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HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING
f
■■^—w-rrr-^r-
XlAI-.AR.V l^AMS. U-->.^;(/,V/„.
\
\
HYDRAULIC POWER
ENGINEERING
A PRACTICAL MANUAL
ON THE CONCENTRATION AND TRANSMISSION OF
POWER BY HYDRAULIC MACHINERY
^ '- .^■^*"
G: CROYDON ^ARKS
ASSOCIATE MBMBBR OF THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
MEMBER OP THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
FELLOW OP THE CHARTERED INSTITUTE OF PATENT AGENTS
Second BMtioiit iBnlnvgcb
IVITH ABOUT TWO HUNDRED AND FORTY ILLUSTRATIONS,
LONDON
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON
7 STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
13^
Printed at The Darien Press, Edinburgh,
I
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.
THIS work may be regarded as a successor to
a smaller volume by the same Author on
" Hydraulic Machinery," published in
1 89 1, which he prepared with a view to the assistance
of engineering students and others who might be
practically interested in the subject,
rt In the present volume an attempt is made to give an
Q outline discussion and description of the main points
and principles requiring attention by engineers having
the responsibility of designing or constructing works
and appliances for the utilisation of water for the
transmission of power.
It would be impossible in any single volume to
I deal adequately or comprehensively with the many
^ problems arising in the different sections into which
^ the very large subject of Hydraulics and Hydraulic
Engineering naturally divides itself. The Author,
^ therefore, has contented himself with giving examples
-L which have special reference to the particular sections
x in which they occur ; ^ and in addition, he has en-
^ deavoured to lead up to the general subject by a
brief examination of the principles underlying the
whole study.
The development of hydraulic power machinery
has been somewhat of a modern movement, but the
examples which arc to be found in the following pages
160021
VI PREFACE.
will possibly lead the engineer and designer to go still
further in the realisation of the most convenient form
of power transmission available for industrial under-
takings and commercial manufactures. In practice it
is constantly found that new problems are raised, and
new forms of machinery required for their satisfactory
solution.
The Author wishes to acknowledge here the ser-
vices which have been rendered him by members of
his staff, in the preparation of the examples and
drawings given in the volume, and in compiling
many of the tables now published here for the first
time. Free use (it should also be mentioned) has
been made of information published in the " Pro-
ceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers," the
permission of the Council of that Institution having
been kindly given for that purpose; and additional
information has been obtained from descriptions of
works appearing in the Engineer and Engineerings
and in Cassier^s Magazine. Many of the illustra-
tions have been specially prepared from information
kindly placed at the service of the Author by the
several engineering firms referred to in the work.
The Author would refer students who may seek
fuller information on the question of Hydraulic Motors
and Turbines to Mr Bodmer's treatise upon that
subject.
1 8 Southampton Buildings,
London, W.C.
January 1900.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
IN the present edition, the work has been enlarged
for the purpose of including some examples ot
new developments connected with Hydraulic
Pressing and Lifting machinery, and introducing
illustrations of typical Valves and machines. The
text, also, has been generally revised, the Author's
aim being to condense and improve rather than to
expand the volume, in view of the many additional
illustrations now introduced — about 40 in number.
The limitations of the work as a single volume
for convenient handling have precluded the intro-
duction of other desirable features, such as various
forms of lifts, cranes, and power pumps. Students
and others seeking further information as to pumps
and cranes may be referred to the works on " The
Construction of Pumps " and " Cranes and Lifting
Machinery," by Mr E. C. R. Marks, as convenient
text-books on those subjects.
The thanks of the Author are due and are hereby
tendered to Messrs Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth,
viii PREFACE.
& Co. Limited, of Manchester; Messrs Breuer,
Schumacher, & Co., of Kalk ; Messrs Fielding &
Piatt Limited, of Gloucester ; the Hydraulic Engi-
neering Company, of Chester ; Messrs Henry Berry
& Co., of Leeds, and other firms who have kindly
placed photographs and information as to their work
at his disposal.
1 8 Southampton Buildings,
London, W.C.
April 1905.
CONTENTS.
PART L— HYDRA ULICS,
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Principles of Hydraulics 3
CHAPTER II.
The Observed Flow of Water - - - 21
PART IL--PRELIMINAR K
CHAPTER III.
Hydraulic Pressures 35
CHAPTER IV.
Materials 44
CHAPTER V.
Test Load 51
PART III.— JOINTS.
CHAPTER VI.
Packings for Sliding Surfaces - - - - 67
CHAPTER VII.
Pipe Joints 86
X CONTENTS.
PART IV.— VALVES,
CHAPTER VIII.
PACE
Controlling Valves iii
PART v.— LIFTING MACHINERY.
CHAPTER IX.
Platform Lifts 143
CHAPTER X.
Workshop and Foundry Cranes - - - - 188
CHAPTER XI.
Warehouse and Dock Cranes - . . - 203
CHAPTER XII.
Hydraulic Accumulators 211
PART VI— HYDRAULIC PRESSES.
CHAPTER XIII.
Presses for Baling and other Purposes - - 225
CHAPTER XIV.
Sheet Metal Working and Forging Machinery 243
CHAPTER XV.
Hydraulic Riveters 253
PART VII. —PUMPS.
CHAPTER XVI.
Hand and Power Pumps 269
CHAPTER XVII.
Steam Pumps 276
CONTENTS. xi
PART VIIL— HYDRAULIC MOTORS.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PACE
Turbines 285
CHAPTER XIX.
Impulse Turbines 295
CHAPTER XX.
Reaction Turbines ------- 304
CHAPTER XXI.
Design of Turbines in Detail - . . . 323
CHAPTER XXII.
Water Wheels 339
CHAPTER XXIII.
Hydraulic Engines 343
CHAPTER XXIV.
Recent Achievements 362
APPENDIX.
Table showing Pressure of Water in Pounds
PER Square Inch for every Foot in Height
TO 270 Feet 383
Action of Pumps : Table of Diameters, Areas,
and dlspl.\cements in imperial gallons per
Foot of Travel ------- 384
LIST OF TABLES.
I. Stresses in Hydraulic Machinery for
Loads applied in One Direction only - 54
xii LIST OF TABLES.
PAGE
n. Thickness in Inches of Cast-iron Cylinders
FOR Test Pressures of Pounds and Tons
PER Square Inch 58
III. Thickness of Steel Cylinders (Unham-
mered Castings) for Test Pressures of
Tons per Square Inch - - - - 59
IV. Coefficients of Ram Efficiencies for Hemp
OR Leather Packing 85
V. Maximum Loading for Wrought-iron Bolts 89
VI. Dimensions of Circular Flanges of Cast-
iron Pipes with Tongued and Grooved
Joints 96
VIL Breaking Weight of Steel Wire Ropes - 177
VIII. Coefficients of Efficiency of Steel Wire
Rope and Short Link Chain - - - x8i
IX. Coefficients of Efficiency of Pulley
Wheels Turning on Pins - - - - 182
X. Presses for Baling : Pressure in Tons per
Square Foot of Platten to Bale Mate-
rial TO GIVEN Weights . - - - 226
XL Sizes of Wrought-iron Bars for Presses 234
XII. Pressure of Water in Pounds per Square
Inch for i to 270 Feet in Height - - 383
XIII. Action of Pumps: Diameters, Areas, and
Displacements in Imperial Gallons per
Foot of Travel 384
INDEX 385
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. page
Niagara Falls - - - Frontispiece
I, 2. Diagrams illustrating Equal Pressure on
Surfaces - - - - - 9, lo
3. Diagram illustrating Principle of Archimedes 11
4- Hydraulic Ram - - - - 17
5-9. Appliances and Arrangements for Observing
Flow of Water - - - 21-28
10. Diagram illustrating Flow of Water in Bends 30
11-13. Hydraulic Cylinders - - - 41,42
14. Diagram illustrating Extension of Metal - 48
15. Cylinder in cross-section, showing Thickness
of Walls ----- 55
16-24. Construction and Casting of Cylinders - 60-63
25-28. Leather Packing for Plungers - - 67
29-33. Leather Cup Packings - - - 68-70
34, 35. Leather Hat Packings - . . 74
36-46. Leather U Packings - - - - 75-79
47. Pipe Flange ----- 87
48, 49. Pipe Joints - - - - - 9i» 93
50-59. Do. - - - . . 98-103
60-64. Pipe Swivelling Joints . . - 104-107
65, 66. Stop Valve - - - - -112,114
XIV
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
PAGE
67-69. Shock Valve -
-
»
- 115, 116
70, 72. Slide Valve -
-
-
- 117, 121
71. Piston Valve -
-
-
118
73. Armstrong Valve
-
-
122
74. Spindle Valve
-
-
123
75, 76. Balanced Valve
-
-
124
^^, Multiple Ram Lift -
-
-
124
78, 79. Meacock's Valve
-
-
126
80. Scott's Valve
-
-
128
81. Dearden's Valve
-
-
129
82-84. Berr/s Patent Valve
-
-
- 130. 131
85-87. Fielding's Valve
-
-
- 131, 132
88. Bjomstad's Valve -
-
-
133
89. Brindle/s Valve
-
-
133
90-92. Brindley's Patent Valve
-
-
- i35» 136
93. Berry's Patent Safety Non-return Valve
137
94, 95. Middleton's Patent Controlling
Valve
138
96-98. Ram Platform Lift -
-
-
- 146-149
99. Intensifier
-
-
160
100, loi. Ellington's Lift
to
-
164
102. Multiple Chain Lift -
-
-
168
103, 104. Suspended Passenger Lift
-
-
170
105. Safety Gear -
-
-
173
106. Otis Safety Gear
-
-
175
107, 108. Rope and Chain Wheels
-
-
178
X09. Chain Pulleys
-
-
183
1 10, III. Hydraulic Jack
-
-
- 189, 190
1 12,1 1 2A. Young's Patent Drum Puller
-
193
113. Wall Crane -
-
-
194
114, 115. Foundry Crane
-
-
- i95» 197
116. Travelling Lifting Ram
-
-
198
117. Shop Crane -
-
»
199
118. Direct Puller
-
-
200
119. Duckham's Weigher
-
-
201
120. Multiple Jigger
-
-
204
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XV
Fig.
121.
122.
123.
124.
125.
126.
127-I3I.
132.
133.
134.
135-
136.
137-139.
140.
141, 142.
143-
144, M5-
146.
147.
148.
149-152.
153-161.
162-165.
166.
167, 168.
169- 1 7 1.
172.
174.
175-
176, 177.
178.
179-181.
182.
Warehouse Crane - - -
Travelling Wharf Crane
Dock Crane - - - -
Movable Coaling Cranes
Movable Gantry Cranes
Movable Coaling Crane
Accumulator- . . -
Scott's Differential Machine
Diagram illustrating Baling Pressure
Hydraulic Press - - -
Bars of Hydraulic Press
Head of do.
Baling Press - - - -
Punching Bear - - .
Forging Press - - - .
Cylinders and Ram (in section) of Tweddell
Punch - - - -
Plate Shears - - - -
Plate Bender
Tube Drawing Bench
Wheel Press - - - -
Riveters . . - -
Steam Hydraulic Forging Presses -
Hand Pressure Pump
Belt-driven Pumps - - -
Plunger Pump . . _
Worthington Pumps
Fly-wheel Pressure Pump -
Vertical Cylinder Pump
Fly-wheel Pump (Berry)
Diagram illustrating Velocity of Turbine
Girard Turbine . - -
Pelton Wheel
Hector Water Motor
Axial-flow Turbine - - -
PACK
205
207
208
facing' 210
facing' 210
facing 210
- 213-220
221
228
232
233
235
- 238-241
244
- 245,247
1
1
248
- 249,250
251
252
252
- 254-257
facing 266
- 269-272
273
- 274,275
- 276-278
278
279
280
286
288
289
- 290, 291
293
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig. tav.r
183. Thrust Bearing - - - - 294
184-189. Diagrams illustrating Impulse Turbines - 296-302
190-197. Do. do. Reaction Turbines - 306-318
198-204. Regulations for Turbines - - - 325-331
205. Overshot Water Wheel - - - 340
206. Breast Water Wheel - - - 341
207. Undershot Water Wheel - - - 342
208-212. Diagrams illustrating Action of Hydraulic
Motors ----- 346-350
213-2x5. Brotherhood Engine - - - 35 ^ 352
216, 217. Armstrong Engine - - - - 353, 354
218, 219. Armstrong Capstan - - - - 355i 35^
220. Valve of Early Armstrong Engine - - 357
221, 222. Rigg Engine - . - - 358, 360
223. Hydraulic Dock at San Francisco - facing 362
224-226. Machinery of Tower Bridge on the Thames 364, 366
227. View of the Tower Bridge over the Thames facing 366
228. Water-balance Cliff Railway, in section - 368
229. Rail-gripping Brake for Cliff Railway - 369
230. View of Cliff Railway at Lynton - f cuing 370
231, 232. Glasgow Harbour Tunnel Lifts - - 372, 374
233. 4,000-ton Hydraulic Forging Press (Cam-
melPs Works, Sheffield) - - facing 374
234. River Bank of Niagara Falls Power Instal-
lation - - - - facing 376
235. Interior of Niagara Falls Power-house fcunng 378
236. Bird's-eye View of Hydraulic Power Instal-
lation at Niagara Falls - - fctcing 380
PART L^HYDRAULICS.
A
HYDRAULIC POWER
ENGINEERING.
-•-•-
CHAPTER V
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS.
General Properties of Water.— There are certain
properties of water which render it particularly suitable to
the requirements of the hydraulic power engineer. There are
three distinct methods of using water for transmitting power.
By the first method the water is placed at some height above
a given datum level, and by its descent is caused to turn a
water-wheel In this case the water acts by its large weight
and high viscosity; and if either of these two properties
were wanting, the water would be of small use for this
method. By the second method the water is subjected to
great pressure, and is applied to a piston moving in a cylin-
der. In this case the water acts by its high viscosity and
power to withstand a pressure without serious loss by internal
friction.
The difference between these two methods is more appa-
rent when it is pointed out that whereas in the first case the
entire absence of weight would mean absolute inefficiency to
perform work, in the second case the weight of the water
4 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
becomes a serious obstacle to its use, and requires special
care to be taken in designing certain hydraulic machinery to
prevent mishaps.
Although these two methods appear to be antagonistic,
there is the third method requiring the water to have all the
properties above enumerated. The water is caused to act
by its kinetic energy, and is first subjected to a greater or
less pressure, and thus caused to acquire a velocity. This
velocity is then abstracted in passing through the machine,
and the corresponding energy is thus applied to perform
work. This is the principle on which turbines are
designed.
If water is allowed to flow unconfined it will not come to
rest until its upper surface corresponds to a horizontal
plane such as the upper surface of a canal at rest. A
horizontal surface is not a flat plane, but is curved to the
radius of the earth, and may be defined as that surface in
which the force of gravity is the same at all points.
From the above definition it is apparent that the weight
of any body varies according as it is placed nearer to or
further above the level of the sea. Thus a water-wheel
placed on a mountain, and consuming say 20 cubic feet of
water per second, will not be doing the same number of
horse-powers as if it were placed at the sea-level, and con-
suming the same quantity of water. If, however, the power
is expended in lifting, as, for instance, in connection with
a vertical mine shaft, this difference of weight is of no im-
portance, as the weights to be lifted have been reduced in a
like proportion. When the power is expended in crushing
ore, or overcoming certain frictional resistances, the wheel
will require more water on the mountain than at sea-level to
overcome the same resistance.
The density of water {i.e,, its weight compared to that of
some body bulk for bulk) is varied either by a change of
temperature or by a change of pressure. In determining
specific gravities of bodies distilled water at a temperature
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. 5
of 62* F. and barometric pressure of 30 inches of mercury
is taken as the standard, and called unity. The weight of
the body to be compared is observed and compared bulk
for bulk to this standard. Thus wrought iron has a specific
gravity of 7.8, or i cubic inch of wrought iron weighs the
same as 7.8 cubic inches of distilled water, each taken at the
standard temperature and pressure.
The standard weight of water has been fixed by the
Board of Trade at 62.2786 lbs. per cubic foot at 62* F.
and 30 inches barometric pressure. The greatest density of
water as affected by change of temperature is found to cor-
respond to 39.3° F., and at this temperature i cubic foot
weighs 62.425 lbs.
As regards change of density by alteration of pressure,
one atmosphere (14.7 lbs.) of additional pressure is found
to cause a reduction of volume of .00005, ^"^ consequent
increase of weight of .000050002. If this reduction of
volume be assumed to increase directly as the pressure
applied, the reductions corresponding to the usually employed
hydraulic pressures are : —
750 lbs. (i ton) per sq. in., .00254= 4.386 in. j>er cub. ft.
i,5co „ (f ton) „ .00508= 8.772
2,240 „ (I ton) „ .00761 = 13.158
4,480 ,, (2 tons) ,, .01522 = 26.316
6,720 „ (3 tons) „ .02283 = 39.474
»»
Wrought iron subjected to a pressure of i ton per square
inch is compressed to the extent of .000077 of its length,
hence water is about three times as elastic as iron.
The water employed by the hydraulic engineer is either
river water or town service water, and in either case foreign
substances are carried in solution, thereby altering the
density. In unfiltered water small particles of matter are
carried in suspension, and as these particles have almost
without exception a greater density than the water, a further
increase of density is encountered.
6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The following are the average weights per cubic foot of
different samples : —
River water - - - 62.5 lbs. = 1,000 oz.
Salt water - 64.0 „
Dead Sea - - 73.0 „
At a temperature of 32** F., and barometric pressure of
30 inches, water passes into the solid form called ice, and
owing to the great change in viscosity is useless in this
form for the purposes of the hydraulic engineer. This
change of condition from the liquid to the solid is accom-
panied by a change of volume and consequent change of
density. The weight of i cubic foot of ice is 57.5 lbs.
An increase of pressure delays solidification, as also does
absolute rest of the particles of water ; but as reduction of
pressure to atmosphere and agitation both bring about rapid
solidification, this property of retarded solidification is of no
moment, as in all hydraulic appliances the water is subject
to both atmospheric pressure and agitation during the per-
formance of its function.
Hydrostatics. — ^l^he name hydrostatics is given to the
study of the principles governing the conditions of equili-
brium of a column or quantity of water.
PascaPs Principle. — Pascal discovered that if water be
enclosed in a vessel and a pressure applied, as for instance
by pressing on a piston in a cylinder attached to the vessel,
that the pressure is transmitted equally in all directions.
Thus if small frictionless pistons working in cylinders be
attached to the vessel in any position or direction, and each
having the same area, say i square inch, then if any one
of these be pushed inwards with a force of say 10 lbs., each
of the others must have the same force of 10 lbs. applied to
it to prevent it moving outwards.
If, now, two of these small pistons be connected or
merged into one, consequently having an area of double
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. 7
the original or 2 inches instead of i, the pressure required
is that of two of the original pistons or 20 lbs. In the same
way, if two pistons be applied to the vessel, one having an
area one hundred times that of the other, then the pressure
required to prevent motion of the large piston will be one
hundred times that of the small piston, and vice versd. If
motion is allowed to take place, the small piston will move
through a distance one hundred times that of the large
piston, or in other words the velocity of the small piston
will be one hundred times that of the large piston ; thust
what is gained in force is lost in velocity.
This principle was so well understood by Pascal at the
time of his discovery (a.d. 1664) that we cannot improve
upon his own clear wording. 'Mf a vessel full of water,
closed on all sides, has two openings, the one a hundred
times as large as the other, and if each be supplied with a
piston which fits exactly, a man pushing the small piston
will exert a force which will equilibrate that of a hundred
men pushing the piston which is a hundred times as large,
and will overcome that of ninety-nine. And whatever
may be the proportion of these openings, if the forces
applied to the pistons are to each other as the openings, they
will be in equilibrium. Whence it appears that a vessel full
of water is a new principle of mechanics, and a new machine
for the multiplication of force to any required degree, since
one man will by this means be able to raise any given
weight. It is, besides, worthy of admiration that in this new
machine we find that constant rule which is met with in all
the old ones, such as the lever, wheel and axle, screw, etc.,
which is that the distance is increased in proportion to the
force; for it is evident that as one of these openings is a hun-
dred times as large as the other, if the man who pushes the
small piston drives it forward i inch, he will drive the large
piston backward only one hundredth part of that length."
Principk of Surfaces of Equal Pressure. — Whereas the
above principle is entirely independent of the action of
8 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
gravity, the one about to be discussed is a direct conse-
quence of gravity. This principle states that in any hori-
zontal layer of a liquid at rest the pressure is the same at all
points, and the intensity of that pressure is directly propor-
tional to the depth of immersion.
The demonstration of this principle is very easy, as we
may imagine a small cube of some substance having the
same weight as water immersed at any depth, then, if this
cube is to remain stationary in a horizontal direction, the
forces acting upon its opposite faces must be equal. The
intensity of the pressure corresponding to any depth is best
ascertained by direct experiment. Pascal performed this ex-
periment with an apparatus known as PascaFs vases. He
used glass vases having detachable bases formed of sheet
metal, which were placed in contact with the smooth edges
of the vases, thus forming a water-tight joint. The vase was
fixed vertically in mid-air, and the base placed in position.
A fine string attached to the centre of the base passed
upwards and over a pulley, and had a weight attached to its
other end. The base was thus pulled upwards with a known
force. On carefully admitting water to the vase, the level
of the water rose until its weight produced a sufficient down-
ward pressure to overbalance the weight, and so allow the
escape of the water through the bottom of the vase. By
noting the height of the water at the time of overbalancing,
it was found that the balance weight has the same weight as
a column of water having a horizontal area equal to the
opening in the bottom of the vase, and a height repre-
sented by the height to which the water rose in the vase.
Various shapes of vases were tried, some expanding from
the base, and others contracting. The result was always the
same, and was entirely independent of the total weight of
water in the vase, but directly dependent upon the height to
which the water rose. Thus we may have a hole of say
3 inches diameter, containing a diaphragm which is pressed
upwards with a sufficient force to balance a column of water
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS.
30 feet high, and the pressure required is the same, whether
the hole be in the bottom of a lake or a tube which contracts
until its diameter is only i inch or less.
Fig. I illustrates this principle. Suppose the small plugs
or pistons shown in the tube to be of negligible weight and
frictionless, then the pressure in pounds to be exerted on each
plug to prevent motion is found by measuring the area of
1"T." »-
_Y.—
Fig. I.
the plug in inches and multiplying by the corresponding
height h in inches, as shown in the figure, and by the weight
of I cubic inch of water. The tubes are all shown of
parallel bore, but it matters nothing what shape of tube is
used, nor how many contortions it makes before arriving at
the plug.
Taking the weight of water as 62.5 lbs. per cubic foot, or
lO
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
.434 lb. per 12 cubic inches, we arrive at the following
values, in which h represents the height or head in feet : —
Pressure per sq. foot - - - =/= 62.5 A.
„ „ inch - - - =/ = .434 ^•
Height due to pressure/ per sq. foot = A = .016/.
„ „ per sq. inch = ^ = 2. 304 /.
By the above principle we are also enabled to ascertain
the pressure acting against a vertical plane due to water
at rest reaching any height up that plane or to some
J
^-^.-
U f >p?
I
- 1
h
/
I t
I /
(C-^-H
r
4 -/»
^
Fig 2.
height above it. As the pressure is directly proportional
in any horizontal plane to the height of water above
that plane, we may calculate the pressure corresponding
to the bottom edge of the vertical plane, and represent
this pressure by the length of a line p drawn at right
angles to the plane as shown in Fig. 2. By now draw-
ing a sloping line joining the extremity of this line to the
point o, where the surface of the water meets the vertical
plane, and measuring the horizontal lengths joining the
plane to the sloping line, we have the pressures correspond-
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. tl
ing to any levels. By adding up these pressures ascertained
for narrow horizontal strips the total pressure on the plane
is ohtained. This is the same as finding the immersed area
of the plane, say in square feet, and muhiplying by the
pressure Pj ascertained for i square foot at a depth corre-
sponding to the depth of immersion of the centre of gravity
of the immersed area of the plane —
Area x P, = total pressure.
PrindpU of Arckimtdes. — About the year 150 B.C. Archi-
FiE- 3-
medes made the discovery that if bodies are immersed in
water they lose in weight, and the amount of that loss is re-
presented by the weight of the water displaced. Thus any
body having i cubic foot capacity when immersed in dis-
tilled water loses weight to the extent of 62.15 lbs. When
once the body has passed below the surface of the water, the
depth to which it is afterwards immersed makes no difference
to the truth of the principle, for though by the principle of
surfaces of equal pressure there is an increasing upward
pressure applied to the Iwdy by the water as its immersion
12 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
becomes greater, there is also a correspondingly increasing
downward pressure.
Fig. 3 is a practical illustration of this principle in a form
constantly met with in hydraulic machinery. Three bodies,
A, B, c, are shown partly immersed in water, a is a solid
cylinder of iron, having the weight Wj when weighed in air.
When immersed, as shown, there is an upward pressure Pj
due to the weight of water displaced, so that if a cord were
attached to the iron cylinder a to prevent it sinking, the
tension in the cord would be Wj - Pj. The body b represents
a hollow cylinder of iron which is immersed to such a
depth that it floats. In this case the weight Wg acting
downwards is balanced by the pressure Pj, due to the water
displaced acting upwards ; consequently Wg - Pg = O. c re-
presents a hollow iron cylinder immersed to a depth such
that the upward pressure Pg, due to the water displaced, is
greater than the weight Wg of the cylinder. In this case
Wg - Pg = - P^, where P4 represents the magnitude of a
downward pressure necessary to prevent the cylinder rising
to such a height that Wg = Pg at which the cylinder would
float as in the case of b.
A point worthy of consideration in connection with
floating bodies is whether the body is in a state of stable
or unstable equilibrium. In order to find whether the
equilibrium is stable or otherwise, it is necessary to find
the centre of gravity G of the floating body and the centre
of buoyancy or centre of gravity O of the water displaced.
If G is above O as shown in the figure the equilibrium is
unstable, whereas if G is below O the equilibrium is stable.
In the case shown at a the equilibrium is always stable,
while in the case shown at c the equilibrium is always
unstable.
The Barometric Column, — The phenomenon of the
barometric column was first investigated by Galileo, who
found that the greatest height to which water will stand in
a tube from which the air had been exhausted is about 34
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. 1 3
feet. Torricelli made further experiments and also used
mercury. He pointed out that for a tube of any area the
height to which a liquid stands is such that the weight of
liquid column in the tube is always the same, no matter
what liquid is employed, and that this weight represents
the pressure of the atmosphere on the area of the tube.
The average pressure of the atmosphere ascertained by this
method is 14.7 lbs. per square inch.
The heights to which water will stand in a closed tube
for various altitudes and atmospheric pressures are : —
34 feet corresponding to 14.7 lbs. = pressure at sea-level.
31.7 „ „ 13.7 „ = „ 1,880 feet.
30-6 >» »» 13-2 »» = »t 2,870 „
29.5 » » 12.7 „ = „ 3,900 „
Theoretical Hydraulics.— The first point to be con-
sidered under this head is the principle of continuity of
flow. If water is flowing through a pipe with any velocity,
and the flow is to be continuous, the same quantity Q of
water must pass any points we may choose in the tube in
the same space of time. Ifv represents the velocity of flow,
and A the cross sectional area of the tube, the quantity Q
may be represented as Axv, and this is true for all points
in the tube. Hence whenever there is continuity of flow
we have the equation —
Q = Az/.
Instead of a tube of uniform cross section, a tube of
varying cross section may be used, and consequently there
will be a change of velocity. A diminution of area causes
an increase of velocity and vice versa,
Q = Az/ = A^v^ = A2«'2> etc.
Velocity due to Head, — The phenomenon of water flowing
when subjected to a head or pressure has been made use
of from the earliest times, but the law governing this velocity
was investigated by Torricelli in a.d. 1644. Torricelli
announced the law. that, when water is subjected to a
14 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
head or pressure and allowed to flow unrestrained, the
velocity of the water is the same that a body would acquire
in falling through a height corresponding to the head of
water producing the flow. If the velocity be represented
by V feet per second and the height or head of water by A
feet, then—
7/= J2gk, ^=32.2.
In ascertaining the velocity of flow from an orifice in a
vertical plane it is usual to take the height A as measured
from the centre of gravity of the plane area of the opening.
This method is not strictly correct, but for a head of three
times the depth of the opening the error amounts to only
I per cent., and for greater heads the error is less.
If the velocity is known and it is required to find the
head producing the velocity, the above equation may be
written —
A = ^
The head A is often referred to as the pressure head, and
the quantity — as the velocity head.
Although the above equation is all that is required in
reference to velocity of outflow from orifices, it does not
state the conditions existing within the vessel containing the
water. If the vessel 'is of larger cross sectional area than
the orifice, then the velocity in it will be less than the velocity
of outflow, while if at any part the vessel is contracted so
as to have a cross sectional area less than the orifice, the
velocity of that part becomes greater even than the velocity
due to the head. This latter condition was observed by
Bernoulli in a.d. 1738. Venturi made further experiments
in A.D. 1 791, and observed that an increase of velocity was
accompanied by a decrease of pressure in the tube or vessel
below the pressure of the atmosphere. There is of course
a limit to this increase of velocity, that limit being reached
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. 1 5
when the pressure in the tube becomes zero, or when a
complete vacuum prevails.
Experiments conducted on tubes having a gradually
changing cross sectional area show that where the tube is
large, and the velocity of flow in consequence small, the
pressure in the tube rises, until if the tube becomes so large
that the velocity of flow is almost nil, the pressure approaches
very nearly to that of the head producing the flow through
the pipe. On the other hand, when the area of the tube
contracts, the pressure falls. If these pressures and the
corresponding velocities are noted, it is found that the
amount by which the pressure falls below that due to the
head is the amount of pressure head necessary to produce
the velocity occurring in the tube. Written as an equation —
As this is true for any part of the tube, the equation may
be written —
^=A +!i. = A2+i2., etc.,
which is known as the hydrodynamic equation.
The Energy of Water, — There are three ways of expressing
the enfergy of a quantity of water. In the first place, the
water may be stored at a height above the level at which
it is to be employed to perform work, the energy existing
in the potential form. In the same way that, if a heavy
body be sustained at some height, its potential energy may
be expressed in foot-pounds by multiplying the weight of
the body in pounds by the height in feet, so the potential
energy of water may be expressed
W^ = potential ertergy.'
Instead of the head being given, it is often stated that the
water is at a certain pressure per square inch. In this case
the energy per pound may be expressed by multiplying the
l6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
pressure per square inch by the length in feet of a column
of water weighing i lb., and having a cross sectional area of
I inch. Suppose a cylinder of i square inch area to contain
a piston which is driven forward by water under a pressure
p pounds, when the piston has moved forward 2.304 feet,
I lb. of water has passed into the cylinder, and the work
done is represented by / x 2.304 foot-pounds. Thus the
pressure energy of i lb. of water is / x 2.304 foot-pounds
or for any weight of water —
W x/ X 2.304 = pressure energy.
It has already been pointed out that the height A due
to a pressure / pounds per square inch is 2.304^ feet.
Therefore —
WA = W x/ X 2.304.
Potential = Pressure
energy. energy.
The third expression for the energy of water is used in
the case of flowing water. It is well known in connection
with falling bodies that the energy stored in the body in the
kinetic form, due to the body having fallen freely from some
known height, is ascertainable from the velocity acquired by
the body in falling, and is represented by the equation —
W — = kinetic energy.
It has already been stated that the velocity acquired by
water under a head A is the same as that of a body falling
freely through the distance A, hence the kinetic energy of
a weight of water W is ascertained from its velocity by the
above equation. By the principle of the conservation of
energy, the potential energy must equal the kinetic energy,
or —
2^
which is easily proved since v^ = 2gA, as already pointed out
under Velocity due to Head,
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS.
17
If an inspection be now made of the hydrodynamic
equation, we see that by multiplying each side by W the
equation becomes —
rV
2
Fromr the equation in this form it is noticed that the
Fig. 4.
energy may occur partly as potential energy and partly as
kinetic energy, or partly as pressure energy and partly as
kinetic energy, as W^j may be written W/^ x 2.304. It is
very important that this fact should be grasped at this stage,
as there are very few hydraulic machines in which the
energy does not occur in this form while the machine is
at work.
The relation existing between the different forms in which
B
1 8 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the energy may occur can be rendered more clear by an
examination of the working of the hydraulic pump, com-
monly known as the hydraulic ram, illustrated in Fig. 4.
The object of the apparatus is to pump water to a consider-
able height by utilising the potential energy of a supply of
water placed at a smaller height. At the joint a connection
is made to a length of pipe, usually 10 to 20 feet, leading
to the supply of water to be utilised. Connection is made
at G to the receiving tank to which the water is to be
pumped, so that the air contained in the bell f is com-
pressed to a pressure corresponding to the head of water
connected to G. When the valve b is shut the water in the
pipe A is stationary. The weights c applied to the valve b
are sufficient to overcome the pressure in the pipe a and
thus cause the opening of the valve. The water now begins
to acquire a velocity and escape through the valve b, thus
converting the whole or part of its potential energy into
kinetic energy. As the water escapes through the valve b
it meets the guide d and is deflected, causing an upward
pressure on the valve spindle sufficient to overcome the
weight c and close the valve. The water in the pipe a,
having a velocity and corresponding kinetic energy, is now
entrapped in the pipe, and as this energy cannot be dis-
sipated and cannot continue wholly in its present form,
as the velocity of the water has been checked, it is
evident there must be a conversion of energy to the
pressure form.
This conversion causes a heavy pressure to be generated
in the pipe a, and when this pressure has risen above the
pressure in the chamber f the ball valve £ will be raised,
and water will flow from a to f as long as the pressure is
maintained in the pipe a greater than the pressure in f.
During the entry of the water from a to f the pressure in
F is increased owing to the compression of the air. This
increase of pressure overcomes the pressure acting at G,
and there is a consequent flow through g to the elevated
PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS. 1 9
tank. On the closing of the valve E the pressure in a
again returns to that due to the smaller head, and the valve
B is free to be operated by the weights c causing a repeti-
tion of the operation. Thus we have converted potential
energy to kinetic, kinetic to pressure, and pressure to
potential energy.
The Reaction of Flowing Water. — When water is flowing
from an orifice with a velocity due to some head of water,
we have noticed that the velocity v is the same that would
be acquired if each particle started from the upper surface
of the water and fell freely under the influence of gravity.
It is possible to calculate the magnitude of a force F which,
acting for one second on the weight W of water flowing per
second, would cause it to acquire the velocity v, AsF acts
for one second the distance through which it acts is ^v, and
the equation may be written —
2 2g
g
The expression W- will be at once recognised as the usual
formula for momentum. As W may be written wav^ in
which w is the unit weight of water and a the area of the
orifice, the formula becomes —
F = = 2wa.—'
g ^g
in which — may be substituted by ^ so that —
F = 2Wah,
As wah represents the weight of the column of water
producing the velocity, the force F is equal to twice the
weight of the column.
Several experiments have been performed to demonstrate
20 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the above fact. In one form the jet of water is allowed to
meet a plane, when the plane is urged away from the jet
with the force F as above calculated. In another form the
plane is placed against another orifice subjected to a head
of twice that producing the jet, when it is seen that the jet
retains the plane in position, thus keeping back the greater
pressure by the reaction force F.
CHAPTER II.
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER.
The remarks upon the flow of water in the last chapter had
reference to the theoretical velocities, and no allowance was
made for loss by friction and other causes. These losses must
now be investigated before the formulae there given can be
successfully applied to the design of hydraulic machinery.
Fig. 5.
The attempt to ascertain the exact quantity of water flow-
ing through an orifice has been the cause of a large number
of experiments being performed. Fig. 5 shows the orifice
as usually arranged, the edges being chamfered off so as to
produce a sharp line in contact with the water. The orifice
may be cut in a piece of hardwood or in thin metal. As
these orifices are largely employed in accurately measuring
22
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the water flowing from a hydraulic machine under trial, and
for other similar purposes, it is essential that some standard
should be fixed in order that the exact quantity of water
flowing per second may be computed from tables compiled
from well-authenticated experiments. It is found that if the
inner edge of the oriflce is rounded off, the flow is subject to
alteration for a comparatively small difference of form, hence
the sharp edge is always employed.
In using an oriflce the vessel should be considerably
larger than the oriflce, in order that the velocity of approach
may be small compared to the velocity of discharge. For the
same reason the head should not be too small. As the water
issues from the oriflce a contraction takes place, known as the
contracted vein, so that the effective area of the oriflce is less
than the measured area. The values of the coefficient of con-
traction have been assigned by different authorities as ranging
between .71 and .60, generally .63, of the measured area.
The velocity of flow at the contracted area a, Fig. 5, should
be the velocity due to the head, but owing to frictional losses
it falls to values of .99 to .97 of the theoretic value. These
values are called the coefficients of velocity.
The most important point to settle is the coefficient of
discharge ; the quantity of water actually flowing can then
be ascertained by multiplying the quantity due to the area
of the oriflce and the theoretic velocity by this coefficient —
Values of c (from Hamilton Smith's Tables).
Circular Orifices {Vertical),
\
1
1
1 Head in
Feet.
1
Diameter of Orifice in Feet
■
.02
.04
.07
.10
.20
.600
•597
.592
.60
I.O
1
I
1 10
100
.644
.611
•593
.623
.603
.592
.612
.599
.592
.60S
.598
.592
•595
.596
.592
.591
.595
.592
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER.
23
Head in
Feet.
I
10
100
Square Orifices {Vertical),
.02
.648
.616
•599
Side of Square in Feet.
.04
.628
.608
■598
.07
.618
.605
.598
.10
.20
.613 .605
.604 .603
.598 .598
.60
.601
.602
.598
I.O
•599
.601
.598
Rectangular Orifices^ i
foot wide ( Vertical),
1
1
i
' HcA<l in
Depth of Orifice in Feet.
ncau m
FceL
.125
•25
.50
•75
1.0
1.5
2.0
I
10
.632
.606
.632
.603
.618
.601
.612
.601
.606
.601
.626
.601
• • •
.602
It must not be supposed, because there is a great differ-
ence between the discharge from an orifice and that calculated
from the area of the orifice, that there is a corresponding
loss of energy. The loss of energy is given by the coefficient
of velocity, and as the energy is proportional to the square
of the velocity, assuming the coefficient of velocity to be .98,
the energy is -i (.982^)2 = .962/2 xhis is an efficiency of
^g ^g
96 per cent, or a loss of 4 per cent.
The quantity of water flowing may also be measured by
means of a weir. Fig. 6 shows a weir fixed in a stream for
the purpose of measuring the supply of water. There are
two kinds of weir usually employed. One consists of a rec-
tangular notch considerably narrower than the stream, so
that the water may approach it freely in all directions. In
the second form the weir is suppressed at the ends by boards
24
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
such as A, so that the water flows in parallel lines so far as
the lateral directions are concerned, but free approach is
permitted from below. In taking the height of water above
the weir the operation should be conducted some distance
back from the weir, as the upper surface of the water slopes
in a direction towards the weir.
The method of gauging with a rod, as shown, is only suited
for large heads and for rough estimates. The best method
Fig. 6.
of measuring the head is with the hook gauge, invented by
Boyden in a.d. 1840, which consists of a rod having a scale
marked accurately and reading by the aid of a vernier to ten-
thousandths of a foot. The bottom end of the rod is fitted
with an upturned point, which is adjusted to the level of the
water when the bottom edge of the weir has been reached
but no flow is taking place. The vernier is now set to zero,
and when the water has reached the maximum height above
the weir the rod is carefully raised by means of a worm-wheeA
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER.
25
and thumbscrew until the point just touches the surface. A
second reading is now taken, and the height of the water is
at once ascertained. The point can be accurately set to the
level of the water, as if lifted too high a pimple is formed on
the-surface of the water due to capillary attraction.
The flow taking place over weirs may be calculated from
the equation —
9 = ^.- sfig.bH ,
in which b represents the length of the weir in feet, and H
the height measured by the hook gauge Numerous experi-
ments have been performed to ascertain the value of the
coefficient of discharge c.
Values of c (from Hamilton Smith's Tables).
Length b in Feet.
ITaa^ m
Feet,
.66
1.0
2.0 3.0
5.0
10
19
.1
.632
•639
.646
.652
.653
.655
.656
.2
.611
.61S
.626
.630
.631
.633
.634
• 3
.601
.608
.616
.619
.621
.624
.625
•4
.595
.601
.609
.013
.615
.618
.620
.6
.587
.593
.601
.605
.608
.613
.615
.8
■ • ■
• • ■
•595
.600
.604
.611
.613
I.O
■ ■ •
• • •
.590
.595
.601
.608
.611
1.4
■ • ■
• • •
.580 .587
1
•594
.602
.609
If there is a noticeable velocity of approach where the
hook gauge is placed, the above formula must be modified
as follows : —
in which h represents the head producing the observed
velocity of approach, c having the same values as before.
In selecting c the new head H + 1.4^ must be used.
26
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
When the weir is suppressed by the boards a the same
equation applies as for the free weir if there is no velocity
of approach, but different values of c must be used —
3
Values of c (from Hamilton Smith's Tables).
Head in
Fe«t.
Length b in Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
7
10
19
.1
.2
3
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.4
• • •
.645
.639
.636
.638
.643
.648
• ■ •
...
.642
.636
.633
.634
.637
.641
• • •
• • •
.641
.633
.630
.630
.633
.637
.644
.638
.631
.628
.627
.629
.633
.640
.658
.637
.629
.625
.623
.625
.628
•634
.658
.637
.628
.623
.620
.621
.624
.629
.657
.635
.626
.621
.618
.618
.619
.622
When there is a perceptible velocity of approach the
equation becomes —
q^c- J^.b{R + i.33>4)V
and c must be found from the table corresponding to the
head H+ i.33>4.
The flow from a short tube, usually about three diameters
in length, called the standard tube, is very instructive, and
is of practical interest to the hydraulic engineer. This tube,
Fig. 7, is arranged in the side or bottom of a vessel, and has
a perfectly sharp inner edge, as in the case of the orifice. It
is found by experiment that the discharge from a short tube
is greater than from the ori6ce of similar diameter, but the
velocity of outflow is considerably less. As the water com-
pletely fills the tube where it is discharged, the coefiicients of
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER.
27
velocity and discharge are always equal. The values of
these coefficients vary from .83 to .80, decreasing for larger
heads.
If the tube be made of glass or other transparent material,
it is noticed that there is a contracted vein occurring within
the tube. The tube is very inefficient owing to the low
value of the coefficient of velocity, and the energy of the
issuing stream may be found as in the case of the orifice, and
\
X
X
!*M*y^'^«""*^"**^'*m'"'^**'"**
Fig. 7.
is represented by —{,S2vy = (.672/)^ — . This is an efficiency
of 67 per cent., or a loss of 33 per cent.
The low efficiency of the standard tube has caused experi-
ments to be made with coned tubes, with the result that
much higher velocities have been obtained. The cone is
described by the angle which one of its sides produced would
make with the centre line ; thus a cone of 10** angle has a
total convergence of 20°. Experiments on these cones show
28 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
that as the angle is increased from o" the coefficient of dis-
charge increases from about .82 to .946, corresponding to an
angle of i3*'-24', when it again decreases. The coefficient
of velocity, however, continues to increase until for an angle
of 48*'-5o' it has a value of .984. This continued increase
appears to suggest that the highest coefficient is obtained
with a cone having the form of the contracted vein due to
the velocity corresponding to the head of water available.
There are two arrangements of supply pipes which con-
cern the hydraulic power engineer ; first, where it is desired
to conduct the water from an elevated reservoir to work a
turbine, and secondly, where high-pressure water is dis-
charged into a pipe to be consumed in working hydraulic
■-'^ ^ "^ 4^
1
Figs. 8 and 9.
machines placed in various positions. In the first case the
same quantity of water flows from end to end of the pipe,
whereas in the second, the quantity is reduced by being
abstracted by branch pipes leading to the machines. In all
cases it is essential that there should be as small loss as
commercial circumstances will permit. The losses occurring
are caused by eddy currents due to the sudden change of
section of the pipe, or to bends, and by friction of the water
against the sides of the pipe.
The losses due to change of section may be explained
with reference to Figs. 8 and 9. If the section is reduced
suddenly the conditions of the standard tube obtain with
the consequent loss of efficiency. This evil may be largely
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER.
29
remedied by substituting a cone and keeping the velocity in
the pipe low. When a sudden enlargement occurs the loss
is caused by the water whirling round, and if f be the greater
velocity, and v^ the reduced velocity, the loss of head may
amount to —
This loss may, however, be largely prevented by the use
of a cone.
The friction of water in a pipe is found to vary directly
as the square of velocity of flow, and the length of the pipe,
and inversely as the diameter of the pipe, also directly as a
coefficient which is reduced for an increase of velocity —
all the dimensions being in feet.
Values of^^ for Smooth Iron Pipes.
Diameter d.
Velocity v.
Feet.
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
6.0
10.0
•05
.047
.041
.037
.034
.031
.029
.1
.038
.032
.030
.028
.026
.024
•25
.032
.028
.026
.025
.024
.022
.5
.028
.026
.025
.023
.022
.020
•75
.026
.025
.024
.022
.021
.019
I.O
.025
.024
.023
.022
.020
.018
1-5
.023
.022
.021
.020
.018
.016
2.0
.021
.020
.019
.017
.016
.014
30
.019
.018
.016
.015
.014
.013
4.0
.017
.016
.015
.013
.012
.011
6.0
•015
.014
.013
.012
.011
• • •
When the theoretic head in a parallel pipe has been
diminished in accordance with the above formula, instead of
having the same value for any part of the pipe, it is found
30
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
to decrease in the direction of flow ; this decrease is known
as the hydraulic gradient.
In the previous chapter it was pointed out that the reaction
force of flowing water is equal to the weight of twice the
column producing the velocity of flow, and as this fact has
Fig. lo.
an important bearing on several branches of hydraulic design,
it is worthy of further consideration. As an example, we
may consider a pipe having a right angle bend in which
the water is stationary, and the total pressure due to the
head and pipe area = P. By referring to Fig. iq we see that
THE OBSERVED FLOW OF WATER. 3 1
there are two pressures P tending to force the pipes to part
at the joints. If the water be now allowed to flow with the
velocity due to the head producing P, these pressures P are
at once changed to 2P by the reaction. To prevent the
joints parting, a concrete block or other obstruction must
be built in contact with the bend, and the force against this
obstruction is the resultant aP^ of the forces 2P.
The magnitude of the force aP^ may be found in the same
way for any other bend in the pipe, either greater or less
than a right angle. When the bend is 180*, the force aPj
becomes 4P.
If the velocity of flow does not represent the total head,
the force 2P becomes —
P0+2P, >
in which Po is the total pressure due to the pressure head
and pipe area, while P is the total pressure due to the
velocity head and pipe area. The meaning of pressure head
and velocity head have already been given.
Instead of a pipe bend the water may be caused to flow
against a curved vane or guide, when the pressures are
identical with those above considered.
PART IL— PRELIMINARY.
CHAPTER III.
HYDRAULIC PRESSURES.
Before proceeding with an examination of the principles
connected with hydraulic power in its application to
machinery, it is desirable that the more general principles
which govern the employment of the various members or
parts when placed in combination in any one machine shall
be understood, and the fitness of the respective parts for
the duties required inquired into.
In the description and illustration of what we may term
the elements — that is, the component parts or details of
machines — we shall be • led to introduce much information,
which to the experienced hydraulic engineer or draughtsman
will no doubt appear superfluous. The more experienced
reader should, however, bear in mind that to many practical
engineers the conditions and mode of working, the details
of construction, the soundness or unsoundness of various
arrangements, and even the general principles of action of
hydraulic machinery, are a true terra incognita^ while to the
younger engineers and draughtsmen the more fundamental
portion of our description may not be the least valuable.
We shall, then, first take up the consideration of the
elements, the details of construction, of hydraulic machinery,
commencing with the simplest parts, such as the valves and
seatings, various types of packings (their friction and best
method of construction), pipes, joints, glands, safety valves,
stop valves — passing from the simplest screw-down valve
to the more complicated types which command the whole
action of a complex machine by the movement of a single
lever, and may almost be considered machines ip them-
36 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
selves — and the various other details, the correct design
and construction of which are of importance as affecting
the permanence, economy, or safety of the machine.
For the proper consideration of the subject, it is absolutely
necessary to divide hydraulic machinery operated by pres-
sure energy into at least three classes, defined according to
the intensity of the pressure by which they are operated.
This is due to the extended range of pressure adopted in the
working of different types of hydraulic machines. Thus,
the author has designed hoists which work successfully and
with fair economy with a water pressure of only 5 lbs. per
square inch, and on the other hand plants for testing the
internal steel tubes of modern ordnance to the intense
pressure of 1,000 kilogrammes per square centimetre, or
about 6^ tons per square inch, a pressure equivalent to that
of a column of water nearly 6^ miles high.
The contrast between steam and hydraulic machinery is
in this respect very striking. Whereas in the case of
hydraulic work we have a range of pressure of from say
5 lbs. to 22,400 lbs. per square inch, necessitating consider-
able modification in the details of construction and choice
of material for the various parts, we have in the case of
steam machinery a maximum practical range of pressure of
from 7 lbs. per square inch to 300 lbs. per square inch only,
and the small modification of construction and material of
detail at the higher pressures is due more to the difference
of temperature of the steam than to difference in its pressure ;
a difference of temperature which, on the other hand, does
not occur in the case of hydraulic machinery.
We shall, then, divide hydraulic pressure machinery into
three classes : —
1. Low Pressure. — Comprising all machines intended to
work with a pressure of less than 200 lbs. per square inch.
2. Medium Pressure. — Comprising machines intended to
work at a pressure of from 400 lbs. per square inch to 1,500
lbs. per square inch.
HYDRAULIC PRESSURES. 37
3. High Pressure, — Comprising machines intended to
work at pressures of from' i ton to 10 tons per square
inch.
The low-pressure class is largely used in the operation of
hydraulic lifts for hotels, etc., steam or gas engines being
fixed in the basement to supply the requisite pressure, either
direct or by pumping into a tank on the roof of the building,
at a sufficient height to furnish an adequate head for work-
ing the lift. Hoists supplied with pressure from the water
supply mains of the town also fall into this class, and are
largely used. It is an excellent practice, in the case of large
works and manufactories in which fire-mains are laid down
and steam pumps fixed to supply them, to keep the pumps
running as required throughout the day instead of standing
idle, and utilise the pressure in the operation of hoists of
this first class throughout the establishment.
The medium-pressure class includes the Armstrong type.
The pressure originally employed by the late Lord Arm-
strong (who may be considered the foster-parent of the
system of working an entire plant of lifting and hauling
machinery by hydraulic pressure generated at some con-
venient centre and distributed by mains) was 700 lbs. per
square inch — a very suitable pressure for dock and station
work and many descriptions of hydraulic machines, and
adopted as a mean pressure by the hydraulic-power com-
panies of London, Manchester, and Hull for their extensive
plants for the distribution of power to consumers by mains
laid beneath the public streets. 700 lbs. per square inch is,
however, objectionably low, and even absohitely inadmissible
for direct use in powerful hydraulic presses — generally in-
volving the additional complication of an intensifier — and
too high for simple application to direct-acting lifts when the
height of lift is considerable. Medium pressures of from
700 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. per square inch are usually employed
in connection with hydraulic riveting plants of the Tweddell
and other types.
38 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
With reference to the third class, working at pressures of
from I ton to lo tons per square inch, a higher pressure
than 2 tons to 3 tons per square inch is not to be recom>
mended for permanent machinery and plants. For small
apparatus, such as punching bears for boiler and ship work,
where portability is one of the most sought for qualities of
the machine, a pressure of 4 tons per square inch may be
adopted with fair success, but pressures exceeding 3 tons per
square inch should never be employed unless the conditions
of the case are in great measure compulsory.
The reasons why pressures of say from 3 tons per square
inch to 7 tons per square inch cannot be used with such
practical success as lower ones do not arise so much from
any difficulty in making joints, valves, or rams initially free
from leakage, or in obtaining sufficient strength in the
cylinders to resist the intense pressure ; but lie in the rapid
wear of the ram packings, from causes which will become
apparent when we consider the action of the various pack-
ings available, as we propose to do in a subsequent chapter ;
and also in the rapid deterioration of the valves and valve
seats. At these high pressures, when once a current (how-
ever infinitesimal) is established past the valve seat, either
through the lodging of a minute particle of some hard sub-
stance on the seat or other cause, the water cuts rapidly into
the metal of the valve or valve seat, sometimes forming a
straight groove, sometimes a curious crooked one. In a very
short time a large plant may be rendered useless for a time
from this cause.
To comprehend the nature of this erosion of the hardest
metals by a current of water, it is necessary to consider
the enormous velocity at which water will pass through
an aperture at these high pressures. The table below
gives the velocity in feet per second, at pressures of
from 700 lbs. to 10 tons per square inch, which the mole-
cules of water will acquire if discharged into a vacuum
through an approximately frictionless aperture. Velocities
HYDRAULIC PRESSURES.
39
for intermediate pressures may be calculated from the for-
mulae—
Velocity in feet per second = 12,1 gVpressure in lbs, per sq« in.,
and velocity in feet ,, =577 Vpressure in tons per sq. in.
Velocity in feet \
per second... /
Pressure per \
sq. in /
326
472
577
707
816
912
999
1290
1527
lb
s.
1
Tons.
1 1 « 1 1 1
700
1500
1
li
2
2i
3
5
7
1824
10
Thus the velocity of the molecules of water and any small
particles of solid matter they may carry with them is as high
at a pressure of 10 tons per square inch as the muzzle
velocity of a modern gunshot, and the effect of this bom-
bardment of the valves and seats may be compared to the
action of the well-known sand blast. Even at a pressure of
only 2 tons per square inch the velocity will be seen to be
816 feet per second, and will rapidly cause erosion or cutting
if once a current is established. It is on this account advis-
able with all high-pressure hydraulic work to pass the water
through a rough filter before reaching the pumps, in order
that it may be as free from all solid particles as possible.
A pressure as high as 2 tons per square inch, however,
may be successfully employed throughout a large establish-
ment, and is indeed a very suitable pressure to adopt where
capstan or other rotary engines are not needed, and the work
required is mainly press work. We remember a well-known
engineer asserting that it was impossible to work a large
plant of hydraulic machinery with success at a pressure of
4,000 lbs. per square inch. This is, however, quite a mis-
take. The writer had under his personal observation for
many years a large plant working at this pressure, and
comprising forging presses, hoists, punching and shearing
machines, boiler and girder riveters, and, in addition, the
crane and hoist of a steelworks, and with perfect success.
40 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
t
It must, however, be admitted that to prevent failure careful
attention is needed. Accumulator packings must be replaced
at regular intervals, whether worn out or not, and all valves
and seatings similarly examined at stated periods, and trued
up or replaced if showing the least tendency to deterioration.
If in addition ample pumping power and accumulators in
duplicate be provided, a pressure of 2 tons per square inch
can be adopted as confidently as a pressure of 700 lbs. per
square inch, and has the advantage noted above of being
much more suitable for heavy press work.
Three tons per square inch may be considered as the
standard pressure adopted in the Manchester packing houses ;
many oil presses, and a considerable number of the large
cotton-baling presses used in India, are also worked up to
this pressure. In the case of such presses, however, an
accumulator is rarely used for the maximum pressure, and
pumps, valves, pipes, etc., are subjected to the extreme
pressure only at the termination of the stroke of a press.
In treating of the materials used in the construction of
hydraulic work, we shall make our remarks very brief, limit-
ing them to such features as are of special importance in
connection with hydraulic machinery. The general pro-
perties of such materials will be found so fully detailed in
many works already in the hands of engineers, that it would
be superfluous to recapitulate them here.
Cast iron is the metal most largely employed by the
hydraulic engineer. It has, however, a reputation for want
of reliability, especially in the construction of cylinders for
high pressures. This reputation has been too often earned,
however, by failure from improper disposition of the material,
inadequate dimensions, or improper treatment in the foundry.
As instances of the former fault, we illustrate below two
typical cases, examples of which may frequently be met with
in practice, even in the work of reputable engineers, and
such as we have known to result in failure in more than one
instance.
HYDXAULIC PRESSURES.
41
Figs. 1 1 and 1 2 represent a cross section through a cylinder
(diameter = D), having a passage (diameter = d) cast on at
I
Fig. II.
the side. Fig. 1 1 shows the faulty construction, and Fig. 1 2
the correct construction. In Fig. 11 it will be seen the
designer has determined the thickness T of the cylinder D
1
Fig. 12.
in the ordinary way, and then clapped on the passage d
without considering the effect of the addition on the stress
42 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
on the metal between the cylinder and passage — that is
at A. Thus, if P be the water pressure, the stress on the
. D + rf^
metal at .
2V
< P, while at B it is only
Hence if the metal at b be properly proportioned to with-
stand the pressure P, the metal at a is decidedly too weak,
and its thickness should have been T + f, as indicated in
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13 similarly illustrates a faulty and a correct method
of making the inlet-pipe connection to the side of a high-
fig- i-i-
pressure cylinder, a is, of course, the correct construction,
and B the faulty one. At b a large hole for the reception
of the inlet nipple has been drilled and tapped, and only
reinforced by a shallow boss, and, in some cases which have
come under our notice, by no boss at all. At A only the
comparatively small and necessary inlet hole penetrates the
barrel of the cylinder, and the strength of the metal thus
taken away is amply supplied by the substantial boss into
which the inlet nipple is screwed. Such faulty constructions
as those illustrated by Figs. 11 and 13 may stand the test
pressure, and work without failure for a considerable time,
HYDRAULIC PRESSURES. 43
or, indeed, if there be ample material, may outlive the
machine. On the other hand, if the thickness of the metal
be originally somewhat inadequate, or the machine over-
stressed through some accidental cause, weak points have
been provided by the designer at which fracture may com-
mence, causing, possibly, great loss and annoyance, and
resulting simply from the want of a few pounds of metal in
the right place. The construction illustrated at b is espe-
cially faulty owing to the intense stresses liable to occur at
the edges of the nipple hole, owing to the break of con-
tinuity of the metal and consequent localisation of strain.
If, however, cast-iron cylinders be well and properly
designed, cast from a suitable blending of metal, and with
proper care on the part of the founder, they may be used
with confidence for pressures up to 2 tons per square inch ;
and for thoroughly steady loads, such as those obtaining in
the case of ordinary presses used in the compression of
yielding and elastic substances, a pressure of 3 tons per
square inch is not inadmissible.
CHAPTER IV.
MATERIALS.
There is, in general, no true economy in the employment
of inferior metal in the construction of parts of machines in
which great strength is required, since the loss of strength
due to the inferior quality of the metal is far from com-
pensated for by a slightly diminished first cost of the
machine. In low-pressure hydraulic machines the thickness
of the castings is frequently dictated by the exigencies of
manufacture, and not by the working stresses to which they
are subjected; but in the case of cylinders of medium
pressure, and still more so in the case of the cylinders of
high-pressure machines, which are frequently worked up to
their full test pressure, or say one-half their probable initial
breaking load, metal of first-class quality should invariably
be employed. The cast iron for such purposes should be of
at least such quality that a test bar i inch square, cast
on end, will not break with a tensile load of 9 tons, and a
bar I inch by 2 inches, placed on edge and carried by
supports 3 feet apart, should sustain 30 cwt. in the centre
without fracture. The metal, when cast into the actual
shapes in which it is used, will in general have a considerably
lower resistance to fracture than that of the test specimens,
and it will not be wise to exceed a test stress on the metal
of the complete machine of say 3 J tons per square inch.
With respect to the working stress and factor of safety,
as it is commonly called, we shall have something to say
further on, as also as to the peculiar and dubious character
of the stress sustained by thick cylinders under internal fluid
pressure.
MATERIALS. 45
With regard to wrought iron, there is little to be remarked
having special reference to hydraulic work. When used for
cylinders, it must of course be thoroughly sound, and should
not be designed for a higher test stress than 8 tons per
square inch distributed, and if the thickness of the metal be
considerable a lower stress may be advisable ; a point we
intend to discuss further on. For rolled Staffordshire bars
of fair quality, a test stress of lo tons per square inch is not
too high, if applied in simple direct tension.
Steel is a material which has only lately come into general
use for hydraulic cylinders, but the success which has re-
warded the efforts of the steel-founder in the production of
thoroughly sound and reliable steel castings is causing steel
to rapidly replace cast iron in the construction of cylinders
for high pressures. The breaking strength in tension of the
metal employed is usually stated at 24 tons per square inch,
but this is not probably obtained in the actual cylinder
casting, the test stress on which it will be well to limit to
8 tons per square inch for cylinders of moderate thickness.
For sound hammered steel cylinders, or hydraulic forged, a
test of 10 tons per square inch of metal will not be too high.
Solid drawn steel tubes forms an excellent, indeed the
best material available for high-pressure hydraulic tubes.
For the rams of hydraulic presses and hoists, rolled or
hammered steel is frequently used, and sometimes steel
castings, but there is a difficulty in getting the latter
sufficiently sound on the surface for use in high-pressure
work. Indeed, even in the case of hammered steel it is
necessary to allow ample metal in the forging to permit of
a substantial first cut being taken off over the surface (the
rough should be at least f inch larger in diameter than the
finished ram), as otherwise it is impossible to eradicate the
unsoundness due to the surface blowholes invariably found
in the ingot. These, although closed in by the subsequent
Hammering, which leaves an apparently sound face in the
finished iise, are not really welded up, but reappear in the
46 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
shape of an unsound surface on the first cut being taken off
in the lathe.
Malleable cast iron, toughened sometimes by the addition
of a little scrap steel, is used with success for small short
cylinders. Its ultimate strength, i inch thick, does not
exceed in general 15 tons per square inch, and for J inch
thick about 20 tons per square inch. The test stress may
be taken at 8 tons per square inch, if the metal does not
exceed f inch thick. It is, however, a treacherous material,
very liable to unsoundness, and should only be used for
small and unimportant work.
The alloys of copper, tin, and spelter are of the greatest
importance to the hydraulic engineer, owing to their freedom
from corrosion by water. Hence they are used almost to
the exclusion of any other metal for barrel linings, plungers,
valves and valve seats, screwed caps and plugs, etc. Brass
also forms an excellent sheathing for the outside of rams,
and its use for that purpose is highly conducive to the
durability of leather packings, while in all cases in which a
cylinder is bored to receive a leather-packed piston it should
also be lined with brass or gun-metal, unless there be special
circumstances which militate against their use. For the
smaller class of pumps gun-metal castings are almost ex-
clusively employed. The castings so used are in general
somewhat, but not greatly, tougher and stronger than good
cast iron. A test stress of 4 tons per square inch of metal
may be permitted for gun-metal pump barrels.
For hydraulic pressures exceeding 4 tons per square inch
steel should be used in place of gun-metal. The portion of
the brass foundry occupied in the production of hydraulic
castings should be separate from that in which the
commoner descriptions of metal are cast. Very annoying
inequalities in the strength and closeness of the metal, due
either to carelessness or wilful neglect on the part of the
workmen, are otherwise extremely liable to occur. For
pump plungers the rolled alloys, such as Kingston metal
MATERIALS. 47
and rolled phosphor bronze, are very reliable. These and
similar alloys, in the form of rolled rods and solid drawn
tubes, can now be procured of the strength of steel, and at
very moderate prices.
Phosphor and manganese bronze castings are also used
for pump barrels, and are said to have an ultimate breaking
weight of about 19 tons per square inch of metal, but as far
as the author's experience extends this cannot be depended
on in the actual castings. The test stress for phosphor
bronze pump castings may be taken at 6 to 7 tons per
square inch of metal. ' Rams are coated with copper by
electro-deposition by the Broughton Copper Company, of
Manchester, and other firms, at very moderate cost. The
finished thickness of copper usually supplied is -^j inch.
The durability of the sheeting so formed can be relied on,
and its great gain in the first cost, as compared with bras^
sheathing, has brought this plan into favour.
leather and one or two other materials of special utility
for hydraulic work will be dealt with in connection with
their applications.
Having considered the safe test stresses of the materials
employed in hydraulic work, we have now to consider the
not less important question as to what proportion the actual
working stress should bear to that stress.
Very hazy notions on this subject have been held up to
recent times, and, indeed, are still held. Great importance
used to be attached to the determinations of the so-called
" elastic limit " of a material, by which term was intended
that stress at which the metal began to take noticeable
permanent set. It was demonstrated by Mr Hodgkinson,
however, that cast iron had no definite " elastic limit." • By
experiments with long cast-iron bars (15 feet long) he
showed that cast iron takes a permanent set with small
loads, increasing gradually, as the load is increased, up to
the breaking point. Ductile wrought iron and mild steel
have, however, a definite " elastic limit " of stress, or rather
48
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING
they have a definite " breaking-down " point. This will be
better understood by reference to the annexed diagram,
Fig. 14, which represents the extension of a mild steel bar,
I inch square, 10 inches long, under loads progressing in
strain up to the breaking point. The author has carried out
a very large number of experiments with mild steel bars, and
Fig. 14.
has invariably found the stress and strain diagram (drawn
automatically by the bar itself) to have the characteristics
illustrated by Fig. 14. From o to a the extensions of the
bar are very nearly proportionate to the stress applied ; in
other words, they follow Hook's law ut iensio sic vis, a is
the true elastic limit. From a to b is a transition stage ;
MATERIALS. 49
the extension is no longer proportionate, but increases more
and more rapidly. The extension between o and a is a
very minute portion of the length of the bar, and is exag-
gerated in the diagram so as to make it capable of represen-
tation. When the stress reaches the amount indicated by
the point b, the bar extends without increase of load a
distance of -J inch or more in a specimen lo inches long —
it, so to speak, " breaks down." Hence b has been termed
the " breaking-down point " of the bar. The " elastic limit,"
as ordinarily found by the aid of a pair of dividers, may be
anywhere between a and b, or even below a.
The specimen now extends from b to c without increase
of load. In diagrams taken with apparatus of too sensitive
a nature in the writer's opinion to be reliable, and also in
diagrams taken by apparatus in which the load on the
specimen is measured by the water pressure in the hydraulic
cylinder of the testing machine, the line b c appears as a
jagged line.
There can be little doubt, however, that these apparent
fluctuations in the load in the specimen are due mainly to
imperfections in the recording apparatus, owing to the rapid
stretch of the specimen from b to c. With well-designed
apparatus in which the actual load, as measured by the
dead-weight lever, is recorded, the line between b and c is
found to be almost, if not quite, straight and horizontal,
c is usually a very well marked point, from which the
extension of the bar increases very rapidly with increasing
load. At D the maximum load which the bar can sustain
without immediate fracture is reached. From d to E the
load on the bar materially diminishes, until the bar, having
stretched to e, suddenly breaks.
The whole subject is a very interesting one, but since we
are concerned not with the behaviour of metals under test,
but with their use in hydraulic machines simply, we must be
brief. Our present object is to point out that the so-called
" elastic limit " is not in itself a quantity of much importance,
D
so HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
since it can be raised at pleasure. For instance, if the bar,
the behariour of which under test is illustrated by Fig. 14,
had been subjected to a preliminary load of 22^ tons, we
know by the results of many experiments that, on being
subsequently tested, its " elastic limit," instead of being
about 18 tons per square inch, would have been found to
be more than 22^ tons to the square inch, and no such
stage as that between b and c would be observed. Hence
a steel or iron master, who has to do with an engineer who
has great faith in a high " elastic limit " as a measure of the
strength of a bar — and there are such engineers — has merely
to watch his opportunity and apply a stress equal to the
prescribed " elastic limit " before the inspector commences
his test, and he will be sure of the bar passing the test as
far as regards the " elastic limit."
Not only can the " elastic limit " be raised ; it can also
be lowered by manipulation. By compressing a bar of
wrought iron endways, powerfully, its " elastic limit " may
be reduced to as little as 5 tons per square inch without
affecting sensibly its ultimate breaking weight.
Hence we must discard the " elastic limit," at any rate
taken by itself, as in any way measuring the value of the
bar for constructive purposes. In comparing the quality of
two bars, it is necessary that the specimens should be of
equal length and equal diameter. The important points,
then, to be observed, as determined by tests, are the ultimate
breaking weight and the ultimate extension.
Having thus disposed of the claims of the " elastic limit "
to be considered as a basis from which to determine the
relation between test straps and working stress, we have
next to consider from what sound basis their relations may
be determined in the special case which we have to consider,
viz., that of hydraulic power machinery.
CHAPTER V.
TEST LOAD.
Having disposed of the pretension of the so-called " elastic
limit " to be considered an indication of the safe working
load of a bar of wrought iron or steel, we have now to point
out another fallacy, which has a deep root in the minds of
many. It is a common belief that if a piece of metal or a
machine pass its " test " without giving signs of undue strain
by taking permanent set — for instance, in the case of a bar
stressed in tension, or, as in the case of a hook or a punching
machine, by a permanent springing open of the jaw — that it
is quite safe for any number of repetitions of the test load.
Some early experiments of Sir Wm. Fairbairn went to show
the fallacy of this error in the case of riveted girders, but
were too crudely conducted to be conclusive. More re-
cently, however, the researches of Wohler and Spangenberg
have thrown a flood of light on the subject.
It appears from their experiments that the breaking weight
of a piece of metal depends not merely on the absolute magni-
tude of the stress per square inch, but also on the frequency
of repetition and the range of variation of the stress. The
experimentsj though very extensive and amply conclusive as
to the general results, were not conducted with sufficient
care to suggest an exact formula ; but the general nature of
the results will be readily understood by considering the
breaking weights, as determined from them, of a bar of
wrought iron loaded either by (i) a steady load applied con-
stantly ; (2} a steady load applied and removed alternately
an indefinite number of times ; (3) a steady load applied
52 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
alternately in opposite directions— that is, alternately com-
pressing and extending the fibres.
The breaking weight in the first case is 20 tons per square
inch, in the second 13^ tons, and in the third 6f tons per
square inch. Thus the breaking weight in the three cases
have the proportions 3 : 2 : i, or i : | : ^.
As an example of the first case, we may instance the links
which connect the balance-weight chain of a slow moving
hoist to the cage or to the balance weight ; as an example
of the second, the columns, head, cylinder, etc., of a hydraulic
press ; and as an example of the third, the piston rod of a
steam engine, or the spindle of an overhead pulley of a hoist.
What is known as the Dynamic Theory of Loads is now
largely accepted by leading engineers, more especially in
connection with bridge design. The theory states that if
a load be applied quite suddenly the strain produced is
double of that which would result from the application of
the same load very gradually; also if a load be suddenly re-
moved, and applied in the opposite sense, the resulting strain
is three times that which would result from the removal of the
load and application of the reverse load very gradually.
In treating of the safe working loads, as determined from
the test stress, we shall in all that follows suppose that the
metal is stressed in one direction only, but that the stress is
applied and removed continually in the ordinary working of
the machine. If the stress be alternately applied in oppo-
site directions, one-half the working load, as determined
by the following considerations, must be taken as the safe
working load.
We may divide working loads roughly into four classes —
(i) Perfectly steady loads ; (2) ordinary loads, not perfectly
steady, but nearly so, and perfectly steady loads applied to
machines in which failure would involve considerable loss or
annoyance; (3) loads applied with more or less but not
excessive shock ; (4) loads in which failure must result in
danger to life or limb.
TEST LOAD. S3
As types of the first class of loads may be taken hand-
worked hydraulic presses operating on yielding materials.
Here we have the class of stress most favourable to the life
of the machine, and the working stress may be four-fifths the
test stress. Hydraulic punching bears and hydraulic jacks,
and similar small tools will also fall under this head, and
may be worked up to four-fifths their test stress if otherwise
properly proportioned. Indeed, machines of this class are
often worked up to their full test load. As types of the
second class may be taken large hydraulic baling presses
worked rapidly and frequently, high-pressure hydraulic accu-
mulators, fitted with safety valves, and high-pressure work in
general ; for this class the working load may be two-thirds
the test load. Medium-pressure hydraulic work, in which
the load is very steady, may also be included in this class.
As types of the third class may be taken medium-pressure
hydraulic hoists, accumulators, etc, chain hooks and similar
parts, and medium-pressure work in general, for which the
working load should not exceed one-third to one-half the test
load, according to the degree of shock incidental to the
working of the machine. For the fourth class, which is in-
tended to cover such work as hotel-lifts, etc., the working
load should not exceed from one-fourth to one-fifth the test
load — abundant strength being specially provided in all
parts liable to deterioration or wear. If frequent skilled
supervision cannot be guaranteed, a still larger margin
should be allowed.
Gun-metal high-pressure hand pumps may be worked up
to two-thirds the test pressure. Gun-metal high-pressure
pumps driven by steam cylinders direct, or by belt, may be
worked up to half the test pressure, or, if of cast iron, up to
one-third the test pressure.
Table I. gives the test stresses and working stresses suit-
able for the materials most frequently used in hydraulic
machinery, and the proper proportion of working load to
test load.
II
■*»=!I"0
i
1
■«(Ktt|iO
? ^ ^ ^ -5 ^ 2 J ^ ?^ i;'^ ^"
1
■iimipjO
1
-opu.1^3
= ' s ' ^ 'S '^ ^^ ^ -*^ -■^ 1'^
Q
1
■iimip.0
S : : ; : : : : : r : : :
-apdjiio
^^4|Hs n. ==^^^^^
z
1
■AimiptO
: : . 1 : : : : :, ::,::::
3
■«pa.,^3
<
1
-imtpjo
8 : r ^ : : : :::::::
1
■«pui|X3
•=- ? |- ? J ^I'S ? .^ :: :.
If
To-a P'ti-'a
5 s , g . s . ^ a. «.,,.. ,
i
■i«U!pjO
5..i.^a. «jj ?J-....
1
■i»pu!|/;3
«H H^ M^ -^--
I
i
i
■ireutpjo
;?«- -.-« "a? "?-:■■■
1
"POil^D
- H 5t ^ wp ,. ,j .^
i
a
1
1
1
1
Is
|I
1 1 ■ II w 1 li 1 :i ;i J
, ■ I i ail 1 |i i J J J
i ■J 5 3 t 'SjfS ill ■'! ■! i« |1
i ! 1 11 i.itl ^iii ill
TEST LOAD.
55
The next point to be examined is a peculiar description
of stress which is only found in the thick cylinders of high-
pressure hydraulic work. Fig. 15 represents a cross section
through a thick cylinder. Internal radius = r, external
radius = r+/ when unstressed. These radii become, when
stressed by internal fluid pressure, say r^ and ^i + ^i re-
spectively. If the stretch of the material follow the elastic
or Hooke's laws, the circumferential tension of any ring of
fibres will be proportional to the whole extension of the ring
Fig. 15.
divided by the whole circumference of the ring. In other
words, the tension will vary as the extension per unit of
length. Hence the stress at the internal circumference of
the cylinder will be to the stress at the external circum-
ference as —
r^-r . (ri4-0-(r-h/)
and since the internal pressure tends to compress the
material radially, and thus cause a reduction in the thick-
S6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
ness, and as the circumferential tension also tends to reduce
the thickness, /^ is necessarily less than /, and the fraction
(/* — r) — ^/ — / ) r —T
^^ '- — ^^ ^ less than the fraction -1 Hence the
r+/ r
tension on the fibres of the external circumference is less
than that on those of the internal circumference, and the
former do not take their fair proportion of the work of
resisting the disruptive effect of the internal pressure.*
Lam^ was the first writer to accurately determine the
effect of this inequality of stress throughout the thickness
of the cylinder on the supposition of extension being
directly proportional to stress. He obtained the formula
/= -^^ — -^, where / is the tension at the internal cir-
cumference, P the internal pressure, R the external radius,
and r the internal radius. We have omitted from the
formula the term involving the external pressure, since, in
such cases as we are concerned with, the external pressure
will, in general, be comparatively very small. The steps by
which this result is arrived at may be consulted in Lame's
" Traits de I'Elasticit^," or Ibbetson's " Theory of Elasticity,"
or Rankine's "Applied Mechanics," the result obtained
being the same in each.
P R2 + /^
The formula may also be put in this form : /= --. -—
where T is the thickness of the cylinder, P and / may be
taken in tons or pounds per square inch, and R, r and T
in inches, or any other units of length or weight at pleasure,
provided the same units be used for P as for/ and the same
unit for T as for R and r.
* The above must not be taken as an exact statement of the true
conditions of stress and strain throughout the metal of the c^'lioder, as
we have not taken account of the effect of the radial compression on
the relations of stress and strain, but simply as an approximate illuslra-
tion of the necessary variation of the strain throughout this thickness.
TEST LOAD.
57
If R be nearly equal to r, we obtain the usual formula for
the tension on the metal of a thin cylinder, viz.,
J r^
Professor Pearson (see footnotes pp. 550 and 552 of
Todhunter's " History of Elasticity ") considers that Lamp's
formula for the strength of a thick cylinder errs on the side
of assigning too high a value to the strength of the cylinder.
The author does not, however, consider this conclusion to
be confirmed by experience. On the contrary, we know
that the actual materials in construction do not follow
Hooke's law in their extension with precision, and there
is, so to speak, a sort of "give-and-take" action, which
tends to cause a greater equality of stress throughout the
thickness of a cylinder than Lamp's formula would indicate.
On the other hand, however, the internal circumference of
the cylinder in the case of castings is usually the most un-
sound, owing to the exterior of the cylinder cooling first,
and the inner rings of metal later, while at the same time it
is the part most severely stressed in actual work.
The plan of circulating water through the core bar, as adopted
in America in the casting of ordnance, may be employed
with advantage in the case of important hydraulic cylinders, to
ensure soundness in the inner layers of cast-iron cylinders.
On the whole, the author considers it better to be guided
by the results of successful practice in assigning the test
pressure for hydraulic cylinders, rather than by a formula
based on a defective theory. Tables I. and II. exemplify
his own practice, and have been used successfully in fixing
the dimensions of many hundreds of hydraulic cy li nders. For
low-pressure work, the following dimensions may be adopted
for pressure (test) not exceeding 500 lbs. per square inch : —
Inside diameter in
inches •
3
3l
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
XI
1
la 13
14
15
16
17
xS'ao
1
22
24
26
28
30
Thickness in inches
1
A
\
\
\
ft
ft f
f
}
1
1
}
}
i
i
\
I
I
X
X
A
li
58
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Table II.
Thickness in Inches of Cast-iron Cylinders for Test
Pressures of
Inside
Lbs. per Square Inch.
Tons per Square Inch.
Diam.
Ins.
1
800
1
1,000
e
1,200
i
1.500
i
I
§
il
i
li
i
li
li
2
14
24
14
24
18
2i
14
3
2
3
3i
A
i
i
i
1
i
I
I*
18
18
li
24
24
4
i
i
i
A
i
I
'i
li
li
li
24
2|
28
5
i
A
i
i
I
Ij
If
i«
i|
24
24
2J
34
6
i
i
i
«
1*
li
18
2
24
2j
3
38
3i
7
A
i
1
i
ij
If
li
24
2i
3
34
33
44
8
i>«
3
i
I
If
i|
2
2i
2j
31
31
48
4l
9
i
1
i
H
14
li
2*
2i
34
3l
48
4i
58
lO
i
*
I
li
li
2k
2*
3
3i
44
4J
58
6
II
i
i
I
li
If
2i
21
3i
3i(
48
54
6
68
12
i
I
li
li
2
2*
3
36
44
5
5i
64
74
13
i
I
14
'*
2i
2f
31
3i
4i
5i
64
7
7J
14
i
I*
'*
ti
2i
2i
3t
4^
4i
5l
68
74
84
15
I
I*
19
If
2i
3
38
4i
54
64
74
8
83
i6
I
li
li
li
2i
3i
a
4i
54
64
74
84
94
«7
U
il
li
i|
2i
3i
4i
5
5i
7
8
9
10
i8
tj
If
It
2
2S.
38
4i
58
64
78
88
91
lOj
20
>i
1*
'i
2*
3
3i
4i
Si
6J
8J
98
log
I If
22
'i
16
li
2§
3if
48
54
61
74
8j
104
"6
123
24
ig
ift
»i
2*
38
4?
5f
7
84
92
"4
128
•4
26
li
«J
2i
2|
3i
Si
64
76
H
10}
12
13I
154
28
i«
2
*l
23
4i
Si
68
8J
94
"4
13
•48
164
30
li
2i
21
3i
4
Si
7i
8}
104
124
13J
158
178
TEST LOAD.
59
Table III.
Thickness of Steel Cylinders (Unhammered Castings)
FOR Test Pressures of
1
Inside
Diam.
Ins.
Tons per Square Inch.
I
li
li
If"
2
2j
24
2i
3
34
4
5
3
■ ■ •
• • •
• • ■
• • ■
■ • •
• • •
• • •
• « «
I
li
14
3*
■ • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• ■ •
• • •
• • •
• • •
li
14
14
1
4
• • •
• • «
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
« • •
I
14
ti
16
5
• • •
• • •
• • ■
■ ••
■ • •
li
ll
ll
14
18
2
6
• • •
• • •
• • «
I
li
I*
If
18
18
ij!
24
1 7
• • •
• • •
• • »
I
li
ll
18
i4
li
•ij
2i
26
. 8
■ • •
■ • •
I
li
li
18
14
18
li
2i
28
3
9
■ a •
I
li
I*
IB
If
If
1}
2
28
28
34
ID
...
il
li
If
14
If
i|
2
2i
24
2j
36
II
I
li
IB
li
iS
■i
2
24
28
28
3i
4
' 12
I
il
If
I|
IS
2
2i
28
24
3
38
44
»3
I*
J|
14
I|
i|
2i
28
26
2|
34
3i
4i
14
n
«i
If
I|
2
2i
24
2|
2i
34
4
5
^5
li
li
ij
2
24 2i
28
2j
3i
3J
44
54
i6
Ij
li
li
2
24
24
2i
3
34
3J
44
56
17
18
IS
2i
2$
2l
3
34
34
4i
4S 6
; l8
li
iS 1 2
21
24
2j
3i
38
38 48
5
64
20
li
I? 1 24
24
2i
3i
3i
3i
4
41
54
7
22
1
1
li
2 2g
2i
3
38
38
4
48
54
6
7fi
!24
If
2i
2|
2l
3i
3i
4
48
4l
5i
64
84
26
li
21
2}
3i
3i
4
48
4i
5i
6i
7i
9
28
2
2i
2j
31
3i
4i
48
Si
54
6i
78
9i
30
ai
2i
3i
3g
4
44
S
54
5i
7
84
104
6o
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
A few remarks may be here appropriately introduced on
certain points in the design and construction of high-pres-
sure hydraulic cylinders of these materials, non-attention to
which will frequently result in failure and disappointment.
In the first place, the internal corners at the bottom
should be struck to a large radius, as shown by Fig. i6 ; and
if the cylinder be cast with a sohd bottom, the interior of
the bottom should be struck to a radius not exceeding the
diameter of the cylinder in length. A good practical rule is
to make the corners one-fourth the internal diameter of the
tvS;
1 it
f Jl
-
*-*.
^ J
■
^
b
L.
,:,: ;;,;^
ng. 17.
cylinder in radius, and the bottom three-fourths the internal
diameter of the cylinder in radius. If these proportions be
adopted, the thickness of the bottom of the cylinder will be
sufficient if made equal to that of the walls, as illustrated by
Fig, 16, In the case of long cylinders, in which it is neces-
sary to carry the core bar through the bottom in order to
provide a support for its end, the same proportions may be
adopted, simply inserting the necessary plug for stopping the
hole left by the core bar.
The necessity of a large rounding of the corners arises
from the fact that if they be left nearly square (see 6, Fig. 1 7),
TEST LOAD.
6l
the crystals of the casting arrange thetnselves during cooling
in such a manner as to invite fracture along the line a i
(Fig, 17), and unless the cylinder be constructed of a thick-
ness unnecessarily great for the pressure to which it is sub-
jected, deterioration gradually goes on along the line a b,
until sooner or later failure takes place, as illustrated by Fig.
18 ; and a conical piece a breaks away from the end of the
cylinder. Fig, 19 shows the arrangement of crystals in a
cylinder with a curved bottom of equal thickness to the
Fig. 18.
Fig 19-
Fig. ao illustrates a properly-designed cylinder, and simi-
lar to Fig. 16, but with a plug inserted by driving from
the inside. This method is found amply sufficient for
cylinders of diameters ranging to 10 inches or 13 inches
inside, or even more. For larger cylinders, the method
illustrated by Fig. ai may be adopted, in which the plug is
made tight by means of a U leather and back plate.
The sources of weakness to which attention was drawn
in Chapter III. should also be carefully avoided, and it is
also in general advisable to construct high-pressure hydraulic
cylinders in the form of plain cylinders, as the castings are
62
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
less likely to suffer from unequal contraction, and the risk
of unsoundness due to " drawing " at the junction of ribs,
anns, lugs, Hanges, etc., is avoided ; also the cylinder is
then more readily replaced, and at less cost, if found de-
fective. Very considerable deviation from this rule may,
however, be made without incurring undue risk, if proper
skill be possessed and employed by the designer and
founder.
In the second place, supposing the cylinder skilfully
designed and of adequate proportions, the two great essen-
tials required (o ensure soundness in the casting are, firstly,
the metal shall be of close texture, otherwise, though amply
strong enough to resist the stresses due to internal hydraulic
pressure, the casting will fail from its permeability, and
under intense pressure the water will ooze through the
metal. Also, from the examination of cast-iron cylinders,
which have been ruptured in ordinary work, although ap
patently of adequate strength to resist the pressure to which
they have been subjected, the author has been led to con-
sider it probable that a partial permeation of the metal by
the water may result in a higher intensity of stress on the
TEST LOAD.
internal layers of a cylinder than would be due to the
pressure of the water within the cylinder; and hence a
cylinder may be erroneously considered to have failed from
F'S- 12- Fig. 23.
deficient thickness of metal, when the failure has really
resulted from porosity in the casting.
Thirdly, it is necessary that a " head " of ample dimensions
Fig. a4.
should be cast on the end of the cylinder which is upper-
most in the mould (usually the bottom of the cylinder in
actual work). This head should not only be of sufficient
64 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
depth to produce adequate fluid pressure on the casting, but
also of sufficient bulk^ in order that it may remain fluid
longer than the body of the cylinder, and thus maintain a
pressure on the metal during the whole period of solidi-
fication. Hence, to be effective, the head should take the
form illustrated by Fig. 22 or 23, and not that illustrated
by Fig. 24, which is ineffective and irrational, though not
un frequently adopted.
If due attention be paid to the points here briefly dis-
cussed, the thicknesses given in Tables II. and III. will be
found amply sufficient for the te§t pressures there stated.
Having thus cleared the ground by defining the meaning
to be assigned to tests and working pressure and stress, and
their proper relative and absolute values for the various mate-
rials employed in the construction of hydraulic machinery,
we are now at liberty to discuss the proper proportions
and design of the details and component parts of such
machinery.
PART IlL— JOINTS.
K
CHAPTER VI.
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
The packing by means of which the rams, pistons or
plungers of hydraulic machinery are enabled to slide to and
fro at the same time that the passage of fluid past the slid-
ing surfaces is prevented, may be divided into two classes,
viz., firstly, that in which the packing is self-acting — that is.
Ji
Fig. 25.
maintained in water-tight contkct with the sliding surface
by the simple action of the hydraulic pressure itself; and
secondly, that in which the tightness of the packing is
dependent on mechanical compression by means of glands
or junk rings, as in the case of stuffing boxes.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
Of the first, or self-acting class of packing, the simplest is
the spiral leather packing (Figs. 25, 26, 27, and 28). This
is a very excellent packing for small plungers and pistons.
It consists simply of a strip of supple leather t\ inch or
68
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
J inch wide, and of sufficient length to wrap round the
plunger three, four, or five times (Fig. 25). Fig. 26 repre-
sents the plunger without the packing, Fig. 27 the packing
in course of being wound on, and Fig. 28 the plunger
packed and ready for use. The operation of packing a
Figs. 29 and 30.
plunger in this manner is apparently very simple, but yet
requires a certain amount of skill and practice to perform
it with speed and neatness. The strip of leather must first
have one end cut with a sharp knife to an acute angle. It
must then be tried in the groove of the plunger, and shaved
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES. 69
if necessary down to the proper thickness to just fill the
groove up to the required working diameter which will fit
the pump barrel tightly. It is then wrapped round the
plunger, and the free end chamfered off to a gradual taper
and length to just fill the length of the groove. The free
end is then hammered into the unfilled portion of the groove
with the handle of a screwdriver or file, and the plunger is
ready for use.
This description of packing is only suitable for small
plungers not exceeding i inch or i^ inches diameter, but is
fig 31
Fig 3*
a very simple, cheap and durable packing for such|^small
work, and is perfectly reliable and water tight at even the
highest pressures
The most simple selfacting packing for rams, pistons
and plungers, next to the spiral leather packing previously
described, is the cup type of packing, which is constructed
in three forms, commonly termed cup, hat and Unpacking
respectively. The cup packing is illustrated by [Figs 39
and 30, and simple tools for and the process of manufacture
by Figs. 31 and 3a.
The cup packing is used as a packing for pistons, for
70
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
making water-tight joints at the ends of plugs and plungers,
and similar purposes, and owes its self-acting tightness to
the pressure of the water on the internal surface of the cup,
which expands the rim of the cup and forces it against the
pump barrel or other surface with which water-tight con-
nection is to be maintained. It might at first sight appear
that the whole depth of the cup would be directly useful
in forming the joint ; or, in other words, that the hydraulic
pressure acting on the internal surface of the rim of the cup
would press the whole external surface of the rim of the cup
against the pump barrel, and that hence the water-tightness
of the packing would be enhanced by increasing the depth
Fig. 33-
of the cup rim. This is not, however, found to be the case
in practice. The effective portion of the cup is merely a
narrow ring of surface near the point a, Fig. 29, where the
leather touches the piston, and the remaining portion of the
cup leather is in a great measure superfluous. This fact is
evidenced in several ways in a very convincing manner.
For instance, the wear takes place almost entirely at a.
Fig. 33 represents a section through a worn-out packing.
The indentation b inside the packing is due to the external
wear of the packing at a, as the leather is forced out by the
internal pressure from the inside of the cup to supply the
portions worn away by external friction. The localisation
of the wear is so marked as to lead superficial observers to
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES. 7 1
suppose that the leather has been cut by the pressure of the
edge of the piston. The effect is, however, entirely due to
fair wear, and is not to be obviated by rounding the edge of
the piston or other such expedients occasionally suggested.
Another proof is furnished by the fact that the friction of
the cup is independent of the depth of the rim, and is the
same practically for a packing 2 inches deep as for one an
inch or less in depth ; whereas, were the water-tightness of
the cup due to the pressure on the whole internal surface of
the rim, it would be reasonable to suppose that the friction
would increase with the depth of the cup.
The manufacture of a cup leather is a very simple opera-
tion. A disc F of leather (see Fig. 31) of suitable diameter
is soaked in warm water until quite pliable. It is then placed
centrally on the hollow mound a, and the plunger b screwed
down on it by means of the central screw c (the head d of
which may be conveniently held in a vice) and nut e, until
it is forced into the mound a. When the leather is dry the
edge is trimmed off to an angle of 45'', either by means of a
sharp knife, or, preferably, in a wood chuck in the lathe. If
the leather is required without a central hole, external clamps
may be used in place of the central screw c to force the
plunger b into the mould. If a number of leathers are to
be manufactured, a small hydraulic press, of about to tons
power, will be found very convenient, as also a sheet-iron
oven heated by steam for drying the packings. The latter,
however, requires great care in use, as, if overheated in
drying, the leathers rapidly fail in ordinary work. It is poor
economy to use inferior material for hydraulic leathers.
Sound oak-tanned leather should be selected, cut from the
best part of the butt. If the packings are not subject to
much wear, indiarubber cups may, however, be used with
advantage in all cases where packings are liable to become
dry through being used only occasionally.
It has been previously remarked that the depth of a cup
packing has but little influence on its water-tightness. We
72 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
may further add that it is really prejudicial to the efficiency
and durability of the packing to make the rim of the leather
unduly deep, for the simple reason that the stress on the
leather during its manufacture is greatly increased by in-
creasing the depth of the cup. This stress is greatest also
at the very part (a) of the leather which is subject to the
greatest wear in actual work. If the cup be deep, and very
great care be not taken in the manufacture, the leather is
liable to tear at this point, or, if not actually torn, to suffer
great deterioration, which, although it may be disguised and
concealed by subsequent dexterous manipulation, never fails
to show itself afterwards in an abnormally short life of the
leather. There is no advantage whatever in making the cup
more than i inch deep, and any greater depth than this is
not merely useless, but, for the reason here pointed out,
really undesirable as leading to injury to the packing at the
very part at which the greatest soundness is required.
The barrel in which the cup leather works should, if pos-
sible, be lined with gun-metal or brass. For medium and
high pressures it should invariably be so lined. The attempt
to use leather packings under high pressures for pistons
working in cast-iron barrels, unlined, always results in great
annoyance and frequent delays from the rapid deterioration
of the bore of the cylinder, and consequent constant failure
of the packings, which are only durable when they have an
absolutely smooth surface unaffected by corrosion to work
against. In the case of thick cast-iron cylinders working
at high pressures, owing, apparently, to the comparative
porosity or looseness of texture of the interior surface of the
casting forming the bore, which has already been commented
on, the friction of the leathers appears at times to tear away
considerable portions of the internal surface, leaving rough
places, which destroy the packings after a few passages over
them. Steel castings are not free from this defect, and suffer
occasionally even more than cast iron.
These remarks do not, however, apply so strongly to cast-
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES. 73
iron rams, the external surface of which is generally very close
in texture and capable of receiving a high polish, and can
also be readily kept in good condition as regards polish and
lubrication. Even in the case of rams, however, it has been
found highly conducive to the durability of the leathers to
case the lower part of the rams of hydraulic presses, for
instance, with gun-metal. The rams of hydraulic presses
for baling Manchester goods, and for cotton pressing, are
invariably so cased by first-class makers.
The laws governing the friction of cup and similar leathers
were investigated carefully by Mr Hick, of Bolton, and found
to be in the main very simple. The author's own experience
fully endorses Mr Hick's results, which may be stated in the
following form : —
Let P be the total load on a ram or piston, and D its
diameter in inches. The whole friction of the packing of
the ram or piston is —
the leather packing being in the condition as regards lubri-
cation usually met with in practice, and the ram and cylinder
in iirst-class condition as regards polish and soundness of
surface. For instance, let the ram of a press be 10 inches
diameter and the load be 100 tons, corresponding to a
hydraulic pressure of 1.27 tons per square inch, then the
friction of the packing will be —
, 4 X 100 ^ o *.
/= — = .4 tons = 8 cwt. •
100 X 10
or — per cent, of the whole load. The friction in this case
10 "
is a very inconsiderable amount compared with the total
load, but if the packing be small in diameter the percentage
of the whole pressure absorbed by friction becomes very
appreciable, and must be taken carefully into account when
74
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
designing apparatus involving the use of pistons or plungers
packed with leather for determining the intensity of hydraulic
pressures.
For instance, if the packing be ^ inch in diameter, the
percentage of the whole load absorbed by the friction of the
packing will be —
4-r J=i6 per cent.,
which is a very notable amount.
Figs. 34 and 35.
It will be observed that the above remarks as to the
friction and wear and tear of leather packings apply equally
to all leather packings of the cup type, and not merely to
cups, but also to hat and U packings.
The action of the hat packing (Figs. 34 and 35) and U
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
75
packing (Figs. 36 and 37) is, indeed, identical with that of
the cup packing proper. The point of greatest wear and the
method of calculating the friction are the same for all three
kinds of packing. The tools used in and mode of manu-
facture are, however, different, for neither the hat packing
nor the U can be made in so simple a manner. Figs. 38
Figs. 36 and 37.
and 39 illustrate the formation of the hat packing from a
circular disc of leather. The packing is finished by cutting
out the central disc and chamfering the edge to an angle
of 45".
The pressure employed in forcing the leather into the
die may be supplied by means of a central screw and nut,
as previously described for the ordinary cup packing (p. 69).
76
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
In this case, of course, a small hole must be first cut in the
disc of leather for the central screw to pass through. This
hole must in any case be small, otherwise it will be found
impossible to make a satisfactory packing on account of the
tearing and distorting of the leather. If screw clamps, or a
small screw, or hydraulic press be employed, however, the
central hole may be dispensed with. These remarks apply
equally to the manufacture of U leathers, which indeed are
frequently made by means of the press in which they are
subsequently to be used.
The dies used in the production of U leathers are illus-
trated by Figs. 40 and 41.
Fig. 38.
Fig. 30-
The pressing is effected in two stages ; first the leather
is pressed into a cup shape (see Fig. 40) ; and at a second
operation (Fig. 41) the cup is pressed into a hat shape, with
a U-shaped rim, part of the rim of the original cup going to
form the internal rim of the U, as will be readily understood
from the figures. The central disc is then cut out and the
edges chamfered to an angle of 45°, as in the case of the
hat packing.
The discs of leather used in the manufacture of leather
packings are very readily and rapidly cut out of the hide by
means of a knife-cutter fitted to the end of an ordinary hand-
drill, and adjustable to any radius by a set screw, the discs
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
71
cut out of the centre of large packings being, of course, used
for smaller packings.
The formula which we have already given for the friction
of cup, U and hat packings, viz.,
, P
where / is the friction of the leather packing, P the whole
load on the ram or piston, and D its diameter in inches, may
be conveniently thrown into a form in which the friction is
given as a function of the hydraulic pressure per square inch
and diameter of the packing. For if/ be the pressure per
square inch — ■
P=/D'x.7854; and hence
/=.04x .7854 x^r) = .o3r4 x X)p.
Fie- 40-
Fig. 4"-
In this form the formula is applicable to packings used for
other purposes than maintaining rams or pistons light, the
pressure per square inch and diameter of the packing alone
being required to be known.
From the foregoing brief description of the method of
working leather hydraulic packings, the truth of our remarks
as to the inadvisability of employing an unnecessarily deep
packing win be sufficiendy apparent, especially as regards U
packings. Fig. 43 illustrates the proportions to be recom-
mended for ordinary U packings, which will indeed be found
ample for all purposes. The internal diameter of a U pack-
ing should be about y\ incb less than that of the ram which
;8
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERINQ.
passes through it, and the external diameter about ^ inch
greater than the recess or cylinder in which it fits, the
diameter being measured at a and b. This will ensure the
tightness of the packing when first inserted. For large
Fig. 4*.
packings a somewhat greater margin may be allowed. It is
always best to fit the mouths of cylinders in which U leathers
are used with glands (Fig. 43), the mouth of the ram being
well rounded, so that the leather can be put in place without
any injury to its shape or edges. The ends of rams should
Fig. 43.
Fig. 44.
similarly be well rounded or tapered for a distance of say
half an inch, with the same object.
For many purposes it is, however, sufficient to simply turn
a groove in the mouth of the cylinder to receive the packing.
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
79
as in Fig. 44. The leather, if of large diameter, is easily
inserted in the groove by first doubling it into the shape
illustrated by Fig. 45, but, if small, practice and care are
necessary to avoid injury to the leather. A small leather
is usually inserted by first suppling it by letting oil stand in
the rim a short time, if the leather be at all harsh ; it is then
pushed into the groove as far as it can be got to go, leaving
as little remaining out of the groove as possible, and a blow
or two from a piece of wood struck by a hammer will then
usually suffice to put it in the shape illustrated by Fig. 46,
and another blow at H will drive it neatly into the groove.
Fig. 45-
Fig. 46.
It is, however, better practice to fit the mouth of the
cylinder with a gland. The studs securing the gland should
not be subjected to a test stress exceeding 5 tons per square
inch, if of wrought iron, and if this maximum be not ex-
ceeded, a sufficient margin of strength will be provided to
compensate for extra stresses due to unequal tightening of
the nuts. The thickness of the flange of the gland, if of
cast iron, may be ij times the diameter of the studs, and
8o HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the width of the flange three times the diameter of a stud.
The projecting portions of the gland should be i J times the
stud in length.
If / be the hydraulic test pressure per square inch, d the
diameter of the ram, and c the width of the packing, the
whole stress on the studs due to the hydraulic pressure is —
{d-{-€)cTrp — i.i^i6 {d+c)pc.
Hence if n be the number of studs, and d^ the diameter of a
stud at the bottom of a thread, the stress on the studs per
square inch is —
4 nd^
which, as before stated, should not exceed 5 tons, or about
11,200 lbs.
We have recommended | inch as the most suitable dimen-
sions for Cy but if circumstances render it advisable to reduce
the space occupied by the packing to minimum limits, c may
be diminished to yV ^^^^ without very greatly subtracting
from the efficiency of the packing.
There is a difference of practice among manufacturers of
hydraulic packing leathers, some preferring to use the grain
and some the skin side of the hide for the wearing surface.
The latter plan makes the neatest leather in appearance, and
is generally to be recommended.
Hemp Packing^. — The first cost of leather hydraulic
packings is comparatively high, and if the surfaces against
which they work are not carefully looked after, and maintained
in a state of perfect polish and well lubricated, the packings
will deteriorate rapidly and become no inconsiderable portion
of the expense of maintenance of a hydraulic plant. For
these reasons hemp packings, which are water-tightened by
strong mechanical compression by means of a stuffing box and
gland, are used by many engineers wherever possible ; since
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES. 8 1
the first cost of the hemp packing is comparatively incon-
siderable, while at the same time the packing can be renewed
more rapidly and with less loss of time. If the rod or
plunger which is to be packed is heated, as is necessarily
the case with some types of steam pumps, leather packings
are altogether inadmissible, and hemp, asbestos, or some
similar packing must be used.
On the other hand, the friction of the mechanically com-
pressed hemp packing is far greater than that of the self-
acting leather packing ; also, if the hydraulic pressure for
which the packing is used be high (and hemp packing,
contrary to the opinion of many, may be employed success-
fully for very high pressures, such as 3 tons or more per
square inch), there is considerable risk of scoring the surfaces
of the ram and plungers in actual work, owing to the neces-
sarily intense pressure with which the packing must be forced
against the sliding surface in order to secure water-tightness.
A further objection to hemp packing is that the packing
must be compressed with sufficient force to ensure its
being tight under the highest pressure at which the
machine in which it is used is intended to work; hence,
although the machine may be frequently working under a
comparatively low pressure, the friction of the packing is
always that due to the high pressure, and may amount to
a very large percentage of the whole work done by the
machine, whereas, if leather packings be used, since the
pressure on the packing varies directly with the work which
the machine is performing, Xh^ percentage of power absorbed
by the friction of the packings is, within certain limits, prac-
tically constant.
It must be left, then, to the judgment of the engineer
to decide which description of packing shall be employed in
any given case, each type having its own special advantages
and defects, which must be duly weighed and taken into
consideration before arriving at a decision. The friction of
hemp packings cannot be so. definitely determined by ex-
F
82 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
periment for any given conditions of use as that of leather
hydraulic packings. We have not merely to consider the
intensity of the hydraulic pressure employed as in the case
of leathers, but the depth of the stuffing boxes and diameter
of the packing surface, as also the degree of pressure applied
by means of the stuffing box gland. Under the same degree
of compression there is no doubt that a deep stuffing box will
produce more frictional resistance than a short one ; but, on
the other hand, the deep stuffing box will not require so in-
tense a compression as the short one, and hence in actual
practice the friction of the short stuffing box may exceed that
of the long one, if the packing is to be water-tight under a
given maximum pressure. It is, however, very desirable in
practice to have a simple formula by which to determine the
probable maximum friction of a hemp packing under given
conditions. If the packing be screwed up judiciously, and
the stuffing box of fair proportions, the formula may take
the form of cpd=fy where c is a constant, to be determined
by experiment within assigned limits as to pressure and
diameter, p the hydraulic pressure (maximum) per square
inch, d the diameter of the ram or rod in inches, and/ the
total amount of the friction. For many purposes it is suffi-
cient to take /as equal to one-tenth the pressure per square
inch, multiplied by the diameter of the ram, or/=^ and
the friction of a hemp packing judiciously used will rarely
exceed this amount within very wide limits of pressure and
diameter.
A very simple method of ascertaining the approximate
friction of a ram packing is available when the ram can be
loaded and fixed so as to rise and fall vertically. Let the
ram be loaded, perfectly centrally, with any weight, the
amount of which need not be exactly ascertained, and let
the pressure per square inch required to raise the ram at
the lowest speed be ascertained by means of an accurate
pressure gauge communicating directly with the cylinder.
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
83
and let the pressure be Pj. Next let the pressure in the
cylinder be similarly ascertained when the ram is descend-
ing as slowly as possible, and let the pressure be Pg. It is
very important that the motion of the ram should be exceed-
ingly slow during the experiment. Then the friction of the
P -P
packing will be approximately — l — ^ x area of ram in
square inches.
It is most necessary in carrying out such an experiment
as this, however, to test the accuracy of the pressure gauge
employed, since the ordinary commercial pressure gauge
is frequently grossly inaccurate, and in the case of high
hydraulic pressures as a general rule absolutely unreliable.
The following table gives suitable dimensions of the pack-
ing space for stuffing boxes of various diameters : —
Diameter
Diameter
of
Depth of
Diameter
Diameter
of
Stuffing
Box.
Depth of
of
Stuffing
Stuffing
of
Stuffing
Ram.
Box
Inside.
Box.
Ram.
Box.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
I
if
2
12
I4J
6i
2
2I
3
14
I^t
7
3
4i^
3i
16
i8i
7i
4
si
4
18
20|
7«
5
6|
44 i
20
22}
8i
6
71
4l i
22
25
8i
' 7
88
5i
24
27i
9
8
9l
54
26
29i
9i
9
II
5*
28
314
9J
1 10
i
12J
6
1
30
334
10
The dimensions of the gland studs for stuffing boxes
should be proportioned in a similar manner to those for
the glands for U leathers, but with a larger margin of
strength.
84 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Let, as before, n be the number of studs or bolts —
d^ the diameter of a stud at the bottom of the
thread.
D the diameter of the ram or rod.
Dj the internal diameter of the stuffing box.
P the maximum pressure in pounds per square
inch«
Then d-^ should not be less than
(D,-D)(D, + D)P
5000 X n
The thickness of the flange of the gland should not be
less than if times the external diameter of the stud, and its
width may be three times the diameter of a stud for cast
iron.
P in the above formula is to be taken as the maximum
working pressure, or one-half the test pressure, the larger
of the two values being selected ; that is, if the maximum
working pressure be greater than half the test pressure, P
must be taken equal to the working pressure ; but if half
the test pressure be greater than the maximum working
pressure, then P should be taken equal to half the test
pressure.
Table IV. gives the efficiencies of rams or rods, working
with leather or hemp packing. It has been calculated from
the preceding rules, and will be found to agree with practice,
providing the stuffing box is of fair proportions, and the ram
or rod polished and lubricated.
Let P = gross power of ram = area of ram multiplied by
pressure per square inch.
„ Pi = nett power of ram.
„ ^= coefficient, taken from table.
Then Pj = c?.
PACKINGS FOR SLIDING SURFACES.
85
Table IV.
Coefficients of Ram Efficiencies for Hemp or
Leather Packing.
Diameter c.
of ^'
Ram.
luffing Leather
Diameter q,
of ^*
Ram.
r
uffing Leather
Box. Packing.
Box. Packing.
1
Inches.
1
Inches.
A
• • •
.36
3i
.96
.98
A
• • •
.57
3f
.96
.98
i
• • •
.68
4
.96
.99
A
• ■ •
.78
4i
.97
.99
i
•49
.84
5
.97
■99
A
■59
.87
Si
.97
.99
i
.66
.89
6
.97
■99
A
.70
90
H
.98
■99
i
74
.92
7
.98
.99
A
77
.92
74
.98
■99
i
•79
•93
8
.98
.99
H
.81
■94
H
■98
99
f
.83
.94
9
■98
99
i
■!5
95
9i
.98
.99
1
87
.96
10
■98
99
i4
.88
96
II
.98
99
i|
.89
96
12
.98
99
i8
90
97
13
99
99
i^
91
97
14
99
99
i|
.92
97
15
.99
99
If
92
97
16
99
99
ij
93
97
18
99
99
2
93
.98
20
99
99
2i
94
98
22
99
99
2k
94
98
24
99
99
2}
95
98
26
99
99
3
95
98
. 28
99
99
3J
96 ; .
1
98
30
99
99
CHAPTER VII.
PIPE JOINTS.
In our last chapter we described the usual methods of
making the joints between sliding surfaces water-tight by
means of animal and vegetable packings, in a self-acting
manner or by forcible mechanical compression of the
packing material by means of glands or bolts, or their
equivalents. In the present article we propose to treat
similarly of the various methods of making the joints be-
tween surfaces, fixed with reference to each other, water-
tight. The joints between such surfaces are made either
by placing between them suitable sheets or rings of canvas,
lead, copper, leather, indiarubber, guttapercha, paper, and
various other material, and forcing them tightly together by
means of bolts and nuts, or their mechanical equivalents ;
or by using U or similar self-acting packings. In designing
such a joint we have principally to consider the stress which
must be brought upon the metal of the bolts and nuts in
order to ensure water-tightness under a given pressure, and
the dimensions which it is advisable to give the flanges, in
practice, in order that they may be of adequate strength to
resist the stress thus brought upon them. The stress upon
the bolts, considered as a simple tensile stress, consists of
two parts in general — one due solely to the hydraulic pres-
sure on the surface exposed to it, which may be exacfly
calculated when the extent of that surface is known, and the
pressure per unit of area to which it is subject ; and another
part due to the elastic reaction of the surfaces themselves
and that of the joint material between them.
To make this clear, we will consider a joint such as that
PIPE JOINTS.
8r
illustrated by Fig. 47, in which b may be a valve chest, for
instance, and a its cover ; the joint being made by truly
facing the surfaces, painting them, inserting a sheet of brown
paper say between them, and then drawing them forcibly
together by screwing up the nuts and bolts which pass
through the flanges. If the nuts be screwed up when pres-
sure is not admitted to the valve chest b, a complicated
stress is brought upon the metal of the bolts — mainly a
longitudinal tension, but complicated by torsional stress due
to the inclination of the helix of the screw-thread and the
friction between the thread and nut brought into play by the
twisting action of the spanner, and complicated in addition
Fig- 47-
by possible bending stresses due to inequality or unequal
yielding of the joint surfaces and flanges. For true surfaces
and faced nuts, we may, however, treat the stress in practice
as a simple tension. Let L be the length of the spanner
used in inches, and F the force in pounds applied at its end
by the workman in screwing up ; then for ordinary bohs,
having Whitworth threads, the total stress in tension on the
metal of the bolt may be fairly taken at an average value of
T = — T- m pounds,
where T is the whole stress on the bolt in pounds, con-
sidered as tensile, and d is the diameter of the bolt over the
88 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
thread in inches, the stress on the bolt per square inch at
the bottom of the thread may, of course, be found by
dividing T by the area of the section at the bottom of the
thread.
If now water be admitted to the valve box b, at a pres-
sure of/) pounds per square inch, and S be the surface of
the cover a exposed to the pressure in square inches, the
whole upward pressure on the cover a will be pS in pounds,
and this pressure may be transmitted to the bolts practically
undiminished or increased, in addition to the stress T due
to the screwing up, making the whole load on the bolts
^ ^ 6FL« ^
where n is the number of bolts.
We say ptay be so transmitted advisedly, as the determina-
tion of the exact amount which will be added to the initial
stress on the bolts in every particular case is highly complex,
and indeed hopeless from an engineer's point of view, in
very many cases depending, as it does, on the extensibility
or compressibility of the various parts forming the joint.
In practice we need not,' however, enter into such an in-
vestigation ; it is sufficient for our purpose to know that the
whole load on the bolts of the joint is not likely to exceed
the amount stated, viz.,
6FL« ^
so that if the effective area of the bolt section be pro-
portioned to sustain this load safely, the error, if any, will
be in general on the side of safety.
It is to be remarked that of the two parts of the expression
for the whole load on the bolts, the one part, /S, is usually
determinable with fair accuracy, whereas the other part,
■ , , can only be fixed by estimation. In fixing the
value to be assigned in any particular case to this latter
PIPE JOINTS.
89
part, we may take a step towards a simplification of the
expression by assuming that L bears a definite relation to
d. For instance, let L«m x 1/; then the load on the bolts
will be
6/wF« +/S = say W.
Table V. has been calculated from this formula, assuming
«= 16, and F=5o lbs. for a i-inch bolt and= 100 lbs. for
a 2-inch bolt, and of proportionate values for intermediate
diameters. The figures in the third column represent the
maximum test load for good wrought iron bolts, and are
calculated on a basis of a maximum gross stress on the
bolt, amounting at the bottom of the thread to about
24,000 lbs. per square inch. The figures in the fourth
column represent the test load, if an allowance be made for
the unequal distribution of stress among the bolts corre-
sponding to a reduction of 25 per cent, in the effective
strength of the joint.
Table V.
Maximum Loading for Wrought-Iron Bolts.
Diameter
of Bolt.
Stress due to
Screwing up s ion V.
lbs.
3,600
4,200
4,800
5»400
6,000
6,600
7,200
8,400
9,600
Maximum Net Test
Net Test
s,+s
s
Load->*^
Load=^
H
H
lbs.
lbs.
31648
2,736
2.31
5»844
4,383
1.96
8,502
6,376
1-75
Mi256
8,442
1.64
» 5*582
11,686
1.51
20,088
15*066
1.44
24,000
18,000
1.4
33»36o
25,020
^•34
46,080
34,560
1.28
The test loads given in the third column may be adopted
when there is a reasonable certainty of the bolts being
screwed up so as each to take an equal share of the whole
90 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
load ; but in general it will be more judicious to limit the
test load to the amount given in the fourth column.
Besides being of sufficient strength to resist the maximum
load which can be brought on them in ordinary work, the
bolts of a joint must also be capable of binding the joint
surfaces together with sufficient force to ensure its water-
tightness. It is to be observed, however, in this connection,
that the water-tightness of a joint does not depend wholly
on its forcible compression by means of the bolts and nuts.
In the case of a paint joint the adhesion of the paint to the
surfaces assists in preventing the passage of water, and in
the case of a properly formed guttapercha or leather joint
the internal water pressure, acting on the more or less
yielding joint packing, assists in rendering the joint water-
tight. The initial screwing up of the bolts must, however,
put a sufficient pressure on the joint surfaces to bring into
play and supplement these assistant actions. It may be
taken as a good empirical rule that the pressure on the joint
surfaces due to the screwing up of the bolts should be at
least equal in intensity per square inch of joint surface to the
hydraulic pressure under which the joint is required to be
water-tight. This may be expressed symbolically in the
form
if Si be the whole area of the joint. Hence there is a
certain limiting relation between the area of the joint
surface and that of the surface exposed to water pressure
for each diameter of bolt. If the limiting relation be ex-
ceeded, it will not be practicable for a workman, using an
ordinary length of spanner and exerting an ordinary amount
of pressure on the end of the spanner, to bring the surfaces
together with sufficient force to ensure the water-tightness
of the joint. The limiting ratio of Si to S is obviously, with
the data assumed in Table V., equal to the number in the
second column divided by the number in the fourth. The
PIPE JOINTS.
91
coneeponding ratio of the whole surface to the outside of
the joint to the surface exposed to pressure inside the joint
or ? is given in column 5 of Table V.
Joints such as those illustrated by Fig. 47 are, however,
suitable only for low pressures. For medium and high
pressures it is necessary to confine the joint material when
used in grooves or recesses, in order that the internal pres-
sure may be prevented from forcing it out, and also to take
advant^e of the effect of that pressure in addmg to the
Fig. 48.
water-tightness of the joint in the manner to which we have
already alluded. The principles and data which we have
exhibited above will still, however, be applicable, as will be
readily understood, and maybe directly applied to determine
the necessary number and dimensions of the bolts.
As a first illustration, we will take the well-known double-
lu^ed Armstrong pipe joint (Fig. 48), so largely used for
medium pressures of 500 lbs. to 800 lbs. per square inch.
In this joint a recess about ^ inch wide is turned in the
end of one pipe and a corresponding projection on the end
92 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
of the next length, which enters the recess, forming a space
dovetailed in section, in which a guttapercha ring \ inch in
diameter is placed. The flanges are drawn together and
the guttapercha ring compressed by means of two stout bolts
passing through lugs cast on the pipes, as clearly shown in
the figure. If D be the inside diameter of the pipe in
inches, we have, in this case —
4
S + Si = (D+i)2^
4
Hence ^ = -55-^
Let the test pressure of the pipes, when laid, be taken at
1,600 lbs. per square inch, then —
.^ i6oo + D2^
Z2 1=628D2
n 2
Hence, referring to Table V., for values of — , we find
j-inch bolts will suffice for pipes not exceeding /?13z.
in. diameter = 2.09 inches. The corresponding value of
-^ — = /-^ — rs-^ = 2.To. Hence the tabular value, viz.,
S (2.09)-^
2.31, is not exceeded, and there should be no difficulty in
making the joint by an ordinary amount of screwing up.
Similarly, 2-inch bolts will suffice for pipes not exceeding
x/fT^ in. diameter, or 7.42 inches. For pipes of this
diameter -1- — = ( -^) = 1.29, and the tabular value, viz.,
S V7-42/
T.28, is slightly exceeded, a result which may be taken as
indicating 7 or 8 inches as about the limit beyond which
it is not desirable to employ so small a number as two bolts
to make the joint. Proceeding as above, we find —
J-JD. bolU tuitable for pipes ni
exceeding a.09 in. diameter.
a.64
3«9
3-«7
4-31
4-9
S-3S
6.31
7.41
The lugs may be made ij times the diameter of the bolt
in thickness, or a little more — a usual practice in the case of
5-inch pipes, forinstance,
being to make the pipes
1 inch thick in the barrel,
the bolts I J inches dia-
meter, and the iugs 2{
inches thick. The test
pressure for such pipes
before being laid is
usually 3,500 lbs. per
square inch, or some-
what in excess of that
given in Table II., in
which the test pressure
for a pipe 5 inches dia-
meter and I inch thick
is given as i ton per
square inch.
Fig. 49 illustrates a
form of joint similar to
the Armstrong jiipe joint,
but in which a flat strip of guttapercha is employed
instead of a round one as a jointing material, or in
place of guttapercha a leather annulus may be used. The
Kig. 49.
94 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
packing ring is here completely enclosed in a recess, and
the joint may be used for the highest attainable pressures.
The width of the groove need not exceed f inch in any case,
and may, where desirable, be even less ; and its depth may
be J inch.
If D be the diameter of the pipe, the outer diameter of
the groove may be D + 1^ inches, and its inner diameter
D + ^ inch.
S will then be = (D + ^f-, and
4
S + Siwillbe = (D + il)2-
4
Hence ^-±8.= fD+^iV ^ ^.^D + sV
S VD + i; V4D + 2>''
and the test stress on each bolt is —
(2 D+i)2 , ^
n being the number of bolts, and / the test pressure in
pounds per square inch, as above.
In the case of this description of joint it will not be profit-
able to employ large diameters of bolts for pipes of small
diameters, for the reason that if a sufficient number of bolts
be employed to enable a workman with an ordinary length
of spanner and ordinary exertion to screw up the joint suffi-
ciently tight to prevent leakage, large bolts, in the case of
small pipes, will have an excess of strength to resist the
additional stress brought on them by the water pressure.
The limiting diameter of pipe for which a particular size of
bolt is suitable will be found by equating
\4D + 2/
for this particular form of joint to the corresponding value
PIPE JOINTS. 95
in column 5 of Table V., and hence determining D. Pro-
ceeding in this manner, we find that —
3-in. bolts should not be used for pipes of less than 1.375 in. diam.
* J
s.o
li
2.17
li
2.78
If
3.25
Ij
3.6
Ij
4.2s
2 ,
5.22
The thickness of the flanges of pipes of the type illustrated
by Fig. 49 is more properly a function of the diameter and
pitch of the bolts than of the thickness of the pipe metal.
The following is a rule which may be used with advantage
to determine the proper thickness of the flange. Let d^ be
the diameter of the bolts in eighths of an inch, and c the
pitch or distance between the centres of two adjacent bolts,
measured along the arc of the circle of bolt centres in inches,
then the thickness of the flange should not be less than
vm
the width of the flange (dimension a, in Fig. 49) being
equal to
^8+3
Hence we obtain the dimensions tabulated in Table VI. for
joints of the type illustrated by Fig. 49.
If the thickness of flange, as given by the table, for any
particular case be less than the thickness of the barrel or
body of the pipes, the thickness of the flange should be
made greater than that given in the table, or say not less
than the thickness of the pipe.
96
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Table VI.
Dimensions of Circular Flangbs of Cast-Iron Pipes with
tongued and grooved joints.
Thickness op Flangb in Inchss.
Diameter
Width
of
Flange
of
Bolts.
Pitch op Bolts in Inchss.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
12
In.
Id.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
{
H
I.16
I
.9
.82
.76
• • •
• • •
• • •
i
»i
1-43
1.23
I. II
1. 01
.94
.88
• • •
• • B
I
2J
1-7
1.48
1.33
1.21
1. 12
1.05
I
• • •
li
3
2
1-73
;.f
1.42
I-3I
123
1. 16
I
li
3i
• • •
2.01
1.65
1.52
1.42
1.35
I. 16
li
3i
• • •
2.3
2.05
1.88
1.73
1.63
1-53
1-33
14
3|
• • •
• • •
2.33
2.13
1.97
1.84
1.73
;i6
1}
4i
• • •
• ■ •
2.88
2.63
2.43
2.27
2.15
2
4S
• • •
• • •
■ • •
3.17
2.94
2.74
2.59
2.24
The strength of flat cover plates is open to considerable
doubt, but the following formulae give results which are
found efficient in practice —
dfi
/=W/x.i,
in which d is the distance between the centres of bolt holes
in inches, / thickness of plate in inches, / the stress in tons
per square inch to which the metal is to be stressed, W is the
total load on the cover in tons, and / the inside diameter of
the spigot.
According to the above rule, the cover for a 6-inch cylin-
der of a hotel lift working at 750 lbs. per square inch requires
to be about 2 inches thick —
PIPE JOINTS. 97
* =10.5*,/= .9 ton (from Table I.), W=i2.6 tons, /=7".
.2
10.5 XI' ^ ^
^ X .9= 12.6 X 7 X.I.
6
By Grashofs rule —
= 2.3 .
where r is the radius in inches, and / the pressure per
square inch in tons, so that
/= \/2.7 = 1.7".
Flat cylinder ends are only suitable for very small sizes
and low pressures, owing to their great thickness for mode-
rate strength. For large cylinder covers the dished form is
generally employed and shown in Fig. 16 {an/e) and Fig.
50. When there is a joint, as in Fig. 50, the rise V should
be about one quarter the diameter, and the thickness of
the cover the same as the sides of a cylinder of diameter /.
The cover and cylinder will then have about equal strength.
The question of bolts has been already dealt with.
Fig. 51 illustrates the old method of joint for a long
hydraulic main, while the more modern method adopted by
the London Hydraulic Power Company is shown in side
elevation and section in Fig. 52. The joints are of the
spigot and faucet type, turned up with a V groove, in which
is inserted an indiarubber or guttapercha ring. The pipes
are made in about 9-foot lengths, and are held together by
the bolts passing through the lugs at the end of each length.
In the old form of pipes the face of the lugs was nearly
flush with the end of the pipe ; but in this new form shown
in Fig. 52 the lugs are set back some distance from the end,
G
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
an improvement which has been found to i
strength some 35 per cent, very few failures of lugs having
occurred since this form was introduced by the Company,
Fig. 50.
whereas with the old type of lugs failures were not un-
common. Fig. 53 is a full size section of the rubber ring
when compressed in the V groove.
Fig. 54 illustrates the ordinary socket and spigot joint
used in long mains, in which the pressure does not exceed
250 lbs. per square inch. After placing the spigot end of
one length in the socket end of another, and ramming into
Fig- SI.
the bottom of the socket some greased hemp, the joint is
made by pouring in molten lead. The lead by running
into the groove a round the inside of the socket prevents
the pressure from forcing the plug of lead out. If the main
is intended for a permanency, the socket may be filled with
a rust joint cement in place of lead. A good joint compo-
sition is as follows: — 2 parts by weight of sal-ammoniac,
lOO HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
I part flour of sulphur, 200 parts iron borings ; the whole
made to 3. paste with water. This mixture makes a lasting
cement, although a slowly setting one, and is one not to be
used when the pipe is required for immediate service.
Fig- 53-
The drawback to a rust-joint is that the pipes must be
broken if any alteration to the main is required, as the
cement sets harder than cast iron, if properly made, whereas
with a joint made with lead the lead can be cut out if the
joint is to be broken. In socket and spigot jointed mains
Pig. 54-
it is a good practice to put flange joints every 100 or 150
feet run for the convenience of alterations or repairs.
When a pipe main is laid on the surface of the ground,
exposed to the varying temperature between day and night,
expansion joints (Fig. 55) are sometimes put in the main
PIPE JOINTS.
lOI
at intervals of 400 to 500 feet to obviate the tendency to
crack, and to prevent the creeping of the joints, which
commonly causes leaks.
The expansion joint shown in Fig. 55 is formed by turn-
ing the spigot end of one length of pipe to work through a
bored gland and stuffing box cast on the socket end of
another length of pipe. The gland and stuffing box are
bushed with gun-metal, and the gland packed with hemp in
the usual way. In an exposed main it is necessary to anchor
the stuffing box length of pipe firmly to a concrete or stone
block to prevent its tendency to creep. Especially is this
necessary if the main is on an incline instead of lying
horizontally, for gravity will then assist the creep of the
pipe down the incline.
Fig. 55.
An exposed main of cast-iron piping, some 500 feet long,
will vary on the average i inch in its length between mid-
day and midnight in the summer season ; but this amount
of expansion will be reduced to about .3 inch if a stream of
cold water be kept rapidly and continuously running through
the pipe.
It is not always possible or convenient to arrange cast-
iron mains or conduits for conveying the hydraulic pressure,
in which case it is desirable to be able to attach, at any re-
quired position upon the pipe employed, a means of connect-
ing one portion with another, or of attaching a branch to the
main supply.
I02
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Pipes of wrought iron, steel, or copper, under 3 inches
diameter, may be very readily jointed together for low pres-
sure by means of a right and left hand screw coupling socket
nut, which draws the ends together into metallic contact ;
^////y///////j
\VsS\\v\VV\v.V
V/////////////A
Fig. 56.
^\\VVV\\\\\\V\'^
the end of one pipe being turned truly flat, and the other to
a truly sharp edge, as shown in Fig. 56. The objection to
this mode of coupling arises from the difficulty experienced
>»vy>!y:ryyy>^>y^vv>y/x '•••^•••••yyy»x^vi^^<5»
}•
:i
I
5
Fig. 57.
in releasing the pipes, it being impossible to undo the joints
unless the pipes have room to separate when the nut is un-
screwed, which, in many cases, would be quite impracticable.
A similar mode of jointing is shown in Fig. 57, in which a
PIPE JOINTS.
103
rubber ring is inserted to make the joint, but of course the
same objection applies in this case as to the former joint.
The more common, although more costly, method of
jointing pipes is illustrated at Fig. 58.
The end of one pipe is screwed to receive a collar a, and
before this collar is placed upon the screwed portion a nut
B is passed over the pipe, so
that the nut is then made,
as itwere, a part of the pipe.
The end of the junction
piece, or T-piece, is also
similarly screwed, and a
leather washer is inserted
between the ends, as shown.
The connection of copper
pipes is usually effected by the method illustrated at Fig. 59,
the socket being brazed on to one and the flange brazed
on to the other end, having first been screwed on their
respective pipes.
104 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
PIPE JOINTS.
105
With the application of hydraulic power to cranes, rivet-
ing machinery, etc., swivelling or turning joints for the
walking pipes are a necessity. Fig. 60 illustrates a gun-
Fig. 62.
metal right-angle swivelling connection for a pressure of not
more than 700 or 800 lbs. per square inch. It consists of
a flanged pipe a turning easily in the elbow piece b, having
io6
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the stuffing box c enlarged so that the ring d may seat on
the shoulder and relieve the flange of the pipe a from any
pressure consequent upon screwing down the gland e. Fig.
6i shows the same kind of swivelling connection, but having
a hat leather packing in place of a stuffing box. Both these
Fig. 63.
types answer well, but have the one drawback of the pres-
sure acting on the sectional area of the pipe thickness and
forcing the flange of the pipe a against the ring d to an
extent which prevents this form of connection being used
for higher pressures than above stated. To obviate this the
joint shown in Fig. 6a is adapted, in which the swivelling
PIPE JOINTS.
107
piece A is packed by two U leathers b, which are kept apart
by the brass ring c, this ring being drilled with holes for the
passage of the water. The leathers are secured in their
position on the pin d by means of the washer e and nut and
cotter F. If due care is taken in its manufacture, this joint
is thoroughly reliable, with pressures up to i,6oo lbs. per
square inch, and lasts a long time before requiring renewal
of the packing. Fig. 63 illustrates a similar connection, but
with plain leather washers for packing in place of the U
leathers as shown in Fig. 62. The swivelling piece a has a
shallow stuffing box b at each end, for which the rings c c
act as the glands, these glands being fitted with pegs so as
to turn with the piece a, and they can be tightened up by
means of the locking nut D.
Fig. 64 shows a swivelling joint suitable for a pressure of
3 to 4 tons per square inch, in which hat leather packings
are employed. The hollow pin or pipe c has an enlai^ed
end at B round which the joint a revolves, and is secured
from sliding endways by the set collar e. Sometimes the
I08 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
hollow pin or pipe c has the swell b made the whole width
of the turning joint a, in which case two set collars are
required, one at each side of the turning joint, and close
to the gland nuts, to retain the joint a in position. This
last arrangement has the advantage that it permits of the
introduction of fresh leathers without disconnecting the
pipe c.
PART IV,— VALVES,
CHAPTER VIII.
CONTROLLING VALVES.
Of all the auxiliary mechanism employed in hydraulic
power works the valves are the most important, for on
their efficient working depends the success of the under-
taking.
The design of valves for hydraulic machinery varies accord-
ing to the purposes for which that machinery is intended,
and the constant applications for patents in connection with
hydraulic valves must be taken as evidence of the import-
ance of the subject, and at the same time as a proof of the
necessity for the special attention which is necessary in
designing any hydraulic valve.
In the present chapter it is intended to point out some
of the leading features that go to make a successful working
valve, and then to describe in detail some of the more
common types of valves.
Fig. 65 illustrates an ordinary form of stop valve for
medium pressures consisting of a cast-iron body a, having
lugs for connecting to the pressure pipes forming the
hydraulic main, and provided with a cap secured to the valve
body by the studs b. A hard gun-metal valve seat is screwed
into the body at c, making a tight joint by means of the
rubber ring. The cap has a tapped gun-metal bush d, in
which works the screwed stalk of the gun-metal valve
spindle £ ; the bottom of the stuffing box has a gun-metal
bush F, and a gland ring G presses upon the packing when
the cap is screwed down.
If H is the diameter of the bore in the bush, the valve
seat of which is angled off at 45"*, and the end of the
valve spindle is level with the bottom of the mitre seat
1 12 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
when the valve is shut, then the required lift of the valve
spindle E off its seat so as to have an annular space between
it and its seat equal in area to the water passage h is ■305H ;
but in order to lessen the loss of head consequent upon the
Fig. 6s.
flow of water through the valve the lift of the spindle E is
made from .37SH in large valves to .5H in small ones.
For a similar reason the sectional area of Ihe annular
space J round the spindle should not be less in width than
.375H.
In general practice it is better to shut the valve against the
CONTROLLING VALVES. II3
flow of water than with it, for the reason that the water pres-
sure on the spindle causes all backlash in the screw-threads
and other parts to be taken up before the closing of the valve.
To prevent leakage, the pressure of the spindle e upon
its micre seat c per square inch of seat surface requires to be
at least equal to the water pressure per square inch. Let H
and H, equal respectively the inner and outer diameter of the
mitre turned on the valve seat, also let / be the water pressure
per square inch and P the least total pressure on the valve
spindle e to ensure the water not leaking through, then
P = ^ x/TT = Hi2 X .7854/>.
4
We may now determine the size of a hand-wheel for, say,
a i^-inch stop valve for 750 lbs. pressure per square inch.
Let X equal the diameter of hand-wheel, and assume a man
can exert a maximum turning effort of 120 lbs. on the rim
of the hand-wheel. For a valve of this size the spindle e
would be about i^ inches diameter, and the pitch of the
1 J-inch screw cut upon the stalk about 6 threads per inch.
In ihis example there are four resistances to be overcome by
the hand-wheel, viz., P, the pressure ; the friction of the valve
when turning on its seat at the instant of closing, which,
taking .3 as the coefficient of friction, equals .3^ (H^^ - H^) - ;
4
the friction of the spindle in its stuffing box, which may be
obtained from Table IV., thus (i -.93)P; also the friction
of the screw due to the pressure P, the coefficient of friction
being in this case .15.
For one revolution of the hand-wheel the work done
amounts to 120 x ;«: x ir, which must balance the resistances :
(i.)pxr+
(2.).3/KHi«-H«)x^xirx7r+ _
4 — *
(3-) (i--93)Px4x^ +
(4.) .isPx I'xir
H
20 x ^ X ^r.
114 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Solving this equation for x we get the above example, 8.5
inches as the diameter of the hand-wheel.
In large stop valves, from about 4 inches and upwards,
it is found necessary to attach a balancing arrangement,
otherwise one man would not |be able to Open or close
them.
Fig. 66 illustrates a similar stop valve to that shown by
Fig. 65, but having its valve spindle packed by a leather lace
Pig 66
instead of the ordinary stuffing box This method of pack-
ing answers very well for valve spmdles not more than ij
inches diameter, but for diameters above ij inches the
stuffing box form of packing should be adopted.
Where a number of hydraulic tools are at work it is
advisable to put in the main a safety valve, for the simul-
taneous stopping of several tools will so suddenly check the
falling accumulator as to augment the normal pressure to a
dangerous extent unless it can find relief The safety or
CONTROLLING VALVES.
115
shock valve shown in Fig. 67 is designed for this purpose,
and consists of an ordinary cast-iron T-piece, having flanges
for bolting to the pipes forming the hydraulic main, the stalk
of the tee piece being provided with a gun-metal mitre valve
and seat, while the valve is loaded by a combined adjustable
spring and dead-weight lever. The minimum pressure is
put on by the spring by adjusting the height of the cross-
head and locking the nuts, and the additional pressure above
Fig. 67.
Fig. 68.
that of the accumulator is obtained by adjusting the position
of the weight upon the lever.
Fig. 68 illustrates a closed-up spring-loaded safety valve,
of which the body is made entirely of gun-metal with an
overflow pipe at a. The point of suspension of the spring-
loaded plate is above the plane upon which the spring bears
to ensure stable equilibrium. This form of relief valve pre-
vents any tampering with it after the spring is set to allow
the valve to lift at a given pressure.
li6
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Although safety valves relieve the pipe of stress from ex-
cess of pressure, they have the disadvantage of allowing the
water that flows through the valve to run to waste. To
obviate this the arrangement as illustrated by Fig, 69 is em-
ployed, which is called a shock or
relief valve, and consists of a closed-
up spring-loaded small ram working
through a stuffing box and gland in
a cylinder having branches for con-
necting to the pipes of the hydraulic
main. The ram is loaded by the
spring to the working pressure by
the method shown in Fig, 68, and
when the pressure through any cause
rises above the normal the ram is
raised, and thus the pipe is relieved
of any excessive stress that would
occur if there were no relief. The
spring can be either cylindrical or of
volute form, but in any case it must
be sufficiently long to admit of a large
deflection without much increase of
pressure. The apparatus is practi-
cally a small accumulator.
The London Hydraulic Power
Company place a shock valve on
~ each side of every stop valve in
their 6-inch pressure main, and in
most hydraulic plants worked by an
accumulator it is advisable to put a
shock valve in the delivery main
close to the accumulator.
In tnost forms of hydraulic machinery worked by pressure
enei^ that part of the mechanism which is acted upon
directly by the water pressure consists in some form or other
of a ram working in a cylinder tendered water-tight by means
Fig. 69.
CONTROLLING VALVES.
"7
of a hemp or leather packing, such as the ram of a press or
lift, and the function of the valve is to admit the water from
Che pressure pipe to the cylinder, and then to close the
admission when the ram has ran out sufficiently far, and
finally to open the cylinder to exhaust so that the water within
the cylinder may run to waste while the ram is returning in
Fig. 70.
most cases without hydraulic aid. The type of valve in
common use for low-pressure lifts is .shown in Fig. 70, and
is termed a rack slide valve, a is the gun-melal valve sliding
on a gun-metal face pinned to the cast-iron valve body.
The valve is worked by a rack on its upper side engaging a
pinion B, which is fast on the axle of the rope wheel f. An
ii8
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
CONTROLLING VALVES. IIQ
endless rope engages this wheel, one end of which passes
up through the cage or platform of the lift, c is the pressure
inlet, E the branch for connection to the lift cylinder, d the
outlet or exhaust, g the pressure port, always open, h the
port leading to the cylinder, and k the exhaust port. The
side of the port h opening to pressure is often cut in
the shape of a large V, so that the closing of this port to
pressure may be effected more gradually and thereby reduce
the chance of any shock. The valve is shown in the posi-
tion when the cylinder is fully open to exhaust, and on pulling
the rope so as to move the valve a to the right, the exhaust
is closed, in which position the valve face should lap at
least J inch over each side of the port h to ensure no leak-
ing. Upon moving the valve further to the right it uncovers
the port H to pressure. This form of valve is particularly
convenient for any kind of hydraulic lift or crane, as the rope
working the valve can be led away in any direction.
Sometimes small shock valves are inserted in the slide
valve body, but for low pressures the general practice is to
put an air vessel between the valve and the cylinder to reduce
the effect of shock. The rack slide valve is seldom used for
larger inlets than 3^^ to 4 inches, as the friction of the valve
on its face is then more than can conveniently be overcome
by one man, and the type of valve shown by Fig. 7 1 is then
generally adopted for low-pressure lifts. It consists of a
leather packed gun-metal piston valve d^, and rod d actuated
by a rack and pinion e and working in a gun-metal lined
cast-iron valve body, having the branches a to pressure, b to
cylinder of the lift, and c to exhaust. The gun-metal liner
has narrow vertical slots or holes cut round it, opposite the
branch b, and these slots are covered by the piston valve Dp
when in the middle of its stroke, f is the rope wheel round
which a cord is wound and led away to the lift. As the
pressure is acting on equal piston valve areas the valve is
balanced, permitting the wheel f to be easily revolved.
When the piston valve is lowered so as to uncover the top
I20 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
end of the vertical slots, the pressure passes from a along
the branch b to the cylinder, and when the piston valve is
raised so as to uncover the bottom end of the slots, the
water in the cylinder can pass by the branch b into c, and
thus to exhaust.
Slide valves cannot be successfully used for pressures
exceeding i,6oo or 1,700 lbs. per square inch, and although
many attempts have been made to automatically balance
them, failure has invariably been the result, owing to the fact
advanced at the beginning of this chapter, viz., that a valve
to be tight must be pressed upon its seat with at least an
equal pressure per square inch to that of the water.
Fig. 72 illustrates a slide valve similar in working to the
one shown in Fig. 70, but modified in design, for pressures
up to 1,600 lbs. per square inch, a is the connecting branch
to the pressure main or supply, b is the branch to the exhaust,
and c is the branch to the cylinder. This valve in the
smaller sizes is usually made of gun metal throughout, having
a loose face k pinned on to the body.
The valve rod l is enlarged in the middle of its length,
and has a hole cut in it to receive the stalk of the valve d.
The rod works through packed glands at each end, and is
so arranged that it can be withdrawn through the stuffing
box. The ports f and g, which lead into the branches b
and c, are opened and closed by the slide valve d, and the
enlarged part of the rod l prevents the valve moving too far
either way.
Should the lift or crane which is worked by this valve be
suddenly checked, when lowering with a heavy load, by
moving the valve to close the port g, the pressure in the
cylinder would be augmented above the working pressure.
This excess pressure then finds relief through the bye pas-
sage H and small flap valve e. This small valve e then
becomes a shock valve, and is usually made in the form of a
weighted leather washer, pinned or screwed to the face of
the valve body, as shown in the plan. The advantage
CONTROLLING VALVES. 121
in making the ports g circular is the possibility of a more
gradual opening and closing of the potts than is obtained
with rectangular openings
There are vanous ways of operating this valve For in
stance, the valve rod l can be connected to a rack and
worked by a pinion and rope wheel, as in Fig. 70, or it can
be readily worked by a combination of levers.
When the pressure exceeds 1,600 lbs. per situate inch the
valve should be of the design illustrated by Fig. 73, first
employed by Lord Armstrong's firm for crane purposes.
122 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The valve can be worked vertically or horizontally as may
be desired, a is the pressure inlet, b exhaust outlet, c the
passage to the press or lift cylinder ; d and e are the valve
spindles working through stuffing boxes, and closing the
ports to A and U respectively. These spindles are ke|it
down on their seats by means of the springs c and h bear-
CONTROLLING VALVES.
123
ing against the crossplate j, this latter being secured to
the valve body by two bolts. The proportions or sizes of
the springs may be determined by the method stated at the
beginning of this chapter. The valve spindles are lifted by
means of a T-shaped lever f. On pulling the lever to the
left or right the spindle valve d or e is raised, and on releas-
Fig. 74-
ing the lever the valves automatically close the pwrts. The
larger sizes of this design of valve are fitted with a small
shock relief, as already described.
For heavy pressures up to 3 and 4 tons per square inch
the simplest and most convenient type of valve is illustrated
by Fig. 74. It is usually made entirely of gun-metal, the
124 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
CONTROLLING VALVES. 12$
valve spindles a and b being packed with leather laces and
fitted with handles. In using this valve the spindle a is
opened first, admitting pressure to the cylinder of the press ;
it is then shut, and the valve spindle b opened, allowing the
water from the cylinder to exhaust, care being taken not to
have both valves open at once, or the pressure water will run
to waste. To obviate the possibility of both valves being
opened at one time the author has designed valves with
spindles placed side by side, and actuated by means of
gearing working right and left hand screwed valve stems.
A good example of a partially balanced spindle valve is
shown in Figs. 75 and 76. Fig. 75 is a sectional elevation,
and Fig. 76 the plan of Meacock's valve for admitting
the pressure to the cylinders of the two power jigger or
multiple chain lift shown in section by Fig. 77, in which c
is the inlet to the cylinder containing the small ram, and
c^ the inlet to the cylinder containing the larger ram. The
valve arrangement consists of four plug valves d d^, e e^,
which are held upon their respective seats by the water
pressure acting upon the increased area of their spindles
F F^ over the areas of the valve ports G g^ The chambers
H H^ above the spindles f f^ are charged with water. This
water has to be displaced during the rising of the plug
valves, and they can only automatically return upon their
seats as the chambers h h^ become charged with water
through the clearance effected by the diameter of the valve
stalks I i^ being less than the diameter of the passages in
which they work, thereby ensuring steady action. The
springs j j^ are for the purpose of keeping the plug valves
D D^, E E^ upon their seats when water pressure is shut off
from the supply main. The pressure inlet is marked k, and
is common to both of the valve plugs d d^. The exhaust
outlet is marked l, and serves for both the valve plugs E e^
The pipe m communicates with the internal ram b through
the inlet c, and the pipe n is connected at c^ to the cylinder
A^ containing the ram a. The valve plugs d d^, e e^ are
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
actuated by the two double
cams o o' fixed on the spindle
p. By partially rotating the
spindle p in one direction by
means of a wheel or a lever
fixed to it, the valve plug d
is raised, thereby admitting
pressure to the ram B, and
, byfurtherrotatingthe spindle
p the valve plug d is liberated
by means of the slipping hnk
Q, when it automatically seats
Itself, thereby closing com
munication to the ram b
During this time the cam
raises the valve plug d', so
that the annular area of the
ram a is admitted to pressure
For raismg a maximum load
a third movement of the cam
again raises the valve plug d,
at the same time retaining the
valve plug d' open, both rams
now being subjected to pres-
sure.
If the spindle p is turned
in the opposite direction, thus
causing the cams to operate
upon the exhaust valve plugs
E e', either the small cylinder
B or large cylinder .\' may be
opened to exhaust, or by a
further movement both may
be opened. By this means
a great economy of pressure
water is effected.
CONTROLLING VALVES. 12/
An arrangement of four slide valves may be used in place
of the four spindle valves just described, as shown in sec-
tional elevation and plan in Figs. 78 and 79. The slides are
made to automatically cover the ports leading to the cylin-
ders A^ B by the pressure acting upon the valve spindles
D D^, E E^, as shown at r r^ These slides are caused to open
the ports to admit pressure to the cylinders a^ b, or to put
them to exhaust by the action of the pair of double cams o o^
fixed upon the spindle p, and operating in a similar manner
to that described for the opening of the plug valves. The
inlet K is connected to the pressure main, and the outlet l to
the exhaust, while the pipe m communicates with the inlet c,
and the pipe n with the inlet c^
Brindley's patent water pressure balanced pilot valve
controlling a larger main valve is employed with advantage
when a small movement is desirable for the operating lever
as in connection with riveting plants and hydraulic presses.
A convenient form of valve for use in connection with
presses, cranes, lifts, and other pressure machinery is that
shown in Fig. 80, a production of Messrs George Scott &
Son of London and Liverpool, the valve being patented,
and consisting of a casing in which there is one spindle,
one stuffing box, and one lever, and no weights, b is the
inlet for pressure water, e the outlet for exhaust, c the
connection to the machine. The water entering at b
passes beneath the mitred valve into the machine. This
valve being raised by the lever which moves the cam h,
the exhaust valve is actuated in the same manner, and it
will be seen that both valves cannot be opened simul-
taneously while both can be closed at once ; in order to
keep the two valves closed when not opened by the cam
the pressure water is turned on to the tops of both valves,
leakage being prevented by leathers p as shown. Thus
when the valves are open they are in equilibrium, but when
closed they have ample power behind them to keep them
so, being at the same time proportioned so as to relieve
r28 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
any sudden heavy pressure set up by shock on the lam.
The springs are inserted simply to overcome the clasping
or sticking tendencies of the leathers. These valves work
very efficiently, and having few moving parts, are most
readily controlled.
Controlling valveS.
(29
The same type of valve is used with four or more spindles
instead of two when greater area is required.
A hydraulic valve having a central plug or spindle in
which the water passages are formed in a manner to avoid
the cutting of the leathers is shown at Fig. 8i. The
spindle is made to work between bushes, perforated holes
forming the water passages to enable the water to travel
from the miet through and out through the opening to
the press, or to pass from the press and out through the
lower opening to the exhaust, the water being kept within
the valve chamber by means of the cup leathers placed in
a position to prevent the wear taking place such as results
when the leathers are formed upon the moving spindle.
130
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Berry's patent valve is shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84, in
which the valve spindles are moved by means of a hand
lever and a cam or tappet spindle, a is an inlet passage
to the valve box from the accumulator, and c' an outlet
passage from the box to the accumulator. ^ is an outlet
passage from the valve box to the cylinder of the hoist, and
(^ an inlet passage from the hoist cylinder to the valve
box. ^ is a passage connecting a and c, and d a passage
connecting a' and f'. e is an auxiliary or actuating valve
for shutting olT communication from the passage a to h, and
/is a non-return valve for shutting off communication from
the passage <: \o k g is an actuating valve for shutting
off communication from the passage c^ to d, and A is a
similar non-return valve for shutting off communication
from the passage a' to d. When the handle j is raised
in the direction shown by the arrow, the valve e admits
water from the accumulator to the passage b. The water
forces the valve / upwards and gains admittance to the
passage c, and thence to the cylinder of the hoist raising
the unloaded platform. When the platform is at the proper
height the handle J is brought back into the horizontal
position, and the valves/and e fall on to their seats. The
load is then run on to the hoist, so that the back pressure
CONTROLLING VALVES.
131
from the hoist exceeds that in the accumulator. This
pressure would raise the valve e, but is prevented by the
non-return valve / As soon as the load is ready to be
lowered, the handle / is moved in the opposite direction,
raising the valve g, and ad>
mitting the water from the
hoist cylinder through the
passage ^ to the passage d,
and the water having a greater
pressure than in the accumu-
lator, forces up the valve A,
and returns along a' to the
accumulator as the load de-
scends.
The passages a a' may be connected together so that
only one pipe may be required to the accumulator, and
similarly the passages i: c^ may be arranged so that only
one pipe shall go to the hoist cylinder when simplicity of
connection is desired.
Fig. 84.
Fig. 85.
Fielding's valve, illustrated in Figs. 85, 86, 87, has a
working piston on which are threaded packing leathers,
these leathers being held in position by collars or distance
pieces. In the outer body there are four annular chambers
132
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
separated from each other by pressure tight joints made by
shoulders upon the inner bush. The first and the third
chambers are connected to the cylinder of the machine to
be worked, the second is the pressure inlet, and the fourth
the outlet branch. The ports are formed by drilling a
number of small holes in the inner bush opposite the second
3
Fig. 86.
and third chambers. A similar passage is formed opposite
the first chamber, the holes in this case being larger and
fewer in number. The fourth chamber may be made open
to one end of the inner bush. The movement of the piston
is made by a lever or any other suitable means.
Fig. 87.
Bjornstad's valve is shown in Fig. 88, in which a piston
is moved in a barrel covering and uncovering the ports that
communicate from the pressure at a to the cylinder at a^,
or from the latter to the exhaust at a*, cup leathers being
formed with their outer lips turned inwards and supported
by metallic parts of the valve so as to prevent the edges of
the leather being torn when passing over the ports.
CONTROLLING VALVES. I33
Brindley's valve is shown at Fig. 89, in which a central
hollow working plug or stem e forms the pressure valve, the
upper end being enlarged as
shown. Around the smaller
portion of the hollow stem a
sleeve f is placed to form the
exhaust valve. In this ar-
rangement the pressure valve
or stem forms a hollow core
which passes through the
sleeve - like exhaust valve.
The pressure enters at b, and
passes to the cylinder at c, and
from thence to the exhaust at
D. The seat is formed by the
plug c, around which is placed
a leather, this plug being ad-
justable and removable.
Around the upper end of
the reduced portion of the
valve stem a screwed or threaded collar H is placed, which
is prevented from revolving by set pins carried upon the
body of the valve, and below this collar is the loose sleeve
Fig- S9.
134 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
F forming the exhaust valve, and which is provided with an
enlarged lower end to seat against the face formed at the
bottom of the central passage within the valve body. When
this exhaust valve is depressed or moved off its seat the
water from the branch c connected to the machine is free
to pass into the exhaust branch or outlet connection d. A
nut lever j upon the screwed collar is turned for raising or
lowering the collar, the nut being kept in position between
two bosses or shoulders formed upon the casing of the valve.
When the lever is moved in one direction the pressure valve
is raised from its seat, and when moved in the opposite
direction the exhaust is depressed from its seat, the springs
K and L being placed to assist in retaining the valves against
their seats and for resisting shocks.
Brindley's patent valve, shown in Figs. 90, 91, 92, is used
in positions where a very easily manipulated valve is re-
quired, by causing one pilot or small valve to control the
movement or operation of the main valve. The main
admission valve a is constructed of two diameters, the
larger forming a piston sliding in the chamber x, the smaller
forming the valve face, having suitable packings within
the valve casing through which it works. The valve face
formed at the bottom of a controls the passage of pressure
liquid from the supply pipe f through the short port y into
the pipe or conduit j communicating with the machine
to be operated. The piston of the valve a, when in the
position shown, has a space z between it and the valve
chest to permit cushioning, and at its upper side has
another space which communicates through the valve by
the ports r s into the chamber y, to which the supply pipe
is secured, and it also communicates by the passage e with
the chamber of the pilot valve c.
Attached to the piston portion of the valve a is a spindle
L passing through a cover e^ on the top of the valve chest,
the spindle being controlled by an external spring in such a
manner that normally the admission valve a is lifted up
CONTROLLING VALVES.
135
fram its seat The pilot valve c controls the passage of
liquid from the chamber in which it works through the
passage D into the conduit feeding the machine, and this
valve Q is operated by a cam carried upon the handle shaft
K. The guide stem B on the valve c is of smaller diameter
than the guide stem a on the lower portion, in order that
the pressure in the valve chamber may act to keep the pilot
valve closed. The- exhaust valve B is of two diameters, the
Fig. 90.
Fig. 91.
larger working in a chamber x', the smaller being formed to
close the opening to the exhaust passage c, but when open
allowing this passage to communicate with the conduit j.
A second pilot valve is arranged so that when lifted it
allows the space above the piston of the valve b to com-
municate by a passage E^ and D^ with the exhaust pipe c.
In this exhaust valve ports s' and r^ lead through the main
valve from the chamber communicating with the conduit ].
136 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The exhaust valve b is normally lifted up by a spindle pass-
ing through the valve cover and held by an external spring ;
a cam placed upon the hand lever shaft controls the lifting
of the second pilot valve. The hand lever or cam shaft is
arranged so that the cams control the pilot valves upon the
single handle being moved.
The action of the valve is such that when both pilot
valves are closed the pressure supply passes from f into the
chamber v and through the
ports R s into the chamber X,
thus acting upon the piston
portions of the valve a, forc-
ing it on to its seat to close
the passage from f to the con-
duit J. Similarly the exhaust
valve B closes the passage
from the supply J to the
branch G by the pressure
from the fluid in the conduit
Y passing through the passages s' r' to the top of the piston.
When the lever is moved to lift the stem of the admission
pilot valve c, then the pressure which has accumulated over
the piston portion of the valve a passes by the passage E
through the pilot valve box into j, thus removing the pressure
from the top of the piston and allowing the spring to open
the valve a for placing the admission pipe in communi-
cation with the branch j. The exhaust valve is controlled
in a similar manner by the pressure being taken from the
upper side of the piston head of the valve and turned into
the passage d' beneath the valve, thus allowing the spring to
draw the valve from its seal and place the exhaust branch in
free communication with j.
Berry's patent safety non-return valve is shown in Fig.
93, arranged so that if a reduction of pressure in the main
occurs or the main fractures, the valve closes and retains the
pressure in the cylinder or machine that is being supplied,
CONTROLLING VALVES.
>3>
thus preventing the rams in the cylinder moving backwards.
The pressure enters at 7 and passes through valve 3 to
the outlet branch 8. When the fluid is admitted to the
working cylinder through the port 7, the valve 3 is lifted.
When the actuating valve is moved to exhaust, the fluid in
the working cylinder begins
to move in the opposite direc-
tion acting on the top of the
collar 2, closes it and its valve
3 on to its seat, thus stopping
the exhaust; but on the at-
tendant operating the foot
lever of the auxiliary valve in
connection with the cylinder
20, the ram 19 raises the
valve 3, thus allowing the
pressure to escape. If a
fracture occurs in the pres-
sure mains between the main
stop-cock and the pressure
cylinder, the valve 3 closes,
retaining the fluid, which,
however, can be discharged
at will by admitting pressure
beneath the ram 19.
Middleton's patent controlling valve is shown at Figs.
94 and 95, the valve being of a slide or D-pattern, and
being employed for distributing water to two divisions of
cylinders. Two valves are mounted upon one stem, and are
arranged to supply one or both cylinders as may be desired.
The main valve a and the secondary valve b are mounted on
the same valve spindle c. The first movement of the valve
rod pushes the valve a and opens the primary valve ports
only without moving the secondary valve; a ^further move-
ment of the valve rod in the same^di recti on causes the play
or space at x to be taken up, which then opens the secondary
Fig- 93-
138 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
valve ports, thus turning power into the second or other
cylinders as may be required. The operation is such that
when the valves have not only shut off the power water from
n
3'
alt the cylinders and have opened Ihe cylinders to the exhaust
in the position shown, lifting of the load will be effected by
the valve rod being moved a short distance only, so as to
open the supply ports to the cylinder or cylinders fed by the
primary valve a. If Ihe load be a light one, the hoist will
ascend without further attention ; but if it be too heavy, and
CONTROLLING VALVES. 1 39
the hoist remains stationary, the attendant pulls the valve
over, and thus draws the secondary valve b so as to open its
supply p>ort, supplying power to the secondary cylinders, and
thus effecting the movement of the load.
This type of valve is useful for double power cranes or
lifts where two or more cylinders have to be used for varying
loads.
PART V,— LIFTING MACHINERY,
CHAPTER IX.
PLATFORM LIFTS.
One of the most popular applications of hydraulic power is
connected with lifting machinery, when passengers or goods
are raised from floor to floor of lofty warehouses, or for
general manufacturing premises. The question of correct
working is greatly misunderstood, and what is far more serious
the safety of such lifts is only too often a matter quite ignored
by those responsible for the working of the machines. It is
said that any person can construct a lift, for the pressure is on
the water, and the only thing remaining for the constructor
is to make a simple machine to transform this pressure into
mechanical power. Then again, too, safety appliances are
mentioned as being specially provided to meet any emergency
which is likely to arise, so that the possibility of danger
or accidental occurrence is a matter to be treated with
equanimity by those about to trust their lives in such
machines ; whereas the fact is only too painfully advertised
that but few persons can properly construct and erect a lift
which is at once economical, safe, and simple in principle.
There is probably no piece of machinery subject to more
unfair usage and more rough and careless handling than
the hydraulic lift, for it is to be everybody's assistant, and
every one handles it in a manner that he or she considers
to be the best way. We have known valves to be pulled
violently backwards and forwards by warehouse and factory
lads and girls, causing shocks and strains to be given to all
parts of the machinery, which have produced permanent
injury and sometimes disaster; while in many cases fatal
accidents, attributed to the lift, and reported as "another
144 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
lift accident " in the daily journals, may be clearly traced to
reckless and contributory negligence on the part of those
injured. Similarly, the so-called safety appliances seldom
prove of service in the cheap and common lift, for being
always in a stationary or fixed position during the normal
working, ihey get quite stiff, rusty, and clogged up with
dirt and grease, and refuse to act when suddenly they are
liberated after long standing unused.
To be of any practical or real service as safeguards, the
appliances which are supposed to arrest the motion of the
cage or lift platform when an accident occurs, such as the
severing of a cable or chain, or the disconnection of a ram,
should always be in actual use or work. They should form
the absolute and definite base upon which the motion of the
car or platform depends, so that in the event of any failure
occurring the gear at once comes into play, and does
its part promptly and well. When this condition of con-
struction is more fully understood, we shall hear less of such
accidents, which have made life-users tremble in the past,
and which have caused the demands to be made for com-
pulsory registration of all passenger hoists and lifts. The
author considers that every lift should be under the super-
vision of the Board of Trade, and licensed before being
allowed to carry passengers.
There is in many minds a strong prejudice against being
pulled up by any mechanical appliance used in connection
with hoists and lifts, while the same feeling does not appear
to be induced when the persons are pushed up. Thus it
is that nervous persons entering a lift, which is suspended
by chains or ropes, sometimes reflect as to what will happen
to them in the event of such chains or ropes giving way or
failing. They do not allow any feeling or question of failure
to trouble them when they are unable to see the mechanism
which operates the lift ; they simply conclude that it is
something they cannot understand, because it is not imme-
diately before their eyes. To this class of person a ram lift
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 45
is quite safe, and greatly to be preferred to any suspended
type; whereas the fact remains on record that the most
serious accident which has happened to any public lift
occurred upon a direct-acting or ram lift. There are elements
of danger everywhere, but probably the safest place in the
world, taking the number of persons carried into account,
and the careless handling that controls the working of lifts
generally, is a car of a modem high-class suspended elevator.
A good lift provides for every contingency which can
befall it : excessive speed, overloading, failure of the valve,
breakage of the ram or suspending cables — all of these are
properly anticipated by the high-class maker ; but, as in the
case of every refinement, they have to be paid for in the
first instance. Here it is that cheap and common lifts come
in and secure a market ; they are capable of raising as much
load, and at as quick a speed, as the good and safe lift, while
they cost about 50 per cent. less. The manufacturer who
would scorn to ride in a vehicle which did not possess
absolute strength and finish in all its parts, and who would
not countenance any suggestion that unlicensed vehicles
should ply for public hire, does not hesitate to erect in his
manufactory the cheapest lift that he can buy, knowing also
at the same time that the elements of safety are not provided
for in the common class of lift. Government inspection
should protect the workpeople when the indifference of the
employer fails to do so.
In our description of lifts, we shall divide them into the
two before-mentioned classes, viz., direct-acting or ram lifts,
and suspended lifts. These two classes are often spoken of
according to the kind of balance employed, as a weight-
balanced ram lift, or hydraulic-balanced ram lift. There
are four leading styles of balancing arrangements in vogue
for lifts ; the two styles most often used are known as the
dead weight and the hydraulic balance, while the two less
frequently used are the combined weight and compensating
balance and the combined hydraulic and compensating
K
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 47
balance, the word compensating being used to indicate that
the balancing arrangement provides for the varying water
displacement of the lift ram while moving in or out of the
cylinder.
The conditions that determine the description or style of
lift most economical to adopt to meet given requirements
are in themselves of such a varying nature as not to admit
of classification, depending as they do upon the weight to
be lifted, the nature of the weight, the height of lift, the
kind of building it is to work in, the nature of the ground
the building stands upon, the water pressure at the base-
ment of discharged level, also whether the lift can be worked
by an engine and pumps. Generally loads of from 3 tons
and upwards are most conveniently dealt with by a ram lift ;
for lighter loads a suspended lift may be used. It is not
usual to put a compensating balance to suspended lifts or
ram lifts of short travel, but they are of great economy in
a ram lift of long travel, say from 30 feet and upwards,
especially when the working pressure in the lift cylinder is
small.
Figs. 96 and 97 are a sectional elevation and plan of a
dead-weight balanced ram lift for a warehouse consisting of
a wooden platform with guard rail upon three of its sides ;
the platform is bolted to joist or girder iron, and mounted
upon a cast-iron platten a. The platten is strongly bolted
to the end of a truly turned and polished ram b, made up
in lengths of cast-iron piping joined together by screwed
nipples c, the pipe ends being tapped to receive them. A
blank flange is bolted to the end of the last length of piping
to form the end of the ram. The cylinder is made by
bolting together pipe lengths d, with a blank flange at the
end, the upper end being bolted to the foundation plate e,
which is cast with a recess forming an annular space round
the ram in excess of that between the ram and cylinder.
The foundation plate is provided with a flange to which is
bolted the stuffing box, and it also carries the branch to
148
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
which can be attached, in most cases direct, the valve f.
The rope g from the valve wheel passes round pulleys and up
each front corner of the well-hole. Clips are attached to the
rope at positions near to the highest and lowest positions of
the ram against which a striking bar connected to the lift
platform can act, so that when the ram nears its extreme
position at the top or bottom of its travel the valve is auto-
matically closed to pressure or exhaust respectively. The
^'
^
J.
4
\
•tr'
1..
<>
•T
J.
I
-^'-.rfl
M
?^iri"*'; %."« :<•?: »
TT
Fig. 97.
slippers or runners which work against the guides are generally
cast iron, made an easy fit upon the guides h, which may
be made of hardwood, planished bar or T-iron, and are
firmly secured to the walls of the well-hole. The adjustable
balance weights k are placed in cast-iron frames. These
frames run upon T-iron or other guides bolted to the wall
of the well-hole, and are connected to the lift by means of
wire ropes or chains passing over pulleys on opposite sides
at the top of the well-hole.
It is convenient at this point to call the attention of the
PLATFORM LIFTS.
149
reader to a few points in lift design, which materially ajfect
the working arrangements when a load is wheeled on to the
platform of the lift ; the weight first comes upon the edge
of the platform, tending to tilt it, the ram resists this tilting
action by a bending stress on cross-sectional planes, and the
resistance of the ram to cross breaking ought to be some
tig. 98.
six to eight times as much as the stress induced by placing
the whole load lifted at the most distant edge of the
platform.
Assuming the working pressure to be high, and the ram
consequently small, the size of the ram would be insufficient
to resist the bending stress induced by the tilting of the
platform, and a wrought-iron braced framing l {Fig. 98)
ISO HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
must be provided to carry the platform, having the guides
placed close to the top and bottom of the framing. The
tilting of the platform is now resisted by the guides, leaving
the ram to support the dead load only.
When a cage or cabin is used in place of a platform, this
braced iron framing is not needed, the bracing in the cage
or cabin being sufficient to prevent bending of the ram.
In making a long ram, by jointing together lo or 12 foot
lengths of piping, the connecting nipples should be so
screwed as to leave some 3 inches in the middle of their
length plain, and the inside thread at the end of the pipe
lengths should be turned off for a distance of if inches from
the end, and made a good fit on the unscrewed part of the
nipple. After screwing the pipe lengths together, the ends
of each length should be drilled, the hole rhymered, and
a steel pin driven or screwed in to prevent the nipple from
unscrewing.
For the purpose of calculation, the diameter of such a
ram built up with lengths of pipes, and considered as a
long column supporting a load, may be taken very approxi-
mately as equal to half the sum of the diameter of the
nipple at the bottom of its thread and the out-diameter of
the pipe of which the ram is made. In small diameter
rams, as shown in Fig. 98, the screwed nipple is turned out
of the solid ram, and its diameter may be .66 to .70, the
diameter of the ram. If therefore it is required to ascertain
the supporting strength of the ram as shown in Fig. 98, the
equivalent diameter of a long solid column of equal strength
would be ^ — to —^ or .83 to .85 times the diameter of
2 2
the jointed or built up ram.
In many ram lifts the pressure or junction pipe from the
valve connects direct to the side of the cylinder, and in
order that the full waterway of the pipe may be utilised the
clearance between the ram and the cylinder should not be less
than quarter the diameter of this junction pipe ; thus with
PLATFORM LIFTS. IS I
a 2, 3, and 4 inch junction pipe the clearance between the
ram and the cyh'nder requires to be ^, |, and i inch respec-
tively. A 1-inch clearance makes a very large cylinder, and
as }-inch clearance is sufficient for all rams of medium size,
and of any run out, it is most economical to cast an enlarge-
ment or recess round the bore-hole at the bottom or under-
side of the foundation plate, and to connect the pipe from
the valve to this recess as in Fig. 96.
The size of valve suitable for a medium-pressure ram lift
need never exceed one quarter the diameter of the ram, and
when the diameter of the junction pipe between the valve and
the cylinder is in this proportion the velocity of the water in
the pipe is sixteen times the velocity of the ram. In any
direct-acting lift when the ram is down, the water pressure
acting on the ram is greater than when the ram is up by a
column of water equal in amount to the displacement of
the ram, and as the ram rises this column lessens by the
amount the ram has risen. We will assume an allowance
of I foot per second as the speed of the ram in the final
part of its up stroke, or when it has nearly completed its
run out, the platform being weighted with its full load, and
the head of water absorbed in overcoming frictional resist-
ances in the pipes and valve, and in imparting the velocity
to the water as 12 feet. This is most conveniently allowed
for by reducing the working pressure by 5 lbs. per square
inch when calculating the size of the ram, therefore in our
examples we shall assume 5 lbs. as equivalent to the head
of water absorbed in frictional and other losses.
When the high velocity of the water in the pipe joining
the valve to the cylinder is considered, it is not surprising
that the too sudden closing of the valve to pressure induces
vibratory stress in the water, and consequently in the ram,
giving the latter jerks or shocks when stopping. It should
be the aim of every lift-maker to so construct his lifts as
to reduce to a minimum these jerks, especially in lifts for
hospitals and hotels.
152 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The best preventative to jerks produced by closing the
valve to pressure is to bolt the valve direct on to the
cylinder. On the majority of lifts this cannot be done,
therefore the connecting pipe between the valve and cylinder
should be as large in diameter and as short in length as
possible, hence a 2 or 3 inch valve requires a 3 or 4 inch
connecting pipe.
To further reduce shock, the port-holes in the valve should
be made with V-shaped openings so as to admit of very
gradual opening or closing as described in Chapter VIII.,
while in large valves for low pressure it is advantageous to
insert in the valve body a bye-pass valve to act as a shock
valve to reduce the intensity of the shocks or jerks of the
ram. Some designers arrange an air vessel on the con-
necting pipe between the valve and cylinder, which will also
reduce the intensity of the shocks of the ram, but nothing
in the shape of shock valves, or air vessels, is so effective
as making the lift valve to give a very gradual opening or
closing of the port-holes, while connecting it to the cylinder
by a large diameter pipe of very short length.
It is not usually considered necessary to apply safety gear
to ram lifts, as the only time an unbalanced ram lift could
fall at a dangerously rapid pace would be in the unlikely
event of the bursting of the cylinder, junction pipe or valve.
This contingency should be impossible if the usual liberal
margin of strength or factor of safety is adopted, and the
pipes so protected that they cannot be damaged by falling
weights. Drain cocks to the cylinder, pipe and valve, to
drain off all the water in frosty weather, or for repairs,
should always be provided.
The ram of a direct-acting ram lift, either unbalanced, or
with a hydraulic balance, acts as a column in supporting
the load, and is in compression, but if we attach to the ram
platten or platform, by means of wire rope or chain, balance
or counterpoise weights, an altered condition of stress is set
up in the ram. For a considerable portion of its length
PLATFORM LIFTS. 153
from the top, the ram, instead of supporting the load as a
column, is in effect really hanging or suspended from it.
Part of the ram is always in tension, and another portion is
always in compression, while the neutral or dividing plane,
where the tension ends and the compression begins, is con-
stantly varying in position according to the pressure on the
ram. Should the ram from any cause become cracked, and
thus break above the neutral plane, or should the means of
connection securing the platform to the ram give way, then
the platform would be violently dragged up to the top by
the balance weights, and serious damage, of course, would
result. An accident of this character happened to a lift at
Paris, where several passengers were crushed to death.
This accident has had a great deal to do with the move-
ments which have been initiated by some inventive engineers
to prevent the possibility of such partings of cage and ram ;
although it is very much to be doubted whether our English
practice of firmly constructing ram lifts could even have
given room for such an accident
The application of high pressure to direct-acting lifts is a
matter which produces great economy in their working, seeing
that but small and slender rams are capable of carrying a
comparatively heavy load. These small rams at first give
rise to a suspicion of weakness and danger, but from the
examples to be seen on every hand working, particularly in
London in connection with the London Hydraulic Power
Company, we can easily prove their strength, and thus obtain
confident assurance of their fitness for the duties they have
to perform. Messrs Easton & Anderson supplied a lift
for Queen Anne's Mansions, Westminster, where a 5-inch
diameter of ram, having a stroke of loi feet, is working still
with a pressure of water due to a column 142 feet high, or
about 62 lbs. per square inch upon the area of the ram.
This ram weighs 2,817 lbs., and raises a load less than its
own weight ; thus the upward pressure upon this ram is the
pressure per square inch multiplied by the area of the ram
154 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
in inches — that is, 23.7 square inches x 62 lbs. = 1,469 lbs.,
which is a little more than half the weight of the ram itself.
It seems remarkable upon the first glance that such slender
rams can safely support a load when standing so far out of
the point of rest, as it were, of the ram, which we appear to
imagine as a column ; but the fact is the rams are seldom
under compression, seeing that they weigh more than the
load that they have to lift, together with the surplus weight
or preponderance which is necessary to cause them to
descend when the cage is empty ; consequently the water
pressure only serves to relieve the weight of the ram, and
not to support it altogether.
In all lifts the ram should be screwed and pinned or
otherwise securely fastened to a cast-iron cap to which the
joist irons can be firmly bolted, the latter making a support
to which the wood forming the platform or cabin can be
secured. The wire ropes or chains of the counterpoise
weights should be securely attached to the ends of the joist
irons, and never in any case to the wood forming the plat-
form, nor to the top or sides of the cage or cabin.
In the following examples —
R = run out of ram in feet.
/ = length of ram in feet.
/ = nett working pressure in pounds per square inch
at top level of cylinder.
W = load to be raised.
Wj = load to be raised including weight of cabin or
platform.
j: = diameter of ram in inches.
Then for an unbalanced cast-iron ram lift —
This is the approximate value of x because, after filling in
the values and solving for x, it must be divided by a suitable
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 55
coefficient from Table IV. to allow for the stuffing-box
friction, and thus the correct value of x is obtained. It
should be noted that in the above formula it is assumed that
the weight in pounds per foot run of a finished cast-iron ram
x^
does not exceed — . Hollow wrought-iron rams are not so
2
common as cast-iron ones, and where their finished weight
x^
in pounds per foot run does not exceed — , as they need not,
we have for an unbalanced wrought-iron hollow ram lift —
x^ ,/-^^^
V 3.14/-/
The value of x thus obtained to be corrected for stuffing-
box friction by dividing it by the proper coefficient as in
the previous case.
If the ram is of small size, and the weight per foot is
represented by x^ lbs., the formula becomes —
'-/:
w,
7854/)-/
Case I. — Find the diameter of a cast-iron ram for an
unbalanced lift to raise 14 cwt. 50 feet high, water pressure
45 lbs. per square inch, platform to weigh 8 cwt. Here we
have /=say 53 feet, / = 4S-5 = 40i Wi = (i44-8) 112 =
2464 lbs., then —
= 72x2464^
X
53
for a 22-inch diameter ram the coefficient of efficiency = .99,
hence ^^•'*^ = 22.55, the corrected value for x. As this is
V-99
a little over 22^ inches diameter, we should put in a 23-inch
ram. Now this would be an absurdly large ram to employ
for only raising 14 cwt. 50 feet high, and our reason for
noticing it is to demonstrate the saving of water effected as
156 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
this common type of lift gradually approaches in design the
more perfect form.
A diminution in the size of the ram can be made as some
of the platform and ram weight can be balanced, as shown
in Fig. 96 ; we cannot balance all the weight, as some weight
must be left in the ram in order that it may descend in the
cylinder and force the water through the valve to exhaust
when the lift is being lowered without any load upon the
platform. The size of ram for a balanced lift is given by
the following formula —
"/-
W
7854 (/-.434R)
After solving for x its value must be corrected for stuffing-
box friction as before.
Case II. — Same as Case L, but the ram and platform to
have as much as possible of their weight balanced, as in
Fig. 96. Here we have R = 50, / = 45 - 5 = 40, W = 14 x
112 = 1568 —
.=yi5i|= ,0.4.8.
> 1 4. -16
4-36
On referring to Table IV. we find the efficiency of a
lo-inch ram working through a stuffing box = .98, hence the
corrected value of ^=i^^^
As this is the diameter of the ram on the assumption that
there is no friction in the balance ropes and pulleys, the
diameter of the ram as found by the above rule must be
increased to allow for the packing in the gland being
screwed unnecessarily tight and for the friction of the
balance-weight ropes, or chains, over their pulleys, for which
we will add 20 per cent, to the ram area, giving in round
numbers an 1 1 J-inch ram. The amount of counterpoise or
balance weight required is equal to the weight of the ram
and platform, less the weight of the column of water dis-
placed by the ram, and the additional allowance to over-
PLATFORM LIFTS. 157
come the friction of the stuffing box, etc, during the descent,
equivalent to lo per cent of the balance weights.
Ram = 3,498
Platform = 896
4i394
Less water column 2,235
2>i59
Less 10 per cent. 215
1,944 lbs.
With the water pressure of 40 lbs. the ram would refuse
to rise right to the top, but as the lift began to slow down
this pressure would rise, approaching the maximum of 45 lbs.
A pressure of 42 lbs. is sufficient to send the ram to the top.
Fig. 96 shows a convenient form of balance, as it admits
of easy adjustment of the weights.
In the case just considered, the weight of the water column
displaced by the ram had to be left unbalanced in order that
the ram should descend, and in raising the lifl the whole of
this dead or displacement weight has to be lifted by the
pressure water. In order to obviate this, the balance weight
is sometimes connected to the platform by heavy link chain,
so that as the ram rises the chain in passing over its support-
ing pulley at the top of the well-hole gradually increases the
weight of the counterpoise, and at the same time reduces the
weight to be lifted by an equal amount, and thus balances
the water column.
The proper weight per foot of these heavy chain con-
nections is half the weight of the water column per foot. If
P represents the pressure on the ram area, W the useful load
to be lifted, and tv the weight of the water column displaced
by the ram —
158 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
This result may at first seem paradoxical, as P is evidently
less than W, but it is the same as if the pressure acting on
the ram is represented by the head actings on the ram at
half stroke, thus —
2
The diameter x of the ram is given by the following
equation —
-4:
w
.7854 0> + . 217 R)
The ram area given by the above equation must now be
increased by 66 per cent, to allow for stuffing-box friction
and the friction of the chains and wheels, and a margin to
cause the lift to descend empty.
The balance weights must be the same as the total weight
of the ram and platform, less the weight of the compensating
chains and 10 per cent, for friction and margin to cause the
lift to descend empty.
Case III. — Same conditions as Case I., but with a com-
pensating balance.
^=\/:
1568
= 739-3=6.25".
7854 (40 +.217x50)
Add 66 per cent, to area and x = 8".
Balance weights : Ram =1,700
Platform = 896
2,596
Less compensating chains ( — j 531
2,065
Less 10 per cent. 206
1,860 lbs.
These weights leave a margin of 235 lbs. to overcome
friction when ascending with full load, and 205 lbs. when
descending.
PLATFORM LIFTS. 159
When the weight to be raised is heavy and the available
working pressure small, the size of the ram, balance weights
and chains, and overhead wheels or chain pulleys, becomes
very large and clumsy. For large weights it is advisable to
use an intensifier, and by loading its ram with weights, to
convert it into a hydraulic balance. Such a machine is
shown in Fig. 99, in which a is a hollow ram, sliding over
the fixed ram b, and working in the cylinder c. To the ram
A can be attached the adjustable weights f, and the fixed
ram b is tied to the cylinder c by the guide bolts G g. The
inside of the ram a communicates through the opening d
direct with the lift cylinder, and the displacement of the ram
R is of sufficient capacity to contain the displacement water
when the lift ram is down. The valve is connected to the
cylinder c at e, and sufficient weights are placed at f to
prevent the lift ram descending too rapidly. When the lift
ram is down the displacement water fills the inside of the
hollow ram a, which is then quite home in the cylinder c,
and upon opening the lift valve the pressure enters the
cylinder c, forcing the ram a out, and consequently the ram
of the lift. As the balance ram a runs out of the cylinder c,
its end pressure gradually increases in proportion to the
increased head of water. By suitably proportioning the
diameters of the lift ram and ram a, the variation of the load
to be lifted, caused by the varying water column in the ram
cylinder, may be balanced at all parts of the stroke.
The correct diameters for the lift ram and the ram a can
be ascertained as follows : —
Let W = nett load to be lifted in pounds.
p = water pressure per square inch at level x v.
R = run out of ram in feet.
Ri = run out of ram a in feet,
r = ratio of area of ram b to lift ram area,
X = diameter of lift ram in inches.
y = ratio of area of ram a to area of lift ram.
l6o HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
PLATFORM LIFTS. l6l
In designing, the top level of the lift ram, lowest level of
ram a, and exhaust outlet should all be on line x v. These
conditions are assumed in the following equations. The
level of the ram a may be varied, but the balance weights f
then require readjustment.
"/
vv
(R + R.).43l
yr.
Balance weights — r x (platform + ram - water column).
The balance weight thus found must include the weights f,
the cylinder a, and the water contained in the annulus
between a and b, and lying below the line x y.
Case IV. — Same conditions of load and lift as Case I.,
but to be balanced by the above hydraulic method.
W= 1,568 lbs.
Platform = 896.
R = 50 feet.
/ = 45-5 = 40-
Select r=4.
Then Ri= 12.5 feet.
(5o+i2.5).43 \
v = -( 40 . ^ a4=io.q.
"/
1568 /
-5 = vio.25 = 'i4 .
7854 X40X 19.9 o 04
To find diameter of A, V10.25 x 19.9 = 14 J".
Diameter of B = 2 x 3^" = 6 J".
l62 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Allowance must now be made for friction, and diameter
of A increased accordingly.
Friction of lift ram : W= 1,568
Platform = 896
Ram, 3^" diam. hollow, ^ thick = 760
3.224
4 per cent. = 1 28.96
Friction of ram 6 = 2^ 7, of 31^1^ ^ g^ ^
4
Friction of ram A= i 7« of _!?? = 16
'^ 4
Total 225
Friction of rams descending empty = 1 1 1
Hydraulic friction of descent = 50
;86
Pressure on ram A = 6400, which has to balance 1568 x 4 =
6272, leaving a margin of 128, hence 200 lbs. must be added,
requiring an additional area of = 5 inches. The ram A
40
must therefore be increased to 14 J inches.
Balance weights : Platform = 896
Ram = 760
1,656
Less water column 178
1,478
4
5>9"
Owing to the increase of the area of the ram A, a dis-
crepancy of about 25 lbs. occurs, which can be rectified by
reducing the balance weights.
PLATFORM LIFTS.
163
The word efficiency as commonly applied to lift work has
a very vague meaning ; its meaning in this chapter is, how-
ever, defined as the ratio of the theoretical quantity of water
required to raise the load to the actual quantity the lift con-
sumes. The following table shows at a glance the efficiency
of the direct-acting ram lifts in the cases that have just been
considered. The theoretical quantity of water at 45 lbs. per
square inch to raise 14 cwt. 50 feet high is 75.5 gallons.
Ose.
Description.
Gals.
Efl&ciency.
—
Ideal lift or theoretical - - - -
75-5
I
IV.
Compensating hydraulic balance
95-7
.79
III.
Compensating and counterpoise balance -
109.0
.69
n.
Counterpoise weight only
225.0
.339
With higher and more suitable pressures the efficiency of
ram lifts averages from .75 to .80 per cent., the latter amount
being only met with in lifts of good design and build.
Fig. 100 shows Ellington's hydraulic balance, which con-
sists of a balancing cylinder m, connected by distance bolts
end to end with the larger working cylinder n. There is
a piston to each cylinder, fitted with a leather packing,
and connected by a common rod d, working through stuffing
boxes in the cylinder covers. The lift cylinder is connected
by the pipe h to the annular space e e, which, when the
piston G is at top of its stroke, is equal in capacity to the
displacement of the lift ram. The annular area l of the
lower piston is sufficient when subjected to the working
pressure to lift the net load and overcome friction of both
the up and down strokes, whilst the full area of the upper
piston G is calculated when subjected to the working pressure
to balance the weight of the cage and ram less the friction
l64 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 65
of the down stroke. This piston is subjected to the water
pressure at all times.
If the lift ram is assumed to be at the bottom of its
stroke, then, on the starting valve being opened, pressure
water is admitted to the cylinder c, and the two pistons g
and L commence to descend, forcing the water from e e
through the pipe h to the lift cylinder ; the lift ram is thus
caused to ascend, and in doing so requires increasing pressure
to compensate for the reduced displacement. This increase
of pressure is supplied by the head of water accumulating on
the two pistons g and l.
When the exhaust is opened the water from cc only
passes away, the water at b being simply forced back into
the pressure mains. To make good the leakage the pressure
water can be admitted by f under the lower piston when the
lift ram is at the bottom of its stroke ; thus water will flow
from B past the leathers into the annular space e e and
supply the deficiency.
If the parts of this apparatus are properly proportioned,
the lift ram and the balance pistons are in equilibrium for
every part of the stroke. The only serious criticism to be
offered to this form of balance is the use of internal pack-
ings, it being a sine qua non in high-class design to use ex-
ternal packings wherever possible. If in Fig. 99 two inverted
rams had been used, in place of the weights f, always open
to pressure, an inspection will show that the two systems
are practically identical. The lift ram (Fig. 99) would in
this case require to be of altered diameter to allow for the
weight of water in the two added rams.
When the working pressure is sufficiently high, such as
750 lbs. per square inch as supplied by the London Hydraulic
Power Company, it frequently happens that the size of ram re-
quired to overcome the load is too small to sustain the load
when considered as a column. The hydraulic balance shown
in Fig. loi is much in favour under these circumstances. The
water column is unbalanced in this type. A hollow ram a
l66 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
works through a stuffing box in the cylinder b. The cylinder
B is connected by the tension bolts ee to a crosshead f
carrying the fixed ram c, working through a stuffing box in
the ram a. The ram a is supplied with a crosshead G carry-
ing the weights h h, which are proportioned to balance the
dead weight of the cage or platform and the ram, less the
water column due to the strokes of the lift ram and the ram
A and a margin for causing the down stroke. The cylinder
B is connected through the port j with the lift cylinder, and
has the same displacement volume. The pressure water
enters from the lift valve at f.
When the lift ram is down the balance ram a is up as
shown, and on opening the valve the pressure acting on the
area of the ram c forces the ram a into the cylinder b, thus
causing the lift ram to run out, and when the valve is opened
to exhaust the margin of weight in the lift ram to cause the
descent raises the balance ram a to the top of the cylinder
B. The area of the ram c must be such that, at the pressure
available, the total pressure is sufficient to overcome the
useful load together with the column of water of a height
represented by the stroke of the lift ram added to the stroke
of A, and leave a sufficient margin to overcome the friction
of the up and down strokes.
When pressure water is not available, either from want of
sufficient height or absence of an existing supply, a ram lift
can be worked fairly economically by a steam or gas engine,
the engine being employed to drive a small pressure pump
which forces water from a tank into a small accumulator
which has a pipe connection to the lift valve. A suitable
pressure for the accumulator is from 1,000 to 1,200 lbs. per
square inch, and the capacity of the accumulator should be
from one and a half to twice the consumption of water for
one complete journey of the lift.
The pumps should be proportioned to deliver when
working continuously a larger amount of water than is
required by the intermittent working of the lift, and gear
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 67
should be fitted such that when the accumulator is fully
charged with water the pumps are automatically thrown out
of action, thus economising power. A slight fall of the
accumulator should bring the pumps again into action.
Where steam power is available the Worth ington steam
pump can be employed to pump the water direct into the
ram cylinder, the valve being controlled by the cord passing
through the cage.
The openings to the lift wells in hotels are guarded with light
iron gates which the lift attendant alone can open, while in
warehouses a wood guard rail is simply hinged to one side of
the lift opening. This rail is lifted up when passing in or out
of the lift and then dropped upon its supports. Many attempts
have been made to secure the opening and closing of the
guard rail or iron gate by the up and down movement of the
lift cabin or platform, but it is found that mechanical closing
begets carelessness on the part of the attendants, fiy fixing a
vertical balanced sliding door in the opening at the bottom of
the lift well, and making a hole in the floor to receive the door,
the platform or cabin, in its descent, can be made to depress
the door level with the floor, and on the ascent of the plat-
form the excess of balance weight will cause the door to rise
and guard the well-hole. At the top floor a sliding door can
be fixed and partly balanced by means (3f weights and chains,
the top of the cabin or cage being arranged to engage the
door in ascending so as to lift it clear of the entrance to the
cage, the descent of the cage allowing the door to drop to
the floor and guard the well-hole. On the intermediate
floors it is most satisfactory to open and close the guard rail
or gates by hand.
Passing on to consider the second division of our subject,
viz., suspended lifts. Fig. 102 illustrates in elevation the more
common arrangement of this form of lift, a is an ordinary
cabin or cage, well braced and boarded on the three sides,
but open in front. To the bottom of the cabin are secured
the two girder irons b lying side by side, with sufficient space
l68 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
P///Wi'///>//'//'/X^
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 69
between to receive the safety gear. These girders are secured
by tension bolts cc to corresponding girder irons d. At
the top of the cabin a, and between the girder irons d, are
placed the grooved wheels that convey the wire rope to the
safety gear fixed below the cage. Two lifting ropes e are
used, one passing to the right hand and the other to the left
hand of the cage, and thence to the safety gear. Four
slipper guides are fixed to the cage, sliding up and down
upon the hardwood guides f f, which are securely attached
to the brickwork at the sides of the well-hole. The ropes e
pass round the overhead pulleys g g to an ordinary hydraulic
multiple hoist shown at h. This hoist is made in exactly
the same vfay as those to be described in Chapter XL, and is
bolted to the wall with the ram working downwards. To the
crosshead are attached the balance weights j, sufficient to
almost balance the weight of the cage.
The valve k is placed in the well-hole under the cabin
as in the case of ram lifts, and the starting rope passes down
through the cage on each side of the well hole, and is con-
nected to the pulley on the valve. Stops are attached to the
starting rope, so that the cabin when nearing the termination
of its travel operates against these stops and automatically
closes the valve.
The size of the valve need not, as before stated, exceed one
quarter the diameter of the hoist ram, and the weight of the
ram, crosshead, pulleys, and balance weights should be such
as to admit of the cabin descending when empty at the rate
of I foot per second.
When the cage or cabin is at the bottom level the ram of
the hoist is up in the cylinder h, and on pulling the rope l
to open the valve to pressure the ram is forced out of the
cylinder and the cage ascends until, on nearing the top of
its travel, it operates on the upper stop on the rope, thus
closing the cylinder to pressure. If the rope is pulled further
the cylinder is opened to exhaust, and the excess of weight
in the cage above the balance weights causes it to descend,
lyo HVDRAULIC POWER ENCtNF.ERING.
PLATFORM LIFTS. 171
pulling the ram back into the cylinder. On nearing the
bottom the cage operates on the lower stop on the rope,
closing the valve to exhaust. To secure the efficient work-
ing of this lift, all the precautions mentioned at the com-
mencement of this chapter must be observed. The correct
size of rope and its friction, together with the necessary size
of ram for the pressure available, will be considered at the
end of^this chapter.
Fig. 103 illustrates a high-class passenger lift consisting of
a cabin a made of pitch pine, walnut, oak, or mahogany, and
having its interior well upholstered and sometimes mirrored.
The girder irons b are connected by the bolts c c to the ends
of the cross girder d at the top of the cabin. This girder is
made in two parts firmly bolted together, and carries the
grooved pulleys e, which deflect four supporting wire ropes,
two to the right and two to the left of the cage, to the safety
gear fixed underneath.
The ropes e pass round the overhead pulley c down to
the hydraulic multiple hoist shown at h, which is bolted to
the wall at the back of the well-hole with the ram working
downwards.
The starting rope l passes down one side of the well-hole
through the cabin to the wheel on the valve k, and returns
by the other side of the well-hole between the side of the
cabin and the wall.
The working of this lift is precisely similar to the one pre-
viously described, and the difference of construction of this
multiple hoist, viz., placing the rope wheels in line with each
other instead of side by side, as shown in Fig. 102, is for the
purpose of economising space in the well-hole, and thus
allowing a roomy cabin to be used.
The type of hydraulic multiple hoist shown for suspended
lifts in Figs. 102 and 103 answers well for water pressures
varying from 150 to 1,200 lbs. per square inch ; but for less
pressures better results are obtained by using the hoist
illustrated by Fig. 104, which is largely used.
172 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The arrangement consists of a cylinder a truly bored and
fitted with a leather or metallic packed piston b, having two
piston rods c c working through hemp packed stuffing boxes
in the cylinder cover e, and connected to a crosshead
carrying the balance weights d and the pulley f. The
cylinder has at each end branches c g. The lower branch
connects direct to the valve k, while the upper branch con-
nects to the pressure pipe j, and is not controlled by the
valve K. This lift cylinder is generally placed on one side
of the well-hole on the basement floor level, and the wire
lifting ropes pass from the cage round the overhead pulley
at the top of well-hole, and descending pass round the
pulley F and upwards to the anchorage at top of well-hole.
The action is as follows : — When the piston is at the
bottom of the cylinder, as shown, the cabin is at its highest
level, and on the valve being moved by pulling the rope
upwards the lower branch g is opened to the pressure pipe j,
and the pressure water is admitted to the under side of the
piston B.
The area of the top side of the piston b is less than the
area of the under side by the area of the rods c, hence there
is an upward pressure. This pressure, together with the
excess weight of the cabin over the balance weights d and
piston B causes the cage to descend, lifting the piston b.
The water passes from the top of the piston through the
valve, and fills the space below the piston. On the cage
nearing its lowest position a stop on the valve rope l is
operated, causing the valve to be closed.
Upon pulling the rope further, the lower branch G is
opened to exhaust, and the water pressure acting upon the
top side of the piston forces it down, thus raising the cabin.
Various kinds of safety gear have from time to time been
introduced for suspended lifts, many of which are absolutely
worthless. Fig. 105 illustrates a well-known type of safety
gear suitable for light weight passenger lifts. The hardwood
guide A runs from top to bottom of the well-hole, and is en-
PLATFORM LIFTS.
173
gaged by the slipper guides bolted to the sides of ihe cage.
The bracket B is bolted to the under side of the cabin, and
carries the tension bolts c c connecting this bracket with the
cross girder over the top of cabin. Two bell crank levers
D D are pivoted to the angle plate b, their longer anns being
joined tt^ether by the bar e, which is provided with joggles
for engaging the corresponding projections on the eccentric
cams F F. These cams are keyed fast upon the ends of two
shafts running under the cabin, and supported by bearings
formed in the angle bracket b. At the other end of these
174 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
shafts two similar cams are keyed, and the shafts being
provided with short levers h, that are linked together by
the bar g, any movement of one shaft produces a corre-
sponding movement in the other. The cabin should be
suspended by four ropes, two of which pass down each side
of the cage, as previously described. These two ropes are
anchored by means of shackles to the short arm of the bell
crank levers d d.
The weight of the cabin is thus divided equally between
the four ropes, which are adjusted in length so that the long
arms of the bell crank levers d d hang vertically. The cams
F F are just clear of the guide a ; but upon any one of the
ropes stretching or breaking the tension of the adjacent rope
pulls the bell crank levers d d out of the vertical, thus pull-
ing over the connecting link e, and causing the cams f f
to engage the guide a. The frictional resistance of the cams
F f on the guide causes the cams to revolve on their shafts,
and firmly grip the guide a, thus supporting the cage. By
this arrangement the breaking of any one of the four suspen-
sion ropes brings into action the four cams.
Fig. 1 06 illustrates the Otis safety gear, a is the hard-
wood guide running from top to bottom of the well-hole.
Two rocking levers b are provided, turning on the pins c
carried by castings bolted to the wood crossbeams upon
which the cabin rests. To the side of the wood beam is
bolted the bracket f, carrying the shaft g running under
the cabin, and supported at the other end by a similar
bracket bolted to the beam. To each end of this shaft are
keyed the strikers e, which are actuated by the rocking levers
B through the medium of the set screws h h. The cage is
suspended by four ropes, two of which pass down each side
of the cage, and are fastened to the suspending eyes of the
bolts K K. These bolts connect to the lever b at an equal
distance on each side of the pin c, and by adjustment of
their nuts the lever b is placed horizontally. Should one of
the ropes stretch or break while the cabin is travelling up or
PLATFORM LIFTS.
175
down, the lever b, being relieved of the pull of the broken
rope upon one arm, is tilted up by the pull of the remaining
Fig. 106.
rope upon the other arm. This movement of the lever b
actuates the striker e, and causes it to push the wedge d up.
176 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
thus preventing the further descent of the cage. The fric-
tion of the back of the wedge against the casting being much
less than that of the face of the wedge against the guide, the
weight of the cabin assists in fixing more securely the wedge
against the guide.
The two kinds of safety gear described are independent of
the elasticity of a spring for their action, and from the fact
that they have few and simple parts they are not likely to
become clogged with dirt, as often happens with a badly
thought out gear.
The number of lifting ropes for suspended cabins or
cages varies from two to eight, and as the safety gear re-
quires four it becomes necessary to either increase or reduce
the number. This is easily done by introducing a crosshead
having three holes for the attachment of ropes. Two ropes
are attached, one at each end, and pass off in one direction ;
while a third rope is attached in the middle, and passing off in
the opposite direction, resists the tension due to the other two.
In order to provide against the possibility of a dangerously
rapid descent of the cage, due to the valve being opened too
wide for the load^ being raised or lowered, a centrifugal
governor which is actuated by a light endless wire rope or
belt suitably attached to the safety gear and passing over
idle pulleys, is used. Should the governor revolve too
quickly, the rope is retarded by a friction brake, and by the
tension thus produced the rope is caused to operate the
safety wedges, and check the descent of the cage.
To ensure a long life for the wire ropes of a suspended
lift the stress on the wires due to tension, together with the
stress due to the wire bending round the smallest pulleys»
should not exceed the stress which experience has shown the
wire will stand frequently repeated. For steel wire of aver-
age quality this stress may be at least 70,000 lbs. per square
inch. Again, when life would be jeopardised by an acci-
dent, as in a lift or crane, the working stress should not
exceed one-eighth the breaking stress of the rope.
PLATFORM LIFTS.
177
The latter consideration will enable the size of the rope
to be determined, while by the former the correct size of the
wire of which the rope is to be made can be ascertained
when the diameter of the smallest wheel over which the rope
passes is known. Assuming the breaking weight of good
plough steel wire rope to be 150 tons per square inch of
metallic section, then the ratio of the diameter of the wires
of the rope to the diameter of the smallest wheel round which
the rope passes should be about ^^.
If the ratio is much larger than this, and the steel of which
the wires are made be not of good quality, rapid deterioration
of the rope commences, and rupture will take place if the
rope is not replaced.
Table VII. gives the breaking weight in tons of good
average quality plough steel wire ropes : —
Table VII.
Breaking Weight of Steel Wire Ropes.
Diam. of rope in inches
A
a
A
i
A
§
!
i
I
Circumference in inches
I
ja
i|
If
If.
2
2i
2i
31
Weight in pounds per
fathom -
li
lA
lA
2j
3
4
5i
7i
loj
Breaking weight of
rope in tons
4
5i
74
10
Hi
JSi
2IJ
28J
40
When the maximum stress induced in the wires of a rope
passing round a pulley does not exceed 70,000 lbs. per
square inch, the power expended in bending the rope on to
the pulley is largely given off again upon the rope leaving
the pulley.
Fig. 107 illustrates part of a grooved rope wheel, and a b is
a horizontal line passing through the centre of the wheel, and
c c is the centre line of the wire rope passed round the
wheel as shown. It is assumed that this centre line does
M
178 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
f
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 79
not alter in length when the rope is bent round the wheel.
This erroneous assumption does not perceptibly affect the
results. Thus it is evident that the wires below the centre
line c c of the rope must accommodate themselves to a less
circumference than the wires in a plane normal to the paper ;
whereas those outside of the centre line accommodate them-
selves to a larger circumference. The wires accomplish
this in the former case by bulging or spreading out laterally
and creeping, and in the latter by straightening and draw-
ing in to the centre of the rope. Thus the rope circular
below A B before it touches the wheel becomes slightly oval
above a b, where it lies in the groove, as shown by the full
line D. The distance between d and the dotted line e indi-
cates the extent to which the rope is distorted out of the
true circle.
Thus the work lost in bending a rope round a circle is
the frictional resistance of the wires sliding upon each other
in the act of accommodating themselves to the varying
circumferences in which they are forced to lie.
Let D = diameter at bottom of the groove of the rope
wheel in inches.
„ d — diameter of the wire rope in inches, and if the
coefficient of friction = .2, the efficiency of a
rope passed half round a wheel is
.17^
I - '
D + ^
The efficiency for various sized ropes passing half round
pulleys of different diameters calculated by this formula are
given in Table VIII.
Fig. 108 illustrates a square chain wheel with a chain a b
suspended from it. In turning the wheel in the direction of
the arrow a quarter of a revolution the links a and b each
turn a quarter round on their supporting links c and d.
Thus when the wheel makes a complete revolution the fric-
tional loss of the chain is the same as that of a link turning
l8o HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
twice round an iron rod of circular section equal in diameter
to the bar iron of which the chain is made. Now this holds
true whatever may be the size of wheel, pitch of chain, or
diameter of chain iron, so that we get for the efficiency of a
chain lapping half round a wheel the formula —
The coefficients of efficiencies for different sizes of chain
passing half round pulleys of varying diameter calculated by
this formula are given in Table VIII.
PLATFORM LIFTS.
Coefficients of Efficibkcv of Stkbl Wibb Rope ani> Short Link
Chain (Friction of Pin not included).
i
WBofRop.orCb.inl™
nlnch«.
i
if
i
.
lil!
a
1
1
Ijj
1
i
5
■ 8 „
J8 ,.
.»
W ■»« -K
9» -98 -9« .
. .. .,8 .
. .. .5*
a .96
B .97
.98
.98
■98
9J
9«
98
98
.96 .
-96
.98 .
.98
98
-98
.98
)8 M
*8 .95 .
8 .96 .
. .98
■ .98
- -98
,98
.98
-99
J* .95
fi .96
JB .M
. .98
. -98
98
■98
-98
■98
■98
.98
■9»
.96
■98
.98
.98
,98
■98
98
.98
■98
.98
.98
■16
.96
■97
.98
.98
.98
.98
.98
.98
.98
iSz
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The formula for the efficiency of a pulley on its axle or
pin is the same as for the efficiency of a chain lapping half
round a wheel, providing always that the pressure of the
wheel upon its axle does not exceed 5 cwt. per square inch
(measured on the diameter of the axle), which amount should
not be exceeded in lift designing. Table IX. has been
calculated by this formula, and for the convenience of
readily ascertaining the efficiency of lifts, pulley blocks, etc.,
the average ratio of the diameter of the pins to diameter of
the pulleys is given here : —
Diameter of Wheels
in Inches.
I to 16
16 „ 24
Above 36
Average Pin
Ratio.
i or .125
Table IX.
Coefficients of Efficiency of Pulley Wheels Turning on Pins.
Ratio Diam.
of Pin to
Diam. of
Wheel.
.06
.976
.07
.97a
.08
.09
.1
.11
.956
.13
.952
•>3
.948
•944
•«5
■94
.16
•936
.17
.18
.19
.a
Coefficient
.968
.964
.96
.93a
.928
.934
.93
To illustrate the practical application of the Tables, let
Fig. 109 represent the pulleys in the ram and cylinder cross-
heads of a hydraulic jigger or hoist, the pulleys being spread
out to show clearly the varying stresses in the chain. The
top circles indicate the chain sheaves or pulleys in the
cylinder crosshead, and the chain is anchored to the cylin-
der on the right hand, and pays off the left hand top
sheave. The bottom circles indicate the pulleys or sheaves
PLATFORM LIFTS.
183
in the ram crosshead, which move downwards in the direc-
tion of the arrow.
LetP
,, w
N
)i
>>
E =
total net power forcing out the ram.
stress on anchorage chain,
weight lifted.
number of plies of rope or chain,
efficiency of pin and wheel with rope or chain
round half its circumference.
->-
.a,^j^,£.y
-P
:^
I
..^
I
Fig. 109.
When the ram has its full pressure on, but is stationary,
p
/ = — , but the instant movement of the ram occurs some of
its power is spent in overcoming the friction of the wheel on*
its pin and the chain on the wheel. Thus in the figure the
stress on the anchorage chain would equal/, the stress on
the next chain to it would equal £/, again on the next to
1 84 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
that the stress would equal E^/, and so on to the last ply,
where the stress would equal E^* "*'/>. Hence —
W = E<*'-^!^, and/= ^
^IS-l)
As an example, let the ram of the jigger geared 8 to i
exert a pressure of P =» 8 tons, then / = i ton. The sheaves
would be about 14 inches diameter, with about 2 inches
diameter pins, so that the efficiency = .94. A chain yV i'^ch
diameter would be used, the efficiency of which on a 14-
inch sheave = .98, therefore the efficiency of the chain wheel
and pin = .94 x .98 = .93 = E.
We have W = .937x t, and this equation is easily solved
by means of a table of common logarithms —
log. .931 = 1.96895
. 7
1.78265
The corresponding number of which = .6.
W = .6xi=.6 ton. Thus the efficiency of the wheels
and chain alone is but .6.
Particular attention is directed to the difference in the
stresses of the paying-off end and the anchorage end of
the chain. The size of the chain or cable should be deter-
mined by dividing the total pressure pushing out the ram by
the number of chains or rope plies, and not by merely con-
sidering the weight lifted. Many breakdowns in hydraulic
hoists have occurred through putting in cable or chain of
such a size as only to lift the load safely, and omitting to
take into account the extra stress induced in the anchorage
end of the chain or cable. In an average hydraulic hoist or
jigger geared or multiplied up by pulleys 10 to i the stress
on the anchorage end of the chain is just twice that on the
paying-off end.
Many years ago the late Lord Armstrong published the
efficiencies of his multiple hoists, which are very convenient
PLATFORM LIFTS.
I8S
for determining approximately the size of cylinder required
when the load and working pressure are known. It is
advisable to calculate independently the required size of
cylinder in each case, only using Armstrong's results given
below to aid for first approximation : —
Direct acting
Geared 2 to
4
6
8
10
12
16
»
})
»
if
»>
»i
»i
93 per cent.
80
76
72
67
63
59
54
50
Case V. (see Fig. 102). — Required the size of cylinder for
a hoist to raise 14 cwt. 50 feet, working pressure 45 lbs. per
square inch. The hoist may be geared 6 to i, and the travel
of the ram is then 8 feet - 4 inches. The height of the top
of the cylinder h, above the valve K, is nearly 20 feet, corre-
sponding to a pressure of 8.5 lbs., and the working pressure
is 45 lbs. - 5 lbs. (for speed and valve friction) / - 8.5 lbs. =
31.5 lbs.
The hoist has to lift the load of 14 cwt. plus the weight
left in the cage to bring it down empty, say 2 cwt., and the
area of the ram
16 X 112 X 6 100 ^ ,
= X — = 479 square mches,
31-5 72
the corresponding diameter of which is 24.75 inches.
The size of the rope wheels can now be fixed at 32 inches
diameter. Suppose the cabin to weigh 14 cwt., and to be
supported by four |-inch ropes. The first step in the calcu-
lation is to determine the efficiency of the ropes working
over five 32-inch wheels upon 2j-inch pins. Consulting
Table VIIL, we find the efficiency of a f-inch rope on a
1 86 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
30-inch wheel .99, which is also the efficiency of four ropes
on the wheel. The efficiency of the sheave on the pin = .96.
Therefore efficiency of the sheaves, rope, and pins of the
hoist only = (.96 x .99)* = .95* = .76.
The next step is to ascertain how much of the cage weight
must be left unbalanced to enable it to overcome the friction
to descend empty. The overhead pulleys may be 32 inches
diameter, and as the ropes only lap one quarter of the
circumference on each, the efficiency of two pulleys is equal
to the efficiency of one = .99, and the efficiency of sheaves
on pins .96.
Therefore, the weight to overcome this =
{i-(.99 X .96)} X weight ofcage = .o5 X 14 X 112 = 78 lbs.
Again, the cage has to overcome the friction
of the pulley sheaves of the hoist, having an
efficiency of .77. Then the weight to overcome
this is (i -.77) X weight of cage = .23 x 14 x 112 = 360 „
Finally, the cage has to pull the ram into the
cylinder against the friction of its stuffing box,
and, from Table IV., this 24 inches diameter ram
requires 90 lbs. to move it, so that ^ x
100
6 77
= 20 „
Total 458 lbs.
It will be remembered the weight assumed in
the trial ram was 2 cwt., whereas we require
458 lbs. As this is the theoretical amount, we
must increase it about 10 per cent., giving say
5 cwt. Then we get for the load to be lifted
14x112 = 1,568 lbs.
Weight left in cage for descent, 112 x 5 - = 560 „
Extra pull required to overcome friction of
top or overhead pulleys =
(load + weight of cage) X .05 - - = 156 „
Total weight 2,284 lbs.
PLATFORM LIFTS. 1 87
Area of ram —
2284x6 X 100 ^ ,
— = 50s square inches,
31.5x77 ^ ^ ^
and correcting this area for the friction of the ram in its
stuffing box, 5—5 = 570 square inches, corresponding to a
•99
diameter of 27 inches.
This would be a very uneconomical arrangement of hoist
to adopt under the circumstances, but the case is cited to
show how necessary it is to independently calculate the size
of cylinder required for each case separately, and not trust
to any table of efficiencies, as necessarily such tables can
only give average results, thus causing the diameter of the
cylinder in some cases to be much larger, and in other cases
— as, for example, the above — much smaller than required.
CHAPTER X.
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES.
Having fully discussed the various valves and lifts worked
by hydraulic power, we now proceed to examine the hydraulic
machinery used for lifting and conveying heavy weights.
As a fitting commencement of our discussion, we take the
hydraulic jack, as being one of the earliest adaptations of the
principle of the hydraulic press to practical use. Fig. no is
a section of the most common type of hydraulic jack. Water
is inserted in the cistern or chamber a through the charging-
hole B ; the screw is now replaced in the hole b, and the jack
is ready for use. In working the jack, the head c or toe d
is placed under the weight to be raised, and the hand lever e
is oscillated, causing reciprocation of the pump plunger f.
The water in the chamber a passes into the pump barrel
through the suction valve g, and is forced out through the
valve H into the hydraulic cylinder i, thus causing the ram k
to move outwards in relation to the cylinder carrying the
head c and toe d. The ram k is prevented from moving too
far out by the small hole l, which allows the water to leak
from the cylinder i, so giving a signal that the ram has com-
pleted its stroke. To lower the ram the thumbscrew m is
loosened, letting the water pass back from the cylinder i to
the chamber a.
A few precautions should be observed in working the jack.
If the water has been removed for the purpose of examina-
tion or repairs, after refilling, the pumps should be given a
few strokes with the screw m loose, to force water into the
cylinder i, and so drive the air out. When the ram is in use
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES. l8|
I90
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the air screw N must be slacked ; at all other times it should
be screwed home.
Experiments made at various times to ascertain the effi-
ciency of the hydraulic jack give results that agree generally
with what might have been anticipated by a theoretical
investigation. The accompanying diagram (Fig. in) shows
the general results arrived at by experiment. The ordinates
represent the pressures applied to the handle, and the
K
«o- i'
:::::::::::::::;:: "2*
^
:::_::-_
.1'
; = ;■'::::
■t'.\ -..
Fig. I
abscisss the loads to be lifted. The full line or "curve"
gives the actual pressures required on the handle of a
hydraulic jack, having a mechanical advantage of 64 to i
when lifting various loads. The dotted line gives the pres-
sures which would be required if there were no friction in
the jack. An examination of the diagram shows that a
pressure of about 3 lbs. is required on the handle when
there is no toad on the jack, showing that this amount
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES. I9I
of pressure is required to lift the jack and overcome the
friction.
As the pressure to overcome these resistances will be a con-
stant quantity no matter what useful load is being lifted, we
can draw the chain line in the diagram parallel to the full
line, and indicating the amount of energy lost on this
account. It will now be noticed that there is a further
loss to be accounted for, which commences at nothing for
no load and increases regularly with the increase of load.
This extra loss is entirely due to friction in the various parts
of the machine due to the increased pressure on the handle,
and consequently increased water pressure. The curve in
the figure gives an efficiency of 75 per cent, at the full load,
which may be taken as a fair average case in designing,
though large jacks in very good condition will show an
efficiency approaching 80 per cent. When lifting a quarter
of the full load the efficiency falls to about 70 per cent., and
for smaller loads the jack rapidly becomes an inefficient
machine. It must be remembered that the loss of efficiency
we have investigated above is not the total loss, as we have
neglected the friction on the up stroke of the handle, also
the leakage of the pump plunger and valves.
We are now in a position to fix the diameter of the ram,
length of lever, and diameter of pump barrel, so that the
only remaining operation is to ascertain the mass of metal
required in the various parts to give sufficient strength.
The jack can be damaged by three principal strains, viz. :
(i.) The load to be raised iiy the head may crush the walls
of the cistern attached to the jack cylinder. (2.) The load
to be raised may shear off the lifting foot at the base of the
jack cylinder. (3.) The load may be such that the pressure
within the cylinder necessary to raise it may burst the walls
of the cylinder. Now the crushing strength of the metal
usually employed — viz., malleable iron or cast steel — is so
high that the limits of casting actually ensure that the walls
will be strong enough to carry the load. We employ, say,
192 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
cast steel, which will have an ultimate crushing strength of
40 tons per square inch, or malleable iron, which will have
an ultimate strength of 36 tons per square inch ; and wishing
to make the cistern as light as possible for convenience in
handling, we find we cannot get walls to be depended upon
in castings which are less than ^^ inch in thickness. Thus,
if we take a 4-ton jack, our cistern is 3 J inches diameter, which
gives us an area of 3.5 x 3. 141 6 x yV = 3.4 inches, to carry
the load of 4 tons. Other considerations, of course, come
in with respect to the arrangement of the metal ; but even
then the limit of casting ensures us ample margin for safety
in working. Similarly, too, the projecting foot, which may
be sheared off, is subject to such a light load in proportion
to its ultimate strength, that we require to consider chiefly
the rough usage which may be given to this projection, and
arrange a substantial foot for this, rather than for the actual
load to be legitimately lifted by it.
The bursting strain in the cylinder, however, we estimate
with more care, seeing that the strain is one of tension instead
of compression, and that our metal employed may not be
equally strong in each case of straining. The diameter of
the cylinder being 2 inches, we have a strain of 2 x jt pounds
per square inch acting to burst the cylinder, while the metal
resisting this bursting tendency is the thickness of the
wall on each side; the value of x being that produced
by the pump and lever. The load of 8,960 lbs. has to
be raised by the pressure given to the 2-inch ram. This
amount we have calculated to be 11,636 lbs., and as the
area of 2 inches = 3. 14 inches, the pressure per square inch
becomes 11,636 -f- 3.14 = 3,705 lbs. per square inch in
cylinder; 3,705 x 2 = total bursting pressure within cylinder
= 3.3 tons.
Assuming the metal to be of steel, moderately good, and
with an ultimate tensile strength of 38 tons per square inch,
with a factor of safety of 5, we may put 5 J tons per square
inch upon the metal, so that the combined thickness of the
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES. I93
walls of the cylinder should equal ^ = .6 of an inch. This
would make each wall ^ inch thick, a dimension which
might give trouble in casting in the event of the core slightly
shifting, so that | inch is allowed instead.
A very useful hydraulic tool is made by Messrs Youngs
of Birmingham, a peculiar feature of the tool being that the
ram is made hollow so that it permits of a blow being given
to the load when under the pressure of the ram, the impact
or shock being frequently useful in effecting a starting when
194
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Steady pressure would not effect the initial movement. Fig.
112 illustrates one form of this hollow ram apparatus,
designed as a bolt forcer for forcing out bolts from the
couplings of screw propeller shafts and other similar
purposes.
We win next examine some of the more useful designs of
workshop and foundry cranes. Fig. 113 shows a very con-
venient form of wall crane. The ram a is fixed to the
bottom of the crane post, and has a hole passing up its
centre for the entry of the water. The cylinder b carries
the jib c, and moves vertically between the sides of the
crane posts so lifting the load, rollers D E being fitted to
reduce friction. The crane may be slewed through 180°,
the water connection having a swivel joint for this purpose.
The valves are placed apart from the crane in a position
easily accessible to the workman. This type of crane is
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES. I95
196 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
generally used to serve machine tools, and is made in sizes
to lift from 5 cwts. to 10 tons with a rake up to 25 feet.
Fig. 114 shows a hydraulic foundry crane of a type intro-
duced by Messrs Tannett, Walker, & Co. The large central
ram a not only acts the part of a crane post, but has a water
pressure always acting upon it by means of the difference of
area produced by the reduction of the diameter at its lower
part. The total upward pressure acting on this ram is
sufficient to nearly balance the total weight of the crane.
The two side rams b and c are of a sufficient size to lift the
total useful load when brought into use simultaneously. For
light loads one only of the rams b and c is used, the other
being left open to exhaust. The slewing is operated by
hand, the top part of the crane swinging round on the roller
path D to reduce friction, while a balance weight e is added
which reduces the strains in the crane and also the side
friction. This type of crane is very much used in foundries
and steel-works.
Another type of crane used in steel-works has a central
ram only which is large enough to lift the load and balance
the weight of the crane as well; this form is not by any
means so economical as the one described above.
For heavy foundry work, the crane as shown in Fig. 115
is employed, having all motions operated by hydraulic
pressure. The drawing represents a lo-ton crane having a
vertical lift of 8 feet, with a maximum rake of 20 feet. The
rams are all fitted with multiplying chains and wheels, so
that a short stroke of the ram gives the necessary lift to the
load, or motion to the travelling carriage or crane, as the
case may be. When water is admitted to the cylinder a,
the ram is lifted, the motion being transmitted through the
chain b, the travel of which is multiplied in the ratio of
4 to I by the pulleys c. This motion is, however, halved
by the block d, so that the travel of the weight to be
lifted is double that of the ram a^ The racking motion
is performed by two small rams £ f, arranged side by side,
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES. ig7
198 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
and having chains attached to the travelling carriage G.
These rams are so arranged that when one is fully out the
other is in. On admitting water to the one that is in, the
carri^e is travelled or racked along, the other ram being
drawn in at the same time. The slewing motion is per-
fonned by two rams h, placed at the back of the crane post,
and similarly arranged to the rams E F, but much larger in
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES.
199
diameter. These rams travel with the crane and act on a
fixed wheel i secured to the floor plate. All the valves are
placed on the side of the crane post, and are operated by
an attendant from the foot-plate k. The dead weight of
the crane and load is supported by live rollers.
Other types of shop cranes are simply modifications of those
described, arranged to suit special requirements. In auxiliary
lifting appliances, the handy tool, shown at Fig. 1 16, is useful
for light work, such as lifting weights into and out of lathes
r^
Fig. 117.
or other machines. The ram a is supported on rollers
running on channel irons b, which may form the jib of a
crane, or may be fixed over the machine to be served. The
water is fed in through the walking pipe c, having swivel
connections, the valves being placed near the machine to
be served, and handy to the workman. The ram and
cylinder are sometimes placed in a horizontal position.
This form of lifter is very useful in connection with riveting
machines, being used either to support a portable riveter,
or the work to be riveted by a fixed riveter.
200
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
4:
The form shown in Fig. 117 is intendfKt to be supported
from a crane, and carries its own valves, the water being fed
to the valves by a spiral pipe. By the use of one of these
the work can be much more quickly and accurately adjusted
for riveting than if the lai^e crane is to
be operated each time.
Fig. 118 shows a form of direct puller
without any chain multiplying gear.
The principle of water acting upon a
ram or piston is so definite and constant,
that it has been applied most ingeniously
by Mr Duckham to suspended weighing
machines. The application is one that
has special advantages for crane or dock
work, seeing that the amount of rough
usage generally extended to such appli-
ances is quite sufficient to damage any
spring, and to damage any lever or
elaborate mechanism. The attention
given to this class of machinery is such
that the gauges or standards areabsolutely
accurate.
We illustrate the machine in section
in Fig. 119. The construction of the
machine we will now describe in detail.
The cyhnder is bored out perfectly true
and lapped with emery to a fine dead
polish, thus ensuring an absolutely smooth
surface ; the piston rod B, with its plates
and leathers, is then fitted. A is the
hanging strap, b the piston rod, d the
Fig. 118. cylinder, c the space filled by the liquid.
The indicator gauge screws into the
cylinder, and a filling plug is also inserted in the cylinder,
so that it may be filled with the liquid when desired. Oil
is generally employed, although in cold climates glycerine is
WORKSHOP AND FOUNDRY CRANES.
201
sometimes used. Leakage will not affect the correctness
of the indicator upon the gauge unless the piston actually
Fig. 119.
comes into contact with the bottom of the cylinder, when
it will, of course, cease to indicate until filled. Re-filling
202 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
is usually necessary about once a month when the machine
is in constant use.
When a load is suspended from the piston rod of the
machine a pressure is communicated to the liquid, which
pressure is then transmitted to the indicating gauge for
registration on the dial. The gauge is of the ordinary
Bourdon type, having an elastic steel tube of a flattened
form of transverse section at one end, and bent to present
the figure of a circular arc. The effect of the pressure is to
flatten the curvature of the tube and to cause the free end
to move with an oscillatory motion ; the free end of the
tube has connected to it a rod which gives motion to a rack
gearing into a pinion working the hand which indicates the
pressure. These suspended hydraulic weighing machines are
now used for dead weights requiring indication up to within
20 lbs., such for example as for weighing boilers, heavy
goods, and large packages, where they have been found
to be invaluable.
CHAPTER XL
WAREHOUSE AND DOCK CRANES.
The importance of this branch of hydraulic machinery will
be appreciated when we state that it was to the wharf crane
that the late Lord Armstrong first applied the hydraulic prin-
ciple, the pressure being obtained from an elevated tank.
The elevated tank, however, soon had to give way to the
dead-weight accumulator. The success of the early Arm-
strong cranes was such, both from satisfactory working and
saving in cost, that the system rapidly spread, until to-day
it is almost universally employed for wharf purposes.
In some of the original designs internal packing was used
in order to provide two powers to the crane ; this practice
has now been abandoned, and all packing is external wher-
ever possible.
Fig. 1 20 shows a multiplying hydraulic jigger. This very
useful and most frequently employed appliance has the
advantage that it can be placed in any convenient position
either inside or outside of a building, working vertically or
horizontally, and the rope or chain can be led off to raise
a cage or for use with a crane jig. A ram a works in the
cylinder 6, and has a set of pulleys attached to its head, a
similar set being secured to the base of the cylinder. The
lifting rope or chain is anchored to the cylinder, and passes
alternately over the pulleys attached to the ram head and
the cylinder base, and finally away to the load, thus multi-
plying the stroke of the ram. In the illustration the stroke
of the ram is 5 feet, which is multiplied eight times, giving
a lift of 40 feet, while the net load lifted after allowing for
friction is i ton. If the ram is placed horizontally a slightly
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
larger allowance for friction must
be made. Guide rods c are pro-
vided to direct the ram a in its
outward course, also to act as a stop
when the ram has made its full
stroke. The valve D is automatically
closed at the ends of the stroke by
: c 'be tappet rod e.
As the loads to be lifted vary
greatly, it is often desirable to have
more than one power, and so save
pressure water. There are two good
ways of effecting this which we
gwill describe. By the first method
the cylinder is made larger in bore
than the diameter of the ram to lift
light loads, and a second ram is
used, made in the form of a tube,
and carrying a stuffing box through
which the smaller ram works. This
tubular ram has no base, so that
the water has access to both rams.
The outer ram works in a stuffing
box on the cylinder in the usual
way. Now if both rams be left free
to move when the water is applied,
the lifting effort will be that due to
the combined area of the two rams,
or in other words, to the area of a
circle having a diameter the same
as the ram working through the
outer stuffing box. This constitutes
the higher power. For lifting light
loads the tubular ram is secured in
its lower or in-position by a pair of
claws which are passed overits upper
WAREHOUSE AND DOCK CRANES.
205
edge, so that the water pressure is only free to operate the
smaller ram. By the second method three equal-sized rams
working in three cylinders placed side by side are all attached
to one common head carrying the rope pulleys. By passing
pressure water to all three rams, the maximum load is lifted,
Fig. 121.
whereas if the central ram be opened to exhaust the remain-
ing two will lift two-thirds of the maximum load. For very
light loads the central ram only is used, the other two being
open to exhaust.
Fig. 121 is an illustration of a crane suitable for use in
railway goods sheds, and for general loading and unloading
206 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
purposes. The lifting is performed by a multiple jigger of
the type already described, while the slewing is operated by
two small rams placed under the floor, which alternately
pull a chain which is anchored to a pulley upon the pillar.
The valve levers are placed at the back of the crane.
Another very common type of warehouse crane is the
wall crane used for loading and unloading ships. These
cranes are fitted with long jibs having a derricking motion
operated by a hydraulic ram, also a slewing motion of i8o*,
so that one of these cranes can serve a wide frontage of the
warehouse.
It is often convenient to employ a travelling wharf crane,
such as shown in Fig. 122, which is of the bridge type,
having an opening large enough for a railway truck to pass
through. The pressure water is supplied from stand pipes
or hydrants by walking pipes. The arrangement will be
readily understood from an inspection of the drawing. All
valves are contained in the cabin.
In another type of travelling wharf crane the base is
made short without the bridge, but in all other respects the
design is similar to the one illustrated in Fig. 122. These
travelling cranes should always be provided with rail clips
to grip the rails, and so steady the crane when lifting heavy
loads. Screw blocks are also provided on heavy cranes to
relieve the axles of the load. ,
Fig. 123 illustrates a large dock crane capable of lifting 160
tons through a height of 50 feet, with a direct puller of the type
already shown in Fig. 118. For lifting lighter loads of 35
tons a 3 fall chain block is used, operated by a hydraulic motor
or ram and cylinder. The chain passes between pocketed
or pitched chain rollers on the motor, and is then deposited
in a well. The slewing is performed by a hydraulic motor
which drives a vertical shaft carrying a pinion wheel gearing
into a large circular rack. When it is intended to use the
chain hoist the large hydraulic cylinder is drawn into an in-
clined position by a chain attached to a hydraulic capstan.
WAREHOUSE AND DOCK CRANES.
207
The valve of the large cylinder is operated by a man stand-
ing on the elevated platform ; all the other movements are
operated from the cabin. The pressure water is supplied
from a plant of machinery separated from the crane.
Fig. 122.
We will close our remarks on cranes with a caution
respecting shock due to the too sudden closing of valves.
If a load is being raised or lowered it has velocity, and there-
fore kinetic energy ; now this energy must be absorbed in
20B HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
doing work before the load can be brought to rest. The
only means we have at our disposal is to close the valve, and
so cause a rise of pressure in the hydraulic cylinder. As
water is only very slightly compressible, the load must be
almost at rest by the time the valve is closed if there is no
relief valve. A knowledge of the laws of moving bodies
WARtllOUSE aND dock CRANES. 20^
tells us that the less time taken to arrest motipn the greater
is the force or pressure required, so that in reducing the time
by closing the valve quickly we greatly increase the water
pressure, and a cylinder may thus be broken. By inserting
a shock valve either opening to the accumulator pressure or
controlled by a spring, we ensure that the pressure in the
cylinder can never rise above some fixed amount.
Fig. 124 illustrates movable cranes constructed by the
Hydraulic Engineering Company of Chester, for lifting loads
of T J tons through a height of 50 feet at a rake of 28 feet
3 inches, this rake allowing an overhang of 23 feet from the
side of the jetty. The lifting cylinder is placed vertically
between the cheeks of the mast, the turning cylinders are
also attached to the mast and revolve with it, one end of
the turning chains being anchored to a stationary drum
attached to a footstep casting fixed to the bottom of the
pedestal. In this casting, and a roller path provided at the
top of the pedestal, the crane mast revolves. The power
water is supplied through " walking " pipes attached to the
pressure hydrants, and flexible hose pipes carry the exhaust
water back to corresponding hydrants on the return water
mains.
Gantry cranes are illustrated at Fig. 125, which shows
part of an installation of ten cranes constructed by the
Hydraulic Engineering Company of Chester for the Welling-
ton Harbour Board, New Zealand. These are of double
power for raising loads of 15 or 40 cwts., the height of lift
being 84 feet, and they are fitted with hydraulic gear for
luffing the load between the maximum rake of 37 feet and
the minimum rake of 14 feet 6 inches.
The cranes sit upon gantries which span two lines of rails
and adroit of locomotives passing beneath, the gantries being
also utilised as a platform or bridge to enable passengers to
pass to or from the vessels and for crossing the railway
lines.
A 25-ton coaling crane is shown at Fig. 126, constructed
O
2IO HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
by the Hydraulic Engineering Company of Chester, the
maximum rake being 41 feet 7 inches with a minimum rake
of 20 feet. The load of 25 tons can be raised through 50 feet
and slewed through a complete revolution. The height to
the top of the mast is 7 1 feet from the rail level, and to the
centre of the jib head sheave pin at the maximum rakes it
is 63 feet and 78 feet respectively. The structure, supported
on four double-trod wheels, is self- traversing by means of a
Brotherhood 3-cylinder hydraulic engine and spur gearing
on rails arranged in pairs at a gauge of 23 feet 3 inches.
The pedestal of the crane is of pyramidal form constructed
of steel plates and angles. The mast is composed of two
heavy plate girders having the main lifting cylinder bolted
between them, and it revolves in a brass-lined toestep steadied
by a live roller ring supported by the pedestal. A direct-
acting luffing cylinder is carried on cast steel trunnions at
the top of the mast.
The working pressure is 780 lbs. per square inch. The
cranes being in use at the Mersey Docks.
[ -iBjaccf. 2IO, ajhr Fig. 125. ^
h
CHAPTER XII.
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS.
■
Hydraulic power is generally employed in an intermittent
manner, and when the pressure is produced by mechanical
means, the demand upon the pumping machinery is fre-
quently very great, while at other times it may not be
required at all for some period. It is thus evident that if
the water were to be used direct from the pumps, they
would have to be of sufficient capacity to meet the utmost
demand, and to be capable of giving the maximum quantity
required at all times and periods ; so that, in fact, an im-
mense waste of energy would result, owing to the diminished
conditions requiring a diminished supply from the pumps.
Thus, supposing for example that a lift and a press are to
be supplied with hydraulic pressure by means of a pumping
engine, and that the lift requires loo gallons and the press
60 gallons per minute, a pump must be employed capable
of meeting this double demand, and must supply 160 gallons
of water per minute. But the lift will not require the water
more than once in every five minutes, while the press will
require to be supplied once only in every ten minutes, when
working at its greatest possible speed This united demand,
then, requires in one minute out of every ten that 160
gallons of water at full pressure shall be supplied with
promptitude and certainty; but for nine minutes out of
every ten this amount would be considerably in excess of
the actual needs, seeing that during every five minutes an
absolute cessation of delivery to the lift and the press is
thus secured for a period of four minutes. The average
amount of water that could be supplied, provided means
212 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
were at hand for storing up the quantity ready for the full
demand, we can determine very easily. During every ten
minutes the lift will have made two strokes, and in so doing
will have consumed each time loo gallons of water. In the
same time the press will have required 60 gallons of water.
Thus 260 gallons of water will be required in that time, so
that, if the pumps can be allowed to run constantly, they
can be set to work with a delivery of 26 gallons per minute
theoretically. But to provide for leaks or waste we require,
say, 25 per cent, above this amount, and thus supply 32^
gallons per minute for the duty named.
The simplest way of storing up this water is to erect a
tank at a height sufficient to give the required pressure by
the weight or head of the water column alone. This arrange-
ment is frequently and generally adopted for hydraulic lifts
in warehouses, hotels, and lofty buildings. The water used
upon such premises for this purpose is usually pumped up
over and over again, so that a large amount of water is not
required, as the water escaping from the lifts discharges into
one common tank, from which the pump draws it again.
As soon as the water rises to its determined height within
the tank, a ball or other valve closes the delivery pipe,
and the pumps stop ; and when the water level falls, they
again start automatically. With this kind of demand it is
absolutely essential that the pumps should start off without
any dead centre to be overcome or met, and it is found that
no pump will maintain this supply, stopping and starting even
after standing for a length of time, so well and so effectually
as the Worthington. The advantage of employing a tank
for such work as that of supplying a lift is obvious from the
fact that water may be pumped up in the daytime, ready
for any demand which may be made during the night, while
the pumps are themselves not at work.
When pressures such, for instance, as 700 lbs. to the inch
are employed, it becomes quite impracticable to adopt a tank
or a water tower, seeing that a column to give that pressure
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS. 213
would need to be 1,610 feet high, and pressures as great as
3 tons to the inch of course could not be provided for
Fig. 127-
at all in this direction. In such cases accumulators are
employed, and assume generally the form of a vertical
cylinder, fixed at one end, as illustrated in Fig. 127, and
214 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING,
\
\
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS. 215
free at the other, having a ram or plunger working through
a stuffing box and gland, or through a gland and leather
cup packing, as indicated in Fig. 128. The hempen packing
is the best, owing to its being more easily renewed, but
great friction is often induced by such glands being too
tightly screwed down. The ram or plunger carries a load,
which, in the example illustrated, is made up of cast-iron
weights of circular form, which are suspended from the head
of the ram cap by means of long bolts passing through them.
Instead of cast-iron weights, where space is not so valuable,
a tank or vessel, as shown in Fig. 129, is carried by the
bolts passing down from the ram cap, either in a truly
vertical form, or inclined so as to obtain a more central or
distributed support for the load. Within the tank all kinds
of material in loose form, such as slag, stones, bricks, etc.,
are thrown to make up the amount necessary to give the
required pressure upon the ram, in order that it may store
up the work that the pumps are doing.
The accumulator should be placed as near to the pumps
as possible; and if the system of pipes supplied is very
extensive, it is often desirable to place another accumulator
in some position where it may be of most service in taking
up quickly any sudden demand that may be made upon
the pipes. The load of the accumulator is made to strike
against a stop when quite up, so that as soon as it is lifted
to the full height the water cannot escape from the pumps,
and they are compelled to stop until the reduction of the
pressure by the draught of water permits them to start again.
The weights are sometimes arranged to act upon a rod
which has a collar attached at any desired point, so that
when the weights or the tappet oar strikes the collar the
valve is closed, the steam supply shut off from the pump,
or the belt driving the pumps is thrown on to the loose
pulley. When the weights fall away from the collar by
reason of the draught of water from the accumulator, the rod
controlling the valve or the belt also falls by its own weight,
2l6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS. 217
or under the influence of an added weight Thus so long
as the accumulator ram is not up to its full stroke the pump
will continue to supply water, and will stop when the full
stroke is reached.
When the pressure is very slight, and only a small quantity
of water is required, a plain ram, as shown in Fig. 127,
would not be suitable, on account of the small diameter
that would be required. Again, when only a small quantity
of water under high pressure is required, a small ram,
heavily loaded, might not be possible. In these cases a
differential accumulator, as shown at Fig. 128, is employed.
These accumulators are used with great success by Mr
Tweddell in connection with his hydraulic riveting machines.
The ram in the ordinary accumulator (Fig. 127) is free to
rise in the cylinder, and carries with it the weight. The
cylinder rests in the bottom or base plate, which is securely
bolted to the foundations. There is only one gland, and
that at the top end of the cylinder. Assuming the ram to
be 6^ inches diameter, the area of which is 38.18 inches,
and the pressure upon the water to be 700 lbs. per square
inch, then the load, together with the weight of the ram,
must exceed 33.18x700 = 23,226 lbs.; whereas, with the
differential accumulator, as illustrated in Fig. 128, the same
load of 10 tons 7^ cwts. is acting upon an annular area
obtained from the difference of the two diameters, viz.,
7 J and 6 J inches.
Thus — 7 J in. diameter = 44. 1 7 in. area, and
6i „ =33.18 „
Net area, say= ii.o in.
Pressure per square inch = -~^H. =2111 lbs.
II
Similarly, if only a light pressure of 700 lbs. per square
inch is required from the differential accumulator, then the
load must include the weight of the moving cylinder, which
2l8 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS. 219
has two stuffing glands, one over each part of the ram, as
indicated. The weight then upon the column or ring of
water within the cylinder will be 700x11 = 7,700 lbs., as
against 23,226 lbs. in the simple accumulator.
The cylinder of the differential accumulator in Fig. 128 is
in reality the load plate in addition to the water cylinder.
Chocks of timber are provided for the weight to rest upon
when right down and not in use. Fig. 130 illustrates a fixed
cylinder type of differential accumulator, the moving ram
working through two packed glands, and a pit being formed
beneath the cylinder for the ram end to work within.
Spring-loaded accumulators have been adopted in some
cases, but their range is too narrow to require our giving
any attention to their construction.
In hydraulic installations it is frequently desirable to pro-
duce a very heavy pressure beyond the ordinary working
pressure of the power mains, or beyond the working pressure
of the machines, such increased pressure being to give a
final squeeze in connection with pressing operations or in
connection with riveting plants.
A convenient manner of producing this increased pressure
is by. means of an intensifier which, in its simplest form, is
arranged as a piston working within a cylinder, the piston
rod passing through a gland-packed cover, and working in
a smaller cylinder carried above the main cylinder. The
water from the main is admitted underneath the piston in
the large cylinder, and the whole pressure upon it is trans-
mitted by the piston rod or plunger on to the water within
the small cylinder, the difference in area of the main piston
and the piston rod or plunger giving the difference in
pressure between the supply main in the lower cylinder,
and the intensified main delivery from the upper cylinder.
After the water has been withdrawn from the intensifier
cylinder, and used in giving the final pressure, the main
cylinder valve is opened to the exhaust, and the water
from the intensifier main connection is returned into
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
the upper cylinder
forcing downwards
the main piston in
the lower cylinder.
Fig. 131 illustrates
an intensifier for use
with a water pressure
of 750 lbs., the water
from the mains enter-
ing thelower cylinder,
and forcing upwards
the hollow ram work-
ing upon the upper
fixed hollow plunger.
The intensified pres-
sure from within the
hollow ram and the
hollow fixed plunger
guide is delivered
through the connec-
tion shown at the
upper end of the
fixed ram, while the
supply main connec-
tion is shown near
the base block of the
outer cylinder. The
ratio of areas of the
main ram and the
hollow fixed ram or
plunger gives the
degree of increase
of pressure produced.
The use of an in-
tensifier of this type
in London, where
HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS. 221
the main ram was 15^ inches diameter, and the fixed
ram 6 inches diameter with a stroke of 13 feet, in a manu-
factory for making lead pipes, displaced steam of about
15 h.p., and the cost from the public supply mains com-
pared favourably with the old system, notwithstanding the
fact that steam power was still in use foe other purposes in
the same manufactory.
Fig. 132-
A simple form of differential machine is made by Messrs
George Scott & Son of London and Liverpool, for use in
connection with a hydraulic press for economising the use of
high pressure water, it being well known that in most appli-
cations of the hydraulic press although a high pressure is
necessary to finish the operation of pressing, yet a very
moderate pressure is sufficient for the greater part of the
operation of the machine.
222 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The differential machine consists of two cylinders one
above the other, the piston rod of the piston in the larger
cylinder projecting through a cover and stuffing box into
the smaller cylinder where it serves as the ram, the larger
cylinder being filled with water with its piston at the lowest
extremity. The pressure water is let into the small cylinder
by means of a valve, and the water in the larger cylinder is
driven into the press, forcing the ram of the press upwards
for the larger part of its stroke. The connection between
the differential machine and the press is then closed, and
the high pressure water let into the press to finish the
operation. An example of this type of machine is taken from
a press at work in which the press ram was of 12 inches
diameter, having a stroke of 1 1 inches. The full operation
took 1,240 cubic inches pressure of water under 30 cwt.
pressure, but with a differential machine 255 cubic inches
of pressure was used, the remainder of the stroke being
accomplished by the low pressure water supply. The
machine is illustrated in Fig. 132.
PART VL— HYDRAULIC PRESSES,
)
CHAPTER XIII.
PRESSES FOR BALING AND OTHER
PURPOSES.
Although the principle of this class of machinery was first
stated by Pascal, it was some one hundred and fifty years
later ere Bramah usefully applied it to the construction of a
press. Pascal's statement has been given in full in Chapter
I., and amounts to saying that the pressure on a piston is
directly proportional to its area.
Bramah's closed vessel consisted of a pipe having attached
to one end a pump barrel, which formed the smaller cylinder,
and to the other end a large cylinder containing a ram, and
having a cup leather packing, then for the first time used.
The large cylinder had four tension bars attached to it
which supported a head or table, and the ram carried a
similar table or platten. On placing articles on the platten,
and operating the pump, a multiplied pressure was given to
the article placed on the platten. The modern baling press
is a repetition of Bramah's apparatus on an enlarged scale.
The very general use of the hydraulic press, in one form
or another, warrants special attention being given to the
construction and details of the parts required for particular
purposes. Presses are employed for compressing fibrous
material, as cotton, wool, esparto grass, peat moss, etc., into
small bulk for shipment; for extracting oil and essences
from seeds or roots, for embossing paper and printing lino-
leum, also for sheet metal working and forging operations.
Baling presses are generally provided with a wood or iron
box mounted on wheels and having a loose bottom. The
P
226
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
material is packed tight by hand in this box, which is then
placed in the press, and the ram pumped out, forcing the
loose bottom upwards, and compressing the material. For
the greater part of the run out of the ram but little pressure
is required, as the material offers only a slight resistance, but
after the ram has run out about four-fifths of the height of
the box, the pressure rapidly increases owing to the great
resistance of the material to further compression.
An inspection of Table X., which gives the pressures
in tons per square foot of platten or bottom of baling box
to bale cotton, wool, hay, and esparto grass to a given weight
per cubic foot, reveals the rapid increase of resistance to
compression of these materials after the ram has run out
four-fifths of the box.
Table X. .
Presses for Baling : Pressure in Tons per sq. ft. of Platten
TO Bale Material to the Weights given.
Weight in Pounds
per Cubic Foot.
80
70
60
SO
40
30
20
15
10
Weight in Pounds
per Cubic Foot,
Hand'paclced.
Cotton.
1
2J>»
fi
II
1
V V 1
ti
OCQ
CL4
Wool, .
Slightly Greasy
Hay.
V V
fi
9
t
Oh
V it
4.25
V
0.
20
350
18.82
250
• • •
• • a
17.5
180
16.47
140
• • •
• • •
'5
100
14. 1 1
70
12
60
12.5
50
11.76
35
10
31
10
25
9.41
15
8
14
7.5 .
10
7.05
6
6
5
5
3.5
4.7
2.25
4
1-5
3.75
1.8
3.5
1.15
3
1 -^7
2-5 .
I.I
2.37
.6
2
•3
Esparto
Grass.
> C
10
8
6
4
3
2
9
8!
V
• • •
> • •
80
30-3
15.5
2.25
.9
.3
• • ■
The baling box should be i^ inches less in length,
breadth, and height than the size of bale required. The
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC. 227
pressures in the Table are for the compression only, and an
allowance for the friction of the material against the sides of
the baling box must be added. For bales of 40 lbs. per
cubic foot and under add 25 per cent, to the above pressures,
and for heavier bales add 40 per cent.
Large baling presses are usually supplied with hydraulic
pressure pumps driven by steam power, and, as the available
power is constant, while the work to be performed varies
greatly, many arrangements have been tried for saving time,
although the one usually adopted consists of a battery of
pumps arranged in groups. . The pumps are all set to work
during the earlier part of the stroke, thus driving out the
ram at a rapid rate. When the pressure rises, so that the
work done by the pumps is the maximum available from the
steam plant, one group of pumps is automatically tripped or
put out of action in a manner to be described in Chapter
XVI. The remaining pumps continue to work until the
further rise of pressure causes the power to reach the maxi-
mum, when another group of pumps is tripped. This
tripping is continued until the last group of pumps only
remain, and these are so proportioned that they trip when
the bale is of the required density. By properly proportion-
ing the pumps the ram can be driven out in the shortest
space of time possible for any number of pump plungers
and power available. We will illustrate this fact by first con-
sidering the case where only two pump plungers are used.
In the case of a pump haying two or any other number of
plungers, the smallest plunger is fixed in size by causing it
to absorb the maximum power available when on the point
of tripping. The remaining plunger may be given any size,
and must be arranged to trip out when such a pressure is
reached that the two plungers working together absorb the
maximum power available. There is, however, a size for
this larger plunger, which will cause the ram to travel out
in the shortest time. As the equations to the curves of
pressures for the different materials are unknown, it is im-
228
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
possible to give an equation for finding the size of the larger
plunger; the graphic method in Fig. 133, however, gives
very close approximations to the truth. Fig. 133 represents
the curve of pressures for baling hay to a weight of 50 lbs.
per cubic foot, or to a bulk of one-tenth that of hand-packed
hay. A B represents the length of the baling box filled with
I'ig- 133-
hay, A c the stroke of the ram, and c b the final depth of
the bale of hay. The curve a m f j d is the curve of pres-
sures per square inch of pumps drawn out to a scale making
c D equal to a c. This curve is ascertainable from Table
X. Complete the square a c d e, and join £ c, cutting
the curve in f, and draw the vertical f g, then f g represents
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC. 229
the pressure per square inch at which the larger pump must
trip. This pressure being known, the combined area of the
two pump plungers can be fixed such that the total available
power is absorbed at this pressure. The size of the smaller
plunger being already fixed, the larger is ascertained by
subtraction.
If three pump plungers are to be used, the pressures at
which the two larger must trip can be found by drawing the
diagonals l m, h j so that the area of the square a c d E is
divided into three equal parts, or
from which a l may be found. The diagonals l m, h j
having been drawn, the verticals m n, j k give the pressures
at which the pumps must trip. The sizes of the plungers
are now ascertained by finding the combined area of the
small and medium plungers, at the pressure j k, to absorb
the maximum available power, from which area the size of
the medium plunger is found, as before, by subtraction.
In the same way the combined area of the three plungers
is found for the pressure m n, and the size of the largest
ascertained by subtracting the combined area of the other
two.
An example will render the process more clear. Hay is
to be baled to a weight of 50 lbs. per cubic foot, and the
press is to be worked with a maximum pressure of 2 tons
per square inch. The maximum available power is 3f
horse-power. Referring to Table X., the weight of hand-
packed hay is 5 lbs. per cubic foot. When compressed to
50 lbs. per foot, the space occupied will be one-tenth, or
the ram must travel nine-tenths up the baling box. a b and
A c can now be laid down, making c b one-tenth of a b.
Construct the square a c d £, and draw the curve of pres-
sures, making c d represent 2 tons. Draw the diagonal e c,
230 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
and scale off f g, which in this case is .217 ton. The sizes
of the plungers may now be settled.
3I h.p. = 35000 X 3.75 = 123750 foot-lbs. per minute.
Efficiency of pumps, say .66.
Energy available = 1 23750 x .66 = 8 2 500!^ foot-lbs. perminute.
The velocity of the plungers may be anything up to
50 feet per minute. In the case under consideration the
small plunger may be made i inch diameter, and its travel
in feet per minute will then be
— 5 =23.16 feet.
•7054 X 2 X 2240
A I -inch plunger working against a pressure of 2 tons
per square inch requires to travel through 23.16 feet to
develop 82,500 foot-pounds of energy. As the plungers are
only single acting, the actual velocity of the plunger becomes
23.16x2 = 46.32 feet per minute, which is under 50 feet
velocity. The stroke and consequent number of revolutions
may be settled last.
The size of the larger plunger may now be ascertained.
Let A be the area in inches of the larger plunger —
(■7854 + A).2i7 X 2240 X 23.16 = 82500 foot-lbs.
A = 6.68 square inches.
3 inches diameter = 7.07 inches area.
Therefore we may use a 3 inches diameter plunger tripping at
a pressure of 450 lbs. per square inch, and a i inch diameter
plunger tripping at a pressure of 2 tons.
By adopting a stroke of 4 inches, the number of revolu-
tions per minute of pump shaft is
23.16 X 3 = 70.08 revolutions.
The large ram of the press must be proportioned to give
a pressure of 31 tons per square foot of platten, with an
addition of 40 per cent, to overcome friction of baling box.
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC. 23 1
and 2 tons for stuffing box friction, making a total of 45 tons
per square foot of platten.
If three plungers had been desired, the smallest would
still be the same size — i inch diameter. The two larger
ones are found by drawing the two hnes l m, h j in Fig. 133,
as directed, and scaling m n, j k.
JK =.48 ton per square inch.
MN = .o62
)} 99
The area a of the middle plunger is found as before, but
for a pressure of .48 ton.
(.7854 + A).48 X 2240 X 23. 16 = 82500.
A = 2.53 square inches,
if inches diameter = 2.40 inches area.
The area b of the large plunger may now be found —
(B + .7854 + 2.4o).o62 x 2240 x 23.16 = 82500.
B = 22.47 square inches.
5I inches diameter =21.64 inches area.
The plungers to be used are 5^ inches diameter tripping
at 132 lbs, per square inch, if inches diameter tripping at
1,085 lbs. per square inch, and i inch diameter tripping at
2 tons per square inch.
If in designing the 5i-inch plunger gives trouble and re-
quires a wider spacing of the cranks than is necessary for the
strength of the crankshaft, the stroke may be increased to
6 inches, and the diameters of plungers reduced accordingly.
4 inches increased to 6 inches.
I in. diam. =.7854 area reduced = .7854 x^ = . 52 in. area = lS in. diam.
If „ =2.40 „ =2.40 xj=i.6 „ =14
5} „ ^21.64 „ =21.64x^=14.42 „ =4^
If
Fig. 134 represents the usual form of hydraulic press,
having a cylinder a of cast iron or steel, the latter being much
in request for presses for export, as the weight is then only
232 HVnUAUI.IC POWER ENGINEEKIKG.
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC.
233
about one-third. The cylinder has a U leather packing b
and ram c, and rests on the faced edge of the base plate d.
The head e of the press is attached to the base d by bolts,
or pillars f, usually four in number. The ram carries a
platten g, on which the article to be pressed rests. Water
is admitted to the cylinder at h. Instead of the pillars f
being made, as shown, with a nut at each end, they are
sometimes made with two forged collars at each end, and
the bosses of the head and base are split to receive them,
and fitted with caps bolted on. The platten is guided by
T
J
l<<^
{T
>
Ft
I
t
12
Fig. 135-
the bars f, and has its corners curved to fit the bars, or
sometimes slipper guides are bolted to the platten to increase
the rubbing surface.
Suitable thicknesses for the cast-iron rams are given in
the following table : —
Diam. of Ram in
Inches.
6
8
10
12
2
14
2Jk
16
2i
18
2i
20
2i
Thickness of Ram
in Inches.
li
If
The pillar f is shown in detail in Fig. 135, and the sizes
are given in Table XI. (next page).
234
HYDRAULIC POWER EN(;iNEERING.
Table XL
Sizes of Wrought-Iron Bars for Presses.
4 Bars to a Press.
A
Press
For length of
Test
Load.
1' to 4'
4' to 7'
7' to 10'
10' to 13'
B. C.
Tons.
In.
In.
In.
In.
In.
1
In.
lO
Ij
li
l|
• • •
li
18
20
li
li
i!
• a »
l|
18
30
li
li
ij
■ « •
l|
li
40
li
li
2
2i
li
•i
60
li
2
2*
2i
li
2
80
2ji
2j
2*
2*
2i
2i
ICO
28
24
2i
3
28
2i
150
2*
3
3i
3i
2«
2j
200
3i
3i
3i
3i
31 , 38 •
300
4
4
4
4i
4
4i
D. E. I F. G.
H
In.
In.
In.
In.
In
2i
2
1
}
U
2i
2
i
J
li
2i
2A
i
j
19
2j
28
i
1
I^
3i
3A
i
1
>S
3i
3A
i
i
2i
38
3i
i i
28
3i
4A
I I
23
4
4i
> ; I
3i
58
6
I
I
4
Fig. 136 is a plan of the usual form of press-head. The
stresses occurring in the head vary according to the manner
in which the load is distributed, and are worthy of investi-
gation.
In any manner of loading in which the centre of pressure
of the load coincides with the centr6 of the head, or at the
intersection of G H, N O, the load is equally distributed to
the four pillars at A B C D, and if W represents the total
load or pressure on the head, each pillar carries a load of
W
— . Whatever share of the load is carried by the ribs EF,
4
GH, IK, and LM, NO, PQ is transmitted to the four side
ribs AD, BC, and AB, CD, which in turn transmit the load
to the pillars. As the four ribs AD, BC, AB, CD, each
W
carry an equal load, that load is evidently —
4
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC.
235
Four typical methods of loading have been selected for
investigation, and any others may be considered as similar
to one or other of these with sufficient accuracy.
These four methods of loading are : —
(i.) Load distributed over the whole press-head within
the centre lines A B C D.
(2.) Distributed over the area bounded by the line R.
\3'/ » » » ♦> ^«
\4»/ » » 11 >» ^»
236 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
In all these cases the load W may be divided into two
W
parts — ; one of which is supported by the ribs running in
2
one direction, as AB, EF, GH, IK, DC ; and the other by
the ribs at right angles to these, as AD, LM, NO, PQ, BC.
In (i) the load - carrried by AB, EF, GH, IK, DC is
2
divided up as follows : —
16 8 8 8 16 2'
and a similar load is carried by the remaining bars, so that
AD carries a load of — -.
16
AD also carries half the loads of EF, GH, IK, so that
the total load on AD is —
—^ + —7 + —^ + —- = — as above stated.
16 16 16 16 4
The bending moments may now be expressed : —
forAD = SW^.
128
forEF, GH, orIK = ^.
64
The load on AD is not evenly distributed.
W
In (2) the load — is carried by EF, GH, IK as follows : —
2
w w w_w
6 ■*""6""*"6""T'
Half of these loads are carried by AD, or —
12 12 12 4 '
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC. 237
The bending moments in this case are : —
WL
for AD =
24
torEK, GH, or IK=^-.
48
W
In (3) the load — is carried by EF, GH, IK, as follows : —
2
w w w_w
8482
Half of these are carried by AD, or —
W W W^W
16 8 16 4*
The bending moments are : —
forAD = 3WL
64
forEForIK = ^^,
64
forGH= — .
32
VV
In (4) the load — is carried by GH —
2
2 2 *
Half of this is carried by AD —
4^ 4"
The bending moments are : —
WL
for AD =
76'
forGH = --,
8
for EForIK = 0.
238
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
"r
Fig. 137-
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC. 239
The section of metal required may now be determined.
The flat plate of metal forming the face of the head is made
of the same thickness of metal as the ribs, and may be
included in taking out the sizes.
By first neglecting the flat plate each rib may be deter-
mined as a rectangular section by equating its bending
moment to the moment of resistance of a rectangle. Thus
for AD in (i)—
128 " 6
where b is the width of the rib, // the height, and /the stress
to which the metal is to be subjected. If L is in feet, b and
h must also be in feet, and if w is in tons, /must be in tons.
By selecting values for b and /and solving this equation,
the value of h can be found ; it is usual to fix values for b
and/ and if h is unsuited, b must be varied and another
value found for h.
These values being settled, the correct height h^ of the
head can be ascertained as follows : —
I^t r be the distance between the ribs.
Then/&i = '^ + ^'+'^.
2 4r 2
To avoid difficulties in casting it is usual to find the
dimensions of the strongest rib, and make the others of the
same dimensions.
The formulae have been worked out for square heads
with three intermediate ribs. They are, however, applicable
to any rectangular head with not less than three intermediate
ribs, and having the load distributed over a rectangle having
the same ratio of sides as the head.
F*g' ^37 represents a baling press and box complete.
The cylinder a, containing the ram carrying the platten b, is
carried by the base c, which in turn is connected to the head
D by the bars e. Guide rails f are attached to the bars £
and supported at g. The baling box h runs on grooved
240 HYDRAULIC POWER KNGINEERING,
PRESSES FOR BALING, ETC.
241
3R-
+
L.....J
:'fn
wheels resting on the rails f. The bottom of the baling
box consists of a piece of grooved hardwood resting on a
ledge or fillet. The cotton or other material to be baled is
packed in the box h by hand, and the box is then drawn
into the press by revolving the
handle i which causes the chain
K attached to the baling box H
to travel, and so move the box h.
The front of the box h is cut
away at the top to clear the hard-
wood block M on the press-head.
When the box is central over the
ram, the water is pumped into
the cylinder a, and the platten b
passed up inside the box H carry-
ing the hardwood bottom with it.
When the baling operation is
completed, the hinged doors n
and o of the haling box are
opened, and the box h withdrawn
by turning the handle 1. The
upper part of the baling box h
has three of its sides hinging out-
wards to allow of the expansion j
of the bale on the pressure being
released.
The box h having been re-
moved from the press, the doors
N and o are closed and refilling
commenced. The bale in the
press is at the same time hooped
with iron bands which are passed
through the slots in the hardwood blocks, and secured
round the bale by riveting or other suitable means.
The ram is now lowered into the cylinder, and the bale
removed.
Ep
ff
w
V
u
W-
^--.-.--J
^
rit. •
242 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Fig. 138 represents a dumping press which is made in
exactly the same way as the hydraulic presses already noticed,
but in place of the baling box it is supplied with steel bars
tf, a, a, of strong T section. The bars are usually hinged at
the base, and fitted with a draw-pin at the head of the press.
The material is lightly baled in up-country districts in screw-
power presses, and when brought to the quays is pressed or
dumped to the requisite size for shipment in a press of this
description.
Fig. 139 represents one form of hydraulic oil-press suit-
able for extracting oils or essences from seed and roots.
The press is precisely similar to a baling press in the main
features, but has a series of hanging plates or platforms
equally spaced as shown. The seeds or roots are placed
in flat canvas or horse-hair bags, which are placed on the
plates, and the press is then operated. The oil or essence
escaping trickles off the edges of the plates, and over the
down-turned edge of the platten into the flat tank a, where
it is run off by the pipe b into suitable vessels.
CHAPTER XIV.
SHEET METAL WORKING AND FORGING
MACHINERY.
It was about the year i860 that the hydraulic press was
first practically used for the forging of ingots for big guns
at Messrs Whitworth's. About the same time the English
engineer in charge of the Vienna locomotive shops intro-
duced a hydraulic press for forming the various details of
locomotives and railway stock. The work done was of a
varied nature, including forging in closed dies, punching,
and drawing out and dumping operations.
Needless to say, there was the usual prejudice to the new
tools and methods, but their superiority was evident to lead-
ing engineers, so that at the present time the hydraulic press
is almost solely used for large work, whilst its popularity for
small work is rapidly increasing.
Before passing to the hydraulic machine tools proper we
will notice a small hand-worked punching bear illustrated in
Fig. 140. The punch is attached to a ram a fitted with a
cup leather, and working in a cylinder b formed in the main
frame of the bear. The cylinder is surmounted by a water
cistern c containing a pressure pump worked by a hand
lever d. When the pump is worked water is forced into the
cylinder b, so driving the ram down and forcing the punch
through the metal. To raise the punch clear of the work
the thumbscrew e is loosened, and the cam f attached to
the lever g is operated, thus driving the water back into the
cistern c.
We will now consider the usual types of forging presses in
t •
»
244
HVDRAUUC POWER ENGINEERING.
use. Fig. 141 gives a general idea of the arrangement of a
large forging press. The cylinder a, carrying the ram b, is
supported by two or four vertical columns c, secured to the
base D, which carries the anvil or bottom die. Two cylinders
E F are fixed to the press, and are always open to the pres-
sure water, so that when the large cylinder a is open to
exhaust, the pressure acting on the rams G h drives the ram
Fig. 140.
B up, thus the press is controlled by one valve only. In
many designs of press the drawback cylinders E f are placed
the reverse way up, and are secured to the large head cast-
ing, being then provided with tension rods to lift the ram b.
Arrangement of minor points must, however, be governed
by circumstances, as if the press is too lofty it will interfere
probably with the passage of overhead travelling cranes.
SHEET METAL WORKING AND FORGING. 245
When four columns are used, they are so disposed as to
keep the press as narrow as convenient in one direction, so
that the tackle for handling the forging may be brought as
close as possible to the dies. Various methods are adopted
for securing the head to the columns ; In the press shown
the head rests on a collar or neck formed on the column,
and is secured by a nut. In
another method the column
has two collars formed near
each end, and the head and
base castings have bosses
bored out and fitted with
caps ; the column is in-
serted and the cap bolted
on.
In some presses provision
is made for altering the
depth of the gap or space
between the ram and anvil,
or"daylight,"asit iscalled.
This is generally done by
placing the cylinder at the
bottom, and the top casting
is made adjustable by hav-
ing the pillars screwed for
a considerable length, and
provided with two nuts for
locking the casting in the
required position.
Different firms have at
times produced presses varying in design and claiming
special advantages. The Davy press has two cylinders
placed side by side, and attached to one common cross-
head, the crosshead being provided with a long arm pro-
jecting upwards from its centre, and having a turned cylin-
drical part at iis upper end. This cylindrical part works
Fig. 141.
246 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
in a tubular guide placed between the two cylinders, and
together with the guides working on the columns forms
a triangular support, giving great steadiness to the top die.
Another advantage of this form of press is that the pressure
on the dies may be considerably off the centre line of the
press without causing severe straining.
A multiple power press, designed by Messrs Tweddell,
Fielding, & Piatt, has three equal-sized rams placed side
by side below the floor level, the rams all acting on a
common crosshead, connected by strong tension bars, which
also act as guides to the head of the press carrying the top
die ; whilst the bottom die is supported by a base which also
carries the three hydraulic cylinders. Three different powers
are obtained by this arrangement, according to the number
of rams acted upon by the pressure water. This press also
has the advantage that the head room is unobstructed, thus
allowing a free passage for travelling cranes.
For very large forging presses it is not usual to work with
an accumulator, the water being supplied direct from a pump
into the cylinder, the idle part of the stroke being performed
by the pressure of water contained in an overhead tank.
The lifting cylinders are frequently operated by a steam
accumulator, or by pressure water from an ordinary accu-
mulator.
By another method the pressure is applied by a direct
steam driver, which consists of a large steam cylinder
coupled direct to a plunger, which is connected without
the interposition of valves to the press cylinder, the steam
cylinder being operated by an ordinary slide valve.
It is absolutely necessary to use a high pressure in the
cylinders — usually 2 to 3 tons per square inch — otherwise
the machines become very costly and heavy in weight, or the
manufacture is rendered impossible.
Fig. 142 shows the usual arrangement of a small open-sided
or C press, which can be conveniently made for pressures up
to about 150 tons. In the illustsation a vertical forging ram
SHEET METAL WORKING AND FORGING. 247
A is shown, also a horizontal ram b, each supplied with a
drawback ram constantly open to the water pressure. Two
valve levers are shown, one to each cylinder. Hydraulic
push-back cylinders are supplied to each ram, and are always
subjected to the pressure water. Machines of this type may
be used for all kinds of stamping and punching as well as
general forging.
Fig. r43 shows a section
of the cylinders and ram
of a Tweddell punch. The
ram A carrying the punch
is formed of two circular
parts placed eccentric to
each other, thus placing
the punch well forward and
easily visible. The ram a
is packed by a U leather,
and works in the gun-metal
lined cylinder b. The re-
turn motion of the ram is
effected by the drawback
ram or piston c working in
the cylinder d, which is
always open to the pressure
water. A water-saving ap-
pliance is added, which is
operated by the lever e,
and closes the valve when
the punch has penetrated
the metal.
The working of the water-saving appliance will be better
understood by an examination of Fig. 144, which illustrates
a manhole punch or flanging press. The only difference
between this and the last press lies in the fact that the dies
are arranged centrally with the ram. The down stroke of
the ram causes an oscillation of the lever F, which by means
248 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
of the adjustable tappets or nuts c causes a movement of the
liand lever h, which operates the balanced valve i, cutting
off the water pressure. The attendant now gives the valve a
further movement, opening it to exhaust, the ram rises, and
in doing so oscillates the lever f in the ojiposite direction,
causing the adjustable nuts k to move the hand lever H
SHEET METAL WORKING AND FORGING. 249
and valve i back to the central position, ready to be again
operated by the attendant to cause the next down stroke.
Fig. 145 shows a shearing machine having the water-saving
mechanism so arranged that the valve may be worked by
either hand or foot power. In this machine the drawback
ram is placed behind the large cylinder in the main casting.
Fig. 146 illustrates Tweddell's plate-bender, for forming
Fig. 144.
the shells of large boilers and for similar work. The plate
to be bent is fed through the slot a, water pressure is then
applied to the cylinder b, causing the die c to advance
towards the die d, so bending the plate. The die c is
returned, on the cylinder b being opened to exhaust, by the
drawback ram e. The plate is now further advanced and
another stroke of the die c given. By this mfeans the plate
is bent to the final curve at the rate of 2 to 3 feet per
250
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGIKEERING.
minute. An adjustable stop is provided which prevents the
dies coming too close together, and so forming a circle of
less radius than is required. The dies are not made to any
radius, but the die d has a central rib, while the die c has
two ribs a short distance apart. To remove the work the
head f is slewed round. A hinged tie-bolt is, however, some-
Fig. 145.
times provided to connect the die d to the main frame at its
upper end.
Fig. 147 shows in plan the general arrangement of a tube-
drawing machine. A hydraulic cylinder a is provided, having
connected to it two long bars b supported on feet. The tube
to be drawn is first slightly reduced at one end, and then,
having been threaded on to the mandrel, is placed in the
SHEET METAL WORKING AND FORGING. 2SI
machine with its reduced end passing through the die carried
in the holder c. The tail end of the mandrel is now attached
to the support D, and the reduced end of the tube is gripped
by the jaws e carried by the crosshead f, capable of being
drawn along by the water pressure acting on the piston c.
The stroke being completed, the tube is removed and the
crosshead f returned by water acting on the back of the
piston G, the water in front being returned to the accumu-
lator.
Fig. 148 shows a hydraulic press arranged for putting on
and taking off railway rolling stock wheels. The action will
be readily understood from the illustration. The wheels to
be operated upon having been suitably adjusted between the
tension bars a, the ram b is pumped out by the hand pump
C so forcing on or taking off the wheel.
252 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINKKRING.
J 3-
CHAPTER XV.
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS.
The very general use of the hydraulic riveter for ship-
building, boiler-making, and girder work is undoubtedly
due to the efforts of the late Mr R. H. Tweddell and to
Messrs Fielding & Piatt.
Water power is particularly suitable for riveting, in that
the machines consume no energy except when actually at
work, and being portable in most cases, can be readily
carried to any desired position upon a scaffold or within a
structure or frame where ordinary machines having rotating
power or shafting could not be employed. The system of
laying the hydraulic pipes or mains with union branches at
positions likely to be suitable for any special tool, or any
part of a building yard or dock, provides, with the use of
travelling on telescopic joints, an easily controlled and
economical method of mechanical riveting. In Fig. 149 is
shown in sectional elevation the motive power end of a
portable riveter.
The water pressure is used to give three distinct move-
ments to the operating members. First, in the cylinder
formed within the ram b, the ram d being forced out, carry-
ing with it the plate-closing die e, also the ram b and rivet-
closing die c. Second, in the cylinder a forcing out the
riveting die c, thus closing the rivet. Third, the water
always at constant pressure on ram h, within the draw-
back cylinder g, carries back or returns the rams b and d
when the other cylinders are opened to exhaust. The water
from L enters the cylinder within b by means of the sliding
254 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEER[NG.
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS.
2SS
packed joint at the upper end of the ram b, and the passage
shown in dotted lines k admits the pressure from the valve
which is usually attached adjacent to the passage. Swivel-
ling is provided for by the suspension arm m being formed
with a boss for the frame stem n to pass through.
Fig. 150 illustrates a portable riveter having a hand worm
and wheel for swivelling the frame into any position to suit
Fig. 150.
the work. The hanger is made of cast steel, and by means
of a flexible pipe the necessary movement is obtained without
difficulty.
Variable power is sometimes desirable in connection with
fixed or portable machines, so as to obtain the best results
without necessitating a constant consumption of water when
the duty is not a constant one. Fig. 151 illustrates in
elevation a double power and plate-closing riveter of 150
2S6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
tons power, and having a gap of 8 feet suitable for marine
boiler plate riveting.
Fig. 152 illustrates in sectional view the motive power end
of a plate-closing riveter, having arranged thereon also water-
saving rams whereby an economy of about 60 per cent is
obtained. Three valve levers are employed to control the
Fig. 151.
three valves .\ i! c, being the water saving valve, the plate-
closing valve, and the main ram valve respectively. Water
from a tank having a head of about 20 feet supplies the valve
A, which is used to advance the plate-closing ram o, which
carries the closing tool d. The water-saving and drawback
piston ram E is fed by water on both sides of the piston, the
difference of area of the full outer against the inner annular
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS.
iS8 ilYDRAULiC POWEk ENGiNEEklNG.
end causing the ram e to advance and with it the rams d and
F, so that the plate-closing tool d and the cupping die / are
brought close up to the work, the movement being assisted
also by the low-pressure or tank water being at the same
time taken into the main cylinder h and the plate-closing
cylinder k. Pressure water is then admitted into the main
cylinder, the effective area being the diflference of the areas of
the plate-closing ram k and the main cylinder h, some water
escaping from the plate-closing to the main cylinder through
the common supply pipe to allow the main cylinder h to
move relatively to the plate-closing cylinder k. After the
pressure has been kept on the rivet a short time, the water
from K and h is exhausted back into the tank, the pressure
on the annular drawback piston £ causing the return stroke
on the other or full area end of the piston being opened to
the exhaust.
Wherever possible the cylinder should be lined with gun-
metal or phosphor bronze, the valves being also of the same
metal throughout.
With a view to securing economy alike in plant and
in water, forging presses and other machines are now
made as combination steam power and hydraulic power
presses. Instead of an ordinary loaded or weighted water
accumulator being employed, a steam pressure plunger is
arranged for giving the final pressure to the water in the
press cylinder, while the ordinary up and down movements ^
of the press are effected by gravity or by the steam draw-
back or lifting pistons or rams.
In the forging plants constructed on this principle, the
power is obtained by means of a steam cylinder, the
piston of which is large, and is arranged for receiving the
steam upon its under side only, while the piston rod pro-
jects into and forms the plunger for imparting the pressure
to water in the hydraulic power supplying cyhnder mounted
immediately above it. The water under pressure from this
small cylinder is supplied to the main or press cylinder that
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS. 259
is carried or formed upon the press-head and which is sup-
ported by the four pillars or wrought-steel columns. The
ram or plunger of the press works in this cylinder, and its
outer end is attached to the crosshead, upon which the
forging die block or tool is mounted.
The downward motion of the press is effected by gravity,
the weight of the crosshead and ram being sufficient for
that purpose ; the hydraulic cylinder filling automatically
during the movement of the ram with water from a tank or
cistern without pressure. When the work is reached by
the crosshead forging tool, and pressure is then required
to be given to it, the water supply from the tank to the
cylinder is cut off, and the connection simultaneously made
to the steam accumulator cylinder, thereby admitting the
water from the water cylinder which is under the pressure
of the steam thrust plungers. By this system the full
pressure water is only drawn upon when the actual thrusting
is required to be exerted by the press, and not for simply
carrying down the crosshead, thus economising the water,
and limiting its consumption to the actual thrusting or
working stroke.
The upward or return movement of the crosshead and
its forging tool is obtained by means of steam drawback
cylinders mounted above the press-head ; these cylinders
also serve for regulating the downward movement of the
crosshead when no pressure water is being supplied to the
working or press-ram cylinder.
The forging press constructed in accordance with this
system by Messrs Breuer, Schumacher, & Co. Ltd, Kalk,
Germany, is illustrated at Fig. 153. The valve gear consists
of a balanced piston valve working in a brass liner, and is
so arranged as to admit and exhaust the steam and to
admit the exhaust steam into the upper part of the cylinder
during the down stroke, so that the cylinder may be kept at
an even temperature.
When steam is admitted, the piston rises and the piston
26o HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
rod forces the water from the cast-steel pump cylinder into
the press, forcing the ram of the movable crosshead down-
wards, and doing the work. A tank is provided close to the
press from which the whole of the pipes between the pump
and the press rams and also the press cylinder are kept
full of water.
The press itself is composed of a strong cast-steel head
forming the hydraulic cylinder and a cast-iron base con-
nected together by means of four wrought-iron columns,
the movable crosshead being guided on these columns.
On the head two small steam return-stroke cylinders are
mounted for opening and closing the press, allowing the
crosshead with the tool to sink into the work before the
large steam cylinder and hydraulic pressure connection is
brought into action. The drawback pistons when a stroke
is completed raise the crosshead sufficiently for the work
to be taken out or turned on the anvil, whilst the piston of
the large steam cylinder sinks to the bottom preparatory to
beginning another stroke.
The total stroke of the press is made up of a number of
single strokes; as soon as one stroke has been made, the
lever is raised to its middle or horizontal position, and on
being depressed again a second stroke follows. This
process can be repeated until the whole stroke has been
attained.
If with smaller work or smaller tools pressure is required
lower down, it is only necessary to raise the valve lever
above its horizontal position and lower it down to it again,
when the crosshead can be lowered to any desired position.
On lowering the lever, pressure is at once again exerted.
It is also possible to work to the maximum limits at any
.desired pressure, as the valve gear can be cut off at any
instant, the steam consumption being proportionate to the
stroke.
As the steam cylinder is only single acting from below,
the steam consumption is extremely economical, and the
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS. 261
press also works expansively, especially with work not
requiring the full pressure, that i^ the steam pressure in the
cylinder is proportionate to the resistance offered by the
work ; in other words, if the work requires the full pressure,
the full force of the steam comes into play ; but if, as is
often the case with forging, the work does not require the
full pressure, the pressure in the cylinder is proportionately
less.
The press illustrated by Fig. 153 is for 3,000 tons, and
shows the lower anvil block cleared of its foundations, which
would be made up ordinarily to the level of the upper face
of the base blocks to which the pillars are secured.
The steam distribution and working is such that when
the lever and the valve are in their highest positions, steam
is admitted underneath the pistons of the two return-stroke
cylinders. When the lever is in its middle position, the
steam exhausts from the above cylinders, and the crosshead
sinks by gravity on to the work, the hydraulic cylinder
meanwhile filling with water. With the lever below its
middle position, the steam is admitted under the piston of
the driving cylinder, forcing the pressure water into the
cylinder of the press, and the pressure bar against the work
until the stroke is finished.
Fig. 154 shows a similar type of press of 1,200 tons,
while in Fig. 155 a similarly acting steam hydraulic press
for 300 tons is shown in which the steam drawback or
return-stroke cylinder is arranged immediately above the
hydraulic cylinder, the projecting piston rod from the draw-
back cylinder being provided with a crossbar and side-sling
rods for carrying the travelling crosshead and forging tool.
When light work is to be provided for overhung or
single frame presses are made for working with steam
and hydraulic power combined, the steam cylinder being
mounted upon the framework as shown in Fig. 156.
Fig. 157 illustrates a 10,000 tons steam-hydraulic
armour plate forging press made by Messrs Breuer,
262 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Schumacher, & Co. Ltd. In this powerful press the
return or up stroke steam cylinders are arranged above
the upper head, and the piston rods pass direct and through
the head to the crosshead, while three hydraulic rams give
the pressure to the travelling crosshead die for the maxi-
mum power, although the centre one or the two side or
outer ones may be used as desired for varying powers. A
triple steam-driving arrangement is also employed by using
one, two, or three cylinders, which makes it possible to
supply the press with three different degrees of pressure
water, and thus to give it varying pressures as may be
desired during the progress of the forging or bending of
the armour plate.
Steam hydraulic bloom shears constructed on the same
principle as the forging presses illustrated are shown in
Fig. 158, the advantages of this combination power principle
being particularly important for obviating delay and loss of
heat in cutting a billet into short blooms before it passes to
the rolling mills.
In the shears shown the steam cylinder and its hydraulic
pressure cylinder are independent of the shears framework,
and a hand-regulated valve controls the steam supply to the
cylinder, the piston rod of which forms the plunger for the
hydraulic cylinder above it. • A pipe connects the hydraulic
cylinder at the shears with the one on the engine and passes
sufficient water under pressure for each stroke of the shears.
The upper shear blade is drawn directly back after each
stroke by means of a steam cylinder placed on the top of
the shear frame, the piston rod of which is connected by
links and rods with the side of the upper blade-holder.
This cylinder is also connected with the valve gear of the
driving cylinder. The steam is distiributed by a balanced
piston valve, so constructed that steam can be cut off at any
desired point, ensuring economy in steam consumption.
The hydraulic driving cylinder ends above in a small
chamber, from which it is usually shut off by means of a
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS. 263
spring valve. This chamber is kept in connection with a
water tank placed above it, and supplies the hydraulic
cylinder with fresh water as soon as the simple valve gear
opens the piston valve. The pressure cylinder for the shears
is also connected by pipes with the water tank, from whicH
it is filled with water for the idle stroke of the upper blade-
holder.
Shears of this construction work in the following
manner : —
When the hand lever is raised as far as possible, it lifts
the valve to its highest position and opens the space below
the piston to the exhaust, and also opens the connection
between the steam and the lifting cylinder. At the same
time the spring valve at the top of the hydraulic cylinder is
opened to let the water down from the tank. With the
valve gear in this position the upper blade-holder is lifted,
forcing back the water through the small hydraulic cylinder
and the pressure pipe to the tank. The piston then sinks
by gravity to its lowest position, and the small hydraulic
cylinder is filled with water from the pressure cylinder for
the shears. With the valve in the middle position the steam
is cut off from the lifting cylinder and opened to exhaust,
the spring valve at the top of the hydraulic cylinder remain-
ing open. The blade-holder now sinks by gravity until the
blade rests on the work, the movement being almost in-
stantaneous. The pressure cylinder is now filled with water
from the small hydraulic cylinder. With the valve below
the middle position the steam is admitted below the piston
and the valve in the small hydraulic cylinder closed. The
piston rises and forces a certain quantity of water into the
pressure cylinder above the shears, forcing the upper blade
downwards and cutting through the billet. The movements
are as economical and quick as possible, as power is only
actually expended in the return stroke of the upper blade
and in the actual cutting. All the so-called idle movements,
' such as the sinking of the piston, and of the upper blade on
264 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
to the work by gravity, utilise absolutely no power. Even
the actual shearing, which increases with the area of the
section to be cut, need only utilise the amount of steam
actually necessary for the work, as the driver can, by adjust-
ing the lever, regulate the cut-off to a nicety to suit the work
to be sheared. Moreover the machine practically regulates
this automatically, for if too much steam is admitted the cut
is effected more rapidly and the driver must shut off steam
sooner, the cut being finished during the period of expan-
sion, and if too little is admitted the cut is effected too
slowly and the driver must open the valve further to admit
more steam.
Fig. 159 illustrates shears of this steam hydraulic type for
cutting steel plates.
Fig. 160 shows a patent steam hydraulic flanging press
constructed by Messrs Breuer, Schumacher, & Co. for flang-
ing the ends of large boilers. In this press the lifting
cylinders are hydraulic as well as the pressing or lowering
cylinders. The water for filling the cylinders is not taken
from an open tank, but from a low pressure weighted
accumulator.
Messrs Armstrong, Whitworth, & Co. have constructed
hydraulic presses of 12,000 tons power, the working pres-
sure of which was 3 tons per square inch, the ram being
72 inches in diameter, the height above the floor of the
press was 33 feet, width 22 feet, working clearances between
boiler 1 1 feet 6 inches, stroke of ram 5 feet, speed of ram
4 feet 6 inches per minute, two draw-back cylinders being
employed with rams of 10 inches diameter, 6 feet stroke,
two 8-inch raking cylinders also being u?ed of 30 feet stroke,
four lo-inch roller cylinders 40 feet stroke. The auxiliary
motions in connection with the press were worked from
an independent accumulator service of i ton per square
. inch, the approximate weight of the press and pits being
1,250 tons.
The steam hydraulic forging press illustrated in Fig. 161
HYDRAULIC RIVETERS. 265
is one specially designed by Messrs Fielding & Piatt for use
on board ship in place of the ordinary steam or pneumatic
hammer, the peculiar advantage of this type of press being
that it does its work with a squeeze instead of a blow, and
being self-contained and working with no vibration renders
it especially suitable for such purposes.
The press shown is capable of working at about 50 to 60
strokes per minute, or when used for planishing about double
the speed is attained. The power of the press is about
60 tons, the steam pressure being 80 lbs. to 100 lbs. per
square inch, the stroke of the ram being 1 2 inches.
Fig. IS3.-STKAM HVL1KAU1.IC FORCIMJ PRESS (J.OOO TONS).
[fiST. 153-161 /fl /n^(A 266.
Fig. 154.— Stbah Hvt>RAULic FoRctNG Press (I, zoo Tons).
fifi- 155.— Stk.im lIvnRAiii.ic Fom;iM; I'ress {300 To\s).
Fig. 158.— Stram Hydraulic Bi.noii Snu^'
Fig. l6a-.STEflM HVDRAliLlC Vi.f.KGlX'.: Vl
PART VIL-^PUMPS.
CHAPTER XVI.
HAND AND POWER PUMPS.
In examining briefly the ordinary forms of hand and
power driven pressure pumps for transmitting water under
pressure to presses, accumulators or other hydraulic
machines, we pass over entirely the ordinary suction and
bucket and plunger or force pumps used for the domestic
supply and delivery water into tanks or reservoirs, and glance
Fig. 162.
instead at the type of hand pressure pump as shown in
sectional elevation in Fig. 162.
The pressure pump as shown is suitable for working up to
pressures of 2 tons per square inch, and is particularly useful
for boiler and other testing purposes, the pump a being fitted
with a trip lever h for opening the suction valve upon the set
pressure being obtained. The plunger b. Fig. 163, is re-
ciprocated in the cylinder a of the pump casting, the water
270
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
entering from the cistern or tank to which the pump is
secured through the suction valve c protected by a strainer
D to fill the cylinder a. The back stroke of the plunger
forces the water through the non-return valve f, closing at
the same time the suction valve c, and delivering the water
through the end branch e of the pump stem to the pipe
attached thereto. To release the pressure the stop spindle
G is turned, thereby opening the delivery port to an outlet
port allowing the water to flow back into the cistern.
^^^
Fig. 163.
The plunger is reciprocated by a hand lever which is
placed on the «id of the spindle k, thus giving the desired
movement to the tumbler or cam arm l, which works in an
opening provided in the central portion of the plunger.
The passages for the water are drilled out of the solid
metal of the casting, and the ends afterwards plugged by
screwed and riveted plugs as shown in Fig. 164. The trip
or release valve is described in connection with the vertical
plunger pump shown in Figs. 166 and 167. The hand
HAND AND POWER PUMPS.
271
pressure pump illustrated in Fig. 165 is provided with a ver-
tical plunger a, and has the hand lever balanced and pivoted
on to the standard or frame B, a trip or relief valve c is
arranged upon the pump, and the stop or release valve d is
placed horizontally. The passages and valves of the pump
are similar to the valves shown in Fig. 163, the plunger also
being of the same type, having its packing formed by a leather
lace bound tightly round a groove.
Pumps driven by belting or gearing for hydraulic purposes
have much in common with the typical hand pump already
examined, and Figs. 166 and 167 show in elevation and in
detail a very useful type of belt-power pressure pump. The
crank shaft is connected direct to the plungers, which are
arranged in varying sizes upon the standard for the puqjose
of giving a quick run up of water at a low pressure for such
a duty as a packing press where, as we have before pointed
out, a varying pressure is always required during the travel
272
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
of the press to suit the density of the material which is being
compressed.
Trip levers are connected with each pump, and they are
so arranged that the pressure produced upon the water by
the resistance of the material between the press platten
Fig. 165.
and head shall cause a small valve b to raise the loaded
lever c, and with it the bottom foot lever d, which then
raises the suction valve w off its seat, thus causing the power
of the pump to be given to the two remaining plungers, which
are of smaller area. When the pressure is further increased
HAND AND POWER PUMPS.
273
owing to the material being more densely compressed, the
second trip lever is caused to move by its valves being urged
to overcome the corresponding weighted lever, and thus
F
Fig. 166.
another plunger is thrown out of action, leaving the last
plunger of a smaller diameter to give the final pressure to
produce the maximum load against which it is set by its trip
lever. By this arrangement of trip levers any desired pressure
S
274
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
can be produced upon the final plunger while leaving the
early movements of the pump to deliver water at a very
much lower pressure, thereby economising the power and
water and making the pressing operation a quick one. It
should be noted that the trip valve which acts against the
loaded lever does not allow any water to escape, but simply
moves upwards within its bored port, the leather packing on
///////////////////////////////////////////////^^^^
T\g. 167.
the end of the valve keeping the pressure tight within the
pump passages.
The well-known bucket and plunger pump employed for
ordinary water-raising purposes, where a continuous flow of
water is required from the single up and down motion of one
plunger, has its counterpart arrangement for hydraulic power
purposes as shown in Fig. 168. In this pump, which is
suitable alike for hand or power, the suction valve a is only
HAND AND POWER PUMPS.
27S
Operated at each alternate stroke, and b; propoitioning the
areas of the plunger half the quantity of water drawn in the
suction valve a is delivered throi^h the delivery valve B at
each stroke. The non-return valve c, which acts as the
check valve to the full end of the piston, is forced upon
its seat during the in or suction stroke of the piston by the
pressure water travelling from the annular or front end of
the pump, the valve B being open for delivery during this
period. During the outward stroke of the piston the suction
Fig. 16S.
valve A is forced on to its seat, but the check valve c is
raised, allowing the full bore of the pump barrel to be dis-
charged through it, half of this quantity going to fill up the
annular space in front of the piston, while the other half is
delivered through the outlet valve b. This counterbalancing
of fluid pressure within the pump barrel renders the arrange-
ment particularly suitable for all classes of pumping
machinery, as no unequal strains are set up during the
working of the pump at any speed.
CHAPTER XVII.
STEAM PUMPS.
The varieties of steam pumps for hydraulic pressure purposes
are almost as numerous as the varieties of the ordinary steam
engine, although possibly the pumps have more in common
than have the engines produced by various makers.
Unquestionably the most satisfactory type for general
Fig. 169.
purposes of a small installation where steam is available is
the duplex pump, first introduced and perfected by H. K
Worthington, of America. The Worthingtori pump, as illus-
trated in Fig. 169, has two steam cylinders side by side, the
piston rods of each cylinder being continued to act as the
pump rods of the two pumps at the opposite end, the pump
STEAM PUMPS.
277
castings being connected to the cylinders by distance pieces,
as shown. The valve of each steam cylinder is an ordinary
slide valve, but the ports are duplicated at each end. No
lap or lead is given to the valve, but a small space or slack
is given between the nuts and the jaw of the valVe. This
lost motion permits the valve rod to travel slightly before
moving the valve, thus allowing a slight pause in the motion of
the piston at the end of each stroke, thereby giving the water
valves time to seat smoothly and without violence. The
valve of one cylinder is controlled by the piston rod of the
other, the motion being transmitted through the vibrating
arm pivoted on the distance piece. The moving parts being
F^. 170.
always in contact, the blow which arises with tappet con-
trolled valves is avoided. When the piston in its motion
covers the first port, which is the exhaust, the steam remain-
ing in the cylinder is cushioned in front of the piston, thus
causing a gradual arrest of its movement. One or other of
the slide valves being always open, there is no dead point,
and the pump is therefore capable of being stopped and
started at any time. This property of constant readiness for
full duty enables the Worthington or duplex pump to be
employed for working direct on to hydraulic lift cylinders or
on to an accumulator, the pump following up the motion of
the lift on the rise and fall of the accumulator automatically
278
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
when the pressure from the pump delivery main is drawn
upon. In connection with pumps it is desirable to employ
an air chamber on the suction main as well as on the delivery
main, in order to make the flow of water continuous and to
ensure that the cylinder shall be
filled at each stroke. When an air
vessel is not possible on the suction
side, it is an advantage to give the
water entering the valve a little
head by causing a T branch con-
nection with the suction pipe and
the pump barrel to be made, the
water in the T thus standing above
the pump barrel. The flow into
the suction pipe should not exceed 150 to 200 feet per
minute. The speed of the plunger may be from 65 to 150
feet per minute.
The pressure pump shown in section in Fig. 170 is a
Worthington packed plunger or double-ram pressure pump.
Fig. 171.
Fig. 172.
The barrel is divided, so that each end is an independent
single-acting plunger drawing water at the one end, while
the opposite plunger is forcing it out at the other end of the
divided barrel. A number of independent pressure valves
STEAM PUMPS.
28o HVbRAtiLlC POWER EJjGltJEERIl4G.
are employed, easily accessible, and are contained in small
chambers for resisting heavy pressures. These pumps work
up to 8,000 lbs. to the square inch. The plungers are
connected by means of yokes and outside rods, so that they
move together as one plunger and become double acting by
the division of the barrel. Fig. 1 71 shows a sectional view
of the pump barrels and their valves, a common suction
and delivery branch being alone required for the two inde-
pendent double-acting pump barrels. These pumps work
best when the plunger speed does not exceed 50 feet per
minute.
A fly-wheel doiible-acting pressure pump, having a hori-
Fig. 174.
zontal steam cylinder, as shown in Fig. 172, is often em-
ployed for small hydraulic installations. The valves are
arranged at the extreme end of the pump, and being imme-
diately above each other, admit of easy examination and
renewal.
A vertical cylinder engine with expansion valve having
direct coupled pumps is shown at Fig. 1 73. In this example
the water Is drawn in and forced out at right angles to the
line ofaxis of the pump. The valves are very accessible, and
the pump plungers are easily packed. This type of engine
STEAM PUMPS. 281
is in use at the pumping station of the Hydraulic Power
Company, of London.
The pumps illustrated in Fig. 174 were made by Messrs
Berry for the London County Council, and have two steam
cylinders with direct-acting pumps, 2^ inches diameter by
1 2 inches stroke, the pump plunger rods being connected
through the back ends of the cylinders to 9 inches diameter
steam pistons. The pumps supply an accumulator, and
work at 750 lbs. per square inch.
PART VIIL— HYDRAULIC MOTORS.
CHAPTER XVIII.
TURBINES.
Before proceeding to the detailed examination of the
various types of turbines, we will examine the action of a
stream of water on a curved vane. If a stream of water
having a certain velocity Ci meets a stationary curved vane,
the path of the stream will be altered, following the curve of
the vane and leaving in the direction which the vane would
take if continued. Neglecting losses from friction, the
velocity c^ of the stream will be the same on leaving the
vane as on entering, the only change being one of direction.
If now a velocity w^ be given to the vane, an inspection of
the diagram (Fig. 175) will show that the water may never
touch the vane at all ; for when the stream has reached c^ the
vane will have travelled to Wj. To obviate this, either the
orifice of the stream must be given a motion similar in direc-
tion and magnitude to w^, or the direction and velocity of
the stream must be altered to r, the resultant of c^ and ze/j.
The motion of the stream relative to the moving vane again
coincides with c^. The motion of the stream on leaving the
vane will again coincide with ^2 relativMy to the vane, but as
the vane and stream each have the velocity ze/^, the absolute
or real velocity of the stream on leaving the vane will be the
resultant of ^2 And w^, or u. On entering the vane the stream
had an absolute velocity of c, and a corresponding store of
energy —
\2^/
286
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
On leaving the vane the absolute velocity of the water is u
and the corresponding energy —
Now if u is less than c the energy remaining in the water on
leaving the vane must be less than the original energy con-
tained in the stream, so that neglecting the losses by friction
the difference of energy has been imparted to the vane, and
is capable of being applied to perform useful work.
Fig. 175.
The velocity of entry c is generally fixed by circumstances,
and the designer has to convert as large a percentage of the
energy contained in the stream at disposal into useful work.
This is obtained by keeping the velocity u of discharge as
low as possible, and thereby increasing the difference between
the energy of the entering stream and that of the leaving
stream. The velocity u cannot in practice be made O, as
the water would not then flow from the vane at all.
It will be noticed that no mention has been made of the
exact curve a turbine vane should take, and it may be here
TURBINES. 287
Stated that there is no particular curve to be followed, the
only conditions being that the curve of the vane shall flow
gradually from the angle of entry to the angle of exit.
There are two distinct classes of turbines, namely, Impulse
and /Reaction. Each of these classes contains several types,
having the flow of the water arranged in different directions.
These types may be enumerated as below : —
Impulse.
No Suction Tube,
Radial outward flow.
„ inward „
Axial flow.
Pelton wheel.
Reaction.
With or without Suction
Tube,
Radial outward flow.
„ inw
Axial flow.
„ inward „
In an impulse turbine the action of the stream follows
very closely the explanation already given, and our sub-
sequent remarks will relate more to precautions to be
observed in designing. The water is directed into the vanes
of the wheel in the required direction by fixed guide vanes,
so arranged in size that the wheel is never allowed to become
filled with water or drowned. The outlet is also above water,
so that the stream in passing through the turbine is at all
times under atmospheric pressure.
Fig. 176 shows a section elevation of a Girard impulse
turbine, and Fig. 177 shows an end elevation partly in
section of the same wheel. The water enters through the
pipe A, and passing through the regulator valve b, is directed
by the guide vanes c into the wheel vanes or buckets d at
the correct angle for preventing shock from impact. After
passing through the wheel buckets the water falls away at as
low a velocity as circumstances will permit through the open-
ing or tail-race e. The supply of water is regulated by the
hand-wheel attached to the screw f which operates the lever
G, and so causes motion of the slide valve b, which admits
the water to the required number of guide passages. This
288 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
I
TURBINES.
289
method of governing is well adapted to impulse turbines,
and has no appreciable effect on the efficiency.
Fig. 178 illustrates the general arrangement of a Pelton
wheel, which is a type of axial flow impulse turbine. The
water leaves the jet a at a velocity dependent upon the
head of water available, and meets the cups or buckets on
Fig. 178.
the wheel rim with as little shock as possible. The buckets
are in the form of two hemispheres, joined together at the
centre by a straight thin rib. The water meets the rib, and
is divided into two streams, one going each way and acting
on the curved surfaces of the buckets as the stream of water
does in any other form of impulse turbine. The speed of the
wheel should be such that the water on discharge from the
buckets is almost stationary.
T
290
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Figs. 179, iSo, and 181 illustrate a type of Pelton wheel
known as the Hector Water Motor, constructed by Mr P.
Pitman of Ledbury especially for pressures for domestic use,
with water of 40 lbs, to 1,000 lbs, per square inch.
The illustrations show a multiple-nozzle Pelton wheel
designed to give 50 brake horse-power at a speed of
Fig. 179.
135 revolutions, when using 700 cubic feet of water per
minute at 50 ft. head. The water enters by a branch 24 in,
diameter, and passes to the three nozzles through three
valves controlled by the hand-wheels outside. The valve-
screws are double-threaded, and are entirely outside the
casing, the spindles being packed by stuffing-boxes, and the
! 213
292 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
bonnets made easily removable, so that valves, &c., can
be withdrawn, if necessary, without breaking any pipe-
joints. The nozzles are each 3f in. diameter, and they,
together with the whole of the buckets, bearings, valves,
and seatings, are constructed of phosphor-bronze to prevent
corrosion and the consequent impairment of efficiency with
use. The wheel itself is made of steel plate, J in. thick and
4 ft. diameter, mounted on a 3-in. shaft, and turned and
balanced after being keyed up. It will be seen that the
buckets are widened out at the sides more than is usual, this
having been done to allow the water to spread and leave the
wheel freely when its velocity has been abstracted.
The casing is constructed of ^-in. steel plates riveted on
a framing of angles by ^-in. rivets at 3-in. pitch. It is caulked
at all joints and is absolutely water-tight. The top half of
the casing may be lifted off, and half of one of the lower
sides is also made removable, so that all buckets and nozzles
may be conveniently got at or removed.
Fig. 182 shows an axial flow reaction turbine, which,
though much like an impulse turbine in general appearance,
is so proportioned and erected that the vanes are always
full of water or drowned, and the water is discharged under
the water level of the tail-race. The action of the water on
the vanes is similar to that given in the general explanation,
but the velocity of the water through the wheel is not
necessarily uniform, but depends on the sizes of the open-
ings for outlet from the fixed guide vanes, also the outlet
from the wheel vanes. Where the openings are narrow,
the velocity is correspondingly great, and where wide, corre-
spondingly small, as in a pipe of varying diameter.
Reaction turbines are frequently fitted with suction tubes
which permit of the wheel being placed at a height above
the tail-race level dependent on conditions to be afterwards
explained. The suction tube may alter the velocity of flow
through the wheel according to its area of outlet and the
pressure energy remaining in the water at the time of outflow.
TURBINES.
293
Fig. 183 shows the usual type of thrust-bearing used
in turbines having a vertical shaft.
The arrangement will be better understood after an exami-
nation of Fig. 182. The vertical shaft a rests on a massive
foundation, and carries at its upper end a fixed oil cup
Fig. 182.
which contains the fixed steel block b. The mainshaft c
carries a gun-metal block d which rests on the block b.
The mainshaft c passes through a plummer block not shown
in the figures, which provides lateral stability. The turbine
wheel is supported by a hollow cast-iron shaft suspended
294
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
from the main shaft c by the lantern k, which carries a brass
bush F for steadying the upper end of the vertical shaft a.
The turbine wheel is supported laterally by a brass bush
carried by the lower end of the hollow cast-iron shaft, and
fitting the vertical shaft a. The nut c allows the turbine
wheel to be adjusted
vertically to compensate
for the wear of the thrust
block D.
There is an immense
variety of turbines, but
the more important
types are — (i) The
Fourneyron turbine, in
which the water flows
from within the wheel
outwards, and at right
angles to the axis; (2)
the centre vent turbine,
in which the water flows
from the outside of the
wheel towards its centre,
also at right angles to its
axis ; (3) the Jonval or
parallel Sow turbine, in
which the water flows
through the wheel
parallel to the axis ;
and (4) partial turbines, which may be of either of the other
types, but in which the water flows into the wheel only
round a portion of the circumference.
In all turbines the water is conducted by a set of fixed
guide curves or plates into the revolving wheel, where it
meets with buckets or curved partitions against which it
impinges, causing the wheel to revolve.
Fig. 183.
CHAPTER XIX.
IMPULSE TURBINES.
In designing a turbine to utilise the energy of a supply of
water under a head or pressure, there must be known the
quantity of water flowing, and the head or pressure available.
The fullest particulars as to variation of supply, highest
flood levels, minimum supply during summer months, should
also be ascertained if the proposed turbine is to meet the
requirements to the best advantage. Where the fall is great
and the quantity of water small, the choice must be in
favour of an impulse wheel with partial admission, as a
reaction turbine would require to be so small and to work
with such a high number of revolutions that the design
would become unsuitable if not impossible. If the head or
fall is only a few feet, and the water supply fairly regular, as
is the case where a reservoir or pound is used, a reaction
turbine is very suitable, as it is not afi'ected by change of
level in the tail-race caused by flood, provided there is a
corresponding rise in the top level; whereas an impulse
turbine would require to be placed at a sufficient height
above the level of the tail-race as to ensure that the flood
shall never reach the wheel.
The chief objection to the reaction type as frequently
constructed is the inability to economically supply varying
power j so long as the power is the same that the turbine
was designed to supply, a very good performance may be
expected, but if a greater or less power is required the
efficiency falls off" rapidly. It will be seen that many reaction
wheels are unsuited to a situation where the water supply
falls short in dry weather, as if the wheel is designed to give
296
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
good results for high powers, the power given out with a
limited supply will fall so much as to be practically useless.
On the other hand, if the wheel is designed to be economical
at low powers, it will never give out large powers, although
there may be a large water consumption. Reaction turbines
have been used in conjunction with impulse turbines, in
which case the reaction wheel is set to work at its most
economical power, whilst any alteration in power is obtained
by regulating the supply to the impulse wheel.
Before commencing the design of an impulse turbine, the
actual velocity of the water at the guide passages must be
ascertained. If the water enters the guides from a long
K
Fig. 184.
pipe or open channel and vertical pipe, having already dis-
cussed the formulae in a previous chapter, we can calculate
the actual effective head h^ after allowing for frictional and
other losses. This head should be calculated from the
outlet level of the guide passages, allowance being made for
the height h^ above the tail level to allow for the buckets of
the wheel, as shown in Fig. 184.
The velocity c of flow from the guide passages will
then be —
^=.9572^'^ (0
.95 being the value of a coefficient taken from actual
observation.
IMPULSE TURBINES. 297
The next step is to find the total outlet area of the guide
passages necessary to pass the maximum quantity of water.
If the area were only made large enough to pass the quantity
of water flowing with the velocity r, it would be found that
the full quantity would not flow, as there is a certain amount
of obstruction from the vanes passing across the guide
passages. A smaller velocity is assumed in calculating the
area of the openings having a value of .8% so ,that the
formula becomes—
in which Q represents the quantity of water in cubic feet
per second, and A the required area in square feet. We
have now two more dimensions to settle, namely, the width
of the buckets and the radius of the wheel ; either of these
can be adjusted to requirements by an alteration of the
other. Before proceeding further a trial radius should be
decided upon, also the angles a and a^ (see Fig. J 85).
The wheel velocity is fixed between narrow limits by
the velocity of entry of the water if the turbine is to be a
really eflicient machine ; as is also the angle a of entry.
We will try to explain the reason for this by the aid of
the diagrams (Fig. 185).
We have already observed in our preliminary remarks that
the less the value of u, the velocity of exit, the greater the
efficiency of the turbine, while the direction of inlet does not
of itself affect the efficiency, except that no turbine has yet
been designed in which the velocity of u can be regulated
without adjusting the angle of inlet a.
From the point 0 draw ^, representing to scale the abso-
lute velocity and direction of the stream passing through the
guide passages of a turbine. Draw c^, as shown, and com-
plete the parallelogram by drawing a/j, the wheel velocity.
For the present argument we will assume that the velocity
c^ of exit is the same as c^, and that W2 is equal to w^.
298
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The direction ofw^ must
of necessity be parallel
to Wi, while the direction
of ^2 may be altered at
will. Select a direction
for ^-2, making any angle
ttg with the ordinate Oy;
complete the parallelo-
gram, and obtain the
corresponding value of ».
In all the diagrams the
angle a^ has the same
value. In the first dia-
gram, by selecting a ver-
tical direction for r^ and
consequent value of
ttj = o", the value of c^ is
small, whilst ze/^ is large,
giving u a forward direc-
tion and high velocity.
In the second diagram
c^ and ze/j have been
made equal to each
other, and the angle P
( = 90** - ttj) is con-
sequently bisected by
the line c, c^ and w^
being the same in value
as c^ and w^^ are equal
to each other, so that u
will have a slightly for-
ward direction and small
value.
In the third diagram
^1 has a large value, and
zf/| a small value, so
IMPULSE TURBINES. 299
that on drawing out the parallelogram c^ w^ the velocity u
is found to have a large value in a backward direction.
Now, as we have previously shown that u should be as
small as possible, it is evident, without further demon-
stration, that c^ should be slightly greater than 7</^, and
consequently ^2 greater than 7V^. To what extent this rule
may be followed in practice, and the modifications necessary
in the various designs of inward, outward, or radial flow
turbines, will be further explained.
In an axial turbine the value of w^ being the same as u\,
it would appear at first sight that the conditions above stated
apply without correction ; but this is not so, as owing to
the height h^ (Fig. 184), the stream of water will increase in
velocity in passing through the vanes, the additional velocity
being represented by *j2gh^ ; but as there is friction be-
tween the vanes and the stream, the velocity of the water
will be reduced below the theoretical amount, so that the
complete formula becomes —
^.^ = (<^i^ + 2^A,)j-~ - - - - (3)
The value of/ is variable between .05 and . i . The value
of h^ cannot yet be fixed, so that in calculating ^2 an assump-
tion must be made, 6 inches to i foot being a suitable dimen-
sion. It is scarcely necessary to remark that with high
falls, and consequently high velocities, A^ may be neglected
in the preliminary calculations, as its effect becomes scarcely
noticeable ; whereas with a low fall the height h^ forms a
considerable portion of the total head.
In an inward flow radial turbine w^ is less than w^ by an
amount dependent upon the ratio of the depth of the vane
to the radius, and as Cj should be slightly greater than Wfy
the value of c^ (greater than c^) may be temporarily fixed
approximately equal to 7tf-^, Fig. 186 will make this clear.
Fig. 187 shows the diagram for an outward flow radial
turbine, in which w^ becomes greater than w^ by an amount
300
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
dependent upon the ratio of the depth of the vane to the
radius, c^ must be slightly greater than w^, and consequently
considerably greater than 7Vy
Having arrived at suitable values of c^, w^, and a and a^,
we may calculate the width of the vanes necessary to pass
Fig. i86.
Fig. 187.
the quantity of water flowing. The values of A, the area of
outlet, and r, the radius, being known, we have the following
formula —
e. (width of vane) = - - (4)
^ ^ 27rr. cos. a - z^t^ ^^'
in which z^ is the number of guide vanes and /^ their thick-
IMPULSE TURBINES.
301
ness. The width e^ of outlet from the vanes may be calcu-
lated in the same way by the formula —
<?j =
A,
27rr, COS. a, - gj/j
is)
in which A^ represents the area necessary to pass the quan-
tity Q of water flowing with the velocity d ; r, represents the
radius at outlet, /^ the thickness,
and Z2 the number of vanes.
Z2 should always be less than j?^,
so that the vanes shall not be
choked with water, and so in-
terfere with free deviation. For
the same reason the width of
the wheel vanes should be made
larger than the value given by
the above equation.
If the radius chosen gives
unsuitable values for e^ and ^2
a new radius must be selected,
and the calculations repeated.
If, however, the value of ^^ comes
out too small, partial admission
should be resorted to.
The values chosen for the
angles a and Oj, if too large, will
give trouble, and must be re-
duced, and a new trial made.
The above remarks apply
equally to all classes of impulse
turbines. There are, however,
two more points to be con-
sidered in connection with axial flow turbines — namely, the
centrifugal effect of the water due to the fact that the stream
enters the vanes in a tangential direction, whilst the vanes
move in a circular path; also owing to the fact that all
Fig. 188.
302 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
parts of the vane are not at the same radial distance, the
quantities w-^ and w^ have variable values.
The centrifugal' effect may be easily counteracted, as will
be seen with reference to the diagram (Fig. i88). The
values of the angles a^ and a, having been fixed, and the
design of the turbine completed in every way, the absolute
path of the stream of water through the turbine may be
easily found by measuring the length of the turbine vane in
terms of c^ ; now mark off P^ P the same multiple of w^ and
the point P indicates where water entering at the point O
would leave the vanes. If, for example, the length of vane
equals 2 x r^ then a distance equal to 2 x iv^ must be marked
off. The circumference of the vanes must now be drawn to
Fig. 189.
scale, and the distance O P marked off tangentially from O
will indicate the correct radius of the wheel where the water
leaves. If the value of c^ differs greatly from c^ the mean
value should be taken in making the above calculation.
The vanes may now be corrected in shape, as shown by full
lines in Fig. 189.
With regard to the effect of the varying radius, and conse-
quent variation of w^ and o/j, we have only to turn back to
the diagrams (Fig. 185) to see the result. The design
should be prepared with reference to the mean radius, when
the outer radius will give a diagram similar to the first, and
the inner radius a diagram similar to the third in Fig. 185.
To get the best effect the curve of the vane must be gradu-
ally changed to suit the varying values of c^ and Wy An
IMPULSE TURBINES. 303
inspection of Fig. 184 shows that the direction of w will be
forward at the outer radius, and backward at the inner;
consequently in designing an axial wheel the radius should
be as large as possible, and the width e of the vanes as
narrow as possible.
We will now consider the Pelton wheel, which is a special
form of axial flow turbine, having the angle a = 90**, and con-
sequently ^1 + ^1 = ^; and, as we have already explained, c^
should also equal w{. We find that in a Pelton wheel the
velocity nf-^ should be half the actual velocity C of the water
issuing from the jet. The angle a, cannot be made equal to
90**, as the water would strike the next bucket. There is a
certain amount of impact where the jet of water meets the
thin edge of the bucket, as it is impossible to make a sharp
edge in practice. The chief advantages claimed for the
Pelton wheel are its simplicity of construction, which renders
it particularly suitable for transport in new countries, and its
high efficiency.
CHAPTER XX.
REACTION TURBINES.
In order that the theory of reaction turbines may be made
clear, we will start our investigation by reconsidering the
design of impulse turbine examined in our last chapter.
Referring back to Fig. 184, the vanes might easily be so
designed by properly proportioning the width e^ and ^j,
that the area A, is equal to the area A^ and consequently
greater than the area A, measured in a direction at right
angles to the direction of flow as shown in Fig. 190. If this
is done, the water will still have the velocity c^ on leaving
the wheel, but the buckets will be filled with water at the
inlet and outlet. The correct velocities r, c^y c^ are shown
in Fig. 190, and are the same as for an impulse wheel. If
the outlet be now placed under water as in Fig. 182, the
wheel will become filled with water at all parts, and, neglect-
ing the slight variation in the frictional losses due to the
altered conditions, will have the action of a free deviation
impulse turbine.
The design of the turbine may now be altered so that the
area A2 has a larger or smaller value than that given by the
conditions of Fig. 190, and as the wheel is at all parts full of
water, the velocity of flow at any point is governed by the
formula Q = Av, By altering the area Ag we not only alter
the velocity c<^ but also the velocities c and c^^ and, whereas
the velocity c for impulse turbines has one particular value
for any given head of water, the velocity c for reaction wheels
may have a comparatively large range of values for any given
head.
Fig. 191 shows what takes place if the value of ^ is the
REACTION TURBINES. 30S
same as ^j, or if the vanes are of the same width throughout.
In the Figs. 190, 191, 192, we have taken the same values
for a and a, for the sake of comparison, while a has also
been taken equal to a,. In Fig. 19I) Ag will consequently
equal A, and c^ will equal c. Taking the value for Wj, which
makes u vertical, we see that c^ enters the vanes in a vertical
direction. This diagram is typical of the design of the
Jonval turbine as conducted on the European continent.
In Fig. 192 the wheel vanes have been contracted, causing
diminution of the area Aj in relation to A, and consequent
increase of the velocity c^ above c. Applying the correct value
for Wa, ^1 is given a backward direction. Thus we see that
for any values of a and a, by altering the ratio of the areas
A and A, we can produce different values of c for the same
head of water. In the diagrams the same length of line has
been taken to represent the value of c^ but it must not be
supposed on this account that c^ has the same arithmetical
value in each case. As we have not yet investigated the
formulae for calculating the true value of c under any con-
ditions, some value had to be assumed in order that the
diagrams could be drawn out, so that, while in each diagram
the values of r, c^, ^„ w^^ w^, and u are proportional to the
lengths there given, the diagrams must not be compared by
measurement.
The correct value of c for any conditions must next be in-
vestigated. As the turbine is filled with water, and the flow
at any point is governed by the formula Q = Av, the energy
contained in the water at any point is evidently represented by
the hydrodynamic equation already investigated in Chapter
I., or, if A represents the useful head of water, the energy of
I lb. of water is —
,^ = ^ +!X = ^ 4.*X = etc.
If h^ represents the pressure energy of the water on leaving
the guide passages, then the total energy of the water on
U
306 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
-A—
^«..-^»— — •
i-
—y.
' — ?-
— ^™
Figs. 190, 191, and 192.
REACTION TURBINES.
307
leaving the guide passages is Aj + — . Now this energy,
neglecting losses, must balance the energy h^ of the total
head of the water, measured from its surface to the level of
outflow from the buckets, as shown in the diagram Fig.
193, therefore —
^ = ^1 + -
(I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
K.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
Fig. 193-
As, however, the water level in the tail-race is liable to vary
and rise a height h^ above the outflow level, the useful head
h is evidently represented by h^ - h^^ so that from equation
(i) we get —
(^)
We must now consider what is taking place in the turbine
308 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
buckets due to the change of velocity from c^ to c^. From
the hydrodynamic equation —
h, + '^^/i, + 'l ... (3)
therefore ^^ - >4^ = fk! - 5l - . - (4)
By substituting this value for ^j-/^ in equation (2) we
get—
^=^(^+^2^-^i') - - - (s)
The values of c^ and r^ may now be expressed in terms of r,
since —
Ca I C mm A. * AAO
.-. c^ = -c - - . . (sa)
similarly ^^^A^' ' " " ^5^)
Substituting these values in equation (5) —
.•4-(^'-a.)'} - • <"
.*. (^ = 2gh.
I
-a)'-(i
1
= KV2^>4 (8)
The solution in equation (7) will give the value of c for the
corresponding values of A, A^, and A^ The equation in
this form is not suitable for direct use, as, though we may
REACTION TURBINES. 309
assume values for A and A^, the value of A^ is entirely
dependent of the values of A and A, and the angles a and
ttg. So that having selected the values of A, Ag, a and ag, it
is necessary to draw out a diagram similar to Figs. 190, 191,
or 192, and so obtain the corresponding values of Aj
and o^*
In drawing out the diagram c^ should first be drawn in
the correct direction making the angle ag with the vertical,
and having a length not less than i inch, preferably 2 inches.
w^ must now be drawn so as to give m a vertical direction.
The length of c may now be calculated from equation (5a)
and drawn in a direction making the selected angle a with
the vertical. On drawing w^ equal to a/g for an axial flow
turbine and completing the parallelogram the value and
direction of c^ are obtained. A^ may now be calculated from
equation (5^).
Equation (7) may now be solved, and the value of c
obtained, whence the other values, c^^ c^ w^y w^ may be
obtained either graphically or by calculation. This com-
pletes the calculation necessary in the case of an axial
flow turbine working under the conditions assumed in the
Figs. 190, 191, 192. If the value of u resulting is considered
too high, then the process must be repeated with an altered
ratio of A : Ag, and if necessary altered values for a and Og.
If the calculation has to be made for an outward or
inward flow radial wheel the only altered condition is in the
value of a/j, which will not equal w^ but will have a greater
or less value. If r^ and r^ be the radii corresponding to w^
and w^ respectively, then
•••a'i = a'2-~ - - (9)
This new value for w^ must be used in drawing out the
diagram, and consequently c and c^ will have an altered
ratio to c^. This operation may be performed graphically,
as in Figs. 186, 187, Chapter XIX.
310
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
As it is not always convenient to resort to graphic
methods, we may evolve an equation from equation (6) in
which Aj is expressed in terms of A, A,, sin a and sin a^
Referring to any of the diagrams, Figs. 190, 191, 192, W2
may be expressed —
therefore by (9) —
W2 = ^2 ^^^ ^2
zt/j = -1 z^/g = -1 ^2 sin aj
^2 ^2
(10)
(XI)
Fig. 194.
The whole operation of fixing the values of c, c^, c^^ w^, w^
may be performed by the following very simple graphic
method : —
Having selected a and ag, and the ratio r^ : r^ in the case
of inward or outward flow turbines, draw out the diagram to
any scale as shown by the light lines in Fig. 194. Set up a
vertical OG and draw OF at right angles equal to AB in the
diagram, and with the length CD mark off FG completing
REACTION TURBINES. 311
the triangle OFG. From G set off GH at right angles to
OG and equal to AE.
Join OH. Then OF = rp ¥G=^c^ and GH = ^ to any
scale
And FG2 - 0F2 = OG^,
or c^^ -c^ ^OGj.
Again GH2 + OG2 = OH2,
or ^+r«2-rj2=OH2.
From equation (5) —
therefore OH* = 2^>^ = z/*, where v represents the velocity
due to the head h.
Extracting the roots
0H = «;.
The velocity v due to the head h for the case under con-
sideration may now be calculated and marked off from OH
to any suitable scale (say 20 feet to i inch), as shown by the
thick line in the diagram.
Draw r, Cyy c^ parallel to GH, OF, and FG respectively,
and scale off their lengths to the same scale that was used
fort'.
Apply these corrected lengths to the diagram, and measure
off «/^, w^ Uy and the investigation is complete.
The head A is the total head, less about 15 per cent,
allowance for losses by friction.
According to the properties of triangles c^^ may be ex-
pressed
rj2_-^^^^2_ 2^0^! sin a - - (12)
substituting the values for w^^ and ^f/j given by (11) and
simplifying
but by (s^) ^i^ = ^-( A~) » therefore the quantity contained
in the brackets in (13) equals (x") •
312 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
(^)'-{-(?,)-(^)''^»V-A|.sin.s...}(M)
substituting this value in equation (6) —
(15)
simplifying and extracting the value of c —
(16)
The values of r, r^, c^ w^ and W2> ^ investigated by the
above-described methods, are the theoretical values, and do
not take into account the losses caused by friction of the
pipes and vanes. There are several separate causes for loss
in reaction turbines, namely, friction of vertical supply pipe ;
friction of guide vanes ; friction of wheel buckets ; loss by
leakage between guide vanes and top of wheel buckets ; loss
from energy represented by the velocity u ; and when the
wheel is not running at its best speed, loss by impact due
to the angle of inflow a^ being different to the corresponding
angle of the wheel buckets.
The first of these losses may be calculated by the formula —
d 2g
By making the velocity v small, such as 3 to 5 feet per
second, the head lost on this account is very small. Values
oi fo have already been given in Chapter II.
The head lost by friction of guide vanes is given by the
equation —
2g
in which/has the value .11, determined by exp>eriment.
REACTION TURBINES. 313
The losses occurring through leakage between the guide
vanes and wheel are dependent on the pressure hx at that
point, and on the width of opening between the guides
and wheel, usually \ inch. As an attempt to calculate
this loss would require a good many assumptions to be
made, it is advisable to make an allowance as observed
from good examples of turbines. The loss by leakage is
found to be fairly represented by about 4 to 5 per cent, of
the total head, so that we may write the equation —
^ = .o4Hto.osH - - (19)
It may be here observed that on account of this leakage
the velocity c will actually rise by 4 or 5 per cent, above
what is required by the ratio — . In fact the gap be-
A2
tween the guides and wheel is a sort of useless addition to
the areas Aj and A^.
The losses occurring in the wheel buckets may be calcu-
lated by a modification of equation (18), for instead of a
uniform velocity we have a velocity varying from Ci to c^.
Assuming that the change from Ci to r, takes place by
uniform acceleration, then the equation becomes—
^=/'^'-^- - - (-)
in which /has the same value as before.
The energy lost in every pound of the ofF-flowing water
due to the velocity u is represented by the equation —
>»«=! - - - (")
By combining the above equations the useful head ^„,
representing the proportion of the total head H, which is
converted into useful work, may be found.
i4a = H-(^i + ^„ + A» + >5a + ^4i) - (22)
314 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
The head h for use in solving the equations (7) and (16)
is given by the equation —
>ft = H-(>4i + A„ + >4,i + /4,0 - - (23)
consequently —
K^h-h^y^ - - ' (23a)
The equations (17) to (23) are not in a form for direct
use, as they contain the quantities r, c^^ c^ », which are
unknown until equation (17) or (23) has been solved. They
might, however, be worked out in suitable form and included
in equations (7) and (16), but there is then the disadvantage
that all operations are conducted at once, and it becomes
difficult to follow the effect of the various losses.
A very near approximation to the value of r, corresponding
to the head ^, as given by equation (23), is obtained by first
calculating c^ r^ r, by equation (7) or (16), and then using
these values in solving equation (23). This method is, of
course, not strictly correct ; but as some of the quantities in
the equations (17) to (20) are only approximate, it is useless
to be too critical.
An example worked out for a head of 10 feet, and A = At,
a = 04 = 60°, as shown in Fig. 191, gives a loss of head of
1.66 feet, or
^ = H - 1.66 = 10 - 1.66 = 8.33, or 83.3 per cent.,
or a loss of 16.66 per cent due to friction. Experiments
conducted on existing turj)ines give values of 82 to 86 per
cent, for h. There is a further loss of about 12.6 per cent,
due to the velocity u of off-flow, so that the useful head K
given in equation (22) is —
^ = H-(i.66 + i.26)
= 10 - 2.92 = 7.08, or 70.8 per cent.
Allowing 2.8 per cent, for shaft friction leaves 68 per
cent, for the brake efficiency of the turbine, which is a good
performance for the design under consideration. By in-
creasing a = 04 to 66"* the brake efficiency is improved to
REACTION TURBINES. 31S
73 per cent., and by further enlargement of the angles a and
ttj a better efficiency may be expected.
The calculations for the velocities being completed, the
proportions of the turbine, such as width of guide and wheel
passages, diameter, number and depth of buckets and guide
passages, may be settled. If the wheel is required to give a
certain brake horse-power, the corresponding quantity of
water, Q cubic feet, can be calculated from the value K in
equation (22).
0_B.H.P.x 33000 .V
^ 60 X 62.27 x^„ ^ ^'
The area A necessary to pass this quantity is A = ^ so that
the width of guide passages e^ may now be calculated from
the formula —
A
^1 =
27rrj COS. a - ^i^i
in which r^ represents the mean radius for an axial wheel,
and z^ the number of guide vanes, and /^ their thickness.
As, however, the passage of the wheel vanes across the
openings of the guide passages reduces the effective area, A is
diminished below the value above found, so that Mt-^ is the
number of wheel vanes, and t^ their thickness, the equation
becomes —
^1 = —, ^ " (25)
27rri cos. a - (z^t^ + z^t^
In the same way the width e^ of the wheel at outflow is
found by —
e^ bl . . (26)
27rr2 COS. Og - 22/2
If the diameter chosen gives unsuitable values for e and ^2» a
new diameter must be selected, and the calculation repeated.
The number z^ of guide vanes may be found by making the
width of opening of passage, measured at right angles to
the direction of flow, equal to about 5 inches. The
3i6
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
number arg is then given either equal to z^ or slightly greater.
The depth of the buckets may now be settled so as to give
a change of direction to the water not too abrupt. The
dimensions satisfying this condition varies from about 8 to
12 inches. The depth of guide passages may be from | to i
of the depth of the buckets.
Instead of discharging the water from the buckets direct
into the tail-race, it is evident we may lift the wheel some
Fig. 195.
height above the tail-race level and connect a hermetically
sealed pipe, called a suction tube, to the guide passage
frame enclosing the wheel from the atmosphere, and having
an opening under the tail-water. If this pipe be filled with
•water, the rate of flow in it, when the turbine is at work, will
depend upon its sectional area A3, and compared with c the
A
velocity in this pipe will be —c, and making the outflow area
Ag
REACTION TURBINES.
317
A4, the velocity of off-flow becomes
A«
If the velocity of
off-flow c^ is the same as u, as it will be if the suction tube
is of annular form, as shown in Fig. 195, having a width ^g*
then the calculation is the same as that for a turbine without
suction tube. There will, of course, be greater loss owing
to tbe increased wetted surface of the annular suction tube
above that of a plain tube.
Fig. 196.
If, now, the inner ring be removed, the off-flow area A^
appears to have the full area of the suction tube, but whether
this is so or not depends on several circumstances. The
water in flowing from the wheel with the velocity u cannot
at once alter its velocity to ^3 = ^4 ^^ suit the area of the
suction tube Ag = A4. The result is that there is a central
core of comparatively dead water somewhat of the shape
shown in Fig. 196. As the water passes down the suction
3i8
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
tube the velocity changes from u by values approaching
nearer and nearer to ^4, until, if the tube is sufficiently long
in proportion to its diameter, the velocity ^4 is reached. If
the tube is short and of large diameter, the velocity outflow
A
^4 will not be represented by — r, but will have some higher
value, as the whole area A4 is not in that case effective.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 197.
This uncertainty of the velocity c^ may be overcome by
putting a bottom plate into the suction tube and curving
the lower edge outwards to form a lip as shown in Fig. 197.
The area A4 has now a definite value, and if an inner tube
is to be used, it should be somewhat similar in shape to the
dotted line in Fig. 197. Experiments on turbines prove
that if this inner tube is only an approximation to the true
REACTION TURBINES. 319
shape, the efficiency of the wheel falls below the efficiency
without an inner tube. Generally it is advisable to leave
out the inner tube.
By altering the area A4 the velocity c^ may be altered,
but in altering it will have an effect on the other velocities
c, ^1, ^2j so that a new equation must be evolved before c can
be ascertained. Referring to Fig. 197, the useful head k
is represented by A^ - h^, so that as before —
h^K-K = h^-h^^r~ - (27)
adding y^g - h^ to each side —
^ = ^-^ + ^-^4 + __ - (28)
By equations (3) and (4) //j - fi^ has been shown equal to
2
c c •
-2- - JL similarly —
2^ 2g
therefore —
2
>4« + '' =.^4 + ^* - - (29)
2g 2g
Substituting these values in equation (28) —
A^^{c^ + q^-Ci^ + c^^-u^) - (31)
^g
Expressing c^y c^ «, c^ in terms of c —
A A A A
C^=^—€, ^2=--^,« = r2COS.aj= --^COS. 02,^4=—^.
Ai Ag Ag A4
Substituting these values in (31) —
The expression i + ^tt;) "(t-) ^^ already been dealt
320 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
/A \2
with m equation (15), and (t-) cos.^ag may be written
/A \2
( — j (i -sin^ttg), therefore —
(33)
consequently —
vaj ^*"'^^ L' - 1;) J ^ ^^ • A, ^^^ ^ ^^'^ ^^ ■*■ (a J
(34)
= K J2gh.
The value of shaving been found from the above equation,
the corresponding values of ^j, ^2» ^i» «'2» "> ^s ^'^^ ^4 ™*y
be easily ascertained, and after making due allowance for
frictional losses, the calculation of the dimensions of the
wheel proceeded with as before.
As regards the losses, the frictional loss in the suction
tube may be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by the
equation —
/ c^
d 2g
in which c^ represents the average velocity in the suction
tube, combining this with equation (17) —
>^i=/o.^.?+/5.j' - - (35)
a 2g a 2g
Equation (21) must now be written —
^« = i ■ ■ - (36)
By substituting these new values in equations (22) and
(23) the values of h^ and h are ascertained.
REACTION TURBINES. 3^1
If the velocity c^ is less than u, an examination of equation
(23a) shows that A^ is greater for a suction tube turbine than
for the same turbine without a suction tube.
The amount by which the head A^ is increased is repre-
sented by —
It has already been pointed out that the change of velocity
from u to C4 seldom takes place without loss from eddy
currents. If the whole head A^^ represented by the change
be lost, then A^ has the vaiue —
as before. Generally A„ will lie between these two extremes,
and may be expressed —
K>A-'''<A-t+'J . . (37)
2g 2g 2g
No mention has been made as to the maximum height
of suction tube allowable in a turbine. The height to
which water will stand in a vacuum tube when balanced
by the pressure of the air is 34 feet, so that with perfect
conditions the height of the vane outlet above the tail-
water level may be 34 feet. There are objections' to this
in practice, as any slight reduction in the velocity u would
at once cause a vacuum in the suction tube, and on
the velocity u again increasing, the two surfaces of water
would again approach with a loud report known as the
water hammer. Further than this, all water contains more
or less air and other gases in solution, which are given off
on a reduction of pressure. The gases thus entering the
suction tube added to the air leaking in through the joins
would very soon destroy the continuity of water with a con-
X
322 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
sequent loss of head. In practice the following heights of
suction tube are found to be the limits : —
Diameter.
Feet.
Height.
Feet.
Diameter.
FeeL
Height.
Feet.
13.0 -
- 9-84
4.9
- 19.68
"•5 -
- II. 15
3-3 -
- 26.24
9.8 -
- 12.46
2.0
- 27.88
8.2 -
- 13-77
0.98 -
- 29.52
6.5 -
- 14.76
0.49 -
- 31-16
CHAPTER XXI.
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL.
In the preceding chapters it has been pointed out that there
is one particular speed at which any turbine is best suited
to run. At this speed the efficiency is highest, and conse-
quently the water consumption per horse-power lowest. If
the work being performed by the turbine is for any reason
reduced, the turbine will accelerate in speed, and if the
work is increased the speed is reduced. In impulse turbines
this alteration of the speed causes loss from impact of the
water against the wheel buckets, and the consumption per
horse-power is increased. In reaction turbines there is a
loss by impact due to this change of speed, but in addition
the velocity of flow through the wheel is liable to consider-
able variation. As the speed of the wheel is reduced, the
velocity increases until, when the wheel ceases to revolve,
the velocity approaches nearly to that due to the head acting
on the wheel.
If, on the other hand, the speed of the wheel is increased
above its best value, in most designs of reaction turbines
the velocity of the water through the wheel is again in-
creased. This is most noticeable in the designs illustrated
by Figs. 191 and 192. In a design similar to Fig. 190 the
increase would be trifling.
This increase of speed is due to the fact that while one
part of the yane is acted upon by the water, the other part is
acting upon the water and forcing it through the wheel after
the manner of a centrifugal pump. This unsuitability of the
turbine to a variation of speed is of very little practical
importance, as the usual requirement is for a fixed speed
324 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
with variation of power. In most instances the water supply
is none too plentiful, especially during the summer months,
so that it becomes necessary to make the water consumption
in some measure proportional to the power required. There
are many forms of regulating devices for varying the power
and water consumption of turbines. In some instances
these appliances are worked by hand, while in others their
action is rendered automatic through the agency of a
governor. The most primitive form of regulator used for
both impulse and reaction turbines consists of a sluice placed
in the head-race. The part closing of this sluice causes
the water on passing it to acquire a greater velocity and
consequent loss of head. The turbine is now working with
a considerably reduced head, but with the same velocity,
hence the angle of the wheel vanes is unsuited to the new
condition, and there is consequently considerable loss of
efficiency and increased water consumption per horse-power.
If the head is reduced to one-half, the efficiency would fall
to about 30 per cent. This form is evidently unsuitable.
A form of regulator, which is applicable to reaction tur-
bines only, consists of a sluice applied to the tail-race or
suction tube. Referring to Fig. 197, the bottomplate of
the suction tube might be made adjustable in position, so
that by rising or falling it would alter the area A4 of off-flow.
Instead of adjusting the bottom plate, it is usual to cause
the lower part of the suction tube to telescope on the
upper part, thus altering the area A^. Though this form of
regulator does not alter the efficiency of the turbine much
when the variation of the opening is slight, still it has very
little effect on the quantity of water flowing even when
closed to one-fpurth of its full area. This fact is easily
accounted for, as the reduction of area A4 causes less differ-
ence between the pressures h^^ and Z/^, and a consequent
reduction of useful head h. The remainder of the total
head is absorbed in giving to the water a high velocity of
off-flow c^.
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL. 325
Fig. 198 shows a form of regulator which has been used
at times. Between the guide vanes and wheel vanes
a sliding regulator is placed, having holes corresponding
with the openings in the guides. On causing the regulator
to pass across the faces of the guide openings, their area
is reduced, and the flow of water consequently interfered
with. An inspection of the drawing will show that this
form is very unsuitable for reaction turbines, as there is
a sudden enlargement of area on entry to the wheel. For
impulse turbines the effect on the efficiency is not very detri-
mental within limits, but owing to the distance between the
guide openings, the turbine re-
quires to be larger in size for a
given power, thus increasing the
cost.
A modification of the above-
described regulator has already
been illustrated in Fig. 177, as
applied to a Girard or partial
admission impulse turbine. In I
this form the sliding regulator ;
has no holes, but advances from I
one side, thereby cutting out I
entirely one or more of the guide Fig. 198.
passages. In the figure all the
passages are shown closed. This method of regulation
gives very good efficiencies, and has been applied in various
forms to both impulse and reaction turbines.
One modification of the above-described regulator is
shown in Fig. 199, where each guide passage is provided
with a vertically operated sluice a, having the appearance
of a spade. This sluice is so operated that the guide
passage is either fully open or closed. The sluices are
controlled by a circular guide rail which may be revolved
by hand or by a governor mechanism. This guide rail
consists of an upper and lower rail b and c, communicating
326
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
at two places by means of sloping grooves or cams, such
as D. Small rollers attached to the sluices bear on the
guide rails b when the guide passages are open; and on
revolving the circular guide rail these rollers pass in turn
down the sloping grooves d on to the lower guide rail c,
thus causing the sluices a to enter the guide passage and
stop the flow of water.
Fig. 199.
Owing to the length required for the efficient working
of the sloping groove it is usual to attach several sluices
to one roller. By having two sloping grooves placed
opposite to each other the closing of the guide passages
always takes place equally on two opposite sides of the
wheel, so that the wheel is always truly balanced about
its centre, with a consequent minimum of friction. When
this system of regulating is applied to reaction turbines
it becomes necessary, especially if the velocity of flow
through the wheel buckets is great, to make some provision
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL.
327
for the velocity of the water being reduced gradually, and
shock thereby avoided. The space between the guide vanes
and wheel may be used for this purpose, for as the wheel
vanes pass under the guide ()assages containing dead water,
the pressure will be reduced, and the continued flow of the
water in the wheel buckets will cause air to be sucked in
through this space. On the wheel buckets again coming
under the active guide passages this air is expelled in front
of the entering water with little or no loss of efficiency.
When the buckets are large, and this method of inlet would
prove insufficient, air ports in the guide passages are arranged
Fig. 20a
to open automatically on the shutting of the sluice. Of
course this method of air-cushioning is not allowable in
suction tube turbines.
Instead of only two sloping grooves there is sometimes
provided a groove for each roller ; the regulation then ensues
from the whole of the guide passages being more or less
opened or closed. The efficiency of this form is very low,
and the method cannot be recommended.
Fig. 200 shows a regulator in which hinged flaps, attached
to the top edge of alternate guide vanes, are used. These
flaps are caused to oscillate through about 90"* of angle,
328
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
thus opening or closing two guide passages. The motion
of the flap is brought about by reciprocation of the vertical
rod A, operated by a cam groove similar to that shown at d,
Fig. 199.
A very well-known regulator is illustrated in Fig. 201,
Fig. 201.
known as the scroll regulator. A scroll or blind a, made
of leather or indiarubber, stiffened with metal strips, is
attached by one of its ends to the top of the guide apparatus.
The other end is attached to a roller attached to the end of
a revolving arm, and on the arm being revolved the blind
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL.
329
is wound upon the roller or vice versd. Two of these
scrolls and rollers are usually applied to a turbine, so that
the wheel is always balanced. In a modified form of this
regulator each scroll is displaced by a half ring of metal.
The guide passages of one-half of the turbine are deflected
upwards While the other half are deflected downwards, as
seen m Fig. 202. Each of the two half rings a b is thus
i///um//i
'rrTMyxrrm
Fig. 202.
enabled to slide off the passages it has to control, without
covering up the passages under the control of the other.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 203 was used by Professor
James Thomson in his inward flow turbines. Some of the
guide vanes are hinged, so that on being oscillated they
reduce the opening of the guide passages. The movement is
effected by link-work operated from a hand-wheel or governor
mechanism.
A turbine has been designed by Nagel and Kamp in
330
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
which both the guide passages and wheel buckets are
reduced in area. The arrangement is as follows : — The
guide apparatus is provided with a false or movable side
having a slot for each guide vane to pass through, and on
this side being advanced towards the other side of the guide
apparatus in a radial wheel the effective area is reduced.
The wheel is arranged to rise or fall on its axis, and in
I
Fig. 203.
so doing operates this false side. One side of the wheel
buckets is also movable in relation to the rest of the wheel,
but fixed in relation to the guide vanes. Thus on the wheel
being moved on its axle, the guide and wheel passages are
altered in area. The arrangement has the disadvantage
that it is costly and complicated.
The only other form of regulator requiring notice consists
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL.
331
of a ring capable of sliding over the outflow openings of the
wheel buckets. Fig. 204 shows this arrangement as applied
to the large turbines at Niagara Falls. The wheel buckets
A and guide passages b are divided by two partitions so as
practically to form three turbines side by side, and as the
wheel is already double, having a top and bottom turbine,
there are really six turbines coupled to one shaft. There
are two rings, such as C, connected together by rods passing
through guides, and as these rings are advanced over the
Fig. 204.
outflow areas, two of the six turbines are throttled, the
remaining four still performing their full duty without loss
of efficiency in them. When the two wheels are entirely
closed the power is reduced to about two-thirds, and when
four are closed the power is slightly under one-third of the
full power. This form is particularly suited to large wheels,
and those working with a large head of water and corre-
spondingly high velocity of flow. The figure shows the
lower portion only of a Niagara turbine.
332 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Examples.
Impulse turbines (Example i).
A quantity of lo cubic feet of water per second is avail-
able, and after deducting head lost in pipe friction and
bends, it is estimated that the available head is 332 feet.
Q= 10
H = 332
XJF • TT n Q X 62 X 60 X H
Maximum H.P. =-^ = 374
33000
Select a r= 74"
^= .95 'J2g/i =138.4 feet per second (A = H - ^o)-
Owing to the small quantity of water and high velocity,
the turbine must be an outward flow Girard wheel with
partial admission.
Any number of revolutions per minute may now be
selected.
Select R = about 210 per min. = 3.5 per sec.
In Fig. 190, o/j is much less than c^, take w^ = 63 for pur-
poses of trial, then
a/, . ^ 60
, = circumference, or — = 17 ft. or 5.4 ft dia.
R per second 3.5
Select depth Ao of vanes = 6 inches, then outer diameter =
6.4 feet. Draw out diagram, as Fig. 194, to scale, making
a =74* c =138.4 r=2.7
a2 = 78'' W'i = 63 r=3-2
(Suitable scales for c and r are 50 feet = i inch and i foot =
I inch respectively), then by measurement c^ = 80, Wo = 74,
^2= 76, w — 15, ttj = 61' ; by calculation (equation 3, p. 299),
^2 = 75-8.
As the values of Tg by the two methods practically agree,
the assumption 7t'^ = 6^ was correct. If these values had
differed widely, the mean between the two should then be
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL. 333
taken, and the other values, c^, etc., found by correcting the
diagram.
The brake H.P. may now be found.
c r= 138.4 is velocity due to 300ft. head . '. head lost -- 32—10.0 7o
<-j=8o „ „ 105.0 „ }
« =15 .. » 4 .. .. = 4 = i-*7o
17.0 7
Shaft friction S-o 7,
22.0 %
Then loo : 374 :: 78 : B.H.P.
B.H.P. = 291.7, or say 280 H.P. available.
The dimensions of guides and buckets may now be
settled.
A = —^ = - — ^—;i = .081 square feet.
.89^ .89 X 138.4
This is equivalent to an opening 3 inches wide x 4 inches
measured at right angles to direction of flow.
(?i for guides = 3 inches, and using two guide passages, their
opening will be 2 inches each, or 4f inches measured on
circumference. The pitch of wheel buckets must not be
less than 5 inches, and their thickness is \ inch.
Number of wheel buckets = ^ — 5i_l — L? = 38.
si
By scaling the width of inlet to bucket at right angles to
c^j and outlet at right angles to ^2, their values are 3^ and 2^
inches respectively —
^1 ^ 3i ^ ^1 = ^2 ^ ^F ^ ^3 •'• ^2 = 4*9 inches, say 5^ inches to
give extra clearance.
Collecting the values —
Q = loft.
a =74^
c =138.4 ft. ^1=3 in-
H =332 „
01=61''
<-j= 80 ,, ^1 (for buckets) = 3 J in.
H.P. =374
0,-78'
^3= 76 „ ^2 = si »
B. H.P. =291
Wi=63 ft.
rj = 5 ft. 5 in. «! =2
Load =280 H.P.
Wa=74 >»
^a= 6 „ 5 „ 2., =38
Regulation as shown in Fig. 177.
334 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
Example 2 —
Quantity of water - - Q = 30 feet per sec.
Head ... - H= 15.6 feet.
// = H-//,= i4.5 „
•K€ TJ r> Q X 62.2 X 60 X H . Q
Max. H.P. = -^ = 52.8.
33000
Select a = 68'
c=.gs n/^^= 28.88
A = ~- - 1. 1 7 square feet.
Select mean diameter of wheel for axial flow, 3 feet.
As ^o is a large percentage of the total head, ^2 ^^Y ^
taken approximately equal to c^.
Draw out the diagram Fig. 190, making u vertical, and
select w^ = W2=ish ^^r trial. Then for r= 28.88, c^ = 15.5,
and ^2= 16.5 by measurement.
By equation (3), p. 299, ^2= 16.5.
The correct values are therefore ^1 = 15.5, C2=i6,$,
The brake H.P. may be found —
c =28.88 velocity due to 13 ft. .". head lust 1.5 ft. -=9.7 7o
^1 = ^5*5 »» 3*75 »» \ c -12 **/
^2=lO-5 n 4-25 -«o =3-25 »> ^
u= 6 „ .56 „ „ .56 „ -3-25 7o
i6.iS7o
Shaft friction 4-oo 7o
20.157.
Then 100 : 52.8 :: 79.8 : B.H.P.
B.H.P. = 42, or say 40 H.P. available.
By equati9n (4), p. 300, e^ may be found. Take z^ = 20,
^1 = I inch ^ .02 feet.
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL. 335
,j= A 1,17 37ft. = 4r
^ 2ffrcos.a - Sj/j 2 X 3.14 X 1.5 X. 374 -.4
A5 = 2 = 3£. ^ I g. Take a^o = i^, /« = i inch == .02 ft.
' ^2 16.5 ' ' ' *
,p, A 1.8
Then e^ = ^ — - = — 7
" 2irr2COS.a2 - z^t^ 2 x 3.14 x 1.5 x .309 - .36
= .7 feet = 8| inches nearly.
Allowing for clearance, make ^2 = 9 inches.
Revolutions per min. = 1 — x 60 = 98.
3-14x3
Collecting the values —
Q =30 ft. a =68' f =28.88 ft. c^ = 44in.
H =15.6 ,, ai=46° 0='5'5 >» ^1 (for buckets) = 4} ,,
H.P. =52.8 03=72° ^2=16.5 „ ^2 =9 „
B.H.P.=42 tt;j = i5.5 ft. ri= 1.5 ,, 2i =20
Load =40 H.P. W2=iS'S » ^j= 1*5 >» H ='8
Depth of buckets may be made 8 inches, and depth of
guides 6 inches.
Regulation by any of the methods shown in Figs. 199,
200, 2or, 202.
Reaction turbines (Example 3).
Quantity of water - - Q = 30 feet per sec.
Head . - - - H= 15.6 feet.
Jonval type A = A2.
Max. H.P. = 52.8.
Select a =72°
Draw out the diagram, Fig. 191, to any scale, making
A
^2 = r c. With the dimensions thus found for r, r^ c^^ con-
A2
struct the diagram. Fig. 194.
Assume a loss of head of 15 7o> ^nd find velocity due to
// = .85H ; mark off this value on the diagram to a suitable
336 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
scale, and complete the diagram and scale off values for
c =21.2 feet.
^1= 6.1 „
<:2 = 21.2 „
Wj, o/jji *nd « may be found by graphic method from c^ —
^1 = 0/3=20.5
u = 6.1
Find brake H.P. By eq. (23a), /4„ = /4 - ^^ = .85H - —
= (.85-.04)H = .8iH.
.•. Hydraulic losses - - - - *9 7o
Shaft friction 4 ^'/^
Then 100 : 77 :: 52.8 : B.H.P.
B.H.P. = 40.65.
The dimensions of the wheel may now be settled.
A = -i = -5 — = 1.41 square feet.
c 21.2
Select radius 1.25 feet and ^1 = 15, ^i = i inch = .02 feet,
c:^= 16, /2 = .02, then
<? = Lii- ~ by eq. (25)
2 X 3.14 X 1.5 X. 309 -(15 X. 02 + 16 X .02) -^ ^ ^ *"
= .609 feet = 7^ inches.
Por Jonval turbines e^^e^ Owing to the obstructing
action of the vanes, A2 is not in practice equal to A, but
slightly greater.
Collecting the values —
3-14x3
— x^w.
Q =30 ft-
a =72°
c =28.88:ft.
^1= 7i»n.
H =15.6 „
ai= 0'
^•i = i5-S ..
^8= 7i »
H.P. =52.8
02=72'
fj=i6.5 „
-1=15
B.H.P. =40.65
Wj = 20. 5
'•1= 1-5 »
«a=i6
Load =40 H.P.
a/3=:20.5
'•3= 1-5 »»
/j=/2= J in.
Depth of buckets 6 inches and guides 6 inches. .
Regulation by any of the methods shown in Figs. 199, 200,201.
DESIGN OF TURBINES IN DETAIL. 337
Example 4 —
Design an inward flow radial turbine for the same con-
ditions.
Q = 30 feet.
H = 15.6 feet. Max. H.P. = 52.8 feet.
Select — - = — = .666.
Ag 1.5
„ rj = 2 feet.
Draw out the diagram as in Fig. 190 to any scale, making
c^ = -^, and observing ratio r^ : r^
A2
With the dimensions thus formed for c, c^, c^, construct
diagram, Fig. 194.
Assume a loss of head of 15 7o» ^"^ ^"^ velocity due to
^ = .85H, and mark off this value on the diagram to a suit-
able scale, and complete the diagram and scale off values for
^ =25 feet.
^1= 7 w
^2=16.8 „
Wp Wjj ^ ™^y ^^^ ^^ found by graphic methods from ^g —
^1 = 21.3
W2= 1 6. 1
« = 5-3
«! by measurement = 24*.
Find brake H.P. By equation (23a) ^u = ^ - ^4i = •85H - —
= (.85 - .o3)H = .82H .-. Hydraulic losses - 18 7o
Shaft friction - -47!
Then 100 : 78 :: 52.8 : B.H.P.
B.H.P. = 4i.i8. Say 40.
y
227.
338 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING. ^
The dimensions of the wheel may now be settled.
A = -^ = ^— = 1.2 square feet.
c 25
Select Si = 18, 50 = 20, t^ = ty — .02 feet.
Then (by equation 25) —
2 X 3.14 X 2 X .258 - (18 X .02 + 20 X .02)
A9 = -^ ~ _5^ = 1.8 square feet.
^2 10.8
Then (by equation 26) —
' 2 X 3.14 X 1.5 X. 309 -(20 X .02)
■■XV^T\yiUhA\yil^ LJV«& lllll
1. —
3.14x4
^ —
J v««.
Collecting the values —
Q =30 ft. a =75'»
r =25 ft.
<?!= 5|m.
H =15.6 „ ai = 24"
^1= 7 »
e->- 8f „
H.P. =52.8 03 = 72**
^3=16.8 ,,
ai = i8
B.H.P.=4i.i8 7£/i = 2i.3
ft.
n= 2 „
£4 = 20
Load =40 H.P. W2=i6.\
>i
'a= 1-5 »i
A
=/;= iin.
Depth of buckets 6 inches, and guides 6 inches.*
Regulation by any of the methods shown in Figs. 202, 203,
CHAPTER XXII.
WATER WHEELS.
In the overshot water wheel, as illustrated in Fig. 205, the
water acts upon the buckets or paddles of the wheels chiefly
by its weight, passing from a trough or stream over the
upper face of the wheel so as to fall against the surface of
the buckets. This type of wheel is useful for low falls
varying from 10 to 65 feet, the head water level not varying
more than 2 feet. The efficiency varies from 60 per cent,
to 75 per cent. The efficiency of the wheel is decreased
by the loss of water, which arises owing to the horizontal
velocity of the water when falling upon the wheel, and
further loss results owing to the fact that the tail water
does not flow freely from the wheel pit, but gives instead a
certain amount of back wash in an opposite direction to the
flow of the tail-race. The useful horse-power obtainable,
assuming an efficiency of 65 per cent., is
.65 X — '—^ — ^ — = .o74QH, where H is the available head
550
measured in feet.
The water should have a velocity greater than the cir-
cumference of the wheel ; thus if the wheel has a peripheral
velocity of 6 feet per second, the water should be flowing at
about 10 feet per second. This velocity is obtained by
falling through a heiglit id^-2gh or ^ = i?^=i.55 ^^^^
64.4
or the water should enter the wheel at a position 1.55 feet
below the surface level of the head water.
To remedy the practical losses arising from the non-
clearance of the tail water, and to enable the wheel to be
340
HYDRAULIC POWER ENCIINEKRINO.
immersed beyond the i foot extreme limit of immersion
for an overshot wheel, the breast wheel, as shown in Fig.
206, is employed.
The water acts by weight only, dropping almost vertically
into the buckets through the openings in the pen trough,
Fig. 205.
which is shaped to the circumference of the wheel. The
masonry breast or curved edge adjacent to the wheel is not
employed in the large wheels of this type where the
diameter exceeds 1 9 feet. The buckets are only partially
filled, and the space between the inner edges of the buckets
and the wheel shrouding admits of free ventilation during
WATER WHEELS.
341
the movement of the wheel. The efficiency of the ordinary
breast wheel varies from 70 to 75 per cent.
The oldest type of wheels known is that of the undershot,
as illustrated in Fig. 207. The efforts of Poncelet led to
great improvements in the efficiency of this wheel. It is
used for falls up to 6 feet, acting on the same principle as
Fig. 306.
the impulse turbine. The stream of water should flow down
an incline of i in 10 to impinge upon the curved blades
near the bottom of the wheel and leave them with very
Utile velocity and consequent work un absorbed.
The diameter of the wheel should be at least twice the fall,
the speed of the periphery between 50 and 60 per cent, of the
velocity due to the fall measured to the centre of the inlet
342
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
orifice. The depth of the bucket in the radial direction equal
at least to one-half the fall. The number of buckets found to
be most efficient is 1.6, the diameter of the wheel in feet + 16.
Thus with a fall of 3 feet, and for a wheel of 12 horse-
power, the diameter will be 6 feet.
Fig. 207.
The fall being 3 feet, the velocity due to that height —
z; = 8 ^3 = 1 3.86 feet per second.
Number of revolutions = -^Sp — = 22.
TTO
Assuming a duty of 60 per cent., then the cubic feet of
water Q required will be —
^ 3X.6 ^^^ '
which will require a width of 10 feet 6 inches with a depth of
stream taken at 7 inches, and a discharge assumed as about
70 per cent, of the theoretical quantity on to the wheel.
CHAPTER XXIII.
HYDRAULIC ENGINES.
Under the head of hydraulic engines we propose to discuss
the motors in which the hydraulic pressure, acting on a
reciprocating piston in a cylinder, causes the revolution of
a shaft from which power may be taken for doing work of
any kind. Before discussing the best known types in detail,
it is advisable to inquire into the causes of loss and means
of prevention with a view to the production of an ideal
motor.
The water pressure available may either be expressed in
feet of head or as pressure per square inch, usually the latter
for the type of motor under discussion. Whichever form is
given, the conversion to the other is very simple. Since a
column of water i square inch in section and i foot high
weighs .434 lbs., it is evident that the pressure per square
inch in pounds -r .434 will give the corresponding head in
feet, or -^ = H, and conversely H x .434 = A The head
•434
H or pressure p being known, the total energy per pound of
water can be calculated.
According to the hydrodynamic equation the total energy
of I lb. of water is —
•434 2^ .434
where / represents the actual pressure in pounds per square
inch at any point, and v the velocity of flow at the same
point ; while L represents the pressure in pounds per square
inch lost from all causes between the source of supply and
344 HYDRAULIC POWER KNGINEERING.
the point under consideration. By assuming the source of
supply to be close to the cylinder of the hydraulic engine,
the quantity L may be taken as equal to o, as by so doing
the investigation will be much simplilied. We have now
two quantities to deal with, namely, -^^, representing the
•434
head producing the pressure / in pounds per square inch of
the water passing into the cylinder ; and — representing the
energy absorbed in producing the velocity v of the flow into
the cylinder.
We have already (Chapter II.) examined the conditions
necessary for the change of velocity of the water without
loss of energy on entering the cylinder. In a perfect design
of motor the passage from the valve to the cylinder would
require to be conical or trumpet-mouthed, allowing a change
of velocity to occur without loss by eddy currents. Having
arranged for the economical entry of the water to the
cylinder, we are now at liberty to examine its action upon
the piston, and as the water entering the cylinder must have
a velocity corresponding to that of the piston, we must first
investigate the true velocity of the piston at each part of its
stroke.
In the accompanying diagram, Fig. 208, let a b c D
represent the crank path of a hydraulic engine, then a c
will represent the length of the piston stroke. When the
crank-pin is on the dead centre a the piston has no velocity,
whereas when the crank-pin arrives at b, assuming the con-
necting rod of infinite length, the forward velocity v of the
piston is equal to the circumferential velocity v^ of the
crank-pin ; for all intermediate positions of the crank-pin
between a and b the piston will have a series of velocities
varying between o and v^. The values of v may be ex-
pressed as a function of v^. Take any point e in the crank
path, and draw a tangent e g to represent the velocity v^,
and resolve the velocity v^ into its components e h, h g, in
HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 345
which E H represents the horizontal velocity v of the piston
corresponding to the point e. Let fall the vertical e f,
then the triangle o e f is similar to the triangle of velocities
E G H, so that
f;: »c :: EH : EG :: EF : EO
V EF . n
or - =— -. =sin 6.
v^ EO '
therefore v^v^^xnB - - - (2)
The velocity v of the piston, therefore, varies as the curve
of sines, and its value at any point of the stroke may be
found by the aid of a table of sines, or by describing a semi-
circle with radius OB = v^ to any suitable scale, when the
ordinates, such as e f, e^ f^, measured to the same scale, will
give the velocity v for the corresponding i>oints f f^ of the
stroke.
Having obtained the values of v^ we can now by the aid of
the hydrodynamic equation (i) find the corresponding values
of/, as E may be substituted by -^2i_ ; p^ being the pressure
•434
per square inch when the water is at rest. The equation
then becomes —
E = -A..^+?? . . (3)
.434 .434 2g
or p=p^-— X.434 - - (3a)
The values of/ thus obtained may be plotted as ordinates
(Fig. 209). The curve thus produced will dip from the
commencement of the stroke to the centre, when, owing to
the decreasing velocity, it ivill again rise by a similar contour
until at the end of the stroke it has the value /o as at the
commencement.
If the piston had moved forward through the stroke with
a very small velocity, the pressure /« would have remained
constant throughout the stroke, so that the work done per
346
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
square inch of piston area would be/oS foot-pounds, S being
the length of stroke in feet. But p^S represents the area of
the parallelogram ailc, which therefore is a measure of
the total available energy per square inch of piston area.
I ^ f
^ ^ ^ A
A 1:
Figs. 208, 209, and 210.
Instead, however, of the pressure /„ we have the varying
pressure/, so that the area of the diagrams ai klc repre-
sents the work done per square inch of piston area by the
varying pressure /. The difference i K l between the dia-
HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 347
grams a i l c and a i k l c, therefore, represents the kinetic
energy due to the varying velocity of the water, and is a
function of the quantity — in the hydrodynamic equation.
The diagram a i k l c gives the curve of pressures acting
upon the piston, supposing that the base of the piston is
always close up to the valve opening without any intervening
water ; this, however, is not the case, because as the piston
recedes there is an increasing quantity of water to be ac-
celerated. We will now proceed to deduce the curve of
pressures necessary to produce this acceleration. It is well
known in connection with steam engines that the force /»
necessary to produce acceleration of the reciprocating parts
is represented by the equation —
in which R is the radius of crank circle, x the distance
travelled by the piston at any moment, and v^ the crank-pin
R - jc
velocity, all expressed in feet. Since , at the com-
mencement and termination of the stroke has the values
-^ and — --, the equation becomes —
K. R
A=±f I' - - - (5)
for those points, the + sign representing accelerating force,
and the - sign retarding force.
Now the column of water to be accelerated may be con-
sidered as a piston, and we may assume for the time that its
weight w per square inch of piston area is that of a column
of water i square inch in area, and having a length equal to
the length of the piston stroke. If the calculation be made,
we get the straight line curve m n (Fig. 210), of which the
vertical ordinates, such as a m, c n, represent the accelerating
or retarding force fit, at the corresponding point of the stroke
348 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
for the assumed weight w. But as the only point of the
stroke at which w really represents the weight of the water
is at the end b, it is evident that the corresponding value of
/a is equal to the true value /b for the varying water column.
At the commencement of the stroke, as a/ = o, so/b = o> and
the values of /b for any intermediate point may be found by
multiplying the value of /» given by equations (4) and (5)
by the ratio -— , or —
The operation may, however, be more easily performed by
graphic method on the diagram (Fig. 210) by dividing ac
and c N into a similar number of equal parts, and drawing
radial lines from o to c n and a m, and ordinates from a c,
when points of intersection will be points on the curve by
the principle of similar triangles, a o n in the figure repre-
sents the curve thus produced, and the ordinates /b must be
subtracted (observing the signs + and - ) from the ordinates
/o in Fig- 209; thus we obtain the ordinates /^ in Fig. 211,
which may be expressed by the equation (3a and 6 com-
bined)—
A=A-^^x.434-{±-.^^-j^.-^) - (7)
The diagram a i k p c thus produced is the diagram of
work for the outward stroke of a hydraulic engine satisfying
the condition laid down, namely, absence of hydraulic losses
from friction between the source of supply and the cylinder.
This diagram must accordingly have an area equal to the
area of the parallelogram a i l c b, and consequently the area
above the line i l must balance the vacant area below that
line, or area aonc, Fig. 210, equals area ikl. Fig. 209.
That this is so is capable of mathematical proof.
So far we have made no mention of the back pressure
due to expelling the exhaust water. As the velocity during
HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 349
exhaust is the same at each point of the stroke as the velocity
during the working stroke, the back pressure will be repre-
sented by the ordinates of the diagram Fig. 209, added to
the ordinates of the diagram Fig. 210, and the combined
area aqs, Fig. 212, represents the energy lost on this
account. Since the area a o n c is equal to the area i k l,
the area a c q s is evidently equal to twice area i k l.
The only condition which remains to be investigated is
when a length of pipe / of diameter d intervenes between
the valve opening and the cylinder, or when a similar pipe
of any length and diameter is attached to the exhaust outlet.
It is evident that the velocity of the water in the pipe must
be dependent upon the velocity v of the piston at every
point of the stroke. Since Q = A2', and the areas of the
pipes vary as the diameters squared, the velocity v^ in the
pipe varies in relation to v inversely as the squares of the
diameter d of the pipe and d of the cylinder, or —
z^i : » : : D^ : ^
^I^^ /ox
•••^1 = -^ - - - (3)
Similarly the weight w-^ of the water in unit length of the
pipe varies in relation to w the weight of unit length of water
in the cylinder directly as their diameters squared, or —
w^\w \\d^ \\y^
wd^ . .
•••^^1=^ - - - (9)
As z/ is a function of v^ we may substitute the values v^ and
w'l for V and w in equation (5), when —
^ ^d^ w /D^ V I
and 7V being taken equal to /x .434, p^ will represent the
accelerating force per square inch of piston area at the
3SO
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
commencement of the stroke. As w is a constant quantity
throughout the stroke, the diagram of accelerating forces
will be bounded by a straight line curve, as m o n in Fig.
2IO. The diagram so produced must now be subtracted
from the diagram aikpc, Fig. 211, to obtain the true
values of /t ^ox these altered conditions.
A similar investigation may be made for the exhaust pipe,
and the diagram, so pro-
duced, added to the dia-
gram ACQS, Fig. 2 1 2, taking
care to observe the + and
- signs.
We do not propose to
investigate the energy lost
by friction of pipes and
bends, as the matter has
already been treated in
Chapter II., and the for-
mulae there given may be
applied, so that we are now
in a position to examine
some of the leading designs
of hydraulic engines, and
note to what extent it has
been found advisable to
follow the precise arrange-
ment of details demanded
by our preliminary investi-
gation.
Fig. 213 shows a sectional elevation of a Brotherhood
engine, while Fig. 214 shows a cross section of the same.
The design consists essentially of three cylinders a b c, fitted
with single acting rams or pistons d e f, and placed at 120''
to each other. These three pistons operate by means of
connecting rods one common crank-pin g, which imparts
circular motion to the shaft h. The pressure water is
/
R
.^^.
^
A
4
/
1
c
Figs. 211 and 212.
HYDRAULIC ENGINES.
3SI
admitted Troni the supply pipe i to each cylinder during the
outward stroke of its piston by means of a revolving valve K,
which is driven by the plate l attached to the end of the
crank-pin g. The valve k is of simple construction, having
a passage m ending in a splayed mouth of such dimensions
that communication between the supply pipe i and cylinder
port m' is maintained through i8o°, or a half revolution of
the valve. The alternate half of the valve is cut away, so as
to allow free escape of the exhaust water during the other
Hg. 213-
half revolution, thus permitting the exhaust water to flow
away by the pipe n. The port face o is composed of lignum
vitie. Each piston is operated upon by pressure water during
1 80° of the revolution of the crank-pin, and, as there are
three cylinders, there is no dead centre ; the turning moment
applied to the crank-shaft is, moreover, almost uniform, as
will be seen by reference to the polar diagram, Fig. 315,
in which vectors such as oa, ob, oe, of represent the
turning moments for the corresponding positions of the
3S2
HYDRAULIC l-oWER ENGINEt:RIN<:;.
crank-pin. These vectors also represent the velocity of
flow in the supply pipe i, which is also very unifonn.
In our preliminary examination we took the supply as
being close to the cylinder, which we now see was justifiable,
as the only water which is at rest at the ends of the stroke is
the small quantity contained in the port m' and the cylinder
clearance space. The flow in the pipe i may be rendered
practically uniform by placing an air bell or a shock valve
similar to Fig. 69 (p. 1 16), of suitable size, as close as possible
to the valve. It may be pointed out that the piston stroke is
veiy short, thus allowing a moderately high number of revolu-
tions per minute without excessive velocity of the entering
and exhaust water — a condition tending, as we have seen, to
improve the efficiency of the engine. In ihe figure the port
m' is shown entering the cylinder with an abrupt enlarge-
ment, thereby causing loss by eddy currents ; but owing to the
high pressure (700 lbs. per square inch and upwards) usually
applied to these engines, and the comparatively low velocity
HYDRAULIC ENGINES.
353
of the entering water, the loss so caused forms a very small
percentage of the whole energy imparted to the engine. Of
course with low pressure, and the same velocity of entry, the
losses are of moment, and the conditions laid down in our
preliminary examination require to be rigidly adhered to if
the engine is expected to show a satisfactory efficiency. The
energy lost per square inch of piston area from this cause
may be ascertained by an application of equations (30) and
(10). Equation (3a) must of course be multiplied by =-^
354
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
if » be taken as the piston velocity as before, when the re-
sulting diagram gives the losses per square inch of piston
area. In applying equation (lo) the second half of the
diagram will evidently disappear, causing the energy and
pressures represented by the
first half to belost or subtracted
from the diagram of work.
Fig. ai6 shows in plan the
general arrangement of a large
size Armstrong enginein which
three oscillating cylinders abc
are used, placed side by side,
and operating a three-throw
crank shai^ D, having the
cranks placed at lao* to each
other, so that the turning
moment applied to the crank
shaft is precisely similar to that
already described in reference
to the Brotherhood engine.
The valves e f g controlling
the admission of water to the
cylinders are of the reciprocat-
ing type, and are operated by
connecting links worked from
oscillating studs on the gud-
geons of the cylinders. The
water passes from the valves
by pipes HiK connected to the
gudgeons by a swivel union of the t>-pe shown in Fig. 63 (p.
105), and so through ports in the gudgeons to the cylinders.
In the smaller size of these engines, instead of the three
reciprocating valves e f o, each cylinder is fitted with a
valve of the type shown in Fig. 217, in which the oscillation
of the cylinder operates the valve. The pressure water is
admitted through the pipe l, and the oscillation of the
HYDRAULIC E?IGINES.
355
cylinder causes the oscillation of the valve u attached to the
cylinder gudgeon, thus opening the port n to the pressure
water L. The port N communicates through a port in the
gudgeon with the cylinder, thus allowing pressure water to
enter the cylinder so long as the port n is open. During
the progress of the stroke the oscillation of the piston, and
consequently that of the valve m, is reversed, so that when
the piston is fully out the valve has again closed, and occu-
pies the position shown in the figure. The further oscilla-
tion of the cylinder will cause the port n to open to the
space o, which is in direct communication with the exhaust
p. Valves of this type are liable to cause serious frictional
losses due to the throttling of the water, as the valve, when
nearly shut, is in the form of a long narrow slit.
Figs, 3i8 and 319 show in elevation and plan a three-
cylinder Armstrong capstan, fitted with valves abc of the
type just described. The capstan is started in the usual
manner by the button d, arranged in the floor, being de-
pressed by the operator's foot, thus allowing water to pass
$$6 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
through the valve e to the supply pipe F, feeding the
cylinders c h i. The exhaust water is conducted away by
the waste pipe k.
The valve shown in Fig. 2zo is interesting, as being the
type used on the early designs of Armstrong engines. In
these engines the pressure water was allowed to act on both
sides of the piston during the outstroke. The piston rod
was made of such diameter that its area was half of that of
the cylinder, so that the piston was pushed outwards with a
Fig. 219-
total pressure due to half its area, and the water contained
in the forward end of the cylinder was returned to the supply
pipe. On completing the outstroke the tail end of the
cylinder was connected to the exhaust, while the forward
end still communicated with the pressure supply. Thus the
pressure water acting on the small area of the front of the
piston drove back the piston, expelling the water from the
lar^e side to exhaust. By this means only half the work was
done on the outstroke, the remaining half being performed
on the return stroke. The cylinders were of the oscillating
HYDRAULIC ENGINES.
357
type, and the valve a was formed solid with the gudgeon.
The port b connects to the lai^e side of the piston, and the
port c to the smalt side. The port c is always open to the
pressure supply d, while the port B is alternately open to the
pressure supply d and exhaust pipe e. A small shock
valve F was apphed as shown to prevent the pressure in the
cylinder rising above that in the supply pipe, in case of any
irregularity in the action of the valve.
In all the types of engine we have described up to the
present no attempt has been made to economise water
when working a light load. Several more or less successful
attempts have been made to produce an engine which shall
consume pressure water in some proportion to the useful
358 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERIKG.
load- The best known of these engines is the revolving
engine of Rigg.
Fig. 221 shows a sectional elevation of Ri^'s engine.
The design consists essentially of three or four cylinders
such as A B c arranged radially about a pin or gudgeon a.
Each cylinder is fitted with a piston or ram e f c, which is
attached at its outer end to a revolving fly-wheel h by the
joints 1 K L, Now, if the axis of the (ly-wheel coincides with
the centre of the gudgeon D, it is evident that the cylinders
and rams will be revolved about the gudgeon when the fly-
wheel H is turned, but the rams will not make a reciprocat-
ing stroke in the cylinders. If now the centre of the gudgeon
D is moved off the axis of the wheel h, as shown in the
figure, each ram on arriving at m will project some distance
out of the piston, while at n the ram will recede into the
HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 359
piston. Thus in one complete revolution of the wheel h each
ram will evidently make an out and return stroke, the length
of this stroke being twice the eccentricity of the gudgeon d
from the axis of the wheel h. If water pressure now be
applied to each cylinder when at n, and the port opened to
exhaust at m, the ram will be driven outwards, causing revo-
lution of the wheel h and consequent revolution of the
pistons and cylinders — hence the name revolving engine.
The quantity of water used is directly proportional to the
length of piston stroke, and consequently to the eccentricity
of the gudgeon d which corresponds to the crank-throw in
an ordinary engine. By shifting the gudgeon d nearer to, or
farther from, the axis of h, the power of the engine is varied
and also the consumption of water. The pressure water
enters through the ports o operated by a valve of the type
shown in Fig. 213. The gudgeon d, which is subject to all
the conditions of stress of an ordinary crank-pin, has to be
capable of adjustment in position whilst the engine is run-
ning. Fig. 222 shows the relay engine for controlling the
gudgeon d. The gudgeon is securely attached to the two-
ended ram p which passes iqto the cylinders q r. By means
of the internal plunger s the effective area of the ram p in
the cylinder r is reduced to about half of its area in the
cylinder Q. The cylinder r is always open to the pressure
supply, while the cylinder q is capable of communication to
the pressure supply or exhaust by means of two small valves
at T operated by a centrifugal governor not shown in the
figure.
When the engine is running below its normal speed as in
starting, or if overloaded, the governor operates a valve which
allows the water in the cylinder q to escape to exhaust, thus
allowing the eccentricity of the gudgeon d to be increased,
and consequently the power of the engine augmented.
When the power of the engine is abreast of the load the
governor will have acquired its normal position and closed
the exhaust valve, thus locking the ram p in its new position.
Jfc
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGlKEERING.
If the load, or some part of it, be now removed, the engine
will revolve quicker, thus causing the centrifugal governor to
operate a valve connecting the cylinder Q to the cylinder r,
and owing to (he larger area of the ram p in the cylinder Q,
the ram p will travel into the cylinder R, causing less eccen-
tricity of the gudgeon d. When the speed of the engine
again becomes normal the valve will be closed and the
motion of the plunger p arrested. Thus the water con-
sumption is automatically controlled according to the load
applied to the engine.
There have been several attempts to attain this end,
notably that of Hastie, who arranged for the crank-throw of
an engine to be altered automatically by the variable turning
moment required in the crank-shaft to overcome the load,
A pair of hydraulic cylinders were arranged with plungers and
HYDRAULIC ENGINES. 36 1
pitch chain connections to the crank-shaft, so that the load
caused the chains to be partly wound round the shaft, thus
driving the plungers back into their cylinders against the
pressure water. The shaft was of cam form at the parts
where the chains operated, so that at some point the turning
moment required to overcome the load balanced the water
pressure in the cylinders. This apparatus governed the
crank-thtow of the engine, thereby producing economy of
pressure water. The arrangement, though ingenious, has
now dropped out of use.
The efficiency of hydraulic engines varies from about 50
to 80 per cent. For well-designed engines of the types
illustrated, and working with a pressure of 700 lbs. per
square inch and upwards, an efficiency of 70 to 80 per cent,
may be expected. The horse-power is then given by the
equation —
H.P.=-Mt .R«xC
33000
in which / = pressure in pounds per square inch.
A = area of piston in square inches.
L = stroke in feet.
R = revolutions per minute.
n = number of single-acting cylinders.
C = efficiency — .70 to .80.
CHAPTER XXIV.
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS.
Hydraulic Lifts. — Probably the most powerful com-
bination of hydraulic lifts is that employed in connection
with the hydraulic dock at the Union Iron Works, San
Francisco, which is capable of raising a ship of 4,000 tons
weight a height of 32 feet. Eighteen hydraulic rams are
arranged on each side of the dock, which consists of a
platform built of cross and longitudinal steel girders 62
feet wide, 440 feet long, provided with keel and sliding
bilge blocks for the ship to rest upon. A set of four single-
acting hydraulic plunger pumps 3^ inches diameter and
36-inch stroke, working at forty double strokes per minute,
transmit water at a pressure of 1,100 lbs. per square inch
to the thirty-six hydraulic rams, each of 30 inches diameter,
with a stroke of 16 feet. On the top of each hydraulic ram
is a 6-foot pulley over which eight steel cables 2 inches
in diameter pass, one end of each cable being anchored
to the bed plates supporting the cylinders, while the other
is secured to the side girders of the platform. The illustra-
tion of the dock in Fig. 223 is from Gassier' s Magazine^
and shows a vessel in position on the platform.
When a ship is being lifted it sometimes happens that
the load is not evenly distributed on the platform. Some
rams, therefore, may carry a full load, while others are much
underloaded. The platform is kept level by means of specially
designed valve gear operated by the moving rams in such
a manner that when one ram has a light load it moves
ahead of the others, but in doing so lifts a lever and closes
its inlet valve, so that the rams are practically stopping and
*^^^^^^H^|
p
B
'^:B
1
'^ 1
1
/j^^U
m
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 363
starting dependent upon the load which may come upon
them, the valves being opened and closed automatically by
the movement of each of the rams. The valve box is
secured on the ram itself and moves up and down with it,
the inlet and outlet pipes working through stuffing boxes in
the usual manner.
The application of hydraulic power for effecting the open-
ing of the. bascules of the Tower Bridge over the Thames
at London is shown in Figs.' 224, 225, 226, and 227.
On each of the outside main moving girders quadrants
are arranged having'toothed racks bolted thereon. Two racks
are placed on each quadrant, the pitch being 5.9 inches,
and pinions mounted on two shafts across the bridge
gearing to these quadrants. The lower shaft with its
pinion is driven from the east end of the pier, and the
upper one from the west on the south pier, while on the
north pier the lower shaft is driven from the west, and the
upper one from the east end. These pinions are actuated
from gearing having a ratio of 6 to i by hydraulic engines
placed in chambers at the ends of the ' piers, the machinery
at each end of each pier being sufficient for the full require-
ments of one bascule, that at the other end of the pier
being in reserve.
Each set of machinery consists of two three-cylinder
hydraulic engines of unequal power, having pinions on
their crank-shafts which gear into spur-wheels on an inter-
mediate shaft, a pinion on which gears into the spur-wheel
on the end of the rack-pinion shaft. The hydraulic engines
were made of unequal power as a provision against the
effect of wind on the large exposed surfaces of the bascules.
It has been found, however, that it is not necessary to use
more power than that given by one small engine.
The engines have three plungers 8J inches diameter,
27-inch stroke in the large engines, and 7^ inches diameter
and 24-inch stroke in the small engines. Each cylinder
is provided with a separate working valve, separate spindles
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 365
being employed for the admission of pressure and the
release of exhaust water. On the crank-shaft of each
engine there is a brake wheel against which brake blocks
attached to levers are thrust. The blocks are kept apart
by hydraulic cylinders, and rams placed between the levers.
They are drawn together by wire ropes and counter-weights
when the bascules are standing. Before starting the bas-
cules, pressure is admitted to the cylinders by releasing the
brakes.
In ordinary working each bascule is raised and lowered
by one hydraulic engine, the other three engines being in
gear and running idle, the water circulating through their
cylinders and valves. This provision is arranged in order
that the power may be varied or the engine changed by the
driver without having to leave his cabin. Clutches are
provided by which any of the hydraulic engines can be
thrown entirely out of gear. The time occupied in raising
and lowering the bascule is about i^ minutes.
At each end of each pier an accumulator is provided
with a ram 22 inches in diameter and an 18-foot stroke.
In the machinery chambers other hydraulic pumps are
provided for delivering water to the top of the main towers
for fire and domestic use. Provision is made for two
hydraulic hoists having cradles 14 feet 9 inches long, 6 feet
6 inches wide, 11 feet high, the length of the lift being
about no feet, for taking passengers to and from the high-
level footways while the bascules are raised. The cradles
are lifted and lowered by wire ropes from vertical cylinders,
and rams placed in duplicate in the towers, safety gear
being provided for gripping the guides and supporting the
cradles in case of failure. Inter-locking gear is also
arranged upon the cradles to prevent the hoist being
started until both inside and outside doors are closed, or
to prevent the doors being opened until the proper platform
is reached and the hoist stopped.
The hydraulic power for the bridge is generated by two
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 367
double tandem compound surface condensing engines,
each of 360 I.H.P., the cylinders being 19J and 37 inches
diameters respectively, while the pumps are yf inches
diameter and 38-inch stroke. One engine is sufficient to
provide power for the bridge, while the other is held in
reserve. The water pressure is 700 lbs. per square inch.
The engines are supplied with steam by four Lancashire
boilers, 7 feet 6 inches diameter, 30 feet long, working at
85 lbs. pressure. In addition to the four accumulators in
the piers, there are at the engine-house two accumulators
with rams 20 inches diameter having a stroke of 35 feet
The pressure pipes are arranged in duplicate, while the
return water pipes are single. The mains are protected
from frost by hot-water pipes running alongside them,
although a mixture of glycerine and water is employed in
connection with the cylinders for the working of the bas-
cules forming a small system of its own. Duplicate pumps
actuated by hydraulic pressure placed within the south pier
supply this subsidiary system. The machinery was designed
by Sir W. G. Armstrong & Company in conjunction with
and under the direction of Sir J. Wolfe Barry.
It has been found by experience that the time required
for the bridge to be opened for the passage of vessels at any
particular period is so short that it is found unnecessary to
use the lifts for conveying passengers from the lower to the
higher level. Pedestrians who wish to ascend to the upper
footway can do so by means of 205 steps arranged within
the towers.
The two bascules each weigh 1,070 tons, and they are
carried on live ring rollers.
Water-balance Railways- — The author has intro-
duced hydraulic brakes for controlling the motion of cars
on cliff or inclined railways, using in connection with the
water-balance system brakes which press against the rams
under the influence of hydraulic pressure exerted through
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 369
rams working in cylinders fed by pumps diiven directly from
one of the axles of the cars. Fig. 228 is an elevation of such
a railway, similar to those constructed and erected by the
author in various parts of the country; and Fig, 239 is a
sectional elevation of the hydraulic rail-gripping brakes in
use upon such cars.
The system of working in connection with these railv/ays
is to employ water in the form of ballast, which is introduced
into the car when at the upper platform to overbalance the
weight of the loaded car standing at the lower platform, and
on the arrival of the water-ballasted car at the lower platform
it discharges its water into a tank arranged there, from which
tank the water is ^ain pumped back to a tank at the upper
station, so as to enable the same water to be used over and
over again.
The tanks are arranged between the girders or framework
of the cars, and made of a capacity such as will contain
water sufficient to overbalance the bottom car when fully
loaded and ttie upper car having no passengers therein.
The advantages of employing hydraulic balance as against
hauling by direct driving of the top rope pulley is that the
weight of the water introduced is regulated to suit the
number of passengers to be carried, the conductor at the
2 A
370 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
lower station signalling to the brakesman at the top the
number of passengers to be carried before the upper car is
fully charged with water. It frequently happens that it is
unnecessary to employ any water as ballast, owing to the
preponderance of passengers for the down over those travel-
ling on the up journey.
Hydraulic buffers are arranged at the lower platform, so
that on the car striking one pair the water or liquid is driven
out through a contracted passage into the cylinders of the
opposite pair, thus forcing out the rams of the buffers ready
for the journey of the next car down.
The arrangement of the hydraulic brakes for gripping the
rails is shown in Fig. 229. The water or fluid under pres-
sure acts behind rams which force outwards the slippers
against the rail heads, the rail slippers being shaped to suit
the head of the rail, and to thus grip it on the under side
of the head, and prevent the car from mounting should any
unforeseen contingency arise. A general arrangement of a
cliff railway is shown in Fig. 230, one car being on the
downward journey, the other in a correspondingly higher
position on the other upward track, above the two bridges
shown in the illustration, whif h is a photograph of the
Lynton and Lynmouth Cliff Railway, which was constructed
under the author's direction.
Glasgow Harbour Tunnel Lifts.— The hydraulic
elevators employed in connection with the Glasgow Harbour
Tunnel are more powerful than any yet constructed for a
similar purpose, though the height of the lift is not so great
as at the Eiffel Tower. The load at Glasgow on each cage
is 12,000 lbs., and the maximum lift 72 feet. The Eiffel
Tower lift was for 72 persons, and the height 420 feet.
There are six elevators in each shaft, three for raising and
three for lowering vehicles. Fig. 231 illustrates three of the
multiplying cylinders, and Fig. 232 shows the position of the
car and the cylinders in the shaft. The diameter of the
Kig- 2JO. -Click Ra:
\Tofa.r /'aj;.no.
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 37I
elevating cylinders is 13 inches, the lowering cylinders being
11^ inches diameter. The stroke of the rams in the cylinders
is one-sixth of the car travel, the gearing being by three
tandem sheaves, as shown in Fig. 231. The cylinders were
tested to a pressure of 1,800 lbs. per square inch, the work-
ing pressure from the accumulators being 750 lbs. per square
inch. The piston is 30 inches long, and the ram is 10 inches
in diameter of cast iron ; the piston, stuffing boxes, and
gland being all of bronze.
The ram is ij inches thick, and through the centre a
3-inch steel rod attached above the piston and passing
through the head is arranged so as to rigidly connect the
travelling sheave with the piston. The sheaves are respec-
tively 52, 56, and 60 inches diameter.
Four steel lifting ropes are employed, the ends being
attached to adjustment rods, two ropes paissing down to
each side of the cage. Each rope is ^ inch diameter, and is
composed of six strands of steel wire wound round a hemp
core, the strand itself consisting of eighteen wires, and each
rope is tested up to 24 tons.
The main valves are bolted directly to the cylinder head.
Each valve is 3 inches diameter, and has openings so
graduated that the retarding or accelerating effort of the
water when closing or opening the valve is constant. The
levers from the operating gallery are connected with the
pilot valve, which controls the operation of the main valve,
so that the travel of the pilot valve lever is only slight in
relation to the main valve. The main valve works on the
differential principle, the area above being double that below
the valve piston. The pressure is constantly below the valve
piston, and the valve is moved down by admitting the pres-
sure above the piston causing the valve to descend. The
valve rises if communication is opened between the top of
the valve cylinder and the discharge tank.
The lifting cylinders are arranged so that there is a pre-
ponderance of weight on the car side with pressure being
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 373
admitted above the piston to lift the load, or communication
is established from above the piston to the discharge tank to
lower the load. Water is consumed proportional to the load
lifted, there being two powers. For load of 6,000 lbs. or less
the cylinders use 37.8 gallons when lifting the load 74 feet,
while for a greater load than 6,000 lbs., 70.7 gallons are
consumed for the same travel. This change of power is
rendered automatic by the use of a valve which remains
closed with a load of less than 6,000 lbs., so that the water
beneath the main piston lifts a balance check valve and is
forced into a pipe connected with the main cylinder head.
When lowering the car, however, this balance check valve
closes and an unbalanced check valve lifts, thus opening
communication from below the piston to the discharge tank.
An amount of water equal in volume to the space beneath
the piston is drawn in below the piston, and on the reverse
stroke when lifting this water is introduced above the piston,
so that the actual quantity of water used is that due to the
displacement of the plunger only.
When lifting loads above 6,000 lbs. the preponderance
of effort is below the piston of the automatic valve which
rises and opens communication between the valve and the
discharge tank.
The lowering cylinders are arranged so that the weight of
the car is overbalanced and the tendency of the unloaded
car would be to rise, but when loaded to descend thus
using no water, the water in this case serving only as a
brake. Should a vehicle be too light to overcome the
overbalance and friction of the machine, water pressure
is introduced into the cylinders.
Triple grip safety catches are fitted beneath each car
arranged on the Otis Company's system, this Company
having carried out and constructed the elevators.
Hydraulic Forging Press. — Fig. 233 is an illustration
of a 4,ooo-ton hydraulic forging press in use at the works
374 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
iR. 2,i3.-4000-To\- ilvi
s iCammell's \V™ks, .Sheffield).
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 375
of Messrs Charles Cammelf & Co. Ltd., Sheffield. This
press, although not being by any means the largest of its
kind in Sheffield, is probably one of the best examples of
the heavy forging press now so generally adopted for dealing
with massive forgings. Presses of over 10,000 tons power
are working in the most satisfactory manner upon blocks of
metal totally beyond the power of any steam hammer.
In the 4,000-ton Davy Press illustrated, which is from a
photograph of Messrs Cammell's forge, two main rams of
36 inches diameter are mounted in the upper frame casting
9 feet 3 inches apart at the centres. Two lifting rams are
also arranged thereon each of 9 inches diameter, the stroke
of the press being 7 feet. The four columns carrying thp
head are of steel 20 inches diameter, the centres of the same
being 15 feet in one direction, and 6 feet 4 inches in the
other. The distance between head and block is 21 feet.
The press is supplied with water at 4,500 lbs. per square
inch pressure, by means of three single-acting pump
plungers, each 6 inches diameter and 12-inch stroke,
driven from the crank-shaft of a pair of steam engines
having cylinders of 34 inches diameter. The supply water
to the pumps is fed from a low-pressure main at 60 lbs.
pressure, this low pressure being also useful in filling the
main cylinders when the smaller or lifting rams are working,
raising the crosshead and tool. This arrangement for
supplying pressure water to the pump barrels admits of
small valves being fitted to the pumps.
The pumps work at varying speeds up to sixty or more
revolutions per minute, the speed of lifting when the low-
pressure water is introduced into the main cylinders and the
high pressure to the lifting cylinders being 8 inches per
revolution, while the speed of descent under the full load
is ^ inch per revolution, the relative areas of the lifting
and lowering rams being 16 to i. Two levers control the
whole movements of the press, one of these being also
for starting the pumps. In operation the forging tool 1$
376 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
raised 2 feet per second, this quick motion being necessary
to admit of moving the forging readily while hot.
The employment of the forging press admits of a much
lower building being constructed than would be possible
with a steam hammer. This advantage also enables cranes to
travel over the entire press, and thus to command the whole
forge area. The two travellers shown in Messrs CammelFs
forge are respectively of 150 and no tons lifting power.
Niagara Power. — The amount of water power flowing
to waste, so far as mechanical energy is concerned, in various
parts of the world, is truly appalling in its immensity. The
installations, however, at Tivoli (by means of which power
developed there is transmitted to Rome, 16 miles distant),
at Geneva, Schaffhausen, Zurich, Telluride (in Colorado),
and other places, are amply sufficient to warrant the assertion
that the trend of commercial utilisation of such water waste
is becoming a factor for profitable consideration wherever
mechanical power of any kind for any purpose is required.
The flow of water at the crest of the Horse Shoe Falls at
Niagara has been found to be about 275,000 cubic feet per
second, and it has been estimated that over 100,000,000
tons per hour pass over the Fall. The plunge of this
immense mass of water from one level to another of 165
feet has enabled the Fall to be harnessed, and energy taken
therefrom by the Niagara Falls Power Company.
The theoretical horse-power which is available at the Falls
has been given by the United States Government engineers
at 6,750,000 H.P., an amount which, if produced by steam,
would necessitate the consumption of more coal than is at
present raised throughout the world.
The more generally known installation of hydraulic power
in which the Niagara Falls are utilised is that concerning
the Niagara Falls Power Company, which was the outcome
of the International Niagara Commission, over which Lord
Kelvin presided as Chairman. The power-house, which is
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 377
now working under the control of the Niagara Falls Com-
pany, has twelve turbines and dynamos, some 5,000 H.P.
each, and the work is well advanced for th^ duplicating of
the plant to meet the growing demand for the electrical
energy produced.
The older Company that has been working since 1881
under the name of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
Manufacturing Company, has an installation where the
generators are placed at the bottom of the Fall and water
taken through iron tubes from the Canal cut for that purpose
at the higher level, as shown in Fig. 234, which is a general
view of the bank reproduced from a photograph taken at
Niagara. From this it will be seen that the power-house is
placed at the lower level. Two large conduit tubes convey
water to the turbine plants shown in the interior view of the
power-house (Fig. 235).
In this power-house there are now working fourteen
wheels, and the total of 30,000 H.P. is transmitted, the
effective head on the wheels being 210 feet. In addition
to the utilisation of the water by the Company in its own
turbine-house, the water is supplied from the Company's
Canal to various other concerns having their own turbines
for generating power for various purposes ; the outflow or
tail-race discharges of these independent works is clearly
seen in the general view showing the river bank (Fig 234).
The growth of the city of Niagara is practically a record,
for there is springing up on every hand manufacturing plants,
faster than the growth of the new power plant in the power-
house justifies. The population of Niagara has more than
doubled during the past four years, and the increase is
continuing at the same rate.
Although the Niagara Falls Power Company, which is a
separate Company to that of the Niagara Falls Hydraulic
Power Manufacturing Company, has the right to take suffi-
cient water to produce 200,000 H.P., there is now in progress
on the Canadian side of the Falls the buildings for a plant
378 HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
which is to develop a further 250,000 H.P., while still
further concessions have been granted by the Canadian
Government which will ensure an additional 200,000 H.P.
when such is required.
The history of one of the power plants at the Falls is
typical of the whole industrial growth of that city. The
first attempt to develop power on a large scale was by the
Hydraulic Canal. This was built in 1858, being but 30 feet
wide and but a few feet deep. Small power was made for
several mills, using only a part of the head, which at the
brink of the cliff is 210 feet. There were until recently no
turbines which would work at any such head,* and until the
wheel-makers could provide better wheels the power usage
had to be small. Some twenty-eight years since Jacob
Schoelkopf, of Buffalo, bought the Canal, together with
property adjoining, and in 1878 Mr Schoelkopf and his
associates organised the Niagara Falls Hydraulic Power
Manufacturing Company, which acquired the property.
In 1896 the State of New York granted to this Company
the right to enlarge the Canal to a width of 100 feet and a
depth of 14 feet below lowest water. This work has been
going on for several years, as the water was needed, and at
present the Canal can supply about 50,000 H.P.
The first modern development was finished in 1896,
when the 8-foot pen-stock over the bank was completed.
The power-house was built at the foot of the cliff, and the
water was taken down to the wheels through the pen-stock,
discharging underneath the wheels at nearly the level of the
river. The first construction was a success, and in 1898
another pen-stock was put in 1 1 feet in diameter, down the
bank, enlarging to 13 feet under the power-house. Demand
for power was so great that within a short time it became
necessary to duplicate this large pen-stock, and No. 3 was
added of the same size as No. 2.
This development now produces about 33,000 H.P., the
wheels being 2,500 H.P. each, carrying on horizontal shafts
RECENT ACHIEVEMENTS. 379
two 1,250 machines. The old development of turbines of
short head for direct power to mills at the brink of the cliff
now produces about 10,000 H.P., so that the Canal is
actually putting out some 43,000 H.P.
From inquiries made by the author on the spot from the
Buffalo and Niagara Falls Electric Light and Power Com-
pany, he found that power is supplied at the rate of 83. 1 o
cents per 1,000 watts per week, 44 cents per 16 candle-
power lamp per month, with 10 per cent, discount on same;
arc lamps for commercial purposes are charged 67 dollars
per year, for city lighting purposes (being of large size) 75
dollars per year ; whereas power is supplied at 35 dollars
per horse-power per year under 10 H.P., and 25 dollars per
horse-power per year for all over 25 H.P.
At the time of making these inquiries, soft coal was on
sale at 2.75 dollars per ton, and anthracite at 6 dollars per
ton in the district.
The illustration shown in Fig. 236, by kind permission of
Messrs Cassier, gives a bird's-eye view and section of the
Niagara installation, from which it will be seen that water is
taken from the upper level above the first Fall, and allowed
to pass through turbines mounted in a power-house and
wheel-pit, the discharge or tail-race water from the turbines
passing through the tunnel leading out into the lower level
below the Falls. The wheel-pit of the Niagara Falls Power
Company is a long slot cut in the rock, instead of a group of
small wheel-pits, and the tail-race from each wheel or turbine
is connected by a short curve to the main tail-race tunnel.
The turbines are arranged, some for developing i, 100 H.P.
per wheel, others 5,000 H.P. per wheel. The 1,100 H.P. tur-
bines are of the Jonval type, the fall of water being 140 feet
on to the wheels, which make 250 revolutions per minute.
Various manufacturing establishments have already erected
machinery on the ground near to the Niagara Falls installa-
tion. But beyond the mere local uses for the power, and
the enormous development of industries which must attend
38o HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
this form of producing mechanical energy from one centre,
other applications are being made for transmitting the power
to a distance, for the purpose of displacing private plants at
present employed for electric lighting and for ordinary manu-
facturing purposes.
Seeing that the transmission of oil by means of a pipe line
for a distance of over 400 miles, and also the transmission of
natural gas by a pipe line for a distance of 1 20 miles, have
been found feasible, it is not too much to expect that ere
long there will be distributed mechanical power to similar
distances, and with results which will be not only economical
but advantageous, alike to the users and to the districts
where it is employed, by reason of its displacing private
steam or other power-generating motors and leaving the
atmosphere free from the products of combustion necessarily
attendant upon the use of coal for power-producing purposes.
Turbine for Small Fall.— As an example of what is
possible under difficult and unpromising conditions, the
turbine installed at Strensham Mills, near Worcester, is
worthy of notice. Owing to the natural conditions of the
River Avon the water head available varies from 4 feet in
summer, with a diminished supply, to 2 feet in winter, with
an excessive supply.
The horse-power required was 40, and it became neces-
sary to design a turbine adapted to the varying conditions.
A Jonval turbine was selected, having a double ring of
vanes. The outer ring of vanes is sufficient to supply the
power under a 3-foot head, and as the head is diminished
by flood, the gate^ closing the inner ring of guide passages
are opened to allow a larger quantity of water to pass.
The method of using two rings of vanes allows scope in
designing, as the outer vanes can be speeded for correct
working under a 3-foot head, and the inner for correct
working under a 2-foot head. The turbine is 13 ft. 2 in.
in diameter, and makes 14 revolutions per minute.
APPENDIX.
PAGB
TABLE XII. Pressure of Water - - - 383
TABLE XIII. Action of Pumps - - - 384
APPENDIX.
TABLE XIL—Pressure of Water.*
Showing pressure of water in pounds per square inch for every foot in
height to 270 feet. By this Table, from the pounds pressure per
square inch the feet head is readily obtained, and vice versd.
m
1
•8
1
isure
are inch.
1
1
3 £
1
X
J
iS
•
1
X
essure
uare inch.
**
*i
II
**
*»
*{
S 9
*■*
I
I
I
u
I
a;?
I
K.
s.
9»
s.
}L
78.40
336
s.
0.43
46
19.93
39-42
136
58.91
x8i
97-90
a
O.S6
^l
ao.35
93
39-85
137
59-34
183
78.84
337
338
98.33
3
1.30
48
30.79
93
40.38
138
59-77
'S3
79.27
98.76
4
1-73
49
31.33
94
40.73
139
60.31
184
79.70
339
99-20
5
3.16
50
ai.65
95
4i.>S
140
60.64
185
80.14
330
99-63
6
3.59
51
33.09
96
41.53
141
61.07
186
80.57
331
100.06
7
3.03
S3
33.53
97
42.01
143
61.51
'^2
81.00
333
100.49
8
3.46
53
23.95
98
:r.ji
143
61.94
188
81.43
233
100.93
9
3.89
54
33.39
99
144
62.37
189
81.87
234
101.36
10
4-33
55
33.83
zoo
43-31
145
63.81
190
83.30
23s
101.79
II
4.76
56
34. 36
lOI
43-75
146
63.34
191
83.73
236
102.33
12
5.30
57
3469
I03
44-18
'*2
63.67
192
83.17
237
103.66
»3
5.63
58
35.13
103
44.61
148
64. xo
193
83.60
238
103.09
>4
6.06
|9
85.55
104
4505
149
64-54
194
84.03
239
103.53
15
6.49
60
"5.99
105
45.48
150
64.97
195
84.47
240
103.96
16
6.93
61
36.43
106
45-91
151
65.49
196
84.90
241
104.39
104.83
>7
7.36
63
36.85
107
46.34
152
65.84
;^
85.33
242
18
7-79
63
37.29
108
46.78
153
66.37
85.76
243
X05.36
»9
8.33
64
37.73
109
47.31
154
66.70
199
86.30
244
X05.69
20
8.66
65
38.15
XIO
47-64
155
67.14
300
86.63
245
106.13
ai
9.09
66
38.58
111
48.08
156
67.57
30X
87.07
246
X06.56
33
.9.53
%
39.03
113
48.51
157
68.00
ao3
87.50
247
T06.99
33
9.96
»9-45
113
48.94
158
68.43
203
87.93
248
'°7-43
34
10.39
69
29.88
"4
49-38
159
68.87
204
88.36
249
X07.86
»5
10.83
70
30-32
"5
49.81
160
69.31
205
8S.80
250
X08.29
36
11.36
7X
30.75
116
50.24
161
69.74
306
89.23
251
108.73
37
XI. 69
73
31.18
117
50.68
163
70.17
307
89.66
252
109.16
38
13.13
73
31.63
118
51.11
163
70.61
208
90.10
253
109.59
39
13.55
74
32.05
119
51.54
164
71.04
209
90.53
254
X 10.03
30
13.99
75
32.48
I30
51-98
165
7147
3 10
90.96
25s
11a 46
3«
'3-S!
76
32.92
131
52.41
52.84
166
71-91
3ZI
91.39
256
XX0.89
3a
13.86
77
33-35
133
167
72.34
212
91.83
257
1XX.32
33
14.29
78
33.78
123
53-28
168
72.77
213
92.26
258
XXI.76
34
14.72
29
34-21
134
53-71
169
73-20
214
92.69
259
112. 19
35
15.16
80
34.65
135
54.15
170
73-64
215
93-13
260
112.62
36
«5.59
8z
35.08
136
54.58
171
74-07
2X6
93-56
361
1x3. 06
32
16.03
83
35.52
137
55-01
172
74.50
217
93-99
263
113.49
3«
*5-15
?3
35.95
138
%^
173
74-94
3l8
94-43
363
X 13.92
39
16.89
b
36.39
139
174
75.37
319
94.86
364
114.36
40
i7-3a
l\
36.83
X30
56.31
175
75.80
330
95-30
265
1x4.79
41
«7.75
Z8.19
86
37-^5
131
56.74
176
76.33
331
95-73
366
xi5.a2
4a
87
37.68
38.1a
X33
57-18
177
76.67
223
96.16
^
XXS.66
43
18.63
88
133
57.61
178
77.10
323
96.60
X 16.09
44
19.05
89
38.55
38.98
134
58.04
58.48
179
77.53
224
97.03
269
1x6.52
45
«9.49
90
^?5
180
77.97
225
97-46
370
X16.96
* For permission to quote the Tables given in this Appendix, the Author is
indebted to the kind courtesy of the Worthington Pumping fengine Company.
384
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
TABLE XIII.— Action of Pumps : Diameters, Areas, and
Displacements.
u
V
\
if
}
i
I
;{
if
«
2
2j
2i
2
4
3
3
3
3
3
3t
3J
32
4
4
4
4
i
6
ii
<
.OI22
.0490
.1104
.1963
.3068
•4417
.6013
.7854
•9940
1.227
1.484
1.767
2-073
2-405
2.761
3- MI
3-546
3.976
4-430
4.908
5-4"
5-939
6.491
7.068
7.669
8.295
8.946
9.621
10.32
11.04
"79
12.56
14.18
15.90
17.72
19.63
21-54
23.75
25.96
28.27
30.67
33.18
35-78
38.48
41.28
44- 17
6 w
go's
0-- *«
5^
.0005
.0021
.0047
.0084
.0132
.0190
.0259
.0339
.0429
.0530
.0641
.0763
.0895
.1038
.1192
.1356
• 153'
.1717
-1913
.2120
-2337
-2565
.2804
•3053
.3313
.3583
.3864
.4156
.4458
.4769
.5193
.5426
.6125
.6868
.7655
.8480
.9348
1. 026
1. 121
1.221
1.325
1.433
1-545
1.662
1.783
1.908
V
Q
7}
8
8i
8i
9
9
9
9;
o
o:
O;
oi
I
1:;
'':
1:'
A
47- 17
50.26
53.45
56.74
60.13
63.61
67.20
70.88
74.66
78-54
82.51
86.59
90.76
95-03
99.40
103.8
108.4
113.0
117.8
122.7
127.6
»32.7
137-8
143-1
148.4
153-9
159.4
165.1
170.8 .
176.7
182.6
188.6
194.8
201.0
207.3
213.8
220.3
226.9
=33-7
240.5
247.4
254-4
261.5
268.8
276.1
283.5
E u
.Sm
SJ2
io'o
3-
3.
3-
3.
3.
3.
2.037
2.171
2.309
2.451
2.597
2.747
2.903
.062
.225
.393
.564
.740
.920
4-105
4-294
4.484
4.682
4.881
5.088
5-300
5.512
5-732
5-952
6.182
6.410
6.649
6.886
7.132
7.388
7-633
7.888
8.147
8.415
8.683
8-955
9.236
9.516
9.802
10.095
10.389
10.687
10.990
11.297
11.612
11.927
1 2. 247
E ^
1
-2U-
«=-.«»
— « s >
^§S
g=3H
go^
•*
o-r *»
E
i
1-S8
Q
<
Q
i9i
291.0
12.571
19!
29R.6
13.900
19 J
306.3
13.232
20
314.1
13.569
20i
330.0
14.256
21
346.3
14.960
2li
363-0
15-681
22
380L1
16.420
22^
397.6
17. 176
^3.
415-4
17-945
23*
433-7
18.735
'*,
452.3
19-539
24*
471.4
20W364
25
490.8
2t.3(»
25i
510.7
22.062
26
530.9
22-935
26*
551.5
23.824
^7.
572.5
24-732
27i
593.9
25.656
28
615.7
26.598
28i
637.9
27. 567
29
660.5
28.533
29*
683.4
29.522
30
706.8
30-533
11
754.8
32.607
32
804.2
34-74X
33
855.3
36.949
34
907.9
39.»2i
35
962.1
41.562
36
1017.9
43-973
37
1075.2
46.448
38
1134.1
48.993
39
1194.6
51.607
40
1256.6
54-259
41
1320.3
57-037
42
1385.4
59.849
43
1452.2
62-735
44
1520.5
65.586
68.688
45
1590-4
46
1661.9
71-794
47
1734.9
1809.6
74.948
48
78-175
49
1885.7
81.462
50
1963.5
84.801
The Worthineton Pumping Engine Company point out that in estimating the
capacity of Worthington Pumps (t.r., the delivery in gallons per minute or per nour)
at a given rate of piston speed, it should be noted that the Worthington Pump has
two double-acting water plungers ; its capacity, therefore, being double that of any
ordinary double-acting pump of same size, or foiu* times as large as asingle-«cting pump.
INDEX.
ACCUMULATORS, 211-
222
Archimedes, principle of, 1 1
Areas and displacements in
pump action, 384
Armstrong valve, 121
Axial-flow turbines, 299
BALANCED lifts, 163
Baling press, 225
Barometric column, 12
Bars for presses, 233
Bear punching, 242
Belt power pump, 271
Berry's patent valves, 130, 131
Bjornstad's valve, 132
Bolts, maximum loadings for, 89
— for flanges, 95
Brakes, hydraulic, 369
Bramah, 225
Breast wheel, 341
Bridge machinery, 363
— valve, 127
Brindle/s patent valve, 133, 134
Bucket and plunger pump, 274
Buffers, 370
CAM M ELL'S forging press,
375
Capstan, 355
Cars and cages, 1 50
Cast iron, 40
Cast-iron cylinders, 41, 58
— pipes, 86
Casting, 60, 63
Chain lifts, 167
Circular flanges, 87
— of cast-iron pipes, dimensions
of, 96
Cliff railways, 367
Clips for lifts, 173
Coefficients of efficiency, 1 8 1 - 1 82
Compensating balance, 163
Conditions for lifts, 147
Controlling valves, 1 1 1
Copper coating rams, 47
Cotton press, 225
— density, 226
Cranes, 188
Cylinders, cast-iron, 58
— steel, 59
— thickness of, 57, 58, 59
DAVY press, 375
Dearden's valve, 1 29
Density of water, 5
— of cotton, 226
Designing lifts, 142
— turbines, 321
Direct acting pumps, 276
2 a
386 INDEX.
Direct acting lifts, 185
— puller, 200
Double-acting pumps, 276-281
Duckham weigher, 200
Dumping press, 239
EFFICIENCY of jacks, 190
— of balanced lifts, 163
— of hydraulic motors, 361
— of lifts, 185
Elasticity, limit of, 48
Elevators, Otis, 171, 174, 371
Energy of water, 1 5
Engines, hydraulic, 341
— pumping, 276
Equal pressure, 7
Extension of metals, 47
FALLS of Niagara, 376
— utilised, 379
Fielding's valve, 131
Flow of water, 21
Forging presses, 249, 373
— Cammell & Co.'s, 375
Foundry cranes, 196
Friction of leathers, 73
GIRARD turbine, 287
Glasgow subway lifts, 370
Grooved pulleys, 179
Gun-metal castings, 46
HAMILTON SMITH'S
tables, 22
Hand-power pumps, 269
— punch, 243
Head of water, Niagara, 379
Hector water motor, 290-292
Hemp packing, 80
Hick's formula, 73
High pressure, 37
Hook's law, 48
Hydraulic accumulators, 211
— cranes, 188
— engines, 343
— intensifiers, 220
— lifts, 143
— mains, 97
— packings, 67
— pipe joints, 86
— presses, 225
— ram, 17
— valves. III
Hydrostatics, 6
IMPULSE turbines, 295
Intensifiers, 220
Inward flow, 287
JACKS, hydraulic, 188
Jigger, 203
Joints, flanged, 98
— for sliding surfaces, 74, loi
— of pipes, 86, 108
— leather, 67
— swivelling, 104, 108
LEATHER packings, 67
Lifting machinery, 143
Lifts, hydraulic dock, at San
Francisco, 362
— Glasgow Harbour Tunnel, 370
— Otis, 171, 174, 371
— direct-acting, or ram, 145
— suspended, 169, 204, 370
INDEX.
387
Lifts, Tower Bridge, 365
Loads, test^ 51
Low pressures, 36
Lynton Cliff Railway, 370
MALLEABLE cast iron, 46
Materials, 44
Maximum strains, 54
Meacock's valve, 125
Measuring flow of water, 21
Medium pressure, 36
Middleton's patent valve, 137
Multiple power lift, 169, 171,
204
NIAGARA power installa-
tion, 376
Nuts for press bars, 233
OIL press, 241
Orifices, wheel, 22
Otis lifts, elevators, 171, 174,
371
Outward flow turbine, 299
Overshot wheel, 339
PACKINGS, 67, 85
Pascal's theory, 6
Pelton-wheel, 289-303
Phosphor bronze, 47
Pipe joints, 86
Pipes, 102
Piston valve, 118
Platform lift, 143
Portable riveters, 255
Potential energy, 1 5
Presses, 225
Presses for baling, pressures of
platten to bale in, 226
— wrought-iron bars for, 234
Pressure of water, 383
Pressures, 36
Principles of equal pressure, 7
— of hydraulics, 3
Properties of water, i
Puller, direct, 200
Pulleys, 179
Pumps, 227, 269
— action of, diameters, areas,
and displacements, 384
Punching bear, 242
RAIL-GRIPPING brake,
369
Ram lifts, 145
Reaction of flowing water, 19
— turbines, 304
Recent achievements, 362
Regulator, 325
Rigg engines, 358
Riveters, 253
Ropes, wheel, 177
— wire, 177, 181
SAFE loads, 52
Safety wedges, 173
Salt water, 6
Scott's differential machine, 221
— valve, 80
Shock valves, 115
Slide valves, 117, 121
Sliding surfaces, 68
Square oriflces, 23
Steady loads, 52
Steam pumps, 277
Steel cylinders, 59
388
INDEX.
Steel rope, i8o, i8i
breaking weight of, 177
Slop valves, iii, 114
Strensham Mills, turbine at, 380
Stresses in machines, 54
Suspended lifts, 167
Swivelling joints, 104
TEST loads, 51
Theoretical efficiency lifts,
163, 185
Tower Bridge machinery, 363
Turbines, 285-342, 380
TweddelFs riveter, 253
u
LEATHERS, 75
Undershot wheels, 342
VALVE, piston, 118
— shock, 115
— stop. III, 114
Valves, controlling, 1 1 1
Valves, slide, 117, 121
Velocity of water, 28, 31, 39
— due to head, 13
WAREHOUSE cranes, 203
Water, flow of, 21
— pressure of, 383
— properties of, 1
— wheels, 339
Water- balance railways, 367
Waterfalls, utilisation of^ 376
Weight of cotton, 226
— of water, 6
Wharf cranes, 206
Wheel press, 251
Wheels for ropes or chains, 179
Wire ropes, 177, 181
Workshop cranes, 194
Worthington pumps, 277
Wrought-iron bars, 233
Y
OUNG'S drum puller, 193
PrinUd at The Daribn Press, Edinburgh,
Statiomsbs' Hall Couxt, London, E.CX
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1
10
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, 19
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Revised, and Enlarged. In (&e handsome Volume, medium 8vo, strongly
bound 16/0
W^ Tkt Author having compiUd RnUa and Data for Mt omn mu4na gnat
varUty of modtm Mgimuring work, and having found his notSM gtcirvmtly nufml^
dtcidtd to publish thtm — r9vts$d to daf—btli$vmg that a practical work, suittd to
th» DAILY KBQUIRBMBNTS OP MQDBRN BNGINBBKS, WOuld Ot faVOUnMy r$cHvid.
** The author treats ererj subject from the point of view of one who has
Botes for appUcation In workshop practice, rather than from the theoredcal or litccanr
volume contains a great deal of that Und of infomutlon which is galaod onlj by
and Is seldom wiitten in books. 'V TJu Bnginttr, June 5, 1885.
" Ot this «dltloD wo may repeat the appracianvo remarks we made upon the fint and third.
Slace the appearance of the latter very considerable modifications have been made, although the
total number of pages remains almost the same. It Is a very useAil cnl)(«tinn of mles, tabMS, and
workshop and drawing oflice data."— The Enginttr, Mav 10, 1895. (Second Notice.)
" The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimnil with «iu[mm>r» n«tt». uieaocanda. a
nilas, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf. "—MtckMnumi ly^rtd,
"' The Information is prKiaely that likely to be reouired In prai^^ . . The work '
weeks'
a desirable addition to the library not only of the weeks' manager, bat of any one oonnected vllk
1 engineering.*'— AAh(>v y»umml,
Bnmtul of useful informatioa, stated In a concise form, Mr. Hntten's books have mat a
!: want among engineers. The book must prove estremdy ossftd to every ptactkal omb
ng a copy."— /VwcMoi/ Bttgimtr,
THB PRACTICAL BNQ1NBER*5 HANDBOOK.
Comprising a Treatise on Modem Engines and Boilers, Marine, Looomocive.
and Stationary. And containing a large collection of Rules and PracdcaJ
Data relating to Recent Practice in Designing and Conscracting all kinds of
Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a com-
prehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certificates
of Competency in Modem Mechanical Engineering. By Waltbk S. Hutton,
Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook
for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 4So Illustrations. Sixth Editioo.
Revised and Enlarged. Medium Bvo, nearly 560 pp., strongly bound. 18/0
W^ This Work U duigfud as a eompanton to tht Author's **Wokks'
Managkr's Handbook." It posstssn many ntw and original fsaturu, and con-
tains, lik$ its Ortdsctssor, a quantity of mattor not originally inundsd for publication
but colUcUd oy th$ Author for his own uuinth* construction ofagrtat varitty of
Modern Enginbxring Work.
Ths information is givm in a condsnstd and conci$» form, and is ittustratod by
upwards of 4*0 Engravings ; and comprises a quantity of tabuiattd mattor of grtat
valus to au sngagsd m dtstgning, constructtngt or estimating for Enginks, Boilsrs,
Mu/ OTHER Engineering WORK. ^
"We have kept It at hand^for several weeks, referring to It as occasion arose, and we have not
on a single occasion consulted Its page* without finding the Infoimadon of which we warn In r""^ "
"A thoroug^v good practical handbook, whfcrh no engineer can go throogh wltboBt
soeMthing that wul be of service to him."— Afar^nw Enginegr.
" An excellent book of reference for engineers, and a valuable test'book for ttwkatt of
engineering. "Sc»uman.
"This valuable manual embodies the reaults and ezperlcooe of the leading antboiitles en
aaechankal engineering."- ^M/<f«>if A«wi.
" The author has collected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has
Shown much Judgment In the selections be has made. . . . There is no doubt thai this book b
one of the most useful of its kind published, and will be a very popular compendium. "—Bngtmmr.
" A mass of infonnanon let down in simple language, and in such a form that it can be (
referred to at anv time. The matter Is uniformly good moA weO choten. and is graetly el»
by the fflustrations. The book will find its way on to most engmeets' shelvea, where k will 1
one of the most useAil books of reforence. "—Pradumt i7fywu«r.
" Fun of useful informatioa, and should be found on the oAoe ihalf of all pesctkal engineers. *
'^BttfUth MteMmnie,
MECHANICAL BNGINBBRING, &c.
MR. HUTTON'8 PRAOTIOAL HANDBOOKS-com^^mmI.
5TEAM BOILER CONSTRUCTION.
A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler-Makers, and Steam Users.
Containing a large Collection of Rules and Data relating to Recent Practice
in the Design, Constmction, and Wcnrking of all Kinds of Stationary, LocO'
motive, and Marine Steam-Boilers. By Walter S. Hutton, Civil and
Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The
Practical Engineer's Handbook," &c. With upwards of 500 Illustrations.
Fourth Edition, carefully Revised, and Enlarged. Medium 8vo, over 680 p^es,
cloth, strongly bound 1 8/0
B9^ This Wokk is issvtd in comHmuiHon of tJu Siriu of Handbooks writUn
bythsA tUhof, vis. : — " Thb Works' Manager's Handbook " and " Thb Practical
Enginbbr's Handbook," nhich are so highly apprtciatsd by $nginstrs for thg
practical naturt of thnr information ; and is constqusntiy written in ihs sams styU
as those works.
The Author believes that the conceniration^ in a convenient form for easy
reference^ of such a large amount of thoroughly practical in/ormatum on Steam-
Boilers, WW be of considerable service to those for whom it is intended, and he trusts
the book may be deemed worthy of as favourable a reception as has been accorded to
its predecessors.
" One of the best. If not the best, books on bofleis that has ever been published. The faifor*
motion is 01 the rifl^ht Idnd, in a simple and accessible fonn. So fiir as generation Is concerned, this
Is, undoubtedly, the standard book on steam pracrice."— A/rr/rfoi/ Revitw.
" E^ery detail, both in boiler design and management, is clearly laid before the reader. The
volume shows that boiler construction has been reduced to the condition of one of the most exact
sciences ; and such a book Is of the utmost value to the /Sn dt HUU Engineer and Works Manager."
•^itariiu Rnglnur.
" There has long been room for a modem handbook on steamjwilers ; there Is not that room
now, because Mr. Hutton has fiUed it. It is a thoroughly practical book for those who are occupied
in the constmction, design, selection, or use of boilers."— fff/ito^cr.
" The book Is of so important and comprehensive a character that It must find its way Into the
libraries of every one interested in boiler using or boiler manufitcture if they wish to be thoroughly
infotmed. We strongly recommend the book for the intrinsic value of its contents."— Jf«cAtffMry
PRACTICAL MECHANICS' WORKSHOP COMPANION.
Comprising a great variety of the most cweful Rules and FormtiUe in Mechanical
Science, with numerous Ijables of Practical Data and Calculated Results for
Facilitating Mechanical Operations. By William Tbmplbton, Author of
" The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c., &c. Eighteenth Edition, Revised,
ModemisMl, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author
of "The Works' Manager's Handbook,*; "The Practical Engineer's Hand-
book," &c Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with 8 Plates and upwards of 250 Illus-
trative Diagrams, strongly bound for workshop ox pocket wear and tear . 6/0
" In Its modernised form Hutton's * Templeton ' should hare a wide sale, for it contains much
valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which
be might look for in Tain in other worics. This modernised edition will be appreciated kqr all who
have learoed to value the original editions of ' Templeton.' "—EngUsk Mtchanic.
" It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are
a great many men who, in a great measure, owe theb rise in Im to this little book.''—BtiiUUtt£
Ntwi.
"This familiar text-book— well known to all mechanics and engineers— Is of essential service
to the every-dav requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with
engineering ana building. The new modernised emtion is worth its weight in gc]dL"SMiUin£
Ntwt. (Second Notice.!
" This well-known and largely-used book contains information, brought up to date, of the
sofft so useful to the foreman and draughtsman. So much fresh biformation has been lntn>du^d as
to constitute it practically a new book. It will be largely used In the office and workshop."—
Mtehanicat World.
" The publishers wisely entmsted the task of revisloo of this popular, valuable, and useiu
book to Mr. Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found."— /r»».
BNQINEER'5 AND MILLWRIGHTS ASSISTANT.
A Collection of Useful Tables, Rules, and Data. By William Tbmplxton
Eighth Edition, with Additions. zSmo, cloth 2/6
"Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind. A more suitable present to an
appreotioe to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be iaMAit.'-^wtUing fftwt,
'A deservedly popular work. It should be In the * diawer ' of every mechaaic."— iPfCf /^A
A •
CROSBY LOCKWOOD «• SON'S CATALOGUE.
THB MECHANICAL BNQINBER'5 RBPBRENCE BOOK.
For Machine and Boiler Constnictton. In Two Parts. Part I. Gmkemal
Engikbbring Data. Part II. Boilbk Construction. With 51 Plates and
numeroos Illustrations. By Nblson Foley, M.I.N. A. Second JC^tian,
Revised throughout and much Enlarged. Folio, half-bound . JV(et
PART I.— MBASURBS.— CIRCUMFBRBNCBS AND AREAS, &C., SQUARES. CUBBS,
FOURTH POWERS.— SQUARE AND CUBB ROOTS SURFACE OF TUBES.— RECIPROCALS.—
LOGARITHMS. — MENSURATION. — SPKIFIC GRAVmSS AND WEIGHTS.— WORK AMD
POWER.- HEAT.- COMBUSTION.— Expansion and contraction.— expansion op
Gases.— STEAM.— STATIC Forces.— gravitation and attraction.— motion amd
Computation of resulting forces.- accumulated work.— cbntre and Radius
OP Gyration.— MOMENT of inertia.— Centre of Oscillation.— ELBCTRXcrrr.—
Strength of materials.- Elasticity.— Test Sheets of Metals.- Friction.—
Transmission of Power.- Flow of Liquids.— flow of Gases.~Air pumps, surface
Condensers, &c Speed op Stbamships.—Propellbrs.— Cutting tools.— Flangbs.
— COPPBR shrbts and tubes.— Screws, Nuts, bolt heads, &c.— Various Recipes
AMD Miscellaneous Matter.- With DIAGRAMS for Valvb-Gbar, Belting and
Ropes, discharge and Suction pipes, screw Propellers, and copper Pipes.
PART 11.— Treating of power of boilers.— Useful Ratios.— Notes on
Construction. — cylindrical boilbr shells. — Circular furnaces. — flat
Plates.— Stays. — Girders.— Screws. — Hydraulic Tests. — Rivbting. — Boilbr
Setting. Chimneys, and Mountings.— Fuels. &c.— Examples of Boilers and speeds
OP STEAMSHIPS.— Nominal and Normal Horse Power.— With DIAGRAMS for all
Boiler Calculations and drawings of many varieties op boilers.
" Mr. Foley is wdl fitted to compile sucli a woric The diagrams are a great featnie of the
work. It may be stated that Mr. Fowy has ptoduced a volume which will undoubtedly fulfil the
desire of the author and become indispensable to all mechanical engineer^"- lAtrine Emgittttr.
" We have carefullT examined this work, and pronounce it a most excellent reiSfeoce book
for the use of marine engineers.**— 70MrM«/ a/Amtriean Socitfy o/Nmval Bngitt€trs.
TBXT-BOOK ON THE 5TEAM ENGINE.
With a Supplement on Gas Engines and Part II. on Heat Emgimks. By
T. M. Goodbye, M.A., Barrister-at-Law, Professor of Mechanics at the Royal
College of Science, London ; Author of "The Principles of Mechanics," " The
Elements of Mechanism," &c Fourteenth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/0
" Proisasor Goodere has given us a treatise on the steam engine, which win bear compailMm
with anythixur written by Huxley or Maxwell, and we can awatd it no hi^^ier praiee."— itiyrfwarr.
** Af r. ooodeve's text-book is a work of which every young engineer should possess himself."
-^Mining youmeU.
ON QAS ENGINES.
With Appendix describing a Recent Engine with Tube Igniter. By T. M.
Goodbye, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6
" Like all Mr. Goodere's writings, the present is no exception in point of general exceHenoe.
It is a valuable Uttle volume."— IftcAawica/ World,
GA5 AND OIL ENGINE MANAGEMENT.
A Practical Guide for Users and Attendants, being Notes on Selection,
Construction, and Management. By M. Powis Balb, M.I M.E., A.M.I.CE.
Author of •' Woodworking Machinery," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth . Ntt 3/6
THE GAS-ENGINE HANDBOOK.
A Manual of Useful Information for the Designer and the Engineer. By E. W.
Roberts, M.E. With Forty Full-page Engravings. Small Fcap. 8vo, leather.
iiti 8/6
A TREATISE ON 5TEAM B0ILER5.
Their Strength, Construction, and Economical Working. By R. Wilson, CE.
Fifth Edition, xamo, cloth 6/0
" The best treatise that has ever been published on steam \KliKt%.'''-^i^iMter.
THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S COMPANION.
Of Areas, Circumferences, Decimal Equivalents, in inches and feet, millimetres,
anares, cubes, roots, &c. ; Strength of Bolts, Weight of Iron, &c. ; Weights,
easures, and other Data. Also Practical Rules for Engine Proportions. By
R. Edwaxds, M.Inst.C.E. Fcap. 8vo, cloth. 8/6
**A v«qr oaaAil little volume. It contains many tables, rlawili«w1 data and memotanda
genenlly nsafkil to eoglneen."— £fvte«rr.
"What It prolMim to be, * a haa^ office conpaaloii,' glvlnc tai a mcdnct fom a vailetjr of
infermatien llkm to be leqnlrad by mechanical anglneen In tbekr everyday oCoa woA.''^WBlMr«.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, *<:. 5
A HANDBOOK ON THE 5TEAM ENGINE.
With especial Reference to Small and Mediuin*sized Engines. For the Use of
Engine Makers, Mechanical Draughtsmen, Engineerine Students, and ciser«
of Steam Power. By Herman Haedbr, C.E. Translated from the German
with additions and alterations, by H. H. P. Powles, A.M.I.C.E., M.I.M.K.
'rh'rd Edition, Revised. With^nady x,too Illustrations. Crown 8vo,
cloth , Net 7/6
"A perfect encyclopaedia ef the steam engine and its details, and one which roust take a per<
manent place in English drawinK-ofiices and workshops."—^ Foretnan PatUm-maiur.
'* This is an excellent book, and should be in tne hands of all who are Interested in the coa>
stractloo and design of. medium-sized stationary engines. . . . A careful study of its contents and
the axranKement of the sectious leads to the conduSoa that there is protiablv no other book like h
in this country. The volume aims at shovring the results of practical experience, and it certainly
uiay claim a complete achievement of this idea."— iVa/urr.
"There can be no Question as to its value. We cordially commend it to aU concerned in the
design and construction of the stoam engine."— .l/erAdMitra^ trortd.
BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEY5.
Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a chapter on Lightning Conductors,
By Robert Wilson, A.I.C.E., Author of " A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c.
Crown 8vo, cloth 8/6
" A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific building."— rA« Builder,
BOILER MAKER'5 READY RECKONER & A5515TANT.
With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templadng, for the Use of Platers,
Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtney. Edited by D. K. Claric,
M.I.C.E. Fourth Edition, 480 pp., with X40 Illnstrations. Fcap. Svo, half-
boimd 7/0
" No workman or apprentice should be without this book."— /rvn Trade Circular,
REFRIQERATION, COLD 5T0RAQE, & ICE-MAKINQ:
A Practical Treatise on the Art and Science of Refrigeration. Bv A. J.
Wallis-Taylbr, A.M.Inst.CE., Author of " Refrigerating and Ice- Making
Machinery." 600 pp., with 360 Illtistrations. Medium Svo, cloth. JV// 1 5/O
*'The author has to be congratulated on the completion and production of such an impor>
tant work and it cannot fail to have a large body of readers, for it leaves out nothing that would in
any way be of value to those interested in the subject." — Steamship.
" No one whose duty it is to handle the mammoth preserving installations of these latter days
cjii afford to be without this valuable book."— C/aj^t'w Herald,
THE POCKET BOOK OP REPRIQERATION AND ICE-
MAKINQ.
By A. J. Wallis-Tavlek, A.M.Inst.C.E. Author of " Refrigerating and Ice-
making Machinery," &c. Third Edition, Enlarged. Small Crown Svo, cloth.
[Just Published, Net 316
REFRIQERATINQ & ICE-MAKINQ MACHINERY.
A Descriptive Treatise for the Use of Persons Employing Refrigerating
and Ice-Making Installations, and others. By A. J. Waixis-Taylbr,
A.-M. Inst. C.E. Third Edition, Enlarged. Crown Svo, cloth . . 7/6
" Pnctical. explicit, and profusdy iUustrated."— C^^nv* Herald.
" Vn recommend the book, which gives the cost of various systems and illustrations shoving
details of parts of machinery and general arrangements of complete installations."— ^m^U^.
" May be recommended as a useful description of the machinery, the processes, and of the
facts, figures, and tabulated physics of lefrigerating. It is one of the best compilations on the
subject. —i5fV*fM»r.
BNQINEERINQ ESTIMATES, C05T5, AND ACCOUNTS.
A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous examples of 1t«timat«>f
and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and
Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. Bv
A General Manager. Second Editioiu Svo, cloth. . . 12/0
•« This is an excellent and very useftil book, coveting subject-matter In constant re<nilsltioo la
every factory and workshop. . . . The book is invaluable, not only to the young engineet, bat
also to the estimate department of every works,"— Suilder.
" We accord the work unqualified prdse. The Infonnatloa Is ghrsn In a plain, stnlglitiorward
maaner, and bears throughout evidence of the Intimate practical acqualittance dT the author with
aveiy phase of commeicial engineering."— iftcA«»rfai/ IrWM.
CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIAL.
Being a TmtlM on th« Handling of Material tuch as Coal, Ore, Timber, &c.,
by Automatic or Semi'Automatic Machinery, together with the Various
Aooetsories oaed in the Manipulation of such Plant, and Dealing fully with
the Handling, Storing, and warehousing of Grain. B7 Gborob Fredbsick
ZiMMBR^ A.M.Inst.C.E. 538 pages duper*Royal Octavo, cloth, with 550
Illustrations (including Numerous Folding Plates) specially prepared for the
Work. i/usf FtUfluJud, Net 25.0
HOISTINQ MACHINERY.
An Elementary Treatise on. Including the Elements of Crane Constroction
and Descriptions of the Various Tj^pes of Cranes in Use. By Joseph
Horner, A.M I.M.E., Author of ** Pattern-Making," and other WotWs.
Crown 8vo, with 215 Illustrations, including Folding Piates, cloth. Net 7/6
AERIAL OR WIRE-ROPE TRAMWAY5.
Their Construction and Management. By A. J. Waixis-Tavxjbr, A.M.Inst.C.B.
With 81 Illustrations. Crowm Svo, cloth 7/6
"An excellent volume, and a very {food exposition of the rcrious ssrstems of rope tnnsaussion
in use, and gives as well not a little valuable infonnation about their worklng^. repair, and manage-
ment. We can safely recommend it as a useful general treatise on the subject."— £Mete«rr.
MOTOR CARS OR P0WER-CARRIAQE5 FOR COMMON
ROADS.
By A. J. Wallis-Tayler, A.M.Inst.C.E. aia pp., with 76 Illustrations.
Crown Svo, cloth 4/6
" A work that an engineer thinlcin^ of turning his attention to motor-carriage work, wouM
do well to read as a preliimnary to startutg operations."— £«vvi««rte^.
PLATING AND BOILER MAKING.
A Practical Handbook for Workshop Operations. By Joseph G. HoKitBa,
A.M.I.M.E. 380 pp. with 338 Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth . 7/6
" This work is characterised by that evidence of ck>N acquaintance with worlcshop methods
which win render the book exceedingly acceptable to the practical hand. We have no hesitation
in commending the woik as a serviceable and practical handbook on a sul^ect which has not
hitheito received much attention from those qualified to deal with it in a satislactory manner.".—
Michanicai IVortd.
PATTERN MAKING.
Embracing the Main Types of Engineering Construction, and including
Gearing, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, l*ipes and Columns, Screws,
Machine Parts, Pumps and Cocks, the Moulotng of Pattei^s in Loam and
Greensand, Weight of Castings, &c By J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E. Third
Edition, Enlarged. With 486 illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth. . Net 7 IS
" A weD-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has prac-
tised what he has written about. . . . We coraiaUy reconunend It to engineering students, yoaog
journeymen, and others desirous of being initiated into the m)psteries of pattern -making. "-^ariUir.
" An excellent vtuU mtcum. for the apprentice who desires to become master of his trade."
—Eng-ltsh Mtchanic.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMS
n^ockwood's Dictionary of)- Embracing those current in the Drawing OflSoe,
Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smiths', and Boiler Shops, &c Com*
f rising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by J. G. Horner, A.M.I.M.E.
'bird Edition, Revised, with Additions. Crown Svo, cloth . . Jfet 7/6
** Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various tiades engaged In mechanical en-
fflneering. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value mw studies, and every
foreman engineer and mechanic shoula have a co^"— Building Newt.
TOOTHED GEARING.
A Practical Handbook for Offices and Workshops. By J. Horner, A.M.I.M.E.
Second Edition, with a new Chapter on Recent Practice. With 1B4 Illustra-
tions. Crovm 8vo, cloth. Vjust Publiihrd, 6/0
" We give the book our unqualified praise for its thorouglmess ot treatment, and recommend
it to all interested as the most practical book on the subject yet written."- Utekanicml WtrUL
FIRE5, FIRE-ENGINE5, AND FIRE BRIGADES.
With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Manage-
ment ; Foreign Fire Sjrstems ; Hints on Fire-Brigades, &c By CTfTt.
Young, CE. 8to, cloth £1 4^
^ w" T^"<* '^ ^^^^*i?^ ¥ ate taterested In the subject of fires and file appwatns «• can
most heartily rommend this yaociLr^Bnginurt$tg,
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. &c.
ATRIAL NAVIGATION.
A Pimcdail Handb ok on th« Construction of Dirisible Balloons, Afirottats,
AftropUuiM, and A^romocon. By Frbdbkick walkbr, C.E , Auociata
Member of tba Aeronautic Institute. Witb 104 Illustrations. Large Crown
8vo, cloth Nit 7/6
STONB-WORKINQ MACHINERY.
A Manual dealing with the Rapid and Eoocomical Conversion of Stone. With
Hints cm the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works. By M. Powis
Balb, M.I.M.E. Second Edition, enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 9/0
" The book should be fai the hands of evwy melon or student of maomfnkk."—C4U4tty
" A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for buOdinc or ornamental parposaa."—
Maekintry MmrktL
PUMP5 AND PUMPING.
A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction, and
Management. By M. Powis Balb, M.I.M.B. Fourth Edition. Crown
8vo, doth 8/6
"The matter Is let forth as condaaly as ponlbla. In foct, condensation rather than (ttftise*
noM has been the author's afan throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted aaytbtaiff likely to
be of use."— ^(MfrMM/^f Gut Lig^kMnf.
** Thcrouffhly practical and clearly wtltien." — Gltugvw Herald,
MILLINQ MACHINES AND PROCESSES.
A Practical Treatise on Shaping Metals by Rotary Cutters. Including
Information on Making and Grinding the Cutters. By Paul N. Hasluck,
Author of " Lathe' Work." With upwards of 300 Engravmgs. Large crown 8 vo,
cloth 12/6
" A new depaituie In engineering Htentuie. . . . We can raeonunend thli work to all la.
terested in milling machines ; it b what tt profeaaas to be—e practical tieatifle.'*— £^^«M<r.
" A capital and reliable book whkh will no doubt be of considerable aerrkre both to those
who ate already acquafatted with the process as well as to those who contemplate Its adoption."—
LATHE-WORK.
A Practical Treatise on the Tools, Appltanoei, and Processes employed In
the Art of Turning. By Padl N. Haslucx. Eighth Edition. Crown 8vo,
cloth 6^0
" Wittten by a man who knows not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how
to do It, and how to convey hb knowledge to others. ToaDtumonthbbook wouldbevahlafale.''—
We can safely leoommend the work to young engineers. To ttie amateur It wfl ibnply be
nvaluable. To thestudantitwIDconTagragreatdeBrofusaAil
SCREW-THREADS,
And Methods of Producing Them. With numeroiu Tables and complete
Directioiu for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By Paol N. Haslocx, Author
of " Lathe- Work," ftc. Sixth EdiUon. Waistcoat-pocket sise .1/6
** Fun of usaAil information, hints and practical cittldam. Taps, dies, aad scsewlBg tools
generalhr are illustrated and their action describod.''~Jftc*a»^k)e/ tV»rld.
"It is a complete compondlum of all the detafls of the 8craw<utting lathe \ la fact, a mttUrnm-
iH'fm^m on all the subjects tt treats upon.''-^««;^im4vr M$d BttUdtr.
TABLES AND MEMORANDA FOR ENQINBBRS,
MECHANICS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, Ac.
Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Seventh Edition, Revised, including
Electrical Tables, FoRMULiB, and Memoranda. Waistcoat-pocket siae,
limp leather 1/6
" It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book sdection of notas and fbrmute
to suit all enpneen as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr. Smith's waistcoat'
pocket collection may be looked upon as a succeaiful attempt."— £>v^«Mcr.
; of ui ' '
' The best evampie we have ever seen of 070 pages of oseAil matter pecked Into the dlmen>
skMS of a CMid-ciam.'''^Bt$UdiHr News. " A varltable pocket treesurr of knowledge. "^Avm.
POCKET QL055ARY OP TECHNICAL TERM5.
English* French, Frencfa«English ; with Tables soitable for the Architectural,
Engineering, Mannfacturing, and Nautical Professi<ms. By John Jambs
Fletcher. Third Edition, soo pp. Waistcoat*pocket siae, limp leather 1 /6
'* It to a very great advantage for readers and conespondonti In France and Hngland to have
so large a number of the worda raladng to engineering and manufcctuies ooleoted m a Upotlan
vohuBa. The Mttie book will be useftil both to gudentt and tnnaHaw '--jtrekitirt.
" The gloasary of tams to vary oomplece, and many of the Tables era new aad weO arranged.
We cofdtally ooomead the book." Mtrkmrnirmi WMd,
8 CROSBY LOCK WOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE ENQINEER'S YEAR BOOK FOR 1905.
Comprising Formube, Rales, Tables, Data and Memoranda in Civil, Mecfaaaical,
Electrical, Marine and Mine Engineering. By H. R. Kbmpb, A.M. Inst. C.X.,
M.I.E.E., Principal Technical Officer, Engineer-in-Chief 's Office, General Pott
Office, London, Author of "A Handbook of Electrical Testing, "."Tbe
Electrical Engineer's Pocket -B«ok," &c With x,ooo Illustrations, spedallT
Engraved for the work. Crown 8vo, 950 pp., leather. [Just PubUshstl. 8/0
"Kempo's Year Book really requires no commenrlation. Its sphere of usefulness Is widely
known, and ic is used by en^neers cbe world over/'— 7*<fe« B*fitu*r. |
"The Tolume is dutiocUy In advanca of moR sttnilar publkstioQS In this coontsy.'*—
" Thb Tataiable aad well-daslgiied book of raHMence meets the demands of ad deiii.il|Hluiiu d
•nglneerL"— sSo/wm^air XtvUw.
" Teems with up-to-date infonnatlon In eveiy branch of englnaaring and
BuUdine Nemt.
" The needs of the engineeitog pioffesalon coold hardly bo supplied la a mora
complete and convenient fonn. To say that it mora than wistalns all compaiiaoos is pnlae of the
highest tort, and that may Justly be said of It."— Afiw^^v you/mml.
" There is certainly room for the new comer, which suppttea eocplaaatianB aad 1
well as formula and ubles. It deserres to become one of the most, sucrewfiil of the
annuals."— >4 rchiucu
" Brings together with great skill all the technical Infonnatlon which an engineer has to 1
day by day. It is in erery way admirably equipped, and is sura to prove successfuL"— Si *amtm»
" The up-to-dateness of Mr. Kempo's compilation is a qnaSty that wBl not be lost on tbe 1
people for whom the work is intended."— {rAtvvw Htruid,
THB PORTABLE ENGINE.
A Practical Manual on its Construction and ManagemenL For tke nst
of Owners and Users of Steam Ei^ines generally. By William Dtson
Wansbrougk. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0
** This Is a work of value to those who use steam machinery. . . . Should be raad by evaiy
one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere."— Jfard Lant Bjtfrut,
IRON AND STEEL.
A Work for the Forge, Foundry^ Factory, and Office. Containing ready,
useful, and trustworthy Information for Ironmasters and their Stock>takecs :
Managers of Bar. Rail, Plate, and Sheet Rolling Mills; Iron and Metal
Founders; Iron Ship and Bridge Builders ; Mechanical. Mining, and Cod«
suiting Engineers ; Architects, Contractors, Builders, &c. By Chaklks Hoakb,
Author of ^' The Slide Rule," &c Ninth Edition. 3amo, leather . 6/0
CONDENSED MECHANICS.
A Selection of Formulae, Rules. Tables, and Dau for the Use of Engineering
Studenu, &c. By W. G. C. Huchbs, A.M.I.CE. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/0
" The book Is well fitted for those who ara preparing for examination and wish to refresh
their knowledge by going through their formulae again."— Jfar^Mc Engituer,
THE SAFE U5E OF STEAM.
Containing Rules for Unprofesaonal Steam Users. By an Enginkbs. Eighth
Edition. Sewed 6d.
" If steam-users would but learn this little book by heart, boOer expkMfons would become
sensatkma hf their fmritr."—Mn£Usk Meehanic.
THE CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY
BNOINES.
A Practical Handbook for Men-in-charge. By C. HtntST. Crown 8vo. NtiltO
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE.
The Autobiography of an Old Locomotive Eisgine. By Robbct WBATim*
BOKN, M.I.M.E. With Illustrations and Portiaits of GBOKCXand RoBBrr
Stbphknson. Crown 8vo, cloth. /{Tet 2/6
THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE AND ITS DEVELOPMENT.
A Popular Treatise on the Gradual Improvements made in Railway Enginct
between 1803 and 1903. By Clbmbnt E. Strbtton, CE. Sixth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth Ntt 4/6
" Students of raQway history and all who ara Interested In the evohitlott of tbm modera
looomodve will find much to attract and entertain In this volume."— 77k« Timu,
MECHANICAL ENGISEERING. &c.
TOOLS FOR ENGINEERS AND WOODWORKERS.
A Practical Treatise including Modern Instruments of Measurement. By
iosBPH Horner, A. M.Inst. M.E., Author of "Pattern Making," "Hoisting
lachinery," &c. Demy 8vo, with 456 Illustrations.
[Just Publishtd, 9.0 nft.
MODERN MACHINE 5H0P TOOLS,
A Practical Treatise describing in every detail the Construction, Operation
and Manipulation of both Hana and Machine Tools ; being a work of Practical
Instruction in all Cl.isses of Machine Shop Practice, including Chapters on
Filing, FittinK and Scraping Surfaces; on Drills, Reamers, Taps and Dies;
the Lathe and its Tools ; Planers, Shapers and their Tools ; Milling Machines
and Cutters ; Gear Cutters and Gear Cutting ; Drilling Machines and Drill
Work ; Grinding Machines and their Work ; Hardening and Tempering,
Gearing, Heltini, and Transmission Machinery; Useful Data and Tables.
By Wiui.iAM H. Van Dervoort, M.E. Fourth Edition. Illustrated by 673
Engravings of Latest Tools and Methods, all of which are fully described.
Medium 8vo, cloth. [fust Pubiished. Net 21/0
LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE DRIVINQ.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charge of Looomodve Engines. By
Michael Rkvnolos, formerly Locomotive Inspector, L. B. ft S. C R.
Eleventh Edition. Including a Ksr to thb Locomotivb Enginb.
Crown 8vo, cloth ........... 4/6
Mr. Revnolds has supplied a i««nt, and has supplied it irefl. We am confidentljr ncom*
It
aiend the booic not qnly to toe practical driver, but to ereryoae who takes an inteiwt la the
petfonnance of locomotiTe engines." — TM« Enginur.
" Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the Iheratora of the dajr. This admirable
practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation."
THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER,
l^lreman, and Engine<Boy. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer
Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michakl Rbvnolds. Second
Edition, with Revised Appendix. Crown 8vo, doth. .... 4/6
" We should be g^lad to see this book in the posaenioo of everyone In the kingdom who has
laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine. "—/rvH.
CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES.
A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom .*
their Construction and Performance. By M. Rbvnolds. 8vo, cloth 9/0
" A popular explanation of the different brakes. It wHl be of great assistance In foiming
public opinion, and will be uudied with benefit by those who take an interest in the bnk»."—En£iiik
Mtehanic.
STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in Charee of Statioiuuy Engines. By
MiCHABL Rbynouds. Sixth Edition. With Plates and Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6
" The author's advice on the various points treated is clear and pnc:^ictL"-~BngiMwring.
" Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readen shaO not only
know something about the stationary engine, but aO about \x.''-~£ngvutr.
ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE.
Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive Engine*
Drivers. By Mick abl Rbvnolds. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 1/6
** From first to last perfectly fascinating. Willde CoUins's most thrilling coocepdons are
thrown into the ahade by true incidents, endMss in their vaneiy. reJated in every page."— JVtfrCft
THE ENGINEMAN'5 POCKET COMPANION,
And Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics.
By MiCHABL Rbynolds. With 45 Illustrations and numerous Di«gram.c.
Fourth Edition, Revised. Rojral x8mo, strongly bound for pocket wear. 8/6
" A most meritorious work, giving in a succinct and practical form all the information a a
engine-minder desirous of mastering the scientific principles of his daily calling would requite. ' —
tJU MilUr,
lo CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, ETC.
PIONEER IRRIGATION.
A Manual of Information for Farmers in the Colonies. By E. O. Mawson,
M.Inst.C.EM Executive Engineer. Public Works Department. Bombay. With
Additional Chapters on Light Railways by E. R. Calthrop, M.Inst.CE.,
M.I.M.E. Illustrated by Numerous Plates and Dia^ams. Demy 8vo, cloth.
U^tPubliihed. A V^ 10/6
Summary of contents :—Valuh op Irrtcation, and Sources of Watbr
SUPPLY.— Dams and weirs.— Canals.— Underground Water.- Methods op irri-
GATioN.— Sewage Irrigation.— Imperial automatic Sluice Gates.— the Culti-
vation OF Irrigated Crops. Vi-getables, and Fruit Trees.— Lici-rr Railways
FOR Heavy Traffic— Useful Memoranda and Data.
TUNNELLINQ.
A Practical Treatise. By Charlbs Prblini, C.E. With additions by
Charlbs S. Hill, C.E. With 150 Diagrams and Illustrations. Royal 8vo,
cloth N<M 6/0
PRACTICAL TUNNELLING.
Explaining in detail Setting-out the Works, Shaft«sinking, and H^uling-driving,
Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub>£xcavating, 'Ambeiing
and the Construction of the Brickwork of Tunnels. By F. W. SiMilS,
M. Inst. C.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and Further ExteiMled, including the
most recent (i 895) Examples of Sub-aqueous and other Tunnels, by D. Kinnbak
Clark, M. Inst. C.E. With 34 Folding Plates. Imperial Bvo, cloth £2 2s.
" The present (1896) edition has been brouglit ilfrht up to date, and is a woric to «mcli cfaril
engineers should have ready access, and engineers who hare conaiuctkm work can hardly afford
to be without, but wtilch to the younger members of the professloa is Invahiable. as from its pages
they can learn the sute to which the science of tunnelling has attained."— ^««/ai»y Ntwi.
THE WATER 5UPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON-
STRUCTION OP WATBR-WORKS.
A Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers and Students of EDgineering.
By W. K. Burton, A.M.Inst.CE.,^ Consulting Engineer to the Tdcyo
Water-works. Second Edition, Revised and Extended. With numerous
Plates and Illustrations. Super-royal 8vo, buckram 26/0
I. introductory. — II. DIFFHRBNT QUALITIBS OF WATHR. — III. QUAKTrTY OK
WaTKR TO BB PROVIDBD.— IV. ON ASCBRTAINING WHRTHBR A PROPOSED SOURCB OF
SUPPLY IS SUFFICIBNT.— V. ON ESTIMATING THB STORAGB CAPACITY RBOUIRBO
TO BB PROVIDBD.— VI. CLASSIFICATION OF WATBR-WORK&— VII. IMPOUNDING KBSBR,-
votRS.— VIII. Earthwork Dams.— IX. Masonry Dams.— X. Thb puripication op
Water.— XI. Settling Reservoirs.— XI I. Sand Filtration XIII. Purification
of Water by action of iron. Softening of Water by Action of Limb, Natural
filtration.— XIV. service or Clean Water Reservoirs— Watbr Towbrs— stand
Pipes.— XV. the Connection of Settling Reservoirs. Filtbr Beds and Servicb
Reservoirs.— XVI. pumping Machinery.— xvii. Flow of Watbr in CoNourrs—
Pipes and open Channels.— XVIU. Distribution Systems.— XIX. Special Pro-
visions for the extinction of Firb.— XX. pipes for Water-works.— XXI. Prb-
vbntion of Wastb of Water.- XXII. Various appliances usbo in Connectiom
WITH Water-works.
appendix I. By prof. JOHN MILNE. F.R.S.— CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING THB
PROBABLE EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES ON WATBR-WORKS, AND THB SPECIAL PRB-
cautions to be taken in Earthquake Countries.
appendix ii. by john de rijke, ce.— on sand dunbs and dune sand as
A SouRCB OF Water Supply.
" The chapter upon filtration of water is very complete, and the details of constructiaii weB
Illustrated. . . . Tne work should be specially valuable to civQ engineefs enp^ged in wock la
Japan, but the interest is by no means confined to that locality."— £M|fi«*Mr.
" We congratulate the author upon the practical commonsenae shown In the ptepantkia o
this worIc . . . The plates and aiagrams have evidently been prepared with peat caie^ and
cannot £ail to be of great assistance to the student."— ^Mi^i^.
RURAL WATER SUPPLY.
A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Constractioo of Water*
works for small Country Districts. By Allan Grbbnwbix, A.M.I.C£.,
and W. T. Curry, A.M.I.CE., F.G.S. With Illustrations. Second EditioD,
Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth * 6/0
" We consdentkMisly lecommend It as a very nsefttl book for those coocenied In obHtatlDg
water for small districts, giving a great deal of practical Information in a small coauQaas."— i0M<tfir.
~ 1 wfehw
** The vtdume contains valuable information upon all matters coonected with water snpp^.
It is fall of details on points which ate contbioally before water-woiks I
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &c. ii
THE WATER 5UPPLY OF CIT1E5 AND TOWNS.
By William Humbbr. A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Antbor of " Cast
and Wrought Iron Brieve Construction," &c., &c. Illustrated with u Doable
Plates, X Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 950 Woodcuts,
and containing 400 pp. of Text. Imp. 4to, elegantly and substantially
half-bound in morocco Ntt £6 6a.
List of cont ents :— i. historical Skbtch of somb op thh mbans that havb
BBBN AIXJPTKU fOk IHH SUPPLY OH WaTBR TO ClTIBS AND TOWNS.— II. WATER AND
thb Forbign Mattbr usually associatbd with rr.— IIL Rainfall and evapora-
tion.—IV. SPRINGS AND THB WATER-BRARING FORMATIONS OF VARIOUS DISTRICTS.
—V. MBASURBMBNT AND ESTIMATION OF THB FLOW OF WaTBR.— VI. ON THB SRLBCTION
OF THB SOURCE OF SUPI'LY.— VII. WELLS.— VIII. RBSBRVOIRS.—IX. THE PURIFICATION
OF WATBR.— X. PUMPS.— XI. PUMPING MACHINERY.— XII. CONDUITS.— XIIL DISTRIBU-
TION OF Water. —XIV. meters, service Pipes, and House Fittings.— XV. Thb Law
AND Economy op Watbr-works.— XVI. Constant and Intermittent supply.—
XVII. description of plates.- Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply,
VBLOcrriES, &c, Ac. togbthbr with Specifications of several works illus-
trated, AMONG which WILL BE FOUND : ABERDEEN, BiDBFORD, CANTBRBURY,
Dundbb, Halifax, Lambeth, Rothbrham. Dublin, and others.
" Th« most systematic and valuable work upon water suppljr hltliefto pioduced in English, or
in any other language. Mr. Humber's work is cluracterised almost throughout by an
•xluttstlTeneM much mora distincthre of French and German than of English technical treatises."
THE PROGRESS OF ENGINEERING (1863-6).
By Wm. Humber, A.M.Inst.C.E. Complete in Four Vols. Containing 148
Double Plates, with Portraits and Copious Descriptive Letterpress. Imp!. 410,
half-morocco. Price, complete, £1 2 1 2«. \ or each Volume sold separately
at £3 3s. per Volume. Descriptive List 0/ Contents on amplication.
HYDRAULIC POWER ENGINEERING.
A Practical Manual on the Concentration and TransmissioD of Power by
Hydraulic Machinery. By G. Croydon Marks, A.M.Inst.C.E. With
nearly 900 Illustrations. 8vo, doth. Net Q/O
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS :— PRINCIPLES OF HYDRAULICS.— THE FLOW OF WATER,—
HYDRAULIC Pressures.— matbriau—Tbst Load.— Packings for Sliding Surfaces.
—Pipe Joints.— Controlling Valves.— Platform Lifts.— Workshop and Foundry
Cranes.— Warbhousb and dock CRANBi>.— Hydraulic Accumulators.— Presses
FOR Baling and othhr pur poses.— Sheet metal working and Forging Machinery.
—Hydraulic Riveters.— Hand and Power pumps.— steam pumps.— Turbines.—
IMPULSE Turbines.— Reaction turbines.— Design of turbines in Detail.— Water
Wheels.— Hydraulic Engines.— Rbcbnt achibvbments.— pressi'rb of Water.—
Action of pumps, &c
" Wo hare nothuig but praise for this thoroughly valuable work. The author has succeeded
la rendering his subject interesting as well as instructive."- /VarMM/ Engineer.
" Can be unhedtatingty recommended as a useftil and up-tonlate manual on hydrauHc tians
mission and utilisation of power."— A/ecAaiff at/ IVorkl.
HYDRAULIC TABLES, C0-EFFICIENT5, & F0RMULi4B.
For Findins the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and
Rivers. With New Formulse, Tables, and General Information on Rain-fall,
Catchment-Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill
Power. By John Nbvillb, C.E., M.R,I.A. Third Edition, revised, with
additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth . 14/0
" It is, of all English books on the subject, the one nearest to completeness."— ^rrAtect.
HYDRAULIC MANUAL.
Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text. Intended as a Guide in
Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. Jackson,
Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," "Modem Metrology," &c Fourth
Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, cloth 1 Q/Q
"The author has constructed a manual which may be accepted as a tmstwoithy guide
to this branch of the engineer's profession."— £Mir<M«m'iitf.
WATER ENGINEERING.
A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa-
tion of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Porposas.
ByCHAKLBsSLAGG,A.M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6
' As a small practical treatise OB die water supply of towns, and on some appHcatfons of water-
power, the work is In many raspects 9ntnmX."-^SngimtriMg,
12 CROSBY LOCK WOOD ^ SON'S CATALOGUE.
THE RECLAMATION OP LAND PROM TIDAL WATERS
A Handbook for Engineer^, Landed Proprietors, and others interested in Works
of Reclamation. By A. Bbazblsv, M.Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth. y*t 10/6
" The book shows in a concise way wbat has to be done in reclaiming' land from the sea. m<i
the best way of doin; it. The work contains a great deal of practical and tu«ftil infonnanon whicU
cannot fail to be of service to engineers entrusted with the enclosure of salt marshes, and to land-
owners intending to reclaim land from the sea. " — The /'.nj^Mfer.
"The author has carried out his task efficiently and well, and hU book contains a large
amount of information of great service to engineers and others Interested m works of reclamatirm.''
MASONRY DAM5 FROM INCEPTION TO COMPLETION.
Including numerous Formube, Forms of Specification and Tender, Pocket
Diagram of Forces, &c For the use of Civil and Mining Engineers. Br
C F. CouRTNBV, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth 9/0
" Contains a good deal of TaluaUe data. Many useftil suggestions will be found in the
remarks on site and position, locadon of dam, foundations and construction.'— i?KtA/iiv^ A!rvx.
RIVER BAR5.
The Causes of their Formation, and their Treatment by " Induced Tidal
Scour " ; with a Description of the Successful Reduction bj this Method of
the Bar at Dublin. By 1. J. Mann, Assist. £ng. to the Dublin Port and Docks
Board. Royal 6vo, cloth 7/6
" We recommend all intetested In harbour works— and, Indeed, those ccmcetned In the
bnprovements of liTcrs generally— to read Mr. Mann's interesting work."— ^«vv*cfr.
TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING.
Embracing a Comfnehensive History of the System ; with an exhanstiTe
Analysis of the Various Modes of Traction, including Hone Power^ Steam,
Cable Traction, Electric Traction, &c. : a Descriptaon of the Vaneties of
Rolling Stock ; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses. New
Edition, Thoroughljr Revised, and Including the Progress recently made is
Tramway C<nistruction, &c., &c By D. Kinnbar Clark, M. lnst.CE.
With 400 Illustrations. 8vo, 780 pp., buckram. 28/0
" The new TohmM is one whkb will rank, among ttamway engineers and those intetestad In
tramway woridng, with the Author's worid-famed book on railway mnchineiy. "— 7i*# Bngtrutr.
SURVEYING AS PRACTISED BY CIVIL ENGINEERS
AND 5URVBY0R5.
Including the Setting-out of Works for Construction and Surveys Abroad, with
niany Examples taken from Actual Practice. A Handbook for u.se in the field
and the Office, intended also as a Text-book for Students. By Tohn White-
law, Tun., A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of " Points and Crossings.' With about
260 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth Net 1 0/6
"This work is written with admirable lucidity, and will certainly be found or distina value
both to students and to tliosc eni;.-it:ed in actual practice."— 7 Ar Buiider.
PRACTICAL SURVEYING.
A Text-Book for Students preparing for Examinations or for Survey-work in
the Colonies. By Gborgr W. Usill, A.M.I.C.E. Eighth (Mition,
thoroughlj^ Revised and Enlarged, by Alex Bbazelev, M. Inst. C.K.
With 4 Lithographic Plates and 360 Illustrations. I..arj;e crown 8vo, 7/0
cloth ; or, on Thin Paper, leather, gilt edges, rounded corners, for pocket use
[ /ust Puilis/uii. 1 2/6
" The best forms of instruments are described as to thdr consttuctioa, oaes and modes
of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the authoc, la
hb expenence as surveyor, drauff htsman and teaciier. has found neccasaiy, and wUch the studsBS
Id his uiexperience wiU find most serviceable."— £»^i>Mcr.
"The first book which should be put \a the hands of a paptt 01 Oril Engineering."—
AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE.
For Reference in Surveying, Levelling, and Setting-out; and in Roate Sor*
▼eys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records.
By L. D'A. Jackson, A. M.LC.E. Second Edition. 8vo, cloth . 12/0
" Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vadt-mtcHtm for the surveyoc. We can 1
tbis book as concaintng an admirable supplement to the teaching of the aocompUslied
'* The aothor brings to his work a foitaiiate anion of theosy aad
aided by • deer and hida style of wiking, lenden die book ■ very 1
CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, &e. 13
SURVEYINQ WITH THE TACHBOMETER.
A practical Manual for the use of Civil and Military Engineers and Snnreyon.
Including two aeries of Tables specially computed for the Reduction of
Readings in Sexagesimal and in Centesimal Degrees. By Nbil Kbnnbdt,
M. Inst. C.E. With Diagrams and Plates. Second Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth.
\Jfiit Published. Aet lOie
" The work is very clearly written, and should remove all difficulties in the way of any surveyor
destroQS of maldnf use of this useful and rapid instrument. "—Namrt.
ENGINEER'S & MININQ SURVEYOR'S FIELD BOOK.
Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Sjrstems, and
use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and plotting the work with minute
aocnracT by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the
Theodolite, Setting-out Curves with and without the Theodolite, Earthwork
Tables, &c.^ By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts.
Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/0
'* The book Is very handy ; the separate tables of sines and tangfents to every minute wID make
it usefU for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existing all the same."— -^iAeyMrNm.
LAND AND MARINE SURVEYINQ.
In Reference to the Preparation of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals,
Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With i>eKription
and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. Davis Haskoll,, C.E. S<K;ond
Edition, Revised, wiUi Additions. Large crown 8vo, cloth . 9/0
" This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in recom<
mendlnf^ It, feelintf assured that It will more than repay a careful ttady."—MecMafUeai iVorU.
" A most useful book for the student. We can strongly recommend it as a careAilly*written
aad valnable test-book. It ei^oys a well-deserved repute among surveyors."— ^v^/dlrr.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING.
Showing its Application to Purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering in
the Constructi(xi of Roads ; with Mr. Tblford's Rules for the same. By
Fkbdbrick W. Simms, M. Inst. C.E. Eighth Edition, with Law's Practical
Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and Trautwinb's Field Practice
of Laying*out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and ntunerous Woodcuts.
8vo 8/6
" The text-book on levelling in most of our en^eertag schools and colleges."— £Mite«fr.
** The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, espedally to the
younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Slmms's useful work."— fnfitatfrifV'
AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING
A TRiaONOMBTRICAL SURVEY.
For the Formation of Ge<»raphical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Mili*
tary Reconnaissance, LEVELLING, &c., with Useful Problems, FormulS|
and Tables. By Lieut. -General Fromb, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and
partly Re-written by Major-General Sir Charlbs Warrrn, G.C.M.G., R.E.
With Z9 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, rojral 8vo, cloth .... 1 6/0
** No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained
by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were
to bring every portion of the contents up to the present dax<t,"-~Brvad Arrow.
TABLE5 OF TANGENTIAL ANQLE5 AND MULTIPLES.
For Setting-out Curves from 5 to 300 Radius. By A. Bbazxlrt, M.Inst. C.E.
6th Edtuon, Revised. With an Appendix on the use of the Tables for
Measuring up Curves. Printed on 50 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-
pocket size 3/6
" Each table is printed on a small card, which, pbced on the theodolite, leaves the hands free
to manipulate the instrument— no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work."— iifvuMrr .
" Very handy : a man may know that all bis day's work must fall on two of these cards, which
he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind."— j<iA«M«iMM.
HANDY GENERAL EARTH-WORK TABLES.
Giving the Contents in Cul»c Yards of Centre and Slopes of Cuttings acd
Embankments from 3 inches to 80 feet in Depth or Height, for use with either
66 feet Chain or zoo feet Chain. By J. H. Watson Buck, M. InsL C.E.
On a Sheet mounted in cloth case 8/0
14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD * SON'S CATALOGUE.
EARTHWORK TABLES.
Showing tb« Contents in Cnbic Yards of EmlMUikm«BtB, CnttingB, ftc, of
Hei^tt or D«Dths np to an average of 80 feeL By Jo6BPK BsoADMnrr, C E.,
and Francis <Jampin, CE. Crown 8to, cloth 6/0
" The my In which accufacjr to attained, by a thnple dlvtolon of each crav aectlan Into three
elaoaents. two In which are constant and one vaiuUe, to higenious."
A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK.
By Alex. J. Gkaham, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition.
x8mo, cloth 2/6
THE CONSTRUCTION OP LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS.
A Practical and Theocetical Essay. By T. H. Watson Bock, M. InsL CE.,
Resident Engineer, L. and N. W. R. With Folding Plates, Svo, doth 1 2/0
" Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the nuson, and the
tioos on the lonn of arch, the rules for ordeiing the stone, and the coasunictk» of the
win be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering
BuikUmeNaus.
" Will be regarded by dvil englneeis as of the utmost value, and calculated to swre moch
time and obvtote many misrakes. "—C»UUry Guardian.
CAST & WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
(A Complete and Practical Treatise onX including Iron Foondatioos. In
Three Parts.— Theoretical, Practical, and Descnpdve. By William Hommd,
A. M. Inst. C.E., and M. Inst. M.E. Third Edition, revised and much im-
proved, with xis Double Plates (ao of which now first appear in this edition),
and numerous Additions to the Text. In a vols., imp. 4to, half 4)oand m
morocco £6 16s. 60.
" A venr valuable contribution to the standard literature of dvfl engineering. In addition to
elevations, plans, and sections. Urge scale details are given, which very moch enhance the
instructive worth of those illustrations."— C^z^ Ertgriiutr and ArehUatfs ycumoL
"Mr. number's stately volumes, lately issued— in whkh the most important bridges
eracted during the last five years, under the direction of the late Mr. BruneC Sir W. Cnott,
Mr. Hawkshaw, Mr. Page. Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemana. and others among our moot emfaent
engineers, are drawn and specified in great ditita!L"—Eng1nMr.
ESSAY ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES
(Practical and Theoretical). With x^ large Plates. By the late Gbomsb
Watson Buck, M.I.CE. Fourth Edition, revised b^ his Son, J. H. Watson
Buck, M.I.CE. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams far
Facilitating the Construaion of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. Baklow, M.I.CE
Royal 8vo, cloth 1 2/0
"The standard text-book for all engineers rcgaidlng skew aiches Is Mr. Bnckl tmadss,
and It would be impossiMeto consult a better."— fiyiMCfr.
'Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and hto treatment has dl rested
the subject of many of the Intricacies supposed to belooc to h. As a guide to the engtaeer and
architect, on a confessedly difficult subject. Mr. Buck's work is unsurpasMd."— /MMJNir Alrwt
THE CONSTRUCTION OP OBLIQUE ARCHES
(A Practical Treatise on). By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates.
Imperial 8vo, cloth 8/0
GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS.
Ill their Practical Application to the Treatment of Stresses in Rood, S<did
Girders, Lattice, Bowstring, and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Archies and
Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. Hudson Graham, CE. Containing
Diagrams and Plates to Scale, with numerous Examples, many taken from
existing^ Structtu-es. Specially arranged for Class-work in CcJleges and
Universities. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth . 1 6/0
" Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are oaed or
itudled."— ^M^'ftf^r.
"The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evideudjr been iwepared
with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abondaaoe of
well-selected examples. It is an excellent text-book for the practical dnughtsman."-
WEIGHTS OP WROUGHT IRON & 5TEEL Q1RDER5.
A Graphic Table for Facilitating the Computation of the Weights of Wroosht
Iron and Steel Girders, ftc, for Parliamentary and other Estlmatei. By
J. H. Watson Bock, M. Inst. CE. On a Sheet 2/6
CIVIL BNGINBBRING, SURVEYING, &c. 13
QBOMBTRY FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS.
An Introduction to Pore and Applied Geometry and th« Mensuration of
Surfaces and Solids, including Problems in Plane Geometry useful in Drawing.
By £. H. Spragub, A.M.I.C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth. I^et 1/0
PRACTICAL GEOMETRY.
For the Architect, Engineer, and Mechanic. Giving Rnles for the Dellneakioo
and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures, and Carves. By
E. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect. 8vo, cloth 9/0
" No book with the same objects in view has ever been published In which the deezness of
the rules laid down and tlie ilhutiatiTe diagrams have been so satisfactory."— sSct^twmw.
THE QEOMETRY OP C0MPA55E5.
Or. Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles and the Use of
Coloured Diagrams and Symbols. By Ouwr Byrns. Coloured Plates.
Crown 8vo, cloth 8/6
EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLEXURE OF BEAM5.
Resulting in the Discovery of New Laws of Failure by Buckling. By Albert
E. Guv. Medium 8vo, cloth Net 9/0
HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OP 5TRAIN5
In Girders and Similar Structures and their Strength. Consisting of Formulae
and Correspondins Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Applica-
tion, &C. By WILLIAM HUMBBR, A. M. Inst. C.E., &c Fifth Edition.
Crown 8vo, with nearly zoo Woodcuts and 3 Plates, cloth . . 7/6
" The fonnalK ara neatly expressed, and the diamms f[oo±."—Aaufuntiit.
** We heartiljr rommend tlm really hatufy book to our engineer and aichkact
BngiUh MteMmnic.
TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON.
Practical Applications of Science in Determ „
Weishts, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction. Witl
Working Drawings. By William Griffiths, Stuveyor. Oblong
Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses. Breaking
With Complete
8vo, doth.
4/6
"Thb handy Uttle book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the con-
struction of roof tninei that no student need be ignorant of these maxttn." —Practical Bnginur.
THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OP IRONWORK.
With Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Shbilds, M.I.CE.
8vo, doth 6/0
A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OP MATERIALS.
With Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension
Bridges. Railways, &c By Pbtbr Barlow, F.R.S. A new Edition, revised
by his Sons, P. W. Barlow, F.R.S., and W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ; to which
are added, Experiments by Hodgkinson, Fairbairn, and Kirkaldv ; and
Formulse for calculating Uirders. &c. Edited by Wm. Hombbr, A.M.I.C.E.
8vo, 400 pp., with 19 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, doth . 18/0
** Valuable aHke to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner. It wID always rank
in ftttuM as it lias hitherto done, as the standard treatise on tlut particular subject."— Arv^Mtfcr.
5APE RAILWAY WORKING.
A Treatise on Railway Aoddents, their Cause and Prevention ; with a De*
scription of Modem Appliances and Systems. By Clbmbnt £. Strbtton,
CE. With Illustrations and Cok>ured Plates. Third Edition, Enlarged.
Crown 8vo, cloth 8/6
**A boolt for tiie engineer, the directors, the manoiren; and. in short, all who wish for
iniomiatlon on railway matters will find a perfect encydopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' "—
Raitmay Review.
EXPANSION OP STRUCTURES BY HEAT.
By John Kbilt, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works Department. Crown
Svo, doth 8/6
" The aim the author has let before him, vis., to show the effects of heat upon nataOlc and
other stfuctures, is a laudable one, ior tttis to a branch of physics upon wlilch the engineer or
architect can find but little reiiabie and compreheoilTe data hi books." BuiMmt,
i6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD «• SOITS CATALOGUE.
i
ENGINEERING STANDARDS COM.
MITTEE'S PUBLICATIONS.
The Engineering Standards Committee is the outcome of a
Committee appointed by the Institution of Civil Engineers at the instance
of Sir John Wolfe Barry, K.C.B., to inquire into the advisability of
Standardising Rolled Iron and Steel Sections.
The Committee is supported by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Institution of Naval Architects,
the Iron and Steel Institute, and the Institution of Electrical Engineers ;
and the value and importance of its labours has been emphatically
recognised by His Majesty's Government, who have made a liberal grant
from the Public Funds by way of contribution to the financial resources of
the Committee.
The subjects already dealt with, or under consideration by the
Committee, include not only Rolled Iron and Steel Sections, but Tests
for Iron and Steel Material used in the Construction of Ships and their
Machinery, Bridges and General Buildmg Construction, Railway Rolling
Stock Underframes, Component Parts of Locomotives, Railway and
Tramway Rails, Electrical Plant, Insulating Materials, Screw Threads and
Limit Gauges, Pipe Flanges, Cement, &c.
Reports already Published : —
1. BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS (9 lists).
Angles, Equal and Unequal.— Bulb Ancles, Trbs and Plates.—
Z AND T BaKsS. — Channels. — Bea.ms, Net I/O
2. BRITISH STANDARD TRAMWAY RAILS AND FISH
PLATES : STANDARD SECTIONS AND SPECIFICATION.
Net 21/0
3. REPORT ON THE INFLUENCE OF GAUGE LENGTH
AND SECTION OF TEST BAR ON THE PERCENTAGE OF
ELONGATION.
By Professor W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. Net 2/6
4. PROPERTIES OF STANDARD BEAMS.
included in No. 6.) Net 1 /O
6. PROPERTIES OF BRITISH STANDARD SECTIONS.
Diagrams, Definitions, Tables, and Formulae. * Net 6/0
7. BRITISH STANDARD TABLES FOR COPPER CON-
DUCTORS AND THICKNESSES OF DUELECTRIC. Net 2 6
8. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR TUBU-
LAR TRAMWAY POLES. Net 5/0
9. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND SEC-
TIONS FOR BULL-HEADED RAILWAY RAILS. i\V/ 10.6
10. BRITISH STANDARD TABLES OF PIPE FLANGES.
Net 2/6
11. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION AND SEC-
TIONS OF FLAT-BOTTOMED RAILWAY RAILS. Net 10/6
12. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR PORT-
LAND CEMENT. Net 2/6
13. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR STRUC-
TURAL STEEL FOR SHIPBUILDING. Net 2/6
14. BRITISH STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR STRUC-
TURAL STEEL FOR MARINE BOILERS. Net 2/6
MARINE SNGINSBRING, NAVIGATION, &€. 17
MARINE ENGINEERING, SHIPBUILDING*
NAVIGATION, ETC.
MARINE ENQINB5 AND BOILERS.
Their Dengn and Construction. A Handbook for the Use of Students.
Engineers^ and Naval Constructors. Based on the Work " Berechnung una
Konstruktion der Sch*flFsmaschinen end Keaselj" by Dr. G. Baurr, Engineer*
in-Chief of the Vulcan Shipbuilding Yard, Stettin. Translated from the Second
German Edition by £. M. Donkin, and S. Bryan Donkin, A.M.I.CE.
Edited by Leslie S. Robertson, Secretary to the Engineering Standards
Committee, M.I.C.E., M.I.M.E., M.LN.A.,&c. With numerous Illustrations
and Tables. Medium 8vo, cloth. [Just Pu6lisfud, ^Sh ^*t.
Summary uF CuNibMs:— PAa.T 1.— MAIN ENGINES.— Dbthrmination up cyun-
DBR DlMBNblONS.— The UTILISATION OP STEAM IN THE tNolNB-— STROKE OP PISTON.
—Number op revolution^.— turning Moment.— Balancing op tmbMoving Parts.
-Arrangement op main engines.— details np mai»> Engine.^.- The Cylinder.—
Valves.- Various Kinds op Valve Gear. -Pisto"" Rods.— PisTONb.— Connecting
Rod and CRO^sHEAD.— Valve Gear RoDf.— Bed Plates. — Engine C'^lumns,—
Reversing AND turninc. cfar. Part ii.— PUiVPs.— Air, CiRriT. atinc feed, and
AUXILIARY P< MPS. Pa RT III.-SY4 AFTING, V ESISTANCE OF SHIPS. PROPELLERS.
— Thru^-t Shaft and Thrust Block.— tunni-l shapt:» and • lummer Blocks.—
SHAPf Couplings.— STPkN tubp.— i hf. s- rv w pbopi-llbr.— Coms ruction of the
screw, part IV.— PIPES AND CONNECTIONS.— GENhraL REMARKS, FLANGES,
Valvfs. *c.— Unubw V/ater FniiNos.— Main &team, auxiliary mpam, and
EXHAt'ST PIPING — PPBD V/ ATER, BiLGB. BaLLAST AND CiRCULAT ING PiPES. PART V.—
STEAM BOi LERS.> Firing AhD Tt^B Generation op Steam.— Cylindrical noriBRS.
— Ltkomotivh Boiler*. — Watpr-'uhb B^n ers. — Small Ti'BB Watpr-Tubb
Boilers.— 5iMOKF Box.— Funnfl a'^ d B.p br Lagging.- Frt>rRD Dravght.^boii br
FlTTiNrSANi M^UNTl^G*. PABTVI— MEASURING INiTPUMENTS. PART VII.—
VARIOUS bETAILS,— Bolts, Nuts, "sckiiw thread". &c.> Platforms, ^'Rating*.
L*DDBR>. — Found tion^. — Sbatincs. — LubRiCATutN. — vi- ni ilation of Encinb
Rooms.— Rules for spare Gear, part viil.— additional tables.
THE NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND SHIPBUILDER'S
POCKBT-BOOK
Of Formolse, Rules, and Tables, and Marine Engineer's and Surveyor s Handy
Book of Reference. By Clbment Mackrow, M.I.N.A. Eighth Edition,
carefully Revised and Enlarged. Fcap., leather . . N$i 1 2/6
summary op CONTBNTb :— aiGNS AND SYMBOLS, DECIMAL FRACTIONS.— TRIGO-
NOMBFRY.- PRACTICAL GBOMBTRY — MENSURATION.— CENTRES AND MOMENTS OF
Figures. -Moments of inertia and Radii Gyration.— alobbraical Expressions
FOR Simpsons rules.— mechanical principlbs.— centre of GRAvrrv.— Laws of
Motion. -Displacement, cbntre of buoyancy.— centre of Gravity of ship's
hull.— STABILITY CURVES AND MBTACENTRBS.— SEA AND SHALLOW-WATBR WAVBS.
-Rolling op ships.— propulsion and Resistance op Vessels.— spbbd Trials.—
Sailing. Cbntbb of Effort.— Distances down Rivbrs, coast Lines.- stbbring and
rudders of Vessels.— Launching Calculations and VELocrriBS.— weight of
MATBRIAL AND GEAR.- GUN PARTICULARS AND WBIGHT.— STANDARD GAUGES.—
Riveted Joints and RrvBTiNG — Strength and tests of Matbrials.— Binding
AND Shearing stressbs.— Strength op shafting. Piixars, wheels, Ac —
HYDRAULIC Data. ftc. — Conic sections. Catenarian curves. — Mechanical
POWERS, work.— BOARD OF TRADE REGULATIONS FOR BOILERS AND ENGINBS.— BOARD
OF TRADE REGULATIONS FOR SHIPS.— LLOYD'S RULES FOR BOILERS.— LLOYD'S WEIGHT
OF CHAINS.— LLOYD'S SCANTLINGS FOR SHIPS.— DATA OF ENGINES AND VBSSBLS.—
SHIPS' FITTTNGS and TESTS.— SEASONING PRBSBRVING TIMBER.- MBASURBMBKT OF
TIMBBR.— ALLOYS. PAINTS, VARNISHES.- DATA FOR STOWAGE.— ADMIRALTY TRANS-
PORT REGULATIONS. — RULES FOR HORSE-POWBR, SCREW PROPBLLBRS, &C— PBB*
C8NTAGBS FOR BUTT STRAPS.— PARTICULARS OF YACHTS.— MASTING AND RIGGING.
-Distances OF Foreign ports.— Tonnage Tables.- vocabulary op French and
ENGLISH Terms.— ENGLISH Weights and measures.— foreign weights and Mea-
sures.—Decimal Equivalbnts.— Useful numbers.— circular Measures.— Abbas
of and CIRCUMPB&BNCBS OF CIRCLES.- AREAS OF SEGMENTS OP CIRCLES.- TaBUS
op Squares and cubes and Roots of Numbbrs.— Tables op Logarithms of Num-
BBRS.— TABLBS of HYPERBOLIC LOGARITHMS.— TABLES OF NATURAL SiNBS, TANGBNTS.
—Tables op Logarithmic Sines, Tangents. &c.
"IntheMdavsofadTancwl knowtodMawwk Ilka tfalslsofttMgvMCastvahM. It confilm
STUt amonuoflnfonnatkm. We onbedtaBngly ny that It ii the most valuabia compttatloo for ks
specific parpoee that has erar t>een printed. No naval archtooct. engineer, Kirveyor, wwhub,
wood or mm shipbuilder, can afford to be without this work."— AiiM/tou Magmjrttu.
" Should ba used by all who an engaged In the coostrucden or design of vasaaia. . . . Wm
ba found to contain the iMm useful ubiaa and forauite requiied by shtpbuUdan, coBacted fnm Iba
best snthoritlai, and put together tai a popular and sfanpla fonn. It is ef — capdensl BUHrti."—
Mn£in4tr.
" A pocket-book of this description mnat ba a narsMky in the shipbuilding trade. It (
tains a aiasB of usafbl tailonnatlon ciaaiiy aapiaiiad and piaaanted in a handy focm.' "
Mngin€tr,
i8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S' SON'S CATALOGUS.
WANNAN'5 MARINE ENOINEER'5 GUIDE
To Board of Trade Examinacioiis for Certificates of Conpeteocy. Confining
all Latest Qnestioos to Date, with Simple, Clear, and Cocioct Soladoos;
303 Elementary Questions with Illustrated Answers, and Verbal Questions
and Answers ; complete Set of Drawings with Statements completed. By
A. C. Wann AN, C.E., Consulting Engineer, and E. W. I. Wannan, M.I.M.E.,
Certificated First Class Marine Engineer. With numerous Engravincs. Third
Edition, Enlarged. 500 pages. Large crown 8vo, cloth . . JW/ 1 Q/Q
" The book U clcArlv and plainly written and avoids unnecessary entlanatians and fonnuias.
and we consider tt a valuable book tor students of manms engineenng. "■^NautUai Ma^mMttu.
WANNAN'S MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.
Containing Latest Board of Trade Rules and Data for Marine Engineers.
By A. C. Wamnam. Third Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and Brought up to
Date. Sqtiare x&mo, with thumb Index, leather S!0
" There is a great deal of useful information in this little pocket-book. It is of the nile-of-
thumb order, and is. on that account, well adapted to the uses of the sea-gaing engineer.''—
THE SHIPBUILDING INDUSTRY OP GERMANY.
Compiled and Edited by G- Lehmann-Felskowski. With Coloured Prints,
Art Supplements, and numerous Illustrations tliroughout the text. Super-
royal 4to, cloth AV/ 10^6
SEA TERMS, PHRASES. AND WORDS
(Technical Dictionary of) used in the English and Frendi Langoages
(English- French^ French-English). For the Use of Seamen, Engineers, Pilots,
Shipbuilders, Shipowners, and Ship-brokers. Compiled by W. ^luux, late ct
the African Steainship Company. Fcap. 8vo, doch limp . fl/Q
" This volume will be highly appreciated by seamen, engineen, pOota, sUpbufiden and ship-
owneis. It will be found wonderfully accurate and complete. "—ScMsmaH,
MARINE ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.
Consisting of useful Tables and Formnls. By Pkakk Pkoctok, A.LN.A.
Third Edition. Royal 39mo, leather 4/0
" We rBCODunend It to our readers as gotaig tu to sapphr a kmg-fslt wanL"— iW— le/SctoKH.
" A mot useftil companloo to all marine angineets.'*— f/wfftirf Siuviei ~
ELEMENTARY MARINE ENGINEERING.
A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprendoes. By J. S. Brewer.
Crown 8vo, cloth ■ . . • . 1 /6
PRACTICAL NAVIGATION.
Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by J. Greenwood and W. H.
RossBR ; with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for Working the Problems,
by H. LaW| C.E., and Professor J. R. Young, xamo, half-bcmnd . 7/0
THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SAILMAKING.
Bv Samuel B. Sadler, Practical Sailmaker, late in the employment of
Messrs. Ratsey and Lapthome, of Cowes and Gosport. Plates. 4to, cloth.
12/6
" This extremdy practical work gives a complete educatlaa ia aS the bnmcliaa of the mann-
f acture, cutting out, roping, seaming, and goring. It Is copknuly IDiistiaied, and will form a firtt*
rate teat-book and guide.' —/VrCrmM«A Tttnts.
CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS.
Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c, Iron for Cables and Chains,
Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of
Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain
Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Paruajment, Statutory Tests,
Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers oi Cables, &c, ftc. By
Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-Surveyor-in>Quef,
Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments,
and General Superintendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishmenta.
With nametons Tables, Illustrations, and Lithogn^ihic Drawings. FcJiot
doth £2 2a.
It cootalns a vast amount of vafaaable lofofmatloa. NodUng ■wim to be waadag to awka it
plete and standard work of i«fe>v>oe on t|ie auMect."— JV^MStaa/ ."
MINING, METALLURGY, 6* COLLIERY WORKING. 15
MINING, METALLURGY, AND
COLLIERY WORKING.
THE OIL FIELDS OF RUSSIA AND THE RUSSIAN
PETROLKUM INDUSTRY.
A Practical Handbook on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management
of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in
RusAia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a
Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties.
Hy A. Bebby Thompson, A.M.I.M.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of
the European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. About 500 pp.
With numerous Illustrations and Photographic Plates, and a Map of the
BaIakhany-Saboontchy>Romany Oil Field. Super>royal 8vo, cloth.
[Just Publisfud. Net £3 3«.
MACHINERY FOR METALLIFEROUS MINB5.
A Practical Treatise for Mining Engineers, Metallurgists, aod Managers of
Mines. By £. Hbnry Davibs, M.£., F.G.S. 600 pp. With Folding Plates
and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth .... Net 2ff/0
" Deals exhaustively with the many and complex details which Sfo to make up the sum total of
machinery and other requirements tor the !»uccessml workinf^ of metalliferous mines, and as a book
uf ready reference is of the hi)f hest value to mine managers and directon." — Mining yournmL
THE DEEP LEVEL MINES OF THE RAND,
And their Future Development, considered from the Commercial Pmnt of View.
By G. A. Dbnny (of Johannesburg), M.N.E.I.M.E., Consulting Engineer to
the General Mining and Finan<x Corporation, Ltd., of London, Berlin, Paris,
and Johannesburg. Fully Illustrated with Diagrams and Folding Plates.
Royal 8vo, buckram Net 25/0
*' Mr. Denny by confining' Umaelf to the consideration of the future of the deep-lerel mines
of the Rand breaks new ground, and by dealing with the subiect rather from a commercial stand*
point than from a scientific one, appeals to a wide circle of readers. The book cannot foil to prove
of very great value to investors in bouth African mines."— A/'mtM/' youmaU
PROSPECTING FOR GOLD.
A Handbook of Practical Information and Hints for Prospectory based on
Personal Experience. By Danibi^. Rankin, F.R.S.G.S . M.R.A.S , formerly
Manager of the Central African 0>mpany, and Leader of African Gold Pros-
pecting Elxpeditions. With Illustrations specially Drawn and Engraved for
the Work. Fcap. 8vo, leather Net 7/6
"This well-compiled book contains a collection of the richest g^ems of useful knowledge for
the prospector's benefit. A special table ia given to accelerate the spotting at a glance of minerals
associated with goid^—Aftntnir J^oitmui.
THE METALLURGY OF GOLD.
A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores.
Including the Assaying^ Melting, and Refining of Gold. By M. Eisslbr,
M. Inst. M.M. Fifth Edition, Enlarged. With over 300 Illustrations and
numerous Folding Plates. Mediiua 8vo, cloth .... Net 2i /Q
" This book thoroughly deserves Its title of a ' Practical TreatlM.' Tlie whole ptooeai ofgold
mining, ftom the breaking ot the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in dear and onlmy
nanaave and with mtich, but not too much, fiilness of deuiiL"—J!arurday Hevuw,
THE CYANIDE PR0CE55 OF GOLD EXTRACTION.
And its Practical Application on the Witwatersrand Gold Fields and elsewhere.
By M. EissLBRf M. Inst. M.M. With Diagrams and Working Drawings.
Thiid Edition, Revised and Enlarged. 8vo, cloth .... Net 7/8
" This book is iusc what was needed to acquaint mining men with the actual woridag of a
process which is not only the most popular, but u, as a genenl nile, the noet suooesslul for the
extraction oi gold from tailings."— i/wM^v youmeU,
DIAMOND DRILLING FOR GOLD & OTHER MINERALS.
A Practical Handbook on the Use of Modem Diamond Core Drills in Pro-
jecting and Exploiting Mineral-Bearing Properties, including Particulars of
the Costs of Apparatus and Working. By G. A. Dbnnt, M.N.E. Inst. M.E.,
M. Inst. M.M. Medium 8vo, x68 pp., with Illustrative Diagrams . 12/8
" There is certainly scope for a work on diamond drilling, and Mr. Denny deserves greieAil
recognition for supptying a decided wwDtt'—Jitning yot»rm«U,
t f
20 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S- S0JV5 CATALOGUE,
GOLD ASSAYING.
A Practical Handbook, giving the Afodus Oferawfi for the Accurate Assay o/
Auriferous Ores and Hulhon, and the Chemical Tests required in the Processes
of Extraction by Amaluamatio', Cyanidation, and Chlorination. With an
Appendix of Tables and i)taii.sti»s. By H. Joshua Phillips. F.l.C, F.C.S..
Assoc.Inst C.£., Author of " Lngineering Chemistry," etc. With Numerous
Illustiations. Large CroH-n 8vo, cloth. [Just Published^ Aet 7/6
FIELD TESTING FOR GOLD AND SILVER.
A Practical Manual for Prospectors and Miners. By W. H. Mkrsitt.
M N.E. Inst. M.E., A.R.S.M., &c. With Photographic Plates and other
Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, leather ..... Net QIQ
"As an inscructor of prospectors' classes Mr. Menrltt has the advantage of knowing
exactly the infunnation likely to be most valuable to the miner in the field. The contents cover
all the details of sAmplinf: and testinf; tfold and silver ores. A useful addition to a prospectors
kit."— il/tni Kj^ yaurnai,
THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK.
A Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in search of Metal* Bearing or other
Valuable Minerals. By J. W. Andbrson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S. Tenth
Edition. Small crown 8vo, 3/6 cloth ; or, leather .... 4/6
•• win supply a Ducb'leh want. especuDjr amonf Colonists, in whose wajr are to often thrown
many minetalofj^al spccimenji the value of which it is difBcult to detei mine. "~-Enginter.
" How to And commercial minerals, and how to identify them when tbejr an foimd, are the
eadfakg points to which attention is directed. "—iMMtfftr y«ummi,
THE METALLURGY OF SILVER.
A Practical Treatise on the Amalsamation, Roasting, and LixiviatioD of Silver
Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Ballion. By
M. EissLBR, M. Inst. M.M Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 10/6
" A practical treatise, and a technkal worit which we are convinced will snpply a lonff-fdt
want amonufst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and othcts Indirectly
connected with the industries."— Aft MtNr youmai.
THE HYDRO-METALLURGY OF COPPER.
Being an Account of Processes Adopted in the Hydro-Metallnrcical Treat*
ment of Cupriferous Ores, Including the Manufacture of Coppo- Vitriol, with
Chapters on the ^ources of Supply of Copper and the Roasting of Capper Oit&.
By M. EissLER, M. Inst. M.M. 8vo, cloth .... AV/ 12/6
" In This volume the variou« pmcrfses for the extraction of copper by wat methods are fuDy
detailed. Costs are ewrn wh. n a^ aiKible, ai:d a great deal of useful infomiati -n abtut the copper
industry of the world is presented m an interesting and attractive mannet."~-Mintn^ ypumai,
THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD.
A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of
Lead Bullion. Including Repons on vanous Smelting Establishments and
Descriptions of Modem Smelting Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America.
By M. EissLBR, M. Inst. M.M. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 12/6
" The numerous metallurgical processes, which are fuQy and extensively treated oC, embrace
all the suges experienced in the passaire of the lead from the various natural states to its facne iron
the refinery as an article of commerce. — Practical Engirutr,
METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING.
By D. C. Davibs, F.G.S. Sixth Edition, thoroughly Revised and mod)
Enlarged by his Son, E. Hbnrv Davibs, M.E., F.G.S. 6oo pp., with 173
Illustratiotis. Large crown 8vo, cloth Ntt 1 2/6
" Neither the practical miner nor the general reader, interatted In mines, can have a beltet
book for his companion and his guide."— J/tMin^ youmai.
EARTHY AND OTHER MINERALS AND MINING.
By D. C. Davibs, F.G.S., Author of " Metalliferous Minerals," &c Third
Edition, Revised and Enlarged by his Son, E. Hbmbt Davibs, M.E., F.G.S.
With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6
" We do not remember to have met with any English worli on nlntafr mattees that contains
the same ■"«^«"» of information packed in equally convenient form.' -^ommw^.
BRITISH MINING.
A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Pnton
Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United Kingdom. By Robbkt
Hunt, F.R.S., late Keeper of Mining Records. Upwards of 950 pp., with
930 Illostrations. Second EdittoUi Revised. Soper-royml 8vo, doch 4^2 St*
MINING, METALLURGY, 6* COLLIERY WORKING. 21
POCKET-BOOK FOR MINERS AND METALLURGISTS.
Comprising Rolas, Formuls, Tabl«s, and Notes for Use in Field and Office
Work. By P. Danvbrs Power, F.G.S., M.K. Seoond Edition, Corrected.
Fcap. 8vo, leather 9/0
" This exceOent book la an admlnbto example of Its Uad, and ouffht to find a aige sal*
amongat F.iugHsh-spoalring prospeccon and mininc engineen."— i?N^'mMfi<Hf .
THE MINER'S HANDBOOK.
A Handy Book of Reference on the subjects of Mineral Deposits, Mining
Operations, Ore Dressing, &c. For the Use of Students and others interested
in Mining Matters. Compiled by John Milne, F.R.S., Professor of Mining
in the Imperial University of Japan. Third Edition. Fcap. 8vo, leather 7/6
" ProfesBor MQno's handbook is sure to be received with faTonr by all connected with
mining, and will be extremely popular amoni; students."— A Uunautn.
IRON ORES of GREAT BRITAIN and IRELAND.
Their Mode of Occurrence, Age and Origin, and the Methods of Searching for
and Working Them. With a Notice of some of the Iron Ores of Spain. By
J. D. KbndalLi, F.G.S., Mining Engineer. Crown 8vo, cloth . 16/0
MINE DRAINAGE.
\ Complete Practical Treatise on Direct*Acting Underground Steam
Pumping Machinery. By Stephen Michell. Seoond Edition, Re-written
and Enlarsed. With 350 Illustrations. Royal 8vo, cloth . AV/ 25/0
HORIZONTAL PUMPING ENGINES.— ROTARY AND NON-ROTARY HORIZONTAL
ENOINBS.— SIMPLB AND COMPOUND STBAM PUMPS.— VERTICAL PUMPING ENGINES.—
rotary and non-rotary vertical engines.- simple and compound steam
pumps. — triple-expansion steam pumps. — pul.sating steam pumps. — pump
Valves.— Sinking pumps, &c., 8cc.
'*Thls Tolunw contains an Immense amount of Important and Interastlng new matter.
The book should undoubtedly prove of great use to all who wish for infonnatton on the sab-
jecL"— r** Enginter,
ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO MINING.
By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst.C.E., M I.M.E., M.I.E.E., late Professor of
Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Minine Engineer
and Colliery Manager; G. D. Aspinall Pare, M.I.E.E., A.M.I. M.E.,
Associate of the Central Technical College, City and Guilds o^ London. Head
of the Electrical Engineering Department, Yorkshire College, Victoria
University : and Herbert Pbrkin, M.I.M.E.. Certificated Colliery Manager,
Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Department of the Yorkshire College,
Victoria University. With ahout 270 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth.
Net 9/0
(For SUMMARY OF CONTENTS, See p.lfO 33.)
THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK.
A Comprehensive Treatise on the La3ring-ont and Working of Collieries,
Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-
Mining Students preparing for First<lass Certificates. Bv Caleb Pamelt,
Mining Engineer and Surveyor ; Member of the North of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member of the SoutE Wales Institute
of Mining Engineers. With over i,ooo Diagrams, Plans, and other Illustra-
tions. Fifth Edition, Carefully Revised and Greatly Enlarged, x.aco pp.
Medium 8vo, cloth. \Just i'ubiishid. Net £1 5s.
Geology — Search for Coal.— Mineral Leases and other Holdings.—
Shaft sinking.— Fitting Up the Shaft and Surface arrangements.— Steam
Boilers and their Fittings.— Timbering and Walling.- Narrow work and
Methods of Working. — Underground Conveyance. - Drainage.— The Gases
MET with in Mines ; Ventilation. — on the Friction op air in Mines. — The
Priestman Oil Engine: Petroleum and Natural Gas. — Surveying and
Planning — Safety Lamps and firedamp Detectors.— Sundry and Incidental
Operations a.nd Appliances.— Colliery Explosions.— miscellaneous questions
and answers.— ^/^fymu»; summary op report of h.m. commissioners on
accidents IN Mines.
" Mr. Pamety's work {i amlnently lultad to the purpose for which It Is Intonded, being dear,
faiterestinK, exhaustive, rich in detail, and up to date, giving descriptions of the latest mactiines in
•very department. A mining engineer could scaicely go wrong who f<dlowed tids work."— C«^/fer>
(hiardiaH.
" Mr. Panely has not only gtven us a comprehensive referance book of a vatr high order
ttltaUa to the requirements of mining engineers and colliery managers, but has also provided
mining students with a class-book that ts as mterasting as it is instructive."— C0i//<ry Managw.
^'Tbls Is the most complete 'alUcound' wotk oq coai-mlnmg published In the JSagUsh
Unguage. ... No Hbraiy of coal-mlnlng books Is complete without lL'"—C4Ui*ry Bnginur
(.ScranioQ. Fa., U.S.A.i.
12 CB0SB7 LOCKWOOD S' SON*S CATALOCVS.
PRACTICAL COAL-MININQ.
An Elementary Class-Bcok for the Use of Students attending Classes in Pre-
paration for the Board of Education and County Council Examinations, or
Qualifying for First or Second Class Colliery Managers' Certificates. By
T. H. CocKiN, Member of the Institution of Mining Engineers, < ertificated
Colliery Manager, Lecturer on Coal-Mining at Sheffield University college.
With Map of the British Coal-fields and over 200 Illustrations specially Drawn
and Engraved for the Work. Crown 8vo, 440 pp. [fust Published. Net 4 6
COLLIERY WORICINQ AND MANAOBMBNT.
Comprising the Duties of a Colliery Manager, the Oversight and Arrange-
ment of labour and Wages, and the different Systems of Working Coal
Seams. By H. F. Bulman and R. A. S. Rbdmavnb. 350 pp., with
s8 Plates and other Illustrations, including Underground Photographs.
Medium 8vo, cloth. ^ 1 6/0
" This b. indeed, an ■dxnirabie Handbook for CoIHarT Managers. In tect h b an huUspensaUe
ail^unct to a Colliery Manager's education, as weD as being a most useful and ince««sring wofk
on tlie subject for all who in any way have to do with coal mining. The undeignmnd photographs
are an attractiTe feature of the work, being very lifelike and necessaiily tiue representations of the
scenes they depict."— C«//<cry Gumrdtan..
" Mr. Bulman and Mr. Redmayne. are to be congratulated on baTlng soppHed anautfaorita-
tive work dealing with a side of the subject of coal mining which has hitherto received but scant
treatment. The iUustratioat are excellent,"— ^a/mw.
COAL AND COAL MINING.
By the late Sir Warington W. Smtth, M.A.. F.R.S. Eighth Edition,
Revised and Extended by T. Forstbr Brown, Chief Inspector of the Mines
of the Crown and of the Duchy of Cornwall. Crown 8vo, doth. . 3/6
" As an outline is given of eveiy known coal>field hi this and other countries, as well as of the
principal methods of working, the book will doubtless laterast a very large nnmber of leaders."—
Mimitt£ ycitmal.
NOTES AND PORMULiC FOR MINING STUDENTS.
By ToHN Hbsmam Mbrtvauk, M.A., Late Professor of Mbang in the Duriiam
College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and
Enlarged. By H. F. Bulman, A.M.Inst.C.R. Small crown 8vo, cloth. 2/6
"The author has done his work In a creditable manner, and has produced a book that will
be of service to students and those who are practically engaged in mining opeaxUm%."—^fvmetr
INFLAMMABLE GAS AND VAPOUR IN THE AIR
(The Detection and Measurement of). By Frank Clowvs, D.Sc, Lond.,
r.I.C. With a Chapter on The Dstsction and Mxasurkmbnt op Pktro-
iKvu Vapour, by Bovkrton Rbdwood, F.R.S.E. Crown 8vo, doth. Ntt 6/0
" Professor Qowes has given us a volume on a subject of much Industrial Importance . . .
Those interasted in these matters may be recommended to study this book, which is easy of compc*-
hensaon and contains many good things."— r<%« Enfinter,
COAL & IRON INDUSTRIES of the UNITED KINGDOM.
Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams ot
Coal^ with Rettims of their Produce and its Distribution, and Analyses of
Special Varieties. Also, an Account of the Occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or
Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of
Pig Iron Manufacture. By Richard Mbadb. 8vo, cloth . £1 8s.
" A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from
Us ttbory."— /nm and C«at Trades Review.
ASBESTOS AND ASBESTIC.
Their Properties, Occurrence, and Use. By Robbrt H. Jonbs, F.S.A.,
Mineralogist, Hon. Mem. Asbestos Club, Black Lake, Canada. With
Ten Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth. . 16/0
" An teteresting and Invaluable work." — Colliery Cttardian.
GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES.
ByGBORCB F. Harris, F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6
TRAVERSE TABLES. \
For use in Mine Surveying. By William Lintbrn, C.E. With two plates.
Small crown Bvo, cloth . . . . i . . jy^t 3/0
ELECTRICITY. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, A-c. 23
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING, ETC.
THE ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL ENQINEERINO.
A First Year's Course for Students. Bj Tyson Sbwbll, A.I.E.E.. Assistant
Lecturer and Deinonstrator in Electrical Enginterine at the Polytechnic,
Regent Street, London Second Edition, Revised, with Additional Chapters
on Alternating Current Working, and Appendix of Questions and Answers.
45opages, with 274 Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloih .... Net 7/8
Ohm's Law.— UNiis Employed in Electrical Enginebking. -Series and
Parallel Circuiis; current Density and potential Drop in the CiRCUrr.—
The Heating Effecf wf the Electric current.— The Magnetic Effecfofan
Electric Currh>t.— the Magnetisation of Iron.— electro-chemistry ; primary
Battkries.— ACCUMULATORS.— Indicating Instruments; ammeters, Voltmeters,
Ohmmeters.— Electricity Supply Meters.— measuring instruments, and the
Measurement of Electrical Resistance. — Measurement of Potential Dif-
ferbnce. Capacity, current strength, and Permeability.- arc Lamps.— incan-
descent Lamps; Manufacture and Installation; Photometry. — The Con-
tinuous Current Dynamo.— Direct Current Motors alternatin . currents.
—transformers. Alternators. Synchronous Motors.— Polyphase Working.—
appendix of Questions and answers.
"An excellent treatise for students of the elementary facts connected with electrical
ensfineering."- 7"*^ Electrician.
" One of the best br>oks for those commencing the study of electrical engineering. Every-
thing is explained in simple language which even a beginner cannot fail to understand." — Engineer.
" One welcomes this book, wiiich is sound in its treatment, and admirably calculated to give
students the knowledge and information they most require." — Naturt,
THE ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF ENERGY.
A Manual for the Design of Electrical Circuits. By Arthur Vaughan
Abbott, C.E., Member America Institute of Electrical Engineers, Member
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Member Americaii Society of Civil
Engineers, Member American Society of Mechanical Engineeis, &c. With
'Jen Folding Diagrams and Sixteen Full-page Engravings. Fourth Edition,
entirely Re-Written and Enlarged. Royal 8vo. cloth.
\JuU Published. Net 30/0
CONDUCTORS FOR ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION.
Their Ma: crisis and Manufacture, The Calculation of Circuits, Pole-Line
Construction, Underground Working, and other Uses. By F. A. C. Pbrrinb,
A.M., D.Sc. ; formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering, Leland Stanford,
Jr., University; M.Amer.I.E.E. 8vo, cloth .... Net ^Qj"
Conductor materiai-s— alloyed conductors— Manufacture op Wire—
Wire-Finishing— Wire insulation— Cables— Calculation of Circuits— Kelvin's
Law OF Economy in Conductors— multiple Arc Distribution— Alternating
CURRENT Calculation— Overhead Lines— Pole Line— Line insulators— Under,
ground Conductors.
WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY;
Its Origins, Development, Inventions, and Apparatus. By Charles Henry
Skwall. With 85 Diagrams and Illustrations. Demy 8vo, cloth.
Net 10/6
ELECTRICITY A5 APPLIED TO MINING.
By Arnold Lupton, M.Inst C.E., M.I.M.E., M.I.EE., late Professor of
Coal Mining at the Yorkshire College, Victoria University, Mining Engineer
and Colliery Manager; G. D Aspinall Parr, M.I.Il.E., A M.I.M.E.,
Associate of the Central Technical College, City ai.d Guilds of Lonuon, Head
of the Electrical Engineering Dtpartment, Yorkshire College, Victoria
University; and HskBuRT Pkrkin, M I.M E., Certificated C<.lliery Manager,
Assistant Lecturer in the Mining Depariment of the Yorkshire College,
'., r' Victoria University. With ab« ut 170 lUustrati. Ds. Mediimi 8vo, cloth. A>/ 9/*
INTRODUCT ORY. — Dynamic Elect ricij-y. — Driving of the Dynamo. — The
bi BAM TURBINE.— Distribution of Iilectrical Energy.- Starting and stopping
electrical Generatora and Motors.— ELEC'i ric Cables*.— Central Electrical
plants.— Electricity applied to pumping and Haulimc.— Electricity applied
to Coal-Cutting.— typical Electric plants Recently Erected. — Electric
Lighting by arc and glow Lamps— Miscellaneous applications of Electricity
— Ex-ECTRicrrY AS Compared with other modes of Transmitiing Power.—
Dangers of ELECTRicmr. . «
24 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON*S CATALOGUE.
DYNAMO, MOTOR AND SWITCHBOARD CIRCUITS
FOR ELBCTklCAL ENOINEBRS.
A Practical Book dealing with tbe Mibject of D'ract, Alternating anH Poly-
phase Currents. By Wiluam R. Bowkbr, CE., M.E., E.E., Consa'tini;
Tramway Engineer. 8vo, cloth. i/ttst PuSlUked, Net 6/0
DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY: Its CONSTRUC-
TION. DB5ION, and OPERATION.
By Samuel Shbldon, A M., Ph.D , Professor of Physics and Electrical
Ensineerins at the Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, assisted by Hobart
Mason, B S.
In two voluwtis, sold $tparately, as follows : —
Vol. I.— DIRECT CURRENT MACHINES Fifth Edidon, Revised. Large
crown 8va. 380 pag^s, with 200 Illustratioas Air/ 1 S^Q
Vol. 11.— ALTERN\TING CURRENT MACHINES. Large crown 8va 260
pages, with 184 Illustrations AV/12/0
Derisned as Text-bonks 'or usf in Technical Educational Institutions, and tnr En^een
whose work includes the h-«pdlinr ot Direct and Altematlnc Curreat Machine! respecciTely, and
for Students proficient in mathematics.
ARMATURE WINDINGS OP DIRECT CURRENT
DYNAMOS.
Extension and App'ioUion of a General Winding Rule. Bv E Arnold,
Engin<>er. As«istait Professor in Eiectro'echnics and Machine Design at the
Ritfa PoIytfK:hnic School Translated from thf> Original German by Francis
B. Dr Grrss. M.S.. Chief of Tes'ing Department, Crocker- Wheel«r Cnm-
pany Wi.h 146 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, cloth . . AV/ 12/*-
ELECTRICAL AND MAGNETIC CALCULATIONS.
For the Use of Electrical Engineers and Artisans, Teachers, Students, and all
others interested in the Theory and Application of Electricity and Magnetism.
Bv A. A. Atkinson, Professor of Electricity in Ohio University. Crown 8vo,
cloth Net 9/0
" To teachers and tho<w who already possess a fair knowledge of their subject we can recom*
mend this book as beinff useful to consult wnen requiring data or tormulae which It is neither con-
venient nor necessary to retain by memory."— 77^ Eltctrician.
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS.
Their History, Construction, and Working. Founded in part on WGnschsn-
DORPP's " Trait6 de Til6graphie Sous-Marine," and Compiled from Authorita-
tive and Exclusive Sources. By Charlxs Bright, F. R. S. E. , A . M.Inst. C. E. ,
M.I.E.E. 780 pp., fully Illustrated, indudii^ Maps and Folding Plates.
Royal 8vo, cloth Net £3 3s.
" There are few, If any, persons mora fitted to write a tseatlse oo flubmadne telegraphy than
Mr. Charles Bright. He has done his work admirably, and has written hi a way which will
appeal as much to the layman as to the engineer. This admirable rolume muse for many years to
coma, hold the position of the English classic on submarine telegraphy."— £M;^Ne«r.
" This book is full of information. It makes a book of reference which should be in every
engineer's library."— AWMrr.
THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK.
Consisting of Rules, Formulae. Tables, and Data. By H. R. Kbmpb,
M.I.E.E., A.M. Inst. C.E., Teconical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of
"A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. Second Edition, thoroughly
Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustratioas. jamo, leather 0/0
" It la the best book of Its Mnd."— £Aic«rtfM/ Stigiturr.
" The Electrical Engineer's Pockat-Book Is a good aa».''—BleeirMmn.
** Stroni^ raooomonded to those engaged in the electrical Induitries.''— JTilrrfHiM/ Xn>iew,
POWER TRANSMITTED BY ELECTRICITY.
And applied by the Electric Motor, including Electric Railway Construction.
By P. Atkinson. A.M.. Ph.D. Third Edition, Fully Revised, and New
Matter added. With 94 Illustrati<xis. Crown 8vo, cloth . Net 9/0
DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
Bt Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D., Author of "Elements of Static
Electricity," &c. Crown 8vo, 4x7 PP>i ^"^th xao Illustrations, cloth . 10/6
ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, *«. aa
THE MANAQEMBNT OP DYNAMOS.
A Haadybook of Theory aod Practice for the Use of Mechanics, Kngineers,
Students, and others in Uharge of Dynamos. By G. W. Lummis*Patbkson.
Third Edition, Revised Crown 8vo, cloth 4/6
" TlM sub|«ct to created in ■ maimer which any intaUigent man who Is fit to be entrusted with
chaise of an engine should be able to undentand. It is a uiefial book to ail who make, tand, or
empioir electik. machinery "-mArcMiKX.
HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF ELECTRICIANS.
In the Operation and Care of Klectrical Machinery a^d Apparatus of the
U. S. Sea-Coast Defences. iiy Gko. L. Anderson j A.M., Captain
U. S. Artillery. Prepared under the direction of the Lieutenant-Gencral
Commanding the U. S. Army. Royal 8vo, cloth . . . Net 21 lO
THE STANDARD ELECTRICAL DICTIONARY.
A Popular Encyclopedia of Words and Terms Used in the Practice of Electrical
Engineering. Containing upwards of 3,000 definitions. By T. O'Conox
Sloans, A.M., Ph.D. Third fixiiiion, with Appendix. Crown 8vo, 6go pp.,
390 Illustrations, cloth Aei 7/6
"The worlc ba» many anractire features ta it, and is, beyond doubt, a well put together and
useftil publication. The amount of ground covered may be gathered from the fact that in the index
about 5,000 relarences will be iouMui7'—£dtaHeat lUvUw.
ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTINQ.
A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on
Installation Management. By J. W. Urquhart. With numerous Illustra-
tions. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Publishtd. 5/0
'* This TotttioK deals with the merh«ntr< of electric lighting, and to aaoiwned to men who
are already engaged in the worlc, or are training for it. The work traversei a great deal of ground,
and may be read as a sequel to the author's useful work on ' Electilc Li^X. —Bkctrieimn.
ELECTRIC LIGHT.
Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directioas for the Treatment of
Djrnamo-Alectric Machines, Batteries, Acctimulators, and Electric Lamps.
By J. W. Urquhart, C.E. Seventh Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/6
** The whole ground of electric lighting to muce or less covered and explained in a Toiy dear
and concise manner, "^A/ec/rioe/ Review,
DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION.
A Practical Handbook for the Use of Engineer-ConstmctOTS and Electricians*
in-Charge. Embracing Framework BuUding, Field Magnet and Armatture
Winding and Grouping, Compounding, &c. By J. W. Urquhart. Second
Edition, Enlarged, with 1x4 Illustration . Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
' Mr. Urquhart's book b the first one which deals with these matten in such a way that the
sagineering student can undentand them. The book Is vmt readable, and the author leads hto
—Jam
reaien up to dlAcuk soblects by raasonably simple xmt^"—Et^itieeriHg Review.
ELECTRIC SHIP-LIOHTINO.
A Handbook on the Practical Fitting and Rtmning of Ships' Electrical Plant
For the Use of Shipowners and Builders, Marine Electricians, and Seagoing
Rngineers-in-Charse. By J. W. Urquhart, C.£. Third Edition, Revised
ana Extended, with 88 Illustrations, Crown 8vc, cloth 7/6
" Mr. Urquhart to to be Qighly complimented for placing such a Taluable work at the service
uf matlne electricians."— 77w Suamsh^.
ELECTRIC LIOHTINO (ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF).
By Alan A. Campbbli. Swinton, M.InstCE., M.I.E.E. Fifth Edition.
With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 1/6
ELECTRIC LIGHT FOR COUNTRY HOUSES.
A Practical Handbook on the Erection and Running of Small Installations,
with Particulars of the Cost of Plant and Working. By J. H. Knight.
Third Edition, Revised. Crown Bvo, wrapper . 1/0
HOW TO MAKE A DYNAMO.
A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing Illustrations and Detailed
Instructions for Constructing a Small Dynamo to Produce the Electric Light.
By Alfred Crofts. Sixth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth . 2/0
THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY.
By H. M. Noad, F.R.S. 650 pp., with 470 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth.
0/0
26 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S' SON'S CATALOGUE.
ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, ETC.
SPECIFICATIONS IN DETAIL.
By Frank W. Macey, Architect, Author vf "Conditions of Contract."
Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, containing 644 pp., and 3,000 Iltustn-
tions. Royal 8 vo, cloth. {Just Pudluhtd. iVV/ 21/0
SUMMARY OF CONTENTS:— GBNBRAL NOTBS riNCLUDINC POINTS IN SPRCIPIC \TION
WRrriNO, THE ORDRR OF A SPECIFICATION, AND NOTBS ON ITBMS OFTEN OMfTTRD
FROM A SPECIFICATION).— Form of Outside Cover to a specification.— specifica-
tion ( h Works and List of ge>eral conditions.— preliminary iTbMS aNCLiroiNc
shoring and House Bkeakbri.— Drainage (incuto'NG Rain-water Wells and
Reports).— Excavator (including concrete Floors, roofs. Stairs, and wallsi.
—Pavior.— BRICKLAYER (iNcn;niNG flintwork, Rivbr and other Walling. Spring-
water Wells, Storagf TA^KS. Fountains. Filters, Terra Cotta and Faience).—
Mason.— Carpenter, Joiner and ironmonger (including Fencing anh Pilin'^i.—
Smith and Fuunper (including Heating, F'rb hydrants, stahi e and Cow-housb
FrmNG8».—SLATFR (including slate Masonk—Tilnr. -Stone Tilfr.-shingler.—
Thatcher. — Plumber (including Hot-watbr worki. — Zincworkbr. — C'^^ppbr-
SMrrH. — PLASTEkBR. — CaSF IFTEk. — BELLHANGBR. — GLAZIBR. — PAINTER.— P« PBR-
HANGBR. — GBNBRAL REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS— VENTILATION. — ROAD-MAKING
FLECiRic Lighting.- INDEX.
PRACTICAL BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.
A Handbook for Students Prepariiu; for ExaminMioos, and a Book of
Reference for Persons Engaged in Buildin|(. By John Parnbll Allxn,
Surveyor, Lecturer on Building Construction at the Durham College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Fourth Edition, Revised and £nlvi;ed.
Medium 8vo, 570 pp., with over x,ooo Illustrations, cloth . AV/ 7/6
" The noet oonplate espcMhloo of bulldliic consanctkio tre have intw It oontafaii aD tbat is
neccauiy to piepan Mudems for tlie Tsiloas eTamlnarions in boUdhig cooti ucUoa. "Sm'fdiHe
News.
" The author depends nearly as mnch od hit dhsrams as on his type. The pases •ogi
the hand of a man of experience In buOdinsf operations and the Tohune most be a oieiaing to
many taachera as well as to studentf."— 7iW Arckittct.
PRACTICAL MA50NRY.
A Guide to the Art of Stone Cutting. Comprising the Construction, Setting
Out, and Working of Stairs, Circular Work, Arches, Niches, Domes, Penden-
tivesj VaulL«i, Tracery Windows, ftc. ; to which are added Supplements
relating to Masonry Estimating and Quantity Surveying, and to Building
Stones and Maibles, and a Glossary of Terms. For the Use of Students,
Masons, and Ciaftsmen. By William R. Purchasb, Building Inspector to
the Borough of Hove. Fifth Edition, EnlM-^ed. Royal 8vo, %7& pp., with
se Lithographic Plates, comprising over 400 Diagrams, doth.
\]i»ai PuUisfud. Net JIB
" The book Is apractical treatise on the subject, the author hlmaelf having cooimcnced as m
operadve mason, and afterwards acted as foreman mason on many \axg9 and unportant balkfin(;<i
prior to the attahiment of bis present position. Most of the examples jo^en are from actual vork
tarried out. It should be found of gaieral utility to architectund students and otben, as well as to
thoae to whom it la specially addressed."— T^wmo/ q/'tfu RaytU MstUutt ^BriUxh ArthiUctx.
MODERN PLUMBING, 5TEAM AND HOT WATER
HBATINQ.
A New Practical Work for the Plumber, the Heating Engineer, the Architect,
and the Builder. By J. T. Lawler, Author of " American Sanitary Plumbing/
&c. With 284 Illustrations and Folding Plates. 4to, cloth . Iftt 21/*
HEATING BY HOT WATER,
VENTILATION AND HOT WATER SUPPLY.
By Walter Jones, M.l.M.E. 360 pages, with 140 Illustration*. Medium
8vo, cloth. {Just Publufud, Net 6 O
CONCRETE: ITS NATURE AND USES.
A Book for Architects, Builders, Contractors, and Clerks of Works. By
Gborgk L. SuTCLirrB, A.R.I. B.A. Second Edition, thoroughly Revised
and Enlarged. 396 pp., with Illustrations. Crown 8vo. cloth.
[/»f / Published. Hit 9/0
" The author treats a <Uillcult subject in a ludd manner. The manual filla a long Wt gap.
It b carefU and exhaustive ; equally uselUl as a student's guide and an aichitect^ boo« of
velarence."— ycmmo/ ^tfu R«ytU InstUtue ^BriHsk Archiuets,
]
ARCHITECTURE, BUtLDtNC, «<. 27
L0CKW00D»5 BUILDER'5 PRICE BOOK for 1905.
A Comprehensive Handbook of the Latest Prices and Data for Builders,
Architects, Engineers, and Contractors. Re*constracted, Re>written, and
Greatly Enlarged. By pRANas T. W. MiLUW. 800 clasely>printed pases,
crown 8vo, dotb. \Jujt Piihlisked 4/0
" Tbli book b ■ very oseftil one, and ihoold find a place fai eveiy F^g^fh office connected
with the buildinfl; and ensnieenns ptofeaalons.''— /M^AftrtKu.
" An azcMWDt book of r«ionoco."^AreMteet
" Cumpik he ishre. rallaUe. well ananged. legible, and wen hamid."~-BrMsk ArthUui.
MEASURING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORK
Slie Student's Guide to the Practice oO* Containing Dbectioos for taking
imensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with
Tables of Constants for v aluation of Labour, and for the Calculation of Areas
and Solidities. Originally edited \xj £. Dobson, Architect. With Additions
by £. W. Tarn, M.A. Seventh Edition, Revised. Crown Bvo, cloth. 7/6
" The most complete neatlae on the principles of measuring and rolumg aitlficen' work."
TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER, AND ESTIMATOR.
For Builders and Surveyors. Containing Technical Directions for Measuring
Work in all the Building Trades, Complete Specifications for Houses, RomIs,
and Drains, and an ^uy Method of Estimating the parts of a Building
collectively. By A. C Bxaton. Ninth Edition. Waistcoat-pocket sixe. 1/6
" No buflder, aichltect, surveyor, or valuer shookl be witbont his * Beaton."*— lAiitfAnr Ntws.
THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR.
Or, What will it Cost to Build. Alter, or Repair? A Price Book for Un-
professiooal People as well as toe Arcnitectnral Surveyor and Bidlder. By
I. D. SmoM. Edited by F. T. W. Miluw, A.R.I.B.A. Fifth Editioo.
Ourefolly Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth Ifti 8/6
" In two years It will repay Its cost a hundred timet ovei."~~FieU.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder. Upon the Basis
of the Work by A Baktholombw, Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to
by F. RoGBKS, Architect. Third Edition. 8vo, cloth ... 1 5/0
" ( )iie of the books with whfch every young architect mntt be equipped."— ^fvMtax:
ARCHITECTURAL PERSPECTIVE.
The whole Course and Operations of the Draughtsman in Drawing a LMTEe
House in Linear Perspective. Illustrated by 43 Folding Plates. By F. O
Fbxguson. Third Edition. 8vo, boards 3/9'
" It is the most intelligible of the treaHses on this ill-treated subject tliat I have met witb."—
E. INGRBSS BBLL, ESQ.. hi the R.LB.A. Journal,
PRACTICAL RULES ON DRAWING.
For the Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By G. Pynb. 4to. 8/6
THE MECHANICS OF ARCHITECTURE.
A Treatise on Applied Mechanics, especisdly Adapted to the Use of Architects.
By E. W. Tarn, M.A., Author of *^ The Science of Building," &c. Second
Edition, Enlarged. Illustrated with xas Diagrams. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/6
" The book is a veiy useful and helpful manual of architectural meclunics."— i7M<Uler.
A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE.
Bein^ a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With
Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickbs, Architect, Author of
" The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, half*morocco, gilt
edges ... £1 lis, 60.
DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE.
By Sir Wiixiam Chambbrs, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and
an Examination or Gkccian AKCKiTBcroitB, by Josbph Gwilt, F.S.A.
Revised and Edited by W. H. Lbb>s. 66 Plates, 4(0, doth . 21/0
THE ARCHITECTS GUIDE.
Being a Text-book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors,
Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. By F. Rogbrs. Crown 8vo. . 8/6
a8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD S' SON'S CATALOGOS.
SANITATION AND WATER SUPPLY-
THE PURIFICATION OF SEWAGE.
Being a Brief Account of the Scientific Principles of Sewaf^e ParUicatt<Mi. and
their Practical Application. By Sidney Rarwisb, M.D. (Lond.)» H.Sc.,
M.R.C.S., D.P.H. (Camb.), Fellow of the Sanitary Institute. Medical Officer
of Health to the Derbyshire County Cnancil S^ond Ed tion, Revised 'nd
Enlarged, with an Appendix on tHe Analvsis of SeN%'age and S wage Effluents.
With numerous Illustrations and Diagrams. Demy 8vo, c oth.
\Jusiptd>luked. H«t 10/6
SirMMARY OF CONTP.NTS : — SE « AGR : ITS NATURE AND COMPCSITIQf. — THE
Chemistry of srwa<;e.— Varieties of sp.wace and the Cha «gbs t U'iderg>es.—
RiVBK Pollution AS its Effects.— thf, i.amd Treatment of sewage.— Precipi-
tation, PRECiPITAVI-S. AvD TA^KS.— THE LlQUEFACTIO"* OF SEWAGE.— PRINCIPLES
INVOLVED IN THE OXIDATION OF SRWAGE.— ARTIFICIAL PROCESS'S OF PURIFICATION.—
AUTOMATIC DlSTRIBl'TORS AND SPECIAL FILTERS —PARTICULARS OF ShWKRACR AHD
Srwacb Disp >sal sch-mes RRQiiiR»-n Bt Local GoVKR^MftNT Board— Useful
Data.— -«*/««r«f/ijr.- Thh Apparatus REQUiRtD for sowacb Analysis.— Standard
Solutions used in the m«thod of SaWAGE analysis.— r«*/«; F.st!matio.n of
Amm )>' I a.— Nitrogen as Nitrates —ivcubator Test, Oxygbn Absorbsd.— To
Co.nvbrt Graims per Gallon lo Parts paR ioo,ooa
THE HEALTH OFFICER'5 POCKET-BOOK.
.\ Guide to Sanitary Practice and Law. For Medical Officers of Health,
Sanitary Inspectors, Members of Sanitary Authorities, &c. By Edward
F. Willoughbt, M.D. (Load.), &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
Fcap. 8vo, leather Nit 10/6
" A mine of condensed tnfonnation of a pertinent and useful kind. The various subjects
of wbich It trrats e.n; succinctly but fully and icienti;i:al>y de«lt with." — Tfu Lanctt.
" We recommend all thu&e eni^jf -id m practical sanitary work to furnish theottelves with a
copy for reference." — Sanitary ycurHal.
WATER AND ITS PURIFICATION.
A Handbook for the Use of Local Authorities, Sanitary Officers, and others
interested in Water Supply. By S. Ridbal, D.Sc. Lond.,^ F.LC. Sea>nd
Edition, Revised, with Auditions, including numerous Illustrations and Tables.
Lar^e Crown 8vo, cloth Net 9/0
RURAL WATER SUPPLY.
A Practical Handbook on the Supply of Water and Construction of Water*
works for Small Country Districts. By Allan Grbbnwbll, A.M.I.C.E.,
andW. T. Currv, A.M.LC.E. Revised Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 6/0
THE WATER SUPPLY OF CITIE5 AND TOWNS.
By William Humbbr, A.M. Inst. C.E., and M.Inst. M.E. Imp. 4to, hxdf*
bound morocco. (See page ix.) Air^ £6 6S>
THE WATER SUPPLY OF TOWNS AND THE CON-
STRUCTION OF WATER-WORKS.
By Professor W. K. Burton, A.M. Inst. C.E. Second Edition, Revised
and Extended. Royal 8vo, cloth. (See page xa) .... £1 0«.
WATER ENOINEERINO.
A Practical Treatise on the Measurement, Storage, Conveyance, and Utilisa*
tion of Water for the Supply of Towns. By C. Slagg, A.M. Inst. CE. 7/6
SANITARY WORK IN SMALL TOWNS AND VILLAGES.
By Charlbs Slagg, A. M. Inst. CE. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 3/0
PLUMBING.
A Text'book to the Practice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. By W. P.
BucKAN. Ninth Edition, Enlarged, with 500 lUusuations. Crown 8vo, 8/6
VENTILATION.
A Text>book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P.
BucHAN, R.P. Crown 8vo, cloth 8/6
CARPSNTR7, TIMBER. «<. 29
CARPENTRY, TIMBER, ETC.
THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLE5 OF CARPENTRY.
A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resistance
of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting
Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Lssay on the Nature
and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used
in Buildmg ; also numerous Tables of the scantlings of Timber for diflferent
piurposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By Thomas Trsdgold, C.E.
with an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron and Stone, IIlus*
trated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly Revised and considerably Enlarged by
E. Wykdham Tarn, M.A., Author of "The Science of Building," &c
With 6x Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In One large
Vol., 4to, cloth £1 6«.
" Ouirht to be in every architect's and every builder's Vtinry."~-B»tiUer.
"A work whose monumental ezceUence must commend it wherever akJlfiil carpentry is
concerned. The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additioEal
plates are of great intrinsic value."— ^Mi^dttfV' A^fw
WOODWORKING MACHINERY.
Its Rise, Progress, and Construction. With Hints on the Management of Saw
Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples
of Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By
M. Powis Balk, A.M.Inst.C.£., M.I.M.E. Second Edition, Revised,
with large Additions, large crown 8vo, 440 pp., cloth .... Q/0
" Mr Bale is evidenthr an expert on the subject, and he has collected to mnch infomuition
that his book is aU-sufficiant for builders and others enlaced In the conversion of timber. "—ArdUttet.
" The most comprehensive compendlujn of wood-worldnK machlnaiy we have innn The
author is a thorough master of his subject."— ^Mtf4<<«v A'inM.
SAW MILLS.
Their Arrangement and Management, aod the Economical Conversion of
Timber. By M. Powis Balb, A.M.Inst.C.£. Second Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, cloth. 1 0/Q
" The odfrnMutrutiaH of a large sawing estabUahment b dbcusaed, and the waMtct evamined
from a financial standpoint. Hence the sixe, shape, order, and disporitlon of saw mUb and the Hke
are gone Into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced firom itk receptioa to Its delivery in its
CQOveited state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise.''— ^Mtf^itrr.
THE CARPENTER'S GUIDE.
Or, Book of Lines for Carpenters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles
essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Pbtbk
Nicholson's standard work. A New Edition, Revised by Aktkur Ashpitbl,
F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by Gborgb Pynb.
With 74 Plates, 4to, cloth £1 1 %,
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILINQ.
Showing New and Simple Methods {or Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing
the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing*up, and Squaring the Wreath. By Gkorcb
CoLUNGS. Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Trbatiss om
Stair-building. Third Edition, with Plates and Diagrams, xamo, cloth.
2/6
" wm be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of Joinery."— ^MtiUer.
*' Almoat every difficuh phase of this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by
the aid of piatea and eatplanatory letterpress. "—FumttMrt GoMtttt.
CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By
Gborgb Collings. With Diagrams. Fourth Edition, lamo, cloth . 2/6
" An exceOent example of what a book of this land should be. Cheap in price, dear in
definition, and practical In the examples selected."— £M»/<irr.
THE CABINET-MAKER'5 GUIDE TO THE ENTIRE
CONSTRUCTION OP CABINET WORK.
By RiCHAKO BiTMBAO. Illustrated with Plans, Sections and Working
Drawings. Ctqwh Qvo, ctoth 2/6
30 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON*S CATALOGUE.
HANDRAILINQ COMPLETE IN EIGHT LESSONS.
On the S<]aare-Cm System. By J". S. Goldtmorf, Teacher of Geometry
and Building Construction at the H^alifaz Mechanics' Institute. With Eii^t
Plates and over 150 Practical Exercises. 4to, cloth .... 8/6
" Likaty to be of considerable Talue to Jotnen and oChen who take a pikla In good work.
The anang«ment of the book is excellent, we bcaitlty commend It to teachcis and smdents."—
Timber Tradtt ycumoL
TIMBER MERCHANT'S and BUILDER'S COMPANION.
Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measure.
ment txT Dexds and Battens, of all sizes, and other Us«ful Tables for the use of
Timber Merchants and Builders. By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition,
Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/0
" We are glad to see a fouith edition of these admirable tables, which for cociectness and
simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desited."-- TVmter TrmJts yomrmai.
THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT.
Being a Guide for the Use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builden, &c.,
comprising useful Tables for all purposes oonnecteid with the Timber Trade,
Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of
Timber, &c. By W. Richardson. Second Edition. Fcap. 8vo, cloth . 3/6
" This handy manual contains much Taluable infonnation for the use of timber merchants,
buflders, foresters, and all othen connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber."—
y«urHal ^f Forestry.
PACKINO-CASE TABLES.
Showing the number of Superficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six
inches square and upwards. By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Third
Edition. Oblong 4to, doth 3/6
" Invaluable labour-saving tables."— /rvwM^fvV'
" Will save much labour and calculation."— (;rMYr.
GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEASUREMENT.
Tables calculated from x to aoo inches in length by x to xo8 inches in breadth.
For the use of Architects, Surveyors^ Engmeers, Timber Merchants,
Builders, &c. By Jambs Hawkings. Fifth Edition. Fcap., cloth. 3/6
" These tablei wiD be found of great assistance to all who require to main calculatioos of
superficial measurement."— fn^/siA Mtckanic.
PRACTICAL FORESTRY.
And its Bearing on the Improvement of Estates. By Charlss B. Curtis,
F.S.I., Professor of Forestry, Field Engineering, and General Estate
Management, at the College of Agriculture, Downton. Second Edition,
Revised. Crown 8vo, cloth 3/6
Prrfatory Remarks. — Objects op planting. — Choice of a Forester. —
Choice of soil and Site.— laving out of Land for plantations.— Preparation
OP the Ground for Planting.— Drainage.— planting.— Distances and disi-ri-
BUTioN OP Trees in plantations.— Trees and Ground Game.— attention after
PLANTING.— Thinning of Plantations — Pruning of Forest Trees.— Realization.
—Methods of Sale.- measurement of Timber.- measurement and Valuation
of Larch Plantation.— Fire Lines.— Cost of Planting.
" Mr. Curtis has fai the course of a series of short pithy chapters aAbrded much informa-
tion of a useful and practical character on the planting and subsequent treatment of trees.'—
/U$uinUed Carptnitr and Builder.
THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY,
Designed to afford Infonnation concerning the Planting and Care of Foce:tt
Trees for Ornament or Profit, with suggestions upon the Creation and Care xA
Woodlands. By F. B. Hough. Large crown 8vo, doth ... 1 0/O
TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANT'S, AND
BUILDER'S STANDARD OUIDB.
By Richard E. Grandv. Comprising: — An Analysts of Deal Standards,
Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangemenu for
fixing Net Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including ail
intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &C., &c ; together with copioos
Informacum for the Retailer and Builder. Thud Edition, Revised. lamo,
doth 2/0
" Everything it pretends to be: buQt up gradually, it leads one ttaax a forest to a treenail, and
throws in, as a imuceweight, a host of material concenuns bricks, columns, dsteras, Scc.''~~Enfiish
Mtckanic.
DSCORATIVS ARTS, S-c. 31
DECORATIVE ARTS, ETC.
SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF
WOODS AND MARBLES.
As Taught and Praaised by A. R. Van dbr Burg and P. Van dbr Bukg,
Directors of th« Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, xS^ by 12^ in.,
Illustrated wiih 24 full-size Coloured Plates ; also Z2 plain Plates, comprising
154 Figures. Fourth Edition cloth Net £l fis.
List of Platbs.
X. Various tools rbquirbo for woou painting.—*, $. walnut : PRBLiMiNAJtY
STACBS OP GRAINING AND FINISHED SPBCIMBN. — 4. TOOLS USBD FOR MARBLB
Painting and mbthod of Manipulation.— s, 6. St. Rbmi marblbj Earlibr
OPRRATIONS AND FiNISKBD SPECIMBN. — 7. METHODS OP SKBTCHING DiPFBRBNT
GRAINS, KNOTS, dcc— a, 9. ASK : PRELIMINARY STAGBS AND FINISHED SPBCI-
MBN. — xa Methods oh Sketching Marble Grains. — xx. xa. Brbchb Marble;
Preliminary Stages of Working and Finished specimen.— x«. Maple ; Methods
OF producing the Differbnt Grains.— i4« 15. Biro's-Eyb maple ; Prbuminary
Stages and Finished Specimen.- i& Methods of Sketching thb Differbnt
Specibs op white Marble.— 17. x& White Marble j Preliminary Stages of
PROCE.SS AND FINISHED SPBCIMBN— X9. MAHOGANY; SPECIMENS OF VARIOUS GRAINS
AND METHODS OF MANIPULATION. —90. 9X. MAHOGANY ; EARLIER STAGES AND
FINISHBD SPBCIMBN.— aa, 33, 24. &IENNA MARBLB: VaRIBTIBS OF GRAIN, PRBUMINARY
STAGRS AND FINISHBD SPBCIMBN.— •$, 96, 97. JUNIPER WOOD; METHODS OF PRO-
DUCING Grain, &c ; prbliminary Stages and Finished Specimen.- aS, ao, yx Vert
DB Mbr Marble; Varieties of Grain and methods of working, Unfinishbd
AND Finished specimens.- sx, 39, «3. oak ; Varieties of Grain, tools Employed
AND methods op MANIPULATION, PRBLIMINARY STAGES AND FINISHED SPECIMEN.—
34, 35. 3&. WaULSORT MARBLE; VARIETIES OF GRAIN, UNFINISHBD AND FINISHBD
SPECIMENS.
"Those who daalre to attain skill In the an of palntixig woods and marblaswiD find advantacw
in consulting this book. . . . Some of the Workug Men's Quos sboukl glv« thair young men
the opportunity to study if'SuiUUr.
" A compfehenstre guide to the ait. The explanations of the proceaaei, the manipulation
and management of the coloun, and the beautifully executed plates win not be the least Tauiable to
the student who alms at making his work a (aithAd transciipt oif nature."— i^MiiUtffV' Nrms.
" Students and novices are fioitunate who aie able to become the poaseason of ao noble a
ELEMENTARY DECORATION.
A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday An. Together with PRACTICAL
HOUSE DECORATION. By Jambs W. Facbv. With ntunerous Illus-
tratiooft. In One Vol., strongly luuf-hoaDd 0/0
H0U5B PAINTING, ORAININO, MARBLING, AND
SIGN WRITING.
A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson. Eighth Edition. With
Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. Crown 8yo, clotL 6/0
" A mass of Ixiformation of use to the amareiir and of Talue to the ptactical iaMML"—£HgrlisA
MttkMHic,
THE DECORATOR'S A55I5TANT.
A Modem Guide for Decorative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers,
Gilders, &c Containing upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules, and Instructions ;
with a variety of Information for General Work connected with every Class of
Interior and Exterior Decorations, &c. Eighth Edition. Cr. 8vo . 1 /O
" FuH of teceipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c The book contains the gist of
larger treatises 00 colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work ao luU
of varied information on the painter s an."—SttiJdtH£ News,
MARBLE DECORATION
And the Terminology of British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for
Students. By Gborgb H. Blagrovb, Author of " Sharing and tu Applica*
tion," &c. with a8 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth .... 3/6
"Thia oaost useful and much waniad handbook should be in the hands of every aichltacx axul
bulkier."— diMUtttiV- tVtrU.
"A carefully and useAiDy written treatise ; the work Is essentially practical."-
32 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S' SON'S CATALOGUE,
DELAMOTTE'8 WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND
ALPHABETS.
ORNAMENTAL ALPHABET5, ANCIENT & MBDIiCVAL.
From the Eighth Century, with Nomenit; tnclndin^ Gothic, Chorch-Text,
large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque. ^ Initials for lUuminauoD,
Monograms, Crosses, &c., for the use of Arcnitecniral and Engineering
Draughtsmen. Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers,
Engravers, Carvers, &c, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Dblamottb,
and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong,
ornamental boards 2/8
" For those who insert eoameUed sentences roond gilded cbattces, who blazon shop legends
over ihop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this boolc will be
osefilL "^A thetueum,
MODERN ALPHABETS, PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL.
Including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew,
Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ;
with several Origmal Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English
Alphabets, large and small^ and Numerals, for the use of Draughtsmen,
Surveyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lith<^raphers, Engravers, Carvers,
&c. Collected ana Engraved by F. Dblamottk, and printed in Colours.
New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, ornamental boards 2/8
" There is comprised in It erery posdble shape Into which the letters of the alphabet and
numerals can be formed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception oftlie Taiious
plain and ornamental letters is woa<iottul."-^Statulard,
MEDIAEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS.
By F. G. Dblamottb. Containing ai Plates and Illuminated Title, printed
in Gold and Colotu^ With an Introduction by J. Willis Bkooks. Fifth
Edition. Small 410, ornamental boards JVet 0/O
'*A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come fbrth glorified in gOdliig and all the
colours of the prism Interwoven and intertwined and intermingled, "--^mm.
A PRIMER OP THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
For the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical
Directions for its Exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS.,
printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Dblamottb. New and Cheaper
Edition. Small 4to, ornamental boards SIO
" The examples of ancient MSS. reopmmended to the student, which, with much good aense.
the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knoiriedge as
wen as taste"— ^/A«n«Mm.
THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN.
Containing Initials.^ Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Bocders.
Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modem Alphabets, and Natiooai
Emblems. Collected by F. Dblamottb, and printed in Colours. Oblong
royal 8vo, ornamental wrapper JVet 2.0
** The book win be of great assistance to ladies and jroung chlldroa who are endowed wltli
the art of plying the needle in tUs most ornamental andussAtl pretty wotk.'''—£ast Am^Uoh TVmws.
WOOD-CARVINQ FOR AMATEUR5.
With Hints on Design. By A Lady. With zo Plates. New and Cheaper
Edition. Crown 8vo, in emblematic wrapper 2/0
" The handicraft of the wood-carver, so wdl as a book can impast it, may be leant tmm. * A
Lady's ' publication."— ^IA<N«MM.
PAINTING POPULARLY EXPLAINED.
By Thomas John Gullick, Painter, and John Timbs, F.S.A. Indtiding
Fresco. Oil. Mosaic, Water-Colour, Water-Glass, Tempera, l^pfrnfrir.
Miniature, Painting on Ivory, Vellum, Ponery, Enamel, Glan, ftc Fifth
EUlition. Crown 8vo, cloth fl/Q
**• Adopted as a Priu Book at South KtnsimgUm.
" Much may be learned, even by thoee who fancy they do not require to be taoght, from the
carelUl perusal of this unpretending but comprehensiTe treatise."— ^rr7n«nMA
NATURAL SCIENCE, An. 33
NATURAL SCIENCE, ETC.
THE V151BLE UN1VBR5B.
ChapCen 00 the Origin and Constniction of the Heavens. By J. B. Goas,
F.R.A.S., Aothor of" Star Groaps," &c Illostrated by 6 Stellar PhoCographs
and la Platef. Demy 8vo, doth 1 6/0
STAR GROUPS.
A Student's Guide to the Constellations. By J. Bllaxd GokKi F.R.A.S.,
M.R.I.A.. ftc., Author of "The Visible Universe,'* "The Scenery of the
Heavens,'' ftc With 30 Maps. Small 4to, cloth 6/0
AN ASTRONOMICAL GLOSSARY.
Or, Dictionary of Terms used in Astronomy. With Tables of Data and Lists
of Remarkable and Interesting Celestial Objects. By J. Ellakd Gorb,
F.R.A.S., Author of " The Visible Universe," &c Small crown 8vo, doth.
THE MICROSCOPE.
Its Construction and Management. Induding Technique. Photo-micrography,
and the Past and Future of the Microscope. By Dr. Hbnri van Hsukck.
Re^Edited and Augmented from the Fourth French Edition, and Translated
by Wtnnx £. Baxtss, F.G.S. Imp. 8vo, doth .... 1 B/O
A MANUAL OP THE MOLLUSCA.
A Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. WooDWAaD, A.L.S.,
F.G.S. With an Appendix on Rscbnt and Fossil Conchological
DiscovBKiBS, bv Ralph Tats, A.L.S., F.G.S. With 93 Plates and
upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint d Fourth Edidon (z88o). Crown 8vo,
doth 7/6
THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION.
Or, Geology and Genesis, their Perfect Harmony and Wonderfol Concord.
ByG. W. V. lbVaux. 8vo, doth 6/0
LARDNER'S HANDBOOKS OP SCIENCE.
HANDBOOK OP MECHANICS.
Enlarged and re-written by B. trOKwr, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, doth . 6/0
HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS.
Revised and Enlarged by B. Lobwt, F.R.A.S. Post 8vo, doth . 6/0
HANDBOOK OP HEAT.
Edited and re-written by B. Lokwt, F.H.A.S. Post 8vo, doth . 6/0
HANDBOOK OP OPTICS.
New Edition. Edited by T. Olvkr Harding, B. A. Small 8vo, doth 6/0
ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS.
Edited by Gro. C. Fostsr, B.A. Small 8vo, doth . . •6/0
HANDBOOK OP ASTRONOMY.
Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunk IN, F.R. A. S. 8vo, doth . . 9/6
MUSEUM OP SCIENCE AND ART.
With upwards of 1,900 Engravings. In Six Double Volumes, £1 1 a. Cloth,
or half-morocco £1 11a. 6d.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS . . 3/6
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS . 36
THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH.
Revised by E. B. Bright, F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo, doth 2/6
34 CROSBY LOCK WOOD <ft- SON*S CATALOGUE.
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES,
CHEMISTRY, ETC.
THE OIL FIELDS OP RU55IA AND THE RUSSIAN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY.
A Practical Handlx)ok on the Exploration, Exploitation, and Management
of Russian Oil Properties, including Notes on the Origin of Petroleum in
Russia, a Description of the Theory and Practice of Liquid Fuel, and a
Translation of the Rules and Regulations concerning Russian Oil Properties.
By A. Beedy Thompson', A.M.LM.E., late Chief Engineer and Manager of the
European Petroleum Company's Russian Oil Properties. Ahout 500 pp., with
numerous Illustrations .ind Photographic Plates, and a Map of the BaiaJchany-
Saboontchy- Romany Oil Field. Super-royal 8vo, cloth.
i/usi PtUflisktd. Net £3 3s.
THE ANALYSIS OF OILS AND ALLIED 5UB5TANCB5.
Bv A. C. Wright, M A.Oxon., B.Sc.LoDd., formerly Anistant Lecturer in
Chemistry at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, and Lecturer in Chemistry at the
Hull Technical School. Demy 8vo, cloth N§t 9/0
THB QA5 BNQINBBR'S l>OCKET-BOOK«
Comi^rising Tables, Notes and Memoranda relating; to the Manofikcton,
Distribution and Use of Coal Gas and the Construction of Gas Works. By
H. O'Connor, A.M.In8t.C.B. Second Edition, Revised. 470 pp., crown Bvo,
fully Illustrated, leather 10/S
" The book contains a vast amount of faiformatlon. The author goes consecndvdjr through
the engineering details and practical methods involved in each of the different proceMea or peits
of a gas-works. He has certainly succeeded in making a compilation of hara matteis of feet
itely interesting to read."— ^raj tyorld.
" The volume contains a great quantity of specialised informatloii. compOed, vre beUeve, fram.
amiy s
absolutely interesting to read."— ^raj tyorld.
at qua
trustworthy sources, which should make it of consideiable vahie to those for whooi It b sperlfaaiiy
produced. —£H^M/#r.
LIQHTINQ BY ACETYLENE
Generators, Burners, and Electric Fnmaoes. By William E. Gibbs, M.E.
With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth 7/8-
ENQINEERINQ CHEMISTRY.
A Practical Treatise for the Use of Analytical Chemists, Engineers, Iron
Masters. Iron Founders, Students and others. Compruun^ Methods ctKaalyux
and Valuation of the Principal Materials used in Engineering Work, widi
numerous Analyses, Examples and Suggestions. By H. Joshuhi Phiixips,
F.I.C., F.C.S. Third Ediuon, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 490 «).,
with Plates and other Illustrations, cloth. .... N*t 10/8
"In this work the author has renderad no small service to a numerous bodjr of practical
men. . . . The analytical methods may be pronounced most ntkfectory. being as aocnnte as th*
despatch required ui engineering chemuts permits. "--C4»/iirfna/ Nnu.
" The analytical methods given are, as a whole, such as aA Ukely to give rapid aad tntst-
wofthy results in experienced hands. . . . There is much exceOant deaciiptive matter in the work.
the chapter on ' Oils and Lubrication ' being spedalljr noticeable tai this 1
N ITRO- EXPLOSIVES.
A Practical Treatise concerning the Properties, Manufacture, aad Analysis,
of Nitrated Substances, includmg the Fulminates, Smokeless Powders, and
Celluloid. By P. Gkrald Sanford, F.I.C, Consulting Chemist to the Cotton
Powder Company, Limited, ftc. With Illustrations. Crown Bro, doth. 9/0
One of the very few text-books fai which can be found Just what Is wanted. Mr. Sanford
tlie
goes steadily through tne whole list of explosives commonlv used, he names any given exploalve,
andtdhusof what It b composed and how It bmanufactureo. The tiook t» mwmLuu''-^£ti£iiutr.
A HANDBOOK ON MODERNIEXPL05IVE5.
A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Use of Dynamite. Gun*Cottoo,
Nitro>Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds, including Collodion-Cotton.
With Chapters on Explosives m Practical Application. By M. Eisslbb, M.B.
Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/8-
" A veritable mine of inCotmatian on the subject of explosives employed for military, minias
and blasting purposes."— ^rmy tmtl Navy GajuUe. ^
CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES, CHEMISTRY. Sa. 33
A MANUAL OP THB ALKALI TRADE.
Including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching
Powder. By John Lomas, Alkali Manufacturer. ^ With 333 Illustrations
and Working I^awings. Second Edition, with Additions. Super-royal 8vo,
cloth £1 lOa.
** We find not meffeiy a sound and luminous explanation of the chemical principles of the
mde, but a notice of numerous matters which have a most important bearing on the successful
conduct of alkali works, but which are Keactally overlooked by even experienced technological
DANQER0U5 QOOD5.
Their Sources and Properties, Modes of Storage and Transport. With Notes
and Comments on Accidents arising therefrom. A Guide for the Use of
Government and Railway Officials, Steamship Owners, ftc. By H. Jo6HI7a
Phillips, F.I.C, F.C.S. Crown 8vo, 374 pp., cloth .... 9/0
** Merits a wkls dicalaelon, and aa InteIHgeiit, appcecUtlva study.*— CAcinftw/ JMnar.
THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOOY, Etc.
Containing all known^ Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, manv Working
Examples, ^d Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Colonel W. A.
Ross, R.A., F.G.S. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 6/0
** The student who goes conscientiously through the coune of experimentation here aid down
win gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had * got up ' any of the
best tSKt-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their cootents. *^CAr»w<c«/
.Vi
THE MANUAL OP COLOURS AND DYE-WARE5.
Their Properties. Applications, Valuations, Impurities and Sophistications.
For the Use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c By J. W. Slatsr.
Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/S
** There Is no other work which coven precisely the same ground. To students preparing
4or aamlnadons In dyeing and printing it wiU pvora exceedingly useful"— CAMMiea/ Ntms,
A HANDYBOOK POR BREWER5.
Being a Practical Guide to the Art of Brewing and Malting. ^ Embracing the
Condusions df Modem Research which bear upon the Practice of Brewing.
By Hbrbbrt Edwards Wright, M.A. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown
8vo, 530 pp., cloth ... ... ... 1 2/6
** May be consulted with advantage by the student who te preparing himself for examinatiotiBl
whDe the scientific brewer will find in it a rtiufn^ of all the most important discoteries of
a times. The work te written throughout In a clear and concise manner, and the author
great can to discriminate between vague fhoorlea and well-established iacts "^Brtwtr^
** We have great pleasure In reconimen<Ung this handy book, and have no hesitation In saying
that It H one of the best— if not the best— which has yet been written on the subject of beer-brewing
la tiUs coontiy ; It shoold have a place on the shelves of evefy brewer's ttbcsry.**— ^rvnwP
PUEL5: SOLID, LIQUID, AND OA5EOU5.
Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By
H. J. Phillips, F.C.S. . formerlv Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the
G.B. Rlwy. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/0
: to have Its place fai the laboratory of every metallurgicai establishment and wherever
ftoal Is ased~oo a Isria scaiis." Cktmtttml Nwws.
THE ARTI5T5* MANUAL OP PIGMENTS.
Showing their Composition. Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and
Adulterations, &c, with Tesu of Purity. By H. C. Standagb. Third
Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth 2/6
** This work is Indeed inw/ZMwu'w^rwr. and we can. with good conscience, reeommeBd It to
aB who coaM la contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers, or use«s."— CArwrrfoa/ Xtview,
A POCKET-BOOK OP MENSURATION AND QAUQINQ.
Containing Tables. Rules, and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers,
Spirit Merchants. &c. By J. B. Mant, Inland Revenue. Second Edition,
Revised. i8mo, leather 4/0
•' SlMukl be tai the hands of every piactical biewet.'— Smwrf* Ttmnrnt,
C 2
36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD «• SON'S CATALOGUE.
INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADES, AND
MANUFACTURES.
THE CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION OF PARA
RUBBER.
By W. H. Johnson, F.L.S., F R.H.S., Director of Agriculture, Gold Coast
Colony, West Africa, Commissioned by Government in 1903 to visit Ceylon to
Study the Methods employed there in the Cultivation and Preparation of
Para Rubber and other Agricultural Staples for Market, with a view to Intro-
duce them into West Africa. Demy 8vo, cloth, i/ust PuAihhed, Net 7/6
Si;mma,ry op CoNrBNTS: — iNrRouucTORV. — thb Para Rubber Trrb iHevea
brasilitnsis) AT HOMR and ABROAD.— CULTIVATION OF THR TRHB :— PROPAGATION.—
SiTB FOR PLANTATION.— Distance Apart to plant the Trees.- Transplanting.—
Cultivation.— Insect Phsts and Fungoid disrases.— Collecting the Rubber:
— Various methods Employed in Tapping Rubber Trees. — Flow of Latex
increased by wounding the tree.— how to tap.— the prrparatir»n of rubber
FROM THE LATEX:— Latk.k— Various ^fBTHODS Employed inthr preparation of
RUBBRR.— Suggested Method for Preparing Rubber.— scrap Rubber.— Yield op
Para Rubbbr from CultivatedTrees:—Cevlon.— Malay peninsula —Gold Coast.
West Africa.— Establishment and Maintenance of a Para Ru 'Ber Plantation :—
Ceylon.— Malay peninsula.— Commercial Value of the Oil in Hbvea Sebo&
TBA MACHINERY AND TEA FACTORIES.
A Descriptive Treatise on the Mechanical Appliances required in the
Cultivation of the Tea Plant and the Prraaration of Tea for the Market. By
A. J. Wallis-Tavlkr, A. M. Inst. C.E. Medium 8vo, 468 pp. With ai8
Illustrations Nti 26/0
Summary of Contents.
Mechanical Cultivation or Tillage of the Soil.— Plucking or Gathbrimg
the Leaf.— Tea Factories.- the Dressing, Manufacture, or prbparatiom
op Tea by Mechanical Means. — Artificial withering of the Lkaf.—
Machines for Rolling or Curling the Leap.- Fbrubntinc Procbss. —
Machines for the automatic drying or Firing of the leaf.— Machinbs foe
Non-Automatic Drying or Firing op the Leaf.— Drying or Ffring Machinbs.
— breaking or CUITING, AND SORTING MACHINES.— PACKING THE TBA.— MBANS
of TRANSPORT ON TRA PLANTATIONS.— MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY AND APPARATUS.
—FINAL Treatment of the Tea.- Tables and Memoranda.
" The subject of tea machinery is now one of the fint interest to a large class of peopte, to
whom we strongly commend the \KA\xTM"'-Chafnber of Cemmerct yoummL
" Contains a very full account of the machinery necessary for the proper outfit of a factoiv, wbA
al<M> a description of the prncessec best carried out by this va.9KMsMVi,'''—y»unflS9cit^^Arts,
FLOUR MANUFACTURE.
A Treatiise on Milling Science and Practice. By Frikdrich Kick, Imperial
Reeierun^srath, Professor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial Genaaa
Poljrtechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from Uie Second Enlarged and
Revised Edition. By H. H. P. Powlbs, A.M.Inst.C.E. 400 pp.. with
s8 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, cloth . . £1 6*.
" This invaluable work is, and will remain, thestandvd authority on the science of mOSiic. . . .
The miller who has read and digested this work will have laid the foundatioo, so to speak, ef a
successful career ; he will have acquired a number of general fxlnclples which he can pvocaad to
apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modem nlDinc la good,
found KncUsh. which has little. If any. trace of the German Idiom."— TA^ MilUr
** The appearance of this celebrated work In English is very opportune, and British millers
-Mill, wo are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages."— Am/rrr' G«*eae.
COTTON MANUFACTURE.
A Manual of Practical Instruction of the Processes of Opening, Canfing,
Combing, Drawing, Doubling and Spinning of Cotton, the Methods of
Dyeing, &c. For the Use of Operatives, Overlookers, and ManaCutnrers.
By John Lister, Technical Instructor, Pendleton. 8vo, cloth . . 7/8
" A d'Utinct advance in the literature of cotton manufacture."— AfecMrwvy.
" It is thoroughly reliable, fulfilling neariy all the requirements desifed."— Gteigvir StrmkL
MODERN CYCLES.
A Practical Handbook on their Construction and Repair. By A. T. Waixis-
Taylbr, a. M. Inst. C. E., Author of " Refrigerating Machinery, ''^&c With
upwards of 300 Illustrations. Crown 8 vo, cloth 10/0
"The book will prove a valuable guide for all those who aspire to the manuActuio or
of their owr nuKhlnes. — TAc FieJd.
" A very useful book, which is quite entitled to rank as a standard work for stodeots of cvcis
construction.' — IVJuetitt^.
MOTOR CARS OR POWER CARRIAGES FOR COMMON
ROADS.
By A J. Wallis-Taylkr, A.M.Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 4/6
" A work that an mgineer, thinking of tuming his attention to motor*canlage worir, would
do well to read as a preliminary to starting operations."— j?»^K««n'M;p.
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 37
PRACTICAL TANNING.
A Handbook of Modern ProcesesSi Receipts, and Suggestions for the Treatment
of Hides, Skins, and Pelts of every Description. By L. A. Flemming,
American Tanner. 47a pages. 8vo, cloth Nel 26/0
THE ART OP LEATHER MANUFACTURE.
Beinc a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying,
and Leather Dressing are fully Described, and the Principles of Tanning
E3q>Uuned, and many Recent Processes Introduced ; as also Methods for the
Estimation of Tannm, and a Description of the Arts of Glue Boiling, Gut
Dressing, ftc By Albxandbr Watt. Fourth Edition. Crown 8to. cloth.
9/0
1 A totmd, compnhensl're treatise on tasuiinff and Us accessories. The book is an WDinently
I INXxluctlon, whteh fedounds to the cremt of both author and pubUshen."— CA<mi<«i
aCVMW.
THE ART OP 50AP-MAKINO.
A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilei
Soaps, &C. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of
Glycerine from Waste Leys. By Albxandkr Watt. Sixth Edition,
including an Appendix on Modem Candlemaking. Crown 8vo, cloth . 7/0
" A thoraushly practical treatise. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavout
to fin a Toid in Engflsh technical Uteraturo."— A«iMr#.
"The work will prove vary usehd, not merely to the technological student, but to the
psactlcal soap boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." — Cfutnicai News.
PRACTICAL PAPER-MAKINO.
A Manual for Paper-Makers and Owners and Managers of Paper-Mills. With
Tables, Calculations, &c. By G. Clappbrton, Paper-Maker. With Illus>
trations of Fibres from Micro-Photographs. Crown 8vo, cloth 0/0
" The autlior caters for the requirements of responsible mill hanck, apprentices, Ac. , whilst
his mwp^*** will be found of great service to students of technology, as well as to veteran ^per*
and mlU owners. The illustrations form an excellent feature."— Th* World 's Pt^/tr Tradt
THB>RT OP PAPER-MAKING.
A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto,
Straw, and other Fibrous Materials. Including the Manufacture of Pulp from
Wood Fibre, with a Description of the Machinery and Appliances used. To
which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors.
By Albxandbr Watt. With Illustrations. Crown Svo, cloth . . 7/O
'It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full ofTsluablc
Ion. The ' Art of Paper- Making ' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a
i class, or for the private student. '—Pap*r and Printing Tradts yntmal.
A TREATISE ON PAPER.
For Printers and Stationers. With an Outline of Paper Manufacture ; Complete
TiJ>les of Sizes, and Specimens of Different Kinds of Paper. By Richard
Parkinson, late of the Manchester Technical School. Demy Svo, cloth 8/6
CEMENTS, PA5TB5, OLUE5, AND OUM5«
A Practical Guide to the Manufacture and Application of the various Aggluti*
nants required in the Building, Metal- Working, Wood- Working, and Leather-
Working Trades, and for Workshop and Ottace Use. With upwards of ooa
Recipes. By H. C. Standagb. Third Kdition. Crown Svo, cloth Sf/O
**We have pleasure in speaking favouratilv of this volume. So far as we have had
wbkh Is not inconsiderable, this manual is trustwonhy."— ^M«m>Mm.
THE CABINET-MAKER'S GUIDE
TO IHB BNTIkB CONSTRUCTION OP CABINBT WORK.
Including Veneering, Marquetrie, Buhlwork, Mosaic, Inlaying, &c. By
Richard Bitmbad. Illustrated with Plans, Sections, and Working Drawings.
Small crown Svo, cloth 2/8
FRENCH POLISHINQ AND ENAMELLING.
A Practical Work of Instruction. Including Numerous Recipes for making
Polishes, Varnishes, Glase-Lacquers, Revivers, &c. By Richard Bitmbad,
Author of " The Cabmet- Maker's Guide." Small crown Svo, cloth . 1/6
38 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S' SON'S CATALOGUE.
WATCH REPAIRING, CLEANING, AND ADJUSTING.
A Practical Handbook dealing with the Materials and Tools Used, and the
Methods of Repairing, Cleaning, Altering, and Adjusting all kinds of English
and Foreign M^ntches, Repeaters, Chronographs and Marine Chronometers.
Bv F. J. Garrard, Springer and Adjuster of Marine Chronometers and Deck
Watches for the Admiralty. With over aoo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth.
iV^/ 4/6
MODERN HOROLOGY, IN THEORY AND PRACTICE.
Translated from the French of Claudius Saunibr. ex-Director of the School
of Horology at Macon, by Julien Tripplin, F.R.A.S., Besancoa Watch
Manufacturer, and Edward Kigg, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With
Seventy-eight Woodcuts and Twenty-two Coloured Copper Plates. Scoood
Edition. Super-royal 8 vo, £2 2 •. doth ; half-calf . . £2 10a.
" TiMve is no horologlcal work in the En^riish lanpiag* at all to be cooipaiwl to thhj
tloD of M. SauQier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a gulae for the stira
as a leferance for the experienced horologut and skilled woricman."— /f^rw/qfica/ 7«wrMJL
** The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those tttenury prooiictioiis to which
oonthiental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their Ensliah tuatlisea
—hi tet. the Book of Books is M. Saunter s * Treatise.' "—frmtckmaJktr, ytwtUtr, tmdSihmtamWk
THE WATCH ADJUSTER'S MANUAL.
A Practical Guide for the Watch and Chronometer Adjuster in Making.
Springing, Timing and Adjusting for Isochronism, Positions and Temperatures.
By C. E. Fkitts. 370 pp., with Illustrations, Svo, cloth ... 1 Q/O
THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK.
Intended as a Workshop Companion for those engaged in Watchmaking and
the Allied Mechanical Arts. Translated from the French of Claudius
Saunibr, and enlarged by Juubn Tripplin, F.R.A.S., and Edward Rigo,
M. A., Assayer b the Royal Mint. Third Edition. Cr. Bvo, cloth. . Q/Q
" Each part Is trulv a treatise in itselC The arrangement Is good and the langnsge b dear
and concise. It is an admirable guide for the young inxc\aa»k.vt."^BHgiiU€riti£.
HISTORY OP WATCHES & OTHER TIMEKEEPERS.
By Jambs F. Kbndal, M.B.H. Inst. 1/6 boards; or cloth, gilt . 2/6
" The best which has yet appeared on this subject in the English language."— JMkfMta.
" Open the book where you may, there is interesting matter in it coocemlqg the hgeaioee
devices 01 the ancient or modern horoioger."— ^Sa/Kf1^Jr Rgviem-,
ELECTRO'PLATINQ&ELECTRO'REFININQOPJVIETALS.
Being a new edition of Alexander Watt's " Electro -Dbposition.** Re*
vised and Largely Rewritten by Arnold Philip, B.Sc., A.I.E.E., Principal
Assistant to the Admiralty Chemist. Large Crown 8vo, cloth. . N§i 1 2/6
** Altogether the work can be highly rrcoir mended to every clectro>plater, and Is of m-
doubted interest to every electro-inetaUuigist.''— irVf-r/rica/^mVw.
"Eminently a book for the practical worker in electiDKknMdtiofi. It contains pwrtkil
deacfiptk}ns of methods, processes and materials, as actually puisuea and used In the wodohoix''—
Bngiiutr,
fiLECTRO-METALLURQY.
Practically Treated. By Albxandek Watt. Tenth Edition, including the
most recent Processes, xamo, cloth 8/6
" From this book both amateur and artisan may leain everything necassaiy for the Meeaaafui
prosecution of electroplating."— /r«n.
JEWELLER'S ASSISTANT IN WORKING IN GOLD.
A Practical Treatise for Masters and Woricmen, Compiled from the
of Thirty Years' Workshop Practice. By Gborgb £. Gbb. Crown 8^ 7/6
" This manual of technical educatloa to appanody destined to be a vakiabit
•handicraft which to oeitainly capable of greet hnpro^ement."— TTu Times,
CLECTROPLATINQ.
A Practical Handbook on the Deposition of Copper, Silirar, Nickel, Gold,
Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c., &c. By J. W. Urquhabt, C.E. Foortb
Edition, Revised. Crovm 8vo, cloth. 6/0
" An excellent practical manual."— J^nin'fMvWMr.
** An esceOent work, giving the newest infonnation."— AfrwAirfae/ ytmmml.
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 39
ELECTROTYPINQ.
The Reproduction and MuItipUcaiion of Printing Surfaces and Works of Art
by the Klectro-Deposition of Metals. By J. W. Ukquhast, C.B. Crown 8vo,
doth 5/Q
** The book li thorougl^ practical : the reader Is. thetefote, conducted through the leading
laws of electiicity, then thiougii the metab used by electrotypen, the apparatus, and the depositing^
procenas. up to the final preparation of the work?*— '^rT ^tummi.
iiOLD5MITH'5 HANDBOOK.
By Gborgs E. Gbb, Jeweller, &c. Fifth Edition. lamo, cloth . . 3/0
"A good, sound educator."— #/'«r«<(yin/ Jf^itrruU,
SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK.
By Gborgk E. Gbb, Jeweller, ftc. Third Edition, with numerous Illustra-
tioiu. lamo, cloth 3/0
" The chief meift of the work Is Its practical character. . . . The woricera In the trade will
■paadfly discover Its merits when they sit down to study It." — Engiish Meckanic
*«* Tht abov§ two works togtlhtr^ Mtrongly half-bound^ pries 7s.
5HEET METAL WORKER'5 INSTRUCTOR.
Comprising a Selection of Geometrical Problems and Practical Rules for
Describing the Various Patterns Required by Zinc, Sheet-Iron, Copper, and
Tin-Plate Workers. By Rbubbn Hbnrv Warn, Practical Tin-Plate Worker.
New Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarsed by Joseph G. Horner,
A.M.I.M.E. Crown 8vo, 954 pp., with 430 Illusirauons, cloth . 7/6
SAVOURIES AND SWEETS
Suitable for Luncheons and Dinners. By Miss M. L. Allen (Mrs. A.
Macaire), Author of '* Breakfast Dishes," &c. Twenty-ninth Edition. F'cap
8vo, sewed *! /Q
BREAKFAST DISHES
For Every Morning of Three Month*. By Miss Allen (Mrs A. Macaire),
Author of " Savouries and Sweets," &c. Twenty-second Edition. F'cap 8vo,
sewed -|/0
BREAD & BISCUIT BAKER'S & SUQAR-BOILER'S
A55I5TANT.
Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the Art of
Bread-m^cing. By Robert Wells. Third Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . f /Q
" A larfe number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker. "-^SailMn<ay Rtvitw.
PASTRYCOOK & CONFECTIONER'S OUIDE.
For Hotels, Restaurants, and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family
Use. By R. Wells, Author of " The Bread and Biscuit Baker " . .1/0
** We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition
our veaden cannot do better than puichaae thb book."— Ar^kfr*/ TWnm.
ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY.
A Guide for Bakers. Confectioners and Pastrycooks ; including a variety of
Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With xaa
Original Designs. By Robert Wells. Crown 8vo, cloth 5/0
"A Taloable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confoctloner.
Tba lUustratlve designs are worth treble the amount charged for the work."— AoAtfr'i Timu.
MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER.
Containing a large Collection of Redoes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With
remarks on the Ingredients Used in their Manufacture. By R. Wells. 1/0
" The work is of a decidedly practical chaiacter, and In every recipe ward b had to economical
m9MDfi."—N«rth BrUtsM Daiiy Mail.
RUBBER HAND STAMPS
And the Manimilation of Ruhher. A Practical Treatise on the Manufacture of
Indiarubber Hand Stamps, Small Articles of Indiarubber, The Hektograph,
Special Inks, Cements, and Allied Subjects. By T. O'Conor Sloanb, aTm.,
Ph.D. With numerous Illustrations. Square 8vd, cloth. . , 5/O
40 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &■ SON'S CATALOGUE.
HANDYB00K8 FOR HANDIGRAFT8.
BY PAUL N. HASLUCK.
Editor of " Work " (New Series), Author of " Lathe Work," " Milling Mochbei," ftc
Crown 8vo, 144 pp., price xs. each.
BSr Thts§ Handtbooks havt butt writtm to supplv informoHoH for Wobkmbm.
Students, and Amateurs in the several Handicrafts^ on the actual Practicb cf
the Workshop, and are intended to convey in plain language Tbchnical Know-
LXDGB of the several Crafts. In describing the processes employed, and the mampu-
lotion of material, workshop terms are used ; workshop practice is fully expUumed :
and the text is freely illustrated with drawings of mwUm tools, appliances, ana
processes. __ _ _ _
METAL TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe. With xoo IIlustratioQS.
1/0
" The book will be of wrvice alike to the amateur and the artisan tamer. It dlt|ilaf»
thorouch knowledge of the subject."— &v^mmm.
WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe. With over 100 Illnstracioiu.
1/0
" We recominend the book to young turners and amateun. A multitnde of liuiliinen have
hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special iad\isXxy."--MecMaHicttt H^erld.
WATCH JOBBER'5 HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, aad A4fQSting. With upwards of
zoo Illtistrations • . • • I/O
" We strongly advise all young persons connected with the watch tiade to acqMiie and tcudy
this Inexpensive work."—C/*r/t€wweii ChrcnicU.
PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on the Construction of Patterns for Poanders. With
upwards of 100 Illustrations ^ . .1/0
" A most Taluable, if not indispensable, manual for the pattern 1 ' "
MECHANIC'S WORKSHOP HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation, embracing Infionnatioii
on various Handicraft^ Processes. With Useful Motes and Miscellaneoas
Memoranda. Comprising about aoo Subjects 1 /Q
"A very clever and useful book, which should be found in every workshop; and It shoiHa
cenainly find a place in all technical schools."— Sa/Mnfay JUvttm,
MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on the Construction of Model Steam Bogines. With
upwards of 100 Illustrations I/Q
" Mr. Hasluck has produced a very good little \>OQlk.''—BuiUUr»
CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing, and Adjusting. With upwards of
xoo Illustrations I/Q
" It is of inestimable service to those commencing the trader "'—CovttUry Strnndtn^
CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
A Practical Manual on the Tools, Materials, Appliances, and Procenes
employed in Cabinet Work. With upwards of xoo Illustrations > 1/0
Mr. Hasluck's thorough-going little Handybook is amongtt the moet practical guides we
have seen for beginners in cabmet-work."— SafuriMy Revitw.
WOODWORKER'S HANDYBOOK.
Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes
Employed in Woodworking. With 104 Illustrations I/Q
" Written by a man who knows, not only bow work ought to be done, but how to do It, MM
how to convey his knowledge to <3X)Mn."—EHginteriHg,
" Mr. Hasluck writes admirably, and gives complete Instructions. "•'^ngimatr.
" Mr. Hasluck combines the experience of a practical teacher with the manipulative skill and
scientific knowledge of processes of the trained mechanician, aad the «"»«"«»t ate marvels of what
can be produced at a popular price. "—5cA«0/maxcrr.
"Helpful to workmen ot all ages and degrees of experience."— ZM!^ CAreitick,
" Concise, clear, and practical."— .Sa«Mr<<«y Review.
COMMBRCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES. <ft«. 41
COMMERCE, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK,
TABLES, ETC,
LES50NS IN COMMERCE.
By Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa.
Edited and Revised by Jambs Gault, Professor of Commerce and Commercial
Law in King's College, London. Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth . 8/6
** The publisheis of this wowk hsre rendered conildeimble service lo the cause of commaiclal
edacatloa by the oppottune prodactloa of this volume. . . . The woik Is peculiarly acceptable to
Bagilsh leaders and an admirable addition to mrhting class books. In a phrase, w« think the woifc
attains Its object In furnishing a brief account of those laws and customs of BiWsh trade wteh which
tlie cooamercial man interested therein should be familiar. "— CAaiwArr ^Comtrntrct journal,
" An invaluable guide In the hands of those who are preparing for a conunenul career, and.
In fhct, the infoimatloa it contains on matters of busineH atiould be fanprassed on every one."—
CttmHng HouM,
THE PORBIQN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT.
Being Aids to Commercial CorresfMndence in Five Languages— English,
French, German, Italian, and Spanish. By Conrad E. Bakks. Third
Edition, Carefully Revised Throughout. Crown 8vo, cloth . . 4/0
" Whoever wishes to conespond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do
better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They
: not of entire specimen letters, but— what are fu more useful— short passages, sentences, or
s exprassing the same general idea in various forms."— ^M#m«mipi.
" A carefiil examination has convinced us that It Is unusually complete, weO arranged and
leBabia. The book is a thoroughly good one. "—^chootmmsUr,
FACTORY ACCOUNTS: their PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE.
A Handbook for Accountants and Manufisctnrers, with Appendices on the
Nomenclature of Machine Details; the Income Tax Acts; the Ratine of
Factories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c.,
including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings.
By Emila Garckk and J. M. Fblls. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlargol.
Demy 8vo, cloth 7/6
" A very Interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . The principle
of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books Is one which we thoroughly
agree with."— ^ciWMwAiM/r' y^Hrftal.
" Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of factories who would not
derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable •wKthL.''—LocmlG0vtmmtnt Chr»n4cU.
MODERN METROLOGY.
A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the present Century. With
an Appendix . containing a proposed English System. By Lowis D. A.
Jackson, A. M. Inst. C. £., Author of " Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large
crown 8vo, cloth 1 2/6
" We recommend the work to all interested in the practical reform of our weights and
A SERIE5 OP METRIC TABLE5.
In which the British Standard Meastires and Weights are compared with those
of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. Dowling,
C.E. 8vo, cloth 10/6
" Mr. DowUng's Tables are well put together as a ready recfconec for the conversion of one
Into the Q/tbmi"—AUumnttn.
IRON AND METAL TRADE5' COMPANION.
For Expeditiously Ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by
Weight, from is. per cwt. to zias. per cwt., and from one fisrthing per pound to
one shilling per pound. By Thomas Downis. Strongly bound in leather,
396 pp 0/0
" A most useful set of Ubles. nothing like them before maia)titA."—BuUdiMr Ntwt.
'* Although specially hdapced to the iron and metal trades, the Ubles will be found uselbl ia
•very odier buSness in which merchandise b bought and sold \3y weight."- ^a^/aw> Acw/.
42 CROSBY LOCKWOOD ^ SON'S CATALOGUE.
NUMBER, WEIGHT, AND FRACTIONAL CALCULATOR.
Containing npwards of 950,000 Separate Calcalattoos, showing at a Glance the
Value at 439 Different Rates, ranging from T^^ith of a Penn^ to aos. each, or per
cwt., and £vo per ton, of any number of articles consecutively, from x to 470.
Any number ot cwtsi^ ors., and lbs., from i cwt. to 470 cwts. Any nnmbcr of
tons, cwts., qrs., and lbs., from x to x,ooo tons. By William Chadwicx,
Public AccountanL Fourth Edition, Revised and Improved. 8vo, stroogly
bound 18/6
" It Is u easy of reference for any answer or any Dumber of uiswen as a dlctionaiy. For
inakln^ up accounts or osdniates Um book must prove mTaluable to all wbo have any conricierabie
quantity of calculations InTolvine price and measure in any combination to do." — Bn^tutr.
" The most perfect work of the kind yet preperad."— CAu^ww Htrald,
THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR.
Being a Series of Tables upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at
one Reference the exact Value of any Weight from x lb. to 15 tons, at 300
Prc^essive Rates, frt>m \di, to i6Ss. per cwt., and containing x86.ooo Direct
Answers, which, with their Combinations, consisting of a angle additioo
(mostly to be performed at sightX will afford an aggregate (H xo,a66,ooo
Answers ; the wnole being calciuated and designed to ensure conrectncss and
promote despatch. By Hbnrv Harbbn, Accountant. Sixth Edition, carefully
Corrected. Royal 8vo, strongly half-bound £1 ff ••
" A practical and useful work of reference for men of boslncai generally. "— /rwnwgiMy .
" Of priceless value to busineaa nten. It is a neceasaiy book fai all meecantfle oBces."—
Sh^gUtd indt^tndtni.
THE DISCOUNT GUIDE.
Comprising several Series of Tables for the Use of Merchants, Manufaanicra,
Ironmongers, and Others, by which maybe ascertained the Exact Profit arising
from anv mode of usins Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, ana
the method of either Altering a Rate of Discount, or Advancing a Price, so as
to produce, by one operation, a sum that will realise any required Profit tthitx
allowing one or more Discounts : to which are added Taoles of Profit or
Advance from x^ to 90 per cent.. Tables of Discount from x^ to 98] per cent.,
and Tables of Commission, ftc, from | to xo per cent. By Hbnrv Harbbn,
Accountant. New Edition, Corrected. Demy 8vo, half-bound . £1 ffs.
" a book such as this can only be appreciated by busincas men. to whom the saving ef tkaa
means saving of money. The work must prove of great value to merchants. manuCKtuien, aad
general traders."— ^rttCrA Trad* JcurHoi,
TABLE5 OP WAQB5.
At 54i 5't 50 Mid aZ Hours per Week. Showing the Amounts of Wages from
One quarter of an hour to Sixty-four hours, in each case at Rates of Wages
advancing by One Shilling from 4s. to 555. per week. By Thos. Garbutt,
Accountant. Square crown Svo, half-bound 8/0
IRON-PLATE WEIGHT TABLES.
For Iron Shipbuilders, Engineers, and Iron Merchants. Containing the
Calculated Weights of upwards of 150,000 diflferent sises of Iron Plates from
I foot by 6 in. by | in. to xo feet by s feet by x in. Worked out on the Basis of
40 lbs. to the square foot of Iron of x inch in thidtness. By H. Burunsom
and W. H. Simpson. 4to, half-bound £1 ffa«
ORIENTAL MANUALS AND TEXT-BOOKS
Notice, Messrs. Crosby Lockwood & Son will forward on application a New
and Revised List of Text-books and Manuals for Students in Oriental
Languages, many of which are used as Text-books for the Examinations for the
Indian Civil Service and the Indian Staff Corps; also as Class Books in
Colleges and Schools In India.
AGRICULTURE. FARMING. GARDENING, ««.
43
AGRICULTURE, FARMING,
GARDENING, ETC.
THE COMPLETE GRAZIER AND FARMER'S AND
CATTLB BRBBDBR'S ASSISTANT.
A Compendium of Husbandry. Originally Written b^ William Yo17ATT.
Fourteenth BUiition, entirely Ke-written, considerably Enlarged, and brought
up to Present Requirements, by William Frbam, LL.D., Assistant Com*
missioner, Royal Commission on Agriculture, Author of " The Elements of
Agriculture," &c. Royal 8vo, z,ioo pp., 450 Illustrations, handsomely bound.
£1 Il«. 60.
BOOK. I. ON THB VaRIBTIBS, BRBBDING,
Rbarinc, Fattbning and Manacb*
UBMT OP CaTTLB.
Book ii. on thb economy and Man-
acbmbnt op thb dairy.
SOCK III. ON THB BRBBDING. RBARIMG.
AMD MANAGBMBNT OP HORSBS.
SOCK IV. ON THB BRBBDING, RBAKINC,
AMD FATTBNING OP SHBBP.
Book v. on thb Brbbding, rbakjng.
amd fattbning op swinb.
book vi. on tub disbasbs op uvb
STOCK.
BOOK VII. ON THB BRBBDING, RBARINC
AND MANAGBMBNT OP POULTRY.
Book Vlii. on Farm Oppicbs and
IMPLBMBNTS OP HUSBANDRY.
BOOK IX. ON THB CULTURB AND MAN-
AGBMBNT OP Grass Lands.
Book x. on thb Cultivation and
APPLICATION OP GRASSBS. PULSB AND
Roots.
Book XI. On Manurbs amd thbir
Application to Grass Land and
CROPS.
Book xil. monthly calbndars op
Farmwork.
** Dr. FuBBin Is to be congvatulated on the auccesBfuI sttempt he has made to give us a woik
frtilch will at once become the standoxd classic of the turn practice ot the comitiv. We believe
-that It will be found that it has no compeer axaoog the many works at present In exmence. . . .
The Ubutiations are admirable, while the frontispiece, which represents the well-Imown buU,
New Year's Gift, bred by the Queen, is a work of art "— TJu Tttm*.
** The book must be recognised as occupyfaig the proud position of the most exhaustlre work
■of Psiwrence in the English language on the subject wHh which it deals."— >fM«furMj*«.
** The most comprehensive guide to modem &rm practice that exists in the EngUsh language
to^lay. . . . The book is one that ought to be on every turn and in the library of every land
owner, "—ifenk Lan4 Ejc^rtss.
*' In point of exhaustiveness and accuracy the work will certainly hold a pre.emlnent and
uilque podtion among books dealing with sdendfic agricultural practke. It is, in fact, an agiicul-
tuid Ubnuy of ItseU'^—Ar^rM Briitsh AgricuitHrist.
FARM Live 5T0CK OF GREAT BRITAIN.
By Robert Wallace, F.L.S., F.R.S.E., &c. Professor of Agricultare and
Rural Economy in the Univ«rsity of Edinourgh. Third Edition, thoroughly
Re^nsed and considerably Enlarged. With over zao Phototypes of Prise
Stock. Demy 8vo, 384 pp., with 79 Plates and Maps, doth. . 1 2/6
** A really complete work on the history, breeds, and management of the fwm stock of Great
Britaia, and one vddch Is likely to find Its way to the shelves of every country gentleman's Hbrary."
^Ttu T\fm€s.
"The * Farm Live Stock of Great Britain' Is a productloa to be proud of, and Its Issue not the
4east of the services which its author has rendered to agricultural science."— SmMtA Farmer,
NOTE-BOOK OP AGRICULTURAL FACTS & FIQURES
FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS.
By Primross McConnbll, B.Sc.. Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural
Society. Author of "Elements of Farming." Seventh Edition, Re-written,
Revised, and greatly Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, 480 pp., leather, gilt edges.
\Just Published. Net 7/6
CONTENTS :— Surveying and Levelling.— weights and Measures.- Machiner y
.and Buildings. — Labour. — Operations. — Draining. — embanking. — Geological
Memoranda. — Soils. — Manures. — Cbopping. — Crops.— Rotations. — Weeds. —
Feeding.— Dairying.— Live stock.— Horses.- Cattle. — shebp.—pigs.— Poultry.— *
torbstry.— Horticulture.— Miscellaneous.
** Ko farmer, and certainly no agricultural student, ought to be without this tmUtum-in^mrvo
maaaal of all subjects connected with the term."— A^rc* British Africutturist.
** This little pocket-book pontains a large amount of useful infonnation upon all kinds of
agricultural subjects. Something of the kind has long been wanted."— iVarA Lant Exptess.
"The aBo«mt of Information It contains Is aMst surpiUng ; the arrangement of the matter is
ao metho<Bral although socompreised-as to belnteBlglMe to eyeriioaewtio takes a glance throegh
« pages. They teem with information."— ^anw and Home,
THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURAL QEOLOOY.
A Scientific Aid to Practical Fanning. By Prim rose McConnsll. Author of
"Note- Book of Agricultural Facts and Figures." 8vo, cloth . Net 21/Q
"On every page the work bears the impress of a masterly knowledge of the subjea dealt
with, and we have notJihig but unstinted praise to offer. '*—/vv/</.
44 CROSBY LOCKWOOD «• SON'S CATALOGUE.
BRITISH DAimriNQ.
A Handjr Volnme on tbe Work of tbe Dairy-Fnrm. For the Uae of TecbnloJ
Instruction Classes, Students in AgricultnnJ Colleges and the Working Dairy-
Fanner. By Prof. J. P. Shbldom. With Illustrations. Second Bdation.
Revised. Cfrown 8vo, cloth 2/o
" Confidently racominended as a oaaAil text 'book on djdvy fanolnff."— ^^rfcwAhcns/
** PiobaUy toe best half-crown manual on daliy woik that has yet bean produced."
MHMsk AgrUuUurisL
"It b the Mundeit Utile work we have yet seen on tiie subject.''— 77l« Times.
MILK, CHEESE, AND BUTTER.
A Practical Handbook on their Properties and the Processes of their Produc-
tion. Including a Chapter on Cream and the Methods of its Separation firom
Milk. By Tohn Oliver, late Principal of the Western Dairy Institute,
Berkeley. With Coloured Plates and aoo Illustrations. Crown 8vo, cloth.
7/a
" An exhanitlTe and maateiiy productkm. It may be cordially racommeaded to all ttudaits
and ptacdtlonen of dairy science.' —AVrM BriHsk AgricuUurist
" We recommend this very compreheosiTe and careluUy- written book to dalry.fiumeis and
students of dairying. It ii a dlstioct acquisition to the library of the agriculturist. "-^/riCMiewni/
SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING.
Or, The Lessons of My Farm. Being an Introduction to Modem Farm
Practice for Small Farmers. By R. Scott Burm, Author of "Outlines of
Modem Farming," &c. Crown 8vo, cloth O/O
" This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur fiumer
will read with pleasure, and accept as a guide."— /'ilc/rf.
OUTLINES OP MODERN FARMING.
By K. Scott Burn. Soils, Manures, and Crops — Farming and Farming
Economy — (Rattle, Sheen, and Horses — Management of Dairy^ PigSi uiid
Poultry — Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One
Vol., 1,950 pp., half-bound, profusely Illustrated 12/0
FARM ENQINEERINQ, The COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK of.
Comprising Draining and Embanking | Irrigation and Water Supplv ; Farm
Roads, Fences and Gates ; Farm Buildmgs ; Barn Implements and Machines;
Field Implements and Machines ; Agricultural Surveving, &c. Bv Professor
John Scott. In One Vol., 1,150 pp., halMiotmd, with over 600 Illustrations.
12/0
"Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and abiHty. The author has done his
woric wen ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested Us ttatemcots.
The volume will be of great value to agricultural students."— J/«r4 Lant Exfrtss,
THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
A Text- Book of Agriculture. Adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and
Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By Hugh
Clements (Board of Trade). Second Edition, Revised, with Additions.
i8mo, cloth 2/6
" It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or wiilch contabw
such a vast and useful fund of Imowledge." — EducatioKai TimtM.
TABLES and MEMORANDA for FARMERS, ORAZIERS,
AORICULTURAL 5TUDBNT5, PURVEYORS, LAND AQBNTA,
AUCTIONBBR5, &c.
With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. By Sidney Francis. Fifth
Edition. 979 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, limp leather . . '1/6
" Weighing less than 1 oc, and occupying no more space than a match-box, it contains ai
of ftcts and calculations which has never beiore, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every
operation on tlte farm is dealt with. The worIc may be taken as thorougiily accurate, the whole of
the taUes having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend tLT—BttTs H'ukij
MtMStngtr.
THE R0THAM5TED EXPERIMENTS AND THEIR
PRACTICAL LB550N5 FOR PARMBRS.
Fait I. Stock. Part II. Crops. By C. J. R. Tiprss. Crown 8vo, doth.
8/6
** We have no doubt that the book win be wclcoaed by a large class of farmoii and otbai*
inteceated in a^iicultuf."— i5<ewrf»rrf.
AGRICULTURE. FARMING, GARDENING, Sh:, 45
FERTILISERS AND FEEDING STUFFS.
Their Properties and Uses. A Handbook for the Practical Farmer. By
Bernard Dyrr, D.Sc. (Lond.). With the Text of the Fertilisers and Feeding
Staffs Act of 1893, The Regulations and Forms of the Board of Agriculture,
and Notes on the Act by A. J. David, B. A., LL.M. Fourth Edition, Revised.
Crown 8vo, cloth 1/0
"This Bttle book is precisely what it professes to be— *A Handbook for the Pnctical
Famier.' Dr. Dyer has done fennpn good service in placing at their disposal so much oaeAil
kifonnation in so intelligible a form."— rA^ ritms.
BEES FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT.
A Guide to the Manipidatioa of Bees, the Production of Honey, and the
General Management of the Apiary. By G. Gordon Samson. With
numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, wrapper 1/0
BOOK-KEEPING for FARMERS and ESTATE OWNERS.
A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all
Classes of Farms. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant.
Fourth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth. [Just Publisktd, 2/6
** The voiume is a capital study of a most Important subject."- ^fHieM/A<f«/ GmMMt,
WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK.
Giving Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and
Expenditure under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, ftc, &c.
With Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the End ot the
Year. By Johnson M. Woodman, Chartered Accountant. Second Edition.
Folio, half-bound ^ti 7/6
" Contains every requisite for keeping farm accounts readfly and accurately."— /tf^WcwiVMrs:
THE FORCING GARDEN.
Or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables. With Plans and
Estimates for Building Glasshouses, Pits and Frames. With Illustrations.
By Samubl Wood. Crown 8vo, cloth . 8/6
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A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING.
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Edition, with considerable Additions, and numerous Illustrations. Crown
8vo, doth 8/6
'* A very good boolc, and one to be lalghly recommended as a practical guide. The practical
dlrectkms are excellent."— ^iA<«urMM.
MULTUM-IN-PARVO GARDENING.
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of Fruits and Vegetables ; also. How to Grow Flowers in Three Glass Houses,
so as to realise ^176 per annum clear Profit. By Samubl Wood, Author of
" Good Gardening, &c. Sixth Edition, Crown 8 vo, sewed . . • 1/0
THE LADIES' MULTUM-IN-PARYO FLOWER GARDEN.
And Amateur's Complete Guide. By S. Wood. Crown Svo, cloth . 3/6
POTATOES: HOW TO GROW AND SHOW THEM.
A Practical Guide to the Cultivation and General Treatment of the Potato.
By J. Pink. Crown Svo 2/0
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By C. W. Shaw, late Editor of " GarJening Illustrated." Crown Svo, cloth.
3/6
46 CROSBY LOCKWOOD «• SON'S CATALOGUE,
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND
SURVEYING, ESTATE AGENCY, ETC.
INWOOD'5 TABLES FOR PURCHASING ESTATES
AND FOR THB VALUATION OP PROPBRTIBS,
Including Advowsons, Assurance Policies, Copyholds, Deferred Annnititt,
Freeholds, Ground Rents, Immediate Annuities, Leaseholds, IJfe Interests,
Mortgages, Perpetuities, Renewals of Leases. Reversions, Sinking Funds,
&c., &c. aSth Edition, Revised and Extended bv William Schooling,
F.R.A.S., with Logarithms of Natural Numbers and Thoman's L<q;aritbinic
Interest and Annuity Tables. 360 pp., Demy 8vo, cloth.
i/ust Publuha, N*i 8/0
" Those Interested In the puichaie and tale of ertates, and to the adjustment of oonpenatloa
cases, as well as In transactions In annuities. Ufa inaonocea, &c, will find the prnwnt edWoa d
eminent service."— it MWN<cnt«v.
" This valuable Dock Itas been considerably enlarged and Improved by the labonn of
Mr. Schooling, and Is now very complete indeed." — Econormist.
" AUoi^ether this edition will prove of extreme value to many classes of pfofritlonal nea In
saving them many long and tedious calculations."— /Htwf/M'x' Review.
THE APPRAISER, AUCTIONEER, BROKER, HOUSE
AND aSTATB AQBNT AND VALUBR*5 POCKBT ASSISTANT.
For the Valuation for Purchase, Sale, or Renemml of Leases, Annuities, and
Reversions, and of Property generally ; with Prices for Inventories, &c. By
iOHN Whbbler, Valuer, &c. Sixth Edition, Re-written and grooly Extended
y C. NoRRis. Royal 3amo, cloth 5/0
*' A neat and concise book of reference, containing an admirable and deariy-azfanged list of
prices for inventories, and a very pracdcal guide to determine the value of fumituxe,-&c "^-standrntd,
" Contains a large quantity of varied and uaeftil Infbrmatloa as to the valuatlaa for imtrhane.
sale, or renewal of leases, annuities and reversions, and of property generally, with prices to
faiveotorles, and a guide to detecmlne the value of interior fittings and other ( ~
AUCTIONEERS: THEIR DUTIES AND LIABILITIES.
A Manual of Instruction and Counsel for the Yoong Auctioneer. By Robbbt
Squibbs, Auctioneer. Second Editi<», Revised. I>emy 8vo, doth . 12/8
" The work is one of general excellent character, and gives much inJoimatloB la a ooa-
pendioos and satisfactory torm." '-BuiitUr.
" May be recommended as giving a greet deal of infoimatlon on tite tew nhtlng to
auctioneers. In a very readable form. — Ziow yMtmal.
THE AGRICULTURAL VALUER'S ASSISTANT.
A Practical Handbook on the Valuation of Landed Estates; including
Example of a Detailed Report on Management and Realisation ; Forms of
Valuations of Tenant Right ;^ Lists of Local Agricultural Customs ; Scales of
Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, and a Brief Treatise on
Compensation under the Lands Clauses Acts, &c By Tom Bright, Agricul*
tural Valuer. Author of "The Agricultural Surveyor and Elstate Agent's
Handbook." Fourth Edition, Revised, with Appendix containing a Digest of
the Agricultural Holdings Acts, 1883 — 2900. Crown 8vo, cloth . Ntt SIO
'* Full of taUes and examples In connection with the valuation of tenant'rtght, eitatait taboer,
contents and weights of timber, and fMim produce of all kinds."— ^^virMAWne/ GmMtttt.
** An eminently practicai handbook, full of practical tables and dataof nndoabted '
value to surveyors ana auctioneecs la peaparing valuations of all kinds."— Fa<
POLE PLANTATIONS AND UNDERWOODS.
A Practical Handbook on Estimating the Cost of Forming, Reoovadng,
Improving, and Grabbing Plantations and Underwoods, their Valuatioa for
Purposes of Transfer, Rental, Sale or Assessment. By Tom Bright. Qnown
Bvo, doth 8/6
••To valnen, foiesten and agents It wffl be a welcome tU.'^Nortk BrUtthAgriemlbmrUL
" Well calnilated to aadst the valuer in the discharge of his dutte^ aad ef undoobfcsd T '
and use both to surveyots aod suctJoaaew la pcapariag vlnaHonsofaB
AUCTIONEERING, VALUING, LAND SURVEYING, Sni. 47
AGRICULTURAL SURVEYOR AND ESTATE AGENT'S
HANDBOOK.
Of Practical Rules, FormuIaB, Tables, and Data. A Comprehensive Manual
for the Use of Surveyors, Agents, Landowners, and others interested in the
Equipment, the Management, or the Valuation of Landed Estates. By
Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor and Valuer, Author of "The Agri*
cultural Valuer's Assistant," &c. With Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, Leather.
AV/ 7/e
" An exceedingly useAiI book, the contents of which are admirably chosen. The classes for
whom the woric is intended will find it convenient to have this comprehensive handbook accessible
for refafence." — Live Stock yourtuU,
" It is a singularly compact and well informed compendium of the facts and fissures likely to
be requh«d in estate work, and Is certain to prove of much service to those to whom it is
addrened." — Scotsman.
THE LAND VALUER'S BEST ASSISTANT.
Being Tables on a very much Improved Plan, for Calculating the Value of
Estates. With Tables for reducing Scotch, Insh, and Provincial Customary
Acres to Statute Measure, ftc. By R. Hudson, C.B. New Edition.
Royal 39mo, leather, elastic oand A/O*
" Of faxalcttlable value to the coontiy gentleman and professional man."— Fji-wMrj* Journal.
THE LAND IMPROVER'S POCKET-BOOK.
Comprising Formulse, Tables, and Memoranda required in any Computation
relating to the Permanent Improvement of Landed Property. By Tohn Ewart,
Surveyor. Second Edition, Revised. Royal 3amo, oblong, leather . 4/0'
** A compendious and handy littl votumo."— sJjMdMtor.
THE LAND VALUER'S COMPLETE POCKET-BOOK.
Being the above Two Works bound together. Leather .... 7/S
HANDBOOK OP HOUSE PROPERTY.
A Popular and Practical Guide to the Purchase, Tenancy, and Com-
pulsory Sale of Houses and Land, including Dilapidations and Fixtures :
with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Information on Building and on the
right use of Decorative Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor.
Seventh Edition. lamo, cloth \Just Publuhtd. SIO
'The advice Is thoroughly practical.*— £aw Journal.
" For all who have deaUngs with house property, this is an Indispensable guidt."^Decoraiion.
** Carefully brought up to date, and much unproved by the addition of a divWon on Fine Art.
A well-written and thoughtial woik.''—Latul Agtnts' Rotord.
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MODERN JOURNALISM.
A Handbook of Instruction and Counsel for the Voong Journalist. By John
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" This invaluable guide to JoamaUsm Is a work irtilch all aspirants to a JoumaUatlc caieer wiU-
tead with advantage. "--ymrMA/if^.
HANDBOOK FOR SOLICITORS AND ENGINEERS
Engaged in Promoting Private Acta of Parliament and Provisional Orders for
the Authorisation of Railways, Tramways, Gas and Water Works, &c.
By L. L Macassst, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, M.I.C.E.
Bvo, cloth £1 6t.
PATENTS for INVENTIONS, HOW to PROCURE THEM.
Compiled for the Use of Inventors, Patentees and others. By G. G. M.
Hardimgham, Assoc. Mem. Inst. C.E., ftc. Demy 8vo, cloth '1/6
CONCILIATION & ARBITRATION In LABOUR DISPUTES.
A Historical Sketch and Brief Statemont of the Present Position of the
Question at Home and Abroad. By J. S. Jbams. Crown 8vo, aoopp..
4«
CROSBY LOCKWOOD *• SON'S CATALOGUE.
EVERY MAN'S OWN LAWYER.
A Handy-Book of the Principles of Law and Equity. With a Concise
Dictionary of Legal Terms. By A Barkistbr. Forty-second Edition,
care fully Revised, and comorisingr New Acts of Parliament, including the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children Act, 1904 ; Weights and Measures Act^ 1904 ;
Licensing Act, 1904; Shot Hours Act, 1904; as well as the Motor Car Act,
1903; Employment of Children Act, 1903; Poor Prisoners' Defenc* Ad,
1903, &c. Judicial Decisions pronounced dumg the year have also been duly
noted. Crown 8vo, 800 pp., strongly bound in cloth. [Just PubUshtd. 0/8
*,* TMis Standard Work of Rejermce forms a Complktb Epitomb op the
Laws op England, contusing {amongst other matter) ;
THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS
landlord and tenant
Vendors and purchasers
Leases and mortgages
ioiNT-STOCK Companies
IASTERS. SERVANTS AND WORKMEN
CONTRACTS AND AGREEMENTS
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Cheques, Bills and Notes
Bills of Sale, Bankruptcy
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Clergy and churchwardens
copyright. Patents, Trade Marks
husband and Wife, Divorce
infancy, custody of Children
Public Health and Nuisances
Gamk Laws, Gaming. Innkeepers
Taxes and Death Duties
Forms of wills, agreements, notices. Ac
•^ The cbjtct ^f this W0rk is tt enatU those whs eansuUit to hsl^ thomuelvts is tho
law ; and thereby to dispense, as far as possible, with pr^essiontU assistmnee and adyies. There
an many wrongs and grievances which persons submit to firom Urns to time throng not
knowing how or where to e^ly fsr redress/ and mat^y persons have as great a dread ef«
lawyer's qfflce as ^a Uon's dm. With this book at hand ii is believed that many a SUC-AMD-
BiGHTPENCE may be saved; many a wrong redressed ; many a right redaimod; many a law
twit avoided ,- and many an evil abated. The work has estabhshod itsel/ as the standard legai
adviser ^/eUl classes, and has also mad* a rep%Uait»n/or itstt/ as a tts^/iU book «/ refirenesjbf
lawyers residing at a distance yVvM law Hbraries, who art glad to have at hand t
embodying recent deeisione and enaomenis.
*,* Opinions of thb Prbss.
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" As a book of reference this volume is without a rival."— Pull Mall Gasette.
" No Englishman ought to be without this hook.''—£Mj^fieer.
"Ought to be in every business establishment and in all libraries."— 5A<^f A/ Post.
" The ' Concise Dictionary ' adds considerably to its value,"— IFestmiMSter Gasette.
" It Is a complete code of Ensllsh Law wiltten In plain languain, whkh aO can nndcntaad.
. . . Should be In the hands of erwy biulneM man, and all who wisii to atiolish lawyefsT UBs."—
tVeekly Times.
'* A useful and concise epitome of the law, complied with condderable care."— L«w Magmaime.
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runs may read, and he who reads may understand. "—^i(f»r».
" A dictionaiy of legal facts wen put together. The book Is a vety useful <
LABOUR CONTRACTS.
A Popular Handhook on the Law of Contracts for Works and Services. By
David Gibbons. Fourth Edition, with Appendix of Statutes by T. F. Uttlsv,
Solicitor. Fcap. 8vo, cloth
8/6
BRADBURY, AGNBW, & CO. LO., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDGB. I1S7 : 33.2.05.]
^i
WEALE'S SERIES
OF
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
WORKS.
*' It is not too much to say that no books have ever proved more
popular with or more useful to young engineers and others than the
excellent treatises comprised in Weale's Series. "—Bngineer.
^ Jl^in €lttssihh %hU
CIVIL ENQINEERINQ AND 8URVEYINO S
MINING AND METALLURGY . . . . S
MEOHANIOAL ENGINEERING .... 4
NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING, ETa 6
AROHITECTURE AND BUILDING .
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETa
MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETICi ETa
■0CK8 OP REFERENCE AND MISCELLANEOUS VOLUMES
^r\h
6
8
. ID
n
CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON,
7, STATIONERS* HALL COURT, LONDON, E.C.
1905.
2 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
CIVIL ENGINEERING & SURVEYING.
OlTil Bntfineering.
By Hkmicv Law, M.Inst.CK. IncIadioK a Treatise oa Htdkaolic
Emginbbrimg by G. R. Burnbll, M.I.CE. Seventh Edition, raviaed.
with Largb Additions by D. K. Clakk, M.I.C.E. . Q/Q
Pioneer SJntfineering:
A Treatise on the Engineering Operations connected with the Scttlemeot of
Waste Lands in New Countries. By Edward Dobsom, li.lNST.CK.
With numerons PUtet. Second Edition 476
Iron Bridges of Moderate Span:
Their Construction and Erection. By IIamilton W. Pbmdkbd. ^i^th 40
Illustrations . • . 2/0
Iron and Steel Bridges and Viaducts.
A Practical Treativ upon their Construction for the nse of Engineers,
Draughumen, and Students. By Francis Campin, CE. With lUos. 3/6
Construotional Iron and Steel Work,
As applied to Public, Private, and Domestic Boildingi. By Francis
Campin, C.E 3/6
Tubular and other Iron Girder Bridges.
Describing the Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges. By G. Dktsdalb
Dbmpsby, C.E. Fourth Edition 2/0
Materials and Oonstruction :
A Theoretical and Practical Treatise on the Strains, Deslsning, and Ereo
tioo of Works of Construction. By Francis Campin, C£. . 3/0
Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns and in Villages.
By Charles Slagg, Assoc M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition . . 3/0
Construction of Roads and Streets.
By H. Law, CE., and D. K. Clark, CE. Sixth Edition, revised, with
Additional Chapters by A. J. Wallis-Taylbr, A.M. Inst. CE. . 6/0
Gas Works,
Their Construction and Arrangement and the Mannfisctare and Distriba-
tion of Coal Gas. Originally written by S. Hughes, CE. Ninth Edition.
Revised, with Notices of Recent Improvements, by Hbnrv O'Comneb,
A.M. Inst. C.E., Author of "The Gas Engineers* Pocket Book.'*
i/tttt Ptt^&sJUd. 6/0
Water Works
For the Supply of Cities and Towns. With a Desqiption of the^ Principal
Geolosical Formations of England as in6uencing Supplies of Watar. By
Samubl Hughbs, F.G.S., CE. Enlarged Edition .... 470
The Power of Water,
As applied to drive Flour Mills, and to give motion to Tbrfaines and other
Hydrostatic Engines. By Joseph Glynn, F.R.S. New Edition . 2/0
Wells and Well-Sinking.
By John Gso. Swindell, A.R.I.B.A.jand G. R. Bitrnblu CS. Reviced
Edition. With a New Appendix on the Qualities of Water. Illostrated 2/0
The Drainage of Lands, Towns, and Buildings.
By G. D. Dempsey, CE. Revised, with large Additions on Recent
Practice, by D. K. Clark, M.I.CE. Thiid Edition . . . 4/6
The Blasting and Quarrying of Stone,
For Building and other Purposes. With Remarks on tha Blowing np of
Bridges. By Gen. Sir J. Burgoynb, K.C.B 1 ^6
Foundations and Concrete Works.
With Practical Remarks on Footingf, Plankins, Sand, Concreta B^on,
nie-driving, Caissons, and CoiTerdams. By E. Dobson. Ninth Ed. t /6
WBALS'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. S
Vnenmatios,
Including Aocraatici and the Phenomena of Wind Correnta. for the Um of
B^Einnen. By CHAXLas Tomlinson, F.R.S. Fourth Bdttioa . 1 /O
I«Ancl »nd Bntfineerintf Surreying.
For Students and PracticaTUse. ByT. Bakbs, CB. Nineteenth BditloB,
Revised and Extended by F. E. Dixon. A.M. Inst. CE., Profesiiooal Am»-
date of the Institution ot Surveyon. With numaraaa IDustFatioas and tw«
lithographic Plates 2/0
Hansuration and Measuring.
For Stndenu and Practical Use. With the Mensuration and LevoIHa| of
Land for the purposes of Modem Engineering. By T. Bakbk, CE. Mew
Edition by E. Nucbnt, CE 1/0
MINING AND METALLURGY.
Mining Oaloulations,
For the use of Students Prei>aring for the Examinations for ColUeqr
Managers' Certificates, comprising numerous Rules and Examples in
Arithmetic, Algebra, and Mensuration. By T. A. O'Donamub, M.B^.
First-Class Certificated Colliery Manager 3/S
Jfincralotfy,
Rudiments of. By A. Ramsat, F.G.S. Fourth Edition, rerised sad
enlarged. Woodcuts and Platet 3/0
<Soal and Goal Mining,
A Rudimentarr Treatise on. Bt the late Sir Waxingtom W. Smyth,
F.R.S. Eighth Edition, revised by T. FossTBK Brown . . 3/6
Metallur^ of Iron.
Containinc Methods of Assay, AnalvMS of Iron Ores, Processes of Manu-
facture of Iron and Steel, ftc By li. Badbkman. F.G.S. With numerous
Illustrations. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged .... 6/0
'The Hineral Snnreyor and Valuer** Complete Ooide.
By W. LiNTBKN. Fourth Edition, with an Appendix on Magnetic aal
Angular Surveying 3/0
■Slate and Slate Quarrying:
Scientific, Practicai7 and CommerciaL By D. C DArm, F.O.S. With
numerous Illustrations and Folding Plates. Fourdi Edition . 3/0
X First Book of Mining and Quarrying,
With the Sciences connected therewith, for Primaij Sdioob and Self-In-
struction. By J. H. ColUns, F.G.S. Second Edition . . .1/0
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With and without the Magnetic Needle. By T. Fbnwick and T. Bakbb,
CE. Illustrated 2/0
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wbale's scientific and technicax series.
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.
Tlitt Workman's Manual of Bntfln««pin|( Drawing.
By John Maxton, Instructor in Engineering Drawug, Royal Naval
College, Greenwich. Eighth Edition. 300 Plates and Diagnuns • 3/6
Faals: fikilid, Uqnid, and Gaseous.
Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and EUigineers.
By H. J. Phillips, F.CS., formerly Analytical and Consulting Chemist
to the Cfreat Eastern Railway. Fourth Edition 2/C>
Fasly Its Combustion and Boonomy.
Consisting of an Abridgment of " A Treatise on the CombustiOD of Coal and
the Prevention of Smoke." By C W. Williams, A.I.C.E. With Exten-
sive Additions by D. K. Clakk, M.Inst.C.E. Fourth Edition . 3/6
Thm Boilermaker's Assistant
In Drawing, Templating, and Calculating Boiler Work, ftc By J. Court-
NBY, Practical Boilermaker. Edited by D. K. CiJiRK, CK. . 2/0
The Boiler-Maker's Beady Beokoner,
With Examples of Practical Geometry and Templating for the Use of
Pbuters. Smiths, and Riveters. By John Courtnby. Edit«l by D. K.
Clark, M.I.CE. Fifth Edition 4/(>
%• TA* last two H^orks in On* Volum*^ half-bound. eniitUd ** The Boilbr-
maker's Rbady.Reckonbr and Assistant/' By J. Courtnky and
D. K- Clark. Price 7/0.
Steam Boilers :
Their Construction and ManagemenL By R. Armstrong, CJL Illustrated
1/6
Steam and Machinery Management.
A Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of Machinery.
By M. Powis Balb, M.InstM.E. 2/6
Steam and the Steam Bntfine,
Stationary and Portable. Beingan Extension of the Treatise on the Steank
Engine of Mr. J. Sbwkll. By D. K. Clark, CE. Fourth Edition 3/6
The Steam Bntfine,
A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, with Rules and Examples for
Practical Men. By T. Baker, CE 1/6
The Steam Bn^ine.
By Dr. Lardner. Illustrated t /6
liooomotive Bntfines.
ByG. D. Dempsey, C.E. With large Additions treating of the Modern
Locomotive, by D. K. Clark, M.InsLCE. . • . . 3/0
I«ooomotive Bntfine-Drivin^.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By
Michael Reynolds. Eleventh Edition, jf. 6d. ; doth boards . 4/6
Stationary Bnglne-Drivin^.
A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By
Michael Reynolds. Seventh Edition, ^r. 6d. ; doth boards . 476
The Smithy and Forge.
Including the Farrier's Art and Coach Smithing. By W. J. E. Crane.
Fourth Edition 2/6
Modem Workshop Praotice,
As applied to Marine, Land, and Locomotive Engines, Floating Docks,
Dredging Machines, Bridges, Ship-building, &c. By J. G. Winton.
Fourth Edirion, Illustrated ... 3/6
Meohanioai Bngineering.
Comprising MeuUurgy, Moulding, Casting, Forging, Tools, Workshop
Macninery, Mechaniou Manipulation, Manufacture of the Steam Engine,
&c By Francis Campin, C.£. Third Edition .... 2/6
Details or Machinery.
Comprising Instructions for the Execution of various Works in Iron in the
Fitting-Shop, Foundry, and Boiler- Yard. By Francis Campin. C.E. 3/0
WEALE*S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 5
Blemantary SSntfineering :
A Manual for Young Marine Engineers and Apprantioea. In the Form of
SHestions and Answers on Metals, AUojrs, Strength of Materials, ftc.
yT. S.BRBWBR. Fifth Edition 1/8
Power in Motion:
Horse-power Motion, Toothed- Wheel Gearing, Long and Short Drivhif
Band% Aimilar Forces, &c. By Jambs Abmour, C.£ Third Editioo 2/0
Iron and Iteat,
Exhibiting the Principles concerned in the Constmctioo of Iron Beam^
Pilhus, and Girders. By J. Armour, CE 2/0
Practical Mechanism,
And Machine Tools. By T. Bakbr, C.E. With Remaifct oa Tools sad
Machinery, by J. Nasmyth, CE 2/6
Mechanics :
Being a concise Exposition of the General Principles of Mechanical Sdcne^
and tneir Applications. By Charlbs Tomlinson, F.R.S. . •1/6
Cranes (The Gonstruction of).
And other Machinery for Raising Heavy Bodies for the Erection of BoDd-
ings, &c By JosBPH Glynn, F.R.S 1/6
NAVIGATION, SHIPBUILDING, ETC.
The Sailor's Sea Book:
A Rudimentary Treatise on Navigation. Bv Jambs Gbbbmwooo, B.A
With numerous Woodcuts and Coloured Plates. New and enluved
Edition. By W. H. Rossbr 2/6
Practical Navigation.
Consisting of The Sailor's Sba-Book, hy Tambs Grbbnwood and W. H.
Ro'ssER ; together with Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working
of the Problems, bv Hbnry Law, C.E., and Prof. J. R. Young. 7/0
Navigation and nautical Astronomy,
In Theory and Practice. By Prof. J. R. Young. New Editioa. 2/6
Mathematical Tables,
For Trig<Miometrical, Astronomical, and Nautical Calculations ; to whldi is
prefixed a Treatise on Logarithms. By H. Law, CE. Together with a
Series of Tables for Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. By Professor J.
R. Young. New Edition 4/0
Masting, Mast-Making, and Rigging of Ships.
Also Tables of Spars, Rigpng, Blocks ; Chain, Wire, and Hemp Rop^
ftc., relative to every class of vessels. By Robsrt Kipping, N.A. . 2/0
Sails and Sail-Making.
With Draughting, and the Centre of Effort of the Sails. By Robbbt
Kipping, N.A. 2/6
Marine Bngines and Steam Vessels.
By R. Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Kvised, wbh Addi-
tions by the Author and by Cborcb Carlulb, CE. . . 4/6
Haval Architecture :
An Exposition of Elementary Principles. By Jambs P^akb • . 3/6
Ships for Ocean and River Service,
Principles of the Construction ot By Habon A. Sommbrpbldt . t /6
Atlas of Engravings
To Illustrate the above. Twelve hu-ge folding Platen Royal 4to, doth 7/6
«rhe Forms of Ships and Boats.
By W. Bland. Tenth Edition, with nameroos Illuatntioiw sad
Models t/6
6 WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
ARCHITECTURE AND THE
BUILDING ARTS.
Ck>nstmotioBaI Iron and Steel Work,
Ai applied to Public, PriTats, and Domestic Buildinfa. By Fsavcis-
Camkn, CE 3/6.
BnildinK Bstatee :
A Treatise oa the Devel<^ment, Sale, Purchase, and MaDSfemaiit of Build-
ing Lasd. By F. Maitland. Third Bditioa 2/0*
The Soienoe of Building :
An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Coostruction. By B. WntiK
HAM Takn, M.A Load. Fourth Edition 3/S.
The Art of Building :
General Principles of Construction, Strength, and Use of Material^ Worldng.
Drawings, Specifications, ftc By Edwako Dobsow, li.R.LB.A. . 2/0*
A Book on Building,
Civil and Ecclesiastical. By Sir SDiniirD BacKBTT, Q.C (Lord Gkim*
thobpb). Second Edition 4/6-
Dwelling-Housea (The Breotion of),
Illustrated by a Perspective View, Plans, and Sections of a ^ir of Villas, with.-
Specification, Quanuties, and Fstimsfffs, By S. H. Brooks, Ardiicect 2/&
Cottage Building.
By C Bruck Allbn. Twelfth Editbn. with Chapter oa Eoooonic Cot-
tages for Allotments, by E. E. Allen, CK 2/0
Aoouatics in Relation to Arohiteoture and Building t
The Laws of Sound as applied to the Arrangement of BuildiagRi By Pro-
fessor T. Rogrr Smith, F.R.I.B.A New Edition, Revised . . 1/6-
The Rudiments of Practioal Brioklaying.
General Principles of Bricklaying ; Arch Drawing, Cuttin|(. and Setting ;.
Pointing ; Pavmg, Tiling, &c. By Adam Hammond. Witn 68 Woodcnta
1/6
The Art of Practical Brick Cutting and Setting.
By Adam Hammond. With 90 Engravings 1/^
Briofcwork :
A Practical Treatise, embodying the General and Hifl^er Principles of
Bricklaying, Cutting and Setting ; with the Application oTGooBielry to RooT
Tiling, &c ByF.WALKKR t/6
Bvioks and Tilea,
Rudimentary Treatise on the Manufacture of; containing am Outline of thf»
Principles of Brickmakinr. By £. Dobson, M.R.LB.A Additions by
C ToMLiNSON, F.R.S. Illustrated 3/0
The Practical Brick and Tile Book.
Compriung: Brick and Tile Making, by E. Dobson, IC.Inst.CE.;
Piractical fiRiCKLAViNC, by A Hammond ; Brick'COTTimo amo Sktting,
by A Hammond. 550 pp. with sto Illustratione, half-bonnd • . Q/O
Oarpentnr and Joinery —
Thb Elbmbntary Principlbs or CARrsNTRV. Chiefly compoeed firoai tho-
Standard Work of Thomas Trbdgold, C.E. With AdditaonsiaadTBXATiSK
ON JoiNBRT, by E. W. Tarn, M.A. Eighth Edition . 3/6-
Oarpentrj and Joinery — ^Atlae
Of 35 Plates to accompany and Illustrate the foregoing book, ^tk
Descriptive Letterpress. 410 6/0
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 7
A Praotioal Treatise on Handrailiiiif; '
Showing New and Simple Methods. By Gbo. Collings. Third Editio^
including a Tkbatisb on Stairbuilding. With Plates . . 2/o
OlronlaF Work In Carpentry and Joinery.
A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and DouUe Cnrratare.
By GsoRGB Collings. Fourth Edition 2/6
Roof Oarpentry:
Practical Lessons in the Framing of Wood Roofs. For the Use of Woridiis
Carpenters. By Gbo. Collings 2/0
The Gonstmotion of Roofs of W(x>d and Iron;
Deduced chiefly from the Works of RobLwn, Tredf[^>ld, and Hnmber. By
E. WvNOHAM Tarn, M.A., ArchitecL Fourth Edition . . .1/6
The Joints Made and Used by Builders.
By Wyvill J. Christy, Architect. With x6o Woodcatt . • 3/0
Shoring
And its Application : A Handbook for the Use of Students. By Gbokgb
H. Blagrovb. With 31 Illustrations 1/6
The Timber Importer's, Timber Merohant's, and
Builder's Standard Guide.
By R. E. Grahot 2/0
Plumbing:
A Text-Book to the Praaice of the Art or Craft of the Plumber. With
Chapters upon House Drainage and Ventilation. By Wm. Paton Buchan.
Ninth Edition, with 51a Illustrations .... . . 3/6
Ventilation :
A I'ext Book to the Practice of the Art of Ventilating Buildings. By W. P.
Buchan, R.P., Author of " Plumbing," &c. With 170 Illustrations 3/6
The Practical Plasterer:
A Compendium of Plain and Ornamental Plaster Work. By W. Kmur 2/0
House Painting, Graining, Marblintf, ft 8i^ Writing.
With a Course of Elementary Drawing, and a Collection of Useful Receipts.
By Elus a. Davidson. Eighth Edition. Coloured Plates . . o/O
%* TA£ aSfftfCt in cloth boardx, strongly bounds %IQ
A Grammar of Colouring,
Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By GsoRGB Fislix New
Edition, enlarged, by Ellis A. Davidson. With Coloured Plates 3/0
Blementary Decoration
Asapplied to Dw-elling Houses, &c. By James W. Fackv. Illustrated 2/0
Practical House Decoration.
A Guide to the Art of Ornan1ent.1l Painting, the Arrangement of Coloors in
Apartments, and the Principles of Decorative Design. By James W. Facbt
2/6
%* ThM last two Works in On* kandsomt Vol.^ half-hound, entitled '* HOUSB
Decoration, Elementary and Practical," /'^c' 6/0>
Portland Cement for Users.
By Henry Faija, A.M.Inst.C.E. '1 hird Edition, Corrected . . 2/0
Umes, Cements, Mortars, Concretes, Mastics, Plas-
tering, ftc.
By G. R. Burnrll. C.E. Fifteenth Edition t/Q
8 WEALlfS SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
Masonry and Stone-Gutting.
The Principles of Masonic Projection and their a|>pUcatioa to Constnictioo.
ByEowARD DoBSOK, M.R.LB.A. 2/6
Arohes, Piers, Buttresses, fto.:
EnerimeDtal Essays on the Principles of Coottniotioo. By W. Blamd.
1/6
Qnantities and Measurements,
In Bricklayers', Masons', Plasterers'. Plumbers', Patnten', Pkperiuinger«*,
Gilders*, Smiths', Carpenters' and Joiners' Work. By A. C Beaton. 1 /6
The Complete Measurer:
Setting forth the Measurement of Boards, GlaM, llmbar sad Stone. By R.
HoRTON. Sixth Edition • . 4/0
Ouide to Snperfloial Measurement :
Tables calculated from i to too inches in length, by i to toS indies ia
breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Mer-
chants, Builders, &c. By James Hawking*. Fifth Edition . . 3/6
Lifht:
An Introduction to the Science of Optics. For the Use of Students of Arehi-
tecture, Engineering, and other Applied Sdenoes. By E. W. Takn.
M.A. t/6
Hints to Youn^ Architects.
By Gborcb Wightwick, Architect. Sixth Edition, revised and enlarged
by G. HusKissoN Guillaumb, Architect 3/6
Architecture— Orders :
The Orders and their iGsthetic Principles. By W. H. Lbxds. Illustrated.
1/6
Architecture— Styles :
The History and Description of the Styles of Architecture of Various
Countries, from the Earliest Period. By T. Talbot Bitry . . 2/0
*«* Orders and Stylbs or Architbcturb, in One Vai,, 3/6*
Architecture — Desi^ :
The Principles of Design in Architecture, as deducible from Nature and
exemplified in the Works of the Greek and Gothic Architects. By Edw.
Lacy Garbbtt, Architect. Illustrated 2/6
*«* Tke iArtg prtceding Workt in One kandsemg V^L^ kei^f-ionnd, eettiiUd
** Modern Architecture,"/^' 6/0-
Perspective for Be^nners.
Adapted to Young Students and Amatenn in Architecture, PEtnting, ftc
By George Pyne 2/0
Architectural Modelling in Paper.
By T. A. Richardson. With Illustrations, engrared by O. jEwrrr \ /6
Glass Staining, and the Art of Painting on Glass.
From the German of Dr. Gessbrt and Emanuel Otto Fromberg. With
an Appendix on The Art of Enamelling . . - . . . 2/6
VitruTius—The Architecture of.
In Ten Books. Translated from the Latin by Jossnc Gwilt, F.S.A.,
' F.R.A.S. With 93 Plates 6/0
N.B,—Thi* is the only Edition e/^ViTRtJVius procurmble at a mMlermte /fiee,
Grecian Architecture,
An Inquiry into the Principles of Beauty in. With an Historical View of the
Rise and Progress of the Art in Greece. By the Earl of Aberdeen, t /Q
The two freceding Workt in One handsome Vol.,, hmifihotmd, mtitUd
" Ancient Architecture," price 6/0*
• •
WEALE'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SSBHS. 9
INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS.
Oaments, Pastas, Olusa, and Onins.
A Guide to the Mann&ctttre and Application of Agglatinanfi. ytVtL 900
Recipes and Formal*. By H. C. Standagb 2/0
Glooka, Watohss, and Bslla for Public Pnrposas.
A Radimentary Treatise. By Edmund Bbckbtt, Lord Gkimthoktb.
LL.D., K.C F.R.AS. Eigbth Edition, with new List of Great Bells and
an Appendix on WeatheroodcB. [Just ^Mbluksd^ 4/6
*«* The abavty htuuUotntly houtui^ claih iomrdSf 6/6*
Bleotro-Metallurtfy,
Practically Treat^. By Audcandbk Watt. Tenth Bditioa . 3/6
The Goldsmith's Handbook.
Containing full Instructions in the Art of Alloying, Melting, Redodng,
Colouring, Collecting and Refining, R<'covery of Waste, S<^dors, *«*«— ^'«,
&C., &c. By Gborgb £. Gkb. Sixth Edition 3/0
The Silversmith's Handbook,
On the same plan as the Goldsmith's Handbook. By G. E. Gbb. 3/0
*«* The last two IVorks, in One hatuuomt Vol., kalf-Umnd^ 7/0-
The Hall-Marking of Jewellery.
Comprising an account of all the different Assay Towns of the United
Kingdom ; with the Stamps and Laws relating to the Standards and Hall
Mancii at the various Assay OfRces. By Georob £. Gbb . . 3/0
French Polishing and Bnamelling.
Numerous Recipes for making Polishes, Varnishes, ftc. By R. Bitmbad.
1/6
Praotioal Organ Building.
By W. E. Dickson, M.A. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions 2/6
Ooaeh-Building :
A Practical Treatise. By Jambs W. Bubgbss. With 57 lUostntioiis 2/6
The Cabinet-Maker's Guide
To the £nth% Construction of Cabinet -Work. By R. Bitmbad . 2/6
The Brass Founder's Manual:
Instructions for Modelling, Pattern Making, ftc By W. Graham . 2/0
The Sheet-Metal Worker's Guide.
For Tinsmiths, Coppersmiths, Zincworkers, &c By W. J. E. Cbanb. 1 /6
Sewing Machinery:
Its Construction, History, ftc By J. W. URQaHART, CE. . . 2/0
•Gas Fitting:
A Practical Handbook. By John Buick. New Edition . . 2/6
•Construction of Door I^ocks.
From the Papers of A C. Hobbs. Edited by C. Tomlinson, F.R.S. 2/6
The Model Locomotive Bngineer, Fireman, and
Bngine-Boy.
By MiCHAKL Rbynolds 3/6
The Art of Letter Painting made Basy.
By J. G. Badbnoch. With la full-page Engravings ^ Examples . 1 /6
The Art of Boot and Shoemaking.
Measurement, Last-fitting, Cutting-out, Closing, ftc By J. B. LsNa 2/0
Mechanical Dentistry:
^^ By Chari.bs Huntbr. Fourth Edition 3/0
W(x>d Bngraving:
A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Art. By W. N. Bbowm . 1 /6
(Laundry Management.
A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries . . 2/0
10 WSALI'S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, ETC.
Dndning mnd ■mbaakln^*
A Pncdcttl TkcatiM. By Prof. Johx Scott. Wilb 61 maatntioM 1/6-
Irvltfatioii And Water Supply:
A Practical Treadle on Water Meadows, Sewage Inrigatioo, Warping, ftc. :
oa the Construction of Wells, Poods, ReserToin, &c. By Prof. Jomm
Scott. With 34 lUnstrations |/6.
Tana Roads, Fenoes, and Gates:
A Practical Treatise on the Roads, Tramways, and Waterways of the
Farm ; the Principles of Enclosures ; and the aiffcrent kinds of Fences
Gates, and Stiles. By Prot John Scott. With 75 Illustrations . |/6
Tana Buildings:
A Practical Treatise on dke Buildings necessary for various kinds of Farms,
their Arrangement and Construction, with Plans and Estimates. By Prot
John Scott, With 105 Illustrations 2t/0-
Bam Implements and Haohines :
Treatug of the Application of Power and Machines used in the Threshing>
ham, Stockyard, Dairy, &c By Pn>£ J. Scott. With 193 lUustiatioas,
2/0
Vield Implements and Haohines :
With Prindples and Details of Construction and Points of Ezoellenoe, thdr
Management, ftc. By ProU Johm Scott. With 138 Illnstrstions . 2/0-
A^oultural SnPTeying:
A Treatise 00 Land Sunreymg, Levelling, and Setting-ont ; with Directioo«
for Valuing EsUtes. By Prof. J. Scott. With 6e Illustrations . | /q
Tana Engineering.
By Professor John Scott. Comprising the above Seven Volumes in One,
>f 150 pagOf ■Bd over 600 Illustrations. Half>bound \ . . | 2/0'
Outlines of Farm Management.
Treating of the General Work of the Farm ; Stock ; Contract Work ;
Labour, ftc. By R. Soott Burn 2/S
Outlines of I^anded ES states Management.
Treating of the Varieties of Lands, Methods of Farming, Setting-out of
Farms, Roads, Fences, Gates, Drainage, ftc. By R. Scott Burn . 2.'&
Boils* Manures, and Crops.
(VoL I. OtrxxiNBs or Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn . 2/0-
Tanning and Farming Boonomy.
(VoT II. Outlines or Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn 3/0
•took: Cattle, Sheep, and Horses.
(VoL III. OtiTLiNKS or Modern Farming.) ByR. Scott Burn 2/6-
Dairy, Pigs, and Poultry.
(Vol. IV. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Borh 2/0
Utilization of Sewage, Irrigation, and Reolamation
of Waste Land.
(VoL V. Outlines of Modern Farming.) By R. Scott Burn . 2/S>
Outlines of Modern Farming.
By R. Scott Burn. ConNi-tini; of the abore Five Velumes in One,
I,a50 pp., profusely Illustrated, hall-bound ..... 1 2/0>
weale's scientific and technical series. II
Book-keeping for Farmers and Batate Owners*
A Practical IVaatis*, prvsenting, in ThrM Plans, a lystem adapted fiv aB.
claim of Farms. By J. M. Woodman. Foorth Ed&uoa . 2/S
Beady Beokoner for the Admeasurement of Land.
By A. Akman. Reriaad and extended by C NoBSis. Fifth BdllioB 210-
Miller's, Com Merchant's, and Farmer's Beady
Beokoner.
Second Edition, rerised, with a Price List of Modern Floor liUl MsrhiiiMf.
by W. S. HuTTOM, CE 2/0
The Hay and Straw Measurer.
New Tables for the Use of Auctioneers, Valuers, Famecs, Haj and Stiwr
Dealers, ftc. By JOMM Stbblb 2/0*
Meat Production.
A Manual Ipr Prodooera, Distributors, and Conswmeis of Batehenf Meal.
By John Ewakt 2/^.
Sheep:
The History, Structure, Economy, and Diseases of. By W. C SrooinSL
M.ILV.S. Fifth Edition, with fine EasiuTiags .... 3^
Market and Kitchen Oardeninif.
By C. W. Shaw, Ute Editor of " Gardeninf Illustrated'* . . 3/0.
iri<:j*ii^^ Gardening Made Basy.
Showing the best means of CultiTatins every known VMetable aad Hei^
ftc., with directions for sBaaacement all the year round. By GaoBas M. wi
Glbmmt. Illustrated %j^
Cottage Gardening :
Or Flowers, Fraita, and Vogeubles far Small Gardens. By B. HoanAT.
1/e
Garden Beoeipts*
Edited by Cmakus W. QtiiN %f^
Fruit Trees,
The Scientific and Profiuble Culture ot From the French eff M. Dv
Brkoil. Fifth Edition, carefully Revised by Gbokgb Glsniit. Wkk.
iSjWoodcnU 3/13.
The Tree Planter and Plant Propagator:
With numerous Illustrations of Grafting, Layering, Budding,
Houses, Piu, ftc. By Samdbi. Wood ....
The Tree Pruner:
A Practical Manual on the Pruning of Fruit Tkees, Shrubs, Qimbera, and
Flowering Plants. With numerous Illustrations. BySAMUXL Woott t/S-
*«* 7TU mi0Vg 7rm0 KMr. im Omt, Ammdtfftmfy km^-Smmd, /riei 3/6*
The Art of Grafting and Budding.
By Chaklu Baltbt. With Illustrations . ^^
12 WEALE*S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES.
MATHEMATICS, ARITHMETIC, ETC.
DesoriptiTtt Geometry,
An Elementary Treatise on j witb a Theory of Shadows and of PerspectiTa,
extracted from the French of G. Mongk. To which is added a Descripiioa
of the Principles and Practice of Isometrical Progectioo. By J. F. Hbatmss,
M.A. With Z4 Plates 2/0
Praotloal Plane Oeometnr:
Giving the Simplest Modes of Constructing Figures contained in one Plana
and ^ometrical Construction c^ the Ground. By J. F. Hbathbk, M.A.
With ats Woodcuts 2/0
Analsrtioal Geometry and Gonio Seotions,
A Rudimentary Treatise on. Bv Jambs Hann. A New Edition, re-
written and enlarged by Professor J . K. Young .... 2/0
Buolid (The Elements of).
With many Additional Propositions and Explanatory Notes; to whidi is
prefixed an Introductory Essay on Logic By Hbnrv Law, C.E. . 2/6
%* Sold also te^rately^ viz : —
Bnolid. The First lliree Books. By Hbnry Law, CE. . . .1/6
Bnolid. Books 4, 5, 6, it, is. By Hbnry Law, CB. . . .1/6
Plane Trigonometry,
The Elements of. By Jambs Hanm t /6
Spherical Trigonometry,
The Elements of. By Jambs Hank. Revised by Charles H. Dow-
UNO, CE 1/0
%* Or with " TheEUmenit of Plant Trigonometry** in One Volume, 2''6
Differential Calculus, O
Elements of the. By W. S. B. Woolhovsb, F.R.A.S., &c . • 1/6
Integral Calculus.
By HoMsssHAM Cox, B. A. 1/6
JLlgebra,
The Elements of. By Jambs H addon, M.A. With Appendix, containing
Miscellaneous Investigations, and a Collection of Problems . . 2/0
A Key and Companion to the Above.
An extensive Repository of Solved Examples and Probleou in Aleebra.
By J. R. Young 1 /B
Commercial Book-keeping.
With Commercial Phrases and Forms in English, French, Italian, and
German. By Jambs Haddon, M.A 1/6
Arithmetic,
A Rudimentary Treatise on. With full Ex|>lanations of its Hieoretical
Principles, and numerous Examples for Practice. For the Use of Schools
and for Self-Instruction. By J. K. Young, late ProfesMr of Mathematics
in Belfast College. Thirteenth Edition 1/6
A Key to the Above.
ByJ.R. Young 1/6
Bqnational Arithmetic,
Applied to Questions of Interest, Annuities, Life Assuranoe, and General
Commerce ; with various Tables by which all Calculations may be greatly
faciliuted. ByW. Hipslby 1/6
Arithmetic,
RudimentaiT, lor the Use of Schools and Self-Instniction. By Jambs
Haddon, M.A. Revised by Abraham Akman . • 1 /6
A Key to the Above.
y A. Arman 1/6
T
WEALE*S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL SERIES. 13
Mathematioal Instrumants ;
Their Construction, Adjastment, Testing, and Use concisely Ex]>lun«d.
Bv J. F. Hbathbk, M.A., of the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Fifteenth Edition, Revised, with Additioas by A T. Walmislbt,
M.I.CE. Orijdnal Edition, in z vol., Illustrated .... 2/0
%* In vrderit^ tkt abavi, be carg/ki ic xay " Origit$al Edition^ or rim tks
Hunger in the Series (3a), te tlistinguigh it /rim the Enlarged Edition in
3 vols, {as/cllows) —
Draving and Mttasuring Inatmiiittits.
Including — I. Instruments employed in Geometrical and Mechanical Draw>
ing, and in the Construction, Copying, and Measurement of Maps and
Puuis. II. Instruments used for the purposes of Accurate Measurement,
and for Arithmetical CompuUtions. fiy J. F. Hbatusr, M.A. | /6
Optical Instrumttits.
Including (more especially) Telescopes, Microscopes, and Apparatus for
Srodudng copies of Maps and Plans by Photography. By J. P. Hbathbs,
I.A Illustrated 1/6
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