changes in the state of the flow due appar-
ently to small changes in the form of the passages through which the
water flows, and the necessity of persistent effort in subjecting assump-
tions and analytical deductions to experimental verification, make it
desirable to report all hydraulic experimental results which are believed
to be reliable.

A part of the experimental results herein reported has appeared
in the publication of a technical society. The material, however, has
been expanded in this bulletin and will be found in a more convenient

form for use.

ARTHUR N. TALBOT

FRED B SEELY

Editors

PART I
LOSS OF HYDRAULIC HEAD IN SMALL VALVES

BY ARTHUR N. TALBOT
PROFESSOR OF MUNICIPAL AND SANITARY ENGINEERING
IN CHARGE OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

AND

FRED B SEELY

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

387318

CONTENTS

PART I
LOSS OF HYDRAULIC HEAD IN SMALL VALVES

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION 7

1. Preliminary 7

2. Acknowledgment 7

II. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING .... 8

3. Valves 8

4. Method of Experimenting 8

III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . 10

5. Loss of Head 10

6. Earlier Experiments on Gate Valves 18

7. Coefficients of Discharge for Gate Valves .... 20

8. Summary 21

LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

1. Longitudinal Sections of Valves Tested 9

2. Arrangement of Apparatus . 11

•

3. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

1-inch Gate Valve ....'... 13

4. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

2-inch Gate Valve 13

5. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

1-inch Globe Valve .14

6. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

2-inch Globe Valve 14

7. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

1-inch Angle Valve 15

8. Curves Showing the Relation between the Velocity and Head Lost in

2-inch Angle Valve 15

9. Curves Showing the Relation between Coefficients of Loss and Valve

Openings 16

10. Curves Showing the Effect of Gradual Change of Section through 2-inch

Globe Valve . 17

LIST OF TABLES

1. Experimental Values of Coefficients of Loss 16

2. Values of the Coefficient of Loss for Gate Valves of Various Diameters

Due to Partial Closure Only 19

3. Experimental Values of the Coefficients of Discharge for Gate Valves . 20

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

WITH

VALVES, ORIFICES, HOSE, NOZZLES, AND
ORIFICE BUCKETS

PART I
LOSS OF HYDRAULIC HEAD IN SMALL VALVES

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Preliminary. — Part I of this bulletin presents the results of
experiments on the flow of water through 1-in. and 2-in. gate valves,
1-in. and 2-in. globe valves, and 1-in. and 2-in. angle valves. The loss
of head caused by each valve, expressed in terms of the velocity head
in the pipe, is given for four different ratios of the height of the valve
opening to the diameter of the full valve orifice, namely, M, /^, H,
and 1. The coefficients of discharge are also given for the gate valves
for each of the four valve openings.

In a long pipe line the total amount of lost head is caused chiefly
by pipe friction, the resistance due to a valve being comparatively small
except for very small valve openings.

In a variety of cases, however, where valves are used on compara-
tively short pipe lines as, for example, in hydraulic elevator service, in
office buildings, and in special apparatus it is important to know the
lost head caused by small valves of different kinds when set at various
positions. Very few experimental results have been published on this
subject, particularly for globe and angle valves. Any experimental
work, furthermore, which helps to indicate the laws governing the flow
of water should prove of value. With these facts in mind the results
herein recorded have been prepared.

2. Acknowledgment. — The experiments herein considered were per-
formed as student thesis work in the Hydraulic Laboratory of the Uni-
versity of Illinois by M. E. THOMAS, class of 1906, under the direction
of PROFESSOR ARTHUR N. TALBOT. Unusual care in the experimenting is
reflected in the congruity of the data presented in Mr. Thomas' thesis.

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

II. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING

3, Valves. — The valves used were bought in the open market
and tested just as received. The passages through the 2-in. globe
valve were then modified by the use of plaster of paris to give a more
gradual change of section (see Fig. 10), and this valve was tested again.
The types or forms of the interiors of the valves and the dimensions of
some of the passageways through the valves are shown in Fig. 1. The
1-in. globe valve and the 1-in. angle valve were made by the Western
Tube Company. All the other valves were made by the Crane Company.

4. Method of Experimenting. — The arrangement of the apparatus
is shown in Fig. 2. The test valve was placed in a horizontal pipe to
which water was supplied from a standpipe under a static head of about
50 feet. The quantity of water discharged through the valve was
regulated by another valve downstream from the test valve. The
volume discharged in a certain time was measured in a calibrated pit
and the time taken with an ordinary watch from which the rate of
discharge was calculated. Three-way gage connections for obtaining
the pressure head in the pipe were made at a section one foot upstream
and one foot downstream from the valve. Care was taken to avoid
having these connections project into the interior of the pipe. It was
found by experiment that when any two of the three pressure connec-
tions at either section were closed, the same difference of head was
registered as when all three connections at either section were open.
The three-way connections were used, however, in all the experiments.
The difference in the pressure heads at the two sections was measured
by a differential mercury gage. A Crosby pressure gage was also
attached at each section to serve as a rough check on the differential
gage. The lost head due to the pipe friction for the two feet of pipe
between the two sections was assumed to be as given in Weston's Tables
of Friction of Water in Pipes. This amount of lost head was subtracted
from the reading of the differential mercury gage in determining the loss
of head caused by the valve.

The loss of head and the corresponding rate of discharge and
velocity in the pipe were determined for each of four valve openings for
each of the six valves tested. The valve openings used were such that
the heights of the openings were one-fourth, one-half, three-fourths, and
one times the diameter of the full valve orifice.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

One- Inch Gate Valve

Two-Inch Gate Valve

One-Inch Angle Valve Two-Inch Angle Valve

FIG. 1. LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF VALVES TESTED

10 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

III. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5. Loss of Head. — In Fig. 3 to 8 values of the lost head caused
by the valve are plotted as abscissas and the mean velocity in the pipe
as ordinates. The assumed value of the friction head for the two feet
of pipe between pressure connections is subtracted from the differential
mercury gage reading in plotting the abscissas. There is, of course,
some doubt concerning the correct allowance to be made for this pipe
friction. The loss of head due to this cause, however, will be relatively
small except for the larger valve openings. It will be noted from the
curves in Fig. 3 to 8 that the range of velocity in the pipe varied of
course with the kind of valve and with the amount of valve opening.
The smallest mean velocity in any case was about % ft. per sec., while
the maximum mean velocity was about 40 ft. per sec.

The curves in Fig. 3 to 8 give values of the loss of head caused
by the valves which vary as the square of the velocity in the pipe, that
is,, the lost head due to the valve may be expressed in terms of the
velocity head in the pipe. This fact is shown very clearly by plotting
the values from the curves in Fig. 3 to 8 on logarithmic paper; the
curves showing the relation between the lost head, h, and the velocity
in the pipe, v, become parallel straight lines with a slope varying but
little from two, the slope indicating the exponent in the equation
h — kvn. That is, h = kv2 or, when expressed in terms of the velocity

head in the pipe, h = -~- in which m is called the coefficient of loss.

Values of the coefficients of loss for the valves with the various valve
openings as obtained from the curves in Fig. 3 to 8 are given in Table 1.
These values have been plotted in Fig. 9 as abscissas against the valve
openings as ordinates. From these curves and also from Table 1 the
resistance to flow caused by the three kinds of valves may be com-
pared at various valve openings. It will be noted that the loss of head
varies in a quite different manner with the amount of valve opening for
these three kinds of valves, for instance, a comparison of the results
for the valves when completely opened shows that a globe valve causes
more than twice as much loss of head as the corresponding size of angle
valve, while a gate valve causes markedly less loss than either a globe or
an angle valve, the velocity in the pipe being the same in the three
cases. As the valve is gradually closed, the resistance to flow of the
angle valves increases the least (decreasing at first) while the resistance

T -,

FIG. 2. ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

02-46 8- IO 12 14 16 18 2O 22 24 26 28 JO 32 34 36 38 <4O

Head Lost , /?

FIG. 3. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN I-INCH GATE VALVE

30 32 34 36 38 4O

24 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

head Lost t ft.

FIG. 4. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN 2-iNCH GATE VALVE

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

0 2 4 6 6 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 3O 32 J4 36 38

FIG. 5. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN I-INCH GLOBE VALVE

FIG. 6. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN 2-iNCH GLOBE VALVE

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

O 2 4 6 8 10 IZ 14 16 18 2O 22 24 26 28 JO 32 34 36 38 40

head Lost. ft.

FIG. 7. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN I-INCH ANGLE VALVE

6 B IO 12 14 IS /8 2O 22 24 26 28 3O 32 34 36 38 4O

/lead Lost, ft

FIG. 8. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN THE VELOCITY AND
HEAD LOST IN 2-iNCH ANGLE VALVE

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

of the gate valves increases the most rapidly, although the rate of
increase in any case is comparatively small until the valve is at least
one-half closed.

^0 30 40 SO 60

Coefficientofioss- m /n h=mj-

FIG. 9. CURVES SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENTS OF
Loss AND VALVE OPENINGS

Fig. 9 also indicates that the proportions or form or shape of the
passageways of the valve of a given type or kind is a very important
factor in causing loss of head. This fact is shown by a comparison of
the results for the 1-in. globe valve with those for the 2-in. globe valve
and also by a comparison of the results of the 1-in. angle valve with
those of the 2-in. angle valve. Each of these 1-in. valves was of a
somewhat different form from that of the corresponding 2-in. valve as
may be seen in Fig. 1. It will be noted from Fig. 9 and Table 1 that

TABLE 1
EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS OF Loss

Values of m in h = -= —

Gate Valves

Globe Valves

Angle Valves

Ratio of Height of Valve-
Opening to Diameter of
Full Valve Opening

1-inch
Diameter

2-inch
Diameter

1-inch
Diameter

2-inch
Diameter

1-inch
Diameter

2-inch
Diameter

73.0

18.8

16.6

60.0

5.00

7.3

7.0

2.94

9.62

10.9

2.90

1.70

1.84

1.06

8.75

6.84

2.72

1.44

0.74

0.35

7.12

6.0

3.23

1.70

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

for the smaller valve openings the 1-in. globe valve and the 1-in. angle
valve cause less resistance to flow than the corresponding 2-in. valves.
The difference is especially large in the case of the globe valves. This
unexpected result seems to be due chiefly to the better shaped dis-
charge passages (more gradual expansion) as the water makes its
exit from the 1-in. globe valve.

Experiments were made on the 2-in. globe valve to see if a more
gradual change in sections through the valve would cause less loss of
head. This gradual change was made by filling in part of the passage-
way with plaster of paris, as shown in Fig. 10. This modified valve was
then tested with the valve one-half open and wide open, the results for
which are shown in Fig. 10. It will be seen that this modification had no

/6 80

Head lost jn Feet

FIG. 10. CURVES SHOWING THE EFFECT OF GRADUAL CHANGE OP SECTION
THROUGH 2-INCH GLOBE VALVE

effect on the amount of head lost. This suggests that the lost head in
a small globe valve is caused more by the form or shape of the passage-
way at exit from the valve than by the form of the passages through the
valve. Other valve openings and other modifications of the passage-
ways, however, may give better results.

In the case of angle valves the loss of head is not a minimum for
the greatest valve opening as is shown in Table 1 and in Fig. 9. For
the 2-in. angle valve the lost head is the same when the valve is only
one-half open as it is when the valve is wide open, the velocity in the
pipe for the two valve openings being the same, that is, the coefficient

18 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

of loss is the same for these two valve openings. When this valve is
three-fourths open, however, the coefficient of loss is about 20 per
cent less than when the valve is one-half open or wide open. The 1-in.
globe valve caused a smaller amount of lost head when it was one-half
and three-fourths open than it did when wide open, the velocity in the
pipe being the same for each of the valve settings. The difference,
however, between the coefficients of loss for these three valve openings
is not large. The reason that the minimum loss of head in the angle
valves occurs when the valve is about three-fourths open is probably
because at this opening the water can flow through comparatively large
openings all around the valve disc meeting with less abrupt changes of
directions than when the valve is wide open. In the latter case there
is much turbulent action due to the impact of the water against the bot-
tom of the valve. As the valve opening decreases from the three-fourths
open position, the greater resistance due to the narrowing passages
causes the lost head to increase again.

The assumption is sometimes made that for comparatively small
valves of like type or kind the loss of head varies inversely with the
diameter of the valve. For the larger valve openings this assumption
is probably approximately true, but from the foregoing results and dis-
cussion it would seem that at least for globe and angle valves the form
or shape of the passages of the valve is a determining factor in the
amount of head lost at the smaller valve openings.

6. Earlier Experiments on Gate Valves. — Among the first reliable
published results on valves were those by Weisbach.* The largest
gate valve used by Weisbach was a little less than two inches. Globe
and angle valves, at least of modern construction, were not tested.
Other experiments on gate valves have been reported by Magruderf
on %-in., K-in., M-in., 1-in., and IM-in. gate valves, by FolwellJ on
a 4-in. gate valve, by Kuichling^f on a 24-in. gate valve, and by J. Waldo
Smith § on a 30-in. gate valve. In Smith's experiments the 30-in.
valve was located in a 42-in. pipe with increaser-shaped or Venturi-
shaped approaches, and in Kuichling's experiments the valve was
placed in one branch of a Y only a few feet from the section where the
Y started to branch. The methods of determining the lost head in the

* Mechanics of Engineering (Coxe's translation).

t Engineering Record, Vol. XL, p. 78, 1899.

t Engineering News, Vol. XLVII, p. 302, 1902.

1 Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Vol. XXVI, p. 439, and Vol. XXXIV.

§ Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng. Vol. XXXIV, p. 235 (p. 243), 1895.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

various experiments were also different. For these reasons it is obvi-
ous that the results of these experiments are not directly comparable.

TABLE 2

VALUES OF THE COEFFICIENT OF Loss FOB GATE VALVES OF VARIOUS
DIAMETERS DUE TO PARTIAL CLOSURE ONLY

Ratio of Height
of Opening to
Diameter of
Full Valve
Orifice

Weisbach

Kuichling

Smith

Folwell

This Bulletin

2^-inch
Diameter

24-inch
Diameter

30-inch
Diameter

4-inch Diameter

2-inch and 1-inch

Parallel
Sides

Parallel
Sides
Venturi-
Shaped
Ap-
proaches

Parallel
Sides

Wedge
Shaped

Parallel Sides

2-inch
Diameter

1-inch
Diameter

3/100

950.0

1/10

128.0

98.0

90.0

72.3

104

17.0

22.7

17.0

16.8

20.5

18.45

72.3

5.5

8.63

7.5

6.19

8.0

7.01

16. 01

2.1
0.81

3.27
1

1.09

3.5
1.5

2.58
1.22

2.72
1.5

2.59
1.21

6.26
2.51

0.26

0.25

0.50

0.55

0.66

0.71

1.10

0.07

0.019

0.19

0.20

0.16

0.151

0.701

0.00

1 Interpolated from curve.

In Table 2 are given the values of the coefficients of loss as obtained by
the various experimenters mentioned previously, as well as the values
obtained in the experiments herein reported. These values of the
coefficients of loss are those due to partial closure of the valves only,
that is, in excess of the loss of head caused by the valve when wide
open. Smith's experiments are the only ones in which valve openings
less than one-eighth were used. There is considerable chance for
error in the results obtained for the very small valve openings, due
chiefly to the uncertainty in securing the valve setting desired. Table 2
indicates a rather close agreement in the coefficient of loss for all
the gate valves having diameters of 2 in. or greater, and for valve

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

openings of K or perhaps H and greater. The values for the 1-in.
valve show a considerable increase in the lost head over that for valves
of 2-in. diameter and greater. It is probable also that there is consid-
erable variation in the smaller valves of any one type and size.

7. Coefficients of Discharge for Gate Valves. — In order to determine
the rate of discharge through a pipe a partially closed valve has some-
times been used. This requires the values of the coefficients of dis-
charge of the valve for various valve openings since the rate of discharge,
q, is found from the expression, cA^2gh, in which c is the coefficient
of discharge, A the area of the valve opening, and h the difference in
pressure heads on the two sides of the valve (lost head), velocity of
approach being neglected. The average values of the coefficients of
discharge for the 1-in. and 2-in. gate valves as found in the experi-
ments reported in this bulletin are given in Table 3. The value of the

TABLE 3

EXPERIMENTAL VALUES OF THE COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE FOR
GATE VALVES

Ratio of Height of Valve-
Opening to Diameter of
Full Valve-Opening

Coefficient of Discharge

Area of Valve-Opening
Square Inch

1-inch Valve

2-inch Valve

1-inch Valve

2-inch Valve

.48

.88

.195

.826

.67

1.00

.450

1.80

,88

1.12

.660

2.67

1.16

1.70

.785

3.14

coefficient varied somewhat with the velocity for any given valve open-
ing. Because of the uncertainty of obtaining the exact valve setting
desired and the corresponding uncertainty in the area of the valve
opening, the values of the coefficients of discharge given in Table 3
cannot be considered as refined determinations.

It will be noted that the coefficient of discharge increases directly
with the valve opening for each of the gate valves for a range of valve

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 21

openings of 34 to Y± or perhaps greater. The more the valve is opened
the greater is the velocity of approach toward the valve and since the
velocity of approach is not considered in the calculation of the coeffi-
cient of discharge the value of the coefficient increases with the valve
opening. The coefficient of discharge for the valves used by Kuichling
and Smith decreased slightly until the valve was about one-fourth open
and then increased rapidly for further openings of the valve. Gibson
with a 2j/2-in. flat disc stop valve found nearly a constant coefficient
of discharge of 0.80. These variations in the coefficients of discharge
are not surprising considering the wide range of conditions covered by
the experiments. They suggest, however, that if gate valves are to
be used for determining the rate of discharge in pipes with reasonable
accuracy much more experimenting is required, or better, where it is
possible, experiments should be performed under sendee conditions to
calibrate the particular valve to be used.

8. Summary. — The following brief summary is given as applying
to 1-in. and 2-in. valves of the three kinds tested (gate valves, globe
valves, and angle valves) with valve settings ranging from one-fourth
open to wide open.

(1) The loss of head caused by small valves varies as the
square of the velocity in the pipe for all the valve openings; hence
the lost head may be expressed as a constant times the velocity head

. ., . (j mvz\
in the pipe, ^/i = — j.

(2) When wide open a globe valve causes more than twice as
much loss of head as an angle valve of the same size, while a gate
valve causes much less loss of head than either a globe or an angle
valve, the velocity in the pipe being the same in the three cases.

(3) The loss of head for an angle valve is somewhat less when
about three-fourths open than when wide open, the velocity in the
pipe being the same in each case.

(4) The loss of head for each valve, as the valve is closed from
a wide-open position, varies comparatively little with the valve
opening until the valve is at least one-half closed. As further
closure takes place the loss of head of the globe valves and gate
valves increases rapidly and is considerably larger than that of the
angle valves.

(5) The form or shape of the passageways through a globe or
angle valve has a large influence on the loss of head for the small

22 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

valve openings. The portion of the passageways in which the form
seems of greatest importance is in the exit from the valve rather
than in the passageways leading to the valve disc or seat. On
account of the influence of the form or shape of the valve no law
giving the relation of the lost head to the diameter of the valve can
be stated for valve settings less than five-eighths open. For larger
valve openings than this, the lost head seems to vary approximately
inversely as the diameter.

(6) The use of the lost head through a partially closed valve
as a means of determining the flow can be only a very rough method
of measurement unless the particular valve to be used is calibrated
under service conditions. Even then the difficulty in obtaining
the desired valve setting may introduce considerable uncertainty
in the results.

PART II

THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SUBMERGED
ORIFICES

BY FRED B SEELY
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THEORETICAL AND APPLIED MECHANICS

CONTENTS
PART II

THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SUBMERGED
ORIFICES

PAGE

IV. INTRODUCTION 27

9. Preliminary . . . ' . 27

10. Acknowledgment 28

V. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING .... 29

11. Orifices - 29

12. Tank Used and Method of Experimenting .... 30

13. Method of Calculating the Coefficient of Discharge . 33

VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 34

14. Coefficients of Discharge 34

15. Results Obtained by Earlier Experimenters .... 37

16. Comparison with Discharge into Air 39

17. Summary , 40

LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

11. Tank Used and Arrangement of Apparatus 31

12. Diagrams Showing Values of Coefficients of Discharge of Circular Sub-

merged Orifices for Various Velocities 34

13. Diagrams Showing Values of Coefficients of Discharge of Square Sub-

merged Orifices for Various Velocities 34

14. Diagrams Showing Values of Coefficients of Discharge of Rectangular Sub-

merged Orifices for Various Velocities . . 35

15. Curve Showing the Relation between Coefficient of Discharge for Circular

Orifice and Diameter of Orifice 36

16. Curve Showing the Relation between Coefficient of Discharge for Square

Orifice and Side of Orifice 36

17. Curve Showing the Relation between Coefficient of Discharge of Rectan-

gular Orifice and Short Side of Orifice (other Side being Six Inches, in
Each Case) .".......' 36

18. Curves Showing Relation between Coefficient of Discharge and Area of

Orifices 37

LIST OF TABLES

4. List of Orifices Used 29

5. Values of Coefficient of Discharge for Submerged Orifices for Velocities

from One-half to Five Feet per Second 35

6. Results Obtained by Earlier Experimenters on Submerged Sharp-edged

Orifices 38

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 27

PART II

THE FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SUBMERGED
ORIFICES

IV. INTRODUCTION

9. Preliminary. — Part II of this bulletin presents the results of
experiments on submerged sharp-edged orifices of various shapes and
sizes discharging under moderately low and under very low heads.
The orifices used were of three shapes, circular orifices with diameters
from 1 in. to 6 in., square orifices with sides from K in. to &A in., and
rectangular orifices having one side range from Y* in. to 2 in., the other
side being 6 in. in each case. The coefficient of discharge is given for
each orifice for a velocity range of approximately ^A ft. per sec. to
4 ft. per sec. This range corresponds roughly to a range of head on
the orifice of 0.006 ft. to 0.08 ft.

Considerable experimenting has been done on orifices discharging
into air, particularly on sharp-edged circular orifices of rather small size
although the results are somewhat discordant. Comparatively little
experimental work, however, has been carried out on submerged orifices.
While the orifice has lost some of its importance as a water measuring
device due to the development of other methods, it is, nevertheless, of
importance to determine how the rate of discharge is affected by the
shape and the size of the orifice and also by the head on the orifice,
particularly the effect of very low heads which the submerged orifice
makes possible.

The submerged orifice may be of particular importance in cases
which require the measurement of water with as small a loss of head as
possible as, for example, in determining the discharge from a water
turbine when operating under a low head. The decrease in the avail-
able head on the turbine made necessary by the proper setting of a weir
may be an important factor in the installation.

There is a feeling among some engineers that the importance of
the so-called standard orifice (sjiarp edges, complete contraction without
velocity of approach, etc.) has been over-emphasized and that beveled-
edged orifices are better adapted at least to conditions where the orifice
may be obstructed and the edge soon worn off, as, for example, in
measuring the water supplied to water wheels through flume or bulk-

28 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

head openings. There exist, no doubt, some grounds for this feeling.
A sharp edged orifice (an opening in a thin plate), however, is subject
to less variation in its construction than a beveled-edged orifice. This
fact is of considerable importance where accuracy is essential. It is
felt that the submerged orifice, both beveled-edged and sharp-edged,
is worthy of more attention than has been accorded it.

10. Acknowledgment. — The experimenting was done in the Hyd-
raulic Laboratory of the University of Illinois. Some of the results
herein presented have been taken from the theses of W. R. ROBINSON
of the class of 1906 and G. D. PHILLIPS of the class of 1907, and some
of the results also, particularly at the low heads, have been taken
from a second thesis presented by Mr. Robinson in 1909. All the
thesis work was conducted under the direction of PROFESSOR ARTHUR
N. TALBOT. The careful way in which this preliminary experiment-
ing was done has made the results of the theses of much value. Dur-
ing 1914 and 1915 the writer spent considerable time in checking the
results of the theses work and extending certain parts of the investi-
gation.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

V. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING

11. Orifices. — The orifices used were of three different shapes.
Four of the orifices were circular with diameters of 1 in., 2 in., 4 in.,
and 6 in. Five were square with sides of % in., 1 in., 2 in., 4 in., and
5K in. Three were rectangular with dimensions of % in. by 6 in.,
1 in. by 6 in., and 2 in. by 6 in. In each case the orifice was formed
in a cast iron plate H in. thick and lO^ in. in diameter, a sharp edge
being formed by beveling at 45 degrees. Except for a few small nicks
the edges were sharp and the areas closely true to shape. The dimen-
sions of the orifices were carefully determined (except for the 1-in.
circular orifice) by an inside micrometer for dimensions greater than
1 in. and inside screw calipers for dimensions less than 1 in. A list of
the orifices used and the areas as determined from the measured dimen-
sions are given in Table 4. The 1-in. circular orifice was broken before

TABLE 4
LIST OF ORIFICES USED

Form of Orifice

Nominal Size

Measured Area
square feet

1 in. diam.

not measured

Circular

2 in. diam.
4 in. diam.

0.0219
0.0883

6 in. diam.

0.1967

J^ in. by H in.

0.001735

1 in. by 1 in.

0.00698

Square

2 in. by 2 in.

0.0279

4 in. by 4 in.

0.1109

5J3 in. by 5^ in.

0.2105

J^ in. by 6 in.

0.0206

Rectangular

1 in. by 6 in.

0.0418

2 in. by 6 in.

0.0838

its dimensions were taken so that the nominal diameter (1 in.) has
been used in the calculations. There may be some error, therefore,
in the results for this orifice.

30 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

12. Tank Used and Method of Experimenting. — The same tank
was used in all the experiments, the dimensions and general arrange-
ment of which is shown in Fig. 11.* The tank was divided into two
compartments by a vertical partition in which the orifice was placed,
holding the orifice in a vertical plane.

The water coming from the laboratory standpipe was supplied
to the tank through a 6-in. supply pipe and also through a M~m-
pipe, the latter making possible a finer adjustment in maintaining a
constant head. After passing through baffle boards the water flowed
through the orifice and finally left the downstream compartment by
passing out through small openings in the end of the tank, the flow
through which was regulated by placing stoppers in some of the holes.
These holes were arranged in two narrow portions in the end of the
tank, one near each side of the tank, and the stoppers were arranged
so as to give nearly a uniform distribution from each of the two sets of
openings. This arrangement, it was found, helped to maintain steady
conditions.

The quantity of water discharged was determined by weighing for
the small discharges and by measuring in a pit for the larger discharges.
The pit was about 6 ft. deep, and 7.995 ft. in diameter. The value
for the diameter is the average of a large number of readings of a
micrometer attached to a rigid stick. The rise in the pit was deter-
mined by a vertical graduated rod which could be read directly to
0.02 ft. and to 0.004 'ft. by estimating. A float was attached to the
bottom of the rod and a still basin was provided. The water was
wasted into another pit through a movable spout until the surface
of the water in the measuring pit became fairly still so that an accurate
reading of the rod could be taken. A hook gage was used to test the
accuracy of the float and rod. At the end of the experiment the water
was again wasted in the same manner. A calibrated stop watch gave
the time corresponding to the rise in the pit.

The head causing flow through the orifice is the difference in the
levels of the water surfaces in the two compartments of the tank.
This head was measured in nearly all the experiments by means of hook
gages. These gages were read directly to 0.001 ft. and to 0.0005 ft.
by estimating. Vertical 2-in. pipes attached toward the bottom of
the tank served as still basins for the hook gages. The level of the
water in the upstream compartment was determined by the use of one

*A view of the tank is shown in Fig. 5 of Bulletin No. 96 of the Engineering Experiment Station
of the University of Illinois.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

u '< TO"

\\ ° a

l| Measuring Pif
\\
II
II

Lower Floor tine --^

FIG. 11. TANK USED AND ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS

32 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

hook gage only, while two gages were used on the downstream com-
partment in the earlier experiments. It was found, however, that for
the lower heads the two gages gave practically the same result, while
for the higher heads the gage nearer the partition gave less fluctuation.
For these reasons and because of less difficulty in getting simultaneous
readings of only two gages, it was decided to take readings with one
gage only on each compartment.

Zero readings of the hook gages were obtained by reading the
gages when the tank was nearly full and when no water was allowed
to escape, the levels of the water surfaces in the two compartments
then being the same. Zero readings were taken frequently during
the experimenting.

For most of the heads above 0.3 ft., the head was measured by
two vertical peizometer glasses, one attached near the bottom of each
compartment, the difference in readings of which (corrected for zero
reading) gave the head to 0.001 ft. These two methods overlapped
somewhat so that certain heads were measured by both methods.

Leakage from the tank and from the measuring pit was determined
several times during the progress of the experimenting and was found
to be negligible.

An experiment or run consisted of the following: A sufficient
number of stoppers was removed from the end of the tank to give the
desired discharge and the inflow through the 6-in. and %-in. pipes
was then adjusted until the difference in levels of the water surfaces
in the two compartments of the tank became constant. The M-in.
supply pipe was used to make^the final adjustment of the head and to
hold the head constant throughout the experiment. After obtaining
a constant head, the waste pipe'shown in Fig. 11 was pulled from beneath
the discharge pipe, thus allowing the water to discharge into the meas-
uring pit until the rise in the pit was sufficient to allow its measurement
without appreciable error and also to allow time for an accurate meas-
urement of the head. The head was taken as an average of from two
to ten readings of the hook gages, the larger number being necessary
with the higher velocities on account of the greater fluctuations of the
water levels due to the more turbulent conditions of the water, espe-
cially in the downstream compartment. Each experiment was repeated,
as a rule, three times, although in some cases as many as eight or ten
runs were made.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 33

13. Method of Calculating the Coefficient of Discharge. — The head,
h, causing flow through the orifice is the difference in the levels of the
water surfaces in the_two compartments of the tank. The ideal rate
of discharge is A ^J2gh in which A is the area of the orifice in square
feet and g is the acceleration due to gravity in feet per second per second ;
hence the coefficient of discharge, c, is found from,

where q is the measured rate of discharge in cubic feet per second, as
determined from the measured weight or volume discharged and the
corresponding time.

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

VI. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

14. Coefficients of Discharge. — Fig. 12, 13, and 14 show the
experimental values of the coefficients of discharge for the various
orifices tested. Each plotted point represents the average of from two
to ten experiments at practically the same head. It will be noted that

/ a 3 4

Velocity through Orifice -ft per sec.

FIG. 12. DIAGRAMS SHOWING VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS OF^DISCHARGE
OF CIRCULAR SUBMERGED ORIFICES FOR VARIOUS VELOCITIES

.65
.60

.70

| '

65
.60

0.5

/ 2 3 4

Velocity throw/7 Orifice - ft per sec

FIG. 13. DIAGRAMS SHOWING VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE OF
SQUARE SUBMERGED ORIFICES FOR VARIOUS VELOCITIES

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

^»*j

0.5

^ 3 4

Ve/oc/ty through Orifice -ft per sec.

FIG. I&. DIAGRAMS SHOWING VALUES OF COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE OF
RECTANGULAR SUBMERGED ORIFICES FOR VARIOUS VELOCITIES

for any given orifice the coefficient is constant for the whole range of
velocity used in these experiments which in most of the cases is about
% ft. per sec. to 4 or 5 ft. per sec. This velocity range corresponds
roughly to a range in head of 0.008 to 0.08 ft. and as may be expected
the values of the coefficient show the greatest variation at the very
low heads.

TABLE 5

VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE FOR SUBMERGED ORIFICES FOR VELOCITIES
FROM ONE-HALF TO FIVE FEET PER SECOND

Kind of Orifice

Nominal Size

Coefficient of Discharge

1 in. diameter

0.6351

2 in. diameter

0.615

Circular

4 in. diameter

0.600

6 in. diameter

0.600

% in. by ^ in.

0.620

1 in. by 1 in.

0.610

Square

2 in. by 2 in.

0.610

4 in. by 4 in.

0.605

5H in. by 5% in.

0.600

^ in. by 6 in.

0.635

Rectangular

1 in. by 6 in.

0.635

2 in. by 6 in.

0.635

1 Probably somewhat in error since diameter was not measured; nominal diameter used in
calculations.

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

Table 5 and Fig. 15, 16, and 17 show how the coefficient of dis-
charge for the orifices of any given shape varies with the diameter or

^ 3 456

D/ctrr?efer of C/rcu/ar Orifices- in.

FIG. 15. CURVE SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENT OF
DISCHARGE FOR CIRCULAR ORIFICE AND DIAMETER OF ORIFICE

FIG. 16.

3 4 S 6

5ide of Square Orifices - in

CURVE SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENT OF DIS-
CHARGE FOR SQUARE ORIFICE AND SIDE OF ORIFICE

i 2 3 4

Vertical Side of Reef angu Jar Orifices -in.

FIG. 17. CURVE SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENT OF DIS-

CHARGE OF RECTANGULAR ORIFICE AND SHORT SIDE OF ORIFICE

(OTHER SIDE BEING Six INCHES IN EACH CASE)

side of the orifice, while from Fig. 18 a comparison may be made between
the coefficients of discharge for the different shaped orifices on the
basis of their areas. These figures show that the coefficient of discharge
for circular and square orifices decrease as the size increases until an
area of 8 or 10 square inches is reached after which the coefficient has
a constant value of not far from 0.60. This indicates that complete
contraction does not take place with the smaller orifices. Because of
the uncertainty of the exact diameter there is some doubt, however,
concerning the correct value for the 1-in. circular orifice. It will be
noted also that the coefficient of discharge for the rectangular orifices

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

.65

4 6 8 10 tf 14 16 16 ^O
Area of Orifice -sq. in.

E6 ^Q 3O 3^

FIG. 18. CURVES SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN COEFFICIENT OF
DISCHARGE AND AREA OF ORIFICES

remain constant for the range of areas used in these experiments and
that its value is larger than that for circular and square orifices of the
same area. Fig. 18 indicates furthermore that as the area of the orifices
decreases below 8 sq. in., the coefficient of discharge for circular orifices
increases faster than that for square orifices. These observations
suggest that the longer side of the rectangular orifices has a controlling
influence in determining the rate of discharge for a given head and
that the corners of a small square orifice are inefficient in discharging
water as compared with the form of a circular orifice of the same area.

15. Results Obtained by Earlier Experimenters. — In order to com-
pare the results given in this bulletin with those of earlier investigations
and to extend the study to include higher heads and velocities, the
results given in Table 6 have been condensed from available published
data. It will be noted that the results are not entirely concordant,
but considering the different arrangements and methods of measuring
the head and the rate of discharge, the results show a very good agree-
ment. The low value of the coefficient of discharge found by Francis
is due no doubt to the fact that the rate of discharge was measured
over a weir on which the head was rather small. From Table 6 it will
be seen that in some of the earlier investigations the coefficient of
discharge increased slightly with the head while in others the coeffi-
cient decreased, and in still others it showed no systematic change.
In all cases the value of the coefficient of discharge is not far from
0.60. The small square orifice (1.2 in. by 1.2 in.) used by Hamilton
Smith gave a slightly larger coefficient than the circular orifice with
a diameter of 1.2 inches. This result is the reverse of that found in
the experiments described in this bulletin. The values also of the
coefficient of^discharge for circular and square orifficesjas found by

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

TABLE 6

RESULTS OBTAINED BY EARLIER EXPERIMENTERS ON SUBMERGED
SHARP-EDGED ORIFICES

Circular Orifices

Square Orifices

Source

Diam-
eter
inches

Head

feet

Coeffi-
cient
of
Dis-
charge
c

Source

Dimen-
sions
inches

Head
feet

Coeffi-
cient
of
Dis-
charge
c

Francis

1.22

1.024
1.324
1.490
1.499
1.514

.592
.592
.592
.593
.591

Hamilton Smith, Jr.

0.6 by 0.6

0.35
2.21
4.06

.6201
.6092
.6068

Hamilton Smith, Jr.

1.2 by 1.2

0.207
0.410
0.771
1.52
2.32
3.11
3.95

.6117
.6091
.6053
.6055
.6040
.6052
.6048

Hamilton Smith, Jr.

0.6

0.437
2.16
4.08

.6183
.6041
.6016

Hamilton Smith, Jr.

1.2

0.250
0.648
0.985
1.51
2.00
2.58
2.99
3.57
3.97

.6048
.6027
.6025
.6006
.6006
.5997
.5989
.5987
.5992

Ellis

12 by 12

2.32
3.92
7.99
11.58
14.31
16.22
18.45

.600
.602
.606
.605
.611
.606
.606

Ellis

12.0

2.60
4.71
6.41
8.10
8.80
12.09
14.25
16.29
18.66

.607
.590
.606
.599
.600
.600
.601
.602
.599

Balch

12 by 12

0.363
0.750
0.771
0.826
0.905
1.134
1.371
2.097
2.636
3.220
3.975

. 5940
.5940
. 5932
.5982
.5950
.5960
.5970
.6056
.6105
.6095
.6148

Balch

12.0

0.145
0.469
0.851
1.254
1.612
2.012
2.421
2.949
3.410
4.015

.5909
.5902
.5912
.5993
.5921
.5924
.5954
.5967
.6006
.6054

Stewart

48 by 48
(3. 72 in.
thick)

.05
.10
.15
.20
.25
.30

.626
.608
.605
.605
.606
.610

Rectangular Orifices

Hamilton Smith, Jr.

0.6 by 3.6

0.614
1.63
2.77

.6219
.6207
.6188

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 39

Hamilton Smith are slightly less than those herein reported in Table 5.
Omitting the values as given by Francis it will be observed that there
is very little difference between the coefficients for the small and the
large orifices, the value of the coefficient varying only slightly from
0.60. From the results obtained in the present investigation as given
in Table 5 and in Fig. 12, 13, and 14, it will be seen that the coefficient
varies more with the size of the orifice than is shown by the results of
the earlier experiments, as given in Table 6.

It will be observed also that the coefficient of discharge for the
rectangular orifice used by Hamilton Smith is somewhat smaller than
that herein reported. It may seem that the diverging sides of the
orifices used in the experiments reported in this bulletin (orifice plate
M-in. thick) would form a diverging mouthpiece, particularly in the
case of the smaller orifices, but experiments* on diverging mouth-
pieces have shown that a mouthpiece having a total angle of divergence
of 90 degrees has very little, if any, effect on the rate of discharge.

16. Comparison with Discharge into Air. — The experiments on
sharp-edged orifices with discharge into air are more numerous than
for submerged discharge. The experiments of Bilton and to a less
degree those by Judd and King, and those by Mair and by Ellis indicate
that there is a critical head for each circular orifice above which the
coefficient remains constant. Bilton concludes that "circular orifices
of 2>£-in. diameter, and over, under heads of 17 in., and over, have a
common coefficient of discharge lying between 0.59 and 0.60 but which
is probably about 0.598 (subject to the head being not less than 2 or
3 diameters)." The results of the experiments of Hamilton Smith, as
is well known, indicate that the coefficient of discharge gradually
decreases as the size of the orifice increases, and also decreases as the
head increases until at a head of 100 ft. all orifices, regardless of the
size or the shape, have a common coefficient of discharge.

The results of the experiments on submerged orifices herein reported
seem to indicate, as previously noted, that orifices having diameters
greater than about 2^ in. (or sides, if square) have a common co-
efficient of discharge which is very close to 0.60. There seems, how-
ever, to be no evidence of a critical head since the coefficient remains
constant for the whole range of head used, nor is there evidence of a
critical head in the results obtained by earlier experimenters on sub-
merged orifices as given in Table 6.

*"The Effect of Mouthpieces on the Flow of Water Through a Submerged Short Pipe."
Univ. of 111. Eng. Exp. Sta., Bui. 96, 1917.

40 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

From a study of the experimental results on orifices with discharge
into air it is believed that the coefficient of discharge for submerged
orifices are the same as those for discharge into air for the same heads
and sizes and shapes (except for very small heads). It is doubtful if
the statement sometimes made, namely, that the coefficient of discharge
for submerged orifices is about one per cent less than that for free dis-
charge, is justified.

17. Summary. — The following brief summary is given as applying
to submerged sharp-edged orifices for velocities from K to 5 ft. per sec.

(1) The coefficient of discharge for a circular, a square, or
a rectangular submerged orifice does not vary with the velocity.

(2) Circular and square submerged orifices having areas
greater than about 10 sq. in. have a common coefficient of dis-
charge varying but little from 0.60.

(3) Rectangular submerged orifices having one side from 3 to
12 times the other side have a constant coefficient of discharge
which is larger than that for circular and square orifices of the
same size, particularly for the larger areas, at least up to a size
of 12 sq. in.

(4) The flow of water through submerged sharp-edged ori-
fices is very nearly the same as that for the same kind of orifices
with discharge into air, provided the head is not less than 2 or 3

. diameters when the discharge is jnto air.

PART III
FIRE STREAMS FROM SMALL HOSE AND NOZZLES

BY VIRGIL R FLEMING

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MECHANICS

CONTENTS

PART III
FIRE STREAMS FROM SMALL HOSE AND NOZZLES

PAGE

VII. INTRODUCTION . . ... ... ... , . . . . . 45

18. Scope of Experiments . . . . . . . . .45

19. Acknowledgment '. . . . 46

VIII. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING .... 47

20. Hose and Nozzles . . ., . • . . . . . . . • . 47

21. Method of Experimenting ........ 48

IX. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . 49

22. Results from Freeman's Experiments . . 49

23. Experimental Data .49

24. Friction Factors . ... . . . ... 53

25. Coefficients of Discharge 54

26. Height and Horizontal Distance of Jets . ... . 55

27. Effect of Cylindrical Tip 56

28. Requirements for Temporary Fire Protection for the

Interior of Buildings . 57

29. Summary ......... 59

LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

19. Longitudinal Sections of Nozzles Tested . ... . . . . . . 47

20. Cross-section of Piezometer Coupling 48

21. Diagram Showing Friction Factors in Rubber-lined and Unlined Hose . 53

22. Diagram Showing Coefficients of Discharge of Nozzles 54

LIST OF TABLES

7. Freeman's Results for 1-in., 1^-in. and l}4-in. Nozzles Attached to

2^-in. Hose . . '. . . . . 50

8. Results of Experiments at University of Illinois with y\ 6-m-> Ke-m-> a^d

in. Nozzles Attached to 1 3^-in. Hose 51

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 45

PART III
FIRE STREAMS FROM SMALL HOSE AND NOZZLES*

VII. INTRODUCTION

18. Scope of Experiments. — Part III presents the results of experi-
ments on IK-in. hose and nozzles. Both rubber-lined hose and un-
lined linen hose were used. Three sizes of conical nozzles were tested,
the diameters of the nozzle openings being ^fe in., Ke in., and K in.

The loss of head in the hose due to friction and the corresponding
friction factor are given for each hose for a range in velocity from
about 4 to 8 ft. per sec. The coefficient of discharge for each nozzle
is recorded for a range in pressure at the base of the nozzle from about
10 to 85 Ib. per sq. in. The height and the horizontal distance which
the jets reached are also recorded. The influence of a cylindrical tip
on a nozzle is brought out and some discussion is given concerning
the quantity of water required for temporary fire protection for the
interior of buildings.

The importance of adequate fire protection has become so well rec-
ognized that most buildings, even those of moderate size, are equipped
with some sort of fire apparatus for immediate service in case of fire in
the interior of the building and until the city fire department arrives.
The ordinary water buckets and portable chemical fire extinguishers
have in a large measure been supplemented with small fire hose. Few
data are available concerning the hydraulics of small fire streams.
Many inquiries concerning the discharge from small nozzles and the
loss of head in small hose led to the tests which are herein described.
The tests were undertaken with the object of acquiring data and putting
the results into so workable a form that it would be easy to compute
the quantity of water delivered by a nozzle of the size ordinarily used
in the fire protection of the interior of buildings or to compute the
pressure necessary in the mains to give an effective fire stream from
such nozzles, and also to throw some light upon the quantity of water
which would be considered sufficient for temporary protection.

* The experiments used in Part III of this Bulletin were reported in the Proceedings of
the Fifth Meeting of the Illinois Water Supply Association, p. 170, 1913.

46 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

19. Acknowledgment. — The experiments here used were con-
ducted at the University of Illinois under the direction of the writer
by E. O. KORSMO and A. B. NEININGER of the class of 1911 as thesis
work. Much credit is due them for the care and thought given the
problem and the thoroughness with which they did their work. The
water for the experiments was drawn from the University mains.
The experiments for determining the height and the horizontal dis-
tance the jets would reach were conducted out of doors. The other
experiments were carried on in the Hydraulics Laboratory.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

VIII. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF EXPERIMENTING

20. Hose and Nozzks. — Rubber-lined cotton hose and unlined
linen hose having a nominal diameter of \^A in. were used, the length
of the test section for determining the lost head being 50 ft. in each
case. The hose taken was from the racks in the University buildings
and is representative of hose of this size commonly in use.

Three IJ-in. conical nozzles having different sizes of openings,
as shown in Fig. 19, were tested. The first nozzle had a diameter of

out smooth

FIG. 19. LONGITUDINAL SECTIONS OF NOZZLES TESTED

Me in. The second nozzle had a diameter of 0.428 in., which is ap-
proximately KG in., and in compiling the tables, corrections were made
so as to apply to a Ke-in. nozzle. The third nozzle had a diameter
of Yz in. The Me-in. nozzle was 12 in. long while the other two were
only 6 in. long (see Fig. 19). The Me-in. and the Ke-in. nozzles were
rough on the interior surfaces, having been left just as ihey came
from the molds, the prints of the sand core being plainly visible.
The tips had been smoothed slightly by running a drill through the

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

opening, but the cylindrical portion made by the drill was very short
in both cases. The M-in. nozzle was made from a Ke-in. nozzle. The
entire inner surface was machined smooth and a K-in. reamer was run
through the opening making a cylindrical portion K in. long.

21. Method of Experimenting. — The loss of head was measured
over a length of fifty feet of the hose by means of a differential mercury
gage. The average pressure at a section of the hose was obtained with
a piezometer connection or coupling of the Freeman type. A cross-
section of one of these couplings is shown in Fig. 20. The discharge

Openings, -3 of/a,

Sec f /on fl-ft

FIG. 20. CROSS-SECTION OF PIEZOMETER COUPLING

through the hose when determining the lost head in the hose was meas-
ured with a calibrated nozzle. When determining the coefficient of
discharge for the nozzles the discharge was measured by weighing.
The pressure at the base of the nozzle was measured with a calibrated
pressure gage.

The vertical heights attained by the streams were determined by
means of a transit and the horizontal distances reached were found
by measuring with a tape from stakes which were driven in the ground
at frequent intervals and at known distances from the nozzle.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 49

IX. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

22. Results from Freeman's Experiments. — In 1888 John R. Free-
man conducted an extensive series of tests upon 2M-in. fire hose and
nozzles.* In general, Freeman arrived at the following conclusions:
Smooth conical nozzles give coefficients of discharge as high as any
other form of nozzle, the jets reach farther and the streams remain
solid for greater distances than for any other form of nozzle of the
same size of opening and with the same pressure at the base of the
nozzle. For smooth conical nozzles IH or IH in. in diameter, a
coefficient of discharge of 0.977 may be taken with great confidence
that it will not be more than one-half of 1 per cent in error. The
coefficient will be slightly larger for smaller nozzles. The nozzle
makes a very convenient method of measuring water. The friction
is but slightly more in smooth rubber-lined hose than in clean iron pipe
of the same diameter. The friction in unlined linen hose is about
two and one-third times as much as in smooth rubber-lined hose.
A hose elongates from 2 per cent to 5 per cent with a pressure of 50
Ib. per sq. in. This elongation produces a sinuosity which increases
the loss of head about 6 per cent. Care should be exercised that
there is no abrupt change of section in the hose couplings and that
no washers or gaskets are so left as to impede the flow of water.

It is frequently recommended that a 250 gal. per min. fire stream
be used in business districts, while a 175 or a 200 gal. per min. stream
may be used in a residential district. These discharges correspond to
a nozzle pressure of 40 to 50 Ib. per sq. in., and a hydrant pressure of
80 to 110 Ib. per sq. in. These values refer to outside service. Table
7 gives data for 2M-in. hose and nozzles for three different sizes of
nozzle openings taken from Freeman's results. This table is con-
venient for making calculations for outside fire protection.

23. Experimental Data. — Table 8 gives the more important data
of the experiments with hose and nozzles herein reported. Values are
given for the pressures at the base of the nozzles, the discharges, the
loss of head in the hose, and the vertical and horizontal distances reached
by the jets. Other results discussed have been calculated from the
data in this table.

*" Experiments Relating to the Hydraulics of Fire Streams." Trans. Am. Soc. Civ. Eng.,
Vol. XXI, p. 304, 1889.

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

TABLE 7

FREEMAN'S RESULTS FOR I-IN. I^-IN. AND I^-IN. NOZZLES ATTACHED
TO 2^-IN. HOSE

1-iNCH NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

Pressure

Height of

Base of
Nozzle

Discharge

Rubber
Lined

Unlined
Linen

Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Extreme
Drops at
Level

of Nozzle

Lb. per
sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

132

161

109

186

133

208

152

228

167

246

179

NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

Pressure

Height of

Base of
Nozzle

Discharge

Jet for
Good Fire

Jet for

Extreme

Rubber

Unlined

Stream

Good Fire

Drops at

Lined

Linen

Stream

Level

of Nozzle

Lb. per

sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

168

206

115

238

142

266

162

291

178 j

314

191

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

Pressure

Height of

Base of
Nozzle

Discharge

Jet for
Good Fire

Jet for

Extreme

Rubber
Lined

Unlined
Linen

Stream

Good Fire
Stream

Drops at
Level

of Nozzle

Lb. per
sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

209

256

119

296

148

331

169

363

186

392

200

TABLE 8

RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS AT UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS WITH %6-m.,
AND H-IN. NOZZLES ATTACHED TO 13-^-iN. HOSE

% 6-iNCH NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

Pressure
Base of
Nozzle

Discharge

Height of
Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Rubber
Lined

Unlined
Linen

Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Extreme
Drops at
Level
of Nozzle

Lb. per

sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

1.3

1.1

1.9

1.5

2.6

1.8

3.2

2.2

3.9

2.6

4.5

2.9

5.2

3.3

5.9

102

100

3.7

6.5

107

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose ,

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

T> pOQ|,rO

Base of
Nozzle .

Discharge

Rubber
Lined

Unlined
Linen

Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Extreme
Drops at
Level
of Nozzle

Lb. per
sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

2.8

5.1

4.2

7.7

5.6

10.2

7.0

12.8-

8.5

15.3

9.8

17.8

11.1

20.3

12.7

22.9

100

14.1

25.5

106

NOZZLE

Loss of Head in
100 Feet of Hose

Vertical

Horizontal Distance

Pressure
Base of
Nozzle

Discharge

Height of
Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Rubber
Lined

Unlined
Linen

Jet for
Good Fire
Stream

Extreme
Drops at
Level
of Nozzle

Lb. per

sq. in.

Gallons per
minute

Lb. per
sq. in.

Feet

5.2

9.5

7.7

14.4

10.2

18.8

12.8

23.8

102

15.4

28.5

111

18.0

32.7

120

20.5

38.4

127

23.0

42.0

134

100

25.6

47.0

140

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

24. Friction Factors. — The curves of Fig. 21 show the friction
factors for each kind of hose used and for velocities in the hose ranging

€ 8 /O

- ft per sec.

FIG. 21.

DIAGRAM SHOWING FRICTION FACTORS'IN ^RUBBER-LINED AND
UNLINED HOSE

from 4 to 8 ft. per sec. These curves cover the range of velocities
which would be met in ordinary use. The friction factor / is computed
from the formula

h=d^g

h = head lost in feet of water
I = length of hose in feet
d = diameter of hose in feet

v = velocity of the water in the hose in feet per second
g = acceleration due to gravity in feet per second per second

The loss of head in the rubber-lined hose varies almost directly
as the square of the velocity and is about the same as the loss of head
in clean iron pipe of the same diameter. The friction factor for the
unlined linen hose decreases as the velocity increases, or in other words
the loss of head does not vary directly as the square of the velocity,
the ratio of the lost head to the square of the velocity being larger for
the lower velocities. The reason that the friction factor for unlined
linen hose decreased more rapidly with the velocity than does that for
rubber-lined cotton hose may be that the diameter of the unlined hose

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

is increased more than that of the rubber-lined cotton hose by the
increasing pressures which accompany the increasing velocities. This
would make the value of d larger and the value of v smaller in the equa-
tion for / than was actually used. It is probable, furthermore, that the
increasing pressure decreases the roughness of the unlined linen hose
more than it does for rubber-lined hose. In general the lost head in
the unlined linen hose is about twice as great as in the rubber-lined
cotton hose. If an average value of the friction factor (0.06) is used
for the unlined linen hose, no great error will enter into the results
under ordinary circumstances. The length of hose will ordinarily not
be mose than 100 feet and for this length about 10 Ib. per sq. in. will
be the maximum loss of head in the unlined linen hose under working
conditions with nozzles giving streams up to K in. in diameter. An
error as large as 10 per cent in the calculation of the loss of head in
the hose would affect the nozzle pressure not more than one pound
per square inch.

O JO ^O 3O 4O 5O 6O 7O SO 9O

Pressure a/ fiase of/Yozz/e- /£ per sq.in
FIG. 22. DIAGRAM SHOWING COEFFICIENTS OF DISCHARGE OF NOZZLES

While the loss of head in the unlined linen hose is about twice as
great as the loss of head in the rubber-lined hose, the linen hose has
several advantages. It is much lighter to handle, folds up in less space
on the wall racks, costs only about 50 to 60 per cent of the cost of
rubber-lined hose and, in an ordinary building, its life is much longer.

25. Coefficients of Discharge. — The coefficients of discharge for
each of the three sizes of nozzles are given in Fig. 22 for pressures

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 55

at the base of the nozzle ranging from about 10 to 85 Ib. per sq. in.
This range of pressures corresponds to a range in the velocity of the
issuing jet from a minimum of about 35 ft. per sec. with the >£-in.
nozzle to a maximum of about 185 ft. per sec. with the Ke-in. nozzle.
The coefficient of discharge is the ratio of the measured discharge to
the ideal discharge. The measured discharge was weighed and the
volume computed from the weights. The ideal discharge was com-
puted from the formula

q = A ij~2gh

q = discharge in cubic feet per second. A = area of the opening of the
nozzle in square feet, g = acceleration due to gravity in feet per
second per second. h = pressure at the base of the nozzle in feet of
water. The velocity of approach to the nozzle was negligible and
was, therefore, not considered in the equation for the ideal discharge.
The pressure at the base of the nozzles was measured with calibrated
pressure gages.

The coefficient of discharge for the Ke-in. and the 3^-in. nozzles
is nearly constant for all pressures and averages 0.98. The coefficient
is slightly lower than 0.98 for the Ke-in. nozzle at the higher pressures.
The ^6-in. nozzle gives a coefficient of 0.95. The Y\ e-in. nozzle is 12
inches long while the other two are only 6 inches long, and this greater
length adds somewhat to the friction and lowers the coefficient of
discharge for the ^fe-in. nozzle.

The Me-in. and the Ke-in. nozzles were rough on the interior
surfaces, having been left just as they came from the molds. The
tips had been smoothed slightly by running a drill through the opening,
but the cylindrical portion made by the drills was very short in each
case and the nozzles gave streams which sprayed badly a short distance
away. The 3^-in. nozzle was made from a Ke-in. nozzle. The entire
inner surface was first machined out in hopes that it would prevent
the spraying of the jet, but the nozzle gave a stream which appeared
no better than before machining. Then a 1jH*2-in. reamer and finally
a M-in. reamer were run through the opening, each reducing the spray-
ing. The >6-in. reamer made the cylindrical portion of the opening
M-in. long, and the resulting nozzle gave a very good stream. An
opening larger than M-in. could not be made in the nozzle because
of the thinness of the walls.

26. Height and Horizontal Distance of Jets. — The heights and the
horizontal distances reached by the jets from each of the three nozzles

56 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

used are given" in Table 8. As stated, the vertical heights were meas-
ured by means of a transit and the horizontal distances were measured
with a tape^from^stakes which were driven in the ground at frequent
known space intervals. The observations were made when a moderate
wind was blowing which interfered with the streams considerably. A
stream was considered good for the distance in which practically all the
water [would pass through a circle whose diameter was 18 inches.
The~value was an arbitrary selection and the streams might be con-
sidered by some as effective for greater distances than those given in
Table 8. The streams, however, beyond the sections chosen, diverged
rapidly and the selection of a circle larger than 18 inches would have
added but a few feet to the distances given in Table 8 in any case.

27. Effect of Cylindrical Tip. — The tests show clearly the impor-
tance of a smooth cylindrical opening at the tip of the nozzle. A com-
parison of the results of the tests on the Ke-in. and the M-in. nozzles
for vertical heights and horizontal distances of the jets will show this
difference. In the case of the Ke-in. nozzle with a pressure of 30 Ib.
per sq. in. at the base of the nozzle the vertical height of the jet was
27 ft. as compared with 37 ft. for the ^-in. nozzle for the same pressure.
Likewise the horizontal distance reached with the Ke-in. nozzle was
13 ft. as compared with 20 ft. with the K-in. nozzle. Similar com-
parisons may be made for other pressures at the base of the nozzle.
The appearance of the jets showed a much greater difference than
the data would indicate. It must be remembered that the two nozzles
were alike and gave streams which appeared to be the same before
one was reamed out to a larger size.

It will be noted also that, in the case of the % e-in. nozzle for a
pressure of 30 Ib. per sq. in. at the base of the nozzle, the vertical and
horizontal distances reached by the stream were respectively 32 and
18 ft., which indicate that the improvement in the carrying capacity
of the K-in. nozzle over that of the Ke-in. nozzle was not due to the
smoother condition of the interior surface of the M-in. nozzle, but
rather to the effect of the cylindrical tip. The condition of the interior
surface of the nozzle to within one-half inch of the end does not seem
to affect appreciably either the quantity of discharge or the quality
of the stream.

It seems important, therefore, that the tip of the nozzle should
be reamed out for a distance of at least % in. in order to obtain a good
fire stream. It is probably true also that for nozzles somewhat larger

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 57

than those used in these experiments the length of the cylindrical
portion should be more than H in., perhaps equal to the diameter
of the issuing stream.

28. Requirements for Temporary Fire Protection for the Interior
of Buildings. — Small fire hose and nozzles should be used as a tem-
porary protection and brought into play until greater relief is at hand.
They must necessarily operate under ordinary working pressures in
the mains more often than under fire pressures. With 40 Ib. per
sq. in. as an average pressure in the mains, there should be, after
deducting for losses in the hose and connecting pipes, about 30 Ib.
per sq. in. at the nozzle. This pressure, of course, would be still
further reduced if the nozzle used was at a higher elevation than the
main. With a nozzle pressure of 30 Ib. per sq. in. the K-in. nozzle
will discharge 40 gal. per min., the Ke-in. and the Y\ e-in. nozzles will
discharge 30 and 15 gal. per min., respectively. It is felt that the
discharge from the two smaller nozzles is not great enough for effective
work. It is true that the pressure at the nozzle for the smaller sizes
with a given pressure in the main will be somewhat greater than for
the M-in. nozzle, because of the decreased velocity in the hose which
will give a smaller loss of head, but this difference in pressure will not
be enough to increase the discharge materially for an ordinary length
of hose. The discharge from the iKe-in. nozzle is too small to be very
effective even at higher pressures. The discharge for a pressure of
100 Ib. per sq. in. is but 28 gal. per min. It is recommended that
M-in. nozzles be used with IM-in. hose. For nozzles larger than M
in., the discharge would become greater and increase the loss of head
in the hose to such an extent that there would not be enough nozzle
pressure left to produce a stream which would carry a sufficient distance.

With the aid of the tables the discharge for any of the nozzles
may be readily computed for any pressure in the mains. If the nozzle
is at a higher elevation than the main, subtract from the pressure in
the main an amount equal to 0.434 times the difference in elevation in
feet between the nozzle and the main. Take a discharge from the
table for any pressure at the base of the nozzle for the size of nozzle
used, then take the corresponding value of the head lost in the kind of
hose used, multiply this value by the length of hose in feet used and
divide by 100. The result gives the total loss in the hose for the
assumed discharge. If there is any connecting pipe, the loss in it will
be the same as the loss in a corresponding length ^of rubber-lined hose.

58 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

Add the losses in the pipe and hose to the pressure at the base of the
nozzle for the assumed discharge to obtain the pressure in the main
(corrected for the difference in elevation) necessary to produce this
discharge. The discharge will vary as the square root of this pres-
sure. Letting qf = the assumed discharge, P' = the pressure in the main
(corrected for the difference in elevation) which will produce this dis-
charge, 5 = the discharge to be determined, P = the actual pressure in
the mains and H = difference in elevation between the nozzle and the
main in feet gives the relation

P^QAZIH

P'
which gives the required discharge.

To illustrate the use of the formula the following assumptions are
made. Pressure in mains, P = 60 Ib. per sq. in., 80 ft. of linen hose,
50 ft. of IK-in. connecting pipe, elevation of nozzle above main 30 ft.
and M-in. nozzle used.

Assume a discharge of 46 gal. per min. and from the table the
following values are obtained:

Nozzle pressure = 40

. , 80X18.8

Loss in hose = — r^r — = 15.0

50X10.2
Loss in pipe = — r^— = 5.1

Total = P' = 60l

Substituting in the formula

5 = 40.7 gal. per min.

The following method may be used to determine the discharge
for any size of nozzle for any pressure in the mains. Assume any
pressure at the base of the nozzle, hf, in feet of water. The discharge
for this pressure may be determined by the formula

q' = discharge in cu. ft. per sec.

c — coefficient of discharge and may be taken as 0.98
A = area ofjDpening of nozzle in sq. ft.
20 = 64.4 ft. per sec. per sec.

Determine the velocity in the_hose for this discharge from the
formula

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 59

v — velocity in hose in ft. per sec.
a = area of hose in sq. ft.
Determine the loss in the hose from the formula

/z2 = head lost, in feet
f= friction factor which may be taken as 0.03 for rubber lined

hose or 0 . 06 for unlined linen hose
I = length of hose in feet
d = diameter of hose in feet
v = velocity in hose in ft. per sec.
20 = 64.4 ft. per sec. per sec.

If there is any pipe connecting the hose to the main, the loss for
it may be computed by the same formula as for the hose, using 0.03
for the friction factor for IM-in. pipe. Call this lost head hz.

The pressure in the main to give the assumed nozzle pressure is

This pressure will be in feet of water. Then using the relation

-'VI

gives the required discharge. If the main is below the nozzle, subtract
the difference in elevation in feet from H in the formula.

It is recognized that this method is not strictly accurate since the
head does not vary exactly as the square of the discharge, but the
results obtained will be close enough for practical use.

29. Summary. — The following brief summary is given as applying
small hose and nozzles with velocities in the hose ranging from about
4 to 8 ft. per sec. and with pressures at the base of the nozzle ranging
from about 10 to 85 Ib. per sq. in.

(1) The friction factor (/ in the equation for the lost head,

7 9 \

h =f -j^r- I for rubber-lined hose varies but little with the velocity
d Zcj /

in the hose and is nearly the same as for clean iron pipe of the same
diameter.

60 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

(2) The friction factor for unlined linen hose decreases as
the velocity increases. In general the loss of head in unlined linen
hose is about twice as great as in rubber-lined hose of the same
diameter and for the same velocity.

(3) The nozzle should have a smooth cylindrical tip at least
one-half inch long to keep the jet from spraying. A cylindrical
tip is a much more important factor in securing a good fire stream
than a smooth surface in the interior of the nozzle.

(4) Nozzle openings commonly in use to supply fire streams
in the interior of buildings seem too small for adequate temporary
fire protection. It is recommended that a nozzle with a M-in.
opening be used with a IK-in. hose in order to secure a sufficient
quantity of water for an effective fire stream.

(5) The coefficient of discharge of a small conical nozzle
varies but little with the velocity and is close to 0.98. The value
of 0.95 obtained with the %6-in. nozzle, which was 12 in. long as
compared with 6 in. for the other nozzles tested, indicates, how-
ever, that the nozzle should be short to obtain the value of 0.98.
A cylindrical tip on the nozzle seems to have little influence on
the coefficient of discharge.

PART IV
THE ORIFICE BUCKET FOR MEASURING WATER

BY MELVIN L. ENGER

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

CONTENTS

PART IV
THE ORIFICE BUCKET FOR MEASURING WATER

PAGE

X. INTRODUCTION 65

30. Purpose 65

31. Acknowledgment 66

XI. APPARATUS AND METHOD OF CALIBRATING 67

32. Orifice Bucket . . 67

33. Method of Calibrating Orifice Bucket 71

XII. EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND DISCUSSION 72

34. Fifteen-inch Orifice Bucket having Fifty-six Orifices . 72

35. Fifteen-inch Orifice Bucket having Only Three Orifices 73

36. Twenty-inch Orifice Bucket having Nineteen Orifices . 73

37. Conclusions . 76

LIST OF FIGURES

NO. PAGE

23. Fifteen-inch Orifice Bucket having Fifty-six Orifices 67

24. View Showing Orifice Bucket in Use 69

25. Twenty-inch Orifice Bucket having Nineteen Orifices 68

26. Calibration Curves for 15-inch Orifice Bucket having Fifty-six Orifices . 72

27. Calibration Curves for 15-inch Orifice Bucket having Only Three Orifices 74

28. Calibration Curves for 20-inch Orifice Bucket having Nineteen Orifices . 75

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 65

PART IV
THE ORIFICE BUCKET FOR MEASURING WATER

X. INTRODUCTION

30. Purpose. — The purpose of Part IV is to describe a method
of measuring water by means of a simple, portable, and inexpensive
device, here called an orifice bucket, and to present experimental data
applying thereto for a range of conditions sufficient to indicate that
the device is reliable for use in engineering practice. An orifice bucket
is a cylindrical vessel into which water to be measured falls vertically
and passes out through a number of holes or orifices in the bottom.
A vertical glass tube placed just outside the bucket is connected to the
sides of the bucket near the bottom, and the height of the water in
the tube indicates the head on the orifice.

The orifice bucket was devised for the purpose of measuring the
discharge of several artesian wells pumped by means of air lift, the
water from each of which discharged into a separate cistern or small
reservoir through a vertical pipe. In each case the water left the pipe
with considerable blast and momentum. Several possible methods
for the measurement of the discharge were considered but were thought
to be impracticable for various reasons or inapplicable for the particular
case. After some preliminary laboratory experimenting an orifice
bucket was devised which served very satisfactorily in determining the
discharge from each of the wells. It was at first feared that the water
would enter the bucket with such a blast that entrained air would enter
the vertical glass tube and cause trouble in determining the height of
water in the bucket. There was, however, no trouble from this cause
and the fluctuations of the water level in the glass tube offered no seri-
ous difficulties.

The orifice bucket has also given satisfaction in tests made to deter-
mine yields of well pumps of the reciprocating type. It should give
satisfactory results in the field where simplicity of construction and
portability are desirable and where extreme accuracy is not of great
importance.

66 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

31. Acknowledgment. — The orifice bucket was developed by the
writer through experimental work in the Hydraulic Laboratory of
the University of Illinois during 1910 and 1911.* Considerable im-
provement has been made in the arrangement of certain parts of the
bucket by I. W. FISK, P. S. BIEGLER, and P. J. NILSEN, of the de-
partment of electrical engineering, in connection with tests on electric
motor-driven deep-well pumps. Some of the experimental data herein
presented were obtained by them, to whom acknowledgment is made.

* A part of the results here presented was published in the Proceedings of the Third Meeting of
the Illinois Water Supply Association, p. 87, 1911.

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

XL APPARATUS AND METHOD OP CALIBRATING

32. Orifice Bucket. — Fig. 23 shows the construction and dimen-
sions of one of the first orifice buckets used in the experiments, and
Fig. 24 shows the bucket in use. This bucket weighed 23 Ib.

As previously stated an orifice bucket is a cylindrical vessel having
holes or orifices in its bottom and into which water to be measured

nd
fo

FIG. 23. FIFTEEN-INCH ORIFICE BUCKET HAVING FIFTY-SIX ORIFICES

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

falls vertically, the head of water on the orifices being indicated by
the height of the water in a vertical glass piezometer tube attached
near the bottom of the bucket.

Fig. 25 shows the construction of the most elaborate orifice bucket
which has been used. It is provided with a short tube checker-work
to smooth out the flow of the water on its way to the orifices in the

$'6age g/ass on
sca/e graduated
'* £*s feef

ga/v. /'ron s/r/ps 4

crisscrossed
to form tubes
G0/K w/naow screen
so/denzd to fop-

ftezomefer press, chamber.

Bottom of,%"6oi/erp/afe
r/ise/ed and so/derec/

fio/es.

FIG. 25. TWENTY-INCH ORIFICE BUCKET HAVING NINETEEN ORIFICES

FIG. 24. VIEW SHOWING ORIFICE BUCKET IN USE

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 71

bottom of the bucket. The vertical glass tube is connected to a
piezometer chamber or ring around the base of the bucket, pressure
being transmitted to the piezometer ring through a large number of
small holes.

The orifice bucket may be adapted for the measurement of water
for a considerable range in the discharge by varying the head on the
orifices and also by varying the number of holes which are stopped or
plugged with corks or wooden stoppers. The range in the capacities
of the orifice buckets which have been used is from about 40 to 1000
gal. per min.

33. Method of Calibrating Orifice Bucket. — In calibrating the ori-
fice bucket it was hung underneath a vertical pipe as shown in Fig. 24.
The quantity of water discharged was measured with a 6-in. Venturi
meter in most of the calibration tests although a calibrated measuring
pit was used in some of the tests to determine the volume discharged
in a given time.

With a given number of holes open, the flow in the orifice bucket
was regulated by means of a valve between the Venturi meter and the
bucket until the height in the bucket remained constant. The Venturi
meter reading and the head on the orifices were then taken. This
procedure was repeated for several different heads and for different
numbers of orifices open.

The effect of varying the conditions of flow was investigated some-
what. The height of the free fall of the water from the inflow pipe to
the orifice bucket was varied; likewise different sizes of pipe were used
giving different velocities to the stream entering the bucket. The
stream was also allowed to enter near to one side of the bucket instead
of at the center. Different groupings of the open orifices, furthermore,
were tried, and different methods were employed in attempting to
spread or distribute the inflowing stream.

In using the orifice bucket it is necessary to estimate the average
head shown in the glass tube because there is some fluctuation. The
amount of the fluctuation may be reduced by throttling the valve in
the connection of the glass tube to the orifice bucket. If the proper
conditions are observed, there should be little trouble from this source.
It should be remembered that the rate of discharge is proportional to
the square root of the head and that the effect of the error which might
occur in the head reading itself is thus reduced in determining the
discharge.

ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

XII. EXPERIMENTAL DATA AND DISCUSSION

34. Fifteen-inch Orifice Bucket Having Fifty-six Orifices. — Fig. 26
shows the calibration curves for the 15-inch orifice bucket shown in
Fig. 23 and 24. There were fifty-six 1-in. holes in the bottom of the
bucket giving a maximum capacity of about 1000 gal. per min. With
all the orifices open the rate of discharge was varied from about 600
to 1000 gal. per min. by varying the head from about % ft. to 2 ft.
With thirty-two orifices open the discharge had a range of about 300
to 600 gal. per min. by varying the head from about Y* ft. to 2.5 ft.
In closing the twenty-four orifices, corks were used of such size that
they projected but little into the bucket. It was found that in filling
the orifices a symmetrical arrangement gave somewhat steadier action,
particularly when the orifices near the circumference were the ones
filled. The inflowing stream was discharged from an 8-in. pipe. A

1000

0.5

/-O /.f 2.O

/iead in feet

3.0

FIG. 26. CALIBRATION CURVES FOR 15-iNCH ORIFICE BUCKET HAVING
FIFTY-SIX ORIFICES

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS 73

3-in. pipe was also tried but did not give satisfactory results, on account
of the high velocity which produced an extremely agitated condition
of the water in the bucket. This condition may be overcome, however,
by use of a deflector or distributor, such as an open bag or sack attached
to the end of the discharge pipe.

The rate of discharge for any other number of open orifices for this
bucket may be obtained from the equation

which represents fairly well the relation between the quantity, q, in
gal. per min., the number of orifices open, n, and the head in the
bucket, h, in ft. The experiments give an average coefficient of dis-
charge for the 1-in. orifices of this bucket of about 0.63.

35. Fifteen-inch Orifice Bucket Having Only Three Orifices. —
Fig. 27 shows an orifice bucket of the same dimensions as the' one just
described but with three iron tubes about 1 in. long inserted in a 1-in.
wooden bottom. It was provided with two screens through which the
water passed on its way to the orifices hi the bottom of the bucket.

Fig. 27 also shows the calibration curves for this orifice bucket.
It will be noted that the discharge ranges from about 35 to 115 gal.
per min. This orifice was constructed and calibrated for immediate
use and not for experimental purposes. The calibration curves are of
value in indicating the reliability of the orifice bucket under a rather
wide range in the details of its construction.

36. Twenty-inch Orifice Bucket Having Nineteen Orifices. — An
illustration of the most elaborate orifice bucket used in the experi-
ments is shown in Fig. 25, the capacity of which is about 1000 gal.
per min. It contains a checkerwork of vertical tubes through which
the water flows in passing to the orifices. The gage glass which
indicates the head on the orifices is connected to a piezometer ring or
chamber around the base of the bucket. The pressure of the water in
the bucket is transmitted to the piezometer chamber through a large
number of M-in. holes. The bottom of the bucket consists of jKe-in.
boiler plate in which nineteen 1%-in. circular holes are drilled.

The calibration curves for this orifice bucket are shown in Fig. 28,
for all holes open and for ten holes open. The discharge for any other
number of orifices open may be found with a fair degree of accuracy
from the equation

IZU

no
too

\ 90

60
SO
40
3O

<gcree/7

•

(2?

|f-

/^x

Ix*3

IP^

, ^t

•

tfe&d /n feet

FIG. 27. CALIBRATION CURVES FOR 15-iNCH ORIFICE BUCKET HAVING
ONLY THREE ORIFICES

HYDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS

Ho/es Plugged thus:

.6 .8 /.O

. . .
Head in feef

ZO 2

FIG. 28. CALIBRATION CURVES FOR 20-iNCH ORIFICE BUCKET HAVING
NINETEEN ORIFICES

76 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

in which q is expressed in gal. per min., n is the number of holes open,
and h is the head on the orifices in feet. The average coefficient of
discharge for the 1%-in. orifices of this bucket is 0.61.

The curves in Fig. 28 were obtained when the bucket was supported
firmly in an upright position with the stream to be measured discharging
vertically in the center of the bucket and with the free fall into the
bucket small. The velocity of the inflowing stream, furthermore, was
not high (2 or 3 ft. per sec.), thereby causing" but little agitation of
the water in the bucket. Experiments, however, in which more or less
variation from these conditions were allowed indicated that no serious
errors resulted.

37. Conclusions. — The conditions under which the discharge of
water has to be measured are so varied and the purpose or aim in deter-
mining the discharge differs so much in different problems that nearly
any one of the many common methods of measuring water has a rather
restricted field of usefulness, while some methods apply only to very
special conditions.

The orifice bucket is designed to meet rather special conditions.
It is peculiarly adapted for the measurement of water where a device
which is portable (light weight and small size), simple in construction,
and low in cost are essential features. The measuring capacity, more-
over, covers a considerable range. The orifice bucket is particularly
fitted for the measurement of water when the water discharges with
considerable blast and momentum from the end of a vertical pipe, in
such a manner that the spray covers the entire surface of the water in
the bucket, as in the case of air lift pumping. When so used the orifice
bucket gives results which should be correct within 5 per cent if the
proper precautions are observed in its use, as is shown by the calibration
curves, and correct within 10 per cent for the more unfavorable condi-
tions to be met in the field. The highest accuracy is obtained when
the orifice bucket is supported rigidly in an upright position with the
center of the discharging stream vertically over the center of the bucket.
The free fall of the water should be as small as possible and the velocity
of the water as it enters the bucket should not be large, unless the stream
is distributed, so as to avoid high local velocities in the bucket. The
orifice bucket, however, gives very satisfactory results even when there
are considerable deviations from these desirable conditions and renders
a service for which other measuring devices may not be adapted.

LIST OF
PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 1. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams, by Arthur N. Talbot, 1904. None available.
Circular No. 1. High-Speed Tool Steels, by L. P. Breckenridge. 1905. None available.

Bulletin No. 2. Tests of High-Speed Tool Steels on Cast Iron, by L. P. Breckenridge and Henry
B. Dirks. 1905. None available.

Circular No. 2. Drainage of Earth Roads, by Ira O. Baker. 1906. None available.

Circular No. 3. Fuel Tests with Illinois Coal (Compiled from tests made by the Technological
Branch of the U. S. G. S., at the St. Louis, Mo., Fuel Testing Plant, 1904-1907), by L. P. Breckenridge
and Paul Diserens. 1908. Thirty cents.

Bulletin No. S. The Engineering Experiment Station of the University of Illinois, by L. P-
Breckenridge. 1906. None available.

Bulletin No. 4. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams, Series of 1905, by Arthur N. Talbot.

1906. Forty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 5. Resistance of Tubes to Collapse, by Albert P. Carman and M. L. Carr. 1906.

None available.

Bulletin ATo. 6. Holding Power of Railroad Spikes, by Roy I. Webber. 1906. None available.

Bulletin No. 7. Fuel Tests with Illinois Coals, by L. P. Breckenridge, S. W. Parr, and Henry B.
Dirks. 1906. None available. •

Bulletin No. 8. Tests of Concrete: I, Shear; II, Bond, by Arthur N. Talbot. 1906. None
available.

Bulletin No. 9. An Extension of the Dewey Decimal System of Classification Applied to the
Engineering Industries, by L. P. Breckenridge and G. A. Goodenough. 1906. Revised Edition
1912. Fifty cents.

Bulletin No. 10. Tests of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Columns, Series of 1906, by Arthur
N. Talbot. 1907. None available.

Bulletin No. 11. The Effect of Scale on the Transmission of Heat through Locomotive Boiler
Tubes, by Edward C. Schmidt and John M. Snodgrass. 1907. None available.

Bulletin No. 12. Tests of Reinforced Concrete T-Beams, Series of 1906, by Arthur N. Talbot.

1907. None available.

Bulletin No. 13. An Extension of the Dewey Decimal System of Classification Applied to Archi-
tecture and Building, by N. Clifford Ricker. 1907. None available.

Bulletin No. 14. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams, Series of 1906, by Arthur N. Talbot.

1907. None available.

Bulletin No. 15. How to Burn Illinois Coal Without Smoke, by L. P. Breckenridge. 1908.
None available.

Bulletin No. 16. A Study of Roof Trusses, by N. Clifford Ricker. 1908. None available.

Bulletin No. 17. The Weathering of Coal, by S. W. Parr, N. D. Hamilton, and W. F. Wheeler.

1908. None available.

Bulletin No. 18. The Strength of Chain Links, by G. A. Goodenough and L. E. Moore. 1908.
Forty cents.

Bulletin No. 19. Comparative Tests of Carbon, Metallized Carbon and Tantalum Filament
Lamps, by T. H. Amrine. 1908. None available.

Bulletin No. 20. Tests of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Columns, Series of 1907, by Arthur
N. Talbot. 1908. None available.

Bulletin No. 21. Tests of a Liquid Air Plant, by C. S. Hudson and C. M. Garland. 1908. Fifteen
cents.

Bulletin No. 22. Tests of Cast-Iron and Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe, by Arthur N. Talbot.
1908. None available.

Bulletin No. 23. Voids, Settlement and Weight of Crushed Stone, by Ira O. Baker. 1908.
Fifteen cents.

*Bulletin No. 24- The Modification of Illinois Coal by Low Temperature Distillation, by S. W. Parr,
and C. K. Francis. 1908. Thirty cents.

Bulletin No. 26. Lighting Country Homes by Private Electric Plants, by T. H. Amrine. 1908.
Twenty cents.

*A limited number of copies of bulletins starred is available for free distribution.

78 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 26, High Steam-Pressure in Locomotive Service. A Review of a Report to the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, by W. F. M. Goss. 1908. Twenty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 27. Tests of Brick Columns and Terra Cotta Block Columns, by Arthur N. Talbot
and Duff A. Abrams. 1909. Twenty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 28. A Test of Three Large Reinforced Concrete Beams, by Arthur N. Talbot
1909. Fifteen cents.

Bulletin No. 29. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Beams: Resistance to Web Stresses, Series of
1907 and 1908, by Arthur N. Talbot. 1909. Forty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 80. On the Rate of Formation of Carbon Monoxide in Gas Producers, by J. K Cle-
ment, L. H. Adams, and C. N. Haskins. 1909. Twenty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 31. Tests with House-Heating Boilers, by J. M. Snodgrass. 1909. Fifty-five
cents.

Bulletin No. 32. The Occluded Gases in Coal, by S. W. Parr and Perry Barker. 1909. Fifteen
cents.

Bulletin No. 33. Tests of Tungsten Lamps, by T. H. Amrine and A. Guell. 1909. Twenty cents.

^Bulletin No. 34. Tests of Two Types of Tile-Roof Furnaces under a Water-Tube Boiler, by J. M.
Snodgrass. 1909. Fifteen cents.

Bulletin No. 35. A Study of Base and Bearing Plates for Columns and Beams, by N. Clifford
Ricker. 1909. Twenty cents.

Bulletin No. 36. The Thermal Conductivity of Fire-Clay at High Temperatures, by J. K. Clement
and W. L. Egy. 1909. Twenty cents.

Bulletin No. 37. Unit Coal and the Composition of Coal Ash, by S. W. Parr and W. F. Wheeler.
1909. Thirty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 38. The Weathering of Coal, by S. W. Parr and W. F. Wheeler. 1909. Twenty-
five cents.

*Bulletin No. 59. Tests of Washed Grades of Illinois Coal, by C. S. McGovney. 1909. Seventy-
five cents.

Bulletin No. 40. A Study in Heat Transmission, by J. K. Clement and C. M. Garland. 1910
Ten cents.

Bulletin No. 41. Tests of Timber Beams, by Arthur N. Talbot. 1910. Thirty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 42. The Effect of Key ways on the Strength of Shafts, by Herbert F. Moore. 1910.
Ten cents.

Bulletin No. 43. Freight Train Resistance, by Edward C. Schmidt. 1910. Seventy-five cents.

Bulletin No. 44- An Investigation of Built-up Columns Under Load, by Arthur N. Talbot and
Herbert F. Moore. 1911. Thirty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 45. The Strength of Oxyacetylene Welds in Steel, by Herbert L. Whittemore. 1911.
Thirty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 46. The Spontaneous Combustion of Coal, by S. W. Parr and F. W. Kressman.
1911. Forty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 47. Magnetic Properties of Heusler Alloys, by Edward B. Stephenson. 1911. Twen-
ty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 48. Resistance to Flow Through Locomotive Water Columns, by Arthur N. Talbot
and Melvin L. Enger. 1911. Forty cents.

*Bulletin No. 49. Tests of Nickel-Steel Riveted Joints, by Arthur N. Talbot and Herbert F. Moore.
1911. Thirty cents.

^Bulletin No. 50. Tests of a Suction Gas Producer, by C. M. Garland and A. P. Kratz. 1912.
Fifty cents.

Bulletin No. 51. Street Lighting, by J. M. Bryant and H. G. Hake. 1912. Thirty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 52. An Investigation of the Strength of Rolled Zinc, by Herbert F. Moore. 1912.
Fifteen cents.

^Bulletin No. 53. Inductance of Coils, by Morgan Brooks and H. M. Turner. 1912. Forty cents.
^Bulletin No. 54. Mechanical Stresses in Transmission Lines, by A. Guell. 1912. Twenty cents.

^Bulletin No. 55. Starting Currents of Transformers, with Special Reference to Transformers with
Silicon Steel Cores, by Trygve D. Yensen. 1912. Twenty cents.

^Bulletin No. 56. Tests of Columns: An Investigation of the Value of Concrete as Reinforcement
for Structural Steel Columns, by Arthur N. Talbot and Arthur R. Lord. 1912. Twenty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 57. Superheated Steam in Locomotive Service. A Review of Publication No. 127
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, by W. F. M. Goss. 1912. Forty cents.

*A limited number of copies of bulletins starred is available for free distribution.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION 79

*BuUetin No. 58. A New Analysis of the Cylinder Performance of Reciprocating Engines, by
J. Paul Clayton. 1912. Sixty cents.

^Bulletin No 59 The Effect of Cold Weather Upon Train Resistance and Tonnage Rating, by
Edward C. Schmidt and F. W. Marquis. 1912. Twenty cents.

*Bulletin No. 60. The Coking of Coal at Low Temperatures, with a Preliminary Study of the
By-Products, by S. W. Parr and H. L. Olin. 1912. Twenty-fine cents.

*Bulletin No. 61. Characteristics and Limitation of the Series Transformer, by A. R. Anderson
and H. R. Woodrow. 1913. Twenty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 62. The Electron Theory of Magnetism, by Elmer H. Williams. 1913. Thirty-five
cents.

Bulletin No. 63. Entropy-Temperature and Transmission Diagrams for Air, by C. R. Richards.
1913. Twenty-fire cents.

*Bulletin No. 64. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Buildings Under Load, by Arthur N. Talbot and
Willis A. Slater. 1913. Fifty cents.

*Bulletin No. 65. The Steam Consumption of Locomotive Engines from the Indicator Diagrams,
by J. Paul Clayton. 1913. Forty cents.

Bulletin No. 66. The Properties of Saturated and Superheated Ammonia Vapor, by G. A. Good-
enough and William Earl Mosher. 1913. Fifty cents.

Bulletin No. 67. Reinforced Concrete Wall Footings and Column Footings, by Arthur N. Talbot.

1913. Fifty cents.

Bulletin No. 68. The Strength of I-Beams in Flexure, by Herbert F. Moore. 1913. Twenty
cents.

Bulletin No. 69. Coal Washing in Illinois, by F. C. Lincoln. 1913. Fifty cents.

Bulletin No. 70. The Mortar-Making Qualities of Illinois Sands, by C. C. Wiley. 1913. Twenty

cents.

Bulletin No. 71. Tests of Bond between Concrete and Steel, by Duff A. Abrams. 1914. One
dollar.

^Bulletin No. 72. Magnetic and Other Properties of Electrolytic Iron Melted in Vacuo, by Trygve
D. Yensen. 1914, Forty cents.

Bulletin No. 73. Acoustics of Auditoriums, by F. R. Watson. 1914. Twenty cents.

^Bulletin No. 74. The Tractive Resistance of a 28-Ton Electric Car, by Harold H. Dunn. 1914.
Twenty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 75. Thermal Properties of Steam, by G. A. Goodenough. 1914. Thirty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 76. The Analysis of Coal with Phenol as a Solvent, by S. W. Parr and H. F. Hadley.

1914. Twenty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 77. The Effect of Boron upon the Magnetic and Other Properties of Electrolytic
Iron Melted in Vacuo, by Trygve D. Yensen. 1915. Ten cents.

^Bulletin No: 78. A Study of Boiler Losses, by A. P. Kratz. 1915. Thirty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 79. The Coking of Coal at Low Temperatures, with Special Reference to the Prop-
erties and Composition of the Products, by S. W. Parr and H. L. Olin. 1915. Twenty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 80. Wind Stresses in the Steel Frames of Office Buildings, by W. M. Wilson and
G. A. Maney. 1915. Fifty cents.

^Bulletin No. 81. Influence of Temperature on the Strength of Concrete, by A. B. McDaniel.

1915. Fifteen cents.

Bulletin No. 82. Laboratory Tests of a Consolidation Locomotive, by E. C. Schmidt, J. M. Snod-
grass, and R. B. Keller. 1915. Sixty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 83. Magnetic and Other Properties of Iron Silicon Alloys. Melted in Vacuo, by
Trygve D. Yensen. 1915. Thirty-five cents.

Bulletin No. 84. Tests of Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab Structure, by A. N. Talbot and W. A.
Slater. 1916. Sixty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 85. The Strength and Stiffness of Steel Under Biaxial Loading, by A. T. Becker.

1916. Thirty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 86. The Strength of I-Beams and Girders, by Herbert F. Moore and W. M. Wilson
1916. Thirty cents.

*Bulletin No. 87. Correction of Echoes in the Auditorium, University of Illinois, by F. R. Watson
and J. M. White. 1916. Fifteen cents.

Bulletin No. 88. Dry Preparation of Bituminous Coal at Illinois Mines, by E. A. Holbrook. 1916-
Seventy cents.

*A limited number of copies of bulletins starred is available for free distribution.

80 PUBLICATIONS OF THE ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

*Bulletin No. 89. Specific Gravity Studies of Illinois Coal, by Merle L. Nebel. 1916. Thirty
cents.

*Bulletin No. 90. Some Graphical Solutions of Electric Railway Problems, by A. M. Buck. 1916.
Twenty cents.

*Bulletin No. 91. Subsidence Resulting from Mining, by L. E. Young and H. H. Stock. 1916.
None available.

*Bulletin No. 92. The Tractive Resistance on Curves of a 28-Ton Electric Car, by E. C. Schmidt
and H. H. Dunn. 1916. Twenty-five cents.

^Bulletin No. 93. A Preliminary Study of the Alloys of Chromium, Copper, and Nickel, by

D. F. McFarland and O. E. Harder. 1916. Thirty cents.

*Bulletin No. 94. The Embrittling Action of Sodium Hydroxide on Soft Steel, by S. W. Parr.
1917. Thirty cents.

^Bulletin No. 95. Magnetic and Other Properties of Iron-Aluminum Alloys Melted in Vacuo, by
T. D. Yensen and W. A. Gatward. 1917. Twenty-five cents.

*Bulletin No. 96. The Effect of Mouthpieces on the Flow of Water Through a Submerged Short
Pipe, by Fred B. Seely. 1917. Twenty-five cents.

* Bulletin No. 97. Effects of Storage Upon the Properties of Coal, by S. W. Parr. 1917
Twenty cents.

^Bulletin No. 98. Tests of Oxyacetylene Welded Joints in Steel Plates, by Herbert F. Moore.
1917. Ten cents.

Circular No. 4. The Economical Purchase and Use of Coal for Heating Homes, with Special
Reference to Conditions in Illinois. 1917. Ten cents.

*Bulletin No. 99. The Collapse of Short Thin Tubes, by A. P. Carman. 1917. Twenty cents.

*Circular No. 5. The Utilization of Pyrite Occurring in Illinois Bituminous Coal, by E. A.
Holbrook. 1917.

*Bulletin No. 100. Percentage of Extraction of Bituminous Coal with Special Reference to
Illinois Conditions, by C. M. Young. 1917.

^Bulletin No. 101. Comparative Tests of Six Sizes of Illinois Coal on a Mikado Locomotive, by

E. C. Schmidt, J. M. Snodgrass, and O. S. Beyer, Jr. 1917. Fifty cents.

*Bulletin No. 102. A Study of the Heat Transmission of Building Materials, by A. C. Willard
and L. C. Lichty. 1917.

^Bulletin No. 103. An Investigation of Twist Drills, by B. Benedict and W. P. Lukens. 1917.
Sixty cents.

*Bulletin No. 104. Tests to Determine the Rigidity of Riveted Joints of Steel Structures, by
W. M. Wilson and H. F. Moore. 1917. Twenty-five cents.

Circular No. 6. The Storage of Bituminous Coal, by H. H. Stock. 1918. Forty cents.

Circular No. 7. Fuel Economy in the Operation of Hand Fired Power Plants. 1918. Twenty-
five cents.

*BulletinNo. 1 05. Hydraulic Experiments with Valves, Orifices, Hoze, Nozzles, and Orifice
Buckets, by Arthur N. Talbot, Fred B Seely, Virgil R Fleming and Melvin L. Enger. 1918.
Thirty-five cents.

*A limited number of copies of bulletins starred is available for free distribution.

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THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY
WILL INCREASE TO 5O CENTS ON THE FOURTH
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OVERDUE.

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